16.

512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 35-36: Impulsive and Low-Thrust Maneuvers in Space

See Lectures 3-4 of 16.522 (Space Propulsion) for coverage of Low Thrust
Maneuvers and Re-positing within an orbit.

We add here material on Hyperbolic Orbits and Interplanetary Transfer.

Hyperbolic trajectories:

p
r= e>1
1 + e cos θ

1 ⎛1⎞
Asymptotes : e cos θ = -1 cos θ = - θ = θ∞ = π − cos−1 ⎜ ⎟
e ⎝e⎠

h= µP still valid

Instead of “semimajor
axis” a>0 distance from
perigee to “center” is (-a),
and we still have

µ
E=− >0
2a

Also
( ) (
p = a 1 − e2 = ( −a) e2 − 1 )
Similarly, distance |focus -
center| is (-a)e (it is ae in
ellipse)

⎛1⎞ ⎛π ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
Turning angle: δ = π − 2(π − θ∞ ) = π − 2 cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ⎜ − cos−1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
e
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎝ e ⎠⎠

⎛1⎞
δ = 2 sin−1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝e⎠

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 1 of 7
Miss distance or Impact Parameter

1
∆ = (−ae) sin(π − θ∞ ) = (−ae) sin θ∞ ∆ = (−ae) 1 −
e2

P e2 − 1 P
or ∆= 2
e ∆=
e −1 e 2 2
e −1

Excess hyperbolic velocity V∞ = 2E =

µ
=
(
µ e2 − 1 )
( −a) p

" C3 " = v2∞ used in many books, reports

Orbit characterized by any pair of parameters, like

(p, e) , (vp , θ∞ ) , (v∞ , θ∞ ) , (v∞ , ∆) , (γp , v ∞ ) , (γp , δ)

µ ∆ ∆v2∞
Example : Given (v∞ , ∆) , -a = e2 − 1 = =
v2∞ −a µ

1 ⎛ v2 ∆ ⎞
then δ = 2 sin−1 = 2 cot −1 e2 − 1 = 2 cot −1 ⎜ ∞ ⎟
e ⎝ µ ⎠

Planetary “Spheres of Influence” (SOI)

Locus of points for which the ratio of (the Sun’s disturbing acceleration of the
relative vehicle-planet motion) to (the planet-induced vehicle acceleration) equals
the ratio of (the planet-induced acceleration of the relative vehicle-Sun motion) (the
Sun-induced vehicle acceleration).

This attracting centers, one vehicle

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 2 of 7
 JJJG
d2 rabs G MP m → G Ms m →
m 2
=− r− R
dt r3 R3

JJJJJG
d2 rabs,p G MP m → G Ms MP →
MP 2
=− r− ρ
dt r3 ρ3

→
⎛ → →
⎞
d2 r G(MP + m) → ⎜ −R ρ
Subt. =− r + GMs + 3⎟
dt 2
r 3
⎜R 2
ρ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Accel. of vehicle Relative accel. Sun’s effect on d. Notice: difference

Relative to planet due to planet only between attractions vehicle and on planet

We could reverse the roles of planet and Sun, and get

→
⎛ → →
⎞
d2 R G(Ms + m) → ⎜ −ρ r ⎟
=− R + GMP 3 − 3
dt 2
R 3
⎜ρ r ⎟
⎝ ⎠

So, SOI defined by locus of

→ → →
ρ R −ρ r
Ms − Mp −
ρ3 R 3 ρ3 r3
=
Mp + m Ms + m
r 2
R2

Since m << Mp << Ms and r<<p, R,

→ →
Ms ρ R 2 Mp 1 2
− r  R
Mp ρ3 R 3 Ms r2

r
− cos ϕ
ρ

−3 2
⎛ → →
⎞ ⎛ →→
⎞
→ → → → →
−3 ⎜ 2 ρ.r ⎟ ρr
Also, R = ρ+ r 3 2 2
R = (ρ + r + 2 ρ . r ) −3 2
 ρ 1+  ρ 1−3 2 ⎟
−3⎜
⎜ ρ2 ⎟ ⎜ ρ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 3 of 7
 → → → →
ρ.r ρ.r G
→ → → 1−3 2 → → → 3 2 ρ
ρ R ρ ρ ⎛ ⎞ −r ρ r ⎛ → →
⎞
3
− 3
 3
− 3 ⎜ ρ+ r ⎟  3
+ 3
= 3 ⎜ − 1r − 3 cos ϕ 1ρ ⎟
ρ R ρ ρ ⎝ ⎠ ρ ρ ρ ⎝ ⎠

r 3r cos ϕ
Magn.:
ρ3 ρ3

− cos ϕ
→ →
ρ R r r
(
− 3 = 3 1 + 9 cos2 ϕ + 6 cos ϕ (1r − 1ρ ) )
12

3
 1 + 3 cos2 ϕ
ρ R ρ ρ3

2
r3 2 ⎛ MP ⎞ R 2
1 + 3 cos ϕ = ⎜ ⎟ 2
ρ3 ⎝ Ms ⎠ r

(Mp Ms )
25 25
r r ⎛ Mp ⎞
= → ⎜ ⎟
( )
1 10
R 1 + 3 cos2 ϕ R ⎝ Ms ⎠

But (1 + 3 cos2 ϕ )
1 10
is between 1 and 1.15

Planet SOI (Km)

Mercury 113,000
Venus 617,000
Earth 924,000
Jupiter 48.3 × 106
Neptune 86.7 × 106
Moon 66,000 (in E-M system) (17.2% of FEM , not too small)

The Patched Conic Method for Interplanetary Transfers

Since the SOI is typically small compared to the interplanetary distances,

when dealing with trajectories that go from one planet to another we can make the
approximation that only one body is attracting the space craft at each time. This is
initially the first plane then the Sun, and finally the destination planet. Further, the
“hand-over” from one planet to the sun or vice-versa can be assumed to be at the
planet’s location, when viewed on the Solar System scale. Care must be taken to
converse momentum at these hand-over points.

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 4 of 7
Example: Hohmann transfer from Earth to Venus. Assume no plane changes are
involved (in reality the Elliptical plane of the planetary orbits does not coincide with
the equation plane of either, but we ignore this complication).

As a preliminary, notice that this type of (minimum ∆ v) maneuver requires a

specific Earth–Venus configuration at launch; this configuration occurs once every ∆t
days, given by

1 1
∆t = = = 584 days (1)
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛1⎞ 1 1
⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ 224.7 − 365.3
⎝ Tv ⎠ ⎝ TE ⎠

The Earth head angle at launch ( d0 in the sketch) is calculated by stating that the
time in the ITO (half the ellipse’s period ) is the same as that taken by Venus
between Vo and Vi :

32
1 2π ⎛ R SE + R SV ⎞ R 3SV2
⎜ ⎟ = ( π + α0 )
2 µs ⎝ 2 ⎠ µs

(2)

or

⎡⎛ R + R ⎞32 ⎤
α0 = π ⎢⎜ SE SV
⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎝ 2 R SV ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

(3)

Using Rsv = 0.7223 a.u , this gives α0 = 54.00 .

In the heliocentric part of the trajectory, the apohelion velocity (which the
craft must have as it leaves Earth) is

µs 2 R SV
va = (4)
R SE R SE + R SV

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 5 of 7
 µs
while the Earth’s circular velocity is vE = . This is more than va , i.e., the
R SE
spacecraft must leave the Earth’s vicinity traveling backwards in the heliocentric
frame. Later on it will overtake Earth as it accelerates in the transfer free-fall
trajectory. The magnitude of this backwards velocity, which is the hyperbolic excess
velocity when viewed from Earth, is

⎛ 2 R SV ⎞
v ∞,E = vE − va = vE ⎜ 1 − ⎟ (5)
⎜ R SV + R SE ⎟
⎝ ⎠

The situation for time near launch, and when viewed in the Earth frame is as
shown in the following sketch:

Conversation of
energy in the
Earth’s frame gives

v2∞ ,E 2
vPE µ
= − E (6)
2 2 rPE

where υPE is the velocity after application of the escape firing at rPE . Before this
µE
firing, the space craft was in orbit, at vCE = , and so we find
rPE

2µE
vPE = v2∞,E + (7)
rPE

and therefore the single impulse needed to enter the ITO is

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 6 of 7
 µE ⎛ r v2 ⎞
∆v1 = vPE − vCE = ⎜ 2 + PE ∞,E − 1 ⎟ (8)
rPE ⎜ µE ⎟
⎝ ⎠

The point within LEO where this firing must occur is given, as shown, by δ , where
2
⎛1⎞ rP,E r
δ = 2 sin−1 ⎜ ⎟ is the total hyperbolic turning angle. Since e = 1 + = 1 + P,E v2∞,E we
⎝e⎠ ( )
− a µE
have all the elements to calculate this angle.

After traveling in the ITO, the spacecraft will approach Venus with an
overtaking excess velocity

µs ⎛ 2 R SE ⎞
v ∞,ν = vp − v v = ⎜ − 1⎟ (9)
R s,v ⎜ R SE + R SV ⎟
⎝ ⎠

and, working now in

the Venus frame

2
v2∞.v vp.v µ
= − v (10)
2 2 rρv

µv
v c.v = (11)
rρv

So that the circularization ∆ v is

µ v ⎛⎜ rpv v2∞,v ⎞
∆v2 = vρ,v − vc,v = 2+ − 1⎟ (12)
rρv ⎜ µv ⎟
⎝ ⎠

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 35-36

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 7 of 7