Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(a) Category W damage on a built-up double channel (b) Category W damage to main girders during con-
truss member. The damage was caused by a log fal- struction of a Louisiana bridge.
ling from a truck on a bridge in North Louisiana.
(b) Category T damage on a composite bridge girder impacted by an over-height vehicle in Wisconsin.
Figure 18. Typical heating patterns for local dam- Figure 19. Heating patterns for angles.
age.
2.5.5 Flanges and Webs with Local Buck- viewed as a combination of the fundamen-
les (Category L) tal cases. The approach is to preplan the
entire set of sequences, starting with the
A local buckle or bulge reflects an elonga- component of damage that is most severe.
tion of material. Restoration requires the As straightening progresses, the process is
bulging area to be shortened. A series of redirected to other components, minimizing
vee or line heats can be used for this purpose overlaps that counteract or unnecessarily
as shown in fig. 18. These vees are heated reheat areas. By focusing on the fundamen-
sequentially across the buckle or around the tal damage categories in sequence, complex
bulge. For web bulges either lines or vees damage can be repaired by using the basic
may be used. If vees are used, they are heating patterns described in the previous
spaced so that the open ends of the vees sections.
touch. There is a tendency for practitioners
to over-heat web bulges. For most cases, 2.7 Equipment and Its Use
too much heat is counter-productive. The The primary equipment utilized for heat
preferred pattern is the line heats in the straightening is a heating torch. The heat
spoke/wagon wheel pattern. For the flange source is typically an oxygen-fuel mixture.
buckle pattern (Figure 18b) either lines or a Typical fuels include acetylene, propane,
combination of lines and vees may be used. and natural gas. The appropriate fuel is
For most cases, the line pattern with few or mixed with oxygen under pressure at the
no vees tends to be most effective. Since nozzle to produce a proper heating flame. A
the flange damage tends to be unsymmetri- regulator is used to reduce pressures to
cal, more heating cycles are required on the working levels of 100-140 kPa (15-20 psi).
side with the most damage. Either a single or a multiple orifice tip may
2.5.6 Angles be used. The size and type is dictated by the
fuel selected and thickness of material to be
Since angles usually do not have an axis of
heated. A No. 8 single orifice tip is gener-
symmetry, the heating pattern requires spe-
ally satisfactory for thicknesses up to 20-25
cial consideration. Typically, the heating
mm (3/4 or 1 in) with acetylene. For thinner
pattern is similar to that of a channel. How-
material a smaller tip is recommended. If
ever, the vee heat on one leg of an angle will
heavy sections are being heated, a single
produce components of movement both par-
orifice tip may not be adequate. For such
allel and perpendicular to the heated leg.
cases a rosebud or multiple orifice tip is rec-
Thus, the heating pattern shown in Figure 19
ommended. The size may vary depending
may need to be alternated on the adjacent
on the material thickness. The determining
leg. Another method to minimize out-of-
factor is the ability to raise the through-the-
plane movement is to use the strip heat pat-
thickness steel temperature to the specified
terns suggested in Figure 11.
level. Note that whether single or multiple
2.6 Complex Damage
Most damage situations do not fit neatly into
one of the fundamental damage categories.
Rather, the damage is a combination of sev-
eral of these categories. To repair these
more complex cases, the damage should be
orifice, the torch should be a heating torch 2.9 Temperature Control
and not a cutting torch. The oxyacetylene
One of the most important and yet difficult-
fuel is preferred by many because it is a
to-control parameters of heat straightening is
"hot" fuel. However, this fuel is also highly
the temperature of the heated metal. Factors
volatile. Some prefer a propane fuel, which
affecting the temperature include size and
is safer to handle. Since it does not burn as
type of the torch orifice, intensity of the
hot, a larger tip or rosebud orifice may be
flame, speed of torch movement, and thick-
required. In either case the key is to be able
ness and configuration of the member. As-
to quickly heat a small area. Torch size and
suming that adequate control of the applied
fuel must be adjusted to meet these criteria.
temperature is maintained, the question
2.8 Safety Considerations arises as to what temperature produces the
The fuel used in heat straightening is vola- best results in heat straightening without al-
tile and dangerous. Fuel tanks should al- tering the material properties. Early investi-
ways be handled with extreme care. Safety gators had different opinions on temperature
precautions include: control. However, more recent comprehen-
sive testing programs have shown that the
Always place a protective cap on head of plastic rotation produced is directly propor-
each tank before transporting. Always tional to the heating temperature, up to at
secure tanks prior to heat straightening. least 870C (1600oF).
Examine tanks for damage prior to each The maximum temperature recommended
use. by most researchers is 650C (1200oF) for
all but quenched and tempered high-strength
Check lines and fixtures for leaks or
steels. Higher temperatures may result in
damage prior to each use and that proper
greater rotation but out-of-plane distortion
check valves are installed.
becomes likely and surface damage such as
In addition, the technician using the pitting will occur at 760-870C (1400o to
torch must be safety conscious at all times. 1600o F). Also, temperatures in excess of
Precautions include: approximately 700C (1300oF) (metallurgi-
Wear protective goggles while heating (a cally referred to as the lower phase transi-
no. 3 lens is recommended). tion temperature) may change the molecular
composition, altering material properties
Be careful of where the lighted torch is after cooling. (See section 4.1 for a more
pointed at all times. detailed discussion justifying these tempera-
Wear protective gloves and clothing. ture limits.) The limiting temperature
o
Always be in a stable, secure position of650C (1200 F) allows for about one hun-
prior to opening valves and lighting the dred degrees of temperature variation, which
torch. was found to be a common range among ex-
perienced practitioners. AASHTO/AWS
Follow proper procedures when using D1.5 (1996) specifies maximum heating
scaffolding and use safety harnesses temperatures of 590C (1100F) for
when working above the ground. Secure quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels and
tanks and hoses in safe positions prior 650C (1200F) for all others.
to heat straightening.
For A514 and non-HPS A709 (grades 100 setting can be accomplished in two ways.
and 100W), a minimum tempering tempera- First, as the heat progresses toward the base
ture of 620C (1150F) is required. Thus, of the vee, the cool material ahead of the
the 590C (1100F) limit provides a 30C torch prevents complete longitudinal expan-
(50F) safety factor. However, for Q & T sion of the heated material, thus forcing up-
A709 Grade 70W the specified minimum setting through the thickness. However, as
tempering temperature is 590C (1100F). shown in Figure 6, some local longitudinal
A maximum heating temperature of 565C expansion occurs because the surrounding
(1050F) is recommended for this grade to cool material does not offer perfect con-
provide a 30C (50F) safety factor and to finement. After cooling, the damage in-
avoid property changes. HPS Grade 70W duced distortion is reduced in proportion to
produced by thermo-mechanically con- the confinement level from the internal re-
trolled processing (TMCP) is not Q % T, so straints.
A second method of producing the
650C (1200F) applies.
desired upsetting (usually used in conjunc-
To control the temperature, the speed
tion with the vee heat) is to provide a re-
of the torch movement and the size of the
straining force. The role of the restraining
orifice must be adjusted for different thick-
force is to reduce or prevent longitudinal
nesses of material. However, as long as the
plate movements associated with expansion
temperature is rapidly achieved at the ap-
during the heating phase. For example, if a
propriate level, the contraction effect will be
restraining force is applied as shown in Fig-
similar. Various methods can be used to
ure 6, the upsetting effect will be increased
monitor temperature during heating. Princi-
by constricting the free longitudinal expan-
pal among these include: visual observation
sion at the open end of the vee. A restrain-
of color of the steel (see 2.11.3); use of spe-
ing force is usually applied externally, pro-
cial temperature sensing crayons or pyrome-
ducing a bending moment tending to close
ters; and infrared electronic temperature
the vee. Caution must be used in applying
sensing devices.
external forces, since over-jacking may re-
2.10 Restraining Forces sult in fracture of the member. To minimize
The term "restraining forces" can refer to the cracking potential, it is recommended
either externally applied forces or internal that an external force be calculated and set
redundancy and self-weight. These forces, prior to actual heating and not be increased
when properly utilized, can expedite the until the cooling phase of the cycle is com-
straightening process. However, if improp- plete.
erly applied, restraining forces can hinder or In essence, a restraining force acts in
even prevent straightening. In its simplest a similar manner to the cool material ahead
terms, the effect of restraining forces can be of the vee heat torch movement. The mate-
explained by considering the previous plate rial behavior can be viewed as shown in
element as shown in Figure 6. The basic Figure 20. A small element from a plate,
mechanism of heat straightening is to create when constrained in the x-direction and
plastic flow, causing expansion through the heated, will expand and flow plastically
thickness (upsetting) during the heating primarily through the thickness (Figure
phase, followed by elastic longitudinal con- 20c).
traction during the cooling phase. This up-
Secondary plastic flow will occur in not yet heated (ahead of the torch). Thus,
the y-direction. However, this movement limiting the moment to 50% of member ca-
will be small in comparison with that of the pacity keeps the procedure within the heat
z-direction, because the plate is much thin- straightening zone. Another reason for lim-
ner than its y-dimension and offers less re- iting the force is that higher jacking forces
straint to plastic flow. Upon cooling with increase the risk of fracture. This aspect is
unrestrained contraction, the final configura- discussed in section 4.4.
tion of the element will be smaller in the x- In light of this, a set of criteria for
direction and thicker in the z-direction (Fig- restrain forces can be developed. These cri-
ure 20d) than its original size. Regardless of teria apply for internal as well as external
the cause of the constraint, either cooler ad- constraints.
jacent material, self weight, or an external 1. Constraints should be passive during the
restraining force, the plastic flow occurs in heating phase; that is, they should be ap-
an identical manner. plied before heating and not increased
Sometimes the structure itself pro- by external means during heating or
vides additional restraint through redun- cooling.
dancy. For example, if the simply supported 2. Constraints should not impede contrac-
beam depicted in Figure 6 were fixed at the tion during the cooling phase.
supports, the member stiffness increases by 3. Constraints should not cause local buck-
33 percent. This increased stiffness would ing of the compression element during
provide additional restraint over the simply the heating phase.
supported case. 4. Constraints should not produce an un-
In order to stay within the criteria for stable structure by either the formation
heat straightening, the restraint forces must of plastic hinges or member instability
not produce stresses greater than yield in the during the procedure.
heated zone. At a heating temperature of 5. Constraints should be limited such that
650C (1200oF), the yield stress is reduced the maximum moment in the heated
by approximately 50%. Therefore, a re- zone does not cause stresses that exceed
straining force producing stresses of 50% 50% of yield at ambient temperature.
yield (at ambient temperature) in the heated
section would result in stresses at near initial From a practical viewpoint, these criteria
yield when heated. Anything higher pushes mean that (a) the vee angle should be kept
the procedure into the hot mechanical small enough to avoid local buckling, (b) the
straightening range. Therefore limit forces external restraining forces must be applied
due to self-weight and applied restraint to before heating and be self-relieving as con-
those producing a maximum moment of traction occurs, and (c) the maximum level
50% of the member capacity (in the heated of any externally applied forces must be
area) at ambient temperature. This recom- based on a structural analysis of the com-
mendation is somewhat conservative since plete structure that includes the reduced
the entire cross section is never at 650C strength and stiffness of a member due to the
(1200oF). Rather, just the immediate area heating effects.
around the torch is at that temperature and
the remainder of the cross section has al-
ready begun to cool (behind the torch) or is
slower pace as the torch is moved along the
2.11 Practical Considerations path. The intensity may be adjusted so as to
This description of the heat straightening compensate for variables encountered in the
process provides the basic methodology. field.
However, the proper application of heat is a
skill requiring practice and experience: at 2.11.2 Material configuration
this juncture, the art of heat straightening The pace of moving the torch along the path
meets the technology. The practitioner will be a function of the configuration of the
needs to understand the variables involved member, location of damage and pattern se-
in the process and how to control them. lected. At the initiation of heating, the torch
Some of the more important variables are typically remains on a single spot as the
discussed here. temperature rises. Once the heating tem-
perature is reached, a steady movement
2.11.1 Torch Tip Size and Intensity along the path of heating can usually be
The amount of heat applied to a steel surface maintained. Practice heats will allow tech-
is a function of the type of fuel, the number nicians to develop a feel for how to vary the
and size of the orifices, the fuel pressure and torch speed over various configurations.
resulting heat output at the nozzle tip. Se- Attachments such as stiffeners may serve as
lecting the appropriate tip size is primarily a a heat sink requiring the slowing of the torch
function of the thickness of the material. movement over certain zones. One typical
The goal is to rapidly bring the steel in the example is the heating of the flange of a
vicinity of the torch tip to the specified tem- rolled beam where the web-flange juncture
perature, not just at the surface, but through- must be heated more slowly since the web
out the thickness. Once this condition is ob- draws heat away from the flange.
tained at the initial heating location, the
torch should be moved along the path at a Sometimes the pace must be quickened to
rate that brings successive sections of steel maintain a uniform heat. A common exam-
to the specified temperature. A tip that is ple is the conclusion of a vee heat at a free
too small for the thickness will result in in- edge. By the last pass along that edge, the
sufficient heat input at the surface that does wave of heat moving down the vee almost
not penetrate effectively through the thick- overtakes the torch. As a result, the last
ness. If the tip is too large, there will be a pass is usually conducted very quickly.
tendency to input heat into the region so 2.11.3 Judging the Temperature
quickly that it is difficult to control the tem- In theory, control of temperature may seem
perature and distortion. Table 1 is a general easy: watch the color of the steel and use
guide for selecting a tip size. Intensity of temperature crayons. In practice, tempera-
the torch, ambient temperature, steel con- ture control is quite difficult. First, the sat-
figuration, access, and fabrication details iny silver color of steel indicating 650C
influence the choice of tips. Adjustments (1200F) is often obscured. The torch flame
can also be made in the torch intensity to often reacts with surface impurities includ-
improve the heating response. A hotter ing paint, oil or previous temperature crayon
flame is helpful if the configuration of the marks themselves. When the flame hits
steel tends to draw heat away from the spot these, it may burn bright yellow or orange
of heating. A less intense flame allows for a and hide the surface near the tip. Addition-
ally, the surface temperature directly under First, one should know how much external
the flame will briefly exceed specified limits force is being applied to the system. Thus,
in order to convey heat into the metal. all jacks should be gauged and calibrated.
Therefore, temperature should not be Second, the maximum jacking force should
checked until the flame leaves the area for a be calculated to insure that over-stress at
3 to 5 second soak time. The available elevated temperatures will not occur. Often,
light also influences observations. In day- these computations require a structural engi-
light or bright indoor light, the silver color is neering analysis, but for frequently encoun-
easier to read and no dull red can be seen. tered cases, some rules of thumb can be es-
However, in dark shadow zones or on over- tablished. The practitioner must be aware
cast days or with limited artificial light, the that over-jacking may cause over-correction,
steel will emit a dull red glow at the same buckling or a sudden fracture during the
temperature. No. 3 goggles may mask sub- process. It might also result in difficult to
tle colors so an observer without goggles detect micro-cracks which could severely
may be needed. As a general rule, if red is reduce fatigue resistance.
visible in normal lighting, the steel is too 2.11.5 Heating Patterns
hot. When heat straightening is done prop-
erly, the steel is not heated above its lower One key to heat straightening is selecting
phase transition temperature and its proper- appropriate heat patterns to fit the yield
ties will not change significantly. Overheat- zones of the steel. Basic patterns were illus-
ing may create brittle, fracture sensitive trated in Figures 14-19. Yield zones, where
zones, which could result in a sudden fail- the steel has inelastically deformed, occur in
ure. Constant attention is required to main- regions of sharpest curvature. Some practi-
tain the heating temperature in the correct tioners have a tendency to heat in a broader
range. Practice is essential to recognize and zone, but this again is a case of more being
control the temperature. less. Stay with the recommended patterns
and do not expand them. Heat straightening
2.11.4 Jacking Forces is a cyclic process and the movement occurs
Earlier, a clear distinction was made be- gradually by contraction during cooling.
tween hot mechanical straightening and heat Sometimes 20 or more heating cycles may
straightening. The technique of hot me- be required to straighten a damaged mem-
chanical straightening consists of lowering ber. Since a heating pattern usually covers
the yield strength by heating and then apply- only a portion of the yield zone, the pattern
ing sufficient jacking loads in a single appli- should be shifted on a cycle-by-cycle basis.
cation to straighten the damage by inelasti- The significant portion of a heating pattern
cally deforming the section. Heat straight- array should be in the yield zone with fewer
ening on the other hand, requires that the heating cycles having patterns near the
restraining forces result in stresses not ex- edges and more near the center where curva-
ceeding yield at the elevated temperature. ture is the sharpest. Also, do not duplicate
Movement occurs as a result of plastic de- continuous passes through a given zone dur-
formations during contraction, not by me- ing one heating cycle. Going back and re-
chanical overload. Therefore, initial re- heating before the material has cooled inter-
straining forces are an integral part of heat rupts the contraction process. The heat
straightening. straightening
Figure 20. Characteristics of plastic flow and restraint during heat straightening.
The execution of a heat-straightening ual and conducted with special concern for
repair that incorporates these keys must be- safety. The major aspects of damage are
gin with the assessment of the damaged recorded and documented with photographs
structure. and measurements. During this inspection,
a preliminary list of repair requirements and
3.3 Steps in the Assessment Process options should be made. Particular attention
Many incidents resulting in damage to steel should be paid to temporary needs such as
bridges produce an emergency situation. shoring, traffic control, access and other
The first step in the rehabilitation process is short-term considerations. A part of this
a site investigation to assess the degree of evaluation may require a review of the de-
damage and the safety of the existing struc- sign drawings and computations to deter-
ture. The purpose of this section is to pro- mine the safety and stability of the bridge.
vide guidelines for damage assessment in The specific cause of damage may also in-
the form of steps required for a complete fluence the final decision on repair and
assessment. All aspects may not be required should be investigated if possible. Typical
in each case, so judgment must be used damage causes are: (1) over-height or over-
when deciding if, and when, to eliminate a wide vehicle impact; (2) overweight vehi-
part of the process. cles or overloads; (3) out-of-control vehicles
or moving systems; (4) mishandling during
3.3.1 Initial Inspection and Evaluation for construction; (5) fire; (6) blast; (7) earth-
Safety and Stability quakes; (8) support or substructure move-
The purpose of the inspection is to protect ment; and (9) wind or water-borne debris.
the public, employees of the owner and re-
pair personnel. This inspection is often vis-
3.3.2 Detailed Inspection for Specific De- zones, and determining the included angle
fects between them, or by establishing a base line
Applicability of a heat-straightening repair and finding the offsets in the damage zone.
depends on the type and degree of damage. For the first case, tangents from the straight
Three aspects should be carefully checked: portions define the angle or degree of dam-
(1) signs of fracture; (2) degree of damage; age between the tangents. If the offsets are
and (3) material degradation. taken in the elastic zone on either side of the
damage as shown in Figure 22b, the degree
3.3.2.1 Signs of Fracture of damage, d, can be computed.
While some fractures are quite obvious, oth-
ers may be too small to visually detect.
However, it is important to determine if
such cracks exist since they may propagate
during the heat-straightening process. When
in doubt, one of the following conventional
methods can be utilized: (1) dye penetrant,
(2) magnetic particle, (3) ultrasonic testing,
or (4) radiographic testing.
3.3.2.2 Degree of Damage
Degree of damage can be evaluated using
two different criteria. One is the angle of
damage, d, which is a measure of the
change in curvature. The other is the strain
ratio, , which is a measure of the maximum
strain occurring in the damaged zone. For
either case an evaluation of the degree of Figure 22. Offset measurements to calculate de-
gree of damage and radius of curvature.
damage requires measurements to be taken.
Two types of damage are quantified by Based on measurements taken at the site,
measurements: (1) Overall bending or twist- degree of damage can be calculated as fol-
ing of a member; and (2) localized bulges or lows:
sharp crimps. These measurements can be
used to compute the maximum damage-
y 2 y1 y y4
induced strain, , or to determine the angle d = tan 1 ( ) + tan 1 ( 3 ) (Eq. 3.1)
L1 L2
of damage, d.
For determining angle of damage,
the usual procedure is to begin by measuring where d is the angle of damage or angle of
offsets from a taut line, laser beam or permanent deformation at the plastic hinge
straight-edge. A typical layout is shown in and yi is a measured offset as shown in Fig-
Figure 22 showing the definition of d. This ure 22b.
layout may be done by either using the un- In some cases direct measurements
yielded adjacent regions on either side of the of d can be made from a photograph. If a
damage as reference lines, since their curva- photograph can be taken perpendicular to
ture is small in comparison to the plastic
the plane of curvature, then tangents can be of curvature and angle of damage.
laid out and measured directly. For small In order to calculate the maximum
zones of damage, two straight edges can be strain ratio, the maximum curvature should
used to produce the tangent intersections. be measured as previously described.
Again, the angle of damage can be measured Shown in Figure 23 is a damaged beam of
with a protractor. While this method may uniform curvature. The radius of the bend is
seem somewhat crude, a reasonable degree defined as radius of curvature, R. Strain is
of accuracy can be obtained. proportional to curvature and curvature can
For the case where the offsets are be computed from field measurements, so
taken in the damage zone (see Figure 22a). the radius of curvature to the yield curva-
The radius of curvature, R, can be approxi- ture, Ry, may be expressed as
mated as
Ey max
1 y r 1 2 y r + y r +1
Ry = (Eq. 3.5)
= (Eq. 3.2) Fy
R L2
where E = modulus of elasticity, Fy = yield
stress, and ymax = the distance from the cen-
The degree of damage can then be troid to the extreme fiber of the element.
calculated from:
The radius of curvature is related to
the strain by
d L 1
sin = (Eq. 3.3) max = y max (Eq. 3.6)
2 R R
where R is the actual radius of curvature in
L the damaged region.
or d = 2 sin 1 ( ) (Eq. 3.4)
Since damage measurements are
R
taken at discrete locations, the radius of cur-
Where Lr-1 = Lr = L vature can be approximated from Eq. 3.2.
Approximations are involved in us- Once the smallest radius of curvature is de-
ing these equations. The assumption is termined in the damaged region, the maxi-
made that the radius of curvature is constant mum strain can be computed from Eq. 3.6
over the entire length of the damage al- and compared to the yield strain
though it usually varies. If the damage
curve is smooth, this assumption is fairly
accurate. If the curve is irregular, the as- Fy
y = (Eq. 3.7)
sumption becomes more approximate. For E
highly irregular curvatures, measure only
the worst portion of the damaged region us-
ing the three-point offset procedure and the From Eqs. 3.6 and 3.7, the strain ratio is
calculation of radius of curvature from Eq. Ey max
3.2. In general, the approaches described = (Eq. 3.8)
RFy
here give an adequate estimate of the radius
perature did not exceed either the temper-
ing temperature or the lower phase transition
temperature, no permanent degradation
would be expected from the heating. How-
ever, if the damaged steel reached higher
temperatures, metallurgical tests should be
performed to ensure material integrity be-
fore heat straightening is applied. Tests that
should be considered include: (1) a chemical
analysis; (2) a grain size and micro structure
analysis; (3) Brinell hardness tests; (4)
Charpy notch toughness tests; and (5) tensile
tests to determine yield, ultimate strength,
and percent elongation. In-place, non-
destructive tests (Brinell, appearance) avoid
removing material that must be restored.
Charpy and tensile tests require significant
removal of material straight enough to ma-
chine specimens from damaged and undam-
Figure 23. Radius of curvature for a damaged aged areas for comparative results.
beam of curvature and cord length.
Several visual signs may suggest ex-
posure to high temperature including:
Research data has shown that heat melted mill scale, distortion, black discol-
straightening can be successful on steel with oration of steel, and cracking and spalling of
plastic strains up to 100 times the yield adjacent concrete. Tests can then be con-
strain, y. There is reason to believe that ducted at suspicious regions. For example, a
even larger strains can be repaired. How- significant increase in Brinell hardness, in
ever, since no research data exists beyond comparison to undamaged areas of the same
the 100y range, engineering judgment is member, indicates potential heat damage.
required. Or, for the Charpy V Notch test, a signifi-
cant reduction in values over those from an
3.3.2.3 Material Degradation
undamaged specimen may indicate damage.
Certain aspects of material degradation will The most definitive test is usually a metal-
influence the decision to heat straighten. lurgical comparison of microstructure be-
Nicks, gouges and other abrupt discontinui- tween damaged and undamaged areas. Evi-
ties in the damage zone will be stress risers dence of partial austenization and recrystal-
during the repair when jacking forces and lization into finer grain size indicates heat-
heat are applied. Such discontinuities ing above the lower phase transition tem-
should be noted and ground to a smooth perature.
transition prior to heat straightening.
A second concern is exposure to
high temperature (such as a fire) when the
damage occurred. As long as the steel tem-
3.3.2.4 Geometry of the Structure Fire damage involving high tem-
Often the design drawings are available to perature may be an exception to this limit.
confirm the structures original configura- If the distortion is due to diminished
tion, design parameters and type(s) of steel.. strength at high temperature material proper-
If drawings are not available, then enough ties have probably been detrimentally af-
measurements should be taken so that a fected. Repair decisions should then be
structural analysis can be conducted if re- based on metallurgical analysis and expert
quired. opinion as well as the 100y strain limita-
tion.
3.4 Steps in the Planning and Design
3.4.2. Conduct a Structural Analysis of
Process the System
Once the damage assessment is complete, A structural analysis may be necessary to
the repair can be designed. The following evaluate the damaged structure. This analy-
steps may be required as part of this plan- sis serves one of two purposes: (1) to deter-
ning and design process: mine the capacity in its damaged configura-
Analyze the degree of damage and tion for safety purposes; and (2) to compute
maximum strains induced. residual forces induced by the impact dam-
age which may effect safety and influence
Conduct a structural analysis of the sys-
the level of applied restraining forces during
tem in its damaged configuration.
heat straightening (see ref. 1 for an example
Select applicable regions for heat of calculating residual moments). The
straightening repair. analysis can be based on the undeformed
Select heating patterns and parameters. geometry except when the displaced geome-
try of the frame or truss system (after dam-
Develop a constraint plan and design the age) results in changes in internal forces by
jacking restraint configuration. more than 20 percent. However, even if un-
Estimate heating cycles required to deformed geometry is used in the analysis,
straighten members. the deformed geometry should be used when
computing the member stresses. The allow-
Prepare plans and specifications.
able stresses should be based on the original
Each of these will be discussed in the fol- properties of the material. When a member
lowing sections has a significant change in shape due to
3.4.1 Analysis of Degree of Damage and damage, the section properties should be
Determination of the Maximum Strain modified when calculating stresses. While
due to Damage each specific application must be considered
on an individual basis, some general guide-
Heat-straightening repairs have been con- lines can be developed. Assuming that no
ducted for strains up to 100y, or =100. fractures have occurred, bending and com-
Repairs may be successful at even greater pression members are the most critical to
strains. But research studies have not fo- evaluate. Forces due to applied loads in ten-
cused on such strains so engineers should sion members tend to straighten out-of-plane
use judgment in straightening beyond this damage (and are thus self-correcting), while
range. such forces in bending or compression
members tend to magnify the damage. Welding Code) is carefully controlled,
3.4.3. Select Regions Where Heat jacking forces are maintained, and notches
Straightening is Applicable and nicks are ground smooth there is no
reason to expect unusual problems. Addi-
While the primary consideration for allow- tional care is warranted for fracture critical
ing heat-straightening repair is the degree of members to insure that the heat straighten-
damage limitation, other criteria may also ing is properly conducted.
influence the decision. Of particular impor-
tance is the presence of fractures or previ- 3.4.4. Select Heating Patterns and Pa-
ously heat straightened members. A fracture rameters
may necessitate the replacement of part, or The fundamental heating patterns have been
all, of a structural member. In some cases it described in Chapter 2. Since typical dam-
may be feasible to heat straighten the sus- age is often a combination of these funda-
pect region and then repair it in-place by mental damage types, a combination of heat-
mechanical connectors. In other cases a ing patterns is often required. The key is to
portion of the member may be replaced select the combination of patterns to fit the
while the remainder is repaired by heat damage. When in doubt, concentrate on one
straightening. of the basic heating patterns at a time. For
An example of combining heat example, remove the Category W damage
straightening with replacement is when one prior to addressing the Category L damage.
or more girders are impacted by an over- 3.4.4.1 Vee Depth
height vehicle. This type of accident often In general, the vee depth should be equal to
displaces the bottom flange. If the impact the width of the plate being straightened.
point is near diaphragms, the diaphragms are Partial depth vees do not reduce member-
often severely damaged. An example is shortening as some have speculated. The
shown in Figure 24. It is usually much more primary application for half depth vees is
economical to simply replace a diaphragm the repair of local damage.
rather than taking a lengthy time to
straighten it. The recommended procedure 3.4.4.2 Vee Angle
is to remove the diaphragm (especially if it The angle of the vee is usually limited by
would restrain desired movement of the practical considerations. It should be as
member) heat straighten the girder, and then large as practical for the specific applica-
replace the diaphragm with a new one. tion. If the open end of the vee is too wide,
In general, heat straightening can be out-of-plane distortion often occurs. Like-
applied to a wide variety of structural wise the vee area should be small enough to
members. However, some have cautioned heat quickly so that differential cooling is
about straightening fracture critical mem- limited. A good rule of thumb is to limit the
bers (Shannafelt and Horn, 1984). Al- open end of the vee to approximately one-
though there is no research data to support third to one-half the plate width but not
a ban on heat straightening fracture critical greater than 254 mm (10 in). These limits
members, practically no fatigue testing has translate roughly to 20-30 vee angles. If the
been conducted. If heating temperature width of the open end of the vee, V, is se-
(including the limits imposed by section lected, the vee angle is
12.12 of the AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge
Figure 24. Diaphragm damage due to vehicle impact on girder.
Figure 25. Jacking arrangements for global and local damage on a composite girder bridge.
where Mp is the plastic moment capacity of 3.4.6 Estimate the Heats Required to
the member or damaged element (such as Straighten the Members
the lower flange of a composite girder). The estimate of number of heats provides a
Methods of computing jacking forces for time line for the project. Comparing the es-
various member configurations are available timated movement with the actual move-
(Avent and Mukai, 1998). Any residual ment as it progresses also indicates whether
moments will be relieved during the first the heating is being properly done. The
few heats. Rather than computing residual number of heats, n, can be estimated as
moments, an alternative is to use a jacking
moment of only Mp during the first two
cycles. d
n= (Eq. 3.11)
On occasion, a hairline fracture will p
occur or become visible during heat-
straightening repair. The causes are be- where p is the predicted plastic rotation per
lieved to be: (1) excessive restraining forces
heat and d is the degree of damage. For-
being applied during the heating process; (2)
mulas for the plastic rotation associated with
successive repairs of a re-damaged element;
various structural shapes and damage condi-
and/or (3) the growth of micro cracks initi-
tions are provided in a later section of this
ated during initial damage. Item (1) is the
guide.
primary cause, so restraining forces should
be specified at safe limits and be monitored 3.4.7 Repair Plans and Specifications
during actual repair. For item (2), heat The final step is to prepare plans and
straightening material should be limited to specifications for the project. These plans
only two damage repairs. will be the inspectors guide as well as the
contractors directive. Suggested specifica- Infrared devices are probably the
tions are given in Appendix I. As noted in most convenient to use. These devices re-
3.1, the owner provides quality assurance cord the temperature with a digital readout
inspectors to verify the contractor complies and can be used from a distance to minimize
with contract requirements. The contractor disruption of the heating process. However,
is responsible and must provide both quality the torch still needs to be beyond the area or
control and supervisors to satisfy the con- momentarily removed while taking the read-
tract. ing.
3.5 Supervision of Repairs To complement the crayons, py-
rometer, or infrared devices; visually ob-
3.5.1 Monitoring the temperature
serve the color of the steel at the torch tip.
Excessive temperatures may cause surface Under ordinary daylight conditions, a halo
damage or lead to increased brittleness. will form on the steel around the torch tip.
Temperature can be monitored in several At approximately 650C (1200F) this halo
ways. One of the most accurate is to use will have a satiny silver color in daylight or
temperature-sensing crayons. These crayons bright lighting. The observation of color is
melt at a specified temperature and are particularly useful for the technician using
available in increments as small as 14C the torch to maintain a constant temperature.
(25oF) (Figure 26). By using two crayons However, this is the least accurate method
that bracket the desired heating temperature, of monitoring temperature and is approxi-
accurate control can be maintained. The mate at best.
crayons and their marks will burn if exposed
3.5.2 Controlling restraining forces
directly to the flame of the torch, and heat
needs a few seconds to penetrate and pro- Another concern for the heat-straightening
vide representative readings. Therefore, the supervisor is the control of restraining
torch must have just exited the area tested or forces. Typically hydraulic jacks are used to
be momentarily removed (one to four sec- apply restraining forces (see Figure 27 as an
onds) before the crayons are struck on the example) and should be calibrated so that
surface. An alternative for thinner material the force being exerted can be determined.
is to strike the crayon on the backside at the Mechanical jacks should only be permitted
point being heated. if they are calibrated to control applied
loads. The maximum allowable force should
Another temperature monitoring
be computed as part of the design process
method is to use a contact pyrometer. This
and specified in contract documents.
device is basically a thermocouple con-
nected to a readout device. It can be used in
a matter similar to a temperature crayon by
placing it on the surface. Because the py-
rometer relies on full contact with a smooth
surface, the readings vary with position and 3.5.3 Review of Proposed Heating Pat-
pressure, typically underestimating the ac- terns
tual temperature. It is recommended that the The inspector should review and ac-
pyrometer be calibrated with temperature cept the heating patterns and torch paths
crayons prior to using. proposed by the contractor. The general
patterns can be part of the repair plan.
Figure 26. Temperature sensing crayons. Figure 27. Jacks in place on a Wisconsin bridge.
3.5.5 Safety
3.5.4 Checking Tolerances The above items relate specifically to heat
A significant concern is the tolerance for the straightening. The contractors supervisor
completed repair. The contract documents exercises normal control of the job site, as
should specify the allowable tolerances and with any construction project, including
the inspector should verify that these limits monitoring of safety procedures.
either have been met or where (and why) 3.5.6 Checklist of Procedures for Supervi-
exceptions were accepted. While tolerance sors and Inspectors
levels may be similar to that of new con- Remember that the goal is not just to
struction, often a greater tolerance is speci- straighten the damage, but to straighten it
fied to reduce the number of heat cycles re- safely. There are a number of critical items
quired, especially in restricted areas and to for the supervisor to verify as the repair pro-
minimize the cost of the repair. This deci- gresses.
sion should be made as part of the design
process. Recommended tolerances are 1. Heating patterns are submitted, re-
given in Appendix I. viewed and accepted prior to initiat-
ing the repair.
2. Periodically check the jack gauges to
insure that excessive force is not be-
ing applied before heating.
3. Periodically monitor the heating pat- from a part of the adjacent structure
terns, torch motion and temperature. which will not move during the
4. Observe the color of the steel at the straightening process.
torch tip. In normal daylight light- 6. Be sensitive to worker and public
ing, the steel should have a satiny safety issues since work is usually
silver halo at the tip. In low light, a performed with at least some traffic
slight dull red glow may be visible. nearby. Insure that jacks and other
5. Establish reference points to measure equipment are secured from falling.
movements. A taut line is useful al- 7. Final acceptance should be based on
though it must be moved aside dur- meeting the specified dimensional
ing heating. In small regions, a tolerances without exceeding tem-
straight edge may be used. Some- perature or restraint limitations.
times it is convenient to measure
have more carbon than required to form
4. EFFECTS OF HEAT pearlite, resulting in steel with partial ce-
STRAIGHTENING ON THE mentite. Low carbon steels tend to be softer
MATERIAL PROPERTIES and more ductile, characteristics of ferrite,
but cementite is hard and brittle so high car-
OF STEEL bon steels are harder and less ductile, poor
4.1 Introduction properties for bridges.
The potential for detrimental effects from Temperatures greater than about
heating damaged steel has limited the im- 700C (1300F) begin to produce a phase
plementation of heat straightening. How- change in steel. This temperature is often
ever, with an understanding of the properties called the lower critical (or lower phase
of steel, heat straightening can be safely transition) temperature. The body centered
conducted. Heating steel reduces the yield cubic molecular structure begins to assume a
stress as well as the elastic modulus but the face centered cubic form. With this struc-
coefficient of thermal expansion increases ture, a larger percentage of carbon will be
with temperature. The behavior of these carried in solution. When steel cools below
parameters complicates attempts to under- the lower critical temperature, it attempts to
stand the response of steel to heat straight- return to its body centered structure. Since
ening. In addition to these short-term ef- this retransformation requires time, rapid
fects, heat can result in long-term conse- cooling may not permit the complete change
quences which may be detrimental. to occur and a hard, brittle phase called
martensite occurs. This form has reduced
Most structural steel used for bridge
ductility and is more sensitive to brittle frac-
construction in the United States is classi-
ture under repeated loads.
fied as low carbon, high strength low alloy
(HSLA) or quenched and tempered (Q & T) The upper critical (or upper phase
steel. At ambient temperature, these steels transition) temperature is the level at which
have three major constituents: ferrite, ce- the molecular change in structure is com-
mentite and pearlite. The iron-carbon equi- plete. At this temperature (around 815-
librium diagram shown in Figure 28 illus- 925C or 1500-1700F for most steels, de-
trates the relationship of these components. pending on carbon content) the steel as-
Ferrite consists of iron molecules with no sumes the form of a uniform solid solution
carbon attached, cementite is an iron-carbon called austenite. It is at temperatures be-
molecule, (Fe3C); and pearlite is a mixture tween the lower and upper critical that a
of cementite (12 percent) and ferrite (88 per- wide range of mill hot rolling and working
cent). A low carbon steel has less than 0.8 can occur. As long as the temperature is
percent carbon, too little to develop 100 per- lowered slowly in a controlled manner from
cent pearlite, resulting in pearlite plus free these levels, the steel assumes its original
ferrite molecules. High carbon steels (car- molecular configuration and properties.
bon content between 0.8 and 2.0 percent)
Figure 28. Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram.
6
Strip Num ber
4
6 D egrees D am age
3 12-24 Degrees Dam age
1
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 29. Residual stress distribution for plates Figure 30. Typical residual stress distribution for
damaged and then vee heated a heat straightened angle
Figure 31. Typical residual stress distribution for
a heat straightened angle Figure 32. Typical residual stress distribution for
a heat straightened channel
100
90 600
80
500
70
60 400
50
300
40
Top of Vee Heat
30 200
Middle of Vee Heat
20 Bottom of Vee Heat
100
10 Unheated Heat
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Damage/Repair Cycles
Figure 35. Yield stress versus number of damage/repair cycles for heat straightened beam
110
100 700
90 600
80
70 500
60 400
50
Top of Vee Heat 300
40 Middle of Vee Heat
30 Bottom of Vee Heat 200
20 Unheated Heat
100
10
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Damage/Repair Cycles
Figure 36. Tensile stress versus number of damage/repair cycles for heat straightened beam.
50
45
40
Percent Elongation
35
30
25
20
Top of Vee Heat
15
Middle of Vee Heat
10 Bottom of Vee Heat
5 Unheated Heat
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Number of Damage/Repair Cycles
Figure 37. Percent elongation versus number of damage/repair cycles for heat straightened beam.
differences in rate of heating and heat
5. HEAT STRAIGHTENING flow.
OF FLAT PLATES Due to the difficulty in controlling the
5.1 Introduction many variables associated with heat
straightening, the magnitude of move-
The fundamental element of any structural
ments for individual heats may vary
steel shape is the flat plate. Damage to
considerably.
bridge structures involves combinations of
these plate elements, bent about their strong Varying the vee depths between 75-100
and/or weak axes. Understanding the be- percent of the plate width has little influ-
havior of plates during heat straightening is ence on the plastic rotation of a vee
fundamental to the heat straightening proc- heated plate.
ess. Plate thickness and width do not signifi-
Two studies (Roeder, 1986 and cantly influence plastic rotations, pro-
Avent, et. al. 2000)) helped define the fac- vided sufficient heat is applied to gener-
tors affecting heat straightening of plates. ate a specified consistent temperature
As a result the following observations can within the vee.
be made. External restraints can significantly in-
650C (1,200F) is a practical and safe crease the movements per vee heat with
upper temperature limit for non-Q & T the movement being related to the re-
steel. straint force.
Changes in material properties are rela- The movement associated with each of
tively small when the temperature re- the initial heat cycles is often larger than
mains below the phase transition tem- subsequent cycles due to internal re-
perature of approximately 720C straints developed when a member is
(1330F). damaged severely enough to require a
high number of cycles.
Plastic rotation, defined as the change in
angle of tangents located on either side Axial forces can be used as constraining
of the damaged zone of a plate after the forces, but bending moments are usually
completion of a vee heat, is the basic more efficient in producing movement.
measurement of movement during heat The influence of yield stress on plastic
straightening. rotation is small for mild steel having an
The rotation produced by a vee heat on Fy between 230-345 MPa (33-50 ksi).
an otherwise unrestrained plate is di-
rectly proportional to vee angle and
heating temperature. 5.2 Variables Affecting the Move-
Plastic strain during straightening occurs
ment of Heat-straightened Plates
primarily within the vee heat region. 5.2.1 Temperature
Plastic strain is somewhat sensitive to One of the most important and yet difficult
geometry of the plate. However, much to control parameters of heat straightening is
of this sensitivity can be attributed to the through-thickness temperature of the
heated metal. Factors affecting the tempera- and surface damage such as pitting will oc-
ture include: number and size of torch ori- cur at 760-870C (1400-1600oF). Also,
fices, temperature of the flame, speed of temperatures in exceeding 700C (1300oF)
torch movement, and thickness of the plate. may cause molecular composition changes
Studies have shown that knowledgeable which could detrimentally change material
practitioners commonly misjudged the heat- properties after cooling. The limiting tem-
ing temperature by 55C (100oF) and, in perature of 650C (1200oF) allows for a
some cases, as much as 110C (200oF). safety factor in this regard. For the
Thus, there is considerable variability in quenched and tempered steels, the heat-
temperature control, even with experienced straightening process can be used but the
users. temperature should be limited to 595C
(1100oF) for A514 and A709 (grades 100
and 100W) and 565C (1050F) for A709
grade 70W to ensure that the properties are
not adversely affected.
5.2.2 Effect of Vee Angle
The results shown in Figure 38 and 39 also
illustrate the effect of the vee angle when
heat straightening. The amount of move-
ment is approximately proportional to the
vee angle.
5.2.3 Restraining Forces
The term "restraining forces" can refer to
externally applied forces, self weight or in-
ternal redundancy. These forces, when
properly utilized, can expedite the straight-
Figure 38. Influence of heating temperature on ening process. However, if improperly ap-
plastic rotation for 3/4 depth vee heats and a jack- plied, restraining forces can hinder or even
ing ratio of 0.16.
prevent straightening.
The effect of heating temperature
The proper procedure for applying a re-
can be seen in Figure 38 in which the heat-
straining force is to create a moment tending
ing temperature was varied from 370-815C to compress the stretched area. The ratio of
(700o to 1500oF) in increments of 56C the moment at the vee due to the jacking
(100oF). The results establish a regular pro- force, Mj, to the plastic moment, Mp, of the
gression of increased plastic rotation with cross section, is Mj/Mp. This term is re-
increasing temperature. ferred to as the jacking ratio. The effect of
The maximum temperature recom- jacking ratios ranging from zero to 50 per-
mended by most researchers is 650C cent with four different vee angles are
(1200oF) for all but the quenched and tem- shown in Figure. 39. It can be concluded
pered high strength steels. Higher tempera- from this data that plastic rotation is gener-
tures may result in greater rotation; how- ally proportional to the jacking ratio and the
ever, out-of-plane distortion becomes likely proper use of external loads greatly expe-
dites the heat-straightening process. summation of small steps and considers the
influence of the non-uniform temperature
14 distribution. This approach is lengthy, is
13 only possible using computer techniques and
12 a typical analysis for a single vee heat can
11 require extensive set up and computer time.
Plastic Rotation (milliradians)
10
The other approach considers the global ac-
9
tion of the vee. The goal of the analytical
8
7
development is to obtain an equation which
6
can be used to predict the angle of plastic
5
rotation produced by a vee heat. Avent, et.
4
al. (2000) developed this type of model us-
3 ing the following assumptions: (1) longitu-
2 dinal plastic strain occurs only in the vee
1 heat zone (and in a reflected vee about the
0 apex for partial depth vees); (2) at any speci-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 fied distance from the neutral axis of the
Vee Angle (degrees) plate, the strains in the longitudinal direction
are constant over the zone of the vee; (3) the
planes defined by the sides of the vee re-
Figure 39. Influence of jacking ratio on average main planes after heating and rotate about
plastic rotation for 650C (1200F) heating tem- the apex of the vee; (4) confinement during
peratures (lines represent a least squares curve
fit).
heating is not perfect single axis along the
longitudinal direction (i.e., some longitudi-
In summary, parameters which have nal movement during heating is assumed):
an important influence on the plastic rota- (5) the permanent strains occur within the
tions produced by vee heats are: (1) vee an- inner two-thirds of the vee with an effective
gle, (2) steel temperature, and (3) external vee angle of two-thirds the actual angle, (6)
restraining force. In the usual range of the plastic rotation varies linearly with jack-
three-quarters of the plate width or greater, ing ratio, (7) perfect confinement is equiva-
the depth of the vee appears to have little lent to a 20 percent jacking ratio, (8) the
effect.. Likewise, the plate dimensions are zero jacking force equals 60 percent of the
of minor significance as long as the heating perfect confinement case and (9) the heating
patterns attain the desired temperature. temperature is 650C (1200oF). The result-
5.3 Analytical Development ing formula for plastic rotation, , (angle
change due to a single vee heat) with zero
Two general approaches have been used to
jacking force is
develop an analytical procedure for predict-
ing member response during a heat-
= 0.0147 sin (Eq. 5.1)
straightening of a plate damaged by bending 3
about the major axis. One approach in-
volves finite element/finite strip thermal and
stress analyses including inelastic behavior. where is the vee angle. The jacking force
The stress and strain equilibrium is the is incorporated by the introduction of a jack-
ing force factor made between a cross sectionss primary
elements and stiffening elements. The pri-
mary elements are the plate elements sub-
Mj jected to bending about their local strong
Fl = 0.6 + 2 (Eq. 5.2)
MP axes. The stiffening elements are perpen-
dicular to the primary elements and bent
about their own local weak axes.
and the plastic rotation is For example, consider the channel
shown in Figure 40, which has been plasti-
p = Fl (Eq. 5.3) cally deformed about its major axis, result-
ing in Category S damage. The web of this
The formula compares well to the experi- channel, a plate element bent about its major
mental data and is the first simple formula axis, is therefore a primary element. The
available that includes the parameters of two flanges are bent about their minor axes
heating temperature of the steel and magni- and are thus stiffening elements.
tude of restraining force (jacking force). For rolled shapes with flexural dam-
The form of this approach also lends itself to age, the pattern of yielding usually differs
the behavior of rolled shapes, axially loaded for the primary and stiffening plate ele-
members, and composite and non-composite ments. Typically, the primary plate ele-
girders. ments develop plastic hinges, a state of
stress in which the entire cross-section has
reached yield (Fy): Tensile yield in one re-
6. HEAT STRAIGHTENING gion and compressive yield in the other.
ROLLED SHAPES The stiffening elements of a damaged rolled
6.1 Fundamental Damage Patterns shape may exhibit one of several conditions.
In the first, yielding does not occur because
The process of heat straightening damaged the stiffening element is located near the
rolled shapes is based on a logical extension neutral axis of the cross section, e.g., when a
of the straightening of plates. Rolled shapes wide flange beam is bent about its minor
can be viewed as an assemblage of flat plate axis, the web may not reach yield. In the
elements. When damaged, some elements second case, the stiffening element is lo-
are bent about their strong axis, some about cated near the extreme fibers of flexural
their weak axis and some about both. The yielding (such as the flanges of the channel
overall effect on a member results in dam- shown in Figure 40). In this situation the
age which is a combination of one or more flanges yield due to axial stress (either ten-
of the fundamental damage categories de- sion or compression). In the third case, the
scribed in Chapter 1. stiffening element is yielded in weak axis
To develop a methodology for heat bending in which a region of yield is formed
straightening complex damage on rolled as shown in Figure 41. The results are a
shapes, understanding the behavior of such narrow strip of flexural yielding often re-
shapes when subjected to single fundamen- ferred to as a yield line.
tal types of damage is necessary. Focusing
on categories S and W, a distinction will be
second is a stress factor. It is obvious that
the shape may influence behavior, but the
stress factor requires an explanation.
When jacking forces are applied
prior to heat straightening, the distribution
of stress over the heated section due to jack-
ing will vary according to the shape of the
cross section and the restraint conditions.
As the torch moves over the section, the
steel temperature rises and then falls in a
manner somewhat analogous to a wave
moving across calm water. The heat varia-
tion produces continuous and complex
changes in the combined stress distribution.
As a consequence, stress distributions may
be quite different between two members of
different configurations.
Figure 40. Primary and stiffening plate elements
for a channel bent about its major axis (Category
S damage).
With the various patterns of inelastic
deformation which occur in damaged rolled
or built-up shapes, the heating pattern for
repair must be tailored to fit. While the vee
heat is generally used on primary elements
of a section bent about their major axes, the
stiffening elements may require a strip heat,
line heat or no heat at all. Multiple heating
patterns introduce additional variability, so
the time to complete a heat may be consid- Figure 41. Weak axis bending resulting in a yield
erably longer than heating a single plate. line in the plate element.
Considerable cooling may occur at the ini- One measure of this effect is the ra-
tial heating locations before the last element tio of plastic moment, Mp, to the moment at
is heated, retarding expected movement due initial yield, My. For a constant yield stress
to increased internal restraints. A good this ratio is Z/S where Z is the plastic sec-
practice to minimize the heating time is us- tion modulus and S is the elastic section
ing more than one torch for complex pat- modulus. Since the moment due to jacking
terns. is usually expressed as a percentage of Mp,
In addition to the jacking force fac- the degree of yielding during heating is of-
tor, the various combinations of plate ele- ten a function of this ratio. For example,
ments found in structural steel shapes intro- Z/S = 1.5 for a rectangular plate and is only
duces two other parameters that may affect about 1.12 for typical wide flange beams. In
the members behavior during heat straight- other words, yielding is initiated at two-
ening. The first is a shape factor and the thirds of ultimate capacity for a plate but
does not occur until 90 percent of capacity Where
for most wide flange members. For a mo- bs = width of stiffening element;
ment due to jacking in the range of 35-50
percent of Mp, some localized yielding will ds = distance from apex of vee heat on pri-
occur during heat straightening. The mary member to intersection of stiffening
amount, and consequently the degree of element; and
straightening, will depend on the stress fac- d = depth of the vee heated elements (as-
tor as a function of Z/S. suming a vee depth (ds) of at least three-
The model for predicting movement quarters of this depth).
during heat straightening is a modification 6.2 Composite Deck-Girder Bridges
of the plate equation, Eq. 5.3. For mild
steel, the equation for plastic rotation of a Two primary parameters affecting heat
structural shape can be expressed as straighteningvee angle and heating tem-
peraturehave been discussed in previous
chapters. However, three additional pa-
p = Fl Fs Fa b (Eq. 6.1) rameters have also been shown to play a
central role in the heat-straightening proc-
where Fl is the factor associated with the ess. One factor relates to the influence of
external jacking force, Fs is a factor reflect- restraining forces, a second to the heating
ing the shape of the cross section, Fa is the patterns used, and a third to the damage-
stress factor, and b is the basic plastic rota- induced pattern. A typical damage pattern is
tion factor derived for a rectangular plate shown in Figure 42. Typically, a lateral
(see Eq. 5.3) and expressed as: jacking force is applied to the lower flange
during heat-straightening repair. However,
b = 0.0147 sin (Eq. 6.2) the determination of the jacking ratio is
3 complicated for composite girders due to the
The stress factor can be written as internal redundancy of the system. First,
when a lateral jacking force is applied to the
2 Z Mj lower flange, only a portion of that force
Fa = 1 2[1 ( )( )] (Eq. 6.3)
3 S Mp produces a moment in the flange. Part of the
force follows a load path through the web
Where Z/S is the ratio of plastic to elastic
into the upper composite flange and is re-
section modulus for bending about the major
sisted by the concrete deck. The determina-
axis (except for angles in which the ratio is
tion of the actual moment in the lower dam-
multiplied by Fs).
aged flange is required to prevent over-
The jacking force factor is identical stress during jacking and to predict the ex-
to that developed for plates, that is pected movement. Second, the moment ca-
Mj pacity due to a laterally applied load is also
F l = 0.6 + 2 (Eq. 6.4) influenced by the load path transfer making
Mp
it difficult to compute the plastic moment
The shape factor is capacity, Mp.
1 bd The most effective combinations of
Fs = 1 + ( s 2 s ) (Eq. 6.5) heating patterns and restraining forces are
2 d
ones that minimize any internal constraints
Figure 42. Typical deformed shape and yield zones in damaged composite girders.
Rl l M p
For columns and axially loaded Pj = (Eq. 6.12)
members, the P- effect must be considered. ab
If an axially compressed member is dam-
aged by lateral loads as shown in Figure 46,
a moment is generated which is equal to P- and = column length, a and b = distances
. This moment is in the opposite direction from end supports to the applied jacking
to the moment generated by a jacking force load, and R = the jacking ratio, Mj/Mp. Pec
during the straightening process. If the lat- is the additional jacking force required to
eral deflection is large, the moment due to cancel the eccentric moment due to the axial
the P- effect could retard or prevent the load, P, or
restoration movement during heat straight-
ening, or create instability when heating re-
lP
duces steel strength.. Pec = (Eq. 6.13)
ab
6.3.1 Response of Columns to Heat
Straightening
With the axial load applied, a moment in the Test results (Avent and Mukai,
member is created due to the P effect. This 1998) indicate that heat straightening can be
moment tends to impede the heat straighten- successfully applied to axially loaded com-
ing process as it acts to magnify the damage. pression members. The results are plotted in
The approach recommended is to cancel out Figure 47. Also shown is the theoretical
this moment with the application of the lat- curve for the beam without axial load based
eral jacking force. The jacking force should on the same parameters. The plastic rota-
be adjusted to impose the specified jacking tions varied linearly with the jacking ratio,
ratio plus inducing a moment to cancel out but they tended to be smaller than those pre-
the P moment at the center of damage. For dicted for the same beam without axial
each heating cycle the jacking force should compression (Eq. 6.1). The axial force re-
duces the expected values compared to those
without axial loads. Similar behavior was
found for axially loaded compression mem- 8
bers with Category S damage plastic rota- 7
max = Actual strain at extreme fiber of f = Slope of flange on side away from
member impact for locally damaged
member
y = Strain at initial yield of material
n = Slope of flange on impact side of
= Distribution factor for heated locally damaged flange
composite beam
w = Slope of web for beam with local
= Ratio of maximum strain to yield flange damage
strain, max/y
b = Basic plate rotation factor
c = Plastic rotation of composite girder