HBEF1103 Sociology and Philosophy in Malaysia

HBEF1103
SOCIOLOGY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION IN
MALAYSIA
Azhar Wahid
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Azhar Wahid

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Translator: Izatun Hanim Shari
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, December 2009

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2011, HBEF1103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix-xiv
Topic 1 Sociology School and Society 1

1.1 Definition of Sociology and Educational Sociology 2
1.1.1 Definition 2
1.1.2 Educational Sociology 4
1.1.3 Types of Sociology 6
1.2 Social Structure and Society 7
1.2.1 Social Structure 8
1.2.2 Society and School 8
1.2.3 Parent-Teacher Association 9
1.3 Process And Socialisation Agents 10
1.3.1 Family Influence 10
1.3.2 Schools Role 11
1.3.3 Peer 12
1.3.4 Mass Media 13
1.4 Involvement and Social Mobility 14
1.4.1 Types of Social Mobility 15
1.5 Education and National Integration 17
1.5.1 Ethnic Concept and Integration 17
1.5.2 Inculcating Ethnic Integration in School 18
1.5.3 School as Instrument of Unity 18
1.5.4 Vision School Implementation 19
1.5.5 Implementation of a Single Stream School 20
Summary 21
Key Terms 22
Topic 2 Philosophy and Educational Philosophy 23

2.1 Definition of Philosophy and Education Philosophy 24
2.2 Characteristics of Philosophy 24
2.3 Branches of Philosophy 25
2.4 Western Philosophy Doctrine 28
2.5 Western Philosophy Doctrine 31
2.5.1 National Educational Philosophy 32
Summary 35
Key Terms 36

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Educational Development in Malaysia 37

3.1 Educational Development During the British Colonial Era 38
3.1.1 Vernacularism Educational System 38
3.1.2 Malay Education 39
3.1.3 Chinese Education 40
3.1.4 Tamil Education 40
3.2 Educational Reports 41
3.2.1 The Barnes Report Of 1950 41
3.2.2 The 1951 Fenn-Wu Report 42
3.2.3 The 1952 Education Ordinance 42
3.2.4 The 1956 Razak Report 43
3.2.5 The 1960 Rahman Talib Report 45
3.2.6 1961 Education Act 46
3.2.7 The 1979 Cabinet Report 46
3.3 Teachers Educational Development 47
3.3.1 Teachers Training 47
3.3.2 Teachers Educational Model 48
3.4 The National Education Concepts 48
3.4.1 New Curriculum for Primary School (KBSR) 48
3.4.2 Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (KBSM) 53
3.4.3 Smart School 56
3.5 The 1996 Education Act 58
Summary 61
Key Terms 61
Topic 4 Multi-Cultural Education and Models 62

4.1 Multi-Cultural Educational Dimension 63
4.2 Content-Oriented Programme 66
4.3 Student-Oriented Programme 67
4.4 Social-Oriented Programme 68
Summary 69
Key Terms 69
Topic 5 Importance of Multi-Cultural Education 70

5.1 Goals of Multi-Racial Education 71
5.2 Advantages of Multi-Cultural Education 75
Summary 77
Key Terms 78
Topic 6 Multi-Cultural Influence 79

6.1 Multi-Cultural Influence on Malaysian Societys Way of Life 80
6.2 Individual Roles in Respecting Multi-Cultural Society 82

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
6.3 Roles and Responsibilities to Preserve Malaysian Cultural 84

Heritage
Summary 85
Key Terms 86
Topic 7 Pedagogy Related to Multi-Cultural Education 87

7.1 Pedagogy in Multi-Cultural Education 89
7.2 What Should Be Taught 90
7.3 Pluralism in Pedagogy 91
7.4 Media Pedagogy (Carson & Friedman 1995) 94
7.5 Critical Pedagogy 96
7.6 How Teachers Manage Teaching Aids Effectively 99
7.7 Individual-Centred Pedagogy 100
7.8 Pedagogy in Classrooms 102
Summary 105
Key Terms 106
Topic 8 Implications of Multi-Cultural Education on 107

Teachers in Classrooms
8.1 Curriculum 109
8.2 Multi-Cultural Education Teaching Techniques, Methods, 113
Strategies and Approaches
8.2.1 Approaches 113
8.2.2 Strategies 114
8.2.3 Methods 115
8.3 Teaching Source 129
8.4 Psychology And Counselling 131
8.5 Assessment 134
Summary 136
Key Terms 137
Topic 9 Issues and Challenges 138

9.1 Curriculum 139
9.2 Developing Multi-Cultural Education Curriculum 145
Summary 153
Key Terms 154
Topic 10 Direction 155

10.1 Cultural Unity in Diversity 157
10.2 Equity and Equality in Education 162
Summary 167
Key Terms 168

vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE W ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you may need to spend
in order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to this Course Guide
from time to time as you go through the course material as it will help to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEF1103 Sociology and Philosophy of Education in Malaysia is one of the
courses offered by the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Education (Education
Administration) and Bachelor of Education (Teaching English as a Second
Language) programmes.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is standard OUM practice that learners engage in 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to engage in
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial

3
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
Total Study Hours Accumulated 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Relate sociology and education;
2. Explain educational philosophy;
3. Explain multi-cultural educational concept;
4. Apply multi-cultural pedagogical skills in teaching and learning activities
in the classroom; and
5. State the issues and implications of multi-cultural education in the
Malaysian context.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 defines sociology and educational sociology. It provides an explanation

about structure and the form of multi-racial society in Malaysia. It also relates
educational relationships and social mobility. We will cover education and
national integration as well as ethnic relations in school.

COURSE GUIDE W xi
Topic 2 elaborates definition and meaning of philosophy and educational

philosophy. It identifies characteristics and divisions in the field of philosophy. It
also explains about principles that exist in the Western and Eastern philosophical
thinking. We will discuss analysis on educational concepts and educational
philosophy. Apart from that, this topic explains the concept and policy of the
National Educational Philosophy.
Topic 3 explains about the history of educational development before and after
the British era. It describes the National Educational Reports that exist in the
countrys educational system since the early days of Independence. It also
explains teachers educational development. Aside from that, we will look at
educational concepts; KBSR/KBSM, Smart School and the use of the Education
Act 1996.
Topic 4 introduces several multi-cultural educational dimensional concepts

along with suitable examples and their importance in general. We will touch on
characteristics that are required in multi-cultural educational dimensions and
programmes. The topic also highlights models, processes and basis of
consideration to prepare models and programmes that are holistic and
comprehensive.
Topic 5 elaborates goals, advantages and disadvantages of multi-cultural

education, suitable examples and their importance in general. It also touches on
characteristics for each element in a multi-cultural education.
Topic 6 elaborates social and economic roles in influencing Malaysian multi-

racial societys way of life. It explains at least two important environmental
factors that influence the Malaysian societys way of life. It identifies ways to
instil universal positive values in education in Malaysia. This topic also describes
activities that can maintain Malaysian culture and heritage along with suitable
examples.
Topic 7 elaborates aspects that exist in pluralism in multi-cultural education

pedagogy. It explains the roles played by teachers in implementing teaching and
learning process effectively in a multi-cultural education.
Topic 8 explains the meaning of multi-cultural education. It elaborates the

implications of implementing multi-cultural education. This topic also analyses
the teaching methods suitable to be applied in multi-cultural education. Apart
from that, we will cover the types of assessments used in testing multi-cultural
education curriculum.

xii X COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 discusses issues and challenges in multi-cultural education. It elaborates

the medias role in building Malaysian societys identity. We will discuss multi-
cultural education characteristics for the society and distinguish the difference
between multi-cultural education curriculum for teachers and that for the society.
Topic 10 explains the direction to create a united society. It elaborates equity and
equality in the multi-cultural societys life. In this topic, we will also review the
cultural assimilation process in Malaysia as well as the meaning of self-
transformation.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you had
completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer your reading back to these given learning outcomes. By doing
this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you had gone through one sub-section
or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in a form of a question that
may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across
this component, try to reflect what you had already gone through. When you
attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether
you had understand what you had read clearly, vaguely or worse you might find
out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had
just gone through. Most of the time, the answer to the question can be found
directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear
in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to
conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and
evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should
try to widen what you had gathered from the module and introduce it to real
situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might
be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall
and define.

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
assists you to recap the whole topic. By going through summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the
summary that you do not fully understand; it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component so as to remind yourself on important terms or jargons
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end
of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer
to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance you overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Abd Rahim Abd Rashid. (2000). Wawasan & agenda pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur.
Utusan Publication Sdn. Bhd.
Abdullah Sani Yahaya. (2003). Perkembangan pendidikan di Malaysia. Bentong:

PTS Publication & Distributor Sdn. Bhd.
Abdul Rahman Aroff and Zakaria Kasa. (1994). Falsafah dan konsep pendidikan.
Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti.
Abu Bakar Nordin and Ikhsan Othman, (2003). Falsafah pendidikan dan
kurikulum. Tanjong Malim: Quantum Books.
Abu Bakar Nordin. (1991). Kurikulum perspektif dan perlaksanaan. Kuala

Lumpur: Pustaka Antara.
xiv X COURSE GUIDE
Alex Inkeles. (1985). Apa itu sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Amir Hasan Dawi. (2002). Penteorian sosiologi dan pendidikan. Tanjong Malim:
Quantum Books.
Banks, J. A. (1994). An introduction to multi-cultural education. Boston: Allyn

and Bacon.
Gay, 1986 in Maurice Graft. (1996). Teacher education in plural societies. An

International Review. London: Falmer Press.
Ibrahim Saad. (1982). Isu pendidikan di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka.
Jennifer Allen. (2004). Sociology of education. (3rd ed.). Thomson Learning

Australia.
Maurice Graft. (1996). Teacher education in plural societies. An international

review. London: Falmer Press.
http://ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educars/leadrshd/le0gay.htm
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/initial.html
http://ru.org/artmulti.html
http://ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educars/leadrshd/le0gay.htm
http://www.edchange.org/mulicultural/initial.html
http://ru.org/artmulti.html

Topic X Sociology School
and Society
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define sociology and educational sociology;
2. Explain the structure and form of society;
3. Discuss sociological concepts and its agents;
4. Explain the relationship between education and social mobility; and
5. Explain how national integration is achieved through education.
X INTRODUCTION
Sociology is a scientific and systematic study on human beings and their social
interactions in the society from various angles. All sorts of social phenomenon
will occur through interaction. Sociology focuses on social life study in a modern
era.
Generally, sociology is an in-depth study about social groups, emphasising their

identities and explaining various forms of how their behaviours are influenced.
A person can be influenced by whomever; whether that reason is well-known or
otherwise.
Since the main context of sociological study is the society, hence the scope is very
wide: from the lowest level of inter-relationship among people to the highest
level of social process, and ranges from the study of a family to the study of the
world. Simple examples are truancy in schools, marriage and health, while major

2 X TOPIC 1 SOCIOLOGY SCHOOL AND SOCIETY
issues are ethnic cleansing, war, industrialisation, urbanisation, and the political
system.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Children who do not obtain nursery and preschool education do not
succeed in their adulthood. Discuss this statement.
2. In small groups, discuss reasons as to why it is necessary for
entrepreneurs to understand the requirements stated in the Child Care
Centre Act 1984 and the Education Act 1996.
1.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY AND

EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
Sociology refers to a modern field of knowledge. Simply said, we can relate
sociology with society. In the following section we will look at a few definitions
of sociology.
1.1.1 Sociology
Do you know what is sociology? What about educational sociology?
According to Giddens (1993), sociology is a study about the social life of humans,
groups and society. Sociology can provide humans with the understanding about
how social influences form their lives.
Another way to understand sociology is based on a sociological imagination that

was introduced by C. Wright Mills. Sociological imagination means realising the
relationship between individuals, experiences and societies. Mills regards
individual experience as biography and relationship patterns in the society as
history. Sociological imagination enables us to understand history and biography
as well as the relationship between the two fields in society (Mills, 1959:6).
Conceptually, biography is part of history. Sociological imagination identifies the
relationship between biography and history, whereby humans are influenced by
social factors (history). Social group is influenced by individuals who become its
members (biography). Therefore, sociological imagination will enable one to see
the position of oneself in the societys scenario.
It can be said that sociology is a behavioural science. It attempts to elaborate

human behaviour in an era or in the past, as we experience ourselves or as we

TOPIC 1 SOCIOLOGY SCHOOL AND SOCIETY W 3
find in artifacts, monuments, laws or books. However, by this definition, history,

economy and literary criticism are also included in behavioural science. In these
instances, knowledge on sociological approach requires understanding of the
meaning of sociology.
A learned community do not refer to those who are knowledgeable in all aspects.
Any effort to distinguish sociology and other disciplines can only be done
arbitrarily. In addition, knowledge progresses and research flow transforms.
Definition of social science at certain times will be less accurate. Based on a
historical perspective, Joseph J Schwab (1960), a historical scientist and
philosopher reported that a research method that is rejected by a scientist, left
behind at a certain time or set aside in certain sciences will re-emerge and
become useful in another research, or at a different time, or in another science.
However, research segments that involve humans and their efforts show a lot of
different characteristics. Hence, it differentiates one discipline from another.
There are three ways to outline sociological research fields:

Historical approach - Through research on classical sociological writing. We
try to find the focus of tradition and sociological importance as an intellectual
discipline. Empirical approach - We study sociological works of the same
period to see the main issues that are emphasised by that discipline.
Analytical approach - We divide and elaborate various main issues, which
are more significant and place them among different disciplines.
A historical approach has its own advantages. It provides us the opportunity to

gain benefit from past wisdom. It enables us to understand issues that we can
accept only when we understand their background. It is true; people may read
the same history but have different interpretations. Furthermore, the historical
approach may have blocked our minds because past traditions may be unsuitable
to face present or future problems.
The empirical approach is not so unclear. It requires various forms of

calculations. It is admitted that what is emphasised by sociologists from the same
period in their works may merely be old myths and only have loose relations
with important works of the past or that which promises unconvincing hopes for
the future. According to Pitirim Sorokin (1956), the main focus in present
sociology is not more than exaggerating something small or glorifying
something wrong. According to Wright Mills (1959), present sociology shows
the fall of sociological imagination.
The analytical approach is most appealing. This approach has been used for a
long time. It has been used since the father of sociology, Auguste Comte,
introduced it. However, total division on human study cannot be legally

enforced. Scholars and scientists are driven by their interests. They are natural
intruders, who do not bother about ownership and the Do Not Enter sign.
Therefore, an arbitrary definition of the field of research, although often
aesthetically satisfactory, is generally a weak guide of what is actually
happening. It requires a major and concise plan. However, since there are no
effective rules to determine the research boundary, the structure of factual
research will not lead to success of the plan.
Sociology involves a lot of studies about humans. Sociology is a social science

that accepts overall human activities as it is research. This situation results in an
expansion of the sociological field. Hence, opportunities for other experts who
are interested to collaborate in the research are created. Sociological research
fields include:
Economy, occupation and organisation;
Social relationship, family and gender;
Social identity: age, class, gender and race;
Religion and belief;
Organisation and its environment; and
Human and health.
1.1.2 Educational Sociology

From the definition of sociology that you understand, what is the need for
educational sociology?
Education is a formal and informal transmission process of knowledge and skills.

It occurs from one generation to another or within the same generation. An
educational institution is a social structure that transmits such knowledge and
skills. Schooling specifically, is a formal teaching and learning process that occurs
in classrooms in schools. The word school originates from a Greek word, which
means free time or recreational. Although education has taken place in the
form of the school system, schools have now became a special place to educate.
The society today has its own interpretation of education. One may try to acquire
the highest education to achieve his/her ambition. Their children are sent to
school with the hope that they will be able to pursue their tertiary education at a
university. When the children were young, they may have been introduced to
high status and high income occupations such as doctors, lawyers, lecturers and
engineers. Hence, the children will study hard to secure good jobs. However, the
reality is that not everybody can achieve similar education, not everyone goes to
the university and not everyone secures good jobs. Success or failure to enter the
university, working as labourer or officer, or rich or poor possibly is a normal

occurrence among the people. All these reflect differences or inequalities.
Why does inequality occur in the society? Scholars and researchers, who are
involved in educational sociology, have been trying to answer this question.
They have conducted studies on the reason one party is more successful than
another and why educational inequality always happens. Sociology also debates
the role of society and individuals in determining success and failure in
education, which subsequently outlines educational policies. All related
questions are studied based on the perspective of educational sociological
theories.
The importance of educational sociology can be simplified as shown below:

Study how education can be used to help individuals and societies;
Study equalities and inequalities in education so that suitable policies will be
adopted;
Increasing mastery of concepts and skills of educationists to face students
with different backgrounds such as difference in gender, ethnicity and social
class;
Giving a clearer picture to all parties involved in the school organisation and
its environment;
Helping teachers to understand cultures different from theirs, devoid from
prejudice, biases or ethnocentric beliefs. They can see students based on
various social backgrounds;
Helping teachers not to be aloof in their behaviour and professionalism
because educational sociology exposes one to vast knowledge and enable
oneself to be tolerant in ones interaction;
To master the forms of student interactions in classrooms and subsequently,
helps in the teaching and learning process;
Studying equality and inequality in education so that suitable policies can be
applied particularly in a complex society;
Enabling educationists to have the skills to interpret research findings,
statistical data and maybe conduct research; and
Educationists involved in educational policy formulation will acquire knowledge

on the influence of social factors on education. Knowledge on attitude and
behaviour in community will help ensure a smooth implementation of social
change to society through schooling.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
Discuss the importance of sociology in education.
1.1.3 Types of Sociology

Sociology is a process to learn about roles, status and values that should exist in a
person in a social institution. Sociology is a learning process that is continuous
and lifelong. It begins with the transfer of norms, values in a family and culture
within a society to children.
Childhood is the period where what one learns will normally form opinions or
concepts within individuals. As one grows older, one will learn a lot of things as
a result of ones interactions with others who are called sociological agents.
Sociology can transform an individuals early behaviour to adapt to the needs of

social life in the present society. New roles are continuously learnt from
childhood until the end of life. Therefore, sociology is not revolutionary in
nature. In fact, sociology plays an important function to ensure continuity of a
schools existence. All forms of sociology, whether accomplished from family or
other agents, involve the issue of integration into the society.
Based on various views of sociologists, Piaget, Freud, Durkheim, Mead, Lacey

and others, sociology is divided into several types:
(i) Primary Socialisation

Socialisation at this level occurs during early childhood. In principle,
early sociology happens within the family. It is very crucial for the
later stage of development. It is a process whereby children learn to
become social adults.
At this stage, children form self-concepts and personalities, and
acquire motor skills, extractions and language skills. They are exposed
to social environment comprising elements of roles, values and
norms. They will acquire such skills from the people around them
particularly their parents.
Initially, they will conform to roles, values and norms aspired by
parents, families and nearby community.
This level is also very important. If unsuccessful, children will face
difficulties at the next level.

(ii) Secondary Socialisation

Secondary socialisation is a stimulus sociological process into groups
outside the family by other sociological agents such as peers, mass
media, and schools.
Besides parents, peers can influence an individual based on certain
aspects such as age, gender, social class and race. The same goes with
mass media which often comprise materials that are heard of, read
and seen. As children grow, they will continue to learn something
new and may replace the old ones.
Secondary socialisation can take place in many places and
circumstances. When one faces something new at a new place, one
must adapt oneself to suit the social group.
At this stage, one can choose a role that suits oneself. It is undeniable
that what is learnt in the earlier stage will influence this secondary
stage.
(iii) Resocialisation
Resocialisation is a process where one drastically or radically
transforms or transfers self-concept and existing life to a new and
different. Such changes normally occur under pressure or forced
circumstances. For instance, when one experiences misfortune,
retrenchment, or sudden disability.
Resocialisation can also be caused by changes that are required by the
society. For example, a drug addict who is placed at a rehabilitation
centre.
Other possibilities of resocialisation are due to the drastic changes to
society. For example, the eruption of war, revolution, recession or
change in political system such as what happened in Russia, China
and Iraq.
1.2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIETY

All social classes, levels and clusters as well as the system to manage
relationships among them will eventually form a social structure. In his social
structure analysis, Marxism made a distinction between fundamental and non-
fundamental classes. Fundamental classes are those that are created from
production patterns that occur, whereby such classes will never be found under
other production patterns.

1.2.1 Social Structure

Generally, there are five basic social structures in the society, which
simultaneously form a huge circle determining socialisation. These five basic
structures are as follows:
First, family, in which the main functions are to raise children and act as a
support for the children to rely on.
Second, religion as a life principle that can bring meaning to unthinkable
phenomena.
Third, education, which creates the new generation.
Fourth, economy, which produces and distributes products.
Fifth, a responsible government to govern and protect the country.
Although each structure can be analysed independently, in reality they are

dependent on one another. Social institutions are important to ensure that the
socialisation process occurs and such institutions are called socialisation agents.
Among the socialisation agents that have been identified are family, school, peer,
mass media, workplace, clubs, and associations and so on.
1.2.2 Society and School

Society in general is a group of humans who live in an area. Every member of the
society has a relationship system with one other. They have certain similar
characteristics and exist in the same political administrative system. There are
societies with a large number of members, while others have a smaller number .
A society has a lot of communities. The school itself is a community that is part of
a larger community. A school environment is usually surrounded by other
communities such as traditional, new, and small villages as well as estate
communities.
A school is a community with its own characteristics. Similarly, every

community around the school has its own characteristics. There are similarities
and differences such as traditional values, ethnicities, social classes, and types of
occupation, household, location, beliefs and political differences.
The relationships between the school and communities in the vicinity are varied.
For rural schools, the relationship between the village community and school is
traditionally close. Villagers are usually prepared to cooperate with schools in
ensuring the success of various activities such as gotong-royong to clean the
school compound, attending meetings and sports activities. Meanwhile, in some

urban areas, the local communities do not have close relationships with schools.
Such phenomenon is expected because of the diversity of the communities
characteristics and ever changing nature of the communities.
The relationship between schools and their surrounding communities should be

developed. School leaders can make it a success. Principals should not isolate
schools from the community. The community can actually contribute
tremendously to the school by assisting in terms of financial matters, and
obtaining adequate equipment and infrastructure. For example, the community
can help in activities such as tuition, and rehabilitation classes. Apart from that,
community leaders can help in solving squabbles that occur among members of
the school and external community. More importantly is how school leaders
make the effort to gain support from the surrounding communities.
1.2.3 Parent-Teacher Association

Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) is formed in every school. It is represented by
teachers, parents and guardians whose children are schooling in the school.
Normally, schools collect fees from guardians as a source of income to run the
association. PTA annual general meeting is held once a year to select its
committee members. The PTA chairman is usually appointed from among
parents. The principal will act as an advisor and a teacher as a secretary.
Responses towards the associations activities differ from one school to another.
The issue that usually arises is that the PTA is not proactive in ensuring success
in the school activities even though it can make tremendous contributions
towards the schools success. Among these activities are helping solve the
problem of students misconduct, participating in charity work and looking for
sources of income for the school.
The PTA should have a team of committee members who are willing and
interested to ensure the success of school programmes. An Innovative PTA
leadership can plan various strategies to ensure the schools success. The PTA
should not only involve those who have children in the school but also involve
other communities in assisting with the programmes. There are many members
of the communities who are childless or those with children who have left school,
as well as singles who are interested in community-related activities. Thus, it is
up to PTA leaders to play their respective roles and functions according to their
positions in the association.

ACTIVITY 1.2
What is the role of a PTA in education? Discuss in class.
1.3 PROCESS AND SOCIALISATION AGENTS

Socialisation agents are people or groups who influence self-concept, emotion,
attitude and behaviour. Among the influential socialisation agents are family,
school, peer, mass media, religious institution and work place. Family is the most
important agent and is responsible in determining ones behaviour towards ones
religious belief and career. Meanwhile, schools are responsible as an agent to
instil societal values and certain skills. Peers help form societal values.
1.3.1 Family Influence

Parents should plan and implement carefully when taking steps to instil and
form relationships within the family. A harmonious and close-knit family
encourages healthy personal development, while an unsuccessful family and
problematic parents can create an unsuitable home environment that poses a
threat to the childrens personal development socially and emotionally. Parents
behaviour typically will have an impact on children.
Parents also carry out basic functions to strengthen the family such as providing
necessities in hereditary production, allowing adult family members to get
married, socialisation and inculcating social culture and values. Other functions
include fulfilling family economic needs collectively, providing and emphasising
emotional security of family members and bearing the responsibility to provide
education for their children. In other words, parents roles and behaviours are to
build a happy family in all aspects of life.
Parents who practise a democratic life can help their children in making
decisions. This can help increase the concept of independence within children.
Love, treatment, education and attention that are given by parents can help in the
positive development of the childrens personality. On the contrary, parents who
are stern and autocratic lead to children being rebellious, aloof, envious and
pessimistic. This situation leads to resentment in children and they may do
something beyond expectations.

Parents in the working class and the lower middle class emphasise more on
indulgence and want their children to be neat, clean, obedient, decent and fulfil
the wishes of the adults. However, they focus on actions, obvious behaviours,
and penalise children such as immediate penalty following certain actions.
For the middle class, parents emphasise on ideas, self-instructions and

achievements. They want their children to be happy, inquisitive, willing to share,
work together and learn, caring and have self-control. In handling children, they
are more interested in self-instructions and will impose a punishment or fine
after realising the mistakes that their children have committed.
1.3.2 Schools Role

The school is an institution that allows formal socialisation. It has an
administrative body to monitor learning process. Principals or headmasters,
disciplinary teachers and others have the authority to develop and manage
school activities.
The leaders and school environment influence the childrens personality

development process. School principals or headmasters who are firm will
produce students and teachers who are disciplined in carrying out their duties.
Those who are not firm will result in students becoming passive, not innovative
and not brave to make any changes. This would hamper or interrupt the
students leadership development process.
In school, teachers are the closest people to students. Teachers are responsible
when something happens in class when they are teaching. A conducive learning
environment are created by teachers who are fair, unbiased and do not easily
reprimand students without reason. Teachers who are caring will shape students
to have a good personality and become emotionally stable. Students will also feel
loved and teachers will be respected.
Students will become resentful, angry and disrespectful if their teachers are
unfair, biased, act whichever way they want and are emotional with the students.
This can result in students with bad personalities.
Teachers role within and outside the classroom is important especially when
they interact and communicate with students. Keith (1979) stressed that teachers
are influential socialisation agents. Children go through the process of growing
up, learning and gaining experience in school beginning from seven until 17
years old. This is a long time for one to form and choose ones own direction.
The school surrounding and infrastructure also play an important role in

encouraging the process of positive or negative behavioural development of a
student. A good school environment can help the process of forming good
personalities, while a clean environment can make students and teachers feel
comfortable and calm.
1.3.3 Peer
A peer is someone who becomes an important agent to each student. In school, it
is normal for students to belong to individual groups or organisations. This
happens as a result of the students being more comfortable relating and sharing
their problems with their own peers. Peers are those who understand most as
compared to teachers and family. Hence, peers can indirectly influence the
process of forming an individuals personality.
A student cultural pattern group is divided into four (Clark, 1969), namely,
entertainment sub-cultures, academic sub-cultures, groups comprising
delinquents and groups consisting those who are not aligned to anybody:
Entertainment sub-culture: Emphasises looks, outings, and sports without

appreciating academic values. They prefer amusement and do not care about
their studies.
Academic sub-culture: Activities are academic-oriented. They form groups

comprising students who are interested to excel in their studies. They prefer to be
together and discuss matters relating to their studies. This group will produce
high achievers and has the potential to progress and become the thrust to
develop the nation.
Delinquents: Students who are rebellious, oppose the school through negative
behaviour and play truant. They are happy to be called the school gangsters.
They are always involved in activities such as smoking, bullying and threatening
other students who are out of their group. When they are involved in such
activities, they are proud and satisfied because they feel that they have elevated
to become brave and great people.
Groups who are not aligned to anybody: They prefer to isolate themselves and
do not care about their surroundings. These students do not fancy group
environment. They prefer to be loners, and do things they like without any
objections from others.
Children can be influenced by their peers in three main ways (Glidewell, 1966):
(a) Children may be influenced when they want to be accepted or liked by
their peers. As they want to be part of a group, they are willing to adapt

and follow the style and behaviour of the group members. They possess
certain personalities according to their groups.
(b) Leadership and capability of their peers to influence them. This happens
when one is looking for a guide through observation. They tend to emulate
their peers and idolise them. They also become more independent in order
to become like their idols.
(c) They want to prove their capabilities so that they will be recognised and
appreciated by their peers. They try to display their talent through the
abilities that they possess,.
1.3.4 Mass Media

Mass media is an agent to link and disseminate important information. Good
mass media plays a vital role to develop a healthy personality. Students are
exposed to religious, educational and info science programmes as a way
encourage their mental development by acquiring knowledge.
Television programmes allow students to have a clear view while audio
programmes can help enhance their memory and attract their interest on
certain subjects. Information through the radio may not be widespread, but it
can also help in the process of developing students intelligence.
Singing and musical programmes have proven to be effective and radio does
play an important role in this area because students have responded
positively to these entertainment programmes. On the other hand, students
who are exposed to video presentations and films depicting violence, fights
and cruel acts, are inclined to act aggressively.
Mass media such as television, movie, video, CD, DVD, magazine and so on
can influence the way children think, behave as well as their attitudes and
skills. Parents and teachers face challenges from the mass media, and should
be ready in their efforts to motivate and create interest among students
toward lessons incorporating these media in school.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Discuss the role of mass media in forming students personality in class.

1.4 INVOLVEMENT AND SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility is the change of position in an organisations system of hierarchy;
increase or decrease in income or wealth or both; rise or fall in power; and
increase or decline in prestige.
Someone who moves from one job to another, but falls under the same prestige
or income level is categorised under horizontal mobility. This type of mobility
does not get much attention from sociologists. The transition from one class to
another, either upward or downward, in any level of hierarchy is called vertical
mobility.
The rate of social mobility can be measured either in terms of ones age or as
more generally done, between father and sons generation. Despite the lack of
analysed systematically data, sociologists have long perceived certain
communities, such as Indians as having an organisational level system that is
closed, whereby upward mobility seldom occur and most sons spend their life in
the similar strata as their father. The opposite organisational system of open class
system, such as that in the United States of America, has long considered as
having the highest level of upward mobility.
The various national type schools in Malaysia will continue to form various types
of social mobility. Although it has been over 50 years of Malaysias Independence
and the country is fast developing, however, racial identification according to
work sector has still not changed much. Malaysian society has a gap that is
relatively wide whereby every race adopts a socio-economic approach based on
past generations, such as Malays were associated with agriculture, Indians with
plantation and Chinese with business. Although various measures have been
made, the countrys wealth is still imbalanced. This indirectly will divide racial
groups from one generation to the next.
Division in the educational system results in students continuing with the strong
spirit of their respective races. Similarly, understanding and mingling among
races are also limited among students. This limitation is not only in school but
also within the local communities. This situation leads to great differences in the
creation of ones identity.
The Government has come up initiatives in the Ninth Malaysia Plan (9MP) by
strengthening the national school so that it will be a school of choice for various
races, apart from introducing a vision school. However, until now horizontal
mobility is seen as a more common occurrence. The hope of seeing
understanding among races through the same occupational sector has not
achieved great success. The sense of belonging in the Malaysian society that is

harmonious and united will be achieved if an educational system that

incorporates the three streams into one stream can be achieved.
The process of change in socio-economic position is known as social mobility. An

open class system means the position of each individual is influenced by the
status that is attained, and competition among group members is encouraged. In
a closed system the position of an individual is not flexible, having less
possibility for change in position, for instance due to slavery and the caste
system.
Economic growth and change has an impact on social mobility. The question is;
are there improvements or a decline? For instance, in the 1990s, fast technological
development resulted in entrepreneurs in information and communication
technology becoming rich, but the change also led to many people losing jobs.
Although progress in information, communication and technology (ICT) is
needed in this era, ICT development can also result in the society living in
anxiety. Bank mergers and use of automated teller machines are a clear example
of how a large number of staff can be made redundant in the
banking sector.
Economic growth and development is related to horizontal social mobility,

whether upward or downward. Mobility depends on various factors, regardless
if it is upward or downward mobility. In a societal system, there exist different
social classes, namely higher social class and lower social class. There exist
bureaucrats, capitalists and socialists who have the power over others in various
fields, whether in the government or private sector.
When the lower class is not involved in economic growth, an economic crisis will
occur because change will not easily happen if the higher class monopolises the
economy. Higher-class society have numerous advantages; power to make
decisions and money for their childrens education. On the other hand, since the
middle and lower class societies do not have political power and as much money
as the higher-class society, they will be lagging in the community. Therefore,
educational equality plays a role in solving inequality problems in the society.
1.4.1 Types of Social Mobility

Social mobility is divided into two categories, which are horizontal mobility and
vertical mobility. Horizontal mobility is ones movement from one social position
to another within the same status. Meanwhile, vertical mobility emphasises ones
movement from one social position to another.

Horizontal Social Mobility

Refers to individual movement of individuals or other social objects from one
social group to another, which is of the same status. There will be no changes
in the status of a person in the social mobility. For example, Parwan, an
Indonesian changed his citizenship to a Malaysian citizenship. In this case,
Parwans social mobility is known as horizontal social mobility because the
social transition by Parwan does not change his social status.
Vertical Social Mobility

Refers to a transition of individuals or other social objects from one social
position to another, which is not of the same level. Vertical social mobility is
divided into two, namely upward vertical social mobility (social climbing) and
downward vertical social mobility (social sinking). Table 1.1 describes both
types of vertical social mobility:
Table 1.1: Upward and Downward Vertical Social Mobility
Upward Vertical Social There are two main types:

Mobility (Social Climbing)
(a) Entering higher position: Entrance of individuals
from lower position into higher position, where
such position is already in existence.
(b) Forming new group: Formation of a new group
makes it possible for individuals to upgrade their
social status, such as promoting themselves to
become the head of organisations.
Downward Vertical Social There are two main types:

Mobility (Social Sinking)
(a) Mobility among generations: Two generational
mobility, such as parents generation, childrens
generation, grandchildrens generation and so on.
This mobility is reflected by a life style
development, improvement or decline within a
generation. The emphasis is not on the
development of the generation itself but to the
transition of social status from one generation to
another.
(b) Intergeneration mobility: Mobility that occurs
within the same group of generation.

1.5 EDUCATION AND NATIONAL

INTEGRATION
Let us now look at how national integration is possible through education
1.5.1 Ethnic Concept and Integration
Ethnic or ethnos in Greek means a group of humans or race. It refers to ones
self-introduction in groups that have similar ancestral background. They have
similar ancestors from history, country of origin, language, tradition, culture, as
well as structure and value system. According to the dictionary, ethnic refers to a
certain race or plural society that has groups which live differently but come
under the same political system.
There are varying views regarding the integration concept by Sufian Hussein,
integration means uniting ethnics or groups that are originally separated to
another individual form. Khalid Yaakob opines that integration is a process to
unite through socially and culturally different social groups to a unit that has a
general and individual identity. Meanwhile, Mohd Salleh Jaafar believes that
integration that is accepted or generally desired by people is a process to unite a
plural society or various races and create a form of a national culture among
them.
Before independence the education system in our country also indirectly affected
racial integration. Prior to the independence, the British separated the three main
races in Malaya according to their occupation, for instance the Chinese in the
cities, Malays in villages and Indians in plantations. This system is still in
practiced in Malaysia. Today we can still see Malay schools in the villages,
Chinese schools in the cities and Tamil schools in plantation areas.
Various policies have been implemented since the independence until today to
create integration among races or ethnics in Malaysia. Although the
improvement can be seen in the relationship among the races today, a lot more
needs to be done to enhance the integration process. Challenges and problems
that arise indicate that the integration process among races at the school level
should be updated and strengthened. There should be more concrete and
conducive policies and plans to achieve the objective of racial integration in
school.
Today, it cannot be denied that through the two existing streaming systems in
school, integration among races in school has achieved a lot of progress.
However, a lot more needs to be done to strengthen the racial integration process
in schools. The integration process that presently takes place sometimes face

various problems. If not addressed, it can delay the integration process. Hence,
various plans and policies must be considered and studied to make schools as the
best centre for racial or ethnic integration.
1.5.2 Inculcating Ethnic Integration in School

The implementation of the National Education Policy in Malaysia is aimed at
creating unity among ethnics in school. Through the National Education Policy,
the same textbook, curriculum, examination, teachers training system, school
uniform, and language medium are used. In Moral and Religious Education for
instance, this approach has been adopted to ensure that students understand the
importance of moral, social, religion and belief in God as well as becoming good
citizens. Students also often mingle with other ethnics more closely during co-
curricular activities, external work and also during lessons in class. Such
activities make it easier for teachers to inculcate the spirit of cooperation among
ethnics and understanding among one another.
Even though the National Education Policy has not been able to achieve the
highest level of ethnic integration, some of its strategic policies and actions have
been implemented successfully. For example, the policy of using Bahasa
Malaysia as the main medium in the national education system at least has
created a generation from various ethnicities communicating using the same
language.
Beginning from the Third Malaysian Plan (3MP), the main emphasis was on the
integration process using Bahasa Malaysia as the main medium, identity
formation, more equitable division of the countrys resources and standardising
the education system in Sabah and Sarawak. At the end of 1960s, there was a
fairly effective national integration programme.
Amendments to the National Education Policy aimed at overcoming and

replacing weaknesses in the existing curriculum by adding more elements that
inculcated integration among ethnics. This is because the National Education
Policy is the thrust for the schooling system in the country. Policies that are
unsuitable to the present needs should be replaced to ensure that integration at a
school level can be well implemented.
1.5.3 School as Instrument of Unity

Some people are of the opinion that the existing schooling system that separates
students according to language medium and ethnic group differences may not
play an effective role in instilling unity and understanding among students.

Efforts should be made to overcome any form of gap and division that is
deliberately created.
A single schooling system should be introduced, using Bahasa Malaysia as the

language medium to create a new generation with a Malaysian identity. Apart
from that, the rights of other ethnic groups to learn their respective languages
and cultures should be respected and given necessary protection. This change
should be done fairly and equally. The change should also be based on the
awareness that the welfare and importance of the future of the countrys younger
generation is above other interests.
Schools should also expose students to universal values such as feelings of love,
respect, helpfulness, politeness, peace loving, against cruelty and war, honesty
and responsibility. Through co-curriculum, students of all ethnics should be
encouraged to mingle and get involved in various joint-activities. Thus, schools
can produce Malaysians who are united and patriotic despite ethnic differences.
1.5.4 Vision School Implementation

The Vision School implementation is one of the methods to instil racial
integration in Malaysia. Vision Schools are primary schools with the concept of
learning together in the same area irrespective of race and religion. Through this
concept, two or three primary schools will have buildings that are linked to one
another. The goal of establishing this concept is to create unity or integration
among students of different ethnics and religions. It is also aimed at creating
tolerance, a high level of understanding as well as encouraging maximum
interaction among students through sharing of school facilities and
implementation of activities.
Vision School does not change the original learning system because every school
has its own name and the administration and financial management are
managed by the respective schools. Vision School enables students of different
ethnics to share facilities together such as the canteen, assembly area, as well as
court and field to play games. Apart from that, a coordinating committee
comprising of the teachers representing each school, will be formed to manage
matters such as organisation, cleanliness, liveliness and security. The Vision
School concept aims to strengthen ties among students of various races although
they are from schools of different streams.
Despite 49 years of independence, there still exist schools that are ethnic-based,
such as Chinese and Tamil schools. Therefore, a Vision School can be established
as a meeting of ethnics in the same space. Integration of schools based on ethnic
in the same area can ensure that students of various ethnics can meet often and
this can create faster ethnic integration.
Malaysia, as a fast developing nation has gone through various changes in all
aspects of the countrys needs, particularly in the field of politics, economy and
social. However, Malaysian integrity in maintaining the concept of ethnic
pluralism, if not balanced properly will create racial misunderstandings. The
Vision School concept that is practised now is an effort to produce Malaysians
who love the country. If the framework of the school concept previously
separates one from the other, it is now integrated in an education system that is
streamlined and in line with the countrys goal.
1.5.5 Implementation of a Single Stream School

A single stream school is an alternative to instil ethnic integration. The single
stream school is a system that uses one language medium in school. In the
Malaysian context, the language medium is Bahasa Malaysia. Currently, there
are three stream schooling systems, national schools with Bahasa Malaysia
language medium, national-type Chinese schools with Chinese language
medium and national-type Tamil schools with Tamil language medium. The
problem that arises is a lack of interaction among the races that use these various
systems. This situation leads to a slow implementation of theh ethnic integration
process at school level.
Through a single stream system, the issue of abolishment of a particular ethnic

mother tongue will not arise. Ethnic languages such as Chinese and Tamil should
be a compulsory subject for students from that particular ethnic (Chinese, Indian)
and an elective subject for Malay students or those from other ethnics who are
interested in learning another language. This type of school system will not only
encourage a widespread mingling among students but also create understanding
about other ethnics or races.
If implemented, the problem of the slow process of ethnic integration at the

primary level can be resolved naturally through student interactions and they
will be able to understand one another. Otherwise, we can see that the division in
primary schools has instilled racism at an early stage. This phenomenon will
spread to the secondary school level and consequently at higher learning
institutions.
Therefore, racism can be eliminated at the primary school level through a single
stream school. Interaction among various ethnics can result in students getting to
know one another and encourage tolerance when faced with any problem. This
matter should be given immediate attention to create a strong integration process
among the various ethnics for future peace and harmony in the country.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Explain the factors that cause the occurrence of inequality in the
plural society in Malaysia.
2. State the involvement of socialisation agents in instilling societal
values.
ACTIVITY 1.5
1. How can education create racial integration in Malaysia? Discuss.
2. Discuss factors that lead to social mobility in Malaysia.
Sociology is a research discipline about interaction that occurs among social

groups, external relationship among individuals, and also one that explains
how a group can affect the behaviour of someone or the group.
Various definitions have been continuously elaborated by renowned
sociologists in the past until now.
Researchers continue to study and emphasise on relationship and
behaviour among humans and groups or group of people. Hence, the field
of sociology should be given emphasis and extended to the Malaysian
society, particularly at the higher learning institutions.
As for educational sociology, emphasis should be on education that has
been implemented in the past until current.
Educational sociology studies how education that has been implemented
can affect students to become successful or otherwise.
There are studies that state students success are influenced by their life
hierarchy; rich families can afford to ensure their childrens success by
providing and giving everything that is necessary for their children.
Schools must provide a comfortable classroom and productive teachers to
ensure students success.
Sociology and educational sociology is something that is closely related to
the life of a society.
Detailed understanding is very important to ensure that we are more
prepared in facing the society so as to develop the country.
Bias Phenomenon
Identity Programme
Imagination

Topic X Philosophy and
Educational
2 Philosophy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define philosophy and education philosophy;
2. Identify characteristics and branches in philosophy;
3. Explain western and eastern thinking philosophical principles;
4. Analyse the educational concepts in education philosophy; and
5. Explain the National Education Philosophy policy.
X INTRODUCTION
The field of philosophy is not only regarded as theoretical in nature, but it is also
something that is abstract and difficult to practise. However, the field is very
helpful and useful in human life.
Educational activities and philosophy are closely related. Education can be

considered as the dynamic part of philosophy. Education is an aspect of
philosophical beliefs, a practical way to achieve and state life goals. Education
depends on philosophy as the basis of its theory and philosophy depends on
education to plan practical and active practices.
Educational philosophy is a practical matter and closely related to educational

matters. It encompasses a belief system, general principle and stance that discuss
various matters concerning education and learning that should be carried out in
school or in classrooms.

24 X TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
2.1 DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY AND

EDUCATION PHILOSOPHY
The word philosophy originates from the Greek word, philosophia which
means wanting to know in-depth or deep liking or loving. Philosophy is wisdom
or the blessing of using the mind to know the actual truth. In Arabic, the word
philosophy is equivalent to blessing. According to the Dewan dan Pustaka
dictionary, philosophy means knowledge about definition that is regarded as the
highest knowledge or as a basis of other knowledge.
Renowned classic philosophical scholars such as Heracleitos, Socrates, Plato,

Aristotle and others have their own definition and explanation about philosophy.
Heracleitos (540 and 480 BC) defines philosophy as love for wisdom. According to
Plato (427 and 347 BC), philosophy is no different from knowledge about everything
that exists. Aristotle (427 and 347 BC) provides the definition of philosophy as efforts
to research the causes and basis to everything. According to Cicero (106 and 43 BC),
philosophy is knowledge about something that is divine and efforts to achieve it.
John Dewey (1859-1952) states that philosophy is the direction of the whole
education process (Abu Bakar Nordin, Ikhsan Othman 2003:1).
Conceptually, philosophy is defined as an effort to find truth or confidence

relating to a certain matter by using mental strength and brains. Apart from that,
philosophy can also be defined as consideration on certain matters based on the
truth to provide an explanation about something.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY

Humans have a special characteristic known as conscience or self-awareness or
self-reflection, a thinking life system, intelligence and aware of moral values.
Through self-reflection, humans not only know that they not only experience
happiness but also experience happiness and difficulties.
Philosophy is considered as helping humans to explain things that are fuzzy in

experience and research. Philosophy helps humans think critically and logically
with the basic thinking for all human activities, particularly in the fields of
science, arts, religion and education. This definition of philosophy can be
understood as an effort to provide an explanation and a view that is
comprehensive about humans and their life, as well as their relationship with the
universe.

TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY W 25
Philosophy is also an activity to define and evaluate overall human experience

comprehensively. Philosophy involves activities to evaluate certain facts, by
analysing their meanings, making interpretations, placing importance and
considering such facts for life purposes. In philosophy, there are also activities to
identify things that relate to concepts to search for truth. Apart from that,
philosophy attempts to form abilities to resolve abstract problems, intelligent
questions and formulate rational answers.
Philosophy helps humans analyse certain concepts, such as motivation and

interest, to obtain real meaning suitable to certain situations. Philosophical
activities are more towards activities that are related to abstract matters because
philosophy is an approach to find matters that are related to concepts in
determining truth.
2.3 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

In this section we are going to look at four important branches of philosophy:
Metaphysics;
Epistemology;
Axiology; and
Logic.
(a) Metaphysics
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that studies The Nature of
Reality or absolute situations. It focuses on mental exploration in
search of attributes of true existence, which consequently leads to the
essence and greatness of God.
Generally, metaphysics involves belief in God and existence of the
universe. Knowledge is crucial for students so that they know and
realise about the existence of the wide and complex universe. Therefore,
they can be closer to God as their Creator.
Metaphysics development occurs in stages. Thinkers in the past
contributed a lot in efforts to develop metaphysical knowledge. It
change to become a branch of philosophy when researched more
thoroughly based on evidence that can be explained in detail according
to Western scholars.
The branch of metaphysical knowledge can be divided into three:
reality, truth and existence. It is also based on real and objective
phenomenon to search for cause and effect. The emphasis is on logical,

systematic and scientific thinking. However, generally metaphysics

involves belief in God and existence of the universe. On our part, we
can know and realise the existence of a wide and complex universe, and
subsequently we can come closer to our great Creator.
In metaphysical education, the purpose of education for this discipline
must be in training students to think rationally and independently
because the function of human intelligence is to resolve problems and
provide guidance to individuals on how to behave so that they can fulfil
their needs and aspirations.
Curriculum planners in education must choose subjects that can train
minds to do activities such as reading, writing and calculating.
Curriculum must also include humanism, arts, science and mathematics.
Science and mathematics will result in humans understanding genuine
arts that can enrich their soul.
(b) Epistemology
Epistemology is also known as knowledge theory and is based on truth.
The questions that are brought up includes attributes as well as mental
and cognitive processes, and methodology to confirm an idea to
generate knowledge.
Plato introduced questions or basic problems about epistemology such
as What is knowledge? and Where does knowledge generally
meet? He also introduced the question of What is reality?
The focus of an epistemology study is on human knowledge; the study
of differences between determinations and possibilities for knowledge;
and differences between knowing and believing. Epistemology
discipline is very wide as far as involving the animal world. Based on
analysis by epistemologists, it was found that animals have similar
characteristics to the human behaviour in various matters. Animals are
said to have the power to think and imagine. However, the power that
exists in animals is very limited as compared to that in human beings.
Epistemology is related to the disciplines of metaphysics, psychology,
thinking and logic. It also is related to other studies such as moral,
sociology and religious philosophy.
Epistemology emphasises on characteristics and limitations of human
knowledge because human faculty is limited by nature. This branch of
discipline also discusses the origin of sources of knowledge, knowledge
culture, human knowledge limitations and so on.
The two important components in education, is knowledge acquisition
and transmission. We also should think of how far the knowledge can
be acquired by humans and how far it can be presented to others.
(c) Axiology
The word axiology originates from a Greek word exios which means
qualified or fast and logos which means the study on it. Axiology is a
branch of philosophy that focuses on the question of value and value
system.
Most scholars say that axiology can be divided into two: ethics and
aesthetics. Ethics originates from the Greek word ethos which means
characteristics, roles, or habits or commonplace. Ethics focuses on
issues and questions on moral values and rules of correct human
behaviour.
This value theory is very important in educational practice as how
important knowledge theory is for real teaching in the classroom.
Therefore, no matter how extensive ones knowledge is, he still cannot
practise his knowledge to distinguish between right and wrong in his
language, belief or act.
Axiology is very important in education. Most academicians are of the
view that effective education for students is more important than
cognitive education merely in terms of moral formation.
Every individual is given education so that he can make good
assessments in his life. Parents will assess their children and their
children will do the same to their parents. Teachers meanwhile, will
assess their students and their students will do the same thing to their
teachers. Society will assess learning courses and planned activities that
are implemented in school, while teachers will evaluate the society.
(d) Logic
Logic is a deductive reasoning theory or a branch of philosophy that is
related to reasoning the truth. Logic is also the consideration on matters
that form real reasoning, distinguish inaccurate or irrational reasoning,
and subsequently give the real reasons to certain occurrences by stating
the explanations that can be accepted by all and not biased to all parties.
If prejudice arises in the society, the matter should be identified and
examined, and consequently try to reach reasonable explanations
accepted by all in the society. Logic is also something which is free of
any suspicion and can bring about goodness in general.

Logic is divided into two: inductive logic and deductive logic. Inductive
logic begins from matters or incidents that are specific to general.
Deductive logic draws generalisations or general conclusions from the
matters or applications that are specific.
Logic knowledge is important in education. In the teaching and
learning process, the basis of strong thinking is very important.
Learning can only be done effectively and well when an individual
thinks critically, rationally, independently and can resolve problems
well and wisely. In knowledge acquisition, we are exposed to all sorts
of explanations and incidents. It is up to us to extract the good and
useful from the bad. That can only be done after we practise logic
knowledge effectively.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Distinguish the importance of epistemology and logic in education.
Discuss this in a group.
2.4 WESTERN PHILOSOPHY DOCTRINE

Generally, the western philosophy is divided into four doctrines which are:
Idealism;
Realism;
Pragmatism; and
Existentialism.
(a) Idealism
The idealism sect is a general philosophical doctrine that exists initially
only in the west. Idealism sect focuses on mentality, emotionality and
spirituality. These are the most important elements in life because
according to this doctrine, truth depends on the three elements.
Truth, beauty and fairness can be found using continuous reasoning
with full realisation rather than materialism. This classic idea is from
Plato in his book The Republic.
A branch of metaphysics according to the idealism doctrine believes in
reality that is transformed into mentality and spirituality. For instance,

things that exist within the environment should not be brought

everywhere to show their existence. On the contrary, it is sufficient to
remain in memory and explained through writing.
In terms of epistemology, the idealism doctrine views that truth is an
idea within the realm of mentality, which is free of sensory experience.
Certain experiences exist in the form of mentality such as memory and
understanding.
The idealism philosophy doctrine also believes that knowledge is
rational and systematic. Therefore, the existence of knowledge is real
and systematic. Certain information systems are more comprehensive
with ideas that are more standardised and truthful. Humans can
acquire knowledge intuitively or intelligently, and not necessarily go
through new experiences to only know about certain matters.
Education is aimed at producing moral individuals who can play a role
in the society. Towards this end, students can only receive what are
taught by teachers. Teachers play a very significant and crucial role as
those who nurture their students. Students use learning methods
through their teachers although they only learn from what their
teachers teach them.
(b) Realism
The realism philosophy is also known as materialism, and its
philosopher is Aristotle. The realism doctrine discovers the world from
objects and matters through sensory, and subsequently find causes and
effects related to the objects or matters. Truth, according to this doctrine
is free of any use of mentality. Humans discover objects or things
through their senses.
In terms of epistemology, this doctrine feels that real knowledge is
something that is suitable with the matter itself rather than any theory,
understanding or memory that is meaningless. The experiences in life
cause various matters or knowledge to be embedded in the mind.
In education, teachers play an important role in determining things that
are learnt by students. In such cases, the question of whether students
are interested or not does not arise. Students interest will arise based
on teaching and learning methods or strategies that are implemented by
teachers.
(c) Pragmatism
The pragmatism philosophy is also known as empiricism, functionalism
and experientialism. The focus of this doctrine is on experience and refers

to experientialism that is based on change, process, relativity and

reconstruction.
Pragmatism began to emerge in the United States of America in the 19th
Century with a wealth-oriented goal. In such cases, the truth depends on
the final outcome of any action to ideas that can bring about wealth. John
Dewey and Charles Darwin are scholars of this doctrine.
This doctrine believes that the universe is dynamic in nature, and changes
from time to time. Humans experience progress and development. For that
purpose, humans should resolve problems they face or gain experience
through such process. Reality cannot be derived through thinking alone
without experience. For example, it is difficult to derive the validity of the
truth after death because no one has experience related to the matter.
Knowledge is a process that is ever changing because the environment
constantly changes. Human knowledge originates from relationships or
experiences among humans and the environment, as well as learning that
occurs when humans resolve problems and gain knowledge in life.
In education, students gain knowledge or skills easily if they are given
experience. According to the pragmatism doctrine, exposure to
experimental methods and students involvement into inquiry of
discoveries are the possible best ways.
(d) Existentialism
Existentialism emerged after World War Two in Europe, founded by
Soren Kierkegaad and subsequently by Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche in
the 19th Century.
This philosophy is contrary to idealism and realism because it focuses
more on experience that is gained from senses such as sight, sound and
taste. Most ideas and knowledge of a person originates from
independent experience or laissez-faire. The purpose of this philosophy
is to enable every individual to fully develop the potential for his own
harmony.
In terms of metaphysics, this doctrine believes that reality is the
existence of individuals. This development is highly dependent on the
environment that can be freely determined by individuals.
Existentialism is of the view that individual knowledge is derived from
his own experience with the environment. Therefore, it is relative in
nature and changes according to suitability of time and circumstances.
In education, since every individual has specific needs and interests to
work on upgrading their own self-achievement, there are no fixed,
structured or systematic curriculum. On the contrary, students use

experience, and materials related to certain subjects and intellectual

skills to achieve their goals, which is self-harmony. Apart from that,
students are encouraged to carry out projects that can sharpen their
skills.
2.5 EASTERN PHILOSOPHY DOCTRINE

The meaning of Islamic education in terminologies Tadib, Irsyad and Tadris is a
continuous effort the potential development of individual Muslims as slaves of
Allah and his messengers on earth in totality and a unified manner to create
individuals who are balanced in terms of spiritual, Aqliah (mental), emotional,
faith and physical based on the teachings of Islam.
(a) Educational Concept

In Islam, education is compulsory for everyone. Education is an act of a
certain society, culture or civilisation to preserve life continuity. If
education fails to implement its functions, it will generally bring about
destruction to humans and the world.
The educational process should be life long as explained in Al-Quran and

Hadith. The process starts from the beginning of life until the end of life.
Education does not focus on teachers, content, source or process, but
focuses on individual development in a balanced, harmonious,
comprehensive and integrated manner encompassing intellectuality,
spirituality, emotionality and physicality.
(b) Educational Functions

One of the educational functions in Islam is preparing the future generation
to play a positive role to oneself, other humans, environment and Allah.
Education in Islam is to transfer values to the next generation as responsible

messengers. Values in Islam are based on the Al-Quran, Hadith and Qiyas
(analogy). Good values should continue from one generation to another.
Apart from values, knowledge should also be transferred. Knowledge is

divided into two which are revealed knowledge and acquired knowledge.
Revealed knowledge comes from the Creator to humans, knowledge that
resides in the Al-Quran, Hadith and Qiyas. Acquired knowledge is
knowledge gained by humans from their own efforts using their minds and
senses.

(c) Educational Source

In Islamic education, there are six main sources: the Al-Quran, Sunnah of
the Prophet (sayings and practices of the prophet S.A.W.), statements of the
Prophets friends, usefulness for societys benefits, values and norms in the
society.
The Al-Quran is the divine book of Allah sent to mankind through Prophet
Muhammad S.A.W. The Al-Quran consists of miracles and guides
encompassing all aspects in the life of humankind.
Sunnah is everything uttered by the Prophet S.A.W in the form of sayings,

deeds or approvals.
Meanwhile, according to al-Ghazali, societys benefits are things that bring

about benefits and avoid harms. It comprises five components: towards
protection of religion, life, intellect, offspring and property.
Values are values from the Islamic revelation, which are absolute in nature
and based on rules, culture and human actions. The societys norms are
good practices because valuable human norms can bring about goodness
and become Islamic legal rules.
(d) Educational Content

Education should focus on humans as its main object. All considerations are
towards the students well being. The principle that should be adhered to in
Islamic education is humans are the best creation of God as compared to
other living beings; humans are born sacred; the role of humans on earth is
as a messenger of Allah, and humans are creatures granted with
intelligence.
(e) Educational Goal

The goal of Islamic education is to equip every individual with Islamic
knowledge so that he can live as someone who is spiritual, with high
morals and knowledge and perform piety duty.
2.5.1 National Educational Philosophy

Apart from political stability, economy, culture and societal value system, a
nations development depends on its education system. A good educational
system must be based on a clear philosophy.
Policies formulated in certain educational systems are based on the educational

philosophy. Philosophy becomes the thrust of the educational system because it

consists of goals to be achieved; educational implementation methods to be

adopted; characteristics to be formed; and coverage of the educational system.
(a) Formation of the Countrys Educational Philosophy

Educational philosophy has been a continuous process in line with the
development process. It started since the country demanded for their
independence from the colonial masters.
After independence, a committee, named as the Rahman Talib Committee,

was formed. Its aim was to study the Razak Statement and Education
Ordinance 1957 which was applicable in the education system after
Independence. This committee issued a report called the Rahman Talib
Statement 1960.
The Education Ministry was then guided by the Razak Statement 1956 and
Rahman Talib Statement 1960, in an effort to provide education to the
people of Malaya. The question of racial unity became the main agenda in
the implementation of educational activities then.
The Education Act 1961 was formulated based on the Razak Statement and
Rahman Talib Report 1960. The objective of educational policy as
comprised in the Education Act 1961 is as follows:
Social dimension: By looking at education as developing the people of

Malaysia who are able to contribute towards peace and harmony of
family, society and the country.
The National Educational Philosophy should become the thrust towards

developing people with a high quality of self-esteem. Individual
development should be based on a balanced, integrated and harmonious
life development mentally, physically and spiritually to determine the well
being of the country and the people.
(b) The Countrys Education and Educational Philosophy

Educational philosophy plays a vital role in the education system in our
country. The policy, direction and guide are all efforts that are made to
improve the quality of the countrys education.
A clear implication of the educational philosophy in the country to the

national education system is the formulation of the national curriculum,
KBSR and KBSM. The curriculum continuously goes through developments
as the result of changes. The aspiration is based on the countrys
Educational Philosophy and the national Educational Philosophy. Among

the obvious changes are emphasis on the aspect of unity and totality
including basic education and general education.
In the educational process, there are opportunities to develop balanced and

harmonious individuals in all aspects of life including the development and
inculcation of a positive value system. This process also often develops
education that is comprehensive and integrated.
To realise the educational philosophy as infused in the KBSR and KBSM

curriculum, which have been formulated and continues to develop from
time to time, there have been various important changes particularly in
terms of the educational institution itself. An obvious change is the
improvement in school facilities and restructuring of students ratio in
every class.
The implication of the countrys Educational Philosophy and the national

Educational Philosophy to academicians, particularly teachers in schools is
obvious. Teachers should be more committed in educating students as the
new generation who will lead the country in the future. Teachers are those
whose careers have great implications and their responsibilities are
futuristic in nature.
Toward this end, teachers should intensify efforts to improve knowledge as

much as possible; while improving professional skills and developing
positive qualities including universal values.
(c) Excellent Education Policy

Education is a mechanism towards the development and unity of a country.
Without a perfect and strong education system, there will be various
educational types and models, which is imperfect in nature.
Education is one of the most important mechanisms for the country to

achieve Vision 2020. By 2020, Malaysia will become a developed nation.
Efforts toward this end, requires energy and expertise at various levels of
knowledge and skills, and this can be achieved through discipline and high
ethics. The requirement of energy and expertise can be created through the
education system.
There are strengths in the Education Act 1996 towards the direction of
achieving Vision 2020 as well as for the well being of the people, race and
country. Various strategies to achieve the educational policy goal should be
enhanced mainly by making the national language as the main medium;
having a standardised curriculum; and creating uniformed examinations for
all.

Physical and mental development should be balanced with spiritual

development. Therefore, spiritual, moral and disciplined education is also a
strategy that should be included to achieve the educational policy goal
towards Vision 2020.
The countrys Education Philosophy and the National Education Policy is a
strong conclusion for a Malaysian race, which has noble and great
aspirations, vision and ambition.
Its excellence becomes a motivation and catalyst to all Malaysians to fight in

improving the prestige of the Malaysian race towards success and nobility
at an international level.
To ensure success of the countrys goal, the education system which is well
equipped and solid, should be established and understood by citizens of all
levels. A comprehensive and organised plan should be introduced so that
education plays a role to ensure the success of the goal. All parties should
be directly involved in education, and even parties who are not involved
should move collectively and together to ensure success.
All parties should have high commitment and spirit to improve the position
of the race through the tradition of knowledge excellence based on the
latest technology as well as noble values as a strong basis for a generation
that will be competitive at a global level based on the countrys Educational
Philosophy and national Educational Philosophy.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Explain idealism and realism in the Western philosophy.

2. Elaborate the Islamic Educational Philosophy.
3. Discuss the importance of the National Educational Philosophy in
achieving Vision 2020.
The word philosophy originates from the Greek word, philosophia which
means wanting to know in-depth or deep liking or loving.

Philosophy helps humans think critically and logically with the basic
thinking for all human activities, particularly in the fields of science, arts,
religion and education.
There are four branches of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic.
Western philosophy is divided into four doctrines namely: idealism,
realism, pragmatism and existentialism.
In Islam, the philosophy of education can be summarised as the continuous
effort of developing oneself towards living a balanced way of life, and
gaining knowledge of God.
Educational philosophy encompasses a belief system, general principle and
stance that discuss various matters concerning education and learning that
should be carried out in the school or in classrooms.
Aqliah Logic
Axiology Metaphysics
Education Philosophy
Epistemology Pragmatism
Existentialism Realism
Idealism Tadib
Irsyad Tadris

Topic X Educational
3 Development
inMalaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the history of educational developments pre and post
British colonial era;
2. Discuss the National Education reports;
3. Discuss teachers educational training;
4. Explain educational concepts; KBSR/KBSM and Smart School; and
5. Explain the Education Act 1996.
X INTRODUCTION
Prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, education in Malaya was informal in
nature and did not emphasise on students cognitive development. The type of
education concentrated on the teaching of the al-Quran, good moral and
behaviour, spiritual knowledge and the art of self defence.
In the earlier and organised stage, there was a religious education system known
as sekolah pondok (literally, hut schools or Muslim boarding schools) which
were established and managed by renowned Islamic scholars. Students were
educated in madrasah (religious schools) and lived in the huts built around it.

38 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
The second stage of the educational development in Malaya occurred during the
British colonial era from 1824 to 1957. At this stage, education was managed by
the British without any philosophy or national educational policy. Educational
administration at that time was based on the policy of divide and rule as well
as open policy and non-intervention from the Government.
3.1 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING

THE BRITISH COLONIAL ERA
In this section, we are going to look at the educational development during the
British colonial era.
3.1.1 Vernacularism Educational System

British education was introduced in Malaya when the Penang Free School was
established in 1816. Other English schools in the states of Malaya were built
much later. Among them are King Edward VII School in Taiping (1883) and
Victoria Institution in Kuala Lumpur (1894). In the middle of the 19th century,
Christian missionaries helped establish several English schools.
Most English schools were built at urban areas with the help of the British
Government. The school curriculum was modelled after the Grammar School of
Great Britain with the goal of producing low-level administrative officers to fulfil
the requirements of the British metropolitan power. English schools were
regarded as elite schools because they were located in the towns and the students
comprised of children from elite families. Education in the English schools was at
the primary and secondary levels.
The countrys education policies and practices during the British era were very
different. Opportunities for schooling were also imbalanced because the British
Government did not have a clear educational policy. The British Government
practiced laissez-faire in the education sector and this led to the existence of five
types of schools during the British colonisation period. The types of such schools
were Malay Vernacular School, Chinese Vernacular School, Tamil Vernacular
School, English Vernacular School and Islamic Religious Vernacular School.
Socialisation of every school was according to its own direction.
The impact from different school socialisation during the British colonisation era
has resulted in a complex situation in our national integration and uniformity.
The existence of vernacularism in the British educational era had then caused a
huge social and economic gap among the people of Malaya. Students from
English schools had better economic value and employment opportunities
compared to students from the Malay, Tamil and Chinese vernacular schools.
TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA W 39
The British Government had no intention of developing an educational sector

when ruling Malaya because they considered education for the Malays in
particular would not be beneficial, and the education would create awareness
among them to oppose the Government.
The British education system gave the impression that the colonial ruler was not
interested in developing the people through their education system.
Understanding and unity was not regarded as important to be instilled through
the English education, which neglected the issue of an organised national
education system and failed to establish a single school system that could
educate and unite children of all races in Malaya.
3.1.2 Malay Education

Early Malay education focused on the teaching of Al-Quran and basic knowledge
of reading, writing and counting. Malay education was only free at primary
school level. Malay children with high ambitions and those who wanted to
further their studies were forced to attend English schools in the city.
Malay schools were founded in the 19th Century with the main purpose to
ensure that Malay children continued to remain in villages, inherit the familys
poverty and help their parents. They merely hoped to become better fishermen
and farmers than their parents. Therefore, education that was secular in nature in
Malay language was limited to four years only with limited curriculum and
scope. They were taught to read, write, and count as well as handiwork skills
such as weaving.
Educational facilities for the rural community were limited in terms of quality of
education or involvement opportunities that were provided. Early schools for the
Malays were built based on the individual efforts of those who cared enough to
provide education for the Malays. The first Malay school was set up in Teluk
Belanga, Singapore in 1856, and Kampung Gelam which was funded by a
member of the Johor royal family. In 1863, three more Malay schools were built
in Seberang Perai namely in Penaga, Permatang Pauh and Bukit Tambun. In
Perak, Malay schools were established in Kuala Kangsar and Batu Gajah in 1884.
Subsequently, Malay teachers training began in 1894 in Teluk Belanga,
Singapore.
In the early 20th Century, the Malay College Kuala Kangsar (MCKK) was
founded to meet the increasing demand for secondary schools. It was based on
the English Grammar School model in 1905. However, the school was specifically
for children of the elite. Apart from that, opportunities for Malay school students
to further their studies were limited and they lack opportunities to be involved in
socio-economic and administrative sectors at that time. Opportunities for them
were merely to hold lower ranking positions, such as police personnel, clerk,
office boy and labourer, which were suited to the objective of the colonial masters
then.
Then in 1922, the Sultan Idris Training College (SITC) was established to meet the
rising demand for qualified Malay school teachers. Meanwhile, the Malay Female
Teachers College was set up in Malacca in 1935 to address the requirement of
Malay female teachers.
3.1.3 Chinese Education

An open policy and non-intervention in social affairs of migrant races resulted in
the existence of Chinese and Tamil schools. These schools were managed by
respective races without assistance from the British until the 1920s. In line with
the tradition of placing importance on education and maintaining racial culture
and identity, the Chinese community began to establish Chinese schools since the
early 19th Century.
In mid 1920s, the strong influence of these Chinese schools made the British
Government realise the need to introduce a law to prevent such schools from
being isolated and to gain control over the school activities. The non-intervention
policy of the British rule in vernacular education resulted in the political and
economic developments in China to influence the education system of the
Chinese community in the Malay Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak. The curriculum
was based on the education system in China, and textbooks and teachers were
brought in from China into the Malay Peninsula.
Beginning 1924, part of these Chinese schools received financial aid from the
Government. Generally, the schoolteachers lacked formal training until after
World War Two when formal class training programmes were organised.
3.1.4 Tamil Education

Tamil schools were initially built at rubber plantations where the majority of the
Indian community was located. In 1923, the Malay Federation states approved a
Bill named the Malay Federation State Ordinance 1923. A provision was included
in the ordinance, whereby it was compulsory for rubber plantation employers to
educate their workers children. Christian missionaries also extended numerous
contributions towards the Tamil education system.
The Indian community managed these schools, and the Government or

employers of rubber plantations did not extend any contribution either in terms
of physically, financially or pedagogically. Tamil schools which were built at

rubber plantations faced inadequacy in terms of curriculum content, teaching

force
and curriculum.
Curriculum in Tamil schools was adopted based on the education system in

India. Teachers and textbooks also came from India. The curriculum emphasised
on knowledge in three basic skills namely reading, writing and counting.
Prior to World War Two, formal class teachers training programme for a
duration of three years began for Tamil school teachers. Education in Tamil
schools was also limited to primary schools only.
3.2 EDUCATIONAL REPORTS

After World War II, political developments in China, India and neighbouring
countries, greatly changed the temporary position or transient deterring of
Chinese and Indian migrants into the region. Due to the tendency of a more
permanent status, the Chinese community began to regard the Malay Peninsula
as their permanent settlement, while uprising nationalism among the Malays
focused on the complexity of the educational problems. This situation created
waves of aspirations and sentiments of various races, which was against the
educational policy.
The Malays demanded the Government improve the quality of education in

Malay schools and increase opportunities for further studies. A committee
concerning Malay education was formed in 1950, chaired by L.J. Barnes, Oxford
Universitys Social Training Division director, to study and come up with
acknowledgments to improve Malay education.
3.2.1 The Barnes Report of 1950

The Barnes Report proposed the establishment of a national school system and
bilingualism, either English or Malay language, as the main medium of
instruction. Malay, Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools will be replaced
gradually by a national school introducing the national stream.
The Barnes Committee made various proposals to formulate a national education

system. One of them was for schools at primary level to be an instrument for
unity and integrity of the multi racial society in Malay Peninsula. Based on that
view, the Barnes Committee proposed a report to the British Government, known
as the Barnes Report in 1951. Among the proposals were:
Form a single primary school model, where a national school opened to
students from all races taught by teachers of various races and descents.
Abolish racial-based vernacular primary schools and replacing it with

national schools.
Encourage Malay and English languages to be the main medium of
instruction in primary schools and English language to be the main medium
of instruction in secondary schools.
Have one system of primary school education for six years, beginning from
six year olds.
Provide free school for all students.
These proposals raised strong objections from other races, particularly the
Chinese who regarded it as an attempt to oppress and eliminate their culture and
language. To quell the worries of the Chinese, the British administration
appointed a Chinese educational committee in 1951 under Dr Fenn and Dr Wu to
report on Chinese schools in Malaya.
3.2.2 The 1951 Fenn-Wu Report

The Fenn-Wu Committee studied social aspects of Chinese vernacular schooling
and submitted a report known as the Fenn-Wu Report. According to the
committee, Chinese vernacular schools can play a role of developing a united
race separately. The committee recommended:
Usage of three languages, namely Malay, English and Chinese, while English
remained as the medium of instruction.
Support the establishment of the national educational system, but Chinese
schools should be retained with its curriculum content and suited to the
environment of the local community.
3.2.3 The 1952 Education Ordinance

The Central Advisory Committee concerning education was formed to study
opposing views that were proposed by both reports, which raised widespread
public debates in Malaya. A compromise was struck from the differing views and
subsequently became the basis of the 1952 Education Ordinance.
The 1952 Education Ordinance was a single effort by the British towards having
an educational system with national characteristics.
The following are some important characteristics of the 1952 Education

Ordinance:

Develop a national school with the gradual introduction of bilingual to Malay

and Tamil vernacular schools, through national language classes;
Limit the entry of students into English schools; and
Develop vocational secondary schools.
The 1952 Education Ordinance could not be implemented because the

Government faced financial problems following an economic crisis. This was
because a huge sum of the allocation had to be spent to face the crisis. The 1952
Education Ordinance did not receive good response, causing the Federal
Supreme Council to appoint a special committee to find a solution in order to
implement the policy stated in the 1952 Ordinance.
3.2.4 The 1956 Razak Report

At the end of 1955, the Federal Peninsula Malaya had the first elected
government. In preparation towards Independence, the government recognised
the importance of creating and protecting the social and political stability to
ensure economic growth and harmony of the multi-ethnic society in the country.
The school system introduced by the British failed to instil elements of
nationalism and could not accommodate the requirements.
Thus, a national educational system was formed based on the 1956 Razak Report
and incorporated in the 1957 Education Ordinance.
The Razak Report recommended 17 acknowledgements that took into

consideration ultimate goals for the formation of a national education system for
all ethnics using the Malay language as the main medium of instruction. Basic
principles and proposals of the report were incorporated in the 1957 Education
Ordinance, which became the basis of the National Education System.
Among the important proposals are:

Establish two types of schools; primary schools, either independent or
assisted, and secondary schools, either independent or directly assisted.
Replace existing primary schools with general schools with Malay language
as the medium of instruction, and national-type schools with Chinese, Tamil
or English language as the medium of instruction.
Make Malay and English language as compulsory subjects in all primary and
secondary schools.
Form a national secondary school open for competition for all races, using a
uniformed curriculum for all streams. The curriculum can be modified to

enable teaching for all races and incorporate Malaya Peninsula culture as well
as room for multi languages as the medium of instruction.
Commence a Malaya oriented school through the curriculum and timetable.
Take steps to inculcate national language development and improve
knowledge among people of the Federation of Malaya.
Emphasise schooling stages in Malaya in 1956.
Teachers training programmes were extended to accommodate the rising needs

for qualified teachers,. Two overseas colleges Kirby Teachers Training College
and Brinsford Teachers Training College were formed temporarily in England.
In Malaya, teachers training colleges were established in Penang, Kuala Lumpur
and Johor Baru.
At the tertiary level, Universiti Malaya was formed in Singapore in 1940 to meet
the rising demands for tertiary education in Malaya and Singapore.
The 1956 Razak Report was regarded as the basis of the national education
system in the country. Among the important characteristics of the national
education policy that had been used as a guideline in efforts to develop
education since then, were having the:
Goal to form a single national education system for all ethnics;
Ultimate aim to make Malay language as the main medium of instruction;
Aim to create Malaysian-oriented curriculum with curriculum similar to its
content; and
Aim to enhance the national education system by creating a standardised
examination for all students.
Proposals of the Razak Report had been rationalised and implemented in

educational programmes and projects to inculcate national identity and spirit
among the multi-racial society as well as producing skilled workforce to achieve
the countrys development.
Proposals of the Razak Report had been formulated to become the 1957
Education Ordinance. This ordinance made it compulsory for a single curriculum
for all schools. In 1959, an Education Review Committee was established to
review all implementation of the education system proposed in the Razak
Report.
The review was conducted due to various objections against the implementation of
the Razak Report. Among them were Malay school teachers who expressed
disapproval because they were of the opinion that the national language could not

be implemented firmly; Chinese schoolteachers associations objected because part

of the content of the Razak Report neglected the importance of Chinese language
education.
In 1959, an Education Review Committee was formed to assess the implementation

of the education system proposed by the Razak Report. The Education Minister
then, Encik Abdul Rahman Talib was selected as the chairman of the committee
and produced another report called the Rahman Talib Report.
3.2.5 The 1960 Rahman Talib Report

Acknowledgments of the 1960 Review Committee had important relation with
educational developments in the 1960s. In principle, this report was aimed at
strengthening and improving concepts and goals of the countrys educational
system included in the Razak Statement and Education Ordinance.
The main tasks that were retained were:

A single schooling system for all;
National language as the main medium of instruction for all levels of
schooling; and
School curriculum and examinations that were the same in terms of content
and national in form.
Among the important matters that were acknowledged by the 1960 Review
Committee were:
(a) Free primary education;
(b) Automatic promotion from primary level until Form 3;
(c) Primary Five Assessment Examination;
(d) Improving quality of education in vernacular schools;
(e) Upgrading technical and vocational education;
(f) Control of Primary Lessons;
(g) Forming of the Federal School Board;
(h) Introducing Malay language as the main medium of instruction;
(i) Usage of official language for Public Examinations;
(j) Development of Teachers Training Programme; and
(k) Preparing Moral and Religious Studies.

3.2.6 1961 Education Act

Towards the efforts of updating and finalising the national education policy, all
matters that were received in the 1956 Razak Report and main
acknowledgements in the 1960 Review Committee, were incorporated into one
education legal provision, which was subsequently called the 1960 Education
Act.
The 1960 Education Act was incorporated into one educational legal provision
that was subsequently called the 1961 Education Act. Therefore, any efforts made
to develop the countrys educational development were guided by the policy
stipulated in the 1961 Education Act, as follows:
The 1961 Education Act

To formulate a national education system that can fulfil the need of the
country and ensure success of the cultural, social, economical and political
developments. It should also take into consideration how far it is suitable in
principle to the basic principle that students should be educated according to
the requirements of their parents. And while additional provisions are
required to ensure effectiveness specific for continued progress in the
educational system development where the national language becomes the
main medium of instruction.
3.2.7 The 1979 Cabinet Report

After several years of implementing the educational system based on the
Rahman Talib Report, a study was carried out to study the educational needs to
meet the aspirations of a science and technology era and the National Economic
Policy. In 1974, a Cabinet Committee was formed to study the implementation of
the national education policy.
The main task of the committee was to analyse the national education system,
among others to:
Analyse the goal and effects of the education system then;
Ensure the needs of the workforce and country were fulfilled; and
Produce a united, disciplined and well-trained society.
The Cabinet Report, produced in 1979, analysed and subsequently made proposals
on the types of schooling, examinations, administration, curriculum content,

textbooks, civic, religious, moral, discipline and co-curriculum education. Various

changes to the national education system were:
Making Malay language as the main medium of instruction. Malay and
English languages became compulsory subjects in schools. Opportunities to
learn Chinese and Tamil languages were also provided.
Having a uniformed and Malaysian-oriented curriculum and examination
system for all schools.
Providing basic education opportunities for nine years, aside from extending
vocational and technical education.
Introducing primary education according to a new curriculum for primary
school (KBSR) based on writing, reading and counting, as well as an
integrated curriculum for secondary school (KBSM) beginning 1988.
Providing various educational facilities at university level, particularly in the
field of applied science and literature, as well as encouraging co-curricular
activities to inculcate discipline such as military cadet, police cadet and
scouts.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Discuss with your classmates the importance of the 1961 Education

Act in the National Education System.
3.3 TEACHERS EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The main thrust of education is teachers. They are those who implement all
curriculum goals and policies outlined by the Government. Every support and
motivation from teachers is meaningful to education. They can also guarantee
that all educational plans run as intended by the Government. Therefore,
teachers education is crucial to determine the future generation of teachers in the
teaching profession.
3.3.1 Teachers Training

Initially, teachers received training by undergoing courses in Brinsford Lodge
Teachers College (closed in 1964). Around 1963, a Teachers Training Guideline
and Course Study Review Committee were formed and they produced a report
called the Teachers Training Integrated Programme. According to this report,

lower secondary school teachers training was implemented comprehensively by

determining certain subject specialisations for certain colleges.
Two years after the integrated programme was implemented, the Teachers
Education Division introduced an ad-hoc programme called Multiple Filed
Education System. Training was conducted throughout the whole of Peninsula
Malaysia at district training centres. The main objective was to accommodate the
lack of teachers for schools that started multiple stream education. Prospective
teachers selected to undergo the course are those with similar qualifications as
those trained at teachers training colleges.
3.3.2 Teachers Educational Model

There were two types of teachers education:
(a) Pre-Service Teachers Education, and
(b) In-Service Teachers Education.
Both levels of courses were conducted by the Teachers Education Division and
local universities.
Improvement in teachers performance has been given emphasis since Malaysia

achieved Independence. The Teachers Education Division bore a heavy task in
implementing this profession. Training was not only at primary schools but also
secondary schools.
In-service training was conducted from time to time, alternating with orientation
courses within the train the trainers concept. This course was normally
handled by the Education Ministry. The main objective was to ensure strong
quality in teachers performance.
3.4 THE NATIONAL EDUCATION CONCEPTS

In this sub-topic, we are going to discuss the national education concepts,
namely, the KBSR, the KBSM and the Smart School concept.
3.4.1 New Curriculum for Primary School (KBSR)

The present education system is the result of developments which started even
before Independence. However, the changing point that exists now was through
the 1956 Education Committee Statement, the Razak Statement. It cannot be
denied that the most important aspect for a country was to have its own national

identity. Based on this awareness, the Razak Statement stressed that the National
Education Policy should be accepted by the people of the Federation of Malaya in
general and could fulfil their needs as well as encourage their progress as one
nationality.
On December 8, 1980, the Education Minister made an official announcement

regarding the New Curriculum for Primary School (KBSR). The goal was to ensure
comprehensive development of students. Developments included intellectual,
spiritual, physical, emotional, talent and social aspects as well as aesthetical values.
This curriculum provided every student equal opportunity to acquire skills,

knowledge, values, behaviour and practices that were required. Every student
was given encouragement and extensive guidance to master basic skills well.
The New Curriculum for Primary School was aimed at enabling students to:
Extensively master Malay language which is suitable with its position as the
national and official language of the country;
Master basic language skills; speaking, reading and writing in the medium of
instruction in primary schools;
Master basic counting skills well;
Master learning skills based on basic skills;
Have the ability to read, write and speak English in line with its position as
the countrys second language;
Develop good conduct and attitude based on humanitarian and spiritual
values accepted and appreciated by the society based on the Rukun Negara,
as well as making those values the basis of life practices;
Have knowledge, understanding, interest as well as awareness for the people
and the environment;
Mix around, respect rights and capabilities of others as well as have the spirit
of cooperation and tolerance;
Develop talent, leadership ability and self-confidence to improve knowledge
as well as upgrade the ability to apply any basic skills that have been
acquired; and
Have interest, understand, enjoy and be involved in arts and recreational
activities within the scope of the national culture.
The curriculum for primary schools was formed based on acknowledgements 57

(a) of the Cabinet Report:

Primary School Curriculum should be planned to enable students to achieve

skills in three main fields, communication, human and environment, and
self-development suitable with requirements, interest, talent and mental
capability as well as students preparedness.
(a) Implementation Strategy

In the implementation strategy, various principles had been brought
forward as guidance, namely decentralisation, use of discretion wherever
necessary and attempt together with feedback to improve curriculum
followed by its full implementation.
Through decentralisation, all parties were hoped to be able to provide

feedback whether in planning or implementation. Although in principle,
directives and decisions were made at a central level, each decision was a
result of everyones opinions.
The principle of discretion was closely related to the principle of

decentralisation. Since KBSR was planned to consider different factors to
students, situation of certain places, teachers capabilities and financial
capabilities, the states and schools were encouraged to change the ways to
implement the curriculum.
The third principle was to have a pilot project before full implementation.
Every level would have a trial practise for a year before its full
implementation.
Orientation and training of KBSR teachers was based on the multiplier

effect concept. Therefore, important staff from among the workforce were
required. Their role was to provide teachers for implementation through
orientation courses and training at district and state levels.
Courses for these important staff should be handled together by the

Curriculum Development Centre and other divisions in the Ministry. The
use of this overall strategy can be seen in Figure 3.1 below:

Figure 3.1: KBSR Implementation Strategy
The KBSR educational system placed emphasis not only on students

achievements, but also on talent development and relationship between
students and their peers.
The new assessment system that was suitably planned for KBSR consists of
the following characteristics:
Not centred at a national level;
Aimed at helping in learning and remedial work;
Various shape patterns;
Held continuously so that weaknesses would not accumulate; and
Formulated, administered and checked by teachers themselves.
(b) Identification
In identifying and improving weaknesses, several matters should be given
emphasis, among them:
Performance of students involved;
Suitability and quality of KBSR materials supplied to schools and

materials teachers prepared;
Effectiveness of orientation and training teachers and principals;
Effectiveness of service assistance and guidance teachers and principals
acquired throughout early implementation; and
Facilities and equipment in classrooms or schools involved.
Once identification has taken place, immediate improvements would be done

if there were weaknesses that could be improved at that time. Identifying
officers to provide guidance in the form of teaching and advising either
during or after observations had taken place. Weaknesses that were
identified might be in terms of teaching strategies, material usage and so on.
(c) Implementation Organisation

To ensure that KBSR could be implemented effectively, the decentralisation
principle was adopted. Through this principle, all parties would be
involved in taking the initiative and decision-making. These parties
included schools, districts and states. The Implementation Committee was
formed to get the involvement of affected parties and ensure cooperation
and coordination between central and state education departments.
Planning on policy issues were made at a central level by the KBSR

Implementation Committee. The aim was to prepare a general guideline to
help implementation at state, district and school levels.
(d) Teaching and Learning Strategy (KBSR)

The main characteristics of teaching and learning strategies were as below:
During the teaching and learning process, children were divided into
various groups; big or small groups, couples or individually based on
their skills, abilities and interests.
Various types of teaching methods and techniques were used to choose
the knowledge and skills to be presented.
Emphasis was given to the needs and interests of children through
rehabilitation programmes.
Emphasise the use of local materials as well as suitable teaching aids so
that teaching and learning process could be carried out more effectively.
The implementation of the KBSR programme started in 1982 and resulted

in a comprehensive curriculum change at primary school level. This
curriculum was formulated to guarantee the mastery of basic skills and
comprehensive student development.

The KBSR programme emphasises on mastery of basic skills (reading,

writing and arithmetic), and knowledge teaching was deferred so that
proper focus would be given on these three skills. This change at the
primary school level required changes to be implemented in the curriculum
for secondary level so that there would be proper continuity in focus,
content and learning styles.
3.4.2 Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School

(KBSM)
On September 11, 1986, the Education Minister made an announcement on the
Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (KBSM) programme. Generally,
changes in curriculum at secondary school level are important to ensure proper
continuity in terms of emphasis, content and learning style.
In the effort to consider the proposal from the Cabinet Committee Report and to
overcome arising problems as well as coordinate education with current
developments, the new curriculum should place emphasis on the following
matters:
Secondary School Education should be based on general education; namely
education which emphasised on overall and balanced developments. To
achieve this goal, equal consideration was given to spiritual elements, values,
attitude, knowledge and students talent.
Focus was given towards instilling universal values, which were similar to
the shared values of the Malaysian society to produce responsible, rational
and compassionate individuals.
Secondary school education also gave special emphasis on instilling
nationalism. Nationalistic education was aimed at promoting the spirit of
pride for the race and nation.
In KBSM, emphasis continued to be given to the role of Bahasa Malaysia as
the national language and the countrys official language. This is to enable
students to master language and communication efficiency in Bahasa
Malaysia, suitable with its role as the language of unity, main communication
and knowledge.
Life skills were introduced to adapt oneself with changes that had taken place
in the technology world and entrepreneurship.
Co-curricular activities were given proper emphasis to ensure a balance
between formal lessons in classrooms and informal education outside
classrooms.

(a) Goals of KBSM Programme

KBSM aims at continuing overall student development; encompassing
intellectual, spiritual, physical, emotional, talent, moral values, aesthetic
and social aspects. This is to enable students to develop their potential,
easily adapt to constant change as well as function effectively and
productively towards their self-development, peoples unity, national
development process and racial identity creation.
To achieve these goals, KBSM was formulated based on the principles

below:
Balance and integration of intellectual, physical, emotional and spiritual
elements;
Suitable curriculum for all students;
Curriculum which equipped students with skills for lifelong education;
and
Curriculum which emphasised core subjects and compulsory for all,
apart from elective subjects to fulfil interest and inclination.
(b) Basic curriculum

Curriculum which was planned based on the national education
philosophy. In principle, the curriculum emphasised on three fields;
namely communication, human and environment, and self-development.
The curriculum formulated was based on several main principles namely:

Knowledge is very important.
By acknowledging this fact, emphasis must be given to knowledge
acquisition from primary school level onwards. With knowledge,
humans would be able to face life challenges and continue with their
lifelong learning.
The principle of increasing ones thinking ability.
Every student is educated to show their ability to air their views and
opinions based on objective and critical thinking.
Related to values.
Integrated curriculum would not be complete if it did not comprise
objective elements encompassing spiritual, humanitarian and
nationality.
Instilling Bahasa Malaysia as an official language.
Bahasa Malaysia is to be the language of sovereign unity and
knowledge that is able to interpret any field of thought.
(c) Organisational Implementation

Several committees were formed to implement integrated curriculum
programmes. The Educational Planning Committee was tasked to plan and
formulate policies and all actions based on proposals that were proposed by
the Central Curriculum Committee, which was the Working Committee in
curriculum formulation. The responsibility of the Educational Planning
Curriculum was to research and propose a summary of curriculum
formulation, implementation and programme evaluation.
To ensure widespread implementation, the Implementation Committee was

established, and operated in two stages - central and state. The tasks
performed were professional and administrative in nature.
In terms of an administrative aspect, committees at both levels were involved

in tasks involving supply, administrative, facilities, financial, supervision,
tracking, information dissemination and communication.
From a professional aspect, the Implementation Committee at the central

level was given the tasks of curriculum formulation, publishing course
content, preparing textbook and related-materials, carrying out training
courses and preparing teaching and learning strategies.
(d) Steps to Develop and Implement KBSM

Various activities to plan, develop, try, identify and evaluate programmes
had to be implemented to guarantee that KBSM truly achieved its goal.
Curriculum material development for each lesson, such as content,

curriculum elaboration, textbook writing guide, orientation guide, training
and study materials, required involvement from within and outside the
Education Ministry. Meetings and workshops were held to acquire various
skills and knowledge contribution so that the materials were suitable.
Teachers were responsible in implementing KBSM in classrooms. Every

teacher should be equipped with knowledge, skills and attitude suitable
with the needs and aspirations of KBSM and such subjects. This was done
through orientation sessions at the school, district or state levels.
Measures were also taken to suit activities in various fields with

requirements of the KBSM programme, among them:
Programmes in teachers training colleges were suited to KBSM and
lecturers were oriented to ensure that potential teachers obtain proper
training and exposure to teach KBSM.

The students examination and progress evaluation was studied and

modified so that both could strengthen the required practices in
classrooms.
Radio and television educational programmes were made suitable with
KBSM to enrich learning in classrooms.
3.4.3 Smart School

The Smart School concept was one of the main applications in the Multimedia
Super Corridor (MSC), which was being developed. Implementation of the Smart
School concept is suitable with the present development and for future demand,
particularly in producing knowledge workers who are informed, skilful, and
confident as well as have good ethics.
Construction of these prestigious schools is also expected to be able to provide

excellent education and training for the present and future generations in all
aspects, to form a society with scientific and innovative thinking by taking
advantage of the latest technology as well as contributing towards science and
technology civilisation in the future.
Implementation of the teaching and learning curricula in smart schools using the
latest technology application is capable of developing students potential in
various aspects involving intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical. Generic
skills and multiple intelligence developments are given emphasis in the Smart
School implementation.
The Smart School Pilot Project in 1990 involved 90 schools nationwide. Of the
total, 81 were existing schools, while the remainder were new schools. Smart
Schools provide sophisticated and latest ICT infrastructure for teachers and
students use. These schools have laboratories equipped with computers with
various hardware and software including Internet and Intranet.
(a) Smart School Curricula

Smart School curricula were designed to help students achieve
comprehensive progress and a balanced development with main elements
to generate thinking.
The emphasis on the Smart School curricula was towards knowledge

integration, values and language absorption beyond curricula, and skills as
well as suitable attitude for the IT era.
(b) Smart School Objectives

The objectives of a Smart School were based on the National Education

Philosophy and aimed to:
Produce workforce who are technology savvy;
Democratise education;
Increase involvement of relevant individuals;
Instil overall individual development; and
Provide opportunities to increase individual strength and capability.
(c) Smart School Teaching and Learning

In teaching implementation, teachers are required to integrate generic skills,
such as learning, creative and critical thinking, information technology, and
interpretation and evaluation, to be mastered by students. Teachers should
adopt suitable teaching management techniques to manage thinking and
student-centred teaching.
Smart teachers should master the skills of identifying knowledge resources

that can be used to enhance the effectiveness of their teaching. Through
smart teaching-learning, students will be directly involved in interacting
and cooperating with their peers to achieve maximum development based
on their potential.
Optimisation of learning sources is a very important skill for smart

schoolteachers. It encompasses practising various strategies to achieve
optimum application of learning resources that are available in smart
schools. The teaching and learning process in smart schools is shown in
Figure 3.2:

Figure 3.2: Direction of Smart School Teaching and Learning Practice
In the teaching and learning process, facilitators are teachers who will help
students to achieve their learning goals through group or individual activities.
Facilitators not only present skills and experience but also help students achieve
optimum learning by using facilitation skills.
3.5 THE 1996 EDUCATION ACT

National education is an education framework in the country as stipulated in the
1996 Education Act of Malaysia. The education system had gone through a
restructuring process based on the 1991 Education Act to optimise its functions
and roles.
The 1996 Education Act played a role as framework to the national education
system, consisting of important matters that were used to define and determine
policy direction that would be complied by education administrators and
leaders. According to Section 15 of the 1995 Education Act, the national
education system comprised of:
Preschool education;
Primary education;
Secondary education;

Post-secondary education; and

Tertiary education except for expatriate schools (international schools).
Section 16 of the 1996 Education Act listed three categories of the national
education:
Public education institution;
Government-assisted institution; and
Private education institution.
The National Education Philosophy became the platform of the National

Education Policy that was formulated after taking into consideration views and
aspirations of all parties. The goal of the Malaysian education system was
summarised based on the goals included in the Rukun Negara, the National
Education Policy and the National Economic Policy (NEP). Some of the goals of
our education system are:
Production of quality education;
Production of educated and intellectual students;
Creation of a united society;
Social community development;
Production of quality workforce;
Economic growth particularly in the rural areas;
Formation of responsible and committed citizens in a democratic country;
Restructuring of the societys socio-economy; and
Poverty eradication.
In the Education Act, the national education concept is strengthened by

encompassing all levels of schooling from preschool to tertiary education, and
covering all categories of schools, namely government, government-assisted and
private schools.
Article 152 of the Federal Constitution upholds the Malay language as the
national language to preserve the peoples unity. The position of the Malay
language as the national language is further enhanced when the National
Language Act was endorsed in 1967. From 1970, the language medium in English
primary schools was gradually switched to the national language.
The 1996 Education Act had taken into consideration the importance of all races
by maintaining the national-type primary schools status quo and also 60 Chinese

private schools. Apart from that, the Unified Examination as adopted by these
schools and conforming school management board and missionary schools were
maintained.
The 1966 Education Act also had a provision for the teaching of ethnic languages
that exist in the country wherever practical and reasonable. Registration was not
required for religious classes like bible classes under the 1996 Education Act.
Final Thoughts
We must always follow the world development in various aspects particularly

the economy, social, politics and technology. All parties should always help in
environmental scanning to identify the latest needs from all angles. The
educational field should always identify the basic indicators related to the
education system including the National Educational Philosophy that became the
thrust for improvement or changes in the countrys development.
The failure of the educational system in strategically developing manpower not

only will be a loss for the country, but also affect the sovereignty of the country
as without high values and ethics as well as strong patriotism, everything will be
in vain.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Elaborate the importance of the 1961 Education Act in the

education system in Malaysia.
2. Explain the direction of smart school teaching and learning
practice.
3. Discuss the teaching and learning in KBSR and KBSM
implementation strategy.

Prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, education in Malaya was informal
in nature and did not emphasise on the students cognitive development.
Educational administration during the time of the British was based on the
policy of divide and rule as well as open policy and non-intervention from
the Government.
The National Education Reports greatly influenced and shaped the
development of education in Malaysia.
Teachers are the ones who implement all curriculum goals and policies,
which are outlined by the Government. Therefore, teachers education is
crucial to determine the education of the future generation.
In Malaysia, the three most important education concepts are the KBSR,
KBSM and Smart School.
The 1996 Education Act played a role as framework to the national education
system, consisting of important matters that were used to define and
determine policy direction that would be complied by education
administrators and leaders.
Cognitive Ordinance
Infrastructure Recommendation
Input

Topic X Multi-cultural
Education
4 Methods and
Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Elaborate on at least four multi-cultural education dimensions that
were introduced by Banks (1994);
2. Explain two importance of each of Banks multi-cultural education
dimension models;
3. Compare Banks models with three multi-cultural education
programmes in terms of methods, suitability and importance;
4. State three activities in three multi-cultural education programmes;
and
5. State the process of multi-cultural education programme
comprehensively.
X INTRODUCTION
Dynamic and continuous educational developments results in changes towards
curricula as well as methods in teaching and learning in classrooms. Education
also transcends cultural limitations and geographical boundaries causing
changes in the education system. This leads to the latest curricula shifting from
its geocentric nature to a multi-centric one based on current needs and demands.
Developed nations in particular have practiced multi-cultural education system

due to the trickling effect of foreign culture and elements into their education

TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS W 63
system. Arrivals of foreign migrants also bring in shared values, qualities and
culture.
You will learn about several concepts, models and methods that are the
ingredients of a multi-cultural education. We will also discuss the elements that
should exist in multi- cultural education models and methods.
4.1 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATIONAL

DIMENSION
The design approach of multi-cultural education by Banks (1994) was formulated
based on a multi-cultural educational concept which emphasised on equal
education acquisition in schools, colleges or universities, irrespective of race,
ethnic, gender, types of students and minority groups. Banks approach was one
of the methods to help us change our teaching and improve education effectively
and in a more organised manner. However, it depended on the types of culture
that exists in a school or classroom.
Banks multi-cultural education dimension was based on the United States of

America. For Banks, America was a huge and charity nation, resulting in the
emergence of groups based on the culture worldwide; for example, African
Americans, Asians, Natives, Hispanic and so on. This situation was obvious in
the southern, western and eastern America.
As a result of this development, the implementation of multi-cultural education

became complex and since two decades ago research was carried out on these
multi-dimensional models. This resulted in the changing the terms of curriculum,
system and pedagogy to fulfil the need of this multi-cultural population. Banks
study (1994 and 1995) divided five dimensions (Figure 4.1) which became the
core aspects of a multi-cultural education:
Content Integration;
Reduction of Prejudice;
Equal Pedagogy;
Knowledge Construction; and
Empowering School Culture and Social Structure.

64 X TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS
Figure 4.1: Multi-cultural education dimensional chain
(a) Content Integration

The teachers teaching emphasises on illustrations and lesson content that
are based on the students various cultures. Most subjects which are based
on multi-cultures are in the field of social science, such as language, arts
and culture, while subjects like science, mathematics, physics and biology
are not suitable to be taught according to the students various cultures.
However, in recent developments, teachers have made individual
initiatives to incorporate cultural elements in physics and mathematics.
An example is listing physicians biography according to culture and

ethnic. This method is suitable to distinguish positions and status of
physicians in terms of educational background, research and so on. Hence,
lesson content will be integrated in culture and field of subject. This effort
should be made carefully and suited to situations so that the teaching and
learning process will not be affected.
(b) Reduction of Prejudice

The formulation of curriculum focuses on characteristics and attitudes of
multi cultural students to help understand and form positive racial and
ethnic attitudes among students. Teachers will position these characteristics

as the basis in teaching so that students can form positive behaviour to

understand and accept the various cultures in their lives. Related studies
show that students who are aware of the existence of various cultures will
respect other races and able to deeply understand the process as well as
cultural characteristics. This will facilitate teachers in instilling various
cultural attributes in their lessons as a way to reduce prejudice among races
in classrooms. Usually teachers will involve all students in the learning
activities.
An example is cooperative learning. This type of learning encourages

cooperation and tolerance in various aspects to achieve the required goals.
Normally, subjects that adopt this approach are more similar to social
science, such as language, moral and civics education, sports activities,
gender education, history and geography. For other subjects, they have to
be modified based on students needs and learning stages.
(c) Equal Pedagogy

This is a way or method of certain teachers who teach using various
cultures that exist in classrooms to motivate academic achievements among
students. Various academic achievements based on the different cultures
result in inequality among the students. Therefore, teachers will use various
methods or modify their teaching based on the types of cultures in the
classrooms. Teachers need to conduct in-depth and extensive studies
regarding certain cultures in their classrooms in order for their teaching to
achieve the intended goals.
An example is a classroom that consists of three main races, namely Malays,

Chinese and Indians. Every teacher should understand and know about the
culture and lifestyle of each race to facilitate teaching and learning in
classrooms. For instance, understanding the Chinese culture of
memorisation, hence teaching and learning in the form of memorising
should be inculcated and adapted with the lesson content. However, this
approach is difficult to be implemented if teachers are not prepared to teach
based on multi-cultures and races.
(d) Knowledge Construction

Knowledge is built and formulated because it is social in nature, whereby it
is dynamic and interactive from time to time. Cultural diversity in a
classroom results in the occurrence of exchanging and integrating
knowledge in a healthy and spontaneous manner among students. This
involves exploration of social, behaviour, reference framework and
perspective in knowledge disciplines, which influences the way knowledge
is formulated.

(e) Empowering School Culture and Social Structure

This involves school organisation and culture restructuring so that children
from various cultures, ethnics, social classes and races will experience
individual equality and capacity. It places emphasis on changes and
structure formation in the school environment in order for children to have
equal opportunity to achieve success.
4.2 CONTENT-ORIENTED PROGRAMME

Generally, a content-oriented programme emphasises on any teaching and
learning activities based on subject content and suited to various cultures in
certain classrooms. Every subject content must be directed towards overall
achievements and fulfil the goals of multi-cultural education. Guidelines to
implement content-oriented programme are:
(a) Educational activities or programmes that have been planned should take
into consideration the main subject content that is linked to various
cultures.
(b) Avoid financial waste, resources and materials that are adapted in various
teaching and learning methods, particularly from various races.
(c) Quality assurance towards education that practices multi-cultural

education as achievements and results from this education will produce
academic achievements and effectiveness in education.
(d) Fulfil responsibilities for relevant parties, such as parents and the
Government policies. Hence, all curriculum content that is designed must
be in-line with activities that lead towards the goals of multi-ethnic
education.
(i) Multi-cultural curriculum goal
Helps children familiarise themselves with other peoples cultural
perspective more meaningfully.
Produces children who can accept other cultures in their lives
through feedback.
Provides children with skills, attitude and knowledge that are
required to ensure that they can share with other children of
various cultures.
Reduces dissatisfaction and discrimination amongst them.
Trains students on reading, writing and mathematics skills
effectively.
(ii) Curriculum encompassing various ethnic groups

Curriculum that is formulated should involve requirements and the
importance of ethnic groups, for example, language, culture and
religion. This will facilitate teaching and learning to run smoothly and
systematically. This curriculum will reduce discrimination and
isolation from other ethnic groups. The usual method is applied so
that curriculum fulfils the needs of all ethnic groups by preparing the
curriculum development panel from various ethnic groups. Every
view and comment should be accepted in order to prepare an
integrated curriculum and fulfil the needs of all parties.
(iii) Teaching aids encompassing all ethnic groups

Teaching aids are used to facilitate and enhance understanding in
teaching certain topics. In teaching various ethnics, materials from this
group can be used as teaching aids, such as clothes. It can be used as a
teaching aid in mathematics, arts, history and language subjects.
4.3 STUDENT-ORIENTED PROGRAMME

This specifically involves students interests. All educational programmes are
focused on students and all teaching and learning activities take into
consideration students needs. Students have intelligence and are influenced by
their family background. Hence, teachers should ensure every teaching unit is
focused on students achievement and performance according to their abilities,
achievements and cultures. Teachers should study and monitor these
developments of students from various cultures because it would influence
students behaviour and interaction in classrooms.
(a) Multi-ethnic Group Learning Style

This learning style focuses more on ones learning process which can make
him or her comfortable and results in meaningful learning effects. There are
various learning styles that can be seen among students. Among them are
learning styles which are dependent or non-dependent on visuals or
musical. All teachers should identify the learning style of their students
from various ethnic groups to facilitate his or her teaching which can be
focused on students effectively and achieve desired goals.
(b) Culture and Language Usage

Teachers should use languages and the various cultures of students as their
teaching materials. It will enable students to understand and remember
their learning. However, language usage should be consistent and
continuous so that it will not affect childrens learning.

(c) Special Programme for Minority Group

This programme is especially for a small group of students and unique to
one classroom. Although the number is small, it has similar goals to the
majority group. This means that teachers should prepare certain activities
for the minority group while not affecting the majority group in terms of
learning and lesson content.
4.4 SOCIAL-ORIENTED PROGRAMME

This programme is directed towards achieving social goals of children. Every
learning activity should link to various social activities and relate to the
education/lesson that is implemented. Curriculum of subjects that are required
should be in line with multi-cultural education goals.
(i) Interaction Opportunity among Races

Students are given the opportunity to interact with other races during
teaching and learning. Normally, teachers will adopt a teaching approach
in groups by preparing a series of tasks which encourage students to
interact.
(ii) Cooperative Learning

It is also known as team learning. It involves all members in the group to
solve tasks within a certain time. All learning activities must be directed
towards cooperative learning so that educational and social goals are
achieved specifically among students of various ethnic groups. Cooperative
learning will encourage students to interact actively and positively in group
work. This will create sharing of ideas, acceptance of decisions and views in
an open manner among them.
(iii) Positive Social Contributions to Society

Learning focused on social goals is to create:
Understanding of other peoples cultures;
Respect for other peoples cultural practices;
Acceptance and adoption according to current needs;
Tolerance; and
The formation of a peaceful and harmonious society.

SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Multi-cultural education is complex and complicated to be
implemented. Discuss this statement.
2. State at least two advantages of Banks five cultural diversity
educational dimensions along with illustrations.
3. State at least two importances of every multi-cultural educational
programmes.
You have learnt about multi-cultural education in terms of its programmes

and dimensions.
In this topic, you have been exposed to the multi-cultural educational
dimension model.
Everything is associated with one another and practiced according to the
needs and suitability of subjects, and teaching and learning approaches in
classrooms.
Discrimination Majority
Geocentric Multi-centric
Groups/cluster Prejudice
Holistic

Topic X Importance of
Multi-cultural
5 Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Elaborate three multi-racial educational goals;
2. Explain the importance of multi-racial educational goals;
3. Draw a mind map on multi-cultural educational goals, along with
illustrations;
4. List the disadvantages of multi-cultural education based on
illustrations in Malaysia;
5. State three activities that can curb disadvantages of multi-cultural
education; and
6. Explain the multi-cultural education programme formation process
based on Malaysian cases.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you learnt about the countrys educational history and
factors influencing it, and you were exposed to several concepts of multi-cultural
education based on Western perspective. We also discussed briefly on the need
for multi-cultural education from the Malaysian perspective. Subsequently, you
will look at multi-cultural education goals in general, as well as its importance
and disadvantages. We will also briefly touch on its importance from the
Malaysian perspective based on various relevant illustrations.

TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION W 71
In Malaysia, multi-cultural education had shown its importance after the May 13,
1969 incident, which required an education policy accepted by all races. The
education policy in Malaysia was formulated and the subsequently formed
curriculum was based on the National Education Philosophy. This philosophy
was formulated taking into consideration the importance and educational goals
for Bumiputra/Malay, Chinese and Indian races; and consequently preserves the
countrys stability and harmony.
5.1 GOALS OF MULTI-RACIAL EDUCATION

In topic 4, you were exposed to the goals of having a multi-cultural education
curriculum.
Generally, multi-cultural education reduces dissatisfaction as well as

discrimination among races. However, bear in mind that multi-cultural
education does not create one race called unity in diversity. In fact, it merely
ensures equal rights and freedom to education among the races through
democratisation of education.
The main goals of multi-cultural education include changing the learning

environment to motivate academic achievement and support the learning styles
of different students by strengthening values from cultural diversity, equalities,
social justice and democracy.
Formation of multi-cultural educational goals depends on various factors, among

them government policy, school environment, time, society and also educational
goal. It is also aimed at helping educators to fulfil requirements of individual
potential, childrens needs and teaching by emphasising the development of
ones feelings, confidence and competency. Specifically, there are four goals of
multi-cultural education as stated below:
(a) Forming culture and literacy

This is to equip students with information on certain races in terms of their
history and importance in the countrys development. This information will
reduce bias against other races. Thus, the curriculum that is formulated
should take into consideration the history, culture, heritage, language and
contribution to the country.
Generally, students will be exposed to historical background of races,

cultural attributes, contributions, certain and unique occasions, as well as
socio-economic condition of races. This explanation should be
comprehensive, analytical and comparative (similarities and differences
with other races).
72 X TOPIC 5 IMPORTANCE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION
The goal is suitable whether for majority students or minority ones. The
mistake made by most educators is to think that minority groups are aware
about their culture and history, and the knowledge is only relevant to them,
and not to others.
Members of certain ethnic groups do not necessarily understand their own

cultural ethnicity. Mastering historical, life and cultural knowledge of
ethnic groups is suitable for all students because they should learn more
with accurate information about their own heritage and that of others. In
addition, knowledge about various ethnics is the basis to respecting,
appreciating, valuing and celebrating diversity, either at national or
international levels.
ACTIVITY 5.1
How are values and attitudes related to individual development in a
multi-cultural society? Discuss.
Teachers also learn about culture and languages of other races because they
live in a multi-cultural society, teach students from different cultures and
from various locations, gender, rural or urban environment, citizens,
language and religion, who always interacting.
The subsequent topic will discuss individual development that is related to

attitudes and values. Generally, attitudes refer to behaviour that is shown
either clearly or otherwise. Meanwhile, values are the beliefs that become
practice or behaviour of someone in ones life.
(b) Individual development, attitudes and values

This will help individuals in terms of personal understanding, positive self-
concept and being proud of their identity. It will also stop students from
misperceiving ethnic identities, attributes and uniqueness. This goal will
help in terms of fulfilling individual potential, confidence and skills. Most
students are more inclined to the attitudes and values that have been
inculcated in their families and ethnic groups.
Emphasising this aspect is part of the multi-cultural educational objectives

in contributing towards students individual developments, self dignity
and eventually overall students intellectual, academic and social
achievements. Students who feel that they are good are more inclined to be
open-minded and willing to interact with others while respecting the

cultures and identities of others. At the same time, attitudes and values that
are formed positively will have equal, independent and democratic views.
The students are educated to respect the cultures of others and be aware of
the societal characteristics in a country, thereby reducing conflicts among
races, pluralism and diversity. Positive attitudes and values create
cooperation and tolerance among students. Individual developments
mostly influence the attitudes and values that one has. This can be
explained in Figure 5.1:
Figure 5.1 Attitude developments
If individuals understand and possess the required attitudes and values,

the question of inequality, misconception and discrimination will not arise.
In fact, it will encourage relationship and cooperation among the different
cultures. Many students have the wrong concept and negative views about
themselves and other ethnic groups, which is actually a common
occurrence in a big society. Students from minority groups believe that
there is nothing to be proud of about their heritage, while dominant groups
may exaggerate their importance. Improving understanding about one self
and other ethnic groups, as well as cultural experiences can correct this
mistake.
Multi-cultural education can help educators fulfil the goal to maximise

human potential, meet individual needs and teach children by enhancing
their self-dignity and feelings, confidence and competition. It creates a
psychological preparation in individuals and a learning environment with
positive effects to improve academic achievements. At the same time, the
countrys development goal through multi-cultural education can be
organised and easily achieved.
(c) Multi-cultural social competency

Students will learn how to interact with different races, cultures, languages
and generation. This cross-cultural education will help students understand
other ethnics and form values and positive expectations.
This means that teachers must have skills in teaching cross-culture

communication, interpersonal relationship, context analysis, understanding
the views of others and knowing their influence of culture on students
values, attitudes, beliefs, reference, expectations and behaviour. This will also

help students draw comparisons without touching sensitivities of other

ethnics or judging them.
Social competency helps improve social skills among various ethnics. Social
skills enable one to understand multi-cultural from a social point of view and
assimilate with ones own culture without damaging the cultural values of
others. Hence, understanding other peoples culture will facilitate
communication and relationship goals among various cultures.
(d) Helping teaching and learning literacy skills of students from various
ethnic backgrounds
Multi-cultural education provides basic skills based on ethnic. It requires
in-depth knowledge and experience about students background. This is to
ensure that teaching and learning runs smoothly as desired. In fact, this
knowledge will enable teachers to relate their lesson content with students
background so that they will understand better and accept clearly.
The teachers will prepare teaching aid based on their students background
(culture and social) to be applied in the lesson content. Concrete
illustrations can be obtained from students because it has been incorporated
into their lives and become their life practice. Teachers indirectly acquire
knowledge and experience from such illustrations. This will facilitate the
organisation and planning of subsequent teaching and learning process.
Teachers also use whatever is available as learning aids. Figure 5.2 below
shows the link between teaching and learning, and teaching aids based on
various cultures in classrooms.
Figure 5.2: The link between teaching, learning and teaching aids based on various
cultures in classrooms

5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF MULTI-CULTURAL

EDUCATION
Now, let us look at the disadvantages of multi-cultural education.
(a) Focus on multi-cultural and race results in gap among races

Education that only focuses on one race will create racism and reluctance to
cooperate among races. As a result, the gap among races widens. If left
unchecked, social problems in the multi-cultural society will exist.
Examples are the Rodney King and O.J Simpson cases below:
(i) Rodney King
He was beaten up by white police officers because of speeding on the
road. As a result, King sustained serious injuries to the face, hands
and stomach.
Kings beating incident received extensive coverage in America as it
was a mere traffic offence which caused him to be beaten up until he
was badly hurt.
Hence, Kings case was brought to court to call for justice, due to
dissatisfaction among the African Americans.
(ii) O.J Simpson
Simpson was an ex-American football player who was successful in
his career. However, the murder of his ex-wife and her boyfriend
(both Caucasians) led to dissatisfaction among the American whites.
Simpson was tried for murder but found innocent and acquitted. This
led to dissatisfaction among the whites.
(b) Unexpected causes
Teaching plans and approaches based on existing curriculum does not
assure that multi-racial students needs will be met. There are activities that
are unsatisfactory caused by ruling and prohibition in certain races, ethnic
or religion.
(c) Dissatisfaction among students

Various pressures according to certain groups cause dissatisfaction among
students. There are students who are unable to master the language of
medium of instruction, lesson content and are absent from school. These
phenomena can result in an academic gap among them. This gap will lead
to sentiments of various achievements in classrooms. In addition, students
learning styles and unsatisfactory teaching methods will create an
uncomfortable environment in classrooms.

There are studies showing that certain teaching methods are effective to
certain students only according to race and ethnic. This may be because the
methods are suitable and meet the needs of the students.
Now, how do we reduce the disadvantages of multi-cultural education?

There are several approaches commonly used to reduce disadvantages of
various cultures, among them:
(i) Teachers Need to be trained and always acquire knowledge in
cultures of certain races in terms of language, religion, culture and
practices relating to traditions. This knowledge is important to avoid
any misunderstanding and discrimination among races. Modifying
teaching methods based on whatever available in classrooms will be
more fun and provide a positive picture among students.
(ii) School Administrator Always monitor and resolve conflicts among
races based on policies, regulations or procedures that have been set.
They should be implemented fairly, equitably and without biasness. If
necessary, form a committee to resolve racial/cultural conflict.
Similarly, there should be a work and teaching environment that is
conducive in school. Focus on teamwork or cooperation among
teachers and students as well as involving parents in academic
programmes in schools.
(iii) Parents Involving and cooperating with parents from various
cultures in school programmes, particularly in improving academic
achievements and cultural, language and traditional programmes.
(iv) Jointly formulated curriculum The purpose the curriculum is
formulated is to fulfil needs and demands of people for their
childrens future. Hence, the curriculum that can fulfil the needs of
the a multi-cultural society will be accepted and implemented
effectively.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. How can the curriculum in Malaysia fulfil the needs of a multi-
cultural society?
2. State three of its causes:
(a) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(c) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Elaborate at least three multi-cultural education goals.

2. State three activities that can reduce the disadvantages of multi-
racial education.
3. What is the importance of multi-racial education goals in the
Malaysian context?
Multi-cultural education reduces dissatisfaction as well as the possibility of

discrimination syndrome among races.
The main goals of multi-cultural education include changing the learning
environment to motivate academic achievement and support the learning
styles of different students by strengthening values from cultural diversity,
equalities, social justice and democracy.
The advantages of multi-cultural education are :
It creates agreements to respect existing multi-cultures;
Instils culture of pluralism in classrooms; and
Overcomes elements of stereotype, prejudice and racism in the
society.
The disadvantages of multi-cultural education are:
It can create a gap among races;
Other unexpected causes; and
Dissatisfaction among students.

Competent Platform
Comprehensive Prejudice
Literacy Stereotype

Topic X Multi-cultural
Influence
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Elaborate social and economic roles in influencing the Malaysian
multi-racial societys way of life;
2. Explain two important environmental factors in influencing
Malaysian societys way of life;
3. Identify the roles of administrators, teachers, students and parents on
Malaysian societys traditions;
4. List three ways to instil noble universal values in Malaysian
education;
5. State three activities that can maintain Malaysian tradition and
heritage; and
6. State how multi-cultural education can maintain Malaysian cultural
heritage.
X INTRODUCTION
Multi-cultural influence on a society is very crucial and subsequently shapes the
societys future. As a result, the societys future will be assimilated into various
forms and accepted as one of the cultures of a country.
Malaysia, as a country represented by various cultures, ethnics, social classes and

religions, has accepted the multi-culture society as a unique feature that is not
possessed by many other countries.
In this topic, we will review and study the influence of individuals, groups and
society in effectively and assuredly preserving cultures and maintaining heritage.

80 X TOPIC 6 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE
6.1 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON

MALAYSIAN SOCIETYS WAY OF LIFE
It is undeniable that cultural influence can affect Malaysian societys way of life.
Every society has its own culture and uniqueness. In fact, good culture is often
accepted and practised by other societies.
What is the meaning of culture? In his literature study, Bennet (1999), explained
that culture can encompass various forms and abstracts as well as change
according to current needs. It depends on the different locations and
environment. There are cultures that are acceptable by one country and there are
those which are not acceptable at all. This means that the cultural concept is
always changing and dynamic in nature. However, the cultural concept in the
context of a multi-cultural education is defined as follows:
Cultureencompasses all knowledge, beliefs, arts, murals, legislations,

customs, habits, symbols, intellectuality, norms, attitudes, values, ideas, and
relationship between events and behaviours.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Is the above definition of culture acceptable in the Malaysian context?

Justify your stand.
(a) __________________________________________________________
(b) __________________________________________________________
(c) __________________________________________________________
How do various cultures affect the social, economic and environment aspects of
the Malaysian society?
(a) Social
The existing Malaysian society has great understanding on the existence of
various cultures since independence. Therefore, prejudice and bias do not
arise in debating multi-cultural education. In fact, the central education
system has changed its views and attitudes towards acceptance of various
cultures as part of the Malaysian societys lives. Religious and cultural
occasions have become one of the agenda in ensuring that all races can
respect and accept each other in the country.

TOPIC 6 MULTI-CULTURAL INFLUENCE W 81
The most obvious influence in the Malaysian society in terms of social

aspect is the wearing of costumes without any prejudice, attending cultural
festivities, learning languages together and accepting the education system
in the country. The development of an educational hub will facilitate social
assimilation to be inculcated in the multi-cultural education system.
The importance of various cultures in the Malaysian society results in the

Government striving to strengthen and maintain said society in the form of
organising cultural festivities, cultural education in schools, colleges and
universities as well as promoting cultural diversity as a national identity to
be proud of.
Therefore, cultural diversity creates tolerance and the willingness to

thouroughly understand culture. In this matter, the Government
encourages all races to highlight their unique characteristics that can be
shared together. Among them is the usage of traditional costumes (batik,
baju melayu and cheongsam) at certain functions have become a practice
and norm to the Malaysians. For example, batik is accepted as an official
traditional costume that can be worn by all races. According to Hussein
(1993), a human cultural chain cannot be understood through the process of
biological hereditary process but it should be learnt through educational
process, either in schools, family, peer groups or the surrounding
community.
ACTIVITY 6.2
What other examples can you highlight? Give two other examples that
you feel are very suitable in the Malaysian context.
(b) Economy
In terms of economy, we find that everyone can venture into various
economic activities in the country, irrespective of race, ethnic and religion.
Before Independence, the British colonial rule created a divide and rule
policy causing the economic activities to be monopolised by certain races
only. However, after Independence, changes occurred by providing
economic opportunities to all races.
The New Economic Policy (1970) was a programme that helped restructure
economic activities and the social structure of the Malaysian society after
the occurrence of inequalities in wealth distribution in the country
following the colonisation rule policy. At the same time, it attempted to
bridge the economic gap between urban and poor, Bumiputra and non-
Bumiputra, among regions and the elite and proletariat.

The common mechanism is through economic democratisation to create

greater involvement of the poor and those from isolated regions to other
parts of the country. Mega projects such as KLCC, highways, KLIA and the
Iskandar Development Region (IDR) have given a lot of economic
opportunities for local and business communities. The involvement of all
groups will bridge the economic gap among the races.
(c) Environment
A healthy and harmonious environment will create healthy relationship
among races. Such an environment can be created by providing facilities
like theme parks, community and public halls. Places such as the
gymnasium, recreational fields, clubs, and sports associations are suitable
environments to create the interaction and assimilation process in the
society.
The community in the existing environment influences the formation of a

new culture because the individuals will:
Accept values that are shared together;
Provide new experiences aside those gained from the school and family;
Create a principle of peer social relationship; and
Create a new culture.
The environment as described, should be monitored to achieve the societal

development goal and not to maintain a status quo based on respective
fields. An environment that instils the values of Malaysian races will turn
into a united multi-cultural country that is able to progress forward.
6.2 INDIVIDUAL ROLES IN RESPECTING

MULTI-CULTURAL SOCIETY
Let us explore the roles of these individuals.
(a) Administrators Tradition is emphasised in the lives of students and
school. Administrators have to ensure that any existing tradition should be
further developed among students through co-curricula activities and
cultural aspects. Among the roles that can be played by administrators and
schools in respecting tradition are:
Cultural week of certain races;
Encourage teachers and staff to promote respective cultures;
Integrate individual cultures into the school culture; and

Coordinate a standard that is applied by the school community, such as

official/cultural costume, language and noble practices.
(b) Teachers Integrate lesson content with illustrations of respective

traditions of various races. There should be willingness to learn about
cultures of others, interaction with parents and school community in order
to ensure that lesson contents are suitable with characteristics of students
from various cultures. Teachers characteristics which are effective in
preserving societal cultures are as follows:
Explain own identity and ethnic;
High expectation over success;
Committed towards equitable achievements;
Create environment that encourages learning;
Learning tasks that are meaningful; and
Encourage parents involvement.
(c) Students Respect, understand and accept cultures of others as well as

adapt them with their own cultures. Every student should be exposed to all
the taboos or prohibitions that are sensitive to certain students, particularly
those related to religion. Among others, the roles that can be played by
students in respecting cultures of others are by:
Respecting other peoples cultures;
Accepting cultures of others that do not contradict with their own
cultures and religions;
Practising values that are agreed by consensus and in line with the
schools regulations; and
Organising cultural activities through curriculum and co-curricula.
ACTIVITY 6.3
State three activities and illustrations you feel suitable to be carried out
by students in your school.
(d) PTA (Parent - Teacher Association) Parents should be involved in cultural

activities and programmes in schools. We know most parents have certain
skills in cultural matters such as handicraft, dancing, clothing and arts.
Parents should contribute in the form of education and volunteer in

educating children in schools. This culture is practiced in developed

countries such as America, United Kingdom and Europe. Some examples of
contributions from parents are:
Sharing their expertise and energy with the students and teachers;
Always be in contact with the school administration to help develop
respective cultures; and
Attend Cultural Day to lend support to schools.
6.3 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES TO

PRESERVE MALAYSIAN CULTURAL
HERITAGE
The cultural heritage in Malaysia is unique and diverse. The Malaysian race with
its various races, ethnics and religions has become a Malaysian identity and
tourist attraction. The roles and responsibilities of the Malaysian race to ensure
the preservation of Malaysian cultural heritage are by realising the two domains
below:
(a) Inculcation of Universal Noble Values

Noble values are views on desired things (good, noble and glorious), and
those that become reference, criteria or measurement (Ibrahim, 2000 and
Wan Mohd Zahid, 1993). According to Ibrahim (2000), noble values are the
result of religion and thinking. In the Malaysian context, noble values are
based on five main religions, namely Islam, Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism, Sikhism and Confucianism (moral philosophy), with Islam as
the fundamental religion in the formation of universal noble values.
Inculcation is an act to insert something and strengthen it through certain

activities. The main objective of instilling universal noble values is to
produce human capital and good citizens, who possess high morals (Wan
Mohd Zahid, 1993). According to Wan Mohd Zahid (1993) and Ibrahim
(2000), the morals are:
Instilling awareness, understanding, confidence and gratitude;
Instilling the spirit of love for noble values;
Observing advantages and disliking disadvantages;
Forming positive attitudes, and being useful and responsible to religion,
race and at work;

Eliminating negative attitudes by being responsible in life and at work;

Carrying out duties with dedication;
Training self to be disciplined;
Enhancing productivity/results; and
Striving to achieve excellence.
Noble values should be implemented through education, training,
simulation, role play and also sports and recreational activities.
(b) Understanding Local Communitys Tradition

Local tradition should be made known to the local residents or outsiders by
having billboards, road shows and cultural brochures.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Answer all questions below and provide illustrations from a Malaysian
context.
1. Elaborate three ways to inculcate universal noble values in the
Malaysian educational system.
2. Discuss three activities that can preserve Malaysian tradition and
heritage.
3. How can multi-cultural education preserve Malaysian cultural
heritage?
Hussein (1993) explained that to create a culture that is accepted in

Malaysia, there should be three main aspects:
Willingness of all races and ethnics to engage, accept and trust among
races;
Engage and develop interaction and relationship among races in
fields that have common importance to individuals and others in the
society; and
Engage and develop as well as cooperate in all development process
in terms of socio-economy and socio-politics.
The three aspects are factors that should be consciously understood so that
the racial unity concept becomes a reality.

Socio-culture relations based on certain value systems in cultures should be

agreed upon by all. The question is whether the existing education system
is complete and prepared to accept students of various cultures,
particularly at higher institutions and private schools.
Biological heritage Monopoly
Elite Proletariat
Habit Status quo

Topic X Pedagogy
Related to
7 Multi-cultural
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the meaning of multi-cultural educational pedagogy;
2. Illustrate the five aspects encompassing the pluralism of multi-
cultural educational pedagogy; and
3. Evaluate teachers role in implementing teaching and learning
process effectively in multi-cultural education.
X INTRODUCTION
Multi-cultural educational scholars agree that at a fundamental level, multi-
cultural education becomes the orientation of schooling systems whereby
teaching and learning process is based on an ideal democratic perspective
namely equity and equality (Banks, 1995: Sleeter, 1995). James A. Banks listed
five critical dimensions in the context of multi-cultural education ,namely:
integrated content, constructive knowledge, prejudicial reduction, equity
pedagogy, school culture and fair societal structure.
Pedagogy or methodology can be regarded as management of activities chosen

by teachers to be applied in class. Pedagogy means an overall effort required in
a set of arranged procedures based on selected methodology(Kamarudin Hj
Husin, 1990). This illustration means methodologies that are chosen for teaching
and learning process must be based on certain approaches that are related to
models, principles or theories of learning. He also states a pedagogical aspect as a

88 X TOPIC 7 PEDAGOGY RELATED TO MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION
plan or procedure to implement teaching in an organised, orderly and systematic

manner. They are steps or stages of teaching that are continuous and neatly
arranged as well as must be adhered to equitably achieve certain learning
objectives.
It can be concluded here that teachers can formulate certain teaching and
learning procedures by adopting various suitable methodologies, especially
attractive methodologies that can fulfil their students needs, particularly in the
multi-cultural educational context, whereby students have different
backgrounds. Therefore, teachers need to have a clear picture on their minds,
such characteristics or traits and understand the overall principle of teaching.
There are two basic principles in the selection of teaching methodology. Firstly,
teaching methodology should be planned. Teaching that is not planned
adequately results in the teacher deviating from the educational objectives and
consequently, wasting the students learning time. Therefore, proper planning
can guarantee effective usage of time that has been allocated. Factors that have to
be taken into consideration when planning teaching and learning are the
educational objectives to be achieved, topics to be learnt, time allocated, teaching
and learning materials or equipment available as well as students background.
Secondly, there should be changes in the teaching methodology. The best
teaching methodology can be adopted in all situations, at all times; topics and
students cannot be determined because of problems of diversity. However,
effective teaching can be created if there are students interests and one of the
ways to draw their interest is through various teaching methodologies and
learning activities. Certainly in discussing multi-cultural educational pedagogy,
the aspect of teaching objective, usage of time and teaching aid should be centred
on efforts to create equity and equality to all students. This will provide students
with the opportunity to interact with their peers in class.
Therefore, in the context of multi-cultural education, teachers should be sensitive,

creative and innovative in selecting their teaching methodology so that teachers-
students and students-students interaction will occur in a harmonious
environment and equality will also exist. This is because the goals of a multi-
cultural education can create feelings of respect for different cultures and values;
help students learn and function in a multi-cultural society; develop positive self-
concept among students; inculcate new experiences about cultural similarities
and differences in a positive environment; and lastly encourage students to work
together in a multi-cultural environment.

TOPIC 7 PEDAGOGY RELATED TO MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION W 89
7.1 PEDAGOGY IN MULTI-CULTURAL

EDUCATION
As a teacher, you should be prepared to fulfil the needs of all students in your
class, including giving equal attention to students of different background,
gender, and social economic status, religion, race and ethnicity. It cannot be
denied that multi-cultural education challenges the narrative traditional
education of the Malaysian multi-racial society; the Malay community with the
Malay educational system, while Chinese and Indians with their language and
culture respectively. In the meantime, multi-cultural education is inclusive in
nature, whereby it consists of various societal culture and background. More
accurately, it is said to recognise diversity that exists in a multi-racial society. The
intellectual goal achieved from a multi-cultural education is proper
understanding of who we are as Malaysians.
In discussing multi-cultural educational pedagogy, Marshall P. L. (2001) states

equity pedagogy as pedagogy which can create equal opportunity for all
students to learn. This pedagogy is a combination of various strategies and
techniques focusing on students educational style and their intelligence level.
Equity pedagogy focuses more on students, whereby students are given equal
treatment and teaching and learning based on their differences.
Meanwhile, according to Banks and Banks (1993), there are four stages in efforts
to ensure integration occurs in a multi-cultural educational curriculum content,
namely:
(a) Stage 1 Contributions Approach
This approach is the most basic stage where curriculum content focuses on
heroic character, holiday destination, and interesting culture of certain
societies. This traditional approach focuses on ethnocentricity curriculum
that is widely used in multi-cultural schools. Discussion focuses on societal
culture and tradition, food, music, art, but attention is not given in
determining meanings and interpretations that are most significant in the
minority society.
(b) Stage 2 Additive Approach
This approach is made up of efforts to add aspects of contents, concepts,
and themes, without changing their structures. For instance, teachers can
add reading materials, reference books, teaching units and specific courses,
but students are not required to have basic knowledge to understand the
concepts, issues and societal groups in efforts to understand cultural
diversity dimension, gender, race and so on. Minority students know and
learn very little about their history.

(c) Stage 3 Transformational Approach

This approach involves structural change in the curriculum to enable
students to learn about concepts, issues, events and themes from the
perspective of a minority society. The main focus in this curriculum change
is how the culture of a dominant society emerges from a complex condition,
and is successful in interacting in different cultures that is accepted by all
races.
(d) Stage 4 Social Action Approach
Students are required to make decisions about important social issues and
take suitable actions to resolve such issues. Students are required to act
proactively and given the power to act. They are equipped with knowledge,
skills and important values to participate in social change. This approach is
in the form of self-esteem through value analysis, decision-making skills,
problem solving and experience in solving social problems.
7.2 WHAT SHOULD BE TAUGHT

Multi-cultural education has various structures and forms. Several scholars, who
are experts in multi-cultural education believe that the education must focus on
cultural concepts and problems that arise as a result of a cultural clash. They are
of the view that schools should study arising conflicts that are caused by cultural
differences at home and school. In fact, studies should be carried out between
influential culture (dominant group culture) and non-influential or less
influential culture (minority group culture), unfair treatment against certain
races, and gender (Spring 2000 in Nelson J.L 2004).
Meanwhile, other scholars are of the opinion that multi-cultural education is a

study about various cultures, which are the means to carry out reforms in
education. Therefore, content is more focused on curriculum that is responsive,
flexible, whereby anything that occurs in the multi-cultural society can be
understood, and changes in curriculum can be done.
In the Malaysian context, where we have a society of different races and

ethnicities that practises different religions as well as different lifestyles, certainly
multi-cultural education plays a very important role in the Governments efforts
to create national integration. Therefore, in achieving this noble intention, the
question that arises is: what is the curriculum content that should be taught to all
students? Based on theories on multi-cultural educational curriculum, the
curriculum content must comprise cultures of all races that encompass cultural
and religious aspects and their traditional practices. Early educational exposure
in schools is a process of understanding and knowing the culture of other races.
Eventually, at a more complex level of study, students are able to make cultural

analysis and respect cultures of others. This will create a group who understand
cultures. This is important because respecting one anothers culture will be
produced through education.
7.3 PLURALISM IN PEDAGOGY

Did you know that pluralism means differences in ethnic, language, attitude,
behaviour and skin colour that are usually influenced by religious differences?
This definition affects pedagogy that will be adopted in education of the plural
society. This means that the pedagogy that will be used is based on the students
different backgrounds. Here, we will discuss the pedagogical aspect that can be
adopted for different genders, languages, attitudes, family backgrounds and
learning styles.
(a) Gender
Pedagogy that is selected must also be suitable with students gender. In a
class that has students of the same gender, teachers should certainly adopt
a different pedagogy from a classroom which has a mix gender of male and
female students. Researches that have been carried out found that female
students are more matured than their male counterparts. This maturity
aspect contributes to the seriousness of female students in focusing in their
teaching and learning process. Therefore, it is undeniable that the female
students academic performance is more outstanding and better than that of
male students. The relationship between teachers of different gender than
students also affects the pedagogy chosen, that is male teachers to teach
female students and otherwise. The approaches selected should be suitable
with relationship in terms of different genders. This pluralism aspect of
pedagogy is because the gender element itself consists of different social,
culture, ability and thinking capacity.
Every individual has different learning styles despite having the same
culture. Some students can learn well through exercises and learning
theories, while others through learning materials and so on. There are
students who can learn well through professional explanations, small
group discussions and direct interactions. Some of them are analytical,
synthetic and intuitive in nature. Therefore, different genders certainly have
different ways of learning. Male students have an individualistic way of
learning, while studies show that female students prefer to study in groups,
have discussions in a win-win situation and strive to achieve the same goals
(Sohail Inayatullah, 2006).
In terms of a pedagogical aspect, teachers should use a variety of

methodologies to suit different genders. Since female students maturity
level is higher than that of male students, therefore, group methodology

can be applied. Similarly, male students prefer to learn individually. This is
what pluralism in pedagogy means. Teachers should combine the various
pedagogies to fulfil the needs of students from different backgrounds.
(b) Language
According to Kamarudin Hj Hussein (1988), there are various methodologies
that can be used in language teaching. Among the classic methodologies in
language teaching are Grammar Interpretation Methodology, Direct
Methodology, Traditional Methodology, Military Methodology, Imitation-
Memorisation Methodology, Linguistic Methodology, Listening-Speaking
Methodology, Psychological Methodology, Interpretation Methodology,
Eclectic Methodology, Cognitive-code Methodology, Phonetic Methodology,
and Reading and Writing Methodology. Each methodology listed has its
strengths and weaknesses. Before using any methodology in teaching
students language skills, teachers should know students background,
culture, strengths and weaknesses, as well as interests so that the teaching
and learning process runs smoothly.
Issues and problems in language teaching is normally in the process of

learning a foreign language or second language. For instance, teaching and
learning Bahasa Malaysia among non-Malay students, teaching and
learning English language among Malay students, and so on. Although
there are students who can master the second language well, studies have
shown that many students still face problems in second language learning.
Therefore, teachers should apply various suitable pedagogy in language
teaching that are suitable to achieve the teaching goals.
(c) Family background

Family background is normally influenced by students socio-economic
status. Students whose families have a stable income or rich background
certainly have a different culture than poor students, who are
disadvantaged and lack nutrition. Students who live in housing schemes
are very different than those living in villages. Family background instil
different cultures, way of thinking, emotional and intellectual capacity.
Poor students who live in rural areas always have an inferiority complex
and low self-esteem because of their inadequacies. During the learning
process, such students will display passivity and depression, and are quiet
as well as non-participative in class. Teachers should be wise in selecting
and applying pedagogical aspects that are suitable with their ability and
intellectual capacity. Meanwhile, those from a higher social and economic
status are bolder, more inquisitive, more cheerful and able to easily master
skills taught by teachers.

Similarly, students with different cultures and backgrounds because of

different race and ethnicity, certainly have different cultures and life
perspectives. In the Malaysian context, those from a Malay background are
very different than those from Chinese and Indian backgrounds. Therefore,
the different races, which most probably have different religions as well,
will influence their way of life and thinking.
It is undeniable that gender is also influenced by family background. A male

student who lives in a female dominated family will be inclined to behave
more femininely. Studies show that this behaviour is caused by culture,
background and practice in the family. It is not surprising that there are male
students who like to cook, sew, like womens fashion and so on.
(d) Attitude
Do you know that studies conducted by educational psychologists show
that attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, values, practices and traditions are
inherited and ingrained since childhood? Students will eventually bring
these attitudes to schools. Therefore, in schools, teachers will face students
with all sorts of attitudes. Students attitudes towards schools, teachers,
classmates, other cultures, races, religions and so on are obstacles that have
to be overcome in a multi-cultural education.
Attitudes will affect students psychological aspects. You have certainly

face students attitudes that test your patience as teachers. But it is your job
to try to change students attitudes so that they can be in the mainstream of
the student community. Indeed, efforts to change their attitude can be very
challenging and require a long time. Your success to change students
attitude from a negative to positive one shows that you are a successful
teacher.
Similarly, you will face attitudes of students from different family

background, culture, socio-economic status, language, race and ethnicity.
Therefore, you will have to try to change bad attitudes to good ones. This is
because prejudices, misconceptions, uneasiness with other peoples cultures
are dominant characteristics of your students. Hence, the pedagogy that
you apply will remove the negative attitudes. You should work hard to
ensure that students who are in your class can interact, mix around and
understand one another and eventually a melting pot process will occur.

(e) Different learning style

Students are different in terms of sociological and psychological. From an
educational psychological perspective, every student has his own strengths
and weaknesses, and this will certainly influence the pedagogy that will be
adopted by teachers. This means that the learning style of every student
will differ. Therefore, the pedagogy that you use should focus on the
individual differences.
Cultural values and experience of certain students from different cultural

backgrounds will influence their learning style. This is in addition to
different educational environment. School culture is different from the
culture at home. In fact, studies show that ones learning style is greatly
influenced by his or her cultural background. Learning skills, which is the
way information is obtained and processed depends on the suitability of
the teaching and learning style. Male students have different learning style
than their female counterparts. Students, who come from families with low
socio-economic background, have different learning styles than those who
come from rich families. It is similar if it is related to the differences in
culture, race and ethnicity. For example, the American natives show an
active learning style, concrete learning experience, and prefer cooperative
situations.
The type of subjects they learn also influences the learning style.
Mathematics and Science learning style is different from Arts or Literature.
Therefore, you have to include all aspects so that your teaching, pedagogy
and students learning styles are taken into consideration.
7.4 MEDIA PEDAGOGY (CARSON & FRIEDMAN

1995)
Carson and Friedman (1995) discusses media pedagogy as follows:
(a) Multimedia usage
In multi-cultural education, teachers should be creative and innovative to
create a variety of media in their teaching. Textbook is a classic traditional
media. Despite the world having multimedia as a result of modern
technological progress, textbooks are still a popular teaching media. In fact,
many teachers still use them. It cannot be denied that the usage of
multimedia in teaching will affect each teaching goal. Media has a different
capacity to increase students understanding. For instance if the
information you want to disseminate is at a knowledge domain, you should

present the information in an extensive and meaningful context. Besides

that, media that displays visible image can also assist in your teaching.
Therefore, as teachers who can motivate students, the application of

multimedia greatly helps the teaching in class with students of different
backgrounds and cultures. Usage of TV, DVD, film screening and audio-
visual pictures are necessary to manage a meaningful teaching and learning
process.
(b) Student-centred Teaching Aid

Multi-cultural education is an effort to develop a cultural society that
attempts to fulfil needs in terms of individual equity in society, equality, as
well as to create a united society with members that respect one another. In
fact, multi-cultural education can create unity among students. Therefore,
teaching aids that are used in teaching and learning should be centred
towards students. Teaching aids should not be merely centred towards
academic needs or to protect minority groups. Teaching materials act as a
catalyst to increase the students body of knowledge, to understand the
different ethnics, cultures and genders in their society. Teaching materials
should be able to increase the students knowledge and experience in the
multi-cultural context. Teaching materials that are centred on students
should have the following characteristics:
(i) Centred around multi-cultural society, gender and ethnicity;
(ii) Able to generate students thinking at a higher cognitive level;
(iii) Can extract explicit and implicit aspects that will attract students;
(iv) Generate discussions among students;
(v) Help create communication among different cultures; and
(vi) Provide opportunities to all students to raise views and opinions
based on their culture, gender and ethnicity.
(c) Media Literacy

It is imperative that teachers should be media literate. In multi-cultural
media, teachers should have a high level of literacy towards media usage as
the goal of integrated curriculum content is to develop the curriculum in a
framework that shows multi-cultural contributions from the traditional
discipline perspective. This can only be implemented with teachers high
level of literacy rate and awareness towards technology. An example is the
use of the World Wide Web to obtain sources of learning for students.
Electronic mail and multimedia technology can be beneficial in generating
communication and interaction, which is meaningful among students of
different cultures. This can help students understand and appreciate
curriculum content for social studies, science and psychology subjects, and
even in foreign language learning.
Most scholars agree that technology and multi-cultural education demand

responsible parties to improve infrastructure and educational facilities in
schools. This will definitely assist teachers in using the latest technology to
present their teaching content. Studies carried out in schools equipped with
technology, show that teachers can use Internet facility and teaching is
based on computer technology. As a result, most students who are
computer savvy will apply it at home or at any cyber cafes. However, there
are students whose families cannot afford to provide computer facilities at
home. Therefore, such situation will create a phenomenon known as a
digital gap. Teachers should be diligent in such situations, and attempt to
use other media so that educational objectives and goals will not be
thwarted due to the lack of modern technology-based media.
In the knowledge perspective and dimension, scholars agree that scientists

have contributed greatly in knowledge development. This is because
knowledge is built based on content integration that is influenced by world
views which are made up of various cultures. Students should be
encouraged to inculcate skills that will help in their knowledge
development. Therefore, teachers educational training should always use
technology to instil and even push students to build their own knowledge.
Teachers, as educationists, should make use of Internet technology to
generate students interest towards subjects that are taught. This includes
online discussions, which can create multi-cultural understanding and
analysis between ones culture and that of others.
In fact, teaching media and technology can curb prejudice among students.
Usage of the latest media and technology can also develop healthy
characteristics among students, and avoid inclinations of negative
perception against others. Multimedia presentation in teaching and
learning, e-learning, video conference, computer conference, SMS, e-mail,
web interaction, e-pals, Friendster and so on can be used in efforts to
exchange views among students of different cultures, thus, can curb
misconceptions. It can also create media literate teachers, especially
electronic media, which is gaining popularity in the academic world.
7.5 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY

Multi-cultural education is not only about the teaching and learning of certain
languages, but also looking at how the language develops worldview. Therefore,

to avoid a gap among cultures, critical pedagogy is not only a common teaching
methodology, but is also an attempt to look into the effects of social and culture
in relation to certain languages and civilisations. To study such relations, the
questions that are normally raised are: Improvisation occurs in which
civilisation? and Add-ons happen in which language and civilisation? These
differences are critical when looking at the level of civilisation of certain races.
How we combine knowledge is not instinctive in nature, but what is more
important is the knowledge structure in the context of certain cultures. In fact, we
can see the methods used by individuals within certain communities to search
for information and truth are also different. This is the underlying philosophy of
the critical pedagogy, which requires teachers to implement in the context of
multi-cultural education.
(a) Teachers skills in solving problems of students from various backgrounds

A teachers duty is not restricted to teaching. It would be incorrect for one
to join the teaching career merely thinking about how to impart knowledge
to students. The teaching career requires one to possess multiple skills in
carrying out his or her duties. According to Gay (2005), there are 14 skills
that a teacher should have. Among which are teaching, communication,
pedagogical, conceptual, technical, relationship, problem solving and
decision-making. One of the skills that is regarded as important in multi-
cultural education is the skill to deal with various problems faced by
students of different backgrounds. If we were to list these problems, there
are indeed too many complex issues. In a multi-cultural context, for
instance, Muslim students have different problems from Hindu students or
those who are Buddhist followers. From a race and ethnicity perspective,
Malay students have different problems than Chinese or Indian students.
Gender also shows a similar polar. The problems of male students are
different than those of females. It is said that female students are more
matured and committed to their work than male students, while students
from rural areas with low socio-economic status certainly have more
problems than those with higher socio-economic status. Students with low
socio-economic status will also face inferiority complex syndrome as
compared to those who are rich.
Problems that exist as a result of the different backgrounds will have an

effect on teachers in schools and classrooms. Focus should be given on
rational considerations so that every student can have the right to learn.
Hence, it is the teachers responsibility to use the skills required in
developing an individuals potential to sit in a class, learn together,
appreciate, respect and help one another. Eventually, the goal to provide
equality and justice can be achieved.

Skills can be acquired formally and informally. Formally, teachers should

take the opportunity to attend various courses and seminars, while
informally, teachers should be bold in trying out new skills as a result of
past experiences, in their efforts to solve students problems, or share
problems with other teachers who are more experienced and successful.
(b) Encouraging students to reflect upon the past, present and future
In the teaching and learning process, an effective way of applying
curriculum content is to encourage students to engage in self-reflection.
This is one of the skills to generate a high level of thinking in problem
solving, and in efforts to make assumptions and projections in the future.
A reflection process in the context of simple language is to evaluate and

analyse something which you have learnt in the context of past, present and
future. This process should be encouraged among students. In the process,
particularly in the multi-cultural education context, they can evaluate the
benefit of relationships among cultures. If there are no relationships, history
has shown that the economic and political situation of certain countries will
be destroyed. You will also encourage them to make future projections of
current situations and environments. The process can actually instil
attitudes and beliefs, as well as suitable cultural behaviour, so that we can
live in harmony in the future.
As a teacher, you should provide enough details and information in the

reflection process. You may try to expose your students to various hands
on cultural interaction experiences. The results of the reflection they
engage in are a clear process from historical and cultural inputs, as well as
new information that occur in community living.
What is important in the reflection process is that your students can

improve themselves, work towards putting themselves in accepted societal
norms and cultures, and eventually they can behave appropriately in line
with the cultures of dominant societies and their own cultures.
(c) Information dissemination to generate new ideas

As you know, in a borderless world, most communication scholars always
talk about knowledge management. In the knowledge process, the
emphasis is on is on the ways we disseminate knowledge to others, and
methods to ensure the knowledge we obtain has an impact on generating
new ideas which can inculcate a high level of thinking, and lastly to apply
the new ideas in a form that can benefit the majority of the society.

As a teacher, you should have a data bank. According to Jack Foster (2001)
in his book Ideaship, he states that information dissemination is
important in efforts to help others generate new ideas, encourage them to
think better, and help them create a more interesting and attractive
environment.
In the multi-cultural education context, the same aspect can be

implemented. Information dissemination in classrooms is not top-down in
nature or information from teachers to students. It can happen in horizontal
and vertical forms. Students are encouraged to provide information on
their cultures, races, languages, ethnicities and gender backgrounds, and all
these information are new knowledge to other students with different
backgrounds.
At this stage, teachers try to generate new ideas from the cultural
information that are given by students. Subsequently, teachers can
encourage discussions and brainstorming, in an effort to generate new
ideas among students. Teachers play a minimal role when ideas are
generated by the students.
New idea generation will encourage students to think creatively and

critically. They will produce ideas beyond cultural thinking and their
background. This is greatly encouraged. As teachers you should assess new
ideas, and give your views and opinions.
7.6 HOW TEACHERS MANAGE TEACHING

AIDS EFFECTIVELY
Teaching aids used in the teaching and learning process act as a catalyst to
improve students understanding. Creative and attractive teaching aids are
important in attracting students interest.
There are various effective ways to use teaching aids in the teaching and learning
process of multi-cultural education, such as:
You must convey your expectations to all students in your class. By doing
this, you can place attention to views and opinions, experiences and
contributions by students of different cultures in implementing the
curriculum content.
Teaching aids that are used can facilitate dialogues about culture, ethnic,
gender, language, and different socio-economic groups. Therefore, you will

not be creating any unfair situations against the differences that exist in
class.
From time to time you should check and assess textbooks, and teaching
materials that are often used to ensure that the languages, images and
pictures contained in the teaching aids are inclusive in nature towards all
cultures.
You should work towards ensuring the curriculum and teaching contents
are relevant with the students experiences, life, and perspective at all times.
Illustrations and concept attainment can be improved through elaborative
cultural explanation.
Based on the materials that are available, you should be creative and
responsive to changing the pedagogy in an effort to provide links among
students with their multiple learning styles.
You should attempt to provide vast opportunities to create interactive
learning. This is because peer interaction can improve students
understanding towards a concept, especially in understanding newly
introduced concepts in class.
It cannot be denied that in multi-cultural education, students always fall back on

their own culture in the form of language, space and time when interacting,
techniques and ways of solving certain problems, as well as styles and ways of
interacting. They also bring with them different experiences and framework of
reference in thinking about abstract ideas in a concrete manner. Teachers,
meanwhile, provide materials and teaching that can support the differences that
exist. Therefore, teaching materials that are used should help assimilate the
different cultures among students.
7.7 INDIVIDUAL-CENTRED PEDAGOGY

Selection of teaching methods depends on its needs and importance to students,
more so those involving students of different cultures or races. Hence,
individual-centred pedagogy is very important and effective in presenting
certain teaching contents.
(a) Students experience is put forward

An effective technique is to pick students experiences and use them as
examples in the learning process. The goal is to ensure that every student
will know these past experiences and make it useful in their learning. In
fact, teaching materials based on experiences is the main source for

teachers. Not all teaching aids are obtained from existing things but
students experiences can also help achieve learning goals.
Learning will be more meaningful if students experiences are presented

naturally and with humour so that students will not be bored and
pressured. This is especially the case when teachers can relate the
experiences with the real world.
(b) Reviewing the traditional model/approach

The objective of reviewing the traditional model/approach is to make it
suitable with the learning situation which emphasises on unity in diversity.
Multi-cultural education requires an approach that can present lesson
content effectively without creating difficulty among students.
Teachers are given total freedom to design the teaching method or

combining a traditional approach with a modern one. Only teachers know
about student learning problems because they are always confronting and
resolving students problems.
For students from multiple cultures, educators propose cooperative

learning, teaming up and grouping as an effective method because it
involves all students and fulfils a multi-cultural education.
(c) Emphasis on thinking skills, learning and social awareness

Pedagogy in multi-cultural education also emphasises on thinking skills
positively by searching for meaning and understanding of something, as
well as making considerations and decisions in a just and democratic
manner. The aim of this skill is to teach students to be able to evaluate the
reasonableness of certain ideas/issues and become evaluative.
Learning skills are also emphasised because students of multiple cultures

have various abilities. Learning skills require students to have listening,
reading, and writing, note-taking and memorising skills. These skills
encourage the application of other skills to collate information and
communicate ideas.
Social skills are very important to students as the initiators of social

interactions in classrooms. Social skills encompass leadership, decision
making, trust building, communication and conflict management. These
skills can be acquired directly or indirectly based on activities in
classrooms. However, teachers should control and provide guidelines so as
not to deviate from the multi-cultural education goals.

7.8 PEDAGOGY IN CLASSROOMS

In certain classrooms, there exist multiple students cultures and behaviours as
well as abilities. However, to reduce this diversity, the teachers roles are
important to ensure teaching and learning runs effectively. Therefore, pedagogy
in classrooms that have students of various cultures require personal approaches
which are acceptable to students.
(a) Cooperative learning

This is a method which involves a group of students working as a team to
solve problems or complete certain tasks to achieve similar goals. The main
focus is to encourage student interaction and cooperation in working
towards achieving success. The method is very suitable for students of
multiple cultures or races, abilities and capabilities.
The main principles of cooperative learning are:

Positively dependent on each other;
Face-to-face interaction;
Individuals are accountable towards their own learning;
Cooperative skills; and
Grouping process.
Examples of cooperative learning are:

(i) Roundtable Students take turns to provide answers;
(ii) Think pair square Students answer in pairs and share with other
classmates to provide an overall and comprehensive answer; and
(iii) Numbered heads together Each student is allocated a number. The
students will then be required to provide answers when their number
is called out.
Cooperative learning will encourage students to interact actively and

positively in teamwork. This will create a situation of sharing ideas, and
accepting views among them.
(b) Experiential learning

This learning occurs as a result of past experiences made into lessons and is
more meaningful if students are capable to make an example of the
experience and effectively apply it in real life.. This learning begins with a
concrete experience, followed by reflection as a result of observation. The

result of the reflection will be assimilated into a theory that is abstract, and
eventually forms a hypothesis that will be tested in a new situation. This
means that students will experience learning through three phases:
experiential learning phase, reflection phase and the third phase is towards
testing the experience in a new and challenging situation. All these will be
used in facing a new learning or new experience among students. The
illustrations is explained in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Experiential learning
(c) Simulation/Role Play

Simulation is a situation that is controlled and deliberately created to liken
real situation that occur with the aim of conducting training/practical to
solve certain problems. This technique will provide spontaneous experience
and a real picture of the situation.
In the context of classroom teaching and learning, it enables students to

imitate or do certain things in a pretentious manner while in an organised
and controlled situation. It is suitable for language, literature, geography,
history and science subjects. It can be administered in a small group or a big
one depending on the selected problem solving issues.

This technique provides students with the opportunity to interact,

appreciate, feel and accept views of others more effectively, particularly
among students of different races/cultures. It also encourages acceptance
and understanding of the feelings of others. Normally, there are two types
of simulations that are popular: role play and socio-drama. Role play is
more towards taking roles or reality training without any basic training. An
example is the role of interviewer and interviewee. Socio-drama refers to
acting certain characters spontaneously.
(d) Project
Technique is an activity that involves planning, implementing and
producing programmes that have been determined. A project requires:
Project goal Needs to be clear and can be achieved by students based
on age and background;
Project activity The type of project and deadline to complete certain
projects;
Expected results The expected results especially in terms of education
goal and students experience;
Evaluation Can become successful through checklists, project results,
scrap book and so on; and
Committee members Those involved and the role of each member.
This technique should be implemented in detail so that the education goal

through the project can be achieved. Providing certain projects require
location, time and suitable lesson content. In the context of multi-cultural
education, cultural based projects are better and produce meaningful
learning.
(e) Modelling
Modelling makes something as a lesson or guide in carrying out tasks that
are given. An example is the traditional attire of certain races. The attire can
become a model to solve the task given by a teacher. Students can answer
questions based on the model that is displayed or observed.

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Answer all questions below and provide examples in the Malaysian

context.
1. State three importance of pluralism in pedagogy along with
examples.
2. Give three advantages and disadvantages for each of the following:
(a) Critical Pedagogy;
(b) Individual-centred Pedagogy; and
(c) Media Pedagogy.
3. Explain the characteristics of cooperative learning with experiential
learning.
You have learnt about several pedagogies that are suitable for multi-
cultural education.
The basic pedagogical principles will help you implement them for
students of various cultures.
In the context of multi-cultural education, the same aspect has the same
value.
Teachers are required to have pedagogical skills or knowledge in their
efforts to ensure that learning objectives are achieved.
Actions that are made in classrooms are based on the skills that you have as
teachers.
The clear goal is to produce students who are able to interact, exchange
views, respect and understand one another, regardless of the
methodologies used.
This will occur because you, as a teacher, have succeeded to change their
worldview towards the culture and way of life of others.

Diversity Pedagogy
Equality Reflecting
Equity Spontaneous

Topic X Implications of
Multi-cultural
8 Education on
Teachers in
Classrooms
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the meaning of multi-cultural education;
2. Elaborate five implications when multi-cultural education is
implemented;
3. Analyse a suitable teaching approach to be used in multi-cultural
education; and
4. Distinguish the types of evaluation that can be used in testing the
multi-cultural education curriculum.
X INTRODUCTION
Teachers in the 21st century are faced with various cultural dilemmas in making
decisions on what should be taught and how to teach. This cannot be denied
because post modernism, globalisation, and the Information Technology era have
affected teachers roles. Teachers should be prepared to face changes in view of
the existing scenario where the social aspect is complex in nature due to political,
economic and social influences. However, it is not easy to teach students who
have one culture as opposed to those with different cultures in the same class.

108 X TOPIC 8 IMPLICATIONS OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION ON TEACHERS IN
CLASSROOMS
Questions such as What is the information required?, What are the cultural
context and its forms in the society?, and What are the values shared in the
dominant society? will arise. As a teacher, are you able to answer these
questions so that you will be truly effective in managing teaching and learning in
classrooms that comprise of students from various backgrounds?
As you are aware, a plural society has an obvious implication in a countrys

education. Pluralism means different ethnics, languages, attitudes and
behaviours, gender, cultures and races. Today, it cannot be denied that most
society is plural in nature. This is the typical nature of a modern society today;
homogeneity is extraordinary. History has shown that ethnic mix occurs through
conquering, namely war, colonisation and immigration. Hence, a plural society is
always characterised by inequality and conflict. Pluralism creates differences,
social and economic inequality, prejudice and misconception.
These scenarios have an implication on the education system of certain countries.

In fact, cultural diversity has attracted the attention of the Western society since
the 1970s and 1980s. In fact, they view this issue as something educational and
professional in nature. Based on equality and human rights, maximising national
capacity and defending social justice, this issue has become the focus of most
society in the globalised era. Hence, it is the teachers duty as educators to strive
to eliminate all teachings that can raise uncomfortable situations in the society,
prejudicial attitude, unjust practice and so on.
However, it is quite saddening that minimal effort is focused to create a teachers

education that is strong and professional to provide basic facilities for them,
school administrations and management and educational researchers in the
context of the plural society. Hence, teachers in the 21st century are faced with
various cultural dilemmas in making decisions on how and what will be taught
in the context of a multi- cultural education. How would you manage a
classroom comprising of students from different lifestyles, backgrounds, gender,
religions, values and practices? What are the information you need in making
decisions or accurate selections? What are the cultural forms and societal context?
What are the values that can be shared in a society where its culture is very
dominant? Take a minute to reflect on these questions.
In the Malaysian context, multi-cultural education is one of the approaches that

can create a society that respect one another and can live in harmony.

TOPIC 8 IMPLICATIONS OF MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION ON TEACHERS IN W 109
CLASSROOMS
ACTIVITY 8.1
In your view, what are the approaches suitable to be adopted in the multi-
cultural education teaching and learning process?
8.1 CURRICULUM
Taba (1962) in the International Encyclopaedia of Curriculum (1991) states that
curriculum is a plan for teaching. Meanwhile, Tanner & Tanner (1975) states that
curriculum is planning and teaching. What will be taught, and what are the
contents to be exposed to students? Olivia (1997 in Kenneth T. Henson) interprets
curriculum as something that is taught in school; as a set of subjects; as a research
programme; or as part of experiences that are taught in school.
Hence, from the above definitions, multi-cultural education curriculum has

similar meanings but the content is focused on various cultures. Therefore, multi-
cultural education curriculum that is to be taught to students should consist of
cultural, gender, economic status, social, race and ethnic aspects. This is
important because firstly the goal of multi-cultural education is to ensure that
students gain knowledge on the diversity and complexity of culture, gender,
race, ethnic, and differences of every member of the society. The multi-cultural
education curriculum is inclusive to all cultures. Secondly, the goal of multi-
cultural education curriculum is aimed at inculcating respect among students of
different cultural backgrounds, religions, races, economic status and gender.
Multi-cultural education curriculum is formulated to develop students ability to
function in a plural society and identify the differences that exist. Therefore,
multi-cultural education should consist of perspectives of women, men, the rich
and the poor, race, ethnic and culture.
(a) Curriculum Reform/ Change

Curriculum is sensitive to all changes that occur in societies. Curriculum is
also complicated because the aim is to facilitate teaching, while the teaching
itself is too complex and difficult to understand. To remain elective,
curriculum must be responsive towards changes in society, government
policies and students behaviour. Failure to change curriculum in line with
the changes that occur will result in the whole education system not
functioning to meet the needs and requirements of the society.
There are various concepts on multi-cultural education curriculum. What is

clear is that the transformational approach of multi-cultural education

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occurs from slight changes to total changes of social awareness and societal
act concept. James Banks (1993) and Mcintosh (2000) formulated a
continuum in changes in curriculum to help create transformation,
although very little changes occur in total. Banks (1993) and Mcintosh
(2000) listed several steps and strategies, which became models. They
divided multi-cultural education curriculum changes into five stages:
(b) Stage 1: Curriculum of the mainstream

Mainstream curriculum is a curriculum that influences and dominates what
is called as Western-centric and male-centric. This indirectly denies
experiences, hopes, and contributions from individual perspectives or
groups that are not dominant in curriculum content. In fact, all educational
materials such as textbooks, films, teaching aids and materials present
information that are euro-centric and male-centric. This stage is a
dangerous stage for dominant students and those from non-dominant
groups. It gives negative and dangerous impact according to Banks (1993):
forcing pretentious superiority values, giving wrong concept in

relations with other ethnics, and denying opportunities and benefits to
acquire knowledge, perspective, cultural framework that should be
obtained by appreciating cultures of other ethnic groups.
The curriculum of dominant groups will lead students from non-dominant

groups to fail in valuing culture, their own cultural experience and
perspective, in addition to school culture which is dominated by
mainstream groups where they are forced to adapt themselves with new
culture which is certainly different from their own.
(c) Stage 2: Hero and Holidays

Teachers at this stage highlight differences that exist in information
integration, or sources on famous individuals, and cultural artefacts from
various races and ethnics in the mainstream curriculum. Billboards in
schools should display pictures of countrys leaders and freedom fighters.
Teachers can also plan to hold festivities for celebrations of certain groups.
This involves learning the costumes, food, music, and foreign cultural
elements. The strength of this approach is teachers strive to shift
mainstream curriculum content by providing materials and knowledge out
of the mainstream curriculum. This approach is easy to implement with the
help of a little knowledge from teachers.

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(d) Stage 3: Integration

Teachers will act more drastically in implementing an integration process
by adding materials and knowledge about non-dominant groups into the
curriculum. Changes in multi-cultural education curriculum must focus on
the following matters:
All multi-cultural education curriculum contents must have gone
through the process of researching and detailed research so that every
cultural element that is discussed is accurate and complete;
All subjects that will be taught should be seen from various angles of
knowledge fields;
Inclusive curriculum must comprise voices, views and opinions of all
students in certain classes;
Inculcating a positive perspective towards literary works and not only
having a narrow view that the best literary works are only from the
West; and
Curriculum that is formulated must reflect the different teaching styles
of all students.
(e) Content and educational process

As explained previously, multi-cultural education should be inclusive in
nature, where cultural aspect, gender, socio-economic status, race, ethnic
and religion are crucial elements that should be given attention. This is
because the multi-cultural education process will only be implemented to
easily focus and create an effective educational process, where every
student in the classroom feels appreciated, and gain equity and equality.
(i) Curriculum Content

Issues related to content is the basic question in discussing its
implication on curriculum. According to Jerry Aldridge & Renitta
Goldman (2002), generally the content of Multi- Cultural education
comprises two important elements that have close relations with
cultural literacy. They are mainstream cultural literacy curriculum
and marginalised cultural literacy curriculum. For example,
mainstream cultural literacy curriculum in a history lesson such as
Who is the warrior Hang Tuah? Hang Tuah is said to be a Malay
warrior. This is a fact that is stressed in the mainstream cultural
literacy curriculum. However, from a different perspective, some
Malay historical researchers specifically stated that Hang Jebat is the
Malay warrior, and not Hang Tuah.
The second view is called marginalised cultural literacy curriculum.

By referring to the cultural aspect, both perspectives are said to be
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insufficient. According to Jerry Aldridge & Renitta Goldman (2002)

again, the third option is called critical literacy. If we teach students to
consider various views and opinions from various sources, hence we
are teaching them how to assess their sources of reference. Questions
such as the following should be asked: Who made the statement?,
Who supported the opinion?, Who are marginalised? and Who
are lagging in airing their views in matters that are discussed?. This
is because knowledge comprises political and cultural contents. What
we learnt in schools have political, social, cultural and environmental
elements. Hence, our job as teachers should be to explain to students
their assessment, analysis and understanding of what they have read
from various angles.
(ii) Education Process: How should teachers teach?

According to Gary D. Borich (2000), there are several teachers
behaviours that can contribute towards effective teaching in a class
that has students of various backgrounds and cultures. The practices
are:
Teachers should provide an encouraging learning climate by
providing maximum aid for students.
Encourage students to provide a response to each lesson.
Teachers should present teaching materials in an organised
manner to suit students background and emphasise concrete
knowledge before discussing abstract ones. Teachers should also
monitor students performance, while helping those who need
help and guidance immediately.
Prepare curriculum with materials that have been standardised in
efforts to meet individual students needs. Teachers should use
media, teaching resources, and personal experience to increase
students interest and attention.
According to Rothstein-Fisch, 1998: Triandis, 1989 (in Jerry Aldridge &

Renitta Goldman 2002), the most complex issue in multi-cultural
education is the different values between majority and minority
students. This complex issue is that of collectivism and individualism
values.
According to Zeichner (1993), there are several important elements in

multi-cultural teaching, among them:
Teachers must have a clear picture about their own ethnic and
identity;

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Have high hopes on the success of all students that they teach;
Teachers personally are very committed to increase and practise
equity for all students and have confidence on the best
achievements on students learning;
Always have good relations with students;
Students are exposed to academic curriculum that is challenging
in inculcating high level cognitive skills;
Teachers teaching focus on forming meaning of certain content by
students in an interactive and collaborative environment;
Work is regarded as very meaningful by students;
Curriculum is inclusive to different cultures;
Teachers explicitly expose school culture and at the same time
defend their own cultural identity; and
Parents are encouraged to be involved in creating fairness and
equality for all humans.
Hence, teachers should know in detail about students background so

that the teaching and learning process can be implemented effectively
and achieve its objectives.
8.2 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION TEACHING

TECHNIQUES, METHODS, STRATEGIES
AND APPROACHES
As a teacher, you already know concepts of teaching approaches, strategies,
methods and techniques. Before we discuss further on multi- cultural curriculum
teaching and learning, teachers should have own methods, well-planned
teaching and learning methods, suitable techniques and fixed strategies in their
teaching process. Organised preparation made by teachers will enable students
to understand what is presented easily, systematically and will become an
interesting teaching and learning process that is fun for students of different
backgrounds and cultures.
8.2.1 Approaches
Al Ramiah (1990) quoted Sorenson and Gross (1963), who defined approach as
an attempt to arrange and coordinate deduction procedures or observation of

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teachers behaviours and attitudes. Meanwhile, Mohd Salleh Lebar (1998)

defined approach as the way we view and come up with definition of certain
occurrences. It can be said that approach is actually referring to the way certain
subjects is taught with the aim of achieving its objectives. Approach is normally
beneficial for the long term and it comprises models and principles or learning
theories of certain lessons.
In the context of multi-cultural education curriculum teaching and learning,

suitable thinking skills should be taught through methods that balance students
thinking towards different cultures around them. Hence, teachers must plan the
contents to be taught as well as methods and activities that can develop thinking
skills in line with teaching goals that should be achieved. Just like homework,
another effective way is to have suitable activities made up of questions
organised according to the Bloom Taxanomy and various flowchart and mapping
concepts that can link one idea to another. It can expose students to different
cultures, appreciation of cultures, gender aspects, and even different economical
concepts. In fact, approaches adopted by a teacher who is involved in multi-
cultural teaching and learning should have effects on inculcation of culture and
attitude of tolerance on cultures of others.
8.2.2 Strategies
According to Kamus Dewan (2002), strategy means proper planning to achieve
goals or successes. Meanwhile, Kamaruddin Hj Husin (1990) views strategy as
referring to a set of teaching act, which is aimed at achieving the product that
is required.
Hence, we can summarise that strategy is planning or framework or plan that has
been formulated or acts that have been made in efforts to help an organisation
fulfil ideal goals. Future plans are called strategy that have been planned, while
actions that are made is called strategy that is produced. For teachers, strategy is
a form of an organised teaching and learning plan before entering a classroom,
where such strategy consists of an induction set, lesson content plan during
certain times, activity planning to achieve bjectives as well as a plan for
concluding lessons. A strategy that is well prepared can help distribute resources
that are available into a unique and solid situation after taking into consideration
internal efficiency and estimated environmental change. Therefore, strategy can
be summarised as a series of incidents that have been planned and extended, and
teachers can use substantive changes for students.
For instance, praises is a crucial strategy to develop students self-dignity and

personal strength. Praises have a strong motivational power to stimulate
students success. Good and effective teachers will use praises to attract students
attention and stimulate their teaching and involvement. Students who always
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receive praises from teachers because of their efforts and works have a positive
self image which can lead to their success in studies. Such recognition is very
important to build students confidence and self-dignity. Praises should also be
given to students in various forms such as giving positive comments about
students, good grades and developing students self dignity, as well as praising
any effort that demonstrates progress made by students. Teachers should be
generous in extending praises to students because it is a motivation for them.
In determining certain learning strategies, several factors should be considered,

namely, methods and techniques that should be used, teaching aids that are
available in schools, knowledge available in students, students abilities and
interests, teachers skills when teaching with the use of teaching aids in lessons
and class control when applying the strategies.
There are several types of strategies that can be used in class. Some of them are
basic skills network consolidation strategy, such as reading, writing and
calculating, lesson content absorption strategy, teacher-centred strategy, student-
centred strategy and material-centred strategy. All these are suitable to be
applied in multi-cultural education teaching and learning.
8.2.3 Methods
S. Sukumaran (1992) discussed several basic methods that are adopted in
teaching and learning of Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (KBSM).
Based on KBSM, teaching has been modified to be student-centred because active
students involvement in teaching and learning is encouraged. The student-
centred method is said to be very suitable with multi-cultural education teaching
and learning.
Traditionally, many teachers are still using the direct approach or explanation
method based on textbooks and this is practiced for all topics, students and classes.
This method is unsuitable for a multi-cultural education. Such an education should
not be practised through a reading and comprehension method such as
language subject, which is monotonous in nature and boring to students. Although
some teachers have successfully implemented the direct approach method, there
are many disadvantages such as lack of variation or diversity, and it can hinder the
presentation of curriculum of culture, which is diverse and different from one
another.
Various types of teaching materials, guides or medium such as pictures,

television, radio, charts, overhead projectors and computer can be used to help
ensure a smooth teaching and learning process as well as ensuring students
understand faster and more thoroughly. In addition, in multi-cultural education,
these materials certainly help teachers in efforts to create realistic situations in
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classrooms. In fact, teachers should provide opportunities for students to follow

learning practically, based on realistic situations of culture and societys life, and
not only focusing merely on theory or community living.
Learning is regarded as a cognitive thinking and skills mastering process.

Therefore, teachers should have the strength on the following aspects, which are,
knowledge and understanding on contents (what will be taught) and knowledge
and understanding on teaching method (how to teach). Both should complement
each other.
Among the methods that can be applied in multi-cultural education teaching are
projects, questioning, case research, study visit, demonstration, brainstorming,
role play, simulation, lecture, mapping, inquiry, finding and so on.
(a) Project Method

Project method is a teaching and learning activity that provides learning
experience for students. Activities given to students should focus on
tapping students interest, their needs and meeting learning goals. Several
steps should be followed when teachers use this method in multi-cultural
education teaching and learning to ensure effectiveness, namely:
Activities that are carried out will only be regarded as a project if it
places emphasis on students needs and interests.
Students will enjoy the experience from learning when doing activity
projects. They will directly be exposed to various cultures, genders,
races and ethnics. Therefore, they should be given the opportunity to
choose their own projects which they will carry out willingly.
Teachers should ensure that the projects are well planned by students
but carried out with the teachers help.
Projects that are well planned should be implemented carefully.
Assessment on projects should be held after the projects are completed
to ensure that the original objectives are achieved.
Teachers should also ensure that values such as cooperation,
responsibility, leadership, determination, respecting one anothers
cultures, interaction among students in the process of completing the
projects, and originality exist in students when applying the project
method.
Teachers should act as advisor, counsellor, judge, chairman, listener and
assessor as well as sympathise with students whenever necessary.

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Learning activities through the project method are carried out after
students have mastered certain skills. Unlike most other methods, the
project method requires more than one teaching period as more time is
required to prepare such projects. Nevertheless, the real teaching duration
can be used to discuss projects that will be carried out or used to show
results.
According to Pavlov Classic Norm, learning can occur as a result of

stimulation and reaction. Stimulation can be associated with another
stimulation to bring about learning. For instance, a teacher creates an
exciting and fun teaching and learning environment, such as having
activities that can attract students attention or discussing songs. Hence,
students are linked or stimulated (learning environment) to one another
(fun). The students will always have the desire to go to school if there are
fun teaching and learning activities. They will be happy to learn, mingle
with their peers, and ultimately, it will realise the actual goal of multi-
cultural education that is equity and equality. There will be no prejudice
and so on.
(b) Survey Method

This method requires students to conduct a survey on cultures, religions
and own genders or that of their peers. Students are given a certain time to
conduct surveys that have been set by teachers. Students need to record
information on the culture that is being studied during the survey duration.
Students are required to present the information obtained from the
findings. The presentation must encompass topics and aspects that are
fixed.
Students will divide their survey into three. Firstly, observation, for
example, students leave their class to count how many people are crossing
the road that has been fixed. Aside from that, they also need to know things
that are closely related to clothing, and language used. The second step is
discussion. This process occurs between teachers and students, and
students and their peer groups, whereby information is shared. Thus,
weaker students can improve their understanding with the help of their
peer groups. Subsequently, the third step is researching. They are required
to prepare a special record book so that the facts that are obtained can be
recorded and stored properly. Students then do practical work. They will
present and state information that is obtained in the form of pictures,
drawings or certain models using symbols in displaying their observations.
Eventually, students are required to prepare reports as a result of the
research that they have conducted. This survey method provides a lot of
opportunities to students to acquire knowledge, while making full use of

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their senses to observe, interpret, analyse and eventually draw a conclusion.

Generally, this will develop students intellectual, spiritual and social
potential. In the multi-cultural education context, students can think and
understand certain cultures more clearly as a result of the primer
information obtained.
(c) Role Play Method

Role play method is used in learning activities in classrooms to provide
students the opportunity to carry out role playing in front of their
classmates in an organised and controlled manner with the aim of
proposing solutions to certain problems that arise. Role playing is based on
topics that are learnt in class. Students participate by using knowledge that
they have acquired in the real situation.
Before beginning the activity, teachers create a problematic situation

relating to the topic that is taught and will provide a brief explanation on
the situation. Students will visualise the arising situation and subsequently
act it out spontaneously according to the situation they imagine. During the
role playing, students must think and arrange their ideas properly to show
their perceived solution. At the end of the lesson, teachers should guide
students to make a conclusion of the role play. Indirectly, role play is a
method that can help teachers explain theories that are taught and know
how far their students understand as well as distinguish their abilities and
achievements.
Among the advantages of the role play method are:
It provides an opportunity to students to take part in the learning

process aside from mastering language skills spontaneously through
role play.
It trains students to think spontaneously and solve problems as soon as
possible in a controlled environment.
It increases students understanding on topics they have learnt by
bringing in real situations from outside into classrooms.
Based on Banduras (1969) social theory, copying humans learning

behaviours occur by observing reactions that are displayed. According to
Bandura, copying will only occur if the following happens:
Close observation given to reactions to be copied either through sight,
sound or use of other senses.
Observation results are stored in memory.

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Reactions that occur are based on what are seen, heard and felt.
Rewards are given to strengthen the reaction.
Therefore, in classrooms, this theory contributes to teaching techniques such

as role play and simulation. Teachers play a role in creating certain
situations to teach noble values, cultural activities, gender practices, act roles
and so on.
(d) Discussion Method

This method is normally used for whole-class discussions. One of the
methods that are often used by teachers to encourage students to socialise
as well as seek information is through discussions. In this method, teachers
play a crucial role as a facilitator to students. Teachers should understand
the discussions that are carried out so that they can provide guidance and
guide students facing problems during discussions. Apart from that, this
method can motivate students to seek information and learn more
thoroughly while having in-depth discussions.
The discussion method can be defined as conversations or discussions with

several people about certain important matters or objectives. This method
requires a lot of skills and training. When a teacher manages a whole-class
discussion, the teacher always has to be in the right discussion scope and
find ways to refocus the discussion while encouraging students to listen
carefully at all views that are aired during the discussion.
Before the discussion method is carried out, teachers should ensure that
students have basic knowledge or history of the matter that will be
discussed, in this context, possibly their own cultures. Discussions cannot
be carried out if students do not have any knowledge of the topic which is
their own cultures. Sometimes, discussions can be carried out before
instructions are given to stimulate students interests about the topic of
discussion. However, information about the discussions should be given
when managing them.
In effective approaches, the whole-class discussion method encourages

students to study their views to interact and assess other students ideas
and improve their learning skills during the lesson.
(i) One-Way Discussion-Explanation From Teachers

Lectures involve one-way interaction between teachers and students.
This results in students becoming passive. Students are merely the
audience and teachers are the active players. The senses that are used
are only eyes and ears. This contradicts with the learning theory

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which requires a variety of senses being involved in certain teaching

and learning sessions.
Teachers can motivate the students interest at the beginning of the

lesson. This is important when starting a new subject or learning unit.
Teachers can motivate and stimulate students interests and curiosity
through the lecture materials that will be presented.
Through the lecture method alone it is difficult for teachers to

measure students learning stage.
Lecture is only given at a suitable time such as when starting or
introducing a new topic.
Teachers should give lectures in an interesting manner and use
analogy, comparison, illustrations and other teaching aids.
(ii) Two-way Discussion

Teaching and learning session should be inserted with questions and
discussions that are suitable for two way interactions to be developed
in the teaching and learning process. These kind of activities will
produce students with good communication skills and confident in
presenting their ideas to teachers. Discussions are a very good way to
help students understand difficult ideas and concepts. Besides that,
multiple-way discussions can form social relationships and students
can learn the cultural aspects of their classmates from various
backgrounds. Information is obtained in an open environment. Apart
from that, there are elements of cooperation, helpfulness,
respectfulness and willingness to listen to views of others. Aside from
that, the element of patience with peer behaviours indirectly helps
develop students skills to debate calmly during discussions. All these
will help students learn social skills, aside from understanding as well
as practice noble values in life.
Discussions can be done in a big or small group. In this sort of

discussion, the entire class will participate. Normally, in such
sessions, teachers act as chairperson of the discussions. Teachers
extract materials that the students will discuss through a variety of
questions posed to the class. Meanwhile, in small group discussions,
teachers will divide the class into smaller groups with a chairperson
heading each group. Teachers act as facilitators, moving from one
group to another while asking questions aimed at ensuring the
discussion moves towards the direction that has been set.

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Importance of Discussion Method

This method enables students to collate ideas, analyse and train
them to either accept or reject certain ideas raised in the topics of
discussions.
Discussion improves creative thinking capability and information
processing in students cognitive development.
Teaching methods through discussion increases existing
knowledge through an exchange of information among the group
members.
Discussion is an important method for problem solving.
Discussion encourages students to give opinions and criticisms on
a certain topic.
The discussion process of certain topics concerning culture or social

and economic aspects can guide an abstract learning process (Bridges,
1997, 1987). According to Bridges again, interaction in a group is an
important component because it forms towards the direction of
observation and analysis of certain topics. Discussion enables students
to understand better about certain topics by analysing information by
every student involved in the discussion.
In using the discussion method to educate students, interaction

should be carried out seriously whereby students support their ideas
with evidence. The views that are raised refer to competition between
their group members and teachers. Teachers ideas are also open to
criticisms (Engle & Ochoa 1988, P. 47). Engle and Ochoa also stated
that objectives and contradicting aspects or views are to encourage
interaction and students to act with any solid evidence that they have.
Purpose of Discussion in Class

To develop a high level of thinking as a thinking skill that enables
students to interpret, analyse and manage information skilfully.
The discussion method is aimed at helping linking students with
lessons through:
Reaction stimulation;
Making analogues; and
Bringing alternative ideas into the topic of discussion.

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To guide students in thinking ahead and not only to just know

present information.
The discussion method is also aimed at stimulating skills and
abilities to fulfil instructional teaching goals.
To encourage students to develop their knowledge themselves
based on the given topics.
Discussions provide students exposure to different views.
Discussions help students improve and subsequently increase
their skills and abilities to interact with one another.
Advantages of Discussion Method

A discussion that incorporates situations and occurrences in the
real world will motivate students to have more in-depth
knowledge about the topic that is discussed as it has raised
students interest and curiosity. Indirectly, the discussion method
helps students identify the relationship that exists between
concepts and topic of discussion.
Group discussion helps students understand a topic clearly
because the interaction process and conversation that occur during
the discussion may explain any questions that exist in their
minds.
Teachers are able to identify the level of students understanding
and will know students opinions or perception on the topic
discussed.
Students can develop an efficiency in discussion, which will
become a skill that will extend beyond the classroom.
In the multi-cultural education context, discussion is the best method

in efforts to inculcate students social interaction.
(e) Practical Work Method

Practical work method can be defined as one that is applied whereby
students use materials to learn concepts or facts about culture, race, ethnic
and gender. Teaching and learning activities that use this method will give
students the confidence in their learning. They can easily understand and
remember certain concepts. Students will receive psychomotor training
through their own work and at the same time have fun in learning
activities.

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(f) Induction Method

The induction method is used to get conclusions, facts or basic
characteristics of research on learning activities that are carried out in
classrooms. This method requires students to study situational illustrations
that are given in order to draw comparisons and analyse until a solution is
achieved. Therefore, its effectiveness depends on students achievement
levels. If students still have not mastered the necessary skills, then teachers
need to give proper guidance.
(g) Deductive Method

The deductive method can be defined as one that uses theory to get
conclusions or new generalisations. This method is more complex because
it requires students to obtain vast experience and sufficient knowledge to
make the conclusion. Teachers role is as a facilitator and guide so that
students are clear with the concepts or skills that are to be presented. This
method is only effective if teachers are wise in controlling the learning
environment in class.
(h) Discovery-Inquiry Method

This method encompasses all activities such as planning, investigating,
analysing and finding. It requires skills such as drawing comparison and
seeking similar characteristics to generalise. This method is closely linked to
the practical work method. Through this method, the spirit of curiosity can
be instilled in students. Learning will become more meaningful and they
will easily remember their lessons. Through experience and observation,
students will like the discovery-inquiry method because they have the
opportunity to explore and seek for answers.
Ethnographic inquiry focuses on explaining the culture of a society, aimed

at understanding in-depth about certain societys way of life from the
perspective of the native society of a race. Anthropologists often use this
method to study culture, which is exotic, but important to know the life
experiences of certain races. Ethnographic inquiry involves observation
activities and interviews that are useful for teachers and students.
Observation is done to help teachers and students understand society,
schools, and classrooms, particularly those that have multi- culture
characteristics.
(i) Exposition Method

The exposition method is an information dissemination method, explaining
concepts, facts, principles or lesson contents to students in class. This
method involves presenting lessons through explanation, storytelling or
demonstration. When using this method, teachers should provide an

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explanation first and students listen carefully until they understand or

record them in their books.
(j) Problem Solving Method

Problem solving is an activity that involves problems in the form of words,
non-mechanism problems, guesswork, quiz or problem solving in real
situations. This method is said to be effective because it encourages
students to be actively involved in terms of cognitive mind and physical.
However, this approach is complex to be carried out for all levels of
students. Students cognitive level is the main complication because this
method is more suitable for students who have mastered the necessary
skills earlier.
(k) Cooperative Learning Method

The method adopting cooperative learning is one of the most likeable
methods used by teachers. Cooperative learning is a teaching method
whereby students cooperate in smaller groups and help one another to
complete individual or group tasks. There are various benefits in
implementing this method in business management studies, as it is suitable
to be used in a class with multiple abilities. We should realise that students
do not come from one category or the same background but from various
background and levels of cognitive. Teachers should take this into
consideration before any teaching and learning activities are implemented.
This method encourages positive feelings along with appreciative,
supportive and respect of one another, excel in students academic, social
and psychological achievements. Other advantages are as follows:
Positive reliance on one another;
Individual responsibility;
Simultaneous interaction;
Equal involvement;
Face-to-face interaction;
Social skills; and
Group processing.
(l) Constructivism-based Learning Method

This new method known as constructivism gives new ideas on learning and
cognitive growth. It states that students develop knowledge actively. It also
states that students do not merely receive ideas that are given to them
directly but they are actually creating ideas. Research shows that games
and experiments are important elements in this method. Games involve

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consideration on a combination of new ideas and hypothetical results on

certain occurrences and situations.
(m) Learning Technique

Technique refers to small units that exist in certain methods. Technique
encompasses activities, teachers skills and behaviours that are applied in
teaching. Therefore, teaching technique can be defined as teachers skills in
handling and implementing steps in teaching activities. It emphasises on
how to use teaching resources and guide learning steps. In other words,
technique refers to teachers behaviour when using certain teaching methods.
In the multi-cultural education context, technique plays a crucial role in
improving students appreciation on curriculum content that is inclusive in
nature. The objective of teaching technique is to attract students interest,
maintain their attention throughout teaching, and stimulate curiosity in
students. There are various teaching techniques that can be applied in
implementing steps planned by teachers. Among them are:
(i) Drill-and-Practice Technique
The objective of this technique is to achieve mastery of skills level,
aside from to assure its permanency. It can be used to achieve certain
skills such as citing concepts or remembering important facts.
Through this technique, students will go through understanding and
application processes.
(ii) Brainstorming Technique
This technique is known as brainstorming, which is a discussion
session that enables every group member to contribute opinions and
ideas. It is regarded as a more serious and complex discussion activity
at the secondary school level. It emphasises on contribution of ideas
from creative learning and not analytical learning. All proposals and
ideas that are raised should be recorded to be discussed in general
sessions. Every member is given the opportunity to contribute
suggestions and they are encouraged to contribute as many ideas as
possible. An informal discussion environment should be created.
Proposals and ideas that are raised should not be criticised.
(iii) Games Technique
A game is an activity that can be carried out in learning various
cultures. Involvement in a game provides opportunity for students to
obtain intensive training, meaningful learning and as a diagnostic
instrument. Most activities that are carried out will use various skills,
among them listening skills and problem solving. This direction is
interpreted through implicit objective in stimulating students verbal
interaction to improve proficiency and confidence in preparing

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learning context that acts as instruments to eliminate boredom,

therapy, reinforcement and styling.
(iv) Question-and-Answer Technique
This technique can effectively create interaction between teachers and
students. It is implemented by way of teachers posing questions
related to lesson content and students are required to give appropriate
feedback. Questions require students to think while testing and
assessing what they have learnt. The main objectives of the question-
and-answer technique are to identify students existing knowledge, to
encourage students to think creatively, innovatively, logically and
critically, and to motivate students to arrange and elaborate materials
that are taught.
(v) Quiz Technique
Teachers can reinforce teaching and enhance students understanding
about certain topics. Students can do revision while having fun.
Students can forget their problems by posing questions through
quizzes. Students can learn this method as a new way of thinking.
(vi) Brainstorming Technique
This technique is chosen for learning stage 1 and 2 because during this
session, discussion among group members takes place to enable every
group to contribute towards the production of ideas and opinions.
The best ideas will be presented to their teacher through a mind
mapping completion activity. At the second learning stage, students
will sit in groups to solve summative questions prepared by their
teacher and later resubmitted to students for checking. Teachers will
give the correct answers to students.
(vii) Question-and-Answer Technique
This technique is capable of effectively creating interaction between
teacher and students. It is implemented by way of teachers posing
questions relating to multi-cultural education content, which is
presented and students are required to give appropriate feedback as
done by teachers in the induction set. At the same time, teachers can
ask students about cultural aspects, gender and economic status. Such
questions can test students existing knowledge on topics that are
discussed. This technique is also used by teachers at the end of the
lesson where teachers pose questions regarding the lesson that has
been taught and students answer based on their understanding and
ability to recall. Questioning can encourage students to think
critically, analytically and gain feedback logically and accurately. This
technique can help link teachers and students and unite groups
through interaction.

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(n) Teaching Style that is Modified

It is found that students experiences are closely related to their socio-
economic status, economy, culture, language and the way they learn. As a
teacher, you should implement the teaching and learning process for
students based on these different situations. In the teaching process,
individual differences should be taken into consideration. This is because
firstly, by recognising the differences of every student, you will be able to
help them use their experiences. Hence, based on their knowledge, you will
be able to teach more effectively in meeting individual learning
requirements. Secondly, by understanding your students differences in
background, you will be able to understand your students problems,
strengths and weaknesses individually. This will help you change your
teaching styles so that they will be suitable and proper with their
experiences.
Studies show that teachers who apply instructional strategies on their
students different abilities demonstrate improvements in their academic
performance. As an example, lessons such as student-centred discussions
can improve performance of students who have already achieved good
results. Meanwhile, teacher-centred teaching has benefited students whose
academic performances are at low and average levels.
According to Gary D. Borich (2000), adaptive teaching is said to be suitable
for students who have different cultural backgrounds, languages, gender
and socio-economic status. There are two approaches in adaptive teaching.
The first one is the Remedial Approach. This approach equips students
with knowledge, skills or basic behaviour that benefit low achievers. As an
example, you can have the high achievers carry out a student-centred
discussion before beginning a lecture or lesson to benefit the other students.
Or you can teach listening skills to students who are not proficient in
pronunciation before using a linguistic approach for the other students.
Therefore, both groups will benefit from this remedial approach. The
remedial approach can be implemented at a certain time in developing
skills or behaviours that are required.
The second approach is the Compensatory Approach. This approach
enables you as a teacher to choose suitable methods to compensate the lack
of knowledge and skills. Teachers modify lesson content in their efforts to
overcome students weaknesses and enhance their strengths and
capabilities. Providing teaching aids that are suitable and can facilitate
content can do this. Teachers can use teaching mediums such as films,
illustrations and pictures and facilities at a level that is more complex such
as simulation, experience based workbooks, collating portfolios and so on.

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Adaptive teaching can improve the success of all students regardless of

individual differences. This is done through the remedial method or
remedy, and compensatory method. Therefore, in adaptive teaching, an
important pre-requisite is for you know and understand your students
abilities to suit the instructional choices that can improve their acceptance
capacity.
(o) Classroom Management and Various Activity Structures
Multi-cultural classroom management plays a crucial role in ensuring
students interaction run smoothly in a harmonious environment and
encouraging interaction and collaborative learning. Therefore, teachers
should be prepared to promote a positive classroom climate for all
students. Hence, the whole school culture should always be monitored and
assessed so that there are no negative cultures which are racist in nature, or
pressures towards certain groups. The school administration must always
assess teachers teaching and learning process so that negative practices in
class will not occur. The question of discrimination, nepotism, sexism and
so on does not arise. The school administration should also ensure that
teachers have a high level of consciousness for the different cultures and
students backgrounds.
Teaching and learning activities should vary, stimulate and attract
students interests as well as have knowledge value, and lessons that can
develop students attitudes towards the equity and equality aspect of
societal life which has various cultural backgrounds. The objectives of
every activity that is carried out should be directed towards creating
feelings of respect for one another, understanding among cultures, tolerant
towards differences and eventually students can interact harmoniously
based on the differences that exist.
Craviotto and Heras (1999) listed several characteristics of a classroom that

can integrate curriculum and classroom culture, namely:
Students families are the main source of knowledge;
Culture and literature are used as a source of understanding certain
cultures from various perspectives;
Students are regarded as catalysts of knowledge of their active culture;
Active dialogue in classrooms is an important aspect in cultural;
Teachers make the effort to create a corner for students to learn, explore
and discuss with peers; and
Encourage usage of several languages in classrooms as a medium of
communication.

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Hence, as a teacher, you should be able to manage your classrooms the best
way possible so that students are comfortable, the teaching and learning
process takes place effectively, and your classroom is effective in the multi-
cultural education context where the melting pot process occurs.
8.3 TEACHING SOURCE

The various teaching source are discussed here.
(a) Various media
In multi-cultural education, you should use various media as your teaching
aid. As teachers who live in the IT era, you should use interactive strategies
in your teaching, particularly in multi-cultural education.
(i) Computer and the Internet

Computers can play a variety of roles in maintaining and enhancing
students interests in a classroom. In fact, a computer can help
teachers to encourage students to accept, appreciate, understand and
recognise the differences that exist. Teachers can teach different
ethnics, genders and so on using computer as a live display.
Computers can help not only teachers but also students in improving
their understanding as well as applying their efficiency and skills to
use the computer. Teaching resources from the Internet is easily
obtainable, particularly when teachers seek to access aspects on
culture, race, ethnic and so on.
(ii) CD-Rom
CD-Rom is user friendly. You can choose any CD to be played, which
will really help you in presenting your lessons. This innovation has
been widely used in schools in our country.
(iii) Recording Events: Digital Camera

In the context of multi-cultural education, a digital camera can be
used to record various societal activities to be used in teaching. In fact,
most educators use digital cameras to prepare materials to suit their
students cultural lives and experiences.
(iv) Newspaper
The newspaper is the most relevant source of teaching for students.
Most students read newspapers at home or in the public or school
libraries. Materials that are highlighted in the newspapers can become
reading resources and expose your students to various forms of

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cultures and celebrations. In the Malaysian context, a newspaper is a

source of information in our daily lives. All the information can be
used in classroom teaching. Newspapers being low-priced and having
a wealth of information, facilitate teachers in the teaching process.
Hence, the concept of Newspaper-in-Class benefits both teachers and
students.
(v) Video/Film
Video and film is also a teaching source. You can show films that are
relevant with the topics that you are teaching, in your efforts to
expose students to a real life aspect of the various cultures, races,
ethnics or languages. Films can also attract students attention because
they share emotions among themselves.
(vi) Games
Games can expose students to multi-cultural lives particularly
traditional games of certain cultures, races or ethnics. In every game,
there are rules and ways to play. All these are cultural manifestations
where students can learn and know the tricks of the games. Games
can also create feelings of acceptance, healthy competition and
tolerance among students.
(vii) Books
Books are still important in enhancing students knowledge and skills.
Teachers must ensure that the content of books facilitate the teaching
and learning process in classrooms and outside. Exposure to cultural
aspects in books is a combination of basic knowledge whereby
students need to read, understand and appreciate the content.
(viii) Television
Television is a popular media in Malaysia. The Education Ministry
also provides educational television programmes to facilitate teachers
in the teaching and learning process. In the context of multi-cultural
education, it cannot be denied that television highlights a lot of
cultural aspects in the Malaysian multi-cultural societys life. This is a
teaching source for students to introduce them to the various cultures
that exist in Malaysia.
(b) Various Media Content

When you plan teaching activities, you will be most likely influenced by
many factors. These factors encompass teaching objectives, students
characteristics in class, strategies and approaches that you will apply. All
these will not be effective without emphasis on the media content which

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you will use to facilitate your teaching. You should consider the types of
media that you will use, and the media contents that you will apply to
ensure the best effects on your students.

The following considerations should be given due attention in ensuring
quality of content of certain media:
Media content must be inclusive on different views and cultures, from
different perspectives;
Encourage students to think critically about the contents that are
presented;
Information that is presented must be accurate and do not create
controversy, bias and prejudice against students;
All information and facts should be presented fairly and equally;
The goal must be comprehensive and final;
Presentation format should facilitate teaching and learning process; and
Content of presentation must be suitable with students abilities.
In the context of multi-cultural education, media content that is used

should motivate to answer questions such as: Whose views do we listen
to?, Whose views and opinions do we reject?, Why was the film not
shown to the public?, Why does prejudice occur in the society?. In
addition, there are many more questions related to the media content that
you can use. These are some critical questions that can be generated from
the media content and teaching aids that are used.
8.4 PSYCHOLOGY AND COUNSELLING

Students emotional aspect plays a crucial role in efforts to suit oneself with
cultural diversity and differences. Teachers should understand students from
their psychological aspect and resolve problems by using the counselling
approach successfully and efficiently.
(a) Teachers approach students based on their perspective and experience

Teacher-students interaction is part of the teaching and learning process in
classrooms. In this interaction process, it is rather difficult for students to
understand teachers behaviours and cultures. This is because of a natural
psychological factor whereby students are more dependent on teachers.
Therefore, as a teacher, you should act proactively by approaching students
based on their experiences. It is easy to approach and understand them

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from their perspectives. This means that you should have an understanding
of their views.
According to Gary D. Borich (2000), in efforts to approach your students,
what you should do is to cooperate with them in various learning situations
that they go through. You should strive to create various situations
whereby students have the opportunity to use their experiences, past
lessons and their culture. In such situations, you will understand their
perspectives and experiences. Secondly, you should provide opportunities
to your students to expose or express something they have or know based
on their culture in building relations between ideas and facts that you have
taught with their perspective and experience.
There are various other measures you can implement to approach your
students from their perspective:
Talking to your students about matters they already know;
Encourage your students to draw comparisons between what they
already know and certain topics they want to know;
Expose your students to learning skills that they have in achieving their
objectives;
Teach your students to use their own approach that they deem effective
and suitable; and
Understand their cultural background or content along with their
behaviour and attitude.
You can implement these measures. As an effective teacher, you should

often interact with your students. Only through this way, you will
understand them and they will feel that you appreciate their presence in
your class.
(b) Teachers training in multi-cultural management

Generally, there are several strategies and principles in teachers training in
managing multi- cultural education issues. Among them are:
(i) Teachers must be exposed to understanding sensitive issues regarding
culture, knowledge and possess ethnic competency;
(ii) Have holistic training programmes, promote awareness on multi-
cultural understanding and differences;
(iii) Prepare modules in efforts to create awareness on culture and
prejudice;

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(iv) Teachers are exposed to learning styles, organised curriculum

comprising social awareness, knowledge on various cultures, and can
inculcate behaviour based on orientation; and
(v) Teachers are exposed to reflex and personal history as an instrument
for experiential learning.
A counselling and psychological approach or style is said to be able to

resolve all problems in multi-cultural education. Teachers training must
have open characteristics and flexibility, which is an eclectic approach.
Therefore, teachers training should have anti-racist characteristics.
One of the skills deemed crucial in managing various cultures is teachers

communication skill in various languages. Teachers skills on various
languages can help teachers not only in the teaching and learning process,
but also can help them in acting as facilitators and managing their students
cultural diversity. Teachers abilities in languages can also improve their
understanding on various cultures.
Meanwhile, the Government should provide an infrastructure for multi-

cultural education. This infrastructure can act as a catalyst in the teaching
and learning process and becomes a medium for students to interact.
According to Patricia Ruggiano Schmidt (2005), although it is undeniable

that a teachers training programme is proven successful, in the multi-
cultural education context, a teachers training programme should be able
to produce teachers who are responsive towards culture, and this aspect is
deemed as lacking and not given attention.
(c) Teachers adaptability in a multi-cultural environment

Teachers should be able to adapt to various cultural situations that exist in
their own classes. In this adaptability process, teachers should know and
understand students cultures, gender aspects, and their socio-economic
status. This adaptability process not only means that teachers are
comfortable in a multi-cultural class but also know and appreciate students
real life based on their differences. Many multi-cultural educators say that
teachers adaptability means that they feel comfortable and fit in with every
student individually. This means that teachers place themselves in their
students groups individually or collectively.
The adaptability process normally takes some time as you will need to
understand, know and appreciate each students values, norms, cultures
and traditions. This process is actually a multi-cultural learning process.
From understanding your students, the next step is for you to act in

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situations which are conducive for all your students from their
perspectives. It means that you should be able to suit yourself beyond
cultures. This adaptability is dynamic, comprehensive and you are seen as a
teacher who is successful in interacting with your students.
Due to your adaptability with your students, you will be able to create a
harmonious interactive relationship polar; your relationship with students
and relationship among students in desired situations in the multi-cultural
education context, so as to produce students who can live in various
cultures with respect and understanding. In this aspect, you need to act as
a role model to your students.
8.5 ASSESSMENT
Traditionally, teachers are responsible for measuring and assessing their
students performance and ability. The unresolved issue is: What is the best way
to assess your students? In todays educational system, examinations play an
important role in determining students success.
In the traditional educational system, educators like to use a diagnostic

assessment method, problem solving, orientation process and teachers
assessment. Meanwhile, for cultural assessment, most of them use printed
materials based on measurement, competition, pen-and-paper and external
examinations.
There are several reasons why students need to be tested. Firstly, it is to

determine the grading of every student. Secondly, it is to ensure students have
mastered skills and experiences that are acquired in the teaching and learning
process, and consequential action ensues by having remedial activities for topics
that are difficult to master. Thirdly, it is to distinguish whether teachers teaching
is effective or otherwise.
As teachers, you should think of several aspects before assessing you students.
The aspects that you should think of are: What is the purpose of you assessing
your students?, What you will use in assessing your students?, and What are
the questions that you will pose to assess what should be assessed? Therefore,
in multi-cultural education, teachers should pay attention to the following
matters:
(a) Selection of the best assessment instrument to suit students background
The best assessment instrument is one that has four objective domains,
which is one that can assess students knowledge, intellectual skills, motor
skills and behaviours.

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Selection of assessment instruments is a teachers job in ensuring the

instrument that is used is suitable with every students background. There
are several assessment instruments used in multi-cultural education:
Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is a continuous assessment, which encourages
students to learn. Studies have shown that formative assessment can
improve students learning behaviour, assess an entire curriculum and
teachers work. Teachers can provide the best service to students with
different abilities due to different backgrounds.
Summative Test
This test is carried out after you finish teaching certain topics. This is
aimed at determining the level of knowledge and which aspects your
students have yet to master.
Talent Test
This test is aimed at gauging students performance in foreign language
lessons. It measures their skills in mastering the language that they have
learnt.
Diagnostic Test
The goal of this test is to identify existing problems among students in
the learning process. By carrying out this test, you will know which
units or sub-units, or topics that are difficult for students to master.
(b) Assessment that is extensive and conscious towards different cultures
Challenges that exist in a multi-cultural education are not only in preparing
relevant curriculum but also from an assessment aspect, which is
sometimes sensitive towards societys culture. Therefore, as teachers, you
should ensure that the assessment instruments you have selected comprise
items which are transparent and conscious towards students backgrounds
and cultures. This means that you should have skills in item building so
that there will not exist bias, prejudice, and misconception among students.
Transparency in question building means that you should be open-minded
and accept certain things as knowledge and it has to be seen from an
academic perspective alone although there are cultural aspects, socio-
economic status or gender that should be raised in the items that are
formulated. This aspect is rather difficult to implement.
(c) Different assessments based on students abilities and problem solving
Due to students different backgrounds in terms of culture, gender, socio-
economic status, language and race or ethnic, these aspects influence the
students abilities. It cannot be denied that studies that have been
conducted to show that students different backgrounds influence their
social and psychological aspects. Realising this fact, you should ensure that
the items built are suitable with your students abilities.

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Sanchez (2006) is of the view that it is timely that the traditional assessment
concept in a multi-cultural education be re-examined. In fact, he feels that
the traditional assessment method is no longer relevant. He proposed that
to avoid sensitive issues in a multi-cultural education assessment from
arising, teachers should use the Problem Solving Strategy. This method
emphasises problem solving where every student is required to sit for an
examination that focuses on multiple intelligences. This method is said to
have assessment implications to all students regardless of their cultural
background. This model provides opportunity for students to learn, while
remedial aspect is also implemented. This model is said to be able to avoid
any bias or prejudice among students. It refers to Gardner Model (1983).
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Elaborate on the meaning of multi-cultural education?

2. Why is multi-cultural education important in a countrys education
system?
3. What is required in multi-cultural education content?
4. Discuss the concept of equity and equality.
Multi-cultural education has many implications on your duty as teachers.

You should pay attention to these aspects: curriculum, teaching method,
teaching source, psychology and counselling, and assessment.
This is the work and responsibility of teachers.
It is clear that the goal of a multi-cultural education is to impart knowledge
or produce students who excel in their academic performance.
It is also your duty and responsibility to develop cultural literacy among
students, who know and respect cultures and differences of others, as well
as interact and mix around in efforts to create a united society.
A clear principle is that you should create equity and equality in all your
students.

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Dominant Method
Implication Reformation

Topic X Issues and
Challenges
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the issues and challenges in a multi-cultural education;
2. Elaborate the roles of media in building a Malaysian societys
identity;
3. Analyse multi-cultural education characteristics for the society; and
4. Distinguish between multi-cultural education curriculum for
teachers, students and the society.
X INTRODUCTION
As you know, Malaya achieved its Independence in 1957, and is a country, which
is occupied by the Malays, Indians and Chinese. After the formation of Malaysia,
Sabah and Sarawak natives became part of the races that exist in the country. All
these races are bound by a social contract to live peacefully and harmoniously in
order to create racial unity. The overall aspect of racial unity, the countrys
economic achievement and the peoples social life is something that we can be
proud of until today. However, it cannot be denied that the greatest challenge
testing racial unity in Malaysia was when the tragic May 13, 1969, riot occurred.
The racial riot that broke out was a slap in the Governments face in its effort to
create a united society that respects one another. Many questions were raised as a
result of the May 13 incident. But one thing was clear; the racial riot incident was
a manifestation of the feelings of suspicion, prejudice and intolerance among
Malaysians. This is the issue and greatest challenge in the Governments efforts
to create a peaceful and harmonious Malaysia.

TOPIC 9 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES W 139
As a result of the pact and agreement among all, it was seen that education
played a major and critical role in bringing about drastic social changes in the
effort to create a wise community with an advanced culture and quality of life, as
well as modern and progressive in their way of life. This was the only way out
and solution to the problems that exist, although it could not be denied that there
were other ways and methods. The rationale was that education was a process to
create the countrys new generation, raised and educated since young.
Behavioural changes should go through this process; with the younger
generation beginning since childhood.
Therefore, political and educational commitments should be emphasised to

create a new plan, educational reform to produce a society that has the
characteristics of being a responsible generation, loving the country, having
discipline, high morals, dedication and open minds. According to Abd Rahim
Abd Rashid (2000), political socialisation, which is suitable with history and
aspirations of the countrys and racial struggles, should form the basis of
formation of the citizenship characteristics. Education forms the basis of political
socialisation and citizenship so that the younger generation understands the
basic political and historical racial struggles, and social contract that is agreed
upon among the races.
The question is whether we have the political and educational commitments in

our efforts to create a Malaysian society that are literate politically, socially,
technologically and religiously. These are the important elements in creating a
harmonious Malaysian society (Abd Rahim Abd Rashid) (2000).
9.1 CURRICULUM
As a multi-racial country which practices multi-cultures and way of life and has
different tribes and religions, Malaysians certainly have identity problems. In
many countries especially Africa, most ethnicities want to maintain their original
identities, and reject any proposal to accept the nations identities. Hence, the
simplest solution to the problem is dispute and endless war. This is clear when
we visit third world countries and those in Africa.
In the Malaysian context, efforts to build the identity of a Malaysian society are
not easy. The Government has taken proactive steps since Independence. For
instance, the implementations of the New Economic Policy (1970), up to the
Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006) are efforts to eradicate poverty, restructure the
society as well as to create a fair and just society so that racial prejudice will
erode.

140 X TOPIC 9 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Towards this end, the Government has implemented various programmes in the
efforts to create unity and build a racial country which has a Malaysian identity.
After the May 13, 1969 racial clashes broke out, the Government formulated and
implemented the National Education Policy. The main characteristic of the
National Education Policy is Bahasa Malaysia as the national language, and its
curriculum is Malaysian oriented. The goal is to ensure that every student who
has gone through the curriculum regard themselves as a Malaysian and has the
Malaysian identity. It is rather difficult to list what is the real Malaysian identity
and what are the identities we want to determine or choose. According to
Ibrahim Saad (1980), the question Who am I? is difficult to answer. Are you a
Malaysian, a Malay or a Chinese, or an Indian, a Muslim, a Hindu, or a
Christian? Or is it enough to say that we are Malaysians? This is the dilemma
when we are faced with these questions.
In Malaysia, efforts towards creating similar cultures existed since the 1980s.
Although the cultures among the Malay, Chinese and Indians communities are
different, there is a vision to create only one type of culture. This can be done
based on awareness of the importance of justice, truth and tolerance that can
create unity among the people and at the same time create a Malaysian identity.
Therefore, the role of culture is to try to inculcate positive values and similarities
in the efforts to develop from a political aspect and the peoples socio-economy.
Vision 2020 has become the benchmark for efforts that are being made towards
building a Malaysian identity. The role of education is seen as a vehicle to realise
change and the shaping of a dynamic Malaysian societys identity. According to
Abd Rahim Abd Rashid (2000), the creation and development of an intelligent
society is an effort towards building a Malaysian identity. Hence, educational
reform should play a major role in creating a smart society. Therefore, changes
should be done in the aspects of policy, philosophy, curriculum, system,
organisation, structure, role and function towards a more futuristic dynamic.
In line with the spirit and commitment of Vision 2020, the Malaysian societys
identity must have the following characteristics:
(a) Knowledgeable and informative
In the era of technology, digital culture, globalisation and knowledge
management, Malaysians must have critical and innovative thinking as a
result of a new societal culture, which greatly emphasises on brain power,
thinking and intellectual capacity, as well as responsiveness to what
happens within the local and international community (Abd Rahim Abd
Rashid, 2000). The Malaysian society in the information era is not narrow in
thinking, only placing importance on certain groups to determine racial
survival.

(b) Forward thinking, having high morals, wisdom, dynamic and modern
society
Educational reforms should be able to create modern and dynamic
individuals. Modern, not in the form of replicating the Western culture that
is decaying, but modern in the sense where individuals have high morals
and dignity, intelligent and forward thinking in line with the adaptability
process that occurs in the socio-politics of the country and the world. All
these aspects comprise elements of religion and thinking, as well as values
of the society which are practiced and highly regarded. Cultural
differences, practices and traditions can be understood in the context of life
that is meaningful to create a peaceful situation and helpful among one
another.
(c) Culturally rich and able to live in tolerance and cooperation
Malaysian society is one which is rich in culture and tradition. Positive
values that exist in each culture become a practice and way of life. The
Malaysian society is proud of its cultural differences and respects one
another. Difference is a Gods gift and a blessing in that it is a challenging
effort that tests ones strength and patience while inculcating a loving
nature and the spirit of helping one another.
(d) Able to realise democratic concept, liberalisation, equality and unity in
culture diversity
In the Malaysian context, democratic practices become principles in an
administration which are liberal towards changes, differences and
progresses, acting fairly and equitably in providing rights and
opportunities to all members of the society. Every citizen should work
towards creating unity and practicing democratic principles. Practices that
can destroy cultural civilisation, such as corruption, nepotism, bias and so
on are contemptible.
(e) Responsive towards change and renewal as well as encouraging innovation
A behaviour that can build a Malaysian identity is a responsive behaviour
towards any changes that take place. Research and development is an
activity that heeds change and renewal. Results of research and innovation
can benefit society and improve literacy in science and technology among
the people. Informed individuals should have a profound interest in
innovation and be constructive in the efforts to eradicate poverty and
sufferings of others in the society.
(f) Possess human values
An example is by referring to a verse in the Veda, Hindu holy book, which
means, no man is an island. It means that humans cannot live alone.
Sociological theory states that individuals form families, families form
societies, and societies form nations. Hence, it is every individuals

responsibility to make others prosper. This is a human nature that should

be practised. Being helpful is a practice that becomes a principle in life.
Therefore, it can be concluded that in the effort to build a multi-cultural

Malaysian identity, attention is not only focused on aspects to assimilate cultures
among races and inculcate a harmonious life, but also the identity of certain races
is also directed towards science and technology. It can play a role and contribute
in the international arena and generate a new civilisation to solve the societys
moral crisis.
(a) Multi-cultural Education for Society

A humans life is dynamic. The society always develops, moving fast to
progress with various ideologies and always changes. Its implication to the
human life system is different; traditional values have disappeared, and
cultural diversity is becoming more obvious. Today, we always hear about
the urbanisation process, the role of the media and the effects of
globalisation which have created a gap among cultures and society.
Humans live to fulfil material needs without considering a meaningful life
inclusive of religion, culture and morals.
The goal of a multi-cultural education is a proactive and progressive effort

to create and maintain a fair and just society. This is because the culture at
home will affect what happens in school and otherwise. Hence, it is the
responsibility of each society to ensure that there are no conflicting values
between two different cultures so that students will not be confused, or
they are not influenced by anti-establishment values.
Therefore, multi-cultural education for the society should expose all

members of the society to basic values that are accepted by all parties and
not against the beliefs, values and traditions of certain races and religions.
Efforts should be made to inculcate positive values such as equity and
equality for all, where everybody gets attention, plays a role and are not
neglected in the social life. Differences in values, religions and beliefs
should become the thrust of unity, not elements of prejudice and bias.
Religious fundamentals and beliefs are sensitive elements and become the
cause of strife among races and ethnicities. Hence, the question of religion
should be discussed academically not to create conflicts in values, and
allow uncivilised actions. Therefore, discussions about religions, values and
beliefs are efforts to educate the society to understand one another. History
has taught us that each difference is not a dividing line, but for every
difference there should be efforts to come together, converge, form and
build a multi-cultural societys identity.

This is where the media, non-governmental organisations, responsible

parties in the Government institutions and organisations play their role.
Intellectual groups, groups that are conscious of a harmonious social
system, human rights and freedom fighters should also play a major role.
The society as a whole should find a formula that can be implemented in
educating society about cultural diversity. The role of the media in
organising cultural and religious discourse and inculcating positive values
in the society should be implemented effectively. Media viewers should
attain maximum benefit from all the plans and programmes that are
implemented. The media ought not to only look at profits or merely
provide hedonistic programmes without trying to build societys self-
esteem especially among the younger generation. Therefore, the media
should have a clear philosophy in their efforts to educate the people about
living in a pluralistic society such as Malaysia.
Exposure and discussions can be held in meetings that include values to

respect one another. Dialogues to educate the society on philosophies and
positive values of various cultures are the main aspect of the discussion.
In addition, organisational activities should not only focus on certain races

and ethnicities. Youth associations and political parties are no longer
parochial in nature, each struggling for its own survival by denying the
rights and responsibilities for other groups. This requires a strong political
commitment.
As you know, this is the only way to go in educating the society about
multiple cultures. The goal is clear, that is to ensure that the society
appreciates the differences that exist and unite. This is often the call of the
society that wants a harmonious life or unity in diversity.
Schools are the catalyst of multi-cultural education for the society. Turning
schools into a centre of learning for the society can provide results. Schools
in this context should be societal friendly. School organisational should
get out of their cocoon of merely serving as a means for formal education.
Teachers who are conscious of cultures should also act as mediums to this
noble objective.
This is a heavy responsibility that awaits every level of the society

including academicians, educational theorists, researchers, activists,
politicians, government servants and all members of the society to continue
advancing the multi-cultural education.

(b) Medias role as catalyst to the formation of a Malaysian societys identity

The media plays a major role as a catalyst to the existence of Malaysians
who are united and respect one another. In a country which is fast
developing and moving in the sophisticated communication system, the
Malaysian media such as electronic media and non-electronic ones have
great influence on the people. Hence, the media should play a role to help
realise the Vision 2020 where Malaysia will be developed in all aspects and
the people live peacefully and harmoniously in a just and equitable
economic situation. The media should also abide by journalism ethics so
that every level of the society trusts their credibility. It is a clear principle
where it is the basis to the role of the media in forming and building a
societys identity.
According to Paul Gorski (1999), the media should highlight all news and
information that have the following characteristics:
Relevant and suitable;
Having credibility;
Not having elements of bias;
Accurate information;
Easily obtained; and
Having multi-cultural qualities.
The media plays the role of providing various knowledge and the latest
information in an effort to shape the peoples thinking to be more
productive and responsive towards the government policies. The media can
create a well informed society that is conscious of social issues, and can
adapt with all renewal and changes that occur.
In the effort to build a Malaysian identity, the media should also

understand the social contract among the races and respect the agreement
that has been achieved in curbing suspicions and dissatisfactions among the
races in Malaysia. Racial issues are not something to be toyed with. The
media should instil sensitive values, and understand the taboos in exposing
information to the public.
A heavier responsibility is for the media to inculcate positive values among

the people by delivering clear messages about quality and civilised life, and
not filled with extreme emotions and confusion.
Efforts to improve progress in science and technology should effectively be

done so that goals to generate a civilised race can be achieved. The society

will enjoy the meaning of unity if the countrys economy can guarantee a
better quality of life. The media also plays the role of nurturing new skills
to improve the peoples quality of life. Exposing the readers or audience to
the world of entrepreneurship, which has the characteristics of
hardworking, diligence and always seeking opportunities is among the
positive values that should be exploited by the media.
Clearly, the media plays its own role in the efforts to develop the society
and build a Malaysian identity. In fact, it can help the country face all sorts
of challenges. In the advanced world, the media should play the role of
promoting tolerance and caring in the minds and thinking of the people.
ACTIVITY 9.1
What are the important elements required in a curriculum content when

developing a multi-cultural education?
9.2 DEVELOPING MULTI-CULTURAL

EDUCATION CURRICULUM
As explained earlier, education is an important vehicle to instil unity and
national integration. Hence, to realise the goals and noble vision of producing a
society that can live peacefully and respect one another, a multi-cultural
education curriculum has to be formulated. Students should be exposed to all
aspects of a multi-cultural society encompassing socio-economic status, gender,
language, culture, race and ethnicity, religion, custom and tradition.
Multi-cultural education is a combination between educational elements and

instructional aspects that are designed for different races and ethnicities in an
integrated educational system. The teaching and learning process focuses on the
feelings of respect and encouraging multi-cultural interaction in a pluralistic
society. Multi-cultural education appreciates and develops positive values of
different races and ethnicities.
Development of a multi-cultural education curriculum should be progressive

with a long-term goal to fulfil the aspiration of the country; which is to produce
united Malaysians. Therefore, the pedagogical aspect in the multi-cultural
education must be practical for students. It is not merely learning theoretical
aspects, but the methodology used should be hands-on whereby students are
directly involved in the teaching and learning process, as well as in acquiring

knowledge and skills. Hence, new methodologies should be explored to suit the
goals and objectives of the curriculum. Lecturing, inductive, deductive and
traditional methodologies are no longer suitable in the educational world today.
What is clear is that the methodology must be student-friendly. The teachers act
as facilitators and observers only. The learning process occurs when students are
involved at a maximum level. The methodology used also provides opportunity
to every student of different cultures to participate actively, where differences are
recognised and they are treated fairly and equally in classrooms which is a
platform where the process of cultural assimilation takes place.
(a) Curriculum content

According to Tyler (1989), curriculum is all the learning planned and
directed by the school to achieve educational goals. According to Ee Ah
Meng (1994), curriculum is a plan encompassing academic activities such as
subjects and courses and co-curricular activities. Curriculum consists of
academic activities and non-academic that can develop students
intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically. Based on the
definitions above, a multi-cultural education curriculum has the same
definition, but its content is focused on a multi-cultural society.
In the Malaysian context, the cultures of the Malays, Chinese, Indians and
natives of Sabah and Sarawak are the most prominent group in the
countrys socio-political landscape. Therefore, a multi-cultural education
curriculum should comprise cultural aspects of the Malays, Chinese,
Indians and the people of Sabah and Sarawak.
Culture is a practice that encompasses the way of life of certain races.

Hence, the focus of the multi-cultural education curriculum should be
directed towards the background and history of a certain race and its
religion, social, economy and political aspects. The racial contents, custom,
religion and belief are seen as important elements to familiarise oneself
with certain races.
(b) Objective of multi-cultural education curriculum

Curriculum that is developed is not a rigid one which hinders students
socialisation process; instead the curriculum provides a wide space for a
dynamic social process inside and outside of classrooms. Hence, the
curriculum should be able to encourage social relationship between school
community and the outside community. This is important because firstly
the multi-cultural curriculum goal is to ensure that all students know about
cultural, gender, racial and ethnic diversity and ambiguity and differences
of every society. The multi-cultural education curriculum should be
inclusive of all cultures. Secondly, the goal of the multi-cultural education
curriculum is to instil the feelings of respect among students of different
cultures, religions, races, economic status and gender. The curriculum is

formulated to develop students ability to function in a multi-cultural
society and identify the differences that exist. Therefore, the curriculum
should consist of perspectives of women and men, the rich and the poor,
race, ethnicity and culture.
Hence, the main objectives of the multi-cultural education curriculum are

as below:
Able to produce harmonious and balanced individuals intellectually,
spiritually, emotionally and physically.
Able to form individuals who are capable of thinking logically,
analytically, creatively, innovatively and possessing genuine knowledge.
Able to develop students talent, potential and capability.
Able to provide a teaching and learning environment that can encourage
social interaction among students of various cultures.
Enable students to learn about positive values that are contain in a multi-
cultural society.
Able to produce individuals who are steadfast spiritually and religiously,
and willing to serve the society without taking into consideration
different cultures.
Able to produce students who practice values of justice, tolerance and
helping one another.
(c) Curriculum implementation

As a teacher, you play an important role in realising a multi-cultural
education and you should act as the front liner in ensuring that all multi-
cultural education curriculum planning can be implemented and its goals
achieved.
Therefore, you should have the skills that can help support this role. In the
multi-cultural education, you must have content and pedagogical
knowledge, as well as a high level of professionalism. This includes having
behaviours and attitudes that can be accepted and can become role models
to all your students. Content knowledge requires you to have vast
knowledge on the culture, way of life, religion, tradition and custom of all
communities. In terms of pedagogical knowledge, you have the skills and
expertise to transfer knowledge and skills to students.
As a teacher and educator, you must strive to ensure that schools should be
sensitive towards any pressure, injustice, and inequality that occur in the

society. This is because a multi-cultural education is an instrument in the

efforts to create changes to individuals and schools as a point to change the
society. Also, social justice and equality that happens in schools must be
extended to the real life of the society outside schools in a country that has a
multi-cultural society. If this can be created, hence, the goal of multi-
cultural society education can offer meaningful contributions, and this
success is the achievement of a multi-cultural education goal in its totality.
According to Brian J. C. and Donald K. H. (1998), the role of schools in the

society has shown a lot of success. Schools and the education system in
certain countries have succeeded to create a civilised society. According to
them, schools are the source of education for the majority of the people and
have succeeded in producing successful personalities, creating economic
strengths, feelings of tolerance and sensitivity towards the culture of every
community.
John Dewey (1890) states:
education must represent present life. Life as real and vital to the
child as that which he carries on in the home, in the neighbourhood, or
on the playground.
He introduced progressive education, seeing that this is where teachers

play the roles to arrange knowledge, skills and experience to create learning
that can represent real life. In fact, he also stressed that the curriculum
implementation process in schools are a very active life, and not only as a
learning place. Hence, the issues of pedagogy, teaching skills and teachers
ethics should act as the basis in educating children to understand, having
an in-depth appreciation of the contents of multi-cultural education.
Therefore, the hope to create effective schools in the context of multi-

cultural education not only can build students intellectual capacity, but
also fulfil social, emotional and physical aspects of children. Academic
values that are possessed by students provide great benefits to the society
outside schools, and this is an asset that is owned by a civilised society.
(d) Curriculum that is suitable for teachers and students

Implementation of multi-cultural education will involve all parties in the
national education system. All aspects from the teachers preparation,
students, society, curriculum, infrastructure to the school environment

should undergo changes that are in line with changes that will be done in
the context of multi-cultural education.
To implement multi-cultural education, teachers should have the

competency to teach. Therefore, teachers training curriculum must be
inclusive of all the different races. Teachers should have knowledge of
societys culture and background of every student. The basic skills,
knowledge, and attitude that every teacher should have are:
Awareness of collaborative ways to work in a team;
Understand the classroom setting of multi-cultural education that can
implement multi-cultural learning strategies;
Capable of understanding cultures of all students and how the different
cultures can be combined and used in a lesson;
Capable of using the different cultures in inculcating a win-win
communication among students;
Capable of providing an effective environment to discuss and exchange
views in the context of understanding and appreciating other peoples
cultures in driving students in the teaching and learning process; and
Vast knowledge in various instructional skills which are professional
and can create an optimum learning process for students of different
cultures and learning environment. This is a challenge in teachers
education to produce teachers with such knowledge.
Hence, focus to teachers training should be based on teaching skills

training, or skills to transfer knowledge to an in-depth level. Specifically,
teachers training curriculum must focus on interaction among cultures,
namely equality and equity aspects.
In the efforts to provide teachers who can implement multi-cultural

education, Malaysia as a multi-racial, multi-religious and multi-cultural
country, certainly has a great role to implement the education concept. We
should focus on teachers training and education to produce a generation of
teachers who are culturally conscious and can become the catalyst to a
cultural assimilation process while instilling unity among the society, and
eventually produce a Malaysian generation who are in line with the
National Education Philosophy.
Studies on teachers education are a complex field. This is caused by

various elements such as social, economical and political aspects, and not
as simple as the pedagogical aspect which becomes the domain in teaching
and learning. Implementation of a multi-cultural education policy involves

social policies, which influence multi-cultural education in certain

countries. Until today Malaysia does not have a clear policy in multi-
cultural education. These aspects are merely insertions, if implemented in
certain subjects.
In the context of teachers education in the multi-cultural education in

Malaysia, it exists in two stages: teachers who are trained in colleges, and
those who hold degrees from local universities. The Education Ministry
controls the teachers education curriculum. The teachers education
philosophy in Malaysia is in line with the countrys education policy and
philosophy. The goal of teachers education in Malaysia is:
a teacher who has insights into and seeks to reflect and cultivate the
goals and aspirations of the nation, as to ensure the development of the
individual and the preservation of a united, democratic, progressive and
disciplined society.
(Malaysian Education Ministry 1982)
The teachers educational division has formulated teachers training

curriculum that can develop professionalism, academic and teachers
individual development towards creating a united society. The teachers
training programme is hoped to produce teachers who are broad minded,
disciplined, harmonious, suitable, sociable, and have high humanitarian
values.
Therefore, multi-cultural education curriculum should consist of

knowledge about different cultures. Teachers should ensure that they have
knowledge about Malaysian societys culture, custom and tradition. In fact,
they should be sensitive towards the religions and cultures of all
Malaysians, and help to break the wall of racism and prejudice among
students while striving to cultivate an understanding and acceptance of
different religious and cultural practices of all levels of society.
According to Maurice Gratft (1996), the roles of teachers education in the

multi-cultural education are as follows:
Teachers training and education should be able to produce teachers

who are culturally sensitive and conscious of the needs of different
ethnicities in schools and in the same classrooms. With the existence of
teachers who are culturally sensitive and conscious, hence the teaching

The role of teachers education in providing multi-cultural education is

to develop teaching skills that can inculcate and develop individual
potential and personal identity that are diverse and complex. An
important aspect that should be possessed by teachers is high-level
teaching skills, which can arrange pedagogical aspects such as
approaches, methodologies and techniques in order for pedagogical
knowledge strength to be combined with content knowledge where both
elements are the basis of effective educators.
Teachers education can develop individual talent and potential in the

effort to create equity and equality in the context of multi-cultural
education. Teachers talents and attitudes towards different cultures
should be seen from a positive perspective. Only through this way,
teachers who have undergone the teachers training can build a rational
attitude without prejudice against any student with differences.
Training institutions not only focus on assimilating various cultures in

schools but teachers can also contribute towards the countrys economic
development by generating manpower that is highly skilled and
productive as well as capable. This group will then be able to
accommodate the countrys manpower requirement.
The role of teachers training in multi-cultural education is the capability

to strengthen social ties among the school community, which comprises
various cultures, gender, social and economic status. All teachers should
possess communication skills that is appropriate among cultures.
Teachers training should generate teachers who have high quality

professionalism. This is because a teacher will not be effective in
teaching in class with students of different backgrounds if he or she does
not have professional training to carry out the duties. Professional
teachers have and appreciate teachers moral and ethics
comprehensively by ensuring that they become role models not only to
students in schools, but also display open-mindedness and respect for
cultures of others living outside schools.
Hence, teachers training programmes should be able to generate teachers

who can cultivate characteristics and traits of students who are able to place
themselves in a multi-cultural society like Malaysia.

At the same time, the contents on cultural aspects that are similar to that in
teachers training should be extended in classrooms for the students.
Contents that are learnt in teachers training institutions must be presented
in students real life. Teachers should implement psychological
consideration, whereby students are children who find it difficult to
understand complex cultural aspects that require a high level of thinking.
You should provide opportunities for students to socialise and appreciate
the diversity that exist in their class which will allow them to understand
the complex aspects.
(e) Effects of various media technology usage towards human relations

Various media technologies have great impact on human relations. In a
borderless world and globalisation in the technology era, there exists a new
world in human relations. The society is exposed to various information
and data, from near and far, where previously humans were the barriers to
the flow of information and knowledge.
Development and progress in technology have formed societal progress

and relations which are sensitive towards changes that are taking place
worldwide. Information that is obtained has generated two-way human
relations, and is universal in nature, crossing countries borders and race
and ethnic barriers. Human relations are dynamic, modern, forward-
looking and rich with cultural societal lives. In fact, smart partnerships and
win-win relations exist in the efforts to create cooperation and unity in a
society which practices cultural diversity.
Modern communication gadgets based on information technology

advancement and digital culture, such as e-mail, Short Messaging Service
(SMS), video conferencing and satellite television, have succeeded in
creating a new civilisation which influences the polar of human lives as a
whole. The information technology era is a societal post-modernism era
that can generate thinking capacity which is more rationale, logical, creative
and critical in creating meaningful relationships. Television and
newspapers should also cultivate relationships that can build and improve
human relations.
It cannot be denied there exist negative effects among those who do not
possess positive self dignity in a world that is open and where all
information are easily obtained without going through a screening process.
Therefore, this is where education can inculcate and instil positive values so
that all information are beneficial towards building a civilised society that is
beneficial to the world community and based on universal values.

As users of communication facilities as a result of media technological

advancement, the feelings of respect for the differences that exist among the
people should be upheld with awareness that humans should live in an
environment which is not polluted in terms of culture and thinking.
Efforts to create relationships should extend to a smart partnership level,

which displays a form of relationship that is of quality and multi- faceted to
foster a higher quality life.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. Elaborate the challenges faced by the Malaysian society in building a

united and peaceful life.
2. List the steps that can be implemented in the efforts to solve these
challenges.
3. Based on your experience, discuss what are the roles of the present
media in instilling good relations among the different races.
4. Explain the concept of a borderless world.
5. Based on your experience when surfing the Internet, list the pros and
cons.
It can be concluded that Malaysia, which is a country comprising people of

different cultures, religions, value systems and beliefs, should face
challenges boldly in its efforts to create a society that can live harmoniously
and peacefully.
To address the problems and challenges, everybody in the society should
be educated to understand the differences that exist, and practice the moral
principles in real life.
There is no shortcut to this noble effort and all parties should strive and
give high commitments so that the objective can be achieved.

Hedonism Parochialism
Multi-cultural education Survival

Topic X Direction
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss how to create a united society;
2. Explain equality and equity in life;
3. Explain the meaning of a multi-cultural society;
4. Analyse the cultural assimilation process in Malaysia; and
5. Explain the meaning of self-transformation.
X INTRODUCTION
A clear direction in the Malaysian context is to produce a united society in a
culturally diverse society, where there will be values and practices of equality
and equity in the social, political and economic aspects for every race.
Meanwhile, in the educational field, equality and equity exist in providing
educational opportunities without being influenced by cultural, ethnicity and
traditional differences as well as the societys beliefs and value system.
Commitment and noble intention will affect the overall development of a country
encompassing physical and spiritual aspects. In other words, when every race is
given the right to live and can contribute towards developing and advancing the
country, then a meaningful and healthy environment will be created. This
environment will thrive under the light of unity, sharing, teamwork, and
eventually a smart partnership. Everyone in the society will be confident of one
another, trust and help each other, as well as share good and bad times together.
This is the noble purpose of Vision 2020 to build a united Malaysian society.

156 X TOPIC 10 DIRECTION
This agenda is challenging, moreover when faced with the countrys situation
which is formed by the plural society. Although many positive steps have been
mobilised to integrate the multi-racial society, serious attention should be
directed towards improving racial understanding among the people. In fact,
racial unity and the countrys rapid economic growth are the thrust and the
machinery to run effectively in the efforts to create a fair and just society. This
intention is often implied and stated since the implementation of the New
Economic Policy (1970) until now when the Government recently launched the
Ninth Malaysia Plan (RMK9). Efforts to sustain the countrys development in
terms of physical and spiritual to become more effective requires a solid
foundation in racial unity. This is the pre-requisite for the success of the nation.
The basis for social harmony is a level of tolerance, agreement, non-prejudice,

anti-ethnocentrism and understanding as well as appreciation of the values and
visions that are shared such as Rukun Negara, Islam Hadhari and the national
mission. This comes with a solid economic achievement which will
simultaneously affect the peace and harmony of the peoples lives. Racial
relations, communication among cultures and cross cultures in the context of
national and community development that is tolerant, courteous and of high
morals, specifically the peoples unity, requires proper monitoring and
observation.
Hence, a society that is patriotic, loves the country and dares to defend the
countrys sovereignty will be created. The process of cultivating and instilling
patriotism can be implemented continuously; indirectly it will create within itself
an appreciation of the peace and harmony that we now enjoy.
Therefore, there should be a strong political commitment to realise success in

achieving the countrys direction. This is because the Malaysian political scenario
is still based on racial politics. A new approach in line with the new paradigm
should be discovered for a healthier political identity. If there is no single party
formed to show the Governments sincerity in achieving racial integration, then
at least the leaders should not repeat sensitive issues that may create racial
division and tension.
It is hoped that a Malaysian race with a sense of belonging as a proud Malaysia

citizen with its own homemade Malaysian identity will be created. The birth of a
Malaysian race and its continuity is mostly designed by the superiority of the
primal race. In the context of racial integration in Malaysia, cultural diversity has
long prevailed in the societal life. It should be seen as a strong basis that can
contribute towards the birth of a race that is not only superior, but also excellent
and highly regarded in line with the vision to create a developed industrial
community.

TOPIC 10 DIRECTION W 157
This is the direction, however to succeed is not easy. You should ask yourself:
What is your role to realise this noble intention? You should look within
yourselves and ask, Is the noble intention achievable, or is it an old song that is
played repeatedly? We have no choice but to accept the option awaiting us
ahead, which is to strive to achieve a meaningful life in the plural Malaysian
society. Otherwise, deep enmity awaits us, where we will be thrown into an
agonising ethnic conflict and crisis.
10.1 CULTURAL UNITY IN DIVERSITY

Equity is a concept directly linked to equality, which comprises ideas such as fair
treatment based on universal laws without prejudice or bias. However, equity
and equality are different concepts. Equality can be measured on condition that
every individual owns the same thing, and are given the same treatment based
on the principle men are created equal. But the question that always becomes
the topic of discussion is the thinking of some members of the society who view
equity and equality from their own perspective and culture. An example is the
issue of gender where men view fairness at the workplace between men and
women differently. Are we capable of dividing certain things fairly and equally
in an absolute manner?
David Spitz (1982), in Jack L Nelson (2004), a political analyst states:
Equality drives us into an insoluble moral dilemma, and therefore into

practices that contradict what we preach To impose equality of results is to
limit equality of opportunity. We cannot have both equalities simultaneously.
However, this does not mean that everyones cultural perspective becomes the
barrier to a meaningful unity in the diversity that exists, although cultural
differences and way of life can create a strong unity among the people.
In the Malaysian context, unity in cultural diversity is an element that has taken
its place, but not in the sense of displaying a Malaysian race identity. We cannot
deny that to create a society with the characteristics described for the term
melting pot is still far away. Independence that has taken place for over 50
years is still new compared to other developed nations that are still facing the
same issues and problems.
Education is an instrument to inculcate values and unite the people. Education in

the Malaysian context has reached the time to consider changes in the system,

curriculum, policy and implementation. The goal is to create a society that is

sensitive towards the culture of others and appreciate differences as a strength to
unite; different in cultures but not goals and objectives. We should strive to
achieve a one nation, one aspiration.
The problem that still lies in the minds of the society is when they talk about
racial continuity and survival, they are in actuality denying the rights of other
races. There are some who want to become champions in their own racial cocoon
and a remote society totally isolated from the more dominant world.
The 21st century is a century that moves towards the creation of one race and
one Malaysian culture. Hence, unity in cultural diversity is the focal point
towards realising this noble intention. This is the intention and challenges that
await us in the future. The foundation is all set and we cannot deny that a
movement has taken place based on awareness among the political elite, policy
makers and academicians, to create this new civilisation. In fact, the Malaysian
societys life today has been designed by the various cultures. Our aspects of
life, food, clothing and festivities have moved towards the right direction. The
foundation is strong. Therefore, it is now up to every individual and the society
to play effective roles, be open-minded, and have the intention to ensure a more
meaningful life for the future generation. We already have the strength and
spirit in place.
(a) Multi-cultural Societys Life Style Assimilation

Every religion in the world has its own faiths and values. All religions
demand its followers to hold on to principles that are determined by the
religion. Generally, every religion instils values that have praiseworthy
and honourable characteristics in the followers. No religion teaches and
encourages their followers to be bad or practise despicable acts.
Although there are differences and similarities in certain aspects, every
religion is not far from the main objective of teaching its followers to
have honourable characteristics.
In terms of cultural heritage, there is a tendency for certain individuals
to practice the culture of certain races without being bound to
limitations of certain races or ethnics. In fact, there are practices that are
practiced with similar basis and symbolism by the various races in
Malaysia. Influence and the widespread practices have made way for
the formation of a new identity that can be linked to Popular Culture-
Common to Malaysians. Such process will help in enhancing racial
unity and understanding, a pre-requisite necessary in the efforts to
boost confidence and openness apart from reducing prejudice among
races.

Studies about efforts to increase public understanding on the

ingredients and polar of multi-racial culture in Malaysia is a strategic
move for a united Malaysian race by 2020. Such studies show the need
for in-depth understanding about popular cultures and commonality
that is practiced by the multi-racial society in the country. The Popular
Culture-Common to Malaysians concept should be viewed in the
context of the existing cultures of the races and ethnics in Malaysia.
Promotions must be done thoroughly and with proper planning to
ensure that errors can be minimised and there are high levels of
tolerance and sensitivity.
Early efforts should be given to hold various forums and channels to
increase public understanding, exposure and appreciation before follow
up measures are made to discuss and identify the ingredients and
characteristics of racial and ethnic cultures, which can be considered to
be absorbed as the main elements to support the formation and
reinforcement of the national culture.
Whether consciously or subconsciously, a cultural assimilation process
in the context of Malaysian society has taken place for quite a while,
and the process is still ongoing. There are many studies that have been
conducted about the polar of Malaysian societys life that has gone
through a lot through cultural assimilation. According to Ho (in Abdul
Rahman Md Aroff, 1999), most scholars state that Asian people,
including Malaysians, place emphasis on peace of mind, religious and
spiritual matters rather than wealth and material comfort; which means
poverty and scarcity can be faced calmly. Moral perspective is used in
determining human relations and not the wealth that one owns.
Malaysian society can be regarded as tolerant, non-aggressive and non-
violent in their social relations. All ethnic conflicts can be resolved
through cooperation, not through threats and violence.
For the Malays, Chinese and Indians, there are shared values.
According to Muzaffar (in Abdul Rahman Md Aroff, 1999), the family is
placed as the basis of community, which results in parents and the
elderly being valued highly and respected in the community. In fact, all
three religions regard collective social morals as important in
determining the societys happiness and harmony. The issue of
corruption and extreme materialism that drive someone to become
greedy are condemned. This shows that despite the differences in
religions and ethnics as well as belief systems, there are still values that
are shared together.
The Malays, Chinese and Indians view loyalty to families and the
country as something absolute. The same goes to loyalty to both

parents. It is a personality and moral value that becomes the benchmark

forming relations among members of the society.
In the marriage life, the question of love towards the wives need not be
shown openly. Wives will understand the love of their husbands
through their actions in the marriage process. A husband has the
authority and role outside the household, and every decision is the
husbands right to determine, albeit following discussions. Meanwhile,
the wife will focus on managing the household even if she is working.
Maintaining the household still remains as the wifes responsibility.
For the Malay, Indian and Chinese communities, the value of friendship
is not solely dependent on food and drinks but depends on how far one
shares their problems and willingness to help.
In the context of festivities, parents or the elderly will give duit raya or
ang pow to children or the young people. This is the common practice
by Malaysians. The ang pow culture is an influence of the Chinese
community, where children will be given money in red packets during
Chinese New Year. The only difference compared to Hari Raya
Aidilfitri is that the duit raya is given in green packets. During
festivities, visits are made to instil love and friendship. The open house
culture is a Malaysian practice, where all races will celebrate Hari Raya,
Deepavali or Chinese New Year together.
Similarly, in the culture of a marriage ceremony, the Malaysian society
shares similar values, where invitation cards are distributed to guests
and there will be a sitting on a dais or bersanding ceremony. Caterers
will be appointed to prepare food that will be served in a buffet style.
Locations of the ceremonies are normally held in hotels. Guests will
bring presents to the brides and grooms in the form of cash or
valuables.
Studies that are carried out show that most Malaysians still practice
gotong royong and cooperation. Helping one another remains to be a
common practice.
Studies that have been conducted also show that a cultural assimilation
process has taken place, whereby universal ethical values go beyond
cultures, ethnics, religions, traditions and beliefs of Malaysians.


Figure 10.1: Cultural assimilation process
(b) Peaceful and Harmonious Life

Social researchers are of the opinion that a peaceful and harmonious life
encompasses three important aspects, which are social, economical and
political. The three elements are the basis in developing a peaceful and
harmonious nation. These aspects form a chain which influences one
another and should be at an encouraging level in order to create a
peaceful and harmonious climate. The countrys harmony will be
affected if either one of these aspects is unstable. Hence, political, social
and economic stability is an indicator of the level of peoples harmony.
From a social perspective, a harmonious and peaceful life displays
goodwill, respect and caring in peoples social interaction. The attitude
of helping and cooperating is the basis of tolerance where individuals in
the society are free to practice their own religion and culture. In fact,
religious difference is a catalyst to efforts to know, respect and
understand each other. This scenario is because the educational aspect
focuses on generating a generation of people who are able to
understand one anothers roles. Education can create a culturally
sensitive generation who are open-minded and always driven to do
something that has moral and character. Religious difference is the basis
of cooperation that is beneficial in efforts to cultivate life that is directed
towards the feelings of respect, pride and to critically value the
differences that exist instead of creating crisis.
From an economic perspective, the peoples per capita income is at a
level that enables them to acquire basic necessities. An individual
economy is generated by high productivity that gives returns to the

country and the people. The peoples income gap is not wide and they
can enjoy economical harmony fairly and equally. The countrys
development provides opportunities for people to participate and play
a role in creating harmony for the country, society and families. The
poverty level is at the lowest level while the rich will always be
committed to help the poor. In fact, the poor are not neglected in the
countrys development.
From a political perspective, the people are free to choose, and voice
their opinions in their efforts to create a stable, harmonious and
peaceful country. Democratic values are understood and appreciated
rationally by everybody. The spirit to defend the countrys sovereignty
and build a civilised race is a political commitment to maximise the
peoples quality of life.
As a conclusion, it can be said that a community living in a peaceful and
harmonious situation is a society that will always hold on to
progressive life values, understands democratic aspiration, have the
awareness to behave well, responsible to themselves and the
community, and dare to uphold positive moral values. Practising a life
that is based on noble racial unity and ties and strong unity also marks
a societys harmonious life. This is the ingredient to a meaningful life.
10.2 EQUITY AND EQUALITY IN EDUCATION

The multi-cultural education concept has gone through an evolution process.
Initially, the multi-cultural education was focused on cultural and language
differences. Subsequently, the focus moved to human relations based on
individuals uniqueness that is recognised. Then, there was a movement to study
ethnicity. Recently, there exists a new movement which combines the three
aspects in creating a new concept in a multi-cultural education. This group is of
the view that multi-cultural education is an agent to restructure a society which
focuses on the concept of gender equality, ethnic, culture and the societys socio-
economic status. Therefore, in this context, multi-cultural education is a process
to provide an opportunity to students to learn cultural diversity aspects.
The implication of a multi-cultural education is not only on the curriculum, but

also change that occurs in the pedagogical aspect and school climate. The school
community, students as well as the school environment will change too and will
not have a stereotype image, and instead encourage students to be speak freely
and race towards academic success.

Cultural diversity, ethnic, gender and socio-economic status in the school

community improve every day. This includes special students (disabled students,
students with Down syndrome and other disabilities). This is a challenge that
should be faced in a plural society.
Therefore, this multi-cultural difference demands equity and equality in

education. This means that all students get equity rights, and are given fair and
equal treatment. In the context of a multi-cultural education, equity and equality
in education are based on cultural, ethnicity or gender differences that the
students own, whereby the differences are recognised and they are given equal
treatment in the context of teaching and learning, interaction, opportunity to
speak and roles which are fair and equal. In simple language, it means that every
student gets equal rights, and is given ample opportunity as well as fair
treatment despite the differences in their culture, gender, ethnic or socio-
economic status.
To tackle the issue of student cultural differences and in an effort to create equity
and equality, Bronfenbrenner (1979) developed an ecological model to combine
these critical variables to give meaningful treatment to each student. Based on
this model, teachers will try to understand and assess students from the micro
aspect in the context of mesosystem, namely, relationship or influence of parents,
or distant relatives or friends while the macro system is the students culture and
sub-culture, and exosystem is the students social structure. This model separates
students who are different from the ecological context, where this will provide
them with opportunities to increase their understanding on critical issues that
affect others of different backgrounds, and they are given relevant service, and
educational models to suit their cultures. This educational model has a highly
culturally sensitive characteristic for the society and students, and has a social
relationship where the students become its members. This model is followed by
an intervention programme to develop the students self-esteem. This is
important in order for the students of different cultures to develop at each stage
of their lives because they are easily exposed to any changes that take place.
Multi-cultural education will give the best results if equal and just educational
opportunities are offered to all students with different backgrounds, cultures,
gender and ethnicity. In the context of Malaysia, multi-cultural education should
focus on critical and dominant issues, namely ethnic, culture and socio-economic
status. This matter arises because the Malaysian socio-political landscape has a
multi-racial society consisting of three main races which are Malays, Chinese and
Indians.
The objective of a multi-cultural education is noble, that is to generate a

generation that can enjoy the countrys prosperity in a harmonious and peaceful

environment without crisis in spite of the cultural and religious differences. The
multi-cultural education goal is to create unity in diversity.
(a) Practice of multi-cultural educational elements

In an effort to cultivate a united, harmonious and peaceful life in a society
that comprises various cultures like Malaysia, the practice of elements of
multi-cultural education in daily life is the catalyst towards creating a
society that can achieve the countrys aspiration a society that can live in
harmony and unity in the real life.
Practice of elements of multi-cultural education means practices that defend

noble values and good ones that do not go against religious demands,
moral, ethics and human characters. These values go across various
cultures, respecting and recognising cultural diversity that exist in the
society.
The following are the effects of the practice of multi-cultural education that
is discussed in the concept of a civic minded and intelligent society by Abd
Rahim Abd Rashid (2000): It is hoped that as a result of practice of elements
of multi-cultural society, members of the society who own social skills and
expertise can be developed; whereby they can interact, adapt themselves,
communicate effectively, are disciplined, have high morals and practise
ethical social principles.
The main focus is to produce individuals that can develop self-potential,

characters, socials and morals as the basis of individual development and
relationship among members of the society. Practice of multi-cultural
education elements can create awareness among the society about rights
and legal aspects, which are the platform to defend basic human rights,
property, freedom of associations, freedom of speech and airing views in
efforts to influence decisions related to public interest and individual rights.
Practice of multi-cultural education elements can also increase

understanding and social sensitivity about differences, culture, ethnic,
tradition and belief among individuals. In fact, it can create individuals
who possess religious belief that is intact, where there is spiritual strength
and can create moral values and characters in the interaction process with
the society. In fact, multi-cultural education elements can produce
individuals who are sensitive about a society that is democratic, fair and
just. Eventually, it is hoped that people who can appreciate intellectual,
social and ethical values that are progressive and dynamic can be created.

(b) Towards self and societal transformation

Self and societal transformation should begin with the transformation of
thinking followed by self, individual and societal transformation.
From the aspect of transformation of thinking, a racial thinking

development process is through the educational system that is practiced in
a country. In Malaysia, efforts to develop peoples thinking capacity cannot
be denied. The Government, through the educational sector, has provided
sufficient infrastructure from preschool education to tertiary level in its
efforts to produce a generation that is capable of thinking and contributing
towards the countrys prosperity.
Successful individuals and community are those who are continuously

thinking. They are those who are able to acquire knowledge from as many
sources as possible, evaluate and scrutinise the knowledge obtained, and
apply it in the framework to resolve existing problems in the society.
Thinking transformation means that every member of the society is able to

maximise his or her mind capacity; namely the capacity to see something
based on rational, proof and logic, in fact has the capacity to create, find
alternatives and innovate (lateral). Finally, this people have strong beliefs in
religions as connections so that they will not go above the law and ethics.
This will enable an individual to face lifes crises and challenges as they will
equipped with skills to change ways and approaches to succeed in being
creative and innovative. An individual should change, shift and find
approaches and abilities that are required until skills are developed. If
someone is more skilful, the wider the window of opportunity for him or
her to move. Recently, there have been numerous challenges from various
corners, both internally and externally, urging all individuals to defend
racial survival, and stepping forward to become a successful race. This is
what it means by a paradigm shift in thinking before moving to discuss self
and societal transformation.
From the thinking power, self-transformation occurs - one that provides

new approach and design in the efforts to create a Malaysian society with
its own identity. Individuals whose minds are powerful and have a high
level of thinking capacities are sensitive towards change, moral and social
crisis. Such individuals are proactive in adapting to the societal cultural life.
Mind power can generate more meaningful lives to create a society with
strong self-esteem, without being influenced by negative values, and move
simultaneously with todays industrial societys paradigm shift.

Today, self-change and transformation should be done in the socialisation

process of the new Malaysian society civilisation. Narrow thinking, self-
centredness and specific ethnic and racial survival do not have a place in
the society. Individuals and society should take a view from a new
spectrum of societal life that is more open, tolerant and capable to accept
any existing differences. The era of chauvinism in race relations has gone.
Today the main agenda of the society is to look at life principles, which
struggles for universal values that can fulfil the needs and aspirations of the
whole Malaysian society. Narrow thinking, which displays an excessive
cultural extremism and denies the rights of others are all undesirable. This
is the new paradigm in sustaining thinking and attitude that are more open
in nature.
Globalisation also demands us to change. We should no longer live in our

cultural and racial cocoons. We must accept the presence of various
civilisations, information and development as a result of the progress of the
world community. The information technology era has succeeded in
opening up our minds to a more meaningful life, in cultivating a positive
cultural stream. Globalisation also demands strength and self-
transformation defending meaningful values that have been the pillar of
our success all these while. Globalisation and the information technology
era are not the catalyst to decaying cultures and values of the Malaysian
society. We should not easily become champions and agents of
modernisation merely to change, without thinking of the impact to our
efforts to create a more meaningful life.
The societys noble values and moral life have become the human capital
that is upheld strongly without compromise. Therefore, self-transformation
should be directed towards creating individuals with towering
personality who will become role models to the countrys new generation,
carrying the new identity of Malaysians in efforts to instil a civilised life,
fair and just at a global level. History has taught us that the collapse of a
civilisation of a certain race is not due to losing a war, but it is because of
the fragility of the societys culture that lacks self-esteem and spiritual
strength. The practice of noble values in the societal life should be across
cultures and races. Social interaction that goes beyond culture and religion
has the strength in building a Malaysian race. A new societal perspective
that has gone through a self-transformational process should be able to
create a drastic social change. This social change can be done with the
existence of individuals who are optimistic towards change, bold in acting
based on solid intellectual values, have a strong moral dimension, and can
build and defend the values of societal life.

From a political commitment perspective, it is timely that the society

focuses more on the existence of a race as a result of smart partnership and
a win-win power sharing, while no longer acting as champions of only a
group within a society. Political commitment requires high commitment,
sacrifice, tolerance and clear goals in an effort to create a strong repulsion
against racism.
As a conclusion, it cannot be denied that every individual and society

should move to change. The world and civilisation is not static in nature.
Changes happen everyday and it would be unfortunate if we are still living
in a frame of mind that is backward while the world community is busy
grabbing opportunities to succeed and place themselves and their races in
the new world civilisation.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Elaborate what are the directions of Malaysia.

2. Discuss what is the meaning of unity cultural diversity.
3. Elaborate the meaning of cultural assimilation in the context of our
country.
4. What are the effects to individuals and the society that practice
elements of multi-cultural education?
5. In your opinion what are the obstacles in creating a united society in
cultural diversity?
It can be concluded that Malaysias direction is to create a united society in

cultural diversity.
This direction provides a clear focus in the life of a multi-racial society
which has multiple differences.
It is the aspiration of every member of the society to create values and
practices of equity and equality from social, political and economical
aspects of every race in Malaysia. Hence, we are capable of living in a
harmonious situation.

This can be implemented with a cultural assimilation process, a peaceful

life along with a practice of elements of cultural diversity in our daily lives,
and eventually there will be a change in the attitude of every member of the
society to have a paradigm shift and look at racial relations from the world
view that is more dynamic and progressive.
The noble aspiration of Vision 2020 is to build a united Malaysian race.
Assimilation Transformation
Equality Unity
Equity

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Azhar Wahid

Translator: Izatun Hanim Shari

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, December 2009

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Sociology School and Society 1

Topic 2 Philosophy and Educational Philosophy 23

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Topic 3 Educational Development in Malaysia 37

Topic 4 Multi-Cultural Education and Models 62

Topic 5 Importance of Multi-Cultural Education 70

Topic 6 Multi-Cultural Influence 79

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6.3 Roles and Responsibilities to Preserve Malaysian Cultural 84

Topic 7 Pedagogy Related to Multi-Cultural Education 87

Topic 8 Implications of Multi-Cultural Education on 107

Topic 9 Issues and Challenges 138

Topic 10 Direction 155

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial

Study the module 60

Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10

Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20

Total Study Hours Accumulated 120

Topic 1 defines sociology and educational sociology. It provides an explanation

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Topic 2 elaborates definition and meaning of philosophy and educational

Topic 4 introduces several multi-cultural educational dimensional concepts

Topic 5 elaborates goals, advantages and disadvantages of multi-cultural

Topic 6 elaborates social and economic roles in influencing Malaysian multi-

Topic 7 elaborates aspects that exist in pluralism in multi-cultural education

Topic 8 explains the meaning of multi-cultural education. It elaborates the

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Topic 9 discusses issues and challenges in multi-cultural education. It elaborates

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

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References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

Abdullah Sani Yahaya. (2003). Perkembangan pendidikan di Malaysia. Bentong:

Abu Bakar Nordin. (1991). Kurikulum perspektif dan perlaksanaan. Kuala

Banks, J. A. (1994). An introduction to multi-cultural education. Boston: Allyn

Gay, 1986 in Maurice Graft. (1996). Teacher education in plural societies. An

Jennifer Allen. (2004). Sociology of education. (3rd ed.). Thomson Learning

Maurice Graft. (1996). Teacher education in plural societies. An international

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Generally, sociology is an in-depth study about social groups, emphasising their

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY AND

Another way to understand sociology is based on a sociological imagination that

It can be said that sociology is a behavioural science. It attempts to elaborate

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find in artifacts, monuments, laws or books. However, by this definition, history,

There are three ways to outline sociological research fields: