T H E ROLE OF P O U L T R Y P R O D U C T I O N ON S M A L L F A R M S 1 ,2,3

D. H. Bushman 4

Poultry Research Institute, Karachi, Pakistan

SUMMARY stages of development greater strides can be

The role of poultry production on small obtained by improving the simple hand tools
farms is discussed as it relates to: 1) subsistence now in use. In other areas if population growth
farming; 2) only farm income with a high profit can be checked the potential to adapt to
margin; and 3) its maximum use with other mechanization is much greater.
farm enterprises. Data are presented pertaining Poultry, historically, have always played an
to poultry production on small farms in Paki- important role on small farms. They serve not
stan under each classification, but are appli- only to provide high quality protein for con-
cable throughout the developing world. Particu- sumption by the farm family, but may also give
lar emphasis is placed on the role of ducks and the farmer a small supplemental income. For
their ability to produce high quality protein at instance it was not too many years ago that
a very low cost for consumption by the farm farmers in the United States had a few hens to
family. produce their own table eggs plus a few eggs to
(Key Words: Poultry, Ducks, Egg Production, sell. While this type of production has passed in
Small Farm.) most of the developed countries, and is becom-
ing outdated in much of the developing world,
INTRODUCTION it still plays a prominent role in some of the
lesser developed areas. For example it is esti-
The role of the small farm in current day mated that 75% of the poultry population in
agriculture is very difficult to assess in the Pakistan is composed of indigenous, nonde-
minds of agriculturists living in developed coun- script breeds of birds known locally as desis.
tries where production is geared to large scale, These native birds account for 70% of the
mechanized farming. There is little doubt that poultry meat and 44% of the eggs produced in
mechanization and other modern improvements Pakistan. Further approximately 20% of the
are important aspects for increasing food pro- commercial or improved layers are found on
duction. However, attempts to introduce mod- farms with flocks of fewer than 101 birds, and
ern equipment in developing countries have not over 50% on farms with fewer than 501 birds
always met with success. This is especially true (FAO/IBRD, 1974).
in areas of southeast Asia and the subcontinent
where agriculture is based upon very small farm
units coupled with the utilization of high ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
RAISING POULTRY IN PAKISTAN
concentration of available manual labor. In
these areas it is quite possible that in the early Poultry have several advantages over other
classes of livestock when thinking in terms of
production on small farms. The space require-
i Published with the approval of the Project Manag- ment per bird is very low; ranging from six
er, Poultry Research Institute, Karachi, Pakistan. layers per square meter on the floor to 12 birds
Invitational paper presented at the Symposium on per square meter with cage layers. With broilers
Livestock Production on Small Farms in Developing it is possible to maintain 14 birds per square
Countries held during the 67th Annual Meeting of the meter, or more in areas where small birds of
American Society of Animal Science, Ft. Collins, CO,
July 27to 30, 1975. 1.15 to 1.35 kg live weight are preferred. The
aThe author expresses sincere appreciation to Mr. time required to receive a return on the
Aijaz Ahmed Sheikh and Mr. Iftikhar Aziz for their investment is very short; a flock of broilers can
assistance in collecting cost data for the production of be produced in 9 weeks or less. It only takes
eggs and broilers, respectively.
4Present address: American Soybean Association, about 5 months before one can begin selling
Rio Sena 26-201, COl. Cauhutemoc, Mexico 5 D. F., eggs when starting with day-old chicks, and less
Mexico. time if one starts with pullets in the rearing
402
JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE, Vol. 45, No. 2, 1977
 ROLE OF POULTRY PRODUCTION ON SMALL FARMS 403

stage. The land site required for t h e buildings
can be adapted f r o m non-fertile land. F u r t h e r
one man can easily care for a flock of 1,500 to
2,000 broilers or hens on the floor, and 2,000
to 3,000 cage layers w i t h o u t the help of
automation.
Thus, at first glance p o u l t r y appear to be
ideally suited for small farming; however, t h e y
also have their drawbacks for a d a p t a t i o n to
small farms. F o r e x a m p l e establishment o f a
new farm, especially a caged layer farm, re-
quires a large capital o u t l a y when the invest-
m e n t is considered in terms of the average
man's salary in m o s t developing countries (see
Table 1 for the estimated cost o f starting a
layer and broiler farm in Pakistan). However
the m o s t serious problem, particularly in m o r e
r e m o t e areas, is that o f obtaining g o o d quality
feed and marketing t h e produce. Both eggs and
m e a t f r o m broilers as well as cull birds are
highly perishable p r o d u c t s and must be sold at
t h e proper t i m e or held in cold storage; t h e
latter is not possible for small farmers in
developing countries.
The key to successfully operating small
p o u l t r y farms is to keep overhead cost a n d / o r
feed cost to a m i n i m u m . Construction costs are
usually fairly well fixed d e p e n d e n t u p o n the
materials available in t h e area. However, t h e
buildings can also be constructed rather inex-
pensively utilizing a wide variety of materials
which m a y be available on the farm itself. F o r
e x a m p l e in southern Pakistan where w o o d is
very scarce and expensive, most o f the p o u l t r y
houses are c o n s t r u c t e d of sand-concrete blocks.
The blocks can be m a d e on the f a r m or
purchased locally. In tropical countries build-
ings are often constructed f r o m wire netting
and b a m b o o poles, utilizing a m i n i m u m of
c o n c r e t e blocks around the base of the house to

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED COST AND RETURNS FOR EGG PRODUCTION AND

BROILER PRODUCTION ON SMALL FARMS IN PAKISTANa,b

Item Amount (U.S. money)

Costs
1. Land $4.30 to 7.50/m 2 purchased from government in country and town,
respectively - usually not charged against poultry operation
since land normally increases in value.
2. Buildings $13.00 to 16/m 2 - depreciated at 10%.
3. Feeders and waterers
a. Floor layers $.13/bird initial cost - depreciated at 20%.
b. Broilers $.10/bird initial cost - depreciated at 20%.
4. Cages (cage layers only) $2.40/3 hen cage complete with waters and feeders - depreciated
at 15%.
5. Interest 15% per annum including commission charges - maximum loan
available equals 60% of items 1 through 4.
6. Birds
a. Layers $2.40/pullet at 16 weeks of age.
b. Broilers $. 38/chick.
7. Feed $15.50 to 16.50/100 kg.
8. Labor $25.00/man/month
9. Miscellaneous
a. Cage layers $.38/bird/laying cycleb
b. Floor layers $.30/bird/laying cycle b
c. Broilers $2.60/bird/cycle c

Returns
1. Layers
a. Eggs $9.00 to 19.00/crate of 30 doz, normal fluctuation average for year
approximately $15.00.
b. Cull birds $1.15/bird.
2. Broilers $.65 to 1.05/kg live weight - average approximately $1.00/kg.
a
Certain cost higher on small farms due to additional transportation cost, et cetera.
bone cycle, calculated at 17.5 months, includes time required for birds to mature from 16 weeks to start of
lay, 15-month laying period, time for disposal of flock and cleaning house.
COne cycle, calculated at 10 weeks, includes 9 weeks for finishing each flock plus 1 week for cleaning house.
404 BUSHMAN
help control rodents and other pests. The roof
can also be made from a variety of materials
such as thatch, clay tiles, corrugated asbestos
sheets, et cetera. The essential features which
must be present in all poultry houses are:
proper ventilation must be provided; pests and
predators must be kept out; and in warm
climates the sun should not shine directly on
the birds, especially if they are in cages. Means
of heating the houses are required only in very
cold climates, except of course for brooding.
However, in developing countries "poultry
houses" like the one shown in figure 1 are
frequently employed. This type of shelter
consisting of a simple shade placed over the
cages will not work with chickens except under
very limited micro-environments and certainly
is not recommended. Unfortunately, farms of
this t y p e increase during periods of high egg
prices, but disappear during times of marginal
profit, market crashes, or the first outbreak of
disease.
Equipment costs are also of a relatively fixed
nature. Savings on the initial investment can be
made by using a floor system for layers rather
than cages. Also in most areas of the developing
world earthen-ware waters can be constructed
at a very low cost. The initial cost of brooding
equipment in warm climates can also be re-
duced by the use of infrared heat bulbs if
electricity is available. Advantage can be taken
of all of these aspects as means of reducing
initial cost without affecting the rate of produc-
tion.
FIG. 1. Simplest form of "poultry house." This
type of house will be adequate only under very limited
climatic conditions, and is not recommended for
chickens.
The problem of obtaining good quality feed
in the lesser developed areas is much harder to
solve. In areas where protein supplements con-
taining vitamins and minerals, et cetera, can be
obtained, the farmer can utilize these supple-
ments with almost any cereal grain produced on
the farm or in the immediate area. Unfortunate-
ly supplements of this t y p e are not commonly
available in many areas. Also for most farmers
waste products, inexpensive grains or similar
by-products are available which can be utilized
as a major part of the feed then it may be
possible to reduce feed cost considerably.
D I V E R S I F I E D ROLES OF P O U L T R Y
Just as one must adjust his thinking when he
begins talking about small farms he must also
vary his thinking concerning the role and type
of poultry production to be employed in
different areas of the world. For example the
role of poultry on a small cattle farm of 100 ha
in the sparsely populated Llanos of South
America would be quite different from its
potential role on a farm of 5 to 10 ha in the
more densely populated areas of Latin America
and Africa, and different still on "farms" of a
few square meters in Asia.
The potential roles of raising poultry may be
classified as follows: 1) subsistence farming; 2)
as the only farm income with a high profit
margin; and 3) its maximum use with other
farm enterprises.
Subsistence Farming. In very extensive agri-
cultural systems, and possibly in the isolated
areas with intensive farming systems the role of
poultry is that of providing eggs and p o u l t r y
meat for consumption by the farm family with
only limited potential for sale of these products
to neighbors, or in small villages if the farm is
located near a village. This type of operation
must be based upon a very low cash input. As
already mentioned this type of production
plays a common role in the production of eggs,
and even poultry meat in Pakistan. Nearly every
farmer has a few desi birds running loose on the
farm. The production of eggs is very inefficient
in the case of the desi, their production being
about 30 to 60 eggs a year. However, the
apparent cost of production to the farmer is
exceptionally low since these birds feed on
what they are able to scavenge and any left over
table scraps. Further the farmer has little or no
investment in buildings and equipment.
Production even under these marginal condi-
 ROLE OF POULTRY PRODUCTION ON SMALL FARMS
tions could be improved considerably by the
use of ducks, and a minimal improvement in
management practices. Ducks probably repre-
sent the brightest spot in poultry production on
this type of small farm. While the duckling does
require some care for the first few days,
particularly as regards brooding temperature
and protection from predators, they are recog-
nized as being much hardier than chicks, and
can survive and grow relatively well under
rearing conditions which would lead to disas-
trous results in the case of other species of
poultry.
The Khaki Campbell duck is also one of the
most efficient egg producing fowls known in
the world, and under adverse conditions far
exceeds the best laying strains of chickens.
They have an additional advantage in that they
are immune to most of the diseases prevalent in
other fowl, and consequently usually do not
require vaccination during either the rearing
stage or adult life. This fact alone makes them
extremely useful in areas where veterinary
services are limited. They also are very versatile
in that they can be kept in cages, on the floor,
and in tropical and subtropical climates they
may even be maintained in open pens with no
housing whatever.
Experimental work both in Colombia and
Pakistan has shown that these ducks do very
well in the backyards of the poorest homes
with little or no commercial feed after they are
5 to 6 weeks old, and when provided with small
amounts of supplemental feed they perform
exceptionally well.
The following data obtained on a small farm
located in a poor neighborhood in Karachi serve
as an excellent example of the production
which can be obtained with ducks under
adverse conditions. In April, 1974 this farmer
purchased a flock of 120 female day-old duck-
lings from the Poultry Research Institute (PRI).
After purchasing, they were reared on a dirt
floor without litter in a crudely constructed
shelter with a thatched roof. A kerosene brood-
er provided heat during the first 2 weeks of the
brooding period. For the first 8 weeks, the
ducklings received a home-mixed feed consist-
ing of dry stale bread, broken rice, wheat bran
and a commercial chick starter. The quantity of
the chick starter was reduced from approxi-
mately 75% of the mixture during the first 2
weeks to 0% by the end of the eighth week.
After reaching 8 weeks of age the ducks were
allowed access to a river which is one of the
405
principal sewage lines in the city. The only
supplemental feed they received during the
rearing period was dry stale bread and a small
amount of wheat bran; the remainder of their
feed including all of the supplemental protein
was obtained by feeding in the river.
The ducks were turned out of the shed in
the morning and driven one block to the river.
They were driven back to the shed about 5:30
pm and given the supplemental feed at that
time. The ducks became accustomed to this
system of feeding and management very rapidly
and began returning on their own at feeding
time.
The ducks began laying at approximately 8
weeks of age, and reached a peak lay of over
95% which lasted for almost 2 months. The
feed during the laying period consisted of
approximately 109 g dry stale bread and 3 g of
fresh lucerne (Medicago sativa) per bird daily,
plus what they were able to scavenge from the
river. They were kept in the shed until 11:00
am when they had essentially finished laying
and then were allowed to go to the river,
returning at 5:30 pm for their supplemental
feed. The mortality to date has been only 2.4%
even without vaccination or other medication.
Only Farm Income. In 1972 it was estimated
that approximately 43.5% of the farms in
Pakistan consisted of fewer than 3.1 ha and
that the average size of these farms was 1.5 ha
(Government of Pakistan, 1972). On such farms
the area available for production of livestock is
too small to really be of consideration except
for the production of poultry and possibly
swine, however, the latter is not consumed in
Pakistan. If poultry are to serve as the only
source of income from these farms the margin
of profit per bird must be relatively large to
justify such operations. Pakistan during the
early 1970's served as an excellent example of
the role of poultry farms under this classifica-
tion. During this period of time, profits of 15
cents to 40 cents per broiler were realized, and
with layer profits of 90 cents to $1.20 per bird
were obtained over a 15-month laying cycle.
This t y p e of profit has made it worthwhile to
establish the large number of small poultry
farms commonly found in Pakistan. However,
as the margin of profit begins to narrow, as has
been the case during most of 1975, many of
these farms have begun to give way to larger
farm operations on small profit margins as they
have in many areas of the world. To illustrate
what can be accomplished with poultry under
406 BUSHMAN
these conditions two farms ranging in size from
90 sq m to 1.0 ha have been selected for review.
The first farm is located in a lower income
area of Karachi, and consists of a small concrete
block building of only 90 square meters. The
building had previously been sitting idle and
was converted for essentially no cost into a
poultry house for 500 floor layers.
Since the farm is located in the city of
Karachi, the marketing of eggs is relatively
simple. However, the eggs still have to be
transported almost 8 km for sale through one
of the principal markets in the center of the
city. Even though the eggs may be sold one at a
time to consumers in this central market, the
people in the immediate neighborhood where
the eggs are produced prefer to go to the
central market to make their purchases, and
further the farmer is not interested in selling
the eggs a few at a time.
From the farmer's viewpoint overhead costs
are very low. He already owned the building
which was sitting idle; thus, he does not charge
any depreciation for the use of the building
against his poultry enterprise. The nests consist
of placing one layer of sand-concrete bricks
about 30 cm from the wall and adding a small
amount of extra litter in this area. As a result
his only initial costs were approximately
$17.00 for litter, $62.50 for feeders and water-
ers and $150.00 for pullets.
With such small farms it is not usually
feasible to raise one's own replacement pullets.
In addition to the lack of space, the specialized
brooding equipment would be used for a very
limited time. In Pakistan there are a number of
farmers who raise replacement pullets for sale
at 14 to 16 weeks of age. Payments can be
made on an installment basis, the number and
size of these installments depending upon the
age of the chicks when they are booked.
On the other hand this farmer's feed costs
are very high, $16.00 per 100 kg of diet. Part of
this high feed price is reflected in the fact that
this farmer must pay at least 20 cents extra per
100 kg as transportation cost for small deliver-
ies. Furthermore, delays in feed delivery to this
farm are common, especially when there is a
shortage of feed on the market.
Farms of this t y p e are very common in
many areas of Karachi, and most of them make
a fair profit when egg prices are high, fold when
there are market crashes, then start operations
again when prices begin to increase. It is
virtually impossible to obtain accurate data on
profit or loss on such farms because of their
unawareness of such factors as building and
equipment depreciation, on-again off-again t y p e
of operation, et cetera. When one begins to
discuss the economics of production with own-
ers of these farms the standard reply is "I get so
many eggs per bag of feed which cost X number
of dollars and I sell the eggs for Y number of
dollars." In spite of this, if this farmer, a
government civil servant earning between
$30.00 and $40.00 monthly, realizes a profit of
90 cents per bird during the 15-month laying
cycle he can almost equal his monthly salary
from the government.
The second farm consists of 1 ha located in a
lower middle class area of Karachi, and illus-
trates what can be done with poultry on very
small farms. This is the only source of income
for this farmer. He started in the broiler
business 4 years ago with two sheds totalling
464 sq m of floor space, plus a small room used
for brooding purposes. He has since constructed
a third shed with an additional 167 sq m of
floor space.
This farmer normally produces 2,000 broil-
ers every 2 weeks. However, the number of
birds on the farm at any one time is highly
dependent upon the market price. When prices
are high he will have as many as 9,000 birds at
one time of varying ages, and in times of low
market prices he will reduce the number to
3,000 birds. At present he has greatly reduced
the number of birds due to a severe drop in
market price.
In addition to facing the same problem of
obtaining feed in small deliveries, the small
broiler farmer faces an additional problem of
obtaining chicks during periods of high market
prices for the finished broilers. Since it is easy
to get in and get out of this type of production,
when market prices are high everyone wants in
and there is not a sufficient number of broiler
chicks produced by the local hatcheries to meet
demands. These farmers usually resort to buy-
ing fertile eggs on the black market and
hatching them in homemade electric or kero-
sene incubators.
It normally takes this farmer 9 weeks to
produce a flock of broilers averaging 1.25 kg
live weight, with a feed conversion ratio of
2.7:1 to 3.3:1. In spite of these problems and
the inefficient conversion this farmer's average
monthly income was over $400.00 in 1974.
M a x i m u m Use. To illustrate the potential
role of p o u l t r y under classification number
 ROLE OF POULTRY PRODUCTION ON SMALL FARMS
three, one o f the larger layer farms in the
Karachi area will be discussed. The farm is
operated primarily for egg production and has a
capacity of 30,000 cage layers. In addition to
egg production with cage layers the farm also
contains a flock of ducks for egg production, a
fruit orchard and plans are being made to
include a small dairy operation.
The owners of this farm are very progressive
and collaborate in many programs with the PRI
in helping to promote the poultry industry. For
example early in 1974 they purchased 100
female day-old Khaki Campbell ducks from the
PRI for experimental purposes. The data ob-
tained with these ducks further support the
results obtained on the subsistence type farm
indicating that ducks can be utilized for the
production of eggs under adverse conditions.
The ducklings were fed a commercial chick
mash for the first 4 weeks. After that time they
received only the floor sweepings from the
aisles of the cage houses for the chickens. These
sweepings contain approximately 60% waste
feed and 40% droppings and dust from the
chicken house. Also the only water the duck-
lings received was the waste water from the
chicken houses. They received no supplemental
feed, vitamins, antibiotics, et cetera whatsoever
after 4 weeks of age until the beginning of the
laying period. The total "feed" consumption
during this period was 7.95 kg per bird, the cost
of which was only the small labor cost involved
in sweeping the floor of the chicken houses,
and the small amount of feed required during
the first 4 weeks.
The ducks began laying at 19 weeks of age
and laid at over 90% for nearly 3 months. The
feed given during the laying period consisted of
198 g of sweepings per bird daily. They also
received the waste water from the chicken
houses. The only supplementation that the
laying ducks received was a dose of water
soluble vitamins which was given 1 day each
month.
The mortality in these ducks from day-old
through 1 year of lay has been only 3.0%. This
compares to a mortality figure of 28% over the
same period for chickens raised on this farm.
Their approach to egg production with chickens
is quite different from that with the ducks, the
chickens receiving a very high quality feed, and
the management is among the best in Pakistan.
It is also interesting to note that during 3
days in the summer of 1974 the temperature in
Karachi and the surrounding area reached 49 C.
407
During these 3 days many of the poultry farms
lost 10 to 20% and in some instances 50% or
more of their chicken layer flocks. The mortali-
ty in the ducks on this farm as well as at the
PRI and on the subsistence farm was absolutely
zero.
Duck eggs sell for less than chicken eggs in
most countries due to consumer preference for
the latter. However, the ducks easily produce
15% more eggs per year, even when maintained
under the conditions just described, and the
cost o f production is considerably less when
one takes advantage of the waste and otherwise
unused feed or scraps from human food.
As a result of their first experiment with
ducks the owners of the "maximum use farm are
now expanding their facilities for maintaining
ducks to a capacity of 1,200 or 40 ducks per
1,000 hens. Ducks not only increase t h e total
farm income through the utilization of feed
which would otherwise be lost, but the profit
from the ducks can support the egg production
from the hens during market crashes.
In order to utilize the waste water from the
chicken houses more efficiently a duck house
has been constructed in very close proximity to
each cage house for hens as shown in figures 2
and 3. This allows the water to flow directly
from the hen houses to the duck houses.
The waste water after passing through the
duck houses is collected in a small lagoon
recently constructed. The lagoon is being
stocked with fish, Tilapia mossambica. The
Figure 2. Drainage system for carrying waste water
f r o m the cage layer house on the left to t h e small d u c k
house on the right.
408 BUSHMAN
Figure 3. Inside of the duck house shown in f'~aare
2. The waste water from the chicken house flows
through the channel on the left. The earthen-ware
bowl on the right serves as the feeder for these ducks.
lagoon is also connected to one of the duck
houses which will be used during the rearing
period allowing the ducks free access to the
lagoon. The ducks can feed on the fish in
addition to the sweepings thereby increasing
the number of ducks which can be raised.
The lagoon in addition to providing addi-
tional low cost feed for the ducks also serves as
a source of irrigation water for a 1-ha plot of
land which is currently under cultivation with
bananas and various forages. Approximately 30
m 3 of waste water are collected daily. The
excess water is pumped out every fifth day for
use in irrigating this small plot of land.
The owners are not stopping here. Since the
sweepings are collected only from the aisles
between the rows of cages the majority of the
droppings remain underneath the cages. This
amounts to nearly 35 kg of air dry droppings
daily per 1,000 hens. The owners are now in
the process of planning experiments for the
utilization of these droppings as supplemental
feed for dairy cattle.
In Pakistan the water buffalo or the small
native dairy cattle such as the Red Sindhi are
commonly used for milk production. They are
maintained in dry lot, especially in southern
Pakistan, and receive a typical diet of 50 to
70% wheat straw, 15 to 25% of an energy
supplement such as broken grains, wheat bran,
rice polish, etc., and 15 to 25% of a protein
supplement which is normally undelinted cot-
tonseed meal containing 25 to 30% crude
protein. The cost of these ingredients varies
from $2.15 to $4.30 per 100 kg for wheat
straw, $6.70 to $11.00 per 100 kg for the
energy supplement, and $10.50 to $13.50 per
100 kg for the protein supplement. If, as several
authors have indicated, poultry waste such as
droppings from cage layers or litter from
broilers could be used to replace part or all of
the cottonseed meal and/or other feed ingredi-
ents for dairy animals the cost of milk produc-
tion could be reduced considerably (E1-Sabban
et al., 1970; Fontenot et al., 1971; Thomas and
Zindel, 1971; Tinnimit et al., 1972).
In addition to the potential use as a feed
source the animal droppings can also be used as
a fertilizer and possibly for the production of
methane gas for domestic consumption. For
example 1,000 cage layers will produce suffi-
cient droppings yearly to fertilize 4.5 ha of
land when applied on a fresh weight basis at a
rate of 9 metric tons per hectare. Recent results
from the Pakistan Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (Abdul H. Choddani, per-
sonal c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) indicate that droppings
from cage layers can be used for the production
of gas for domestic purposes. The yield of gas
from these droppings is approximately .78 m 3
per kilogram of air dry droppings, which is
about double the quantity of gas that can be
obtained from cattle manure.
CONCLUSIONS
Poultry does have a role to play on small
farms. While the circumstances for obtaining
the high profit margins which were present in
Pakistan during the early 1970's may not exist
in many areas of the world, the opportunity to
produce high quality protein at a low cost for
consumption by the farm family certainly
exists, especially through the use of ducks. Also
small scale poultry production fits in very well
with almost any farming enterprise, particularly
if one considers the use of by-products or waste
products.
LITERATURE CITED
EI-Sabban, F. F., J. W. Bratzler, T. A. Long, D. E. H.
Frear and R. F. Gentry. 1970. Value of processed
poultry waste as a feed for ruminants. J. Anita. Sci.
31:107.
FAO/IBRD. 1974. Report of the Pakistan Livestock
Sector Survey, Vol III, Annexes 5 to 7. FAO/IBRD
Cooperative Programme, FAO-Rome.
Fontenot, J. P., K. E. Webb, Jr., B. W. Harmen, R. E.
Tucker and W. E. C. Moore. 1971. Studies of
processing, nutritional value and palatability of
broiler litter for ruminants. Proc. Internl. Symp. on
Livestock Wastes. A.S.A.E. Pub. PROC 271:301.
Government of Pakistan. 1972. Pakistan Census of
Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture.
Thomas, J. W. and H. C. Zindel. 1971. Feeding
 ROLE OF POULTRY PRODUCTION ON SMALL FARMS 409

dehydrated poultry waste to dairy cattle. Poultry Tinnimit, P., Yu Yu, K. McGuffey and J. W. Thomas.
Pollution: Research Results. Research Rep. 152:8. 1972. Dried animal waste as a protein supplement
Michigan State University. for sheep. J. Anita. ScL 35:431.