313610th Class Biology-TM New Text Books 24092014

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Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad.
New Edition
First Published 2014
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form of
binding or cover other than that in which it is published
and without a similar condition including this condition
being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copy right holder of this book is the Director
of School Education, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
We have used some photographs which are under
creative common licence. They are acknowledge at
the end of the book.
This Book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. S.S. Map litho,

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card
Free Distribution by Government of Andhra Pradesh
Printed in India
at the Andhra Pradesh Govt. Text Book Press,
Mint Compound, Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh.
ii
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|j>\T #jT>\>*. |]s\qT neTs>\>*.
|]o\q\ bZ y~\T jsT #jT>\>*.
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bC |qT\T de#s d]+ (+s, +sYH{.....<s)
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<s q ne>VqqT e+ #jT>\>*.
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viii
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2 XdjT ` X < eed 10 pH / p 26
3 |dsD ` |<s syD eed 10 p 51
4 $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed 10 >dt 78
5 jT+D ` deTqjT eed 10 d|+sY 100
6 |T ` |qsT< eed 15 nsY 123
7 JejT\ deTqjT+ 10 qe+sY 153
8 nqTe+ 15 &X+ sY 176
9 eTq |sesD+ ` eTq u< 10 qe] 207
10 dV eqsT\T 10 | e] 227
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D ix

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\TdTHsT <! y{ k] | #T+<+.
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|&T eTq+ djT+ bwD, |sbwD $<H\ Je\ bwD m
sT>TT+< \TdT+<+. yTT\qT djT+ bw\ m+<T n+{s L&
\TdT+<+.
1. djT+bw\ bwD (Autotrophic nutrition)
d j T +bw \ +X | j +#T skjT dyT H\T
jsT#dT+{jT eTq \TdT. n$ H\ { eT]jTT K
\eDbT> >* = yjTTe\qT L& $j+#T+{sTT.
ds |<s\qT |j+ |+&|<s\T, e+dT\T, =e\ e+{ d+w
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Vs+ n+~+# eqsT\T> yTT\T >T]+|&sTT.
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#XsT<? yH V+{ yTT<q Xdy\T yTT\T eT Vs H\qT+&
eyT +& + @y s s\ <s >VkjT }V+#sT.
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sDqd+j>jT e]> @s& H\T @yT +{sTT?
sD qd+j>jT d++~+q eT] $wj \ >T]+ eT]+ $es+>
n<jTq+ #<+.
sDqd+j>jT (Photosynthesis)
sD q d+j>jT qT ]| yTT\ |\T |# s+>T +& es<
* +{sTT. B |V]+ (Chlorophyll) +{sT. $ +X
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(intermediary compounds) L& @s&TT+{sTT.
sT > 200 d+es\T> Xdy\T sDq
d+j>jT $<H dsyTq dMTsD s|+
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|]o*+#+&.)
MT \Tk?
yH nH Xdy |sT u]j\| |]X<q#d sDq d+j>jT +
b >T]+ qT>=H&T. nsTT u]j\T H2O <T\T> H2S qT bs+u |<s+>
|jksTT. u]j\T ]| sDqd+j>jT H <T\T> d\sY
y\Te&& jTq >T]+#&T. sTy yTT\ ]> + #sqT |]o*+ |q *|q
dMTsD |b~+#&T. ssY V #s {qT+& H $&T<\eT+~ n
s|+q s dMTsD+ +~ $<+> esT #+~+~.( Xdy\T dMTsD+
+ esT\T |jTdH HsT. eTq+ dMTsDH beD+> rdTH+)
+
6CO2 + 12H20 C H O + 6H20 + 6O2
|V]+ 6 12 6
yTT\T yTT<> dsyTq sV&{qT jsT#dT+{sTT. sTy
ksY e+{ d+w y T q |+&|< s\qT eT]jTT d\TC d+Xw k sTT. y +&
yTT\T b{qT, *|&T yTT<q |<s\qT L& jsT#dT>\T>TsTT.
nsTT +Te\T sV&{qT k++> jsT#dTe. { n$ y{
=s yTT\|q <s|&* +T+~.
<<|> dJe ||+#+{ sDqd+j>jTqT eT* X eqsT
n #|>\e?
sD qd+j>jT <s yTT\T sV &{qT b j sT#dT +{j
\TdT+<+.
+`1
\ |+&|<s+
+& |sT>TTq @<H yTTqT+& qT rdT+&. (yTTqT b+|
#d|&T yT> |\T# \T *q yTTqT b+| #dT+f eT+~).
ueT #|q $<+> |j> e\dq |]s\qT d<+ #dT+&.
|H[ $T<f& d]{qT rdT= n+<T qT +#+&.
|H[qT sT *q ;sT + y& #jT+&. y& #dq|&T
|V ]+ (Chlorophyll) =\+#&TT+~. n+<Te\ b*bsTTqT>
\T| s+>T esTT+~. | |]o*+#+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 3
;sY
eTsT>TTq sT
| + nj&H <eD+
$T<{ d]{
|H[ |{&wt
qT| e\
f
b & k+&
THdH ssY
|+`2(m): $T<{ d]{ | eT]+#T |+`2(_): nj&H |

qT y#Y>dt < |{&w t eT&\ T |& +& y&\ T> |s# + &. <|q
= #T\T njT&H < u{&H <eD #T\T #T\T> yjT+&.
| |]o*+#+&. MTsT @$T esT\qT >eT+#sT?
@s&q * q\T| s+>T |+&|<s| *jTCdT+~.
sDqd+j>jT <s +X skjT X> es&TT+<
MTsT u$dTHs?
sDqd+j>jT e\dq eX |<s\T
sDqd+j>jT <s sV&T @s&& e\dq eTTKyTq
|<s\T @yT +{j +#+&. (yHH |b~+q dMTsD #&+&).
sDqd+j>jT e*q |<s\ dMTsD+ $T& HjT
#|>\e?
<<| 300 d+es\T> Xdy \ T #dq w |* +> sD qd+j>jT
sVD e*dq = |<s\ >T]+ eyT \TdT>*>+. #s
b\T|+#T=H eTq *jT |<s\T + # +{jT Xdy \ n_bjT+.
sDqd+j>jT sVD e\dq |<s\ >T]+ Xdy\T b
\TdT>*>s |]o*<+.
sT eT]jTT sDqd+j>jT
yTT sTe |s>+ sT |<q beVdT+< yH V+{ #dq
|]X<q\ >T]+ MTsT 7e s> #~ysT <!
\+H{ yHV+{ sD qd+j>jT >T]+ *jT<T. sT y
]q nH |]X<q\T sDqd+j>jT <s yTT sTe |sT>TT+<H
$wj *jTCXsTT.
7e s> yTT\ bwD nH bs eTs=k] #<e+&. yTT
sTe |sT>T<\ { b<q >T]+ yH V+{ q |j>+ <s m
ssD e#& \T| y~ sjT+&. MT s> #]+#+&.
>* eT]jTT sDq d+j>jT
sDqd+j>jT d++~+ q |j> #<+. B <s
sDq d+j>jT >* m+{ bqT bwdT+< \TdTe#T.
sDqd+j>jTqT ne>Vq #dTH eT+ sV+#&q nH
|j>\ |dT+ eTq+ #jTujT |j>+ d s+#< +&
yT\TssTT e+{< L& #|e#T.
|# yTT\ |sT>T<\ >* |<q b eVdT+< Cd|t |d
(1733`1804) 1770e d+es+ sV+q |j >\ |s+ |s <s *d+~.
H{ Xdy\ sDq d+j>jT >T]+ n++> *jT<T. 1774e
d+es+ Cd|t |d H qT>=q $wj |
#T+&. 1775 d+es+ ysTTsY yjTTe
H n HeTsD+ #X&T. >* #=s& >+C&
y\T>TTq =e s> ]be& |d >eT+#&T.
n<$<+> >*#=s& >+C& +q b\T
}|s&be&+ L& >eT+#&T. |]o\q <s
y*> =e, b\T s+& L& @<$<+> >+C&
>* qw+ *+qT ssD e#&T. >+C&
|BH yTTqT + |]o*+q|&T b\T bD+
+&& =y= y\T>T +&& >eT+#&T.
+Te\ XdjTL =y= y\T>& KsT neTq
>* yTT\T >* |+|T+{jT |j >+ <s
Cd|t |d }V+#&T. |+`3: |d |j>+
|j> neT]qT <|+& |BH yTTqT >+C& |yX|&
Cd|t |d @+ #d +{&T?
=y=, m\T, |BH yTT eT< MTsT @yTH d++< >T]+#s?
@$T{?
Cd|t |d qT sV+q |j>\ <s yjTT $eTjT+ s>&+
e\q yTT\T e~ yjTTe =y= y\>&, +Te\ eTqT>& <V<+
#dT+< ssD e#&T. nsTT yTT\T >* sH&&qT sDq
d+j>jT, HqT XdjT b |j+#T+{sTT? M{ b
b+| #dT+{sTT? yTT\ n~ yTT+ yjTTe\ $jTeT+ \
|s+ <\ <s, n$ sT #T q+d|P sT>TH +T+~. n++&
+&+, ys +& d+ DC\+ <s L& yjTT $eTjT+ sT>TT+T+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 5
sDqd+j>jT> XdjT> ]> yjTTe\ m+|, yjTT
$eTjT+ |jTqT sV+# D+>\ ksTTH sT>TT+~.
+`2
sDqd+j>jT sH&& eX
|j> sVD |+&|<s+ =\+#&q yTT nedseTeT+~.
|+&|<s =\+#& yTTqT d+ ys+ sE\bT N{
+#*. N{ +#&+ e\ \ |+&|<s+ =\+#&T+~.
+~ ueT #|q $<+> |]s\qT d<+ #dT+&.
N\&q |+&|<s+
ssY sY @s&q u>+
+&
H{q yTT
y&\ TeT>\
>Edk
KOH
(b{wjT+ *q\ s+>T
V&&) @s& u>+
|+`4: y ns| |j>+
y&\TeT>\ >E dkqT rdT+&.

n+<T b{wjT+ V&& _\T b{wjT+ V&& <eD
rdT+&. b{wjT+ V&& sH&&qT | >TDeTT+T+~.
\Te> N\&q u+&T_s&qT rdT >Edk eT _+#+&.
yTT m+| #dTq qT _s& N*>T+& d>u>+ dk|*
d>u>+ dk y\T|* +& $<+> neTs+&.
dkdV |j> neT]qT dss +#+&.
= >+\ sTy dk neT]q qT, yTT m<H eTs= qT
rdT= +`1 #dqT> nj&H <eD+ |+#+&.
>* y\TTsT kTq qT nj&H | sV+q|&T *`q\T|
s+>T es& >eT+#sT <!. dk|\ q b{wjT+ V&&
dk q >* sH& &qT |*yd+ ~. sD q d+j>jT s> < T
{ dk|\ q e+ *`q\T| s+>T es<T. B {
sDq d+j>jT sH&& nedseT \TdT+~.
yTTqT yTT< N{ + sTy y\TTsT +#& sD+ @$T{?
|j>+ s+&T \qT m+<T |]+#*?
+es eTq+ sDqd+j> jT sH&&, sT nedseT
\TdTH+. y +& + nH s s\T L& |ue+ #|e#
Xdy\T u$+#sT.
+ eT]jTT sDqd+j>jT
Cd|t |d \+ H{ Xdy\ X >T]+ n+> ne>Vq +&~
<T. sy \+ X| nH s\ |]X<q\T ]>sTT. H
|seDTe sH < V&H |seDTe\ d+j>+ #+<&+ e\q
sH&& < sT @s&q|&T X $&T<\eT+~. #s es
~X ]q|&T @$T sT>TT+~? @s&q H ] >* *dq|&T
@eTeT+~? B <s+> X $wjT+ L& es ~X #s\T ]
@eTT+< L& Xdy\T $Xw+#sT. H @s&q|&T $&T<q X
] $j+#&T+< Xdy\T \TdT>*>sT. B ns+ @$T+f
yTT\T HqT #dTq|&T n$ X >V+#>\>*. nd\T X
b& qT+& edT+~?
&#Y Xdy CH +H VC (1730`1799) |X de<q+
qT>=q>*>&T. yTT\T HqT b @ssTkj \TdTe& s+s+
n<jTq+ #X&T. 1779e d+es+ + deT+H yTT\T HqT
@ssTkjT \TdTH&T.
V & nH { yTT |j >\T sV+#|&T |Xe+yT q +
+q|&T V& yTT |# u>\ #T >* T&>\T @s&+,
N{ +q|&T @s& be&+ >eT+#&T. >* T&>\ H
yjTTe +< \TdTH&T.
$w j 20e X + b+> y T H nH Xd y > ] w
sD qd+j>jT ]> kH qT>=q&+ eT]+ dw+ > ssD ]+~.
qT Xe\ deTV\| +<<qdT q& s+>T\ e+{ $$< s+>T\
+T\T k $<+ > #k&T. sT y H u] j\| |Xe+yT q
bsT| eT]jTT * s+>T +sD \qT |d] +|Cd | &T n$ >T+|\T> @s&&+
>eT+#&T. |]X<q\T + eT]jTT sDqd+j>jTqT >T]+
eT]+ T> n<jTq+ #jT& <V<|&sTT eT]jTT yTT\ $$<
s\ s+>T\ L&q es<y\ >T]+ + X $j>+ y{ b
>T]+ ne>Vq #dT& L& &&sTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 7

|j>X\ +
+ deT+ sDqd+j>jT ]q|&T H $&T<\
ueT #|q $<+> |j> e\dq |]s\qT d<+ #dT+&.
+{y s+&T neT]\qT @sT#dT+&.
V& < b&j e+{ { yTTqT rdT+&.
H b{ & *q >sT yTT\qT +#+&. ;sT
{ rdT+&. >sTqT yTT dV ;sT +#+&.
|H[ +& sT +| >sT &|q u]+#+&.
;sT {eT+ >sT & H | +& $<+>
|H[ #&+&. |j> d+ 2 qT+& 3 >+\b
;sY dss +#+&. eTs= neT]qT N{> +&#T
sT |+&. |H[ { eT{ |]o*+#+&. {eT+
>sT >TZ |<X+ >* +&TTqT> MTsT >eT+#sT
V& yTT < ! m& +q neT] |H [\ me yjTTe
qT >T]+#sT? m+<T #|>\s? yjTTe
eT+& T T q nZ | \ q T> n> s Y > +q| & T
|+`5: V& |j>+ +e++> eT+&&+ >eT+#+&. |q T { V &
yTT\ qT+& y\Te&q yjTTe H n \TdTe#T.
>* +&q | H[qT ;sT qT+& jT rd|&T @yT$T C>\ T
rdTy MT b<jTT #]+#+&.
+`3
|+& |<s+ @s&& + eX
+& |sT>TTq yTTqT rdT+&. |+&|< s+ =\+#+&. |+& |<s+
=\+#& +`2 b{+q |< H nqTd]+#+&. q\ + rdT=
MT qq &CHqT ]+#+&. < ueT #|q $<+> |q +
|+`6: q\ + |j>+
<\+& |\T |+&. q\{ u>+>T+& + |q |&+& +
neTs #&+&. MT neT]qT dss +#+&.
= >+\ sTy yTT qT+& qT ysT#jT+&. |+&|<s+ =s
nj&H |qT sV+#+&. @ @ u>\T * q\T| s+>T essTT?
$T*q u>+ m +~?
]+q &CH s+ >T+& + |d]+q u>+ q\+ |
u>+ eyT nj&H *q\T| s+>T es+ >eTk+. sD+ @$T{?
|V]+ eT]jTT sDqd+j>jT
+H VC sDqd+j>jT >T]+ eT] $es\T \TdTe&
nH s\ |j>\qT sV+#&T. yTT\ |# u>+ eyT
sDqd+j>jT sT>TT+< n&T |b~+#&T.
$$< s+>T\T *q \T L& sDqd+j>jT sVkj?
# yTT qq+> @s& >Ts\T bsT| s+>T +& sTy
|#s+>T b essTT? bsT| < |dT|s+>T +& |\T L&
sDqd+j>jTqT sVkj? = |\T L& |#s+>T *
+{sTT <! n$ L& sDqd+j>jTqT sVkj? Te+{
|X\ yTT\ u>\qT+& |#{ |<s ysT#d+<T, < duy
ns+ #dTH+<T Xdy\ dy> essTT.
20e X+ eT<\+ es n+f sDqd+j>jT ]> d
>T]+ ysT #d es L& +H Vdt sV+q $$< s\ |j>
|*\ |b<q neT\T HsTT. H\T>T <Xu\ |]X<q\ nq+s+
Xdy\T \ qT+& |# |<s ysT#d < duy |]o*+
sDqd+j>jT $$<
s\ es<y\T + X >V+ |+ #dT sDqd+j>jT
&&jT Xdy\T >T]+#sT.
sDqd+j>jT b& sT>TT+~?
yTT sDqd+j>jT ]> u>\ |sT #|+&.
yTT qq+> @s& bsT|s+>T >Ts\T L& sD qd+j>jT qT
sVkjT MTsT u$dTHs? nsTT & bsT| s+>T b @$T{?
|*{jTsY yH Xdy\T s|qT qT>=q sTy 6 <Xu\ es
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 9
sDqd+j>jT ]> KyTq kq+ >T]+> s| *jTT+&
u>+ >T]+> *jT<T. n|{es yTT\ D\ |#{ u>\
s| y|+ +T+< qyTysT. 1883e d+es+ p*jTdt yH
k nH Xdy s| yTT\ D+ n+ y|+ +&< >eT+#&T.
s| D+|* | D+>\ +T+< \TdTH&T. D+>\H
V]sDTe\T (Chloroplasts) n+{sT. yTT\ |s+<\ s D\
eT]jTT d+<jT DC\+ sbdt\T (40`100 es) n~ d+K
+{sTT. 9e s> sbdt >T]+ = $wj\T \TdTHsT <!
+~ |{ |]o*+#+&. sbdt\T $T*q D+>\+f _q+> b
q&sTT?
neud
uV #s+
d+ DC\+
<sTe
bw DC\+
>*>~
s D+
n+s uV#s+
|s+<+
|+`7(m): n&T
sbdt\T #+ L&q sD\T. +<T
uVe#+ keT <\sTT& 3 #\T +{sTT. eT&e #+ <=+s\e+{
=eD\T
keT sD b+~ +T+~. <\ sTT& <=+s\ qT
} > H >H (Grana) n+{sT. |<X+ +X
>V +#&T +~. <=+s\ eT< <e+ +&q u>+
>H <\sTT& +T+~. B ke (Stroma) n+{sT. +<T
+<+ |+&|<s+ ]> nH s\ b+CyT #s\ e\q >C
|+`7(_): V]sDTe n&T d+Xw+#&TT+~. >C sTy |+&|<s+>
e]bT+~.
MT \Tk?
D+ |*q|&T n+<T sbdt L& eTTbT+~. nTe+|&T sDq
d+j>jT $$< kbH\qT n< jTq+ #jT & nedsy T q sbdqt T ysT #jT eTT.
1954 sTy &jT sH yTT D yT*> |>\={ sDq d+j>jT
sVD && sbdtqT ysT#jT>*>&T.
V]sDTe + Xw+# |<s\qT sDqd+j>j es<\T
(Photosynthetic pigments) n+{sT. yTT\ >C e+{ d+w |<s\qT
jsT#d sDqd+j>jT nH sq es<\T |#ksTT.
|V]+ s+ Vy>_H nH es<+ VyTqT b* +T+~.
nsTT Vy>_H sH +f (s+ Vy>_H HqT ds| s #jT &
&&TT+~.) |V]+ yT^wjT+ +T+~.
|+ V]sDTe <sTT& <=+s\ s+&T |<q sq
|V] es<\T+{sTT. s| m *`|# es<+ > s| _
|dT|`|#> +T+~. | >q+q <<| 250 qT+& 400 es<
nDTe\T *d + XwD deTT<jT+ (Light harvesting complex) >
@s&sTT. M{ sDqd+j>jT |eD\T n+{sT. |# yTT\
sbdt n~ d+K +& j |eD\T n *d sDq d+j>
jTqT d+jTT+> sVksTT.sDqd+j>jT d+<s+> sbdt
nH d+|Tq\T sT>TsTT. y{ eTTKyTq$.
1. + X skjT X> es+
2. {nDTe $ #+<&+
3. sH&& nDTe sV&{> jTsD+ #+<&+.
$$< s\ #s\T s>& + neds+ neT+~. y{bT eT]=
#s\T + neds+ +& L& sT>TT+{sTT. n+f k] >V+|&q
+X |yT sTy +q|&T L& $$< #s\T s+s+> s>{
|j>|&TT+~. + | <s|& #s\T >H sT>TT+{sTT. $T*q
c+ #s\T ke sT>TT+{sTT.
sD qd+j>jT j++
sDqd+j>jT |<q+> s+&T <X\ sT>TT+~. n$
1. +#s (Light dependent reaction)
2. c+#s (Light independent reaction)
1. + #s (+ skjTq <X) (Light dependent reaction)
#s + |<q b eVdT+~. +<T + <s |s|+#&q
nH skjT #s \T < y+ { n s> sT>TT+{sTT. n+<Te\q
<XqT + skjTq <X (Photochemical phase) n+{sT. +#s
sbdt >H <\sTT&\ sT>TT+~. + #s $$< kbH\
sT>TT+~.
yTT<{ kbq+: s|qT +X VsZ+ #dq|&T b{H\qT Xw+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 11
j e+eTeT+~ (+X b{H\ s|+ |eVdT+ ~).
s+&e kbq+: { nDTe V &H (H+), V & (OH-) njH\T> $
#jT& +X $j+#&T+~.
H2O H+ + OH-
#sqT + $XwD (Photolysis) n+{sT. b{ nq> + ddt
nq> $ #jT&+ n ns+. n+f + <s { nDTe $ #+<&+
nqe. B V nH Xdy s|+#&T. n+<Te\ B V #s
nL& n+{sT.
eT&e kbq+: n+ #so\yTq { jH\T s+&T esZ\ =+<s>
esT#+<TsTT. H+ OH- jH\ #s\T $$< <X\
m sT>Tj |]o*<+.
OH- njH\T < y+ {> ]> nH #s\ |s+|s <s sT
(H2O) eT]jTT H (O2) #dT + ~. sT yTT |\ $j+#&TT+~
H e+ yesD+ $&T<\eT+~. H+ njH c+ #s
eqT> #s\ |s+|s\T qeT+~. + #s n&HdH f bd{
(ATP) eT]jTT {qyT& n&HdH & bd{ (NADPH)\T n+|<s\T>
@s&sTT. M{ X>V\T (Assimilatory powers) n L& n+{sT.
2. c+ #s (Je d+XwD <X) (Light independent reaction)
<X #s\ + X neds+<T. n+ +& +#su
sT>TT+~. s+&T #s\ eT< ee~ dH yje+T +f e>
+T+~.
c+ n+f N{ < s sT>TT+< ns+<T. #s +|
<s|&< ns+ #dTy*.
+ $XwD nsTTq H+ njHqT NADP nH | nDTe
d]+ NADPH > esTT+~. c+ #s NADPH jTT H+ njH
CO2 *d ATP X $j+#T= >CqT #dT+~. d+XwD
nH eT<d |<s\qT (eTTK+> ]TC u bd{qT) b+CyT\qT
|j+#T+ nH kbH\ sT>TT+~. #s e]> >C
|+&|<s+> esTT+~.
yTT\T $$< s\ |]d T \ d + eT JejT \qT s]+#>\ T>TsTT.
n me +, y&>, b&> +& yesD+q &, eT +& e
+ *q yesD+q yTT\T eT $<T\qT sT|+{sTT. +
eT]jTT s s\ neX yTT yTT ysTysT> +{sTT.
|sbw\ bwD (Heterotrophic nutrition)
dJe ||+#+ Je\ $_q |]dT d+ dsTuT #dT+
J$+#& M\T> eT |]ds\ nqTL\qT * +{sTT. n<$<+>
$_q |< T Vs d]ksTT. ds+ deT+ Vs j sT#dT H
y{ djT+bw\T n+{sT. n k++> jsT #dT y{
|sbw\T n+{s eTq \TdT
Je\T eT Vs m b+<>\T>TsTT?
Je\ \ueTjT Vs| s+, < n+<TuTqT { n$ Vs+ b+<
$<q+, $j+#T&+ nH s\ |<T\qT nqTd]ksTT.
= dt\T, >=&T>T\T (mushrooms), s=f E\T (Bread moulds)
e+{ Je\T Vs Xs+ y\T|\ qq nDTe\T> $&>={ XwksTT.
M{ |PVsT\T n+{sT. += s\ Je\T <jT J$| <s|&
< #+|+& |sq Jeq $<q+ Vs d]ksTT. <VsD
dT , |qT, \>, <| sT>T yTT<q Je\T |sq bwDqT b{ksTT. eT]=
Je\T Vs+ yTT rdT (n+s>VD+) Xs+|\ d
|<s\T> $&>=&sTT. Vs+ rdTe&+, Js+ #dT e&+ yTT<q n+X\
J$ sD+, |#d $<q+| <s|& +{sTT.
Vs+ s+ n~ \_+# $<q+ &\T +&+ e\q $$< s\ Je\
Jseed\T L& ysT ysT> +{sTT. @ DJ$ nMTu Vs+ Xs+
|]\+ qT+& d]+#&TT+~. yT | Je\ d+w |]> =\~
$$< s\ u>\T | $<T\qT sV+#& nqTe> esT
#+<TsTT. <VsD nMTu Vs dsD =s Xs |]\+ qT+&
y e+{ $T<b<\qT @sT #dT +T+~. $T<b<\qT Vs+
#T y|+|Cd Vs| ]> esTdT+~. Vs s d+w Vs
| < s \ T d s | < s \ T> $& > = & q s T y
D<e+ y|q+ #+<TsTT. Js+ |<s+ D+
|] #] n& qT+& y\T|* |+|&TT+~.
@D J$ nsTTq bsMTwjT+ ]wyTq s+
+T+~. | kq+ qT+& Vs+ >V +#&T +~.
Xs+ n+ y|+ q X*\ <* e\q Vs+
| kH #sT +T+~. n& qT+& Xs+ |*
y+~. u> DeTTK+ (Cytostome) n+{sT.
bsMTwjT+ DeTTU >T]+#+&.
|+`8: bsMTwjT+, nMTu bwD
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 13

dT{ |sqJe bwD
+>sT r> dT (Cuscuta) |C #+~q \T +& r>\T>
#TT+ |]> |sV |sqJe yTT. ~ q\TjTd +T+u
#+~q~. |C <<| 170 s\ r> yTT\ CT\T || + #
y|+ > deTow, we T+&\ b+ y|+ HsTT. #
CT\T y{ n<j T yTT\ dV = b+ |y +#sTT.
+>sT r> < &&sY n |\Te& yTT |V ]+
+&<T. dT{ ]| # e yTT+ |sV+
+T+~. ~ #w\T (Haustoria) <s Vs
|+`9: dT{ Vk]j\T d]dT+ ~. Vk]j\T y e~]> +& n<s TT DC+
#=#T=bsTT. =k] n<sTT #+|ksTT L&. &&sY +&+ dq>
b&e> H]+, >T_, |dT| < ><TeT s+>T> +T+~. &&sY
|c\T u&|\T s|+ >T+|\T >T+|\T> +{sTT. |dT| < \T|
s+>T s |\T +& yT\T >+ s+ (d+jTT ns |\T)
+{sTT. |\T dq{ b\TdT\ e~]> D+ +{sTT.
&&sY $q+ yTT\q|&T n+TysT (Anchoring root) @s&TT+~.
sT y dq{ b&yq +&+ d]s+ m<T>T n<s TT yTTqT #s es
|sT>TT+~. sTy n<sTT +& |qydT= Vk]j\qT +&+
#=|dT+~. Vk]j\T n<sTT <sTe qT+& { eT]jTT bw DC\+
qT+& bw|<s\qT d]ksTT. &&sY +&+ n<sTT +&+ d++<+
@ss#T>H &&sY yTT ysT [bsTT. &&sY yTT |]> =\B qq
V k ] j \T n< j T y T T d + +< *
|+#T+{sTT. +&+ r> n<jT yTT #T
yT*\T ]q sTy |qTq eTs= +&
#T{ |qydT = be&+ e\q n<j T yTT| yTT+
e\ e~]> $T+ Cs+> q&T+~.
MT |]ds\ +& |sq Je yTT\qT
|]o*+#+&. \D\T sjT+&.
eqe Jseed
eqe Js eed # d+wyTq~. +<T
$$< s\ nejTy\T Jss k \T eT]jTT b+Ce TT\
dVjT+ $$< $<T\qT sVdT+{sTT. eqe
Jse ed ueTqT |]o*+#+&. u>\ |sT sjT+&.
|+`10: eqe Jseed eqe VsH+ (Alimentary canal)
b&yq >=+e+{ sD+. ~ H{qT+& bjTTe es y|+ +T+~.
VsH+ $$< s\ u>\qT >eT+#e#T. Vs H+ = b++
= |yTq | s]+#& M\T> sb+~+|& +T+~.
eTq+ q Vs+ Xs+|* y[q sTy @eTeT+~?
Vs H+ Vs+ JseTjT $<q+ >T]+ #]<+. eTq+ nH s\
Vs|< s\T q|{ ne JsH + <s |+|&sTT. eTq+ Vs
rdTH $<H n+s>VD+ (ingestion) n+{sT. eTq+ rdTH Vs+
eTq Xs+ >V+#&,|j+#T& M\T> qq nDTe\T>
es&TT+~. deTjT+ nH s\ #s\T sT>TsTT. n$ m
sT>Tj |]o*<+.
VsH+ >T+& Vs+ y $<q+
eTq+ rdTq Vs+ H{ <+\ <s eTT\T> #jT& H{
\+ \TdT+~. |*+> Vs+ &>, yT> CsT&T duy
b+<TT+~. BH eTT<> #jT&+ (Mostication) \H+
n+{+. Te+{ yT> CsT&T due+ *Zq
V s + V s y V (Oesophagus) > T +&
JsXjT+ y& nqTe> +T+~. n+* \
dVs+ +& 3 \ \ >+<T \ <s H\T > + ~
\+ d$+#&TT+~. s+&T \ \ m|>{dt
>+<T\T <e&\ |q eT]jTT H\T +< neT]
+{sTT. >+<T \T n+* neT] +{sTT. |+`11: dVs+
\+ nyTC (jT*H) nH b+CyT +T+~. nyTC b+CyT d+w
sV&{\qT dsyTq |<s\T> esTdT+~. b+CyT\ dVjT+ d+w
|<s\T ds |<s\T> $&>={ Xs+ Xw+#T& nqTe> es $<H
JsjT (Digestion) n+{sT. H\T Vs $TXeT+> #jT&
VsH+ sy u>+ H& |j>|&TT+~. |
sV+#& +~ <e& (+_) L& &&TT+~.
\+ jTT skjT duy \TdTe& *dt | |
#<+.
+`4
*dt + |
JejT\ deTqjT+ bs+ d+q $<+> |+& |<s+| \
|u y *| |j >+ (`7) #jT +&. |* \ >T]+ MT s> #]+#+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 15
n> >+ L& #jT+&. @$T >eT+#sT.
yT{ Vs+ \+ *dq sTy VsyV |+|&TT+~.
Vs+ Vs yV >T+& |jDdTq|&T n\\T < s+>\ e~]>
+& #\H >eTk+. BH |]k* #\q+ (Peristalic movement) n+{sT.
JsXjT+ Vs+ ss sd+ eT]jTT V&] eT+ (HCl) *d
*qeT+~. <X Vs+ ns|Tq s|+ > +T+~. &
Vs+ b{H\T ||H nH b+CyT dVjT+ q q nDTe\T>
$&>=&sTT.
Vs+ +& b{qT eT]jTT sV&{ nDTe\T qq eTT\T>
$&>=& yT> { s|+ esTT+~. BH yT (Chyme) n+{sT.
JsXjT+ es +& e\js d+e]D +&s\T (Phyloric spinctors)
y#+ #+<+ e\q Vs+ JsXjT+ qT+& q |>T |+|&TT+~.
+&s\T yT yTT+ k]> +& qq yTT\T> Vs |<s
JsXjT+ qT+& q |>T e#$<+> jT+ksTT.
|]k* n\ VsyV VsH+ n b&yq u>+ q|>T (Small
intestain). +<T sV&{, b{qT eT]jTT =e\
JsjT |PseT+~. #s jT+, eT >+<T\
JsXjT+ qT+& y\Te& Jssk\T |j>|&sTT. >+<T\
dy\T q |>T sd *+#& <V<|& sTT.
jT+ <s $&T<\jT |sd+ =e |<s\qT
u\dt Js+#d qq sDTe\T (globules)> esTdT+~.
$<H meTsD+ (Emulsification) n+{sT.
|+-12: |]k* #\q+ eTsd+ +& {|H nH b+CyT b{qqT Js+
#jT& n< $<+> |C nH b+CyT =e\qT Js+ #jT&
|j>|&TT+~.
q |>T\ >&\T +sk (Intestainal juice) d$ksTT. ky\T
b{qT eT]jTT =e\qT eT]+ q q nDTe\T>, Xw+#& M\T>
esT #+~ksTT. sV&{ H{ =+es eyT JseTsTT.
JsXjT+ esT\T #+<+& q |>T #]q sTy n& sd
* +&+ e\q |P]> JseTesTT.
+`5
m+CyT\ |{ |]o*<+.
Jseed |#d b+CyT\ |{qT |]o*+#+&. $$< s\ Jssk\T
eT]jTT b+CyT\ $<T\qT >T]+ s> >~ #]+#+&.
|{`1: Jsj m+CeTT\T
.d+. b+CyT / |<s+ >+~ d$+# |<X+ Jssk\T y{|q #s @s&
sT|T+~ q+/|<s+
1. jT*H \ dVs+ \+ sV&{ eC
(\ nyTC) >+<T\T
2. ||H JsXj
T + JsXj
T + sssd+ b{H |bH
3. |sd+ jT+ +eT\+ |sd+ =e\T =e\ beTsD
(bCyT +&e) (Duodenum) (=e\qT q q
sDTe\T> esT)
4. nyTC eT+ +eT\+ eTsd+ sV&{ eC
5. {|H eT+ +eT\+ eTsd+ b{H |bH
6. |C eT+ +eT\+ eTsd+ =e\T =e e\T
+>+<T\T +sd+ eT]jTT ]H
7. ||&Cdt q|>T q|>T +sd+ ||& nyTHe\T
8. dC q|>T q|>T +sd+ dC > C
(#s
#s)
sV&{| #s]| b+CyT\T @$?

@ Jssd+ b+CyT\T +&e?
b{q| #s ]| b+CyT\T @$?
JsyTq n+|<s\T |>T qT+& s+ (q|>T >&\ <s) syD
e& XwD (Absorption) n+{sT. q|>T >&\ q y e~]>
+& sD\T q&sTT. M{ d#w\T (Villi) n+{sT. $ q
|>T\ |]\ yX |+#TsTT. n+<Te\ XwD keTs+ |sT>TT+~.
sH \T eT]jTT *+|t >+<T \T d #w\ *d Cs+> e\ e~]>
@s&sTT.
JsyTq n+|<s\T yTT< d#w\ n& qT+& sH\T
eT]jTT *+|t H\ Xw+#&sTT. n+f JsyTq Vs |<s q
|>T\ >&\T >VkjTqe. JsyTq Vs+ n~yTT+ s+ <s
Xs+ s u>\ rdT=y& <V<|&sTT. Js $T*q
Vs|<s+ |< |>T |+|&TT+~. sTy es|<s\T bjTTe <s
jT{ H&TsTT. bjTTe VsyV jTT e] u>+ bjTTe <s
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 17
Js+ es|<s\qT =\+#& eT\$dsq n+{sT. bjTTe <s
$d]+ #& |<s+ d\|]eD+ + = b{qT, =e\T, sV &T
+{sTT. Jseed d++~+q eT] $es\qT JejT\ deTqjT+
bs+ #]<+.
eqe Jseed b#sY
eqe JseedqT *jTCd b#sTqT |]o*<+.
Jsj $<q+ >T]+ e @eTqT+THe?
JsjT ]> |<q <X\T @$?
Vs+ HsT dVs+ >d
|] JsXjT+ ]j JsXjT+ VsyV
n+eT\+ q|>T |< |>T
bjTTe |wH+
u >+~ eT>+~
Vs yV d++~+q s>s n+X\T

eTq+ rdTH Vs+ |q eTq VsyV |rsT <s|& +T+~.
= d+<s\ eTq+ rdTH $TMT]q Vs+ VsyV| |ue+
#|T+~. nTe+{ d+<s+ eTq+ nHs>+> +&&+ < nJs+
u<|&&+ #dT+{+.
JsXjT+ qT+& nedsyTq |<s\qT VsyTq |<s\qT
=\+#T& eTq Xs+ b{+# |jTjT y+ (vomiting). y+ e#
deTjT+ JsXjT+ eT]jTT VsyV |]k* #\q+ s>eTq+
yq s> + e\q Vs+ H{qT+& jT H &TT+~. y+T\T s>&
nH sD\T q|{ eTTKyTq sD+ n> q+. q Vs+
=eX+ be> q|&T, Js+ q|&T, $wT \yTq Vs rdTq|&T
L& y+T\T ne&+ dsk<sD $wjT+.
eTq+ be sE\bT =e L&q Vs|<s\qT q|&T
k<sD+> |+, |dsT L&q y+T u<|&TT+{+. be> =e
|<s\qT q|&T jT+ =eqT TH X T+~.n|&T eTq+
\H=|, y+T\ u<|&+.
eTq+ rdTq Vs+ Js+q|&T nJ] u<|&TT+{+. s>+>
q e nJ] \>+& +~ C>\T b{+#*.
1. k<sDyTq deTT\ Vs rdT&+
2. yT\>, |X++> q&+
3. Vs u> q$T* q&+
4. q y+H yjeT+ e+{ |qT\T #jTbe&+
# s<\T Vs+ rdTq sTy >&< +&+ #dT+{+.
Vs+ rdTH $wjT+ +Te\ qT+& eTq+ # $wj\T HsTy*
+T+~.
JsXjT+ +eT\+ @s&q |+&T (ulcers) nJ] |<q sD+.
|]d be> b\|&T , +<q +& y] #k+. $X+
+& |#jT&+, V&$&> uq+ #jT&+ nJ] sD\T. | &
be> +& &sT, b<jTT\T, sjTy\T, kusT, ybsdT\T
yTT<q ysT me> n\sY\ >TseT+{sT. bes |X++> bTe+{
& +& +{s y] JsXjT+ |+&T e# neX+ # e.
eT<\+ JsXjT n\s u]j sD+ neT+~ nH n+X+| #dTq
|]X<q\ >T]+ MTsT 9e s> #~ysT <!
s>+> +&\+f eT\< + +& |sE eTq JsH U#j *.
Js+ Vs+ |<|>T # sE\ es n> \ +f n+<T |]>
u]j $&T<\ #d VsyTq |<s\T s+ Xw+#&sTT. n+<Te\
nH s s\ y<T\T L& e# neX+ +~. eTq Vs+ |#T|<s\T
be> q+ e\q eT\< y]+#e#T.
bwVs|+ ` y<T\T
eTq Xs+ JejT\ deT+> s]+#& dsq Vs+ neds+
n eTq+ #<TeH+. eTq+ H Vs+ deTTVs+> +&*. n+f
< |+& |<s\T, e+dT\T, =e\T, K\eD\T, $$TqT\T
yTT<qe q b +&*. ||+# Hu eT&+{ s+&Te+T\
eT+~ Vs d++~ y<T\ u<|&TTHsT. =+eT+~ me ]|
$\Te>\ Vs+ q&+ e\ L& y<T\ b\eTHsT. meeT+~
deTTVs+ \_+#be&+ e\ y<T\ >TseTHsT. Vs d++~
y<T\ >T]+ #]+#&+ m+ neds+.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 19
eTq+ H Vs+ { < n+H me bw |<s\T q b
be& bwVs|+ n+{+. nHs>+, y\ q&+ eyjT&+,
bw $\Te\ |, Vs+ e+& |<T\| dsq ne>Vq be&+, ]
ke n+X\T yTT<q e eTq<X+ bwVs b sDeTeTHsTT.
bwVs b 3 s\T> eZ]+#e#T.
1. \|syTq bwVs|+
2. b{H\ d++~ bwVs|+
3. bw $\Te\T Vs+ rdT&+.
| sD\ e\ e# = y<T\ >T]+ #]<+.
wjssY (Kwashiorkor)
~ b{H |+e\q *> y~. Xs+ D+seX\ sT
#] XseT+ _qT> |dT+~. +&s\ |sT>T<\ # HeT~>
+T+~. , #T\T, eTTK+ u> _ +{sTT. b&u]q #s+,
$s#H\ u<|&T +{sT.
|+`13(m): wjssY
yTsddt (Marasmus)
y~ b{H\T, \\T s+&+{|+ e\ \T>TT+~. k<sD+>
y~ y+y+H >s+ <\&+ e\ |f |\ < me qT\sTTq
* |f|\ d+u$dT+~. y~>dT\ dTe>, \Vq+>
+&&+, y| +&s\ |sT>T<\ |+, b&u]q #s+, $s#H\T
yTT<q \D\T+{sTT.
|+`13(_): yTsddt
d\jT+ (Obesity)
n~ \\T +& Vs me> q&+ e\ y~ \T>TT+~.
eT<\+ ~ |< s>deTd> e]+~. d\jT+
u<|&TT+& |\\T u$wT &j_{dt, >T+& d++~ deTd\T, Js
|+`13(_): |> d++~ deTd\ =+<s> >TsjT |e<+ +~. d\jT <]
rdTq s +| & , nHs>s Vs n\y >T]+ MT s> #]+#+&.
$$TH |+e\ *> y<T\T
$$TqT\T Jed++~ |<s\T. $ eTq Xs e |]eD+
nedseTjT dbw\T. C $$TqT\T Xs+ d+Xw+#&e.
k<sD+> $$TqT\T b\ >T]e&+ L& s><T. m+<T+f eTq
Xs+ $$TqT\qT b+<& s+&T s\ eqsT\qT * +~. { eTq+
H Vs+ <s $$TqT\T \u, Jseed +& u]j $$TqT\qT
d+Xw + Xs n+~+#&+ s +&e~. $$TqT\qT s +&T s\T> eZ] +#e#T.
$$TH eqsT\T *>y<T\T \D\T
<j$TH (B1) D<H\T, qH+\T, u]u] y+T\T, eTs, * be&+,
Ls>jT\T, b\T, e+d+, Xd +<T\T, |y+L&
#|\T, >T&T. se#T.
s ub$H b\T, >T&T, jT+, >d{dt H{|P, |<e\ es\T |>\&+,
( B2) eT|+&\T, Ls\T. H\T| |+&T, y\TTsT
#&be&+, b&u]q #s+.
jdH (B3) eT|+&\T, jT+, |> #sy<T\T, {$s#H\T, C|X
e+d+, >T&T, #|\T, Zbe&+, #s+ b\TdTu]be&+.
|]&H qH+\T. n$Tj y+T\T, eTs.
( B6) D<H\T, qH+\T,
Ls>jT\T, b\T, e+d+,
#|\T, >T&T, jT+.
dqu\$TH Jseed +& u]j |]wjT dt dTe, * eT+<+#&+.
( B 12 ) B d+XwdT+~. n$Tj
b* d& jT+, e+d+, >T&T, b\T, n$Tj {$s#H\T, \d d+K
|+&T, D<H\T, Zbe&+, Jseed Xw deTd\T.
Ls\T.
b+{< \>& <T+|\T, ysTXq>, b<\ |>T q&ebe&+, eT&eT H=|\T.
eT+ Ls>jT\T, jT+,
eT|+&\T, >T&T.
j{H ||<H\T, +\T, H&d++< +&s\ H=|\T, n\dbe&+,
Ls>jT\T, jT+, deTd\T eqd y\.
eT|+&\T, b\T.
k] Ls\T, |\ |+&T, d >jT\T eqbe&+, meTT\T
eT+ yTT\q +\T. $s>&+.
( C) Ls\T, s{, {e{, qT, #s sN{, #s+, +{qT+& sT
s{H >TeT{, sTT, e$T&, y<T\T s&+, #s+ b\TdTus&+, H|\
e+d+, #|\T, >T&T, jT+, deTd\T.
b\T, sY*esY sTT,
csY*esY sTT.
jT+, >T&T, sY*esY ]{ meTT\T d]> |s>be&+, |dT
*|s sTT, csY*esY sTT. us&+, <=&, eTT+Cy|, <+
( D) deTd\T.
|+&T, Ls>jT\T, yTT\q e+< |sTw\ e+<+, d\ >ske
{|s +\T, b<TsT>T&T qH, deTd\T deTd\T.
( E) e+d+, >T&T. s+ n~ ske+, s+ >&be&+.
|HH Ls\T, b\T. >& b e&+
( K ) +<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 21
1. { ]>$ (_`+|, $$TH`d)
2. =e\ ]>$ (m, &, , $$TqT\T)
eTq+ H Vs+ <s Xs e\dq $$TqT\T \_ksTT. dssTTq
b bsTTqsTT $$TH b\ y<T\ sDeTesTT. ${$TqT\T
\_+# eqsT\T, |+q|&T *> y<T\ >T]+ #sTqT |]o*+#+&.
\ |<\T
>C, |+&|<s+, d\TC, >H, ke, +#s, c+ #s, |sbwD, Vk]j,
VsH+, \ >+<T\T, |]k* #\q+, nyTC, jT*H, ||H, yT, d+e]D +&s\T,
Js jT , eT+, b+Cy T , d #w\T, | sd+ , |C, =e\T, jT +, beTsD +.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
djT+ bwD $<q+ dsyTq nsq |<sq = K \eD\qT, { H\qT+& >VksTT.
>* sH & &q T |j + uVX qyT q ds+ deT+ n~ X *q d+w
sq |<s\T jsesTT.
sDqd+j>jT $<q+ |V]+ *q |# yTT\T >C eT]jTT |+&|<s+
e+{ |<s\qT #jT& dss (+) deT+ sH&& eT]jTT {
$j+#T+{sTT. sDqd+j>jT H es|<s+> $&T<\ neT+~.
sD qd+j>jT qT
+
6CO + 12H O |V]+ C H O + 6H O+6O nH dMTsD s|+ #|+#e#T.
2 2 6 12 6 2 2
]+ sDqd+j>jT s>& +, sH&&, sT, |V]+ neds+.
sDqd+j>jT |<q+> sbdt\ sT>TT+~.
sbdt >H + #s, ke c+ #s sT>TT+~.
sDqd+j>jT >C, sT eT]jTT H\T n+|<s\T> @s&sTT.
sbdt sDqd+j>jT ]>|&T +~ #s\T sT>TsTT.
+X skjT X> es+
{ nDTe $ #+<&+
sH&& sV&{> jTsD+ #+<+
s Je\T jsT#dq d+w |<s\qT Vs|<s\T> rdTe&yT |sbwD.
bwD\ |<T\T Vs|<s\ \u| eT]jTT Vs+ b+< $<q+| <s|& +{sTT.
= @ DJe\ Xs |]\+ qT+& Vs+ d]+q|{ J$ d+w |]>=\~ $$\T | $<T\T sV+#& M\T> sb+<sTT.
d+w sV &T, b{qT, *|&T ds nDTe\T> b+Cy T dV jT+ $&>=& Xs+ XwD
nqTe> es |jTqT JsjT n+{sT.
eqe Vs+ q sTy n~ $$< <X JsXjT >+<T\ <s d$+#&q b+CyT\#
$&>=&TT+~. JsyTq Vs+ q|>T Xw+#& n& qT+& | D |+|&TT+~.
Jse ed VsH+bT> nH nqT+< nejTy\T Jss d >+<T \T +{sTT. eqe Jse ed
+~ $<T\qT sVdT+~.
n+s >V D+ : Vs+ rdTe&+
JsjT : d+w |<s\T b+CyT dVjT+ ds |<s\T> essTT. y{ Xs+
|j +#T+T+~.
XwD : Jsy T q Vs+ Vs H+ >T+& |< q+> q |>T\ >T+& |j D+#|&T
|dsD eed Vs+ #s& XwD n+{sT.
eT\$dsq : Js Vs+ bjTTe <s jT{ |+|&+.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. +~y eT< u<\T sjT+&.(AS1)
(m) djT+ bwD ` |sbwD (_) n+s >VD+ ` JsjT
(d) + #s ` c+ #s (&) |V]+ ` V]sDTe
2. sD\T #|+&.(AS1)
(m) dJe ||+# sDqd+j>jT X eT<seT b #|>\e?
(_) c+ #sqT + d++<+ +& ]> #s n |\e&+ deTT+.
(d) sDqd+j>jT sV+# |j>\ eTT+<T yTT |+&|<s+ =\+#\+{sT
b+<T #|+&?
(&) |# { yTT\qT dss|{ XdjT d++~+q |j >\T sV+#e TT b+<T?
3. <VsD*e+&.(AS1)
(m) JsjT m+CyT\T (_) |sbwDqT b{+# Je\T
(d) $$TqT\T (&) Vs|+ e\q *> y<T\T
4. sDqd+j>jT y*q eTT&|<s\T yTT\T b& qT+& >VksTT?(AS1)
5. djT+ bwD s>& e\dq |]d T \ >T]+ $e]+#+&. #s @s& H\T @$?(AS1)
6. skjTq dMTsD+ dVjT+ sDqd+j>jT ]> $<H $e]+#+&.(AS1)
7. sDq d+j>jT @s& @yH eT&T n+ H\ |sT sjT+&.(AS1)
8. +#s, c+ #s\ eT< d++< |<s+> | #d~ @~?(AS1)
9. # s\ \ |u>+ +~u>+ +~u>+ +f yTsTdT+T+~ b+<T?(AS1)
10. T|+ dVjT+ sbdt sD+ >T]+ $e]+#+&.(AS1)
11. JsXjT+ eT+ b @$T{?(AS1)
12. Vs+ Js+ #jT&+ Jsj m+CyT\ b >T]+ sjT+&.(AS1)
13. Vs+ Xw+#& q|>T sD+ b esT#+~ +T+~?(AS1)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 23
14. =e\T b JseTesTT? b& JseTesTT?(AS1)
15. Vs+ Js+ e&+ \\+ b @$T{?(AS1)
16. Js eed q |>T\T eT+> eTjTT+> e] b{qT Js+ e+| m+{ |ue+
#|T+~?(AS1)
17. JsH+ |#T|<s\ b@$T{?(AS1)
18. bwVs |+ n+f @$T{? @yH = bwVs |+ e\ *> y<T\ >T]+ sjT+&.(AS1)
19. |+>, u]j\ e+{ Je\ bwD m sT>TT+~?(AS2)
20. >* sH&& |]eD+ eT+> |sT>T bT+f n~ sDqd+j>jT MT< m+{
|uy #|T+~?(AS2)
21. sDqd+j>jT sT+f XdjT sT by @eTeT+~?(AS2)
22. |+& |<s\T JsXjT+ Jse m #|>\e?(AS2)
23. \ |+& |<s |]o*+#& MTsT MT bsX\ |j>X\ nqTd]+q $<H
\|+&.(AS3)
24. |# yTTqT ds+ +q|&T HqT $&T<\ #ksTT nq& e m+{ |j >+
#ke?(AS3)
25. &sYqT n& +~ $wj\ >T]+ \dT+&. #sTqT jsT#d MT s> |<]+#+&.(AS4)
m) @ |]dT\ s >E nedseTeT+~?
_) b|{ es >C n+~ksT?
d) >C s b \THT #dT+~?
26. u$T|q |#{ yTT\T b u$T|q Jes eTqT>& weTeT+<? B b
deT]ksT?(AS5)
27. MTsT |]o*+q |s+<+ |+ ^jT+&. sDqd+j>jT B bqT \|+&.(AS5)
28. eqe Jseed |+^ u>\T >T]+#+&. @ @ u>\ |]k* #\q+ +T+< C_
sjT+&.(AS5)
29. VsH+ $$< nejTy\ >T+& Vs+ |jD+# $<H |<]+#+<T sVyT
qeTHqT jsT#X&T. < |]o*+#+&. nejTy\ |sT sjT+&.(AS5)
30. +~ |{ |]o*+#+&. +, c+ #s\ >T]+ MTs$T ns+ #dTHs sjT+&.(AS5)

+
*H
e\jT+
V]s DTe
+skjT #s ws k jT #s

31. <<| Je ||+#eT+ Vs+d+ yTT\MT<H <s|&T+~ <! |# yTT\T Vs+
jsT#d $<H e m n_q+~ke?(AS6)
32. >{> +& Vs |<s\T d+ JsjT yT >TE> e]bsTT. n> m& @ syTq
m+CyT nedsy | |<X+H m+CyT $&T<\eT+~. Xs+ *+# n+X\qT
dd sTHqT ^jT+&.(AS7)
33. bs+ #~$q sTy e Vs| n\y @ @ esT\T #dT+{e?(AS8)
dsq de<H >T]+#+&
1. yTT\T jsT#dTH Vs|<s+ ......................... s|+ \#jT&TT+~.
2. sDqd+j>j |<X+> |s=q<q~ .....................................
3. eTsd+ +& m+CyT\T ......................, ...................\qT Js+ #jT& &&sTT.
4. q |>T\ |]\ yX\+ |+#& ye+{ sD\T q&sTT. M{ ...............
n+{sT.
5. ss sd+ ......................... eT+ +T+~.
6. |>T\ +& u]j .................. $$THqT d+XwdT+~.
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. +~y |sqJ$ ( )
(m) dt (_) |>=&T>T (d) dT (&) \>
2. sDqd+j>jT sT +~ y{ |u$+ <T. ( )
b) +re _) s d) c> &) sH&& >&
3. yTTqT 48 >+\bT N{ +q sTy sDqd+j>jT d++~+q |j>+
#ksT b+<T+f ( )
b) s|qT =\+#T d) sDqd+j>jT sT>TqT s|+#T
_) |+&|<s =\+#T &) |+&|<s+ nsTTbT+< \dTe&
4. +~y m+CyT Jssd+ ( )
(m) u (_) sssd+ (d) |sd+ (&) \+
5. @D Je\ Vs dsD |<. ( )
(m) Xs |]\+ <s (_) H{<s (d) <+\ <s (&) ]+ <s
6. sDqd+j>jT ]>|&T yTT @ u>+ >* qT+& sH&&qT >VdT+~.
(m) eT\+X\T (_) |s+<+ (d) H (&) s|\T ( )
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 25

bs+
2
XdjT ` X < eed
Je\T @D ]\T < VQD ]\T e#T. Je\T @yq|{
n$ dJe+> +&& eT\sD+ n$ eTT rdTH Vs+ <s nH
JejT\qT sV+#&yT. eTq+ q Vs+ qT+& Xs+ bw\qT m
b+<TT+<H $wj\qT bwD bs+ #]+#+ <! b+~q bw\
qT+& X q+ #jT&+ XdjT |<q b bwdT+~. n+f XdjT
Vs+ jTT n+eT |j> <] rdT+<qe. Vs XdjT
d++<+ +<+f Xs+> n|dT+~ <! eTq+ <q+~q se\T
sV+#Te& e\dq X Vs+ <Vq+ #+<&+ e\H neT+~.
H n+<TuT q|&T k<sD+> XdjT sT>TT+< MT \TdT.
J$ Xs+ D\ Vs+ qT+& \_+# X |j+#T= JejT\
s+sjT+> ]> #ksTT. B d+ D\ q+ >*, Vs+ s
skjTH\T nedseTesTT.
XdjT Respiration nH |<+ Respire nH {H |<+ qT+& @s&+~.
sdsTTsY n+f |\&+ n ns+. nsTT ~ e\+ #d, Xd\H +&
D\ H $j+|&&+ es +& n <X\qT *| ddT+~.
eTT+<T> eTq+ yjTTe\ Xdj $<H >\ d++< #<+.
XdjT, yjTTe\ $wsD
|\&+> |\Te&T edTq JejT 14e X+ sy XdjT
nH |sT y&T e+~. >* nH yjTTe\ $TXeT+ n *jT&
|PsyT XdjT ueq >T]+ Xdy\T +#sT. Je\ Xs+ |\
|+-1: ysTTsY n+sZ+> ]> nH Jeq jT\ >T]+ y] <<|> *jT<T. nsTT
26 10e s> XdjT ` X < eed
XdjTqT yjTT |ks esZ+>, c #d |jT>, y< |]uc
|<+> |j+#ysT.
18e X+ ysTTsY, Cd|t |d nqT Xdy\T yjTT <s\T, yjTT
$eTjT+, XdjT >T]+ #dq deT> |]X<q\ <s+> eTq Xs+
]> yjTTe\ e]& >T]+ = $wj\T \TdT>*>sT. Cd|t |d
#dq |j>\ >T]+ 7e s> #]+#+ (7e s> bs|d+ bwD,
Je\ XdjT bs+X\ |]o*+#+&). eTs=k] | $wj \qT |qXsD
#dT+<+.
yjTT d+|Tq+ >T]+ eT] $wj\T \TdTe& |d |j>\T
|j>|&jT #|e#? m?
ysTTsY L& yjTTe\ <s\T ns+ #dTe& nH |j>\T
sV+#&T. jTq q b<$T |j> dTq| sTq |+ +q
u>TZb& eT+&+q|&T >+C& y\Te&q yjTTe\qT dsyTq yjTTe
(Fixed air) (\+ sH & & yjTTeqT ds y T q yjTTe T|Z \TdT
yjTTe n |*#ysT.) n >T]+#&T. sy |j>\ >+C&
bdsdtqT + eT+&+#&T. | |j>\ |*\qT { eT+&+q|&T >*
q |<s+ @< bdsdt \Tk+<, n~ { $]B bdsdtB e+ <
>T]+#&T. bdsdt \TdTq~ >* nsTTH e#T < >* =+
|]eD+ + k>X *q @< e#T, n~ eTq+ | >* +{~
nsTT +T+~ n q |j>\ >T]+ *jTCX&T. |<syT eTq+ |
>*q eTq #T q >*q + edTe\qT eT+&+#&
<V<|&TT+< *b&T.
ysTTsY |s+ edTe\T <Vq+ #+~q|&T y\Te&~ @$T{?
>* >T]+ q |j>+ <s ysTTsY @$T \TdTH&T?
ysTTsY |j>\ <s+> eTq+ @ ssD se#T? |+-2: |d
|<s+ < V+ <V q+ #+~q|&T y\Te& yjTTe\L XdjT
eTq+ |>* # dwyTq & +T+< jTq >eT+#&T. eTq+
$&#>* dTq|| |uy #|q+> edTe\T eT+&&+ e\ y\Te&
yjTTe\T |ue+ #|e L& >T]+#&T.
ysTTsY q |j>\ <s XdjT s+&T |jT\T +{jT
>T]+q|{ |jT >T]+ eyT \TdT>*>&T. $&# >*
u>TZ|\TdT yjTTe +T+< \TdT>*>&T. sy #dq nH |j>\
<s >* dsyTq yjTTe TZ|\TdT yjTTe (sH & &) 1/6e
e+T |]eD+ +T+< >T]+#&T. \+ HyjTTeqT KsjT
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 27
yjTTe (Vitiated air) n u$+#ysT. eeT\T >* ] j sT #j \+f
eT+&&, |\& |j+#&TTq KsjT >* *|q+ eq
d]b<T. < +& dsyTq yjTTeqT =\+#\ u$+#&T.
sy XdjT >T]+ ]+> + sj e#&T. | >*
< KsjT>* (O2) }|]T\ y[ dsyTq >* (CO2)> esTT+~
< e]& sT>TT+< u$+#sT. e]& m+ |]eD+ >\ KsjT
>* }|]T\ #]+< n<+ |\T& n+ |]eD+ dsyTq >*
}|]T\ qT+& >* $&T<\eT+< }V+#&T.
}|]T\ #]q >* s+ \e&+ e\ < msT| s+>T edT+ <
u$+#&T. (nsTT sy \+ Vy>_H es<+ e\ s msT| s+>T
edT+< Xdy\T >T]+#sT.)
ysTTsY $wsD\T sy \+ eT] |]X<q\ <]rXsTT.
ysTTsY nqTq u>TZ|\TdT yjTTe @$T{?
n |]X<q\ |s+ |& |e# >* @$T{?
q |j >\ <s XdjT $<q+ @jT kbH\T +{jT ysTTsY
|s=HsT?
19e X+ eT< #+~q |U skjTq Xdy CH &|sY
sdq eqe Xs <sXd+ >+<+ XdjT >T]+ |s=HsT. Je\T
>V+# |<s\ <Vq+ #+<& Mq$, sT, H |<q+>
+{sTT. e <| { <s|& ]| #s\ e\ u+> JejT\T
sT>TsTT. Xs+ qT+& $&T<\jT $d]\ sT, sH jTT &\T,
bdsdt, d\sY, = s |<s\T +{sTT.
| <s\+{ <s 19e X+ eT<\+ H{ XdjT bZH
|<qyTq |<s\ b >T]+ *d+~. XdjT ]> $<q+ >T]+
n+> dw s<T . nsTT Xs+ njT c, XdjT d++<+
+< Xdy\T >T]+#sT.
eTq#T q >* b*q|&T $&#>* y&> +&& MTsT >eT+#
+{sT. XdjT B sDeTeT+< MTsT nqT+THs?
$wj\ >T]+ n<q+ #jT& eqe\ XdjT\ bZH
$$< <X\qT >T]+ \TdT+<+.
XdjT $$< <X\ T
XdjT $$< <X\ eT< dwyTq $uq sK\T +&e. XdjT
nH Je skjTq, u #s\ d+w |jT. nsTT eTq+ d\+> ne>Vq
#dTe&+ d+ Xdj $<H $$< o]\ +< n<jTq+ #<+.
n$ #d Xk\T, }|]T yjTT e]&, s+ <s yjTTsyD,
DC yjTT e]& eT]jTT DXdjT.
#d }|]T\ s+ <s DC\ D XdjT
Xk\T yjTT e]& yjTT syD yjTTe]&
}|]T\ yjTT>DT\T s+ yjTT>DT\ H s+ qT+& DC\T < D\T
jT ]> eT< yjTTe]& >&\ s DC\, HqT
yjTT d+#s+. sT>TT+~. XH[ sH & & $j+#T=,
s+ H, DC\\ qT+& >CqT <V+
s+ sH & s+ y|q+ sH & &, sT,
& yjTT>D <s e]& X $&T<\ #ksTT.
y|q+ <s sT>TT+~. X JejT\
e]& sT>TT+~. $j+#T&TT+~.
#d Xk\T
eTq+ $&T<\ #d >* @ yjTTe\T +{j \TdT=H
|j>\T +eTT+<T s>T\ #XsT<!
dTq| >* y>+> }~q|&T, n~ s> b\e
\> es& eTq+ >eT+#+. n< dTq| eeT\T
>* ds+ <s>, |] <s> |+|q|&T # me
deTjT+ |&TT+~. dTq| # e \T|<q+
|dT+< >T]+#+ <!.
|+`3 #|q$<+ > |]s\qT neT] eTs=k] |j >+ dTq|
#jT+&. @+ sT>TT+< >eT+#+&. sT
|j>+ @+ *jTCdT+~? |+-3:
@ yjTTe dTq|qT b\e \> esTdT+~?
eTq#T q >* b*q|&T eTq+ jT e~ >* @ yjTTe
me |]eD+ q~?
n<+| Xd e~*q|&T { $] n<+| @s&& >eT+# +{sT.
eTq+ $&# >* { $] m& qT+& e+~?
eTq+ $&# >* = n+ou\T me>qT eT]= e>qT
+&{ +&{ >\ sD\qT \TdTe& eTq+ Xdeed yjTT
|ks+ ]> esZ+ >T]+ #d Xd\T ]> j $<q+ >T]+
n<jTq+ #j*.
keq ns+ Xdeed n+f jT{ qT+& }|]T\ n+
d sDq yjTT>DT\ (alveoli), n& qT+& jT >* |d]+#
esZ+ n #|e#T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 29
yjTT |ksesZ+
Hd s+<\ qT+& yjTT>DT\ es yjTT|ks esZ |]o*<+.
HdVs+
Hd
s+<\T
> d

m|>{dt
ds|{
yjTTH+
O2 eT]jTT CO2
XdH\T $eTjT+ ]> XH[\T
XdH\T y{ XK\T
}|]T\ T yjTTX\T
|+-4: eqe Xd eed

Hds+<\T k<sD+> yjTTe Xs+ |y+# esZ+.
HdVs+ yjTTe e&bjT&TT+~. Hd Vs+ eT> +& bs, se\T >* +&
<TeTT<[D\qT # es |ksTT. n++& yjTTe HdVs+ <s
|jD+# deTjT+ >* c>, Xs c> <<| deqeTeT+~. >*
HdVs+ eT #s& + e\q >* n+ eTT+<T +f me eT> j seT+~.
>d >* y# #jT&+, >* eTqT #s&+ e+{ se\T Xd, Js eed\T s+&+{
d++~+q u>+ =qk>TsTT. |V (epiglottis) nH +&s| y+
Vs|, yjTT (>*) eTsZ\qT jT+d eTeT eed\ d]> |y+#TqT
#dT + ~.
ds|{ >{|fe+{ ds|{ ds+T\T +{sTT. }|]T\ qT+& Xd+ jT{
e# >* ds+T\ >T+& |jD+#|&T y{ +|+# #dT+~. +|H\
<s+> eTq+ e{&&+, b\T b&&+ yTT<q$ #jT>\T>T+.
yjTTH+ yjTTH+ }|]T\ es >* rdT sD+. MTsT >=+T u> >=+
e+{ sD+ +&{ >eT+#e#T.
XdH\T yjTTH+ s' Vs+ eT+ s+&T XdH\T> N* = XK =
}|] |ydT+~.
XdH[\T XdH\T nHk sT N\TbsTT es XdH[\T nH u>\ n+eTesTT.
yjTTX >DT\T XdH[\T yjTT>DT\ n+eTesTT. yjTTX>DT\T (yjTT>\T) # q$>
+& # me d+K +{sTT. sXH[\T yjTTX >DT\ >&\ n~
d+K +&&+ e\q yjTTe]& sT>TT+~.n+f H s+, sH & &
yjTT>DT\ |yksTT.
s+ s+ HqT Xs+ | D n+<CdT+~. Hds+<\ qT+& yjTTX
>DT\ es +& esZ+ y#>, eT> +T+~.
MT \Tk?
}|]T\ |* u>+ \\ d+K +& yjTTX>DT\qT * +&, yjTTe]&
]> yX |+#TT+~. }|] T\ |* bs me> eTT&T\T|& +&&+ e\q
y{ yX\+ # me> +T+~. eTq }|]T\ yjTTX>DT\+{ $&Bd
|]d <<| 160 #<s| MTsT ( fdt sT) yX $TksTT.
+#+& ` #]+#+&
yjTTesZ+ eT qsTT @+ sT>TT+~?
s+&T }|]T\T |]eD+ +{j?
yjTTX>DT\T nd+U+>qT, nq$>qT m+<T +{sTT?
|V ` yjTT |ks+ |V >* |V Vs| eTT<qT

}|]T\y| eTs\T ds|{ y+& #jTT
|*q >* HdVs+ qT+&
>d yT+~. & yTq
deTd q~. >d qT+& s+<+
e< jT\T<]q H+ e] s+&T>
N\TT+~. esZ+ }|]T\,
eTs= es+Z JsXj T + <]rksTT.
>* esZ+ <s, Vs+ ys=
esZ+ <s eyT |jD+#&+
n+ neds+. n++& Vs+ |+-5(m): Xd+#&+ |+-5(_): $T+>&+
XdH esZ+ |jD+#+& +&eT n+ eTTK+. |V
(epiglottis) nH |\T# y+ +s_ \+ <s ds|{ Vs+ b+&
s~d Vs+, yjTTe\ <*\qT eTB]dT+~. | |{\qT |]o*+
|V eTq+ Xd+# deTjT+qT Vs $T+> deTjT+qT @$<+>
|#dT+< #]+#+&.
|V nH y+ eTq+ Vs $T+> deTjT+ b+>
+s_ eTd +, Vs+ Xdeed |y+#+& >=+T
bjT$<+> <] eT[dT+~.
eTq+ Xd+# deTjT+ |V |P]> s#T= >* Xd esZ+
<s }|]T\ |ydT+~. |V deT+> |#d yjTT, Vs
esZ\ <s >*, Vs <*\qT deT+> neT\T ]> #&& H&
jT+D # neds+.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 31
eTq+ Vs+ H deTjT+ e{&L&< m+<T n+{sT?
eTq+ Vs+ rdTH deTjT+ @+ sT>TT+< q + <s
>eT+#+&.
+`1
MT # Hd s+<\ m<TsT> n+>T+ <s+ +#+&. MT
Xd jT e # &+ >eT+#+&. + |PsjT es #
n& qT+& rjT+&. { s+&T $Tc\T \&> Xd+#+&. @<H Vs
|<s =] u> q$T*, $T+> eTT+<T> s+&e # >=+T| +q sy
Vs $T+>&+.
MTs+ >eT+#sT?
Vs $T+> deTjT+ MT Xd @yTH & >eT+#s?
Vs $T+> deTjT+, Vs+ XdH+ |y+#+&
dVjT|&TTq~ @~?
eqe Xdj $<q+
|feTT\T XdjT n+f #d Xkq
eTq \TdT. XdjT bZH |<q
#>& nejTy\T }|]T\T. eTq+ +{ eTq
+&s\T }|]T\qT #& bsTTq|{, n$ #d
| eTq+ >eT+#>\+. MT # #r|
}|]T\ T
+#T= >&+> }|] |\+&. MT #r
=+#+ |<~ nsTTqT> >eTksT. |&T
>* jT e<\+&. MT #r k<sD
(&j|yT)
$u |\+ d se& + \ Td T + ~. MTs T | & T
}| ] T \ X nqTu # + <s T .
|+-6: #d Xd
deTjT+ s'|+s+ <*
}|]T\T eT+eTT> >* |\
rd T e& + >, j T | + | & + >
#jTe. #r +&s\T eT]jTT s'Vs <sVs ysT#d
+&sjTTyTq <s $q+ (diaphram) nH bs }|]T\ >*
se&, jT be& dVjT|&sTT. <s $q+ |#d $<q+
\TdTe& |+`6 #&+&.
XdjT | feTT +&s\T, <s $qeTT\ b @$T{? d, |sTw\T
sTe] s+& XdjT bZ+{j?

eTq s=eTT u>+ |feTT\T, +&s\ js |q #s+ |&
+T+~. |feTT\T yHeTT ]w D+ n +{sTT. (@<H
|feTT | y\T + < y+ y\TqT ~*+#+&. yHeTT qT+& meTT
+~y| @y\T> |jD+ s=eTT meTTqT #s&+ >eT+#e#T.)
eTq+ #d+ ]|q|&T, #r | y| jT <T\TT+~. B e\q
s'Vs+ (#r |\) |Tq|]eD+ |sT>TT+~.
s'Vs >~> }V+#T+f <s$q+ >~ +~ u>+
neT+~. <s $q+ $X+ d q|&T >=&T>T s+ +T+~.
>=&T>T uT u>+ s'Vs+ y| +T+~. <s$q +&s\T
d++q|&T n~ #<TqT> js uT u>+ +< edT+~. B e\q
s'Vs |Tq|]eD+ |sT>TT+~.
s'Vs+ |Tq|]eD+ |]q|&T, < |* |&q+ Z >* jT{ |+-7: }#d
qT+& Hds+<\ <s }|]T\ |y dT+ ~. BH #d+ n+{sT. Xd deTjT+
sy B $|s+ (es+)> sT>TT+~. # jT<kH }s+|+s+ <*
#sT+T+~. <s$q +&s\T $X+ <X #sT&+ e\ ] >=&T>T
s edT+ ~. s'Vs+ & |sT>TT+~. }|]T\ | & |s>& +
e\q |* >* yjTTesZ+ <s jT yT+~. BH Xd+ n+{sT.
MT \Tk?
eTq }|]T\ T k+> +{sTT. $ s +& |]eD+ +&e. s'Vs+
m&eTy| >T+& +&+ e\q y|q q }|] =+#+ q~> +T+~. }|]T\qT
| |Ps nH s+&T bs\T+{sTT. bs\ eT< <e+ +& }|]T\qT |\
qT+& b&TT+~. }|]T\T >* +&|&T jT<d e#|&T ]> |TsD
qT+& b&TT+~.
eTq+ $X+ rdTH deTjT+ eTq Xd HeT~>qT e (shallow)
& qT sT>TT+~. |]> & + , yjeT+ #jT &+ e+{ |qT\T#d deTjT+
y>+>qT, >&+ >qT (me &) sT>TT+~. C #d, Xd
|<T\T $dyTq se #|sTT. eTq Xs neds\ qT>
HqT ds|s #jT&, sH & &qT =\+#& Xdj y>+
DD+ esT # y$<u]+> k>T deTqjT|s#&T +T+~.
XdjTqT |u$+ #d s |]dT\T @$T{?
yT<&T qT+& XkejTy\ y H&T\qT ]+qsTT XdjT
y+H *bT+< Xdy\T qT>=HsT..
B e\q eTq @+ nseTeT+~?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 33
XdjT ]> deTjT+ @+ sT>TT+~?
Xd deTjT+ Xs+ qT+& =\+#e\dq yjTTe @~? ~ m&
qT+& edT+~?
#d deTjT+ }|]T\ y yjTTe\ d+|Tq+ @~?
#d, Xd yjTTe\ d+|Tq+ & @yTH +<?
yjTTe]& (yjTT>DT\ qT+& sXH[)
}|]T\ |\ y|q |< yjTT>DT\ qT+& s XH[, s
XH[\ qT+& yjTT>DT\ yjTTe\ e]& sT>TT+~. n+f s+
sH & &, yjTT>DT\ H\T |sds+ e]& sT>TjTqe{.
n dyTq yjTT>DT\T D+ eT+<+ nd+U+> +{sTT.
yjTT>DT\ #T D+ eT+<+ +& s XH[\T +{sTT.
>T+& qT+& }|]T\ |eV+#

XdH\T y{ XK\T eTT<TsT msT| s+>T +& H sV
yjTTX+ s+ s XH[\ |eV+,
sH & &
yjTT>DT\ qT+& H qT >VdT+~.
sD\T H
XH[\ e\
n< deTjT+ s+ sH & &
s XH[\ qT+& yjTT>DT\ y|q
|< |ydT+~. eTq+ Xd+q|&T
|+-8: }|]T\T eT]jTT sXH[\ eT< s H & & j T y T +~.
y|q |< <s yjTTe\ $eTjT+ |Xe+yT q msT| s+>T +& H
dV s+ >T+&qT #], n& qT+& Xs u>\ ds|s #jT&TT+~.
yjTTe\ e]& e\q #d+#, Xd+# yjTTe\ d+|Tq+ &
+T+~. +~ |{qT >eT+#+&.
|{`1
yjTTe #d+# yjTTe >\ X+ Xd+# yjTTe >\ X+
H 21 16
sH & & 0.04 4
H{H 79 79
>eT: |{ e&q $\Te\T dTesq$ eyT.
#d+#, Xd+# yjTTe\ H |]eD+ & sDyT$T{?
Xd+# yjTTe\ sH & & |]eD+ |sT>T sDyT$T{?
MT \Tk?
eqe }|]T\ keTs+ 5800 $T sT. $X+ <X eTq+ dTesT> 500
$T. >* |\ rdT jT e<T\T+. eTq+ |P]> }|]T\ >* jT
|+|q|{ + 1200 $T. yjTTe }|]T\ $T +T+~.
7e s> Je\ XdjT nH bs+ }|]T\ keTs
d++~+ MTsT #dq |j> >TsT#dT+&.
yjTTe\ syD
eTq Xs+ |y+# >* yjTTe\ $TXeTeT ~ eTq }|]T\
yjTT>DT\ esL yT+< eTq \TdT. >* $$< yjTTe\ k|
d+|Tq+, Vy>_H eT]jTT s |<s\ +< @ss#>\ y{ X,
n$ s+ <s Xs+ syD ]> $<H ssTTksTT.
yesD+ H k<sD ksTT q|&T (dTesT 21%) yTT+
s+ ms sD\ q Vy>_H es<+ <<|> H d+|+
#+~, syD #jT&TT+~. Vy>_HL& s| e~]> es |<s+.
s+&+{ q |<qyTq & @$T+f s| yT^wjT+ nDTe +T+~.
Vy>_H eT< qTeTT ( Fe) nDTe +T+~.
H s+ y|q |< <s |y+#>H n~ y+H Vy>_H
+< @ss#T = Vy>_H @s&TT+~. s+ DC\ #]q|&T
H Vy>_H qT+& $&bsTT DC\ |ydT+~.
sH & & k<sD+> u s=H{\ s|+ syD #jT&TT+~.
=+ u>+ Vy>_H \TdT+~. eT]=+ bk sT>TT+~.
Hb + O2 HbO2 (}|]T\)
HbO2 Hb + O2 (DC\)
MT \Tk?
deTT<eT+ <>Zs Vy>_H H
| P ] > d + | + # + < T T +~. <<| |
Vy>_H nDTe H +< @ss
Vy>_H> esTT+~. deTT<eT{ 13
MTs|q (8 yT) H \u #
e> +T+~. deTT<eT+ b*d e\+
<e e+T H eyT \ueTeT+~.
|+-9: |ssV&T
|]dT\ \ueTjT H d>+ Vy>_H
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 35
nDTe\qT eyT d+|+ #jT>\T>TT+~.
Vy>_H e H nDTe\ *dqsTT, s+ DC\ nedsyTq s
ds|s #jT<T. eTyTq |< H ds|s (H d*+&s) +& n+
mT J$+#&+ nk<+. <T $eH\ HqT d]|&q+ & |jD\
n+< @sT +T+~. deTT<| T y > > deTd\T ys $<+ > +{sTT.
yjTTe]& (s XH[\ qT+& D\, D\ qT+& yqT)

DC\ s XH[\ Vy>_H |P]> $sT<yTq yesD
m<Ts=+T+~. DC\T s+s+ HqT $j+#&+ e\q H
>& u> e> +T+~. & H >& }|]T\ b*q|&T
eT&e e+T eyT +T+~.
H >& u> e> +&+ e\q Vy>_H qT+& H
$&bsTT D\ |ydT+~. D\ H $j+#T& sH &
&, sT, X $&T<\esTT. X $$< Xseds\ $j+|&TT+~.
D\T $&T<\ #dq sH & & s XH[\ |ydT+~.
D XdjT
Xs+ ]> $$< JejT\ nedsyTq X Vs |<s\ >\
skjTq +<\qT $&>=&+ <s $&T<\ #d $$< skjTq #s \ deVs
D XdjT (Cellular respiration) n+{sT.
J$+ q D\ XdjTqT sV+#*. H deT+ XdjT
] < yjTTdV XdjT (Aerobic respiration) n, H +&
] < nyjTT XdjT (Anerobic respiration) n n+{sT. nyjTT
XdjT |jTH DD+ < |*jTT (Fermentation) n L& n+{sT.
+< |PsJeq u] j\ D XdjT D<e+ (Cytoplasm)
sT>TT+~. C+< Je\ XdjT =+ u>+ D<e+qT,
eT]=+ u>+ yT{+&jqT sT>TT+~. #s $&T<q X m.{.|
s|+ \ +T+~. n+<Te\ yT{+&j\qT DX>s\T (Power
houses of energy) n+{sT.
JeD+ >C nDTe < s Vs |<s\T @< skjTq
#sH |P]> $q+ #+<e. ~ nH eqT> skjTq #s\ <s
sT>TT+~.
~ X $&T<\ e&+| m+{ |uy #|T+~.? >C nDTe
$q+ #+<|&T | <Xq < skjTq sD+ e# esTqT {
qq yTT\ X $&T<\eT+~. >C nDTe |P]> $q+ #+~
< X |P]> $&T<\ e& nH skjTq #s \T uV#+
eqT>+> s>*. n+s #+
>C $q+ #+<&+ e\ $&T<q X n&HdH d
fbd{ (ATP) nH | |<s s|+ \ +T+~. e
~ q yTT +& skjTq X. B D+ jTT
mq s n+{sT. \ q X D+ nedsy T q
#{ syD neT+~. | ATP 7200 \\ X
\ +T+~. X bd{ +<\ s|+ \ |+-10: yT{+&j
+T+~. +<\T $&bsTTq|&T X $&T<\eT+~.
yjTT>DT\ D\ DXdjT sV+#& H nedse?
m+<T?
>C yTT<\jT Xdj $<H\T d\+> +~ $<+> +{sTT.
(~ e\+ <VsD eyT , s Vs|< s\ L& > sT>TT+~)
eT+ G X
H e> <: u]j
q|&T < q|&T
(nyjTT XdjT,
DD+) <HGsH & &GX
>C |sy{ <: dt
(3 sq nDTe\T) G X
eT deT+ CO2 G sT G X
(yjTTdV XdjT) <: yTT\T, +Te\T
MT \Tk?
yTT\T, +Te\T, d Je\+{ X $&T<\ =s k<sD+> $j+#&
|<s+ >C. n Je\qT >C s+&T <X\ ]+|&TT+~. yTT<{ <X
>C s+&T |s$ eT nDTe\T> $&>=&TT+~. s+&e <X H \uyTqsTT
|s$ eT+ sH & &, sT> ]+|&TT+~. BbT me |]eD+
X $&T<\eT+~.
H \u+ |+ |s$ eT+ <H> , eT+>
es& H deT+ ]> #s\ +f |<e e+T X eyT
$&T<\eT+~.
H +& X $&T<\eT+<?
reyTq yjeT+ #dq sTy eTq +&s\ H=| edT+~<!
+&s\ d]bsTTq+ H ds|s ]+<?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 37
+&s\ @ skjTH\T @s&sTT?
<VsD MTsT 100 MTsT |sT>T |+<+ y>+>
|sT>sqT+<+. n|&T MT +&s\T # y>+>, me>
|#ksTT. nsTT, |+<+ yTT<\TeTT+< MTsT \& =
$Tc\b s=|&+, >{> >* |\&+ e+{ |qT\T #jT +<!
C n e> n<q| Xd MTsT MT |+< |P]
#jTe#T. n+ y>+> |sT> &sT\T 100MTs |sT>T
|+<+ nd\T >* |sT. |sT>T|+<+ \ #sT ]H
f|qT >H < ^ MT~ #sT>H |]d ysT> +T+~.
|+-11: &sT&T MTsT rdTq D, m+ y>+> MTsT |sT>sT nH n+X\
<s+>, |+<+ sy = $Tc\b MT Xd k<sD
d e# es MTsT s=|sT.
eTq+ |{es m.{.| >T]+ HsTq $wj\ d
#j T e#T. VQX +&s\ \ q ATP , ADP > es&+ e\q $&T<q
X e\q |]>& e\dq X eTq \_dT+< u$+#e#T.
eTq q #q deTdqT |]w]+#<T . m+<T+f reyTq yjeT
deTjT+ +&s\ +& m.{.| \\T nsdqT| KssTTbsTT. {
eTT+<T> X $&T<\ #d HqT sy $j+#TH |< nqTd]+#*
+T+~.
deTdqT n<jTq+ #d |< @$T+f, yje eTT+<T,
sy &sT s | #jT&+, | bZH &sT&T |]s\Tq
# | qTe\d +T+~.
n q T d = & + > <
yje |j+# f&$T
(f&$ T| +& yN y{sT e\q
yqT <T\T +T+~. B|
+& e |&b+& +&\+f
q y>+ q&e&+ < |sT > & +
#j*) |q q&e&+ #j*.
|j >+ eq = |* \qT
>|t #|&+ ]+~.
=$T~ $Tc\bT reyTq
yjeT+ #dq sy (>|t x
s+s yjTeT+ s+ eT+ >&+ n + | d +q usY qT
|u$+ #d n+X #| >|t
|]o*+#+&. eT |< s| qeTH\qT &sT qT+& d]+
$Xw+#sT. s+ eT ksTT # me> esT qsTTqT >|t
<s \TdT+~.
x n+ ` deTjT+ dq
y n+ ` s+ eT+ $T.>/ |T.d+.MT.
>|tqT |]o*+#+&. +&s\ eT+ @$<+> |sT+Tq<
|]o*+ +~ |X\ de<H*e+&.
n) |j> bs+u+ eT >& m+ q~?
) |j>+ @ <X eT >& n~ ksTT #]+~?
) C eT]jTT D kqeTT\ eT< eT >& ksTT =qk>T
qsTT eT+ k<sD ksTT #s& m+ deTjT+ |e#T.
(d#q: C, D eT k<sD ksTT #s es b&+#+&.)
eT+ +&s\ L&qsTT, n~ +&s\ H=| <]rdT+~.
eTq+ deq <s q&e&+, y>+> q&e&+, HeT~> |sT>&+, y>+>
|sT>&+ #dq|&T <s+ deqyT nsTTq|{ eTq * +&s\ H=|
= jTL n~eTeTqT >eT+#e#T. B sD+ +&s n~+>
eT+ #s&yT.
jyTq +&s\ y>+> nsTTq eT+ yjeT+
sTy HeT~> +&s\ qT+& =\+|&TTq< eTq nseTeT+~.
XssyTq $wjT+ @$T+f &sT +&s\T k<sD d se&
# me deTjT+ |&TT+~. deTjT+ @$T sT>TT+<+f j
+&s\ q >C eT+> es&TT+~. eT+ q X
>C nDTe\ X +f e. >C qT+& eT+ @s&q|&T
$&T<q X eTs m.{.|. jsT#jT& |j+|&TT+~.
100 MTs |sT >T |+<+ &sT&T Xd+#&+ \T|#d, |+<+ sy
s=|&T. <X +&s\T nyjTT XdjT <s >CqT $&>={ X
$&T<\ #ksTT. sy eyT &sT +&s\ \ q e
=\+#& nedsyTq H \ueTeT+~. n+<Te\q eTq+ reyTq
yjeT+ #dq|&T Xs+ HT (oxygen debt) @s&TT+~.
T sTy ]> XdjT |P]+#&TT+~.
me <s+ |sT> &sT\T s+s+ Xdd +&+ e\q MsT
|sT> deTjT+H =+ eT+ =\+#&+ e\q, me deTjT+
n\db+& |sT>>\T>TsT.
+&s\ eT+ \ +&+ +&s\ H=| (muscle fatigue)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 39
sDeTeT+~. Xs d]bsTTq+ $X+ \_+qsTT +&s\ n\d
=\bT+~.
nyjTT XdjT
Je\ XdjT HqT >V+ sH & &qT $&T<\ #kjT
eTq+ \TdTH+. |jT\T sD <s sT>TTqsTT H
ds|s *bsTTq|&T @+ sT>TT+~? eqe +&s\T H ds|s
Zq deTjT+ L& X $&T<\ #jT>*qsTT s Je\ D\T @+
#kj \TdTH+<T = |j>\T #<+.
|j>X\ +
dt = |j>\T
we|+ dJe\qT H sV yesD+
+q|&T c> |sT>T<\ >T]+ sH
& & $&T<\ >T]+ \TdTe& eTq+
|j>+ #<+. >C <eD+ dt
# y>+ > |sT>TT+~. C eq sq
(wild variety) dt\T j|, < e+{
<
e
bs|H
usH{ |+&=\ qT+& eT Vs d]d
<eD+ |sT>TsTT.
y&#d #]q >C
| j > X \ eTq | j > + d +
|+-12: nyjTTe XdjT y\Te&q >C, dt\ $TXeT+ qT+& HqT
w+, sH & & ssD | =\+#&+ eTqeTT+<Tq yTT<{ deTd.
|j> <X\T
1. >C <eD $Tw+bT y&#d ~*+#+& #\s#&+ <s
<eD+ H =\+#*. |&T < dt *| <|
d+{MTsT eT+<+ bs|H <y bj*. #jT&+ <s
jTqT+& >C <eD H ds|s +& s~+#e#T.
2. bs|H <y bd eTT+<T> >C <eD+ + H q< <
\TdTe& = #T\T &jH ^H (Diazine Green) < Cqdt
^H _ (Janus Green B) <eD yd #&+&. * s+>T <eD+
H \u yq|&T >T; s+>T esTT+~.
3. |+ #|q $<+> dt #d yjTTe\T jT y[ dTq|
+& |H [ #s $<+ > |]s\T neTs*. & @$<y T q jT+
(control experiments) |\T $e]+#&<T. MTs nTe+{ |j>\T
#d |jT+#+&. | H[\qT |j+ sH & & j
|j> e ksTT sV+#& MTsT |jT+#e#T. (MTsT
|j >+ #d deTjT+ | H[\qT 370d es y& #dq sTT |j >+
y>+> sT>TT+~.)
u s=f\ j<sT\T |+& dtqT *|q|&T @+ sT>TT+~?
DD+ (Fermentation)
dJe\ #] nH 8e s> bs+ yT< |+& dt *| #dq
|j> k] >TsT #dT+<+. |j>+ yT< |+& m+<T
_+~? #s @ yjTTe $&T<q~?
#s <eD+, dt\ $TXe ~*+#+&, H \u+ +&
+ =+#+ d|{ sTy < qT+& |yTq ydq edT+~. B
sD+ dt #s <eD |j+#T= jsT #dq <H nH =
|<s+. #s dt <eD+ qT+& n+ d<q+ (fractional disillation) nH
|jT <s <HqT ysT#jTe#T. #s <eD+ +f <H e
c> (700C) e<H eTs>&+ e\q ~ k<eTeT+~.
<$<yTq ydqqT |*dq &, <d |+& (|C \ #dq~ <T) qT+&
se&+ MTsT >eT+# +{sT.
yjTTdV XdjT e~]>H |< <s H \u e>
q|&T X $&T<\ #jT&TT+~.
XdjT X $&T<\ #d |jT. B MTsT n+^]ks? m+<T?
XdjT ` <Vq+
18e X| e] u>+ ysTTsY sV+q |j >\T, |]o\q\
<s XdjT <V q+ e+{ #s nH n_bj e#&T. 1783 ysTTsY
sdq yk\ XdjT <Vq jT. ~ # HeT~> sT>TT+~.
#s H sH eyT +& V&H L& #s sT|T+~
n |s=H&T.
s_HdH nqT Xdy L& XdjT nH~ $<yTq <VqjT. B
e\qH Je\ Xs w+ \_dT+~ n |s=H&T.
+`2
#sqT eT+&+q|&T @+ sT>TT+~?
|+ #|q $<+> |]s\qT neTs+&. | H[ #sqT
rdT= eT+ dVjT+ y& #jT+&. =+#+d|{ sTy @+ sT>TT+<
>eT+#+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 41
#s ]+<? + med| y& #dq|&T @+ ]+~? #sqT y&
#dq|&T sH & &, {bT> X y& s|+ $&T<\eT+~.
>CqT eT+&+q|&T sH & &, sT, X $&T<\ejT MT
\TdT. n> XdjT dMTsD+ L& y |<s\T $&T<\esTT n
dTC > T ] + #s T < ! s +& + { eT< = eT*
|H[
u<\THsTT. ny$T{ |]o*<+.
yjTT 1. | j > X \ > C q T m e c > e<
yV H+ eT+&+q|&T eyT X $&T<\eT+~. <$<+ >
w+
eTq Xs D\ ]qsTT D\ e&bsTT.
2. |j>X\ k] >C eT+&&+ yTT<,
|jTqT |+ n+ dT\u+ <T. JeD\T
H deT+ >CqT n+ jT+D
dTq| sT eT+&+#>\T>TTHsTT.
3. sT eT+qT sdT+~. D\ # me
|+-13: CO - X $&T< n<q| q+
2 sT q|{ XdjT sT>TH +T+~.
Je D\ w+ $&T<\
eTq+ +eTT+<T |j>+ >eT+q $<+> #s < >CqT
eT+&+q|&T w+ y\Te&TT+< \TdTH+. dJeq +Te\T, yTT\T
L& X w+ s|+H y\Te]ksTT.
o\+ #*T (dsY) ydTq|&T eTq y#> +T+~. #*T
eTq Xs+ $&T<\ #dq c e< +& b&TT+~. n+f eTq Xs+
c $&T<\ #d+< nqTe#? + @jT esZ\ <s eTq Xs+
c T+~?
eTq Xs+ |]\+ qT+& s+s+ c H +T+~. {
eTq Xs+ sTTq c |P]+#& s+s+ c #d
+&*. B e\qH Xs c> s+s+ ds+> +T+~.
Xs+ jT c>, #d c> w +{j?
reyTq Xs |]XeT deTjT+ Xs+ me w+ dT+~. B
e\qH |sT>&+ e+{ Xs XeT sy eTq+, eTq Xs+ y&> qT
nqTu b+<T+. <jT + <e >H MT Xs c>q T =\e+&. =+#+d|
C+> #dq sTy eTs c>qT =\e+&.
s+&+{ eT< @yTH ed+ q<? <? $e]+#+&.
D XdjT X $&T<\eT+~. B =+ u>+ m.{.|> \
+T+~. =+ u > + $$< Je s k j T q j T \qT s V +# &
|j+#&TT+~. $T> X w+ s|+ $&T<\eT+~.
|sT>&+ e+{ me Xs XeT L&q |qT\T #jT& me X
nedseTeT+~. { XdjT sT L& |sT>TT+~. nsTT y\Te& w+
|]eD+ L& |sT>TT+<qe. n+<Te\qH eTq Xs+ qT+& $]
edTq ueq \T>TT+~. Xs XeT deTjT+ q+ H \u q|&T
+&s\T nyjTT |< XdksTT. n+<Te\q eT+ $&T<\eT+~.
@s&q eT+ +&s+ |sT=bsTTq|&T +&s\ H=|
\T>TT+~. =+ $X+ sy eTq+ k<sD d ek+. BsXd\T ]
eTq+ X |+#T& m+>H j>|& sTT. $<y T q Xdj $<q+
>T]+ nqT+<+ bDjeT+ o] #<e+&.
yjTTe]& eed |]DeT+
yjTT e]& nH~ Je\+{qT ]> k<sDyTq Je |jT.
n Je\qT ~ $<+> s><T. nMTu e+{ @ DJe\T, V&,
|H]jTqT, >T+&{ |sT>T\T, yqbeTT\T e+{ VQD Je\T Xs &+
<s y|q |< HqT >V+#&+, sH & &qT $&T<\ #jT&+
sVksTT.
s VQD Je\ |yTq XkejTy\T @s&sTT. ueT eT]jTT
yk\ ed+# Je\T $$< sq yjTTe]& (XdjT) k<H\qT
eT Jeq $<H nqT>TD+> @sT #dTHsTT. Xs |]eD+, {
\u, |dsD eed s+ yTT<q n+X\| <s|& Je\ $$< sq
XkjTy\T n_e~ #+<sTT.
u~+, $T&\ e+{ \ yjTTH eed <s XdjT
sT>TT+~. yjTTH eed yjTTH\T nH >={\T XseT+{ neTs&
+{sTT. yjTTH\T, yjTTH[\T> N* D\T HqT HsT>
n+~ksTT.
#|\ e+{ = \#s Je\T XdjT d+ yTT|\T nH | nejTy\T
n_e~ #dTHsTT. yTT|\ &\T |\T#> +& me> s XH[\T
* +{sTT. M{ <s yjTT e]& sT>TT+~. B yTT|\ <s
XdjT (Branchial/ Gill Respiration) n+{sT. #| HsT ] +~ <e&
eT +~ >&+ e\q sT |\ |ydT+~. |&T HsTeTd,
+~ <e& eT | |&+ <s sT >d |\ H&TT+~.
>d qT+& sT |* >d s+<+ <s yTT| N*\ <s yTT|\|
|eVdT+~. yTT|\T { &T|& { ]q HqT >VksTT.
#s + <s ]> yjTTe]& #s jT XdjT (Cutaneous respiration)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 43
n+{sT. yTTd*, &*H e+{ \#s\T @$<+> Xdkj MT b<jTT&
n& \TdT+&. $<yTq XdjT |\ e+{ ujT#s\ |dT+~.
| \T, #s +, }|]T\ , d>d Vs+ (Bucco Pharyngeal Cavity) <s
L& Xd+#>\e.
yTT\ XdjT
yTT\ |\ +& | s+<\ <s yjTT
$eTj T + s T > T T +< MT \ Td T . |
s+<\bT> + = u>\T yjTT $$TjT+
{bs
sT|sTT. ys |]\+ +&+ MT< +& +{d
>*><T\T DyjTT $eTjT+ bZ+{sTT. eT& n&e\T>
|s+<\T |\Te& e+>y yTT\ XdjT d+
|+-14: |+`XkjTejT+ Xdy (Arial roots) nH | sD\T +{sTT.
]& C yTT\ XdjT d+ | DC\+
+T+~. yTT\T XdjT HqT |\T=
X #d sH & &qT $&T<\ #ksTT.
yTT\ yjTTsyD
|s+ <\T, +d yTT |* sT #T=
+{sTT. D\ +& U\T (>* ><T\T) e\
e~]> yTT n+ $d]+ +{sTT. U
|+-15: +&+ +{D\T |<X\T |\ |< |]eD+q $T*q yTT
u>\ q$>q +{sTT. >* ><T\ >&\T { bs * +& eT>
+{sTT. | s+<\ <s |y+q >* H {bs
sT>TT+~. De#+ >T+& D |<s #sTT+~. D+ #s\ #s
]| X $&T<\ #dT+~. BbT sT, sH & & L& y\Te&sTT.
$&T<q X JejT sVD d+ D+ yT{+&j m.{.|
s|+ \ +T+~. @s&q sH & & < esZ+ >* ><T\ qT+&
jT y\Te&TT+~.
#s y|q |< sT>TT+~. D+ H $j+|&>H
D\, >* ><T\ eT< yjTT k+< & @s&TT+~. n< deTjT+
>* ><T\ | s+<\T, +{d y\T|\ L& yjTT k+< &
edT+ ~. n+<Te\ y\T|* >* | s+<\>T+& |* |y dT+ ~. n<$<+ >
sH & & @s&q k+< ed+ e\ | #s es ~X y\T|*
edT+~.
yTT\T, +Te\ ]> XdjT \ e @yT$T
b*\T >eT+#e?
y <s XdjT
yTT\T y +& eT\ X\T |\T# |]\+
<s yjTTe]& #ksTT. $ eT{ nDTe\ eT<
+& HqT |\T+{sTT. nsTT #sTe\T yTT<q
& |<X\ |]> yTT\ y $<T\qT |+-16: yjTT> y
s]+#>\T>TsTT. Te+{ & |<X\ |]> yTT\ ysT u$T
|]\+| #=#Te nqTL\H |<] ksTT. M{ <s yjTT y|q+
deTse++> sT>TT+~. <: e+>y yTT\T.
eTs= eTTKyTq nqTL\q+ u\T> +& +&+ * +&&+. k]
MTsT m|&H & |<X\ y[q|&T n& |]> yTT\ +&+ d]+#+&.
< >\ s+<\ d+K, |]eD eeT\T H\ MT< |]> yTT\ +&+
b* #&+&.
s+& s+> +{j? _q+> +{j? m+<T?
+{ |<X\ |]> yTT\ y deTs+> |s>be&+ e\ yjTT
syD deTd\T @s&sTT. n+<Te\ yTT\T J$+#&+ weTeT+~.
n+<Te\H e+>y eT& #T H\| #=#Teq yjTT y <s
|]\+ qT+& HqT |\T+{sTT.
yTT\ ]> XdjT >T]+ eT] $es\T \TdTe&+ d+ +~
|j>\T #<+.
+`3
|&&T Xq>\T < s>T\T rdT+&. MT |j>
sE eTT+<T y{ Hqu+&. sy y{ rd >T&
yd <s+ >{> eT+&. eTqT s> >~
eT\ +#+&. s+&T sE\bT |]o*+#+&. +\T
yTT\q
yTT\T sTT. yTT\q +\qT rdT= >E dk yjT +&. $H \T
q +CH dk rdT= < eT&T e+T\ es
dTq| +|+&. dk eT <s+{ dkqT C>> >E
dTq|sT
C& +#+&. C& eT _+#+&. > b& $H\
eTs= neT]qT d<+ #dT+&. s+&+{ s+&T sE\b |+-17: XdjT
<|+& +#+&. s+&T neT]\qT |]o*+#+&. sH & & $&T<\
MT |]o\q\qT qy<T #jT+&.
@ C& +q dk dTq|sT s+>T e]+~? m+<T?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 45
+`4
eTT+<T + d+ MTsT rdTq yTT\q +\qT
<sMTsY <sdtbdT rdT+&. _s&qT rdT=, s+<+
#d <>T+& <sMTsTqT neTs+&. <sMTsT
H= yTT\q + eTT +& C>|&+&. |
s+&T >+\ <sMTsT c> qy<T #jT+&.
bdt
eT+ |*\ d+ 24 >+\bT |]o*+#+&.
MT |]o\q\ <s+> (\+ ` c>\| >|t
^jT+&.)
yTT\q
$H \T c>\ |sT>T<\qT @yTH >T]+#s?
c> eT+> |sT>TT+< sE @<
|+-18: XdjT w+ $&T<\ deTjT+ nkT> |]qT> q<?
w+ m& qT+& e+< MTsT u$dTHsT?
sDq d+j>jT ` XdjT
yTT\T < sH & &qT, { $] |j + dss deT+
sDq d+j>jT <s k++> Vs jsT #dT+{sTT.
#s nH d+wyTq kbH\ <s ] + X skjTq X> esTdT+~.
#s sH & & qT+& # s\T d+Xw + #&sTT. sy T q sD
j$<q+ (anabolic process) sbdt\ sT>TT+~. n+f ds |<s\
qT+& d+w |<s\T @s&sTT.
sDq d+j>j $<H +~ dMTsD+ <s d+#e#T.
+ X
CO2 + H2O (CH2O)n + O2
|V]+ # s
nsTTq #s\ qT+& JejT\qT sV+#& e\dq X
XdjT <s y\Te&TT+~.
XdjT n+f e\+ >* |* e<\&+ <T. #s d+w #s\T
nH $qjT \ <s (catabolic process) skjTqX d X> esTksTT.
Xdj $<H +~ dMTsD\ <s d+#e#T.
(CH2O)n + O2 O2 + H2O + X
sDq d+j>jT, XdjT\T #&{ es #s\T>

|+q|{ s +&+{ _qyTq JeskjTq #s esZ\T+{sTT. $ Je\
]> JejT\ (metabolism) m+ neds+.
yTT\ ]> JejT\ nedsyTq #s\T, |+& |<s\T yTT<q
nH s\ sV& j <V<|& sDq d+j>jT sbdt\
sT>TT+~. yT{+&j\ ]> D XdjT sV&{\T <Vq+
#+~ X qeTeT+~. ~ Je jT\ sVD |j>|&TT+~. |>{
deTjT+ yTT\+{q XdjT H sDq d+j>jT #ssT
me> +T+~. s deTjT+ B es+> sT>TT+~. c>,
>* eT, + re yTT<q e sD q d+j>jT , XdjT \ w|
|ue+ #|ksTT.
\ |<\T
yjTT XdjT, nyjTT XdjT, yjTT >DT\T, >d, XdH+, XdH[,
|V, sDjT, $qjT, yjTT> y, +{d.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
XdjT eTq+ |*q >* }|]T\ n&qT+& yjTT>DT\ #sTT+~. ] n<
esZ+ y\T|* edT+~.
>* |\Te&+ qT+& D\ ksTT H $j>+ e&+ es < sTy { esTd>
]> #s\+{ *| XdjT n+{sT.
$&# >* dTq| qT \> esTdT+< ysTTsY qT>=q+&.
|*q>* Hs+<\T, >d, ds|{, yjTTH[\T, XdH+, }|]T\T, yjTT>DT\
n&qT+& s+ #sTT+~. n< esZ+ (CO ) yq |jDdT+~.
2
}|]T\ yjTT e]& nq d+#T\e+{ sT>TT+~.

~>Te u>+ +& +&s ]yTq bsqT $u |\+ n+{sT.
#d+ $u |\+ d++#> $u>|\+ $X+ d edT+~.
|>* HVs+, yjTTH+ e&bjT&TT+~.
eTTs+<| eT, y+T\T <TeTTD\qT |* b+& |yksTT.
m|>{d t +&sj T TyT q eT e+{ sD+. ~ >* Vs eT es+Z y +<T M\T>
<T\TT+~.
ds|{ +& dss+ <\T }|]T\ qT+& y\T|* e#>* +|ksTT. <s eTq+ e{&& + ,
b\T b&&+ #jT>\T>TTH+.
XdH+, yjTTH+>q n~ qq yjTT>DT\T>q $&bT+~.
nq |]eD+ @+& yjTT>DT\ qT+& sH \ s+ yjTT $eTjT+ sT>TT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 47
yjTTdV XdjT n~ |]eD+ X $&T<\e&+bT sT, sH & & y\Te&sTT.
q+ H n+<TuT q|&T X $&T<\ #jT & nyjTTXdjT < DD+ sT>TT+~.
> C eT+ n+T+f seTT DC\T H deT+ > EqT q+> eT+&+
jT+ksTT.
sT eT+qT |T+~. D\ Xd sT, ||H +{sTT.
sDqd+j>jT, XdjT esyTq$> |+q|{ JejT\qT s]+#& e\d
nH JeskjTq #s\T s+&+{q sT>TsTT.
yTT\ ]> JejT\ nedsyTq #s\T, k] yTT<q |+&|<s\T sbdt ]>
sDqd+j>jT @s&sTT.
DXdjT\ yT{+&j\ +& sV&T <Vq+ #+~ skjT X #ksTT.
~ JejT\T s]dT+~.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. +~y{ eT< &\T sjT+&.(AS1)
m) #d+`Xd+ _) yjTTdV `nyjTTXdjT
d) XdjT`<Vq+ &) sDqd+j>jT`XdjT
2. yjTTdV, nyjTTXdjT\ @yH s+&T b*\T sjT+&.(AS1)
3. =k] Vs+ XdH+ bsTT +~ *dT+~. ~ m+<T sT>TT+~.(AS1)
4. =+&\T, >T\ e+{ |<X\ HeT~> q&q|{ XdjT y>+> s>& sD\T
sjT+&.(AS1)
5. sXH[ #s& M\T> >* yjTT>DT\ \Te +T+~. y+ d]#jTe\dq
n+X\T @$T{?(AS1)
6. yTT\T |>\ T sD qd+j>jT qT, s XdjT qT s]ksTT. MTsT n+X n+^]ks?
m+<T?(AS1)
7. deTT<\ |* y[ <fy, |ssV\T neT y+ H d+&sY\qT rdTysT
m+<T?(AS1)
8. >]wk sTT yjTT $eTjT+ s>& M\T> yjTT >DT\T m esT #+<j sjT+&.(AS1)
9. XdjT #s\qT+& X m& $&T<\eT+~. nH |X e\ }|]T\T n, sjT
+&s\T n de<q+ sksT. me] de<q+ dsq~. m+<T?(AS1)
10. XdjT m|>{dt, &j|yT\ b @$T{?(AS1)
11. s ksTT yjTT$eTjT+ m sT>TT+~?(AS1)
12. u+j yjTT $eTjT+ m sT>TT+~?(AS1)
13. wyTq yje\T #dq|&T +&s\ H=| \T>TT+~. +&s\ H=|, XdjT d++<+
@$T{?(AS1)
14. \ b +&+ L& XddT+< sE #b&T. e n deT]ky? m?(AS1)
15. Xs+ &j|yT b @eTeT+~?(AS2)
16. }|]T\ y~ |DT& *d neX+ * n|&T XdjT >T]+ n& e @ @ |X\T
n&T>Te?(AS3)
17. MT bsX\ |j>X\ nyjTT XdjT >T]+ \T& MTsT #dq |j>+ nqTd]+q
$<q+ @$T{?(AS3)
18. #sqT eT+&+# |j>+ e >eT+q n+X\T @$T{?(AS3)
19. |\ ]> #jT XdjT >T]+q de#s+ d]+#+&. y~ jsT#d MT s>
|<]+#+&.(AS4)
20. b> $j>+, \Tw+ yTT<q y{ e\ *> Xdd y<T\ >T]+q de#s+ d]+#+&.
<| MT s> #]+#+&.(AS4)
21. Xdj esZ *jTCd ueT^d u>\T >T]+#+&.(AS5)
22. XdjT ]> ~X\qT *| sU+ (Block diagram) ^jT+&. DXdjT >T]+ MTs$T
\TdTHs sjT+&.(AS5)
23. eTq Xs+ ]> Xdj jT++>+ y n_q+~ke?(AS5)
24. MT bsX\ d+bjT+ #]+#& nyjTT XdjT| yk jsT#jT+&.(AS5)
25. Vy>_H, s|\T XdjT >T]+ e{&T+TqT> sH ^jT+&.(AS5)
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. $&#>* `````````````````````````` eT]jTT ```````````````````````` +{sTT.
2. >*, Vs+ Xs+ |* y & M\T> |#d +&sj T TyT q eTe+{ sD+ ```````````````
3. D\ \ q X |eD `````````````````````````` n+{sT.
4. yTT\ ................ u>\ +{d +{sTT. $ `````````````````````` #s &&sTT.
5. e+>dt\ XdjT ````````````````````````````` <s sT>TT+~.
dsq de<H >T]+#+&
6. ds+T\qT & >eT+#e#T. ( )
(m) yjTTH+ (_) ds|{ (d) HVs+ (&) >d
7. }|]T\ +& >* T\ e+{ sD\T ( )
(m) yjTT>DT\T (_) XdH\T (d) XdH[\T (&) >*><T\T
8. +~y ds~ ( )
(m) &j|yT d++q|&T s'Vs+ |]eD+ |sT>TT+~.
(_) &j|yT d++q|&T s'Vs+ |]eD+ >TZT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 49
(d) &j|yT y+q|&T s'Vs+ |]eD+ |sT>TT+~.
(&) &j|yT y+q|&T s'Vs+ |]eD+ >TZT+~.
9. XdjT $qjT m+<+f ( )
(m) d+w Vs |seDTe\T $q+ nesTT. (_) + X esT#+<TT+~.
(d) skjTq X d+Xw+#&TT+~. (&) X \#jT&TT+~.
10. D\ X \Te +& |<X+ ( )
(m) +<+ (_) yT{+&j (d) suke\T (&) De#+
nqT+<+
bDjeT+
XdjT JesX\ eTqT>& eT<s+. |*q>* Xd <s Xs+
| D #s&+ n<TyTq |jT. s>e+yTq JeH <V<|&
XdjTqT jT++#T>\>&+ eqe k<eTeT+~. }|]T\T
dyTq yjTT>DT\qT * +{jT MT \TdT. | Xd 500 $T..
>* +T+~. nsTT C }|]T\T 5800 $T.. >* +#T>*q
keTs+ * +{sTT. eTq+ k<sD+> |]\+>H Xd |\Td+{+.
n+f eTq+ }|]T\ |P]ksTT keTs |j+#T&+ <qe.
eTq+ Xd <s >* yTT jT{ |+|ydH L& <<| 1200 $T.. >* + }|]TH
$T* +T+~. n+f + eTq+ 4600 $T.. >* }|]T\qT +|e#qe. n+ |]eD+
>* |\+f Xd rdT&+ m+{ esT\T nedseTej +#+&.
bNq usrjT jTTs< y<T&T |+* eTV] XdjT |< XdjT sV+# $<q+|
j>ud+ nH |jT qT qT>=H&T. B nc+>j >+ n+{sT. m$T~ $u>\ 195 j>Xd
jTe\qT |yX|{&T. n$ 1.jTeT (ke eTD b{+#&+), 2.jTeT (e> eTD
b{+#&+), 3.dq (<&yTq Xs b+<&+), 4.bDjeT (XdjT X |+b+~+#T&+),
5.|Vs (+~j\qT n<T| +#T&+), 6.<sD (@> k~+#&+ ), 7.<q+ (|d T #jT &+),
8.de~ (ks+ b+<&+)
nc+>j>+ |+* eTV] #|q bDjeT+ n+f XdjT| |Tk~+#&+ <s
s>s JeH >&|&+ n ns+. #d+ <s }|]T\ eT&T \+_\+&T> >*|*
me HqT s+ *d #jT &yT jT q eT* d+. Bs Xd\T rdT&+ <s
k<sD+> eTq+ $Tc | 20 qT+& 22 Xd\qT 15 es Z+#e#T. me yTT+ >*
|\&+ e\ yT<&T DC\ q+ H \_dT+~. n+<Te\ Xs jT\ #TsT>
V+> sT>TsTT. |Ps+ (BsX d >* |\&+) +u + (}|]T\ >* *| +#&+ ) s #+
(HeT~> >* e<\&+) <X\ L&q bDje ejTdT d++<++& mesH b{+#e#T.
}|]T\ keTs |+ @>qT, s> |k~+# bDje HsT b{+#&+ eT+~.

bs+
3
|dsD ` |<s syD eed
Xs+ |sT>T<\ sVD\ d+ n Je\ bw\T, yjTTe\T eT]jTT
<e|<s\T yTT<q$ neds+. Je\+{q n$ @DJeH,
VQDJeH Xs+ n u>\L |<s\qT #se\d+<.
@D Je\ |<s\qT me <s+ syD #jTe\dq neds+
<T. u$T| ed+# e\ e+{ VQD Je\ 100 MT. <s+ es
|<s\qT syD #jTe\d edT+~.
nMTu, V& e+{ eTksTT Je\ |<s\ y|q+ (Diffusion)
<y_dsD (Osmosis) e+{ dsyTq |<T\ <s sT>TT+~.
{*jTq d+K D\T *q qksTT Je\T y|q+, <y_dsD
e+{ |< T \ <s me |]eD+ |<s\T syD #jT & d+es\=B
deTjT+ nedseTeT+~.
nqeds| \k y]+#& Je\+{ |yTq y>e+yTq
deTse +yT q eed jTT neds+ @s&+~. Je\T | +> @ss#T +{sTT.
eedH |dsD eed (Circulatory system) n+{sT.
eTq+ |T q|<s\qT +{+. <e|<s\qT >T+. yjTTe\qT Xdk+.
|Tq, <e eT]jTT yjTT |<s\+{ eed <s syD #jT&+
k<eTeT+< MTsT u$dTHs?
eTq Xs+ |dsD @$<+> sT>TT+< n<jTq+ #<+.
&sT>sT s #sTT |T, q # >&js+ $Tw+ d|
#&+ MTsT >eT+# +{sT. &sT s # qT+& q >&js+ qT+& @+
\TdTe{ |jTdTH&T? #sTT |T >T+& mksT d+~dT+<
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 51
\TdT+{& #_ eTq Xs+ \>e#T. V<jTd+<qqT #sTT|T=
yj\ |jT+#+ @$T L& n|+#e#T.
+`1
&sT>]> MTsT L& V<jTd+<qqT +#e#T.
ueT #|q $<+> MT #|&T y\T, eT< yqT eTDT
| * y | uqy \ TqT eTD T + ~y | =+# +
H=|{qT> |+`1 #|q $<+> +#+&.
MTsT @+ >eT+#sT?
|\ qT+& \jT<+ > MT y qT @< dTq T> n|k+~
<! \jTH H& d+<q (Pulse) n+{+.
|+`1: H& d+<q $Tc m d+<q\T edTHj +#+&.
|&T \& eTTw+ bT C+> #jT+&. eTs\ $Tw+
bT H& d+<qqT +#+&. MT s> =+<sT $<sT\ H& d+<q\qT
+#+&. eT&T qeTH\qT + +~ |{ qy<T #jT+&.
|{`1
e.d+K $<] |sT H& d+<q / $Tc
$X+ C+> s
MTsT @+ >eT+#sT? $X+qT, C+> s H& d+<q $<+>

+<?
+`2
H&d+<q sT e e eT]jTT d+<s { es{ eTq+
>eT+#e#T. { H&d+<q ds+> +&<, eTq+ ujT|&q|&T,
<| & q |&T H&d +<qs T |sT>TT+< nse Te+~ < !
eT]= d+<s\ L& +{ |]d >eT+#e#T.
<VsD eTq+ yTT m|&T, |]>|&T H&d+<qqT
|]o*+#+&.
V<jTd+<q, H&d+<q\ eT<>\ d++< >T]+
eT]+> \TdTH |jT + #<+. H&d +<qqT eTs= $<+ >
|+`2: nZ|\ dk| L& >T]+#e#T. +~ #jT+&.
52 10e s> |dsD ` |<s syD eed
+<Td+ MT k+ dk|qT jsT#dT+&. #= >T+&
rdT+&. nZ|\qT {sT> \&T> >T+& s+<+ #=|+#+&. >T+&
eTDT |* y|q |+ #|q $<+> +#+&. nZ|\ <*\qT
C>> >eT+#+&. B dVjT+ H&d+<qqT +#+&.
MTsT @$T >eT+#sT?
eTq H&d+<q m|&T n~eTeT+~?
H&d+<q < *jTCdT+~?
MT \Tk?
qeC Xe Xe Xe |\\T |\\ T, |<\ T, e<T\ T dT T q &sT\T
(0`3 H\\T) (3`6 H\\T) (6`12 H\\T) (1`10 d+\T) (10 d+ |&q ysT)
100`150 90`120 80`120 70`130 60`100 40`60
s H (Rene Laennec) nH Xdy 1816 d+ d k |qT qT>=H&T.

dk| qT>=q |Ps+ y<T\T s s=eTT| #$ + V<jTd+<q
$HysT. s V<jTd+<q $q{ H yTT<{k] | >={
|j+#&T. >=+ esqT s s=eTT + s+&e es #$ +
$Hy&T. | >=+ <s X+ dw+> $|+#& jTq >eT+#&T.
s \+ | >=+ kq+ y<TsT >={ y&ysT. H B
dk| n |sT |{&T.
+`3
H #dq |j> eTqeT #<+. 10 n+>T\ b&e, n+>T+
yd+ +&T> | >={ jsT#jT+&. MT dVT yT& qT+&
s+>T\ +<T>, s=eTT eT n+>T+ m&eTy|q | >=+
esqT +#+&. s+&e es #$ + C>> $q+&. $Tw+
mksT V<jT+ d+~k+< +#+&. d+ |~ eT+~ $<sT\
V<jTd+<q\qT, H&d+<q\qT + +~ |{ qy<T #jT+&.
|{`2
e.d+. |sT $X+ V<jTd+<q $X+ H&d+<q
$Tc $Tc
1. d+wt 72 72
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 53

| n+X\ <s+> V<jT d+<q, H&d +<q\
eT<>\ d++< *jTCd >|t (Histogram)
^jT+&. qeTH >|tqT |]o*+#+&. n+<T
*s+>T |{\T V<jTd+<qT msT|s+>T |{\T
H&d+<qqT *jTCksTT.
d+wt
V < j T d +< q , H& d +< q eT< > \
d++<+ @$T{?
x`n+: $<] |sT
y`n+: V<jT d+<q, H&d+<q eTTc
V<jTd+<q sT, H&d+<q sT m|&
deq+> +{j?
| |]o\q\qT { s+&+{ eT< d++<+ q< \Tk+~ <!
V<jTd+<q eTq* dJe+> +#TTHsTT. |&T eTq+ Xs+
neTTK nejTeyTq >T+& sD+, |#d $<q+ >T]+ \TdT+<+.
V<jT+, s'|+s+ }|]T\ eT< neT] +T+~. MT >T+&
|]eD+ dTesT> MT |&* n+ +T+~.
|+`3: V<jT+ +& #T |+`4: V<jT+
|j>X\ +
<X+ : s<\ >T+& n+]sD |]o*+#&+.
s<\+{ >T+& sD+> $<+> +T+~. { eTq+
|j>X\ >=s yT >T+&qT |]o\q d+ rdT+<+.
e\dq |]s\T : >=s yT C >T+&, k& k\T, |<THq u&T <
k|, &dH f, eT>TZ sT, &dH s, bs|t.
|]o\H |< :
yT >=s C >T+&qT rdT= >T+& ><T\ s+ +& Xu+#d
|]o\q d+ d<+ #j*.
k& k\qT ] +|&q s H\ |yX |{*. d<+ #dq >T+&qT
|]o*d, |]o\q\qT MT HT|d+ sjT+&.
>T+&qT | m bs\THsTT? (bs\qT s ]+ rdyjT+&.)
>T+& @ s+ +~?
>T+& nT m sH\ es\THsTT?
>T+& jTT @ es y&\T> +~? @ es dq> +~?
>T+& +&s\ nT q sH\ (sq] <eTqT\T) neT]qT
>eT+#+&.
(C >T+& <=s |+ >T+& qeTHqT #sTqT > |]o*+#+&.)
>T+& n+]sD+
\yTq #|eTT e+{ sH+ | e#T >T+&qT &dH f +#+&.
| |dTq u>+ >T+& <s\+.
|<THq k| < u&T dVjT+ >T+& |* ><T\T VsZ+
njT$<+> jT+&. (nedsyT |+`5 dVjT+ rdT+&.)
|* u>\qT |]o*+#+&. eTT+<T> >T+& >&\qT |]o*+#+&.
\y| y <eT
m&eT uTC y <eT
}s Vs
V<eT
m&eT ||d <eT
& ||d <eT ||d ds\T
||d <eTqT\T
m&eT ]
& ] ||d<eT ns#+<s y+
] s] y{\T
] s] y{\T
m&eT s] >&\T
n<Vs
& s]
|+`5: V<jT+ n+]sD+
>T+& >&\T n+{ eT+<+ Hj?

>T+& m ><T\THsTT?
n ><T\T |]eD+ Hj?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 55
>T+& ><T\ eT< +yTH |\qT >eT+#s?
>T+& ><T\ < { \T|& Hj?
>T+& ><T\T < { m \T|&sTT?
>T+& ><T\T < { m ysT#jT&sTT?
>T+& +~ ><T\ \ sD\qT >eT+#s? @ u>\ n$ nT&
Hj |]o*+#+&. y{ s+, |]eD\qT { n$ @ $<T \qT sVkj
}V+#+&.
MT |]o\q\+{ MT HT|d + sjT+&. MT |]o\q\qT +< e&q
de#s+ d]#dT+&.
>T+& u]|+&T s+ Ds+> +T+~. | y|q y&\T>qT,
+~ y|q dq>qT +T+~.
>T+&qT e]+ s+&T bs\T+{sTT. M V<jesD #\T (Peri-
cardial membranes) n+{sT. s+&T bs\ eT+ V<jesD
<e+ +& +T+~. ~ >T+&qT |\qT+& b&TT+~.
>T+&|\ +& uT sD\T >T+&qT H\T>T u>\T> $uksTT. |
s+&T u>\qT ]\T (Auricles) n, +~ s+&T u>\qT s]\T (Ven-
tricles) n n+{sT. >T+& >&\ n+{|T= q sH\qT sq]
sH\T n+{sT. $ >T+& +&s\ s ds|s #ksTT.
| y|q q ]\ >&\T |\T#>q, +~y|q q s]\ >&\T
eT+<+>q +{sTT. eTq |]o\q >T+& H\T>T ><T\+{jT
\TdTH+. m&eTy|q q s+&T ><T\ { |y| (|Ps+y|)
s+&e~ +~y| (|s++ y|) +{sTT. n<$<+> &y| L&
s+&T ><T\T+{sTT.
>T+& nT&q sH\qT |]o*+#+&.
>T+& m sH\T nT& HsTT?
n sH\T <&+> Hj? m sH\T <&+> HsTT?
sH\ <&, s|dsD d++<+ +< e u$dTHy?
<&+> q sH\qT <eTqT\T (Arteries) n+{sT. $ V<jT+ qT+&
jT\T<] Xs u>\+{ s ds|s #ksTT. n|< <eT V<eT
(Aorta) n+{sT. q <eT ||d <eT (Pulmonary artery) n+{sT. ~
s V<jT+ qT+& }|]T\ rdTbT+~.
e <& + *q H\qT ds\ T (Veins) n+{sT. $ Xs u>\qT+&
s V<j rdTbsTT. >T+& | u>+ &y|q +& |<
dsqT }sVs (Superior venecava) n+{sT. ~ Xs+ | u>\
qT+& (\) s d]dT+~. >T+& &y| ~>Te u>+ |+# dsqT
n<Vs (Inferior venecava) n+{sT. ~ Xs+ ~>Te u>\ (,
#T\T) qT+& s d]+ V<j rdTedT+~.
m&eT y|q q ], s]\T, &y| y{+f q$> +{sTT. s+&T
]\T, s+&T s]\T +&sjTTyTq $u\ (Septum) ysT #jT&
+{sTT. ]\T, s]\ eT< yjTTyTq s+<\T+{sTT.
& ] |Ps |s eTVds\T sT#TH s+<\T+{sTT. m&eT ]
}|]T\ qT+& s rdTe# ||d ds\T sT#TH s+<\qT
>eT+#e#T.
m&eT s] | u>+ qT+& eb{ sH+ jT\T<sTT+~. |<
<eT V<eT < <eT#|+ (Aorta) n+{sT. <eT#|+ Xs
u>\ eT L&q s ds|s #dT+~. & s] |u>+ qT+&
||d <eT nH sH+ jT\T<sTT+~. ~ eTsV s
}|]T\ ds| s #dT + ~. C>> >eTd sH \ L& y{\T
|ksTT.
sH\T eT]jTT s |dsD
sH\ jTT sD+ eT]jTT |#d $<H\qT >T]+ \TdT+<+.
16e X+ es sH\T @$<+> |#kj eTq *jT<T. 1574e
d+es+ {*jTH &s q >s \e b_d * ds\ qT >T]+ n< jTq+
#dT+&> y{ qq y{\T+&&+ >T]+#&T. sH\ s+ ~X
|eVd y{\T, sH >&\ y+& sT#T s+ |eV+#& @$<yTq
+ *+#+& +{sTT. s+ y es~X |eV+#&
#d y{\T eTdT= H eTdyd s|yV |ksTT.
n+f n$ @~X y{\qe. e \&q|&T $ s+ | ~X
|eV+#& &&sTT. n+ +~ ~X |eV+|jTe.
e * ~*+q|&T < * +&s\qT _+q|&T, +&s\T
ds\| e& *ksTT. qT s+ \e++> >TsTsD es+> |
<T\TT+~. m+<T+f ~X eyT s+ |eV+#& neX+
+T+~. y e * +&s\qT d&*d s+ y>+> <\<T. n>
>TsTH +~ L& |eV+#<T. m+<T+f y{\T s +~
|eV+#jTe.
eTTKyTq $wjT+ @$T+f s+ * ds\ >T+& V<jT+ y|
eyT |eVdT+ ~. s+ m\| &T m&eT s] qT+& Xs u>\ |eVdT+ <
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 57
b_d qT>=H&T. nsTT n |]X<q + eTTKyTq n+X nH
n+> |{+#T<T.
s $*jT+ Vs (1578`1657) nH _{wt y< T &T #<T edyT
y[ b_d e< n<jTq+ #X&T.
Vs #bsTTq y] >T+&\qT ysT #d, ] \ T, s] \ y{\qT
>T]+ n<jTq+ #dy&T. >T+& ~X s |dsD &&
y{\qT nqT >T]+#&T. y{\H$ s ]\qT+& s]\
m+{ ++ +& |eV+|CksTT. >T+& d++q|&T s+
s]\ qT+& ]\ #s& <T\T> sH\ yT+~.
|+`6: $*jT+ Vs
Vs q >TsTyq b_d qT>=q * ds\qT >T]+ +#+
bs+_+#&T. ds s+ ~X |eVdT+ ~. eT]jTT >T+& ~X> |eV+#&+
d+ s+| & *dT+< nqTH&T.
Vs +Te\ ds\qT >{> eTT&yd s |dsD ~XqT qT>=qT
mH |j>\T #X&T. T{q # ds\T _bjT$. ds s+
m\|& >T+& ~X> |eVdT+&&+ e\ T {q# +~u>+ _bjT~.
B { ds s+ >T+& qT+& Xs u>\ |eV+#< n dsq <
sT>TT+< Vs \TdTH&T. n+f ds m\y s+ >T+& y|
|eVdT+<qe.
<eTqT\ $wjT+ >eTd, s+ m\|&T T{q# >T+& ~X
_bjT$. n+f <eTqT\ s+ >T+& qT+& Xs u>\ |eVdT+< |
Xs u>\qT+& >T+& |eV+#< >T]+#&T.
s |yV >T]+ Vs n<jTq+ #X&T. >T+& s+ <eTqT\
H&TT+~. n> ds\ qT+& s+ >T+&qT #sTT+~. n+f s s+&T
|yV\THsTT. BH ~e\jT s |ds D (Double circulation) n |sT |{&T .
s+ & s] qT+& <eTqT\ <s }|]T\ #], n& qT+& ds\ <s
m&eT ]\ #sTT+~. m&eT ] qT+&, m&eT s] #] <eTqT\ <s
Xsu>\ |eV+ ] ds\ <s & s] #sTT+~. $<+>
s+ >T+& qT+& jT\T<] eTs >T+& #sTT+<qe.
>T+& qT+& Xs #]q s+ $j+#& eTs = s+ @s&TT+<H
ueq | Vs s|+#&T. >T+& d+#+ m+ s |+|D
#dT+< n> $Tc m d+<q\T #T #dT+{j +#&T.
>+ >T+& eTw sTe eT&Ts s+ |+|D #dT+< Vs
qT>=H&T. n+f n+ s+, + e deTjT+ <T. B {
s+ >T+& qT+& Xs Xs+ qT+& >T+& eTs\ eTs |eVdT+ < #| e#T
n >T]+#&T.
q |]X<q u>+> Vs eTs= deTdqT m<Ts=H&T. <e TqT\T
ds\qT \T| y{ eT< n dq sH\T +> Hj?
1650e d+es+ XdE\T u<\qT (Lenses) *| y&&+
<s +{ #& nq edTe\ L& |<$> #| $<H
qT>=HsT, es e (1628`1694) d<] kjT+
eeT\T> +{ |+# sH\qT |]o*+#>*>&T.
Vs eTsD+ q 4 d+es\ s 1661 d+es+
e >_\+ s\| n<jTq+ #X&T. >_\+ s |+`7: es e
+& n |\T# bs (|{jT+) sH \qT d <]
kjT+ |]o*+#&T. n|& <eTqT\T eT]jTT ds\
eT<qT+& n dq, qyq sH\qT #&>*>&T.
dq sH\ dXH[\T (capillaries) n
|sT |{&T . {H uw capillaries n+f X+ n ns+ .
m+<T+f H\T L& y+T\ e dq> +{sTT.
sXH[\qT qT>=q&+ <s s |dsD $<q+
>] |P]> ns+ nsTT+~. n+<T $<H n+^]+
nqTd]dTHsT.
s+, sH\ |eVdT+< eTq \TdT. eT]
Xdy\T sH\ s+ |eVdT+< m qT>=HsT?
sH\qT $q+ #jT+& s |yV |<]+#&+
k<yTH?
sE d+jTT d <] , H{ <T yC |+`8: Vs |j>+
|]s\T e. nsTTq 17e X+ ds\ s+ jTT
<*\qT s|+#{ $*jT+ Vs #dq |j>
eTq+ eTs #<+.
1. sH\T u> |+# e jTT <+& #sTT (y#
| u>+ |+`8 #|q $<+>) >T& >{>
T+&. ( y\T<s+ d\+ +&*.)
2. eTs= >T&qT #|#T eT& < |&* >{>
|Ty*. |&T #s+ +~ sH\T |dT+> |+`9: #jT+&
ksTT.
3. eTq+ |j>+ #jT{ M\T> u> e> _qTq, XK\T> $&b
sH >T]+#+&.
4. sH+| <+&#sTT y| y\T +, yT*>, sH+ s |yV+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 59
bjTes & \T>#jT+&. (ueT dVjT+ rdT+&)
5. |&T y* T y# qT+& ns# es ~*+#+&. s H+
e# esT\T |]o*+#+&. sD\T #]+#+&.
<eTqT\T, ds\T
sH\qT <eTqT\T ds\T n s+&T s\T> $u+#e#T. <eTqT\T
V<jT+ qT+& s Xs u>\ ds|s #ksTT. B es+> ds\T
Xs u>\ qT+& s V<j rdTeksTT.
<e TqT\T, ds\ n&T s |yV y> >\ d++<+ @yTH >eT+#s?
+TjTT |bs
+&sbs U |<X+
U |<X+
m+&~*jT+ m+&~*jT+
|+`10(m): <eT n&T |+`10(_): ds n&T |+`10(d): sXH[ n&T
sXH[\T
sXH[\T @D eT+<+ ]yTq dyTq H\T. $ eT>T+&
|<s\T y|q+ #+<& nqTeTksTT. \sD\ \dT
dXH[\ >&\ >T+& #=#T= b>\e. $ <eTqT\T ds\qT \T|
sH[ C @sT#jT& &&sTT.
$*jT+ Vs |j>+ #~$q s +~ |X\ de<q+ sjT+&.
@ sH\ y{\T +{sTT? y{\ |j>+ @$T{?
# _>TT> T {q|&T >T+& <s+> q y|q sH\T m+<T
TsTT?
Xs+ |*y|q q sH\qT (<eTqT\qT) +~+q|&T n$
V<jT+y| { sD+ @$T{?
>T+& ]\T, s]\ eT< y{\T +{sTT. y{\ e\q, ds\
+& y{\ e\q *> |jq+ fq e u$dTHy?
Vs |j>+ #~$q s <eTqT\T, ds\ d++~+q yTT<{ esTd
q d#q\ dVjT+ |{`3 <eT, ds (s+&T, eT&T) esTd\
U\qT |P]+#+&.

|{`3
.d+. sH| sD+ / jT <eT ds
1. H| >&\T (eT+<yTq$ / |\T#$)
2. y{\T (+{sTT / +&e)
3. s+ |eV+#q|&T sH+ s
(\|>\e / \|e)
4. s `````` qT+& `````` rdTsTT. (>T+& qT+&
Xs u>\ / Xs u>\qT+& >T+&)
5. sH+| s|&q+ (e / me)
6. HeTT |eV+# s+
(H L&q~ / H ~)
7. ||d <eT <s |eV+# s+
(H ~ / H L&q~)
8. ||d ds <s |eV+# s+
(H L&q~ / H ~)
+`4
<eTqT\T ds\ |rsTqT |]o*+#& +~ \T #jT+&.
\TMT< \TydT= \MT< Ls=+&. d y\T MT< eTs=
y\T +T+~. b<+ H\ +f eTs= b<+ >* \TTqT
+T+~. =+#+d| LsT+f V<jTd+<q\ \jT<+> *
<* \T se& MTsT >eT+#e#T. < u+ eT #d| LsT+f y&TTq
\T sTyqT, d<T\T >T#TTqT, $TsqT n|dT+~. m+<T
sT>TT+< sD\T MT b<jTT #]+#+&.
# ds\T s++& u # ss |+&. sTy # +~
Cs$&e+&. | |dTq dsqT yT\> y* H=+&. es~X s+
|eV+#& >eT+#e#T. y\ es ~X s+ |eVd ds _qT>
MTsT >eT+#s? m+<T sT>TT+< sD\qT MT b<jTT #]+#+&.
+ #]+#+&
<eTqT\ >&\T <&+>, dk|X * +{sTT. m+<T?
<eTqT\qT XK\T> $d]+q #T b\TksT. m+<T?
<eTqT\ b*d ds\ s |yVesZ+ (lumen) |]eD+ |<~>
+T+~. m+<T?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 61
V]e\jT+ (Cardiac cycle)
eqe >T+& |+&_e~ <X 21e sE qT+& d+~+#&+
bs+_dT + ~. (|T bs #&+&.) eqe&T #bjTes
>T+& d+~dT+~. >T+& d+~+#+ b eTsD+ d+u$dT+~.
]\T, s]\T k] d++ sTy jT<d ed
1. ]\T, s]\ $X+d (}V) < V<jTd+<q e\jT+ < V]e\jT+ (cardiac
cycle) n+{sT. B <X\qT |]o*<+.
1. >T+& H\T>T ><T\T U> $X+ (d&*+|) d
HjTqT=H }V V] e\jT+ ]> $<H |]o*<+.
2. |Ps|s eTVds\ qT+& s+ &], ||d ds\
qT+& m&eT ] s+ |ydT+~.
2. ]\ s+ |eVdT+~
3. |&T ]\T d+ksTT. ]\ d+#+ e\q s+ ],
s] \T eT< q y{\qT dT s] |y dT+ ~.
4. s]\T s+ +&>H d+ksTT. n< deTjT+
(d&*+|), ]\T jT<d #sT+{sTT.
s]\ d+#+ e\q s+ <V#|+, ||d
3. ]\ d+#+. s] s+ <eT, y q y{\T s#T |eVdT+~. n<
| e VdT+ ~. deTjT+ ]\T, s]\ eT< q y{\T s+ &
eTdT+{sTT. y{\T eTdTe+ e\q yTT<{ \u
nH X+ |<> eTq $|dT+~.
5. s]\T jT<d #sTH deTjT+, s]\ |&q+
ZbT+~. Be\q sH\ |y+q s+ yq
se{ |jTdT+~. sH\ y{\T eTdT=
4. s]\ d+#+. y{\T s+ yq s]\ se{ s~ksTT. y{\T
eTdT+{sTT (\u). s+ eTdT=q|&T s+&e &u nH X+ q> $|dT+~.
<e TqT\ | e VdT+ ~.
< deTj ]\T s+ +& eTs d+#
d<|&sTT.
V<jT d+<q eqT>+ > ]> |jT \+{ *|
V] e\jT+ (cardiac cycle) n+{sT.
V] e\jT+ >T+& +&s\T #TsT> bZH d+#jT
5. s]\ jT<d. <eTqT (systole), $X+ rdTH jT<|Psd (diastole)\T <y+
y{\T eTdT+{sTT (&u). { @s&T +{sTT. yTT+ |jT dTesT> 0.8 dq
|+`11: V] e\jT+ |PseT+~. ]\ d+# |f deTjT+ 0.11`0.14 dqT
> s]\ d+# 0.27`0.35 dq deTjT+ |&TT+~.
$<+> s+ sH\ s+s+ jT$T ee<T\
|eVdT+T+~. nsTT DC\ |eV+# s+ s+sjT+> ,
n\\T n\\T> |eVdT+~. n+<Te\H eTq+ eTDT e< y\T +q|&T
n& q <eT s+ |eV+#|&T < & eTq \TdT+~. BH
eTq+ H& =Te&+ (pulse) n+{+. eTq H&d +<qs T, V<jT d+<qs T
deq+> +T+~.
MT \Tk?
+Te |sT Xs+ sTe >T+& sTe eTTc V<jTd+<q
{ $T+>\+ 1,50,000 .>. 750 .>. 7
@qT>T 3000 .>. 12`21 .>. 46
eqe&T 60`70 .>. 300 >. 76
jT{{ | 8 >. 0.15 >. 1200
@e\jT, ~e\jT |dsD (single, double circulation)

s+ sH\ |eVdT+<, >T+& s+s+ d+~d, s s+s+
#\q+ +#TT+< eTq \TdT. s+ >T+&qT+& Xs u>\ n&qT+&
] >T+& #sTT+~. nsTT s|ks+ n Je\qT $<+> +&<T.
|+`12(m) eT]jTT |+`12(_)\qT >eT+#+&.
|{\ m&qT+&H yTT<\T|{ uD|>TsT\ esZ+ MT
|qT <|+&. MT esZ+ eq u>\qT #jT+> >T]+#+&.
s+&T b#sT\qT >eT+ +~ |X\ de<H\T sjT+&.
|{\ $$< Xs u>\qT
>T]+# |jT+ #jT+&.
|+`12\ MT | Xs
u >\ <s mks T
|jD++~.
|+`12\ MT | >T+&
<s mksT |j D++~.
| +`12\ MT |
}|]T\ <s mksT
|jD++~. |+`12(m):
@e\jT s |dsD |+`12(_): ~e\jT s |dsD
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 63
yTT<{ |+ >T+& <s s+ e\+ k] |eVdTqT >T]+#sT
< ! s+ >T+& <s k] eyT |j D+qsTT |ds D qT @e\jT
|dsD (single circulation) n+{sT. s+ >T+& <s s+&TksT |eVd
< ~e\jT < <+<e\jT |dsD (double circulation) n+{sT.
Xwsd eed (lymphatic system)
sH\ s+ DC\ <s |eV+# deTjT+, sH\
qT+& = |Tq|<s\T =+ <e+ sH[ L& e< qT+& jT
y\Te&TsTT. M+{ d]+ s |dsD eed |yX|e\dq
neds+ +~.
s+ dT <\+& LsT |jD+ #dq s MT
b<\ @eTeT+< m|&H >eT+#s? b<s\T =+#+ _>TT>
nsTTqT n|++<? |<y] ~ + dw+> |dT+~.
=+yqT dw+> \TdT+~. BH m&e (edema) n+{sT.
m+<T y| edT+~?
V<jTd+<q e\q s+ sH\ |eVdT+< eTq \TdT.
>T+& qT+& |eV+# s+, sH\ <s |eVd es
sXH[\qT #sTT+~. bw\ L&q s+ <e+ sXH[\
<s DC\ #sT T+~. DC\\ #]q s+ <eu>
|+`13: Xwsd eed DC\ <e+ (tissue fluied) n+{sT.
DC\ q DC\ <e+ eTs s |dsD eed #s*.
DC\<e+ =+u>+ d] nH n qds\ (venuels) #] n&
qT+& ds\ <s >T+&qT #sTT+~. $T*q DC\ <e+ s+ m
#sT T+~? DC\ $T*bsTTq DC\ <y |< q s |ds D eed
#s& eTs= de+s eed @ssTT+~. <H Xwsd eed n+{sT.
{H uw *+|t n+f sT n ns+.
s D\qT C&+# |<qyTq |<s+ Xwsd+. s+ qT+& bw\qT
>V+ D\ n+~+#&+, D\ qT+& e< |<s\qT d]+ s+
#s&+. Xwsd+ sV+# $<T\T.
ds eed de+syTq eed DC\<y ds eed #s{
&&T+<qe.
s+ |Tq eT]jTT <e |<s\ $TXeT+. |Tq|<s\T syT Xwsd+.
DC\ q XwsdyT DC\ <e+. s+ >&{q s $T*q <y
ds+ n+{sT.
nd+&s\T d+#+ e\q ds\|q, XwsdH\|q &|] s+,
Xwsd+ >T+&y| H&sTT. ds\qT, XwsdH\qT y{\T+&+
e\q s+ yqT s+& s~+#&TT+~.
Xwsd eed >T]+ | s>T\ $es+> \TdT+{sT.
|dsD eed |]DeT+
@DJe\T deTT<| { qT+& ysT> eT Xs+ #T bsqT
(bke)qT @ssT#T>H |dsD d++~+q deTd\T sTT.
deTd de<q+> | Je\ Xs+|\ q n\\L&q
ddeTT< dw++~.
nMTu e+{ @DJe\ Je|<s+ dVd<yTq <*\T+{sTT.
<*\qT ujTH #\q+ n+{sT. #\q+ e\q D+ n u>\
bw|<s\T eT deq+> ds|s nesTT.
@DJe\ e~]>H eqe dV n VQD Je\ eT D\
D+s |dsD eed (intercellular transport system)qT * +{sTT.
H& D\ dV eTq Xs+ n D\ Je|<s+ ujTH
#\H |<]dT+~. nsTT VQD Je\T eT]+ $dyTq |dsD eedqT
@sT #dT=qe\dq neds+ @s&+~.
d+\ e+{ bsCeqT deTT<| {H |dsD y&T+{sTT.
dVd<yTq { |yV\T jTeT<+> +&e. {, d+\T Xs+|\
+& Xu\ (flagella) <*\ e\q eT |yV\qT yT dw+#T+{sTT.
d+\+f n_e~ #+~q V&, C#| e+{ &]j Je\T eT
Xs+ ss |ds D VseTH (gastro vascular cavity) d+ e+{ sD
@sT#dTHsTT. ss |dsDVs+ Vs Js+ #jT+ bT>
bw\qT n D\ n+~+# se L& sVdT+~.
bdj Vb{ e+{ b{V+~dt esZ #+~q Je\ Jseed
XU|XK\T> $d]+ +T+~. M L& JsjT, |dsD\T s+&+{
eed sVdT+~. Je\ |D+ qT+& es |<s\qT | $ds
eed >VdT+~. Je\ Xs+ me u> Js, $ds eed
$T+#sTT.
@*beTT\ (q\T) e+{ e{V+~d\t Xs+ +& $T<Xs Vs+
(pseudocoelom) |<s\ dsD, $sDqT sVdT+~.
Xs Vs Jeq yqbeTT\ e+{ nH*&T <y\ <* d+ d++#
H yTT<{k]> @sT #dTHsTT. M yTT yTT<{k]> |dsD
e<eT+> s+ |#jT& >T]+#e#T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 65

u~+ e+{ sb& es|Z Je\ d++# H+ e+{ >T+& q|{,
sH \T be+ e\q, s+ |< |< s\ (U |<X \T) |eVdT+ ~.
DC\ bw\qT ds| s #dT + ~. n> Xdeed L& HsT > DC\
HqT ds|s #dT+~. sH\T |dsD eedqT $e s|dsD
eed (open circulatory system) n+{sT. sb& bT>, # eT\d
Je\T, +~ ksTT s{ Je\ $e s |dsD eed +T+~.
|<s\ syD u< qT sy T |P]> sVd, s+ sH \ |eV+#
eedq T d+e s |ds D eed (closed circulatory system) n+{sT. nH*&
UH&s{, |dt e+{ d|b& eT\kJe\qT, n |ksTT s{
Je\qT syTq s |dsD eed +T+~.
MT \Tk?
eqe $TsT s+ >T+&qT+& * e] es y[ ] >T+& #s&
n+f dTesT 2MTs <s+ |jD+#& dTesT> 60 dq deTjT+ |&TT+~. <
s y|q |< +<s+ |jD+#{ dTesT> 60 d+es\ \+ |&TT+~.
s|&q+ (Blood Pressure)
MTsT +~ s> T s+ nqT|T \T, s eZs D yTT<q
n+X\ >T]+ +TDC\+ nH bs+ #~ysT <! |&T
eTq+ s+ >T]+ eT]= n+X\T \TdT+<+.
s e\e+{ sH \ <s |eV+|Cj \+f # me
&y*. >T+& s]\T d++ n~ |&q+ s
<eTqT\ |+|sTT. s]\T |&H sTT jT<d
#sT, s d+# d<+ nesTT.
&sT d>eHMTsY nH |]s+ s |&H =\TksT.
|+`14: d>eHMTsY s|&q+ eTq Xs+ $$< Xsu> yssT> +T+~.
{ m|& Xs+ jT$TyTq |<X+ eyT s|&H
=*d yssT deTj |&H d]b\{ neX+ +T+~. n+<Te\q
&s T eTq <+&#s TT (MT #sTT |u >+) +& <e T |&H eyT =\TksT .
s|&H d++~+ &sT s+&T &+>\T qy<T #ksT. s]\T
n+ me |&q+ s <eT |+|q|&T yTT<{ &+> rksT. ~
s>e+Tq jTTerjTTe\ 120$T.$T. b<sd |&q+> +T+~. B
dk* |&q+ (Systole) n+{sT. s]\T`jT<d #sT s +|H
deTjT+ s+&e &+> rksT. ~ 80$T.$T. b<sd |&H deq+>
+T+~. B &jk* |&q+ (Diastole) n+{sT.
s|&q+ eTq+ #d | { esT +T+~. $X+, q&e+,
|sT>+ e+{ |qT\T s|&q+ yssT> +T+~.
$X+ deTjT+ k<sD+ (120/80) +f me s |&q+ (B.P.)
qsTT e sb T (Hypertension) qT> u$ksT . sb T e>
+&&+ (low B.P.) n+f @$T{ < \D \qT >T]+ MT b<jTT #]+#+&.
sd+<q+ (Coagulation of blood)
s d++~+q $wj\ eTs eTTKyTq n+X+ s+ >&&+.
|jT e\H |e<eXT >jTyTq|{ Je\T >\T>TTHsTT. @<H
>jT+ *q|&T s+ 3 qT+& 6 eTTc\| >&&TT+~. s+ m
>&&TT+~? s+ >&f |jT q skjTq #s\T @$T{?
Xs >jT+ *q|&T s+ =+#+d| eyT sTT+~. s
s+ >&{ q# ms >& @s&TT+~. ms >&H d+<q+
n+{sT. s+ >&b Xs+| q >jT+ *H $|yTq ske+
sT>TT+~.
s+ +& s| \ \ T (platelets) sd +<q jT qT bs+_ksTT. >jT+
qT+& s+ d$+q|&T s| \ \ qT+& <+uH C nH m+Cy T $&T<\eT+~.
<+uH C s+ q b+_HqT +_H> esTdT+ ~. +_H s+
<es|+ q | _HHqT |T qs|+ +& | _H +Te\T> esTdT+ ~.
b>T\ sD\T d+<+ @s&TT+~.
<+uHC
b+_H +_H
+_H
|_HH |_H
|_H <s\T <q sH| n+#T\ nT= d++#&+ e\q
y{ n+#T\T <>Zs >&sTT. s+ >&{q s $T*q >&|dT| s+>T
<y ds+ (Serum) n+{sT.
|+`15(m): sH+ s+ |+`15(_): s+ >&T

+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 67
s+ >& { k<sD+> dTesT 3 qT+& 6 eTTc\ deTjT+ |&T T+~.
=+<sT e\ K $$TH |+ e\q s+ >&& # me
deTjT+ |e#T. qT|+ e\q =+<] s+ >&&+ s><T. b
Vy|*j (Haemophilia) n+{sT. <>Z] d++B\ eT< |[ s>&+
e\q *> |\ y~ >dT\T me.
\d$Tj nH e+Xbs+|s y~ e\q Xs+ Vy>_H e>
+T+~. M{ d++~+q $es\T nqT+<+ #&+&.
yTT\ |<s\ syD

+Te\ bw |<s\T eT]jTT H D\ s+s+> ds|s
e& JejT\T deTse++> sV+#& u> |]D #+~q syD
eed +~.
yTT\ L& +Te\ e~]> s|dsD eed @<H +<?
+~ s>T\ eTq+ yHV+{ #dq |j>
eTs=k] n< jTq+ #k+. |j >+ <s yTT\T H\
K \eD\T eT]j T T { y s <s > V k j T
\TdTH+. ysT Xw+q sT, |\ jsq Vs
|<s+ <sTe (xylem) eT]jTT bw DC\+ (phloem)
nH H[ |+C (vascular bundles) eed <s yTT jTT
s u>\ ds|s nesTT. ys <sT DC\+
|+`16: syD H[|++ <ey| +f +&+ <sT DC\+ H[
|++ |]~y| neT] +{sTT.
sT m Xw+#&TT+~?
ysT H\ K \eD\qT XwdT+< eTq \TdT ~ m
k<eTeT+~?
B yqTqTq j++ @$T{?
ysT { HsT> d++< @ssT#T+{j?
sT m Xw+#&TT+~?
+`5
eT\X\ XwD
sV+#& d\T y\ $H\qT yTT\+#*.
& n<T&T +| |+q y\ yTT\\qT rdT |+#+&. ysqT+&
jT\T<]q dq <s\ e+{ sD\qT u<+ |]o*+#+&. M{H
eT\X\T (root hair) n+{sT. M{ <s sT yTT\ |ydT+~. =+
ysT u> rdT <| =~> b& { #TqT yjT+&. esYd|t |
~$TqT njT HeT~> H= d<] |+#+&. eT\X\ >&\T
dq> +&{ >eT+#+&. sT eT\X\ m >V+#&TT+~. D\
<s <sTe DC\+qT m #sTT+< nH $wjT+| |P]> ne>Vq
<T . |jT <y_ds D (osmosis) |< q b eVdT+ <H $wjT +
mTe+{ d+<V+ <T.
|D+ <y_ds D eedq T * +T+~. D e]+ q De#
qT= q D <ebs bs>e T#+> |#dT + ~. +~ ueTqT |]o*+#+&.
ysT H\ m #=#T bsTT+< #&+&. eT{ sDTe\ eT< >\ U
|<X\ eT\X\T #=#TbjsTT. y{ #T eT e]+ +&+
>eT+#e#T.
uV#sD\T
eTsDTe\T
eTC\+
<sTH\T
+~+
>*><T\T
e\\ D\T eT\X\De#+
D<e+ ]\T
|+`17: eTC\+ eT\X\ d++< #| ysT \Te

|+ uD+ >TsT\T { |yV ~XqT dksTT.
eT sT, \eD\ L&q d\ <eD+. eT\X\ Dsd+ >&
eT sT <eD >&+f e +T+~. n+<Te\q <y_dsD <s
eT\X\ ]\ sT |eVdT+~. eT\X\ |<s\ >& sT
|* |y+#&+ e\q |sT>TT+~. B |*+> sT |qTq D\
|eV+ y{ >& q T L& |sT>TT+~. e]> sT <sT H\ #sT T+~.
me d+K eT\X\T eT]jTT ysT D\T |jT bZq+ e\q
<sT H\ |&q + @s&TT+~. |&q + {| H& |j >|& T T+~.
yTT+ |&H ysT |&q+ (root pressure) n+{sT. <sTe { <*
ysT |&q+ f sD+ <T. ~ s+ eyT + ys s\T
L& HsTT. M{ >T]+ $es+> | s>T\ HsT+{sT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 69
+`6
+|t ysT |&q+ nq>H$T?
>E>=+ +& |sT>TTq yTTqT rdT+&. u$T
{eT+ |]\+ +f 1d+.MT |q +& $<+> +&+
>{ ssT>=+ u> jT+&. ueT #|q $<+ > >E>={
+& u>+ dq +& u> ssT >=+ >{> +&.
eT
>E>=+ |]eD+ +& |]eD+ $<+>
+&*. y{ *||&T >{> C>> {*.
>E >=+ qT+& sT y\T|* s+& #&*.
sT
>E>=+ =+#+ bjT+&. {eT+ ssT
>=+ +f d | q& $<+ > +&*. >=+
|+`18: ysT |&q+ { eT{ (M1) =* qy<T#jT+&.
2`3 >+\ b |j> neT]qT <|+& # +#+&. sTy
>E>=+ {eT+ (M2)qT qy<T#jT+&.
{eT+ |sT>T<\ >eT+#s?
#s <sTe b @$T{?
M1 eT]jTT M2 eT< >\ & +&+ { |sT>T<\qT ddT+~. ysT
|&q+ e\q { eT+ |]+~.
yTT\ sT syD njT j++
<sTH\ { d+u+| n&T>T qT+& @s& & ysT |&q+ e\q
\T>TT+< \TdTH+. jT*|d t e+{ n|< e\T <<| 180 MTsT
b&eqT * +{sTT. nTe+{ y{ sT | m y+~?
+<{ s> T \ #~$q uc *jTCd |
#T+&. b~H esY|* u>+ m+<T &> esTT+~?
{ $] < { _+<Te\T m& qT+& e#sTT?
|\ qT+ sT $] s|+ y\T|* se{ uc+
(transpiration) n+{+. |\ |s+<\ <s eT]jTT
+&+ +{D\ <s sT $sbT+~. |\ ]>
uc+ e\q <sTe H\ { d+u+ s+s+> |
>&TT+~.
|+ <sTH\ =q\ #T $Tk| D\ e]+
+T+~. M{ Dsd+ +T+~. <sTH+ qT+ sT $Tk|
|+`19: uc+ D\ >&\ <s s+s+> yesD+ $sb&+ e\q
sT s+s+ | >&TT+~. { <sTH\ @s& { nDTe\ eT<
@s& \yTq s D\ e\q (tensile strength) {d+ u+ n+sjT+ @s&<T .
{ nDTe\T \D eTq+ k <s o\ bj\T >|&T >eTdT+ {+.
|&T eTq e\ sT |d]+# n+X+| ne>Vq *+~ <!
sT H\ eT\X\T <y_ds D <s Xw+#& <sTH\ |+|&&+
e\q ysT eT]jTT +&+ qT+& |+ es s+s eed> @s& n& qT+&
sT $] s|+ yesD+ |+|&TT+~. sT | >+ uc+
|<q b eV+#> +~ qT+& sT | H&+ ysT |&q+ L& =~
yTT+ |< q b eVdT+ ~. B |* +> sT s+s+ > ysT qT+& e]
es |d]dT+T+~.
uc esb @yTH d++<+ +<?
yTT\ m\|&T q+ sT s+s+> |d]dT+T+~. <VsD
|<e+ |sE 900s { uc+ <s $] s|+ y\T|*
|+|T+~. M{ e\qH n&e\ >* me> { $] d+|+ #+<TT+~.
{$] +& |eH\T Ty|> M#|&T n& yesD+ { $]
eT]+> d+|+ #+<TsTT. { es+ sTdT+~.
n+<T yT<q b+\ +f L& nMb+\ me esb+
+T+~.
MT \Tk?
yTT\ <s m+ sT uc+ #+<TT+~? @|> |]q yTTCq yTT
ys 15 s sT uc+ <s yesD+ |+|T+~. ms+ $ds+
yTTCq qT+& 13,25,000 s sT $] neT+~. |< e$T& #T ed+\+
sE 750 qT+& 3,500 s { uc+ <s jT |+|T+~.
K \eD\ syD
yTT\ bwD K \eD\T (d\, dbw\T) nedseTH $wj
eTq+ +~ s>T #<TeH+. eT <eD+ qT+& eT\X\ <s
K \eD\T >V+|&sTT. \eD\ $<T<yX njH\ s|+
+{sTT. <VsD k&jT + s & Na+, Cl- jH\ s|+q, yT^wjT +
d{ Mg2+, So42- njq s|+ +{sTT. $ eT\X\ <s y|q+
|< +& D<e X $j+ Xw+#&TsTT. M{ $es+>
eTq+ sTy s> HsT+<+. jH\T Xw+#&q sTy { <s
<sTH\ #sT n& qT+& |sT>T<\ kH\ y[ |sT>T<\
$j+#&TsTT. = d+<s\ <sTe qT+& bw DC bs+>
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 71
L& |d]ksTT. yTT\ |sT>T<\ K \eD\T |eTTK b bwksTT.
jsq Vs+ syD
=+&+ |#{ yTT\ \ jsq Vs+ #s
s|+ $T*q D\ syD #jT&TT+~.
eTTK+> #TsT> |]> u>\T eT]jTT \#d
+ u>\ syD #jT&TT+~.
\ H\ <sTe eT]jTT bw DC\T
+{jT eTq \TdT. $ +&+ DC\+
nqTd+<qyT +{sTT. +~ |j>+ bw DC\+
<sTe
<s Vs |<s\ syD sT>TT+< *jTCdT + ~.
bw DC\+ bw DC\+ #\H\T (sieve tubes) #
|+`20: yTT qT+& + Vs d]+#T
q$> +{sTT. JeXdy \ T yTT\ Vs |<s\
syDqT |# |sT>T\T (ephids) <s n< jTq+ #XsT.
m|& +&+ #T >T$TL& yTTsk |\TksTT. sd+ |\& m|&
b&e> d~e~]> +& =+& (proboscis) yTT DC\ #=|dT+~.
sk ||&T m|& #+| +&+ n&TqT C>> |]o*d buddt
bw DC\+ <sT H\ es eyT #=#TbsTTqT Xdy\T
>T]+#sT. buddt q sk $Xw+#& Xdy\T +~ |j>
#XsT. yTT sk ||& m|&qT #+| buddt u>+ bw DC\+
+& $<+> m|& Xs u> ysT#XsT. bw DC\+ d\ |&q+e\
sd+ dq buddt u>+ >T+& sd+ #T\ s|+ sTT+&& >T]+#sT.
<es| #T\ d]+ $Xw + #> n+<T # s\T eT]jTT yTH e\T
HjT *d+~.
m|& T (aphids) bw DC\+ qT+ me yTT+ # sqT >V +q|{
yTT Xw+#e. $T*q #s { <es|+ bjTTeqT+& y\T|*
edT+~. B H (honey-dew) n+{sT. n+<Te\H m|& q yTT\ +&+,
\T # n+TqT> +{sTT.
MTsT = d+<s\ #T d>|> us&T |P]> q+bsTT
q|{ #T dJe+> +&& #d +{sT. ~ m k<+!
bw DC\+ <s #s\T syD #jT&jT \TdT& eTs=
|j>+ <s L& s|+#e#T. <sTe q& $<+> < #T q
us&TqT =\+#*. eT+ e+ + $T*q yTT+ DC bw
DC\+ dV =\+#*. = sE\ sTy =\+q us&T |u>,
+~ u> DC $Xw+q|&T eTq Vs |<s \Te\T e\jT+>
@s&q | u>+ eyT q&TT+~. +~ u>+ q&<T. = sE\
sTy eTq+ n> e~*|& ]+>T| u>+ +&+ eT+<+ |sT>TT+~.
+~ u>+ |sT>T<\ s><T. n+<Te\q +&+ #T q DC
mTe+{ qw+ *+H ysT Vs ds|s bT+~. <s #T
eTsDdT+~. n+X+ # n] beTTK *q~. = s<\T bw
DC\+ +& Vs+ d+ #T us&TqT =\TksTT.
k<sD+> bw DC\+ #s =s o\+ Vs| =s
q|&T #dT+{sTT. f\T\ e+{ = +Te\T qq yTT\T
V#dT+f +< e+{ +Te\T |<|< #qT HXq+ #dT+{sTT. +<
e+{ +Te\ e\ # V \>+& nM d+sD qT| r> e\qT
neTsTksT. nsTT ~ KsT L&q~. n+<Td+ nMXK n~sT\T
n&e\ +< u]qT+& e\qT b&& e+d uq q\T,
>T&>\T, u&sqT (Badger) |+#TT+{sT.
= s\ &T\T deTT<rs b+\ |]> dsT >T&T e+{ # reyTq
V *ksTT. n+{# dsT>T&T \T |+#&+ u<jT+<T.
MT |]ds\ @yH #T, yTT\ usqT +Te\T =\yXj?
|]o*+#+&. y{ C_ sjT+&. MT C_ #T @ C #+~q$, qw+
m+, qw+ eT<H ]+<, b<, +&+ MT< ^]qT> +Te\ |>
>TsT\T |dTHj? yTT<q $wj\T +&*. MT |]o\q\ <s+> @
+Te yTT\qT HXq+ #k+< \TdT+~. ] yTT+> *> qc\
>T]+ +#+&.
\ |<\T
|dsD, ], s], H&d+<q, <eT, ds, dk|, <V#|+, sXH[,
dk, &jk, V]e\jT+, s|&q+, Xwsd+, @|dsD e\jT+, ~|dsD e\jT+,
s d+<qeTT, d>eHMTsY, b+_H, +_H, |_HH, |_H, eT\X\T, |<eT
eT\+, ysT|&q+, yTT bw\T, <sTe, bw DC\+, H[|+C\T.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
H&d +<q V<jT d+<q deq+> +T+~. @ |]s+ dV jT+ +&H eTq+ V<jT d+<qq
=\ee#T.
yTTyTT<{k]> dk|qT sH nqT Xdy qT>=H&T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 73
>T+& s +&T V<j esD#\# e]+|& +T+~. M{ eT< +& <e+ >T+&qT n| \qT+&
b&TT+~.
>T+& n q sH\ <&+> +&$ <eTqT\T. M{ <eT#|+ Xs u>\, ||d
<eT }|]T\ s rdTbT+~.
e <& + *q H\qT ds\ T n+{sT. |Ps|se TVds\ T Xs }s , n\qT+& s
d]ksTT. ||d ds\T }|]T\qT+& s d]ksTT.
>T+& H\T>T ><T\T+{sTT. |Psu>+ s+&T ]\T, |su>+ s+&T s]\T +{sTT.
y|q >\ ]s]\T ]s] s+<+ <s \T|& +{sTT. ]+s $u+ nH
+&s bs ]\q s]+s $u+ s]\qT ysT#dT+~.
]\T, s]\ eT< s+<\T+{sTT. s+<\qT ] s] y{\T eTd +#TsTT.
<eT #|+, ||d <eT L& y{\T+{sTT.
>T+& &y| u>+ Xs u>\qT+& s >V+ }|]T\ |+|T+~.
>T+& m&eTy| u>+ }|]T\ qT+& s >V+ Xs u>\ |+|T+~.
||d <e T | $T*q <e TqT\ eTjTT s Xsu >\ ds| s #ksTT. ||d ds |
$T*q ds\ eT sV s >T+& #sTksTT.
>T+& d+#+ y+H jT<|Psd (d&*+|) se& V]e\jT+ n+{sT.
Xs nejTy\ #s|&T s+ k] eyT >T+& #s& @ e\jT+ n s+&TksT
se& <+<e\jT+ n n+{sT.
K $$TH |+ qy] sd+<q+ s><T.
yTT\T H\ \eD\T ]q { <y_dsD |< y <s >VksTT.
sT <sTe <s, bw |<s\T bw DC\+ <s ds|s nesTT.
yTT\ uc |dsD eed eT< d++<+ +T+~.
Xdy\T m|&\ dVjT+ bw DC\\ >T]+ \TdT>*>sT.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. |dsD eed n+f @$T{? ~ Je\ @$<+> |j>|&TT+< sjT+&.(AS1)
2. bk eT]jTT s+ eT< >\ d++<+ @$T{?(AS1)
3. >T+&qT+& Xs u>\ s #syd u>\T @$?(AS1)
4. eTq Xs+ >\ eT&T |<qyTq sH\qT |s=q+&.(AS1)
5. eTq Xs+ n|< <eT @~? ~ |<~> +&& sDyT$T{?(AS1)
6. sD+ #+<&+ d+ s rdTy sH\T @$?(AS1)
7. *+|tH\T, ds\ +& <eTqT\ sD\T @$T{?(AS1)
8. s|\\ jTT |j>\T sjT+&.(AS1)
9. +~y eT< u<\T sjT+&.(AS1)
(m) dk ` &jk (_) <eTqT\T`ds\T (d) <sTe`bw DC\+
10. eT\X\ <s <y_dsD |< yTT\T { >V+# $<H $e]+#+&.(AS1)
11. ysT |&q+ n+f @$T{? ~ yTT @$<+> |j>|&TT+~?(AS1)
12. bw DC\+ = +Te\ Vs+> |j>|&TT+~? B m deT]ke?(AS1)
13. +~ |s #<e+&. U\ de#s +|+&.
>T+& H\T>T ><T\ L&q +&sjTTyTq sD+. ><T\qT $ud $u bs +T+~.
>T+& >\ $u bs\ |sT |+&.
(m)s+&T ]\ eT<>\ $u ]+s $u+ n+{sT.
(_) s+&T s]\ eT<>\ $u n+{sT.
(d) ] < ~>Teq q s]\ eT< q $u n+{sT.
>T+& s+&T ><T\qT \T| +& esZ s+<+ (aperture) n+{sT. ]\T, s]\
eT< +& s+<\ |sT |+&.
(m) &], & s]\qT \T| +& s+< n+{sT.
(_) m&eT ], m&eT s]\qT \T| +& s+< n+{sT.
eT>T+& ~X eyT |<s\T |jD+#& nqTeT+# s+< y+ n+{sT.
(m)>T+& ><T\ eT< +& y{\ |sT sjT+&.
(_) m&eT ], m&eT s]\ eT< +& y+ .
(d) & ], & s]\ eT< +& y+ .
14. +& ds y{\T s |yV n&THjTqT+&. n|&T ]> |]De$T{
}V+#+&.(AS2)
15. yTT\ eT\X D\ D<e+ >& mesTTq|&T @$T sT>TT+~?(AS2)
16. CH + | , dH >={\qT |j + d k |qT j sT#X&T. n&T nqTd]+q $<H
sjT+&.(AS3)
17. <sTe <s yTT\ { syD sT>TT+< \|& e @ |j> #ke? m #ky
$e]+#+&.(AS3)
18. m|&\| Xdy\T #dq |j>\ ks+X+ @$T{?(AS3)
19. MT bsX \ +& b<jTT\ < MT +{ #TT| \ +& y] s| & q de#s d]+#+&.
y] me s|&q+ (high B.P.) e s|&q+ (low B.P.) >\ysT m<Ts=+Tq s> deTd\
>T]+ y~ sjT+&.(AS4)
20. @e\jT, <+<e\jT s|dsDqT *jTCd |+ ^d s+&+{ eT< &\T sjT+&.(AS5)
21. \ >T+& ]> uc y >T+& ]> { XwDqT *jTCd qeTH |+ ^jT+&.(AS5)
22. eqe $d]+ q s|dsD eed sD e < b\Tke?(AS6)
23. mq # ]> |dsD eedqT >eT+q|&T @$T n|dT+~?(AS6)
24. V<jTd+<q| Vk *+# @<H sHqT jsT#jT+&.(AS7)
25. bs+ #~$q sT y |j D deTj y| >T]+ MT |<\ e @$T d\V*ke?(AS7)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 75

dsq de<H >T]+#+&
1. ]j nq |<+ eTq Xs+ nejTy d++~+q~. ( )
(m) >T+& (_) <eT (d) *+|t >+~ (&) XH[
2. >T+& @ u>+ +& s+ e H +T+~? ( )
(m) & ] (_) & s] (d) m&eT ] (&) m&eT s]
28. +~y @ u>+ s |dsDqT jT+dT+~? ( )
(m) <eT (_) ds (d) y+ (&) XH[
29. +~y @~ dsq~? ( )
m) <sTe bw DC\+ <| Hs+ neT] +{jT s$ #b&T?
_) <sTe bw DC\+ ysT> +& H\T < CH nH&T.
d) <sTe bw DC\+ *d Hs+> @s&TsTT n d #|+~.
&) s <s+> #dT y{ Hs sD\ V] #b&T.
30. m|& q =+& yTT ................... #=|+ sk |\TdT+~. ( )
m) <sTe (_) bw DC\+ (d) <e (&) H[|++
nqT+<+`1
ddt s+
s+ +& eTs= |<VyT ddt s+. _H <X Hu 85 X+ eT+~ syTq
|<V\TqT >eT+#sT. B yTTyTT<{ k]> (eT) ddt nH C T\ >T]+#sT.
n+<Te\ |<V\ ddt s+ n |sT e+~. s+ |<V\T *q y] Rh+
>q y] Rh- >q >T]ksT . k<sD+> Rh- e\ bk B d++~+q |s \T
+&e. y Rh+ e s Rh- m+qsTT n Rh- |s\T @s& Rh+
sD\qT HXq+ #ksTT. ~ Xe\ reyTq ++> |]D$TdT+~.
y Rh+ e Rh- d $yV+ #dT=q|&T |f |\ =+<sT Rh+ >H +{sT. >s+
q|&T *qT+& |+& s+s+ s+ ds|s e\dq |]d +T+~. _& s+ * s+
*dbT+~. n|&T yT |s \T @s&sTT. sT y |f |\\ T L& Rh+ neTqsTT
* |<V\ |]eD+ |sT>TbT+~. |<V\T s+ <s _& #]qsTT ysT
reyTq sVq >TsesT. =ksT >ske+, bDbjT+ L& s>e#T. +{
d+<s\ |s\T +& Xe yTT+ s e]& #j* +T+~. Rh+ s+ *q
yTT<{ Xe |>H |yTq d~eT+<T e&+ <s sTy |f |\\ V s>+&
y<d<Tbj\T n+<TuT e#sTT.

nqT+<+ `2
\d$Tj
\d$Tj nH~ e+Xbs+|s+> e# sd++< y~. mss D\ Vy>_H |+
sVq <]rdT+~. \d$Tj u<|&y] HqT syD#d Vy>_H e>
neT+~. y~ n eT]jTT ;{ nH s+&T s\T. Vy>_H b{H $$\ e# b\e\ s+&T s\ \d$Tj y<T\T eksTT. eksTT \d$Tj
y~>dT\ sVq, jT+, |XjT+ |]eD+ |s>&+, y~s< X >Z&+ |sT>T<\
HeT~> +&&+. meTT\T dq& |dT> es&+ >T+&bT yTT<q \D\T y~ kq
y] |ksTT.
\d$Tj = ydy\T
~ reyTq e+Xbs+|s, sd++< y~.
||+# Hu 4.5 X+ eT+~ \d$Tj yTqsY y~ u<|&TTHsT.
35 $T*jTq usrjTT\T y~ *+# nk<sD qTeqT *q yV\T.
||+#+ |d+es+ \eT+~ Xe\T \d$Tj yTsY dTHs n+#H.
eTq<X+ |d+es+ 10 qT+& 12 y\eT+~ |\\T y~ dTHsT.
\d$Tj y~>dT\ J$\+ |+#\+f se]&, $\Tyq eT+<T\T neds+.
$yV+, >s<sD eTT+<T Xqq+ sTy |\T #sTT+#Te&+, ne>Vq *+#&+
e\ y~ y]+#e#T.
\d$Tj yTsY
|sT>T<\ e> +&&+, |dT u]q meTT\T =+<s> y<T\ >T]e&+ e+{
\D \qT yTT<{ m&~H >T]+qsTT y~ +Z #&+ *eT+~. yTT<{ d+es+H
Xe\ Vy>_H ksTT, |sT>T<\qT C>> >eTdT+&*. Vy>_H |]eD+ 70%
H Zq|&T |\ |sT>T<\ |dT+~. ysT eT+ |+& s e]& #sTT+#Ty*
+T+~. ||+# s> deTd\ \ |s+ Vy>_H ksTT 115`120 >./. > +&
#&&+ . eTTKyTq n+X+ |eT&T H\T>T ys\=k] >& *q mss D \qT
|yX|&+ <s #ksT. eT\D\ e]& <s \d$Tj yTsY y~ qjT+
#jTe#T. y~ u<|&TTq |\\ y] DC\ deqyTq DC\+ *q y]
k<s / k<]\ qT+& d]+q meTT eT +& mssD\ eT\D\ (meTT eT e]&)
e]& <s #jTe#T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 77

bs+
4
$dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
=> @ edTe qT #dH <bT, es| < s\T L& @s&eTH~

dV+. b+{ es+ @s&+& @ s>seT qq #|<T.
n<$<+> eTq Xs+ dJe D s>s+. s Je\T L& +{y.
Je\ JejT\T ]>|&T nedsyTq |<s\ u>+> ]w
$se\nH es |<s\T L& jse +{sTT. $wjT+ >T]+
+q|&T eTq nH d+<V\T \T>TsTT. <VsD
es |<s\T b& nesTT?
n$ b nesTT?
y{ @ jT |<s\T+{sTT?
J$ $_q |]dT #d es|<s\T s+> +{j?
+{ #HyTq |X $dsq j$<q+ >T]+q $Xc\qT
$|\+> ns+ #dT& <]rksTT. M+{ >T]+ bs+ #]<+.
dJe\ eTqT>& eT]jTT $$< JejT\ sVD X neds+. $
sD jT\T (Anablolic activities) < $q jT\T (Catabolic
activities) e#T. y+{ *| Je jT\T (Metabolic activities) n
n+{sT. Je\ JejT\ sVD $$< sq |<s\qT |jksTT.
|{`1
JejT\T H\T
sDq d+j>jT
XdjT
JsjT
78 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
|*+> nH s\ |<s\T qeTe +{sTT. |{`1 d+q
$$< Je |jT\ @s& $$< H$T{ #]+ |{ sjT+&.
J$ @jT H\qT, s jT\ sVD |j+#T+T+~?
$d]+#bsTTqsTT @ jT H\T Xs V *ksTT?
Xs V*+# y{ |sp $d]+#b @+ sT>TT+~?
Je\ $$< JejT\ |*+> qeTjT $$< s\ |<s\ >T]+
HsT H+. y V \T>C d |<s\qT $d]+ #+, =+{ ys s|+
esT= \ #jT+ sT>TT+~. n+f ne #jT&q es
|<s\qe.
sDqd+j>jT < XdjT qeTjT yjTTs| es\T
jT{ b |+|&j eTq+ +eTT+<T bs\ \TdTH+. s
JejT\ #jT& q d++~ |<s\T L& jT
|+|+#e\dq neds+ +T+~. \eD\T, be>qTq sT eT]jTT s
|<s\T =\+#&*. $dsq (excretion) {H uw ex n+f jT{
n, crenere n+f |+| n ns+. $dsq dJe\ ]> JejT. n+f
<V+ jsjT es|<s\qT ysT#jT&+ eT]jTT jT |+|+#&+
sT>TT+~.
|&T eTq+ eqe\ $ds eed m | #dT+< \TdT+<+?
eqe\ $dsq
$$< JejT\ nd+UyTq #s\T sT>T +{sTT. M{
|j>syTq |<s\T eT]jTT X q+ #jT&sTT. nsTT, n<
deTjT+ nH esT\T d+u$ksTT. <VsD VsyTq |<s\T
q+ e+, {ksTT |s>+, njH\ deTT\ esTse+
yTT<q$. Xs V \T>Cd |<s\T $d]+#&*. Xs deTT\
k~+#&T +&*. <V+ $$\ <y\ >&qT ds+>
+#{ deTT\ (homeostasis) n n+{sT. eTq Xs+ qeTjT
es|<s\ sH&&, sT, q d++~ esq nyj,
jT]j, jT]eT+, |sd es\T, n<q| \eD\T yTT<q$ +{sTT.
es |<s\+{q nyj $wT\yTq~. es\ Xs+
m& jsesTT? m& +{sTT? Xs+ M{ @$<+> dsTuT
#dT+T+~. Xs+ M{ @$<+> >T]ksT?
|{ ` 2, 3\ e d++~+q s| eT]jTT eT| \ ]bsY\ qT
|]o*+#+&. (|{`2) s+ eT]jTT eT+ @ @ |<s\T Hj
\TdT+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 79
|{`2: &bsTyT+{ |t j$Td
ddeTH: bk / ds+ (s+)
| / $<q+ |*+ |eD\T k<sDksTT
>C`bd+> 82 $T.> / &.. 60`100
k&jT+ 137 $T.y / 135`145
b{wjT+ 4.10 $T.y / 3.5`5.0
s& 101 $T.y / 95`106
jT]j 29 $T.> / &.. 15`40
j{H 2.8 $T.> / &.. 0.6`1.5
jT]eT+ 7.50 $T.> / &.. 3.0`5.0
{ =\k 221 $T.> / &.. 150`200
f s& 167 $T.> / &.. 60`200
*jT+ 9.40 $T.> / &.. 8.0`10.5
bdsdt 4.50 $T.> / &.. 3`4.5
u*sT_H (yTT+) 0.70 $T.> / &.. 0.1`0.8
b{qT (yTT+) 7.20 > / &.. 6.0`7.5
n\T$TH 4.60 > / &.. 3.0`5.0
$T.y / R $T*y / sT, $T.> / &.. R $T*>yT / &dsT
|{`3: &bsTyT+{ |t j$Td
ddeTH: eT+
| / $<q+ |*+ |eD\T k<sDksTT
24>+\ b{qT 90 $T.> / sE 100 $T.>.
24>+\ j{H 2.7 $T.> / sE 1`2
24>+\ *jT+ 305 $T.> / sE 200 $T.>. es
24>+\ bdsdt 0.8 $T.> / sE 1 >. es
24>+\ jT]eT+ 800 $T.> / sE 600 $T.>.es
\eD\T
k&jT+ 140 $T.y/. 125 ` 250
b{wjT+ 50 $T.y/. 25 ` 100
k]{ (>Dq #dq) 180 $T.y/. 100 ` 600
>C 65 $T.>./&.. 50 ` 80
s& 128 $T.y/. 120 ` 130
jT]j 35 >yT/sE 20 ` 30
80 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
24 >+\ eT| nq> eqT+& 24 >+\ d]+q yTT+
eT+ qT+& 100`150 $T.. eT+ qeTq> rdT= < | #ksT.
s+ q |<s\T @$?
eT+ q |<s\T @$?
s+ eT]jTT eT+ s+&+{q q |<s$T{?
# |<s\T s+, eT+ s+&+{q HsTT. b+<T?
s+ eT]jTT eT\ k<sD ksTT $T+ q |<s$T{?
@y |<s\T k<sD ksTT $T+ +f @+ sT>TT+~?
@ jT |<s\qT Xs+ qT+& =\+#e\dq nedseTTq< |s=q+&.
eqe $ds eed sD+ eT]jTT |rsTqT n<jTq+ #d j
$wj\qT eTq+ #> ne>Vq #dTe#T.
eqe $ds eed
eqe $dsq eTTK+> eT < $dsq eed <s sT>TT+~.
B eT|+&\T, eT H\T, eTXjT+ eT]jTT
|d+ yTT<q u>\T+{sTT.|+`4 qT |]o*+#+&. |&T eTq+ yT
< >=s eT|+&\ uV eT]jTT n+sZ \D\qT |]o*+ ks|+>
+& eqe\ eT|+&\qT >T]+ \TdT+<+.
|j>X\ +
<X+: eT|+&+ uV eT]jTT n+s \D\qT n<jTq+ #jTT
y*q |<s\T: e+d+ =T d]+q yT < >=s eT|+&+.
< eT|+& 3D qeTH, |<THq u&, f eT]jTT .
|]o\H $<q+:
yT < >=s eT|+& d]+, seT+ bjT { Xu+> |+-1: yT
&> *. |P]> ]q s < f |{ C>> |]o*+#+&. H{T eT| + &+
MT |]o\q\T qy<T#jT+&. |<THq u&T < k| kjT+
eT|+ & \Te> C>> d, n+sZ sD |]o*+#+&. +<Td+
MT b<jTT dVs+ rdT+&. |]o*+q < |+ ^jT+&. MTsT ^dq
|{ |+`1, 2\ b\+&.
eT|+&\T @ s+ HsTT?
@ s+>T HsTT?
eT|+&+| u>+ nT= @yH sD\T Hj? |+-2:
eT|+&\ |* sD+ |+`2 e~]>H +<? eT|+&+ \Te
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 81
eT|+&+ n&T jT{u>+ @ s+>T +~?
eTT<TsT msT|s+>T u>+ m& +~?
eT|+&\ >T+u>+ (V\dt) qT+& b H\T VsZeTeTHsTT?
MT |]o\q |PssTTq y+H j+{u]jT wH #T\T Xu+
#dTe&+ eT]b+&. MT |]o\q\ <s+> eqe $ds eed jTT
sD+ eT]jTT |#d $<H\qT >T]+ \TdT+<+.
eT|+ &\T
eqe\ &T + s+ eTT<TsT bsT| s+>T +&
eT|+&\T +{sTT. <sVs+ |w Xs & nT=, yHeTT
sTy| neT] +{sTT. (|+`3) &y| eT|+&+, b&eTy| < H
=~> +~ +T+~. m+<T $<+ > +T+< +#+&? eT|+ &\T
10 d+.MT. b&e, 5`6 d+.MT. y&\T, 4 d+.MT. eT+<+ +{sTT. |
eT|+&+ y\T|\ +us+>qT, |*y| |{s+>qT +T+~.
<sVs & u>+ n~ b++ jT+ $TdT+~.
k] |j>X\ + e] |XqT | #T+&. |{s+>
q |* \+ eT< >\ | V\dt n+{sT. V\dt <s e<eT
eT|+&+ |ydT+~. eds, eTH+ y\T|* eksTT. Xs+
$$< nejTy\ nsTTq es\T eT dV s+ L& e<eT
<s eT|+& #sTsTT. eT sV s eds d]dT+~. n&
s+ e&>&TT+~. |*+> ysT#jT&q es\T eT+> jT{
$d]+|&sTT. n<Vs }s <eT
n~e >+~ e <eT
m&eT eT|+&+
eds
m&eT eTH+
eTH+
eTXjT+
eTXjT+ sT#T=qT
|d+
|+-3: eT|+&kq+ |+-4: $dsq eed
uV<s+
82 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
eT|+&+ ` n+]sD+
eT|+&+ n+]sD \TdTe& eT|+& \TeqT
|]o*<+. eT|+&+ |\ s+&T u>\T> |dT+~. eTT<TsT><TeT
es+ qTq y\T|* u> e\\+ (Cortex) n, es+ qTq |* u>
<e (Medulla) n n+{sT. |r eT|+&+q dTesT $T*jTH
+f me (1.3 qT+& 1.8 $T*jTH) d eH\T +{sTT. y{H e
|eD\T < HbH (Nephron) \ n+{sT.
HbH sD+
| HbHqT 2 eTTK u>\T+{sTT. n$ 1. ejTH <V+
(Malpighian body) 2. eH[ (Renal tubule)
1. ejTH <V+ (Malpighian body)
HbH es y&\sTTq | s+ +& sD ueTH >T[
n+{sT. < q sXH[\ @s&q e\+{ sD sXH[
>T#+ (Glomerulus) n+{sT. ueTH >T[, sXH[>T#+\qT *|
ejTH <V+ n+{sT. sXH[ >T#+ n_yV<eT qT+&
@s&TT+~. <qT+& n|yV<eT y\Te&TT+~.
|+ n_yV<eT +f n|yV<eT dq> +&&+ >eT+#s?
B sD+ +#+&.
n_yV <eT yd+, n|yV <eT yd+ +f me> +&&+ e\
s XH[>T#+ |&q + |] < |<s\T e&b >TsesTT. ueTH
>T[ >&\ D\T |DC\+ @s&sTT. M{ b&dT n+{sT.
|<s\ e&b M\T*+# b&d{ D\ eT< ds+<\T +{sTT.
n_yV <eT
ejTH <V+ n|yV <eT
e\\+
>eTsT\dt { ueTH >T[
yTT<{ yT*]q
<e H+
s+&e yT*]q
H+
e<eT
eds
dsD H+
Hb H eTH+ V+
|+-5: eT|+& n+]sD+

|+-6: HbH sD+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 83
2. eH[ (Renal tubule)
eH[ 3 u>\T+{sTT. 1. dMT|d d+e[H+ (Proximal convoluted
tubule-PCT) 2. V + (U s+ +T+~.) 3. <sd d+e[H+
(Distal convoluted tubule-DCT).
<sd d+e[H+, d+>V D H+ s# T +T+~. d+>V D H\T
|s$T&\T eT]jTT *ddt\T> @s& e] <D (Pelvis) s#T+{sTT.
<D eTH+ sT#T+T+~.
eH[ n u>\T n|yV <eT qT+& @s&q H[uV
sXH[\ e\# |&+{sTT. H[uV sXH[\ *d esq
eds> @s&sTT.
HbH eT|+&+ jTT sD eT]jTT j |eDeT
m+<T+{sT?
eT+ @s& $<q+
eT+ @s& $<q+4 <X\T+{sTT. 1) >T#>\q+ (Glomerular
filtration) 2) esD |q'XwD+ (Tubular reabsorption) 3) H[ke+
(Tubular secretion) 4) n~ >& >\ eT+ @s&&+ (Formation of
hypertonic urine).
1. >T#>\q+ (Glomerular filtration)
e<eT XK nsTTq n_yV <eT qT+& s+, sXH[ >T#+
|eVdT+~. HbH >T#>\H |+`7 |]o*+#+&. +~ |X\
de<q+ e+&.
n_yV, n|yV <eT\ < yd+ be> +T+~?
sXH[ >T#+ @ jT |<s\T e&bjT&sTT?
2. esD |q'XwD+ (Tubular reabsorption)
>T#>\q+ <s @s&q eT b<$T eT+ (Primary urine)
n+{+. ~ skjT+> s+ deq+> +T+~. b<$T eT+
s D \T +&e. ~ dMT|d d+e[ H+ y T+~. b<$ T eT+
qT+& Xs |j>|& |<s\T uVXH[ e\ (Peritubular
network) |q'XwD+ nesTT. m+ { |q'XwD+ #dTy* nH
n+X+ { |]eD+ eT]jTT $d]+#e\dq |<s\| <s|& +T+~.
me sT me eT+ $d]ke?
@ @ |<s\T dMT|d d+e[H+ qT+& uVsXH[ e\
|q'XwD+ nesTT.
84 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
3) H[ ke+ (Tubular secretion):
dMT|d d+e[H+ |q'XwD+ sT y eT+ V+ <s <sd
d+e[H+ #sTT+~. & n~+> q b{wjT+, k&jT+, s&,
V&H njH\T uV XH[ e\ qT+& <sd d+e[H+
d$+#&sTT. Be\ eT+ jTT pH deTT\eTeT+~. dMT|d
d+e[H+ L& H[ke+ =~ |]eD+ sT>TT+~.
<sd d+e[H+ d$+#& |<s\T @$?
MT \Tk?
40 d+es\ ejTdT <{ sTy <<|> n+<]qT | 10 d+es\ 10%
Hbq jo\ >TZT+~.
4) n>& >\ eT+ @s&&+ (Formation of hypertonic urine)

HbH e&>{q eT+ 75% sT dMT|d d+e[ u>+H |q'XwD
#+<TT+~. V+ b++ q eT+qT+& 10% sT <y_dsD+
1) >T#>\q+: n_yV <eT *+# |&q+ e\ 2) esD |q'XwD+: b<$T

sXH[>T#+ >T+& s+ |eVdT+~. |&q+ eT+ +& |jTT
|*+> s+ e&bjT&TT+~. es|<s nDTe\T, bw |<s\qT |]XH[e\
|<s nDTe\T, sT e&bjT& ueTH >T[ #sTsTT. ] XwdT+~. >C,
yTH e\T, ${$TH d,
b{wjT+, *jT+,
PCT k&jT+\ s&\T, 75% sT
|q'Xw+#&sTT.
glomerolus
DCT
3) H[Xe+: sXH[\
qT+& eTH[
es|<s\T d$+#&sTT.
s+ +& jT]j,
jT]eT+, j{H,
k&jT+, b{wjT+, V&H
njqT d$+#&sTT. $
eT+ jTT >&qT pH
jT+ksTT.
|+-7: eT+ j $<q+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 85

<s < e]+jTTq DC\+ Xw+#&TT+~. sTy d+>VD
H+ yk|dH (ADH) nH VsH deT+ { |q'XwD ] eT+
n>&qT b+<TT+~. >& >]wksTT #]q <y eT+ (Urine)
n+{sT. ~ s+ H n~ >& +T+~. n >&>\ eT
d$+#e\d eq|&T yk|dH nH VsH d$+#&TT+~.
me sT q|&T yk|dH m+<T < +#+&.
VsH ke+ Zb n\>&>\ eTH $d]+#e\d +T+~.
Xs <y\ <y_dsD eTqT VsH #s eTB]dT+~. yk|dH
|+ e\q n~ eT $dsq eT]jTT e >&>\ eT$dsq #jTe\d
+T+~. BH &ju{dt |&dt < neT y~ n+{sT.
o\+ beksT eT$dsq #jTe\d edT+~. b+<T?
y, { |q'XwD s>b @+ sT>TT+~?
|&T eTq+ $ds eed $T*q u>\ >T]+ |]o*<+.
eTH[\T (Uretors)
eTH[\T | eT|+&+ jTT H= < V\dt qT+&
\, +&sjTTyTq dq eTH\T jT{ eksTT. $ <<| 30
d+.MT. b& e +{sTT. | s u > | j D + eTX j T +
s#T+{sTT. eT+, eT|+&\qT+& eTXjT+ eT H\
<sH |]k*ddt <*\ |jDdT+~.
eTXjT+ (Urinary Bladder)
eTXjT+ |\T# >&\T *, u]|+&T s+ +& d+ e+{
sD+. ~ <D ({e\jT) u>+ |wH <sq +T+~.
eTH\ <s #]q <<| 300`800$T.. eT ~ *+>
\#dT+~.
|d+ (Uretra)
|d+, eTXjT+ qT+& eT jT{ $d]+# H+. eTXjT+
es |d+ s#TH # d+esD (Sphincter) +&s+ +& ~*\
jT+D &&TT+~. |d+ d\ 4 d+.MT.\ b&e +T+~. <
[+<+ (Vestibule) n+{sT. nsTT |sTw\ 20 d+.MT. b&e+& eT
qH+~jTH+> |d+ (Uretra) |\e&TT+~.
eT $dsq (Micturition)
eTXjT+ eT+ *+> \ +T+~. eT+ jT e#
esZ e]+ s+&T \ esT\ d+e]D +&s\T +{sTT. eTXjT+
86 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
+&+ es s+&T +&s\T d+#d +{sTT. Be\q s+<+
eTdT= +T+~. eT+ #s=~ n~ \T>Cd e& e\q eTXjT+
>&\ MT< |&q+ n~eTeT+~. Be\q nd+*+> | esT\ d+e]D
+&s+ d&\ TT+~. +~ d+e]D +&s+ eTq nBq+ +& eT$dsq qT
jT++#>\+. q|\\ $<yTq jT+D k<+<T. \yTD
ysT eT$dsqqT jT++#>\T>TsT.
eTXjT+ >]w+> 700`800 $T.. e+ \ +T+~. nsTT
<<| 300`400 $T.. eT+ #]q|&T eTXjT+ _, < >&\
d#Y >V\T yT yT<&T |#<H\qT |+|sTT. |*+> eT+
$d]+#\H ] \T>TT+~. eTXjT+ d++#&+ eT\+> eT+
jT bT+~. |jTH eT $dsq (Micturition) n+{sT.
eqe&T sE <<| 1.6`1.8 s eT $d]k sT . nsTT n~+ >
sT, |+&sk\T, <y\T me rdT=HysT be>q, e rdTH ysT
e>q eT $d]+#+ k<sD+> sT>TT+~.
+#+& ` #]+#+&
=+eT+~ |\\T 15 < 16 d+es\T e#es L& s|P < |
&T|T+{sT. m+<T?
D\+{ $dsq jT nedse?
q >&+ eT+< ddT+{sT m+<T?.
eT+ d+|Tq+ (Composition of urine)

eT+ |dT|s+>T <e+. s+ Vy>_H $qyTq|&T @s&
jTsyT nH |<s+ s+>T sDeTeT+~. eT d+|Tq+ nH~
nH sD\|q <s|& +T+~.
<VsD e+dT\T be> q Vs rdT=q e eT+
jT]j be> +T+~. b+<T+f b{H\ JsjT u>+> jT+
]> &n$THwH |*+> me |]eD+ jT]j @s&TT+~.
|+&|<s\T n~+> rdT=qy] eT+ n~ #s |+#e#T.
<e|<s\T < sT n~+ > +& Vs |<s\qT rdT=qy] s+
n~+> sT #s+ |*+> |\TesT ysT eT ye\d edT+~.
eT+ 96% sT, 25% s q |<s\T (jT]j, jT]eT+, j {H,
j{HH, { ]> $$TH\T, VsH\T eT]jTT {\T yTT<q$)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 87
eT]jTT 1.5% nsq |<s\T (k&jT+, s&, bd{, d{, yT^wjT+,
*jT+, nj&H yTT<q$) +{sTT. eT+ yTT< eTjTT+> (pH =
6.0) > H eT+> sjTT+> esTT+~. b+<T+f jT]j $q+
] nyj @s&TT+~.
s+&T eT|+&\T |P]> |#jTb @$T sT>TT+~?
eT|+ &\T |#jT b& ESRD (End Stage Renal Disease) n+{sT.
eT|+&\T |#jT&+ b Xs+ sT, es|<s\T +&bsTT.
<XqT jTs$TjT n+{sT. , #T\T _bsTT. s+ X~b&+
e\q sd+, n\d eksTT. B |]cs+ @yTH +<? |&T eTq+ eT
eT|+&\qT >T]+ \TdT+<+.
&j\ddt ` eT eT|+&+ (Artificial kidney)
Je\ eTqT>& neTTKyTq nejTy\T
eT|+&\T. , HH\T, |e<\T, n~
s|&q+, eT<TyTV+ < w>sY y~ <
eT|+&\ |eV+# s+ +\T
yTT<q$ Xs+ $wT\yTq |<s\ #]
sD\esTT. < |]d =qk eTsD+
d+u$+#e#T.
eT|+&\T |#jT y] &j\ddt
jT++ s e&& sT. eT+> s e&>f
|+-8: &j\ddt
| j T qT V y & j \d d t (heamodialosis)
n+{sT. |jT s eTTKyTq <e T <s jT sd +<H
s~+# s\qT *| (Vb]H e+{$) &jTsY jT++ |+|
@sTqT #ksT. &j\ddt jT++ s+ = ><T\T < >={\ e+{
(channels), d|H j s q H[\ <s |eVdT+ ~. H[\T &jT +>
<eD+ eTT +{sTT. dq bs H[ &jT+> <eD,
s ysT#dT+~. H\ |eVdTq s+ H\ jT q &jT+>
<eD+ s+&T $<yTq sD * +{sTT. & e\+ q es.
&jT+> <eD+ qjTT es\T+&e qT &jTsY s+
|eV+#|&T q es\T ys s+ X~ #jT&TT+~. |jTH
&j\ddt n+{sT. |jT eT|+&\ |rsT ks|+> +T+~.
|q'XwD |jT sT><T. X~#jT&q s+ ] Xs+ bksT.
|k] &j\ddt 3`6 >+\ deTjT+ rdT=+T+~. eT|+&\T
|#jT y~ s>T\ |jT<s |j> #LsTTHsT.
88 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
eT|+&\T |#jT y] Bs* |]cs+ @<H +<?
MT \Tk?
yTTyTT< eT|+& e]& |swH 1954 deTs| e\\
#dq |Tq &. #sdt V|tq> nH yw+>H #+~q dsH #+<TT+~.
eTq <X+ yTT<{k] &d+sY 1e B 1971q djTH yT& C
y\sY eT|+& e]& |swH ]+~. &. #sdt V|tq>
eT|+& e]& (Kidney transplantation)

eT|+&\T |#jT y] Bs* |]cs+ #| |jTH eT|+&
e]& n+{sT. eT|+&\T |#jT y] y] <>Zs +<Te (<) qT+&
u> |#dTq eT|+& ysT#d neTsTsT. s neT]q eT|+&+
d]>Z d]bjT nd+eT eed eT|+ & sd ]+# +& +&\+f
n dMT| +<Te eT|+& <q+ #j* +T+~. nsTT <T y<
$< yC w +{ |jT\ deTsqT |+#sTT.
<qT+& d]+q eT|+& s m& neTsTksT?
|#jT eT|+& @+ #ksT?
< eT|+&+H J$+#>\&?
eT< \+ <\ qT+& d]+ eT|+ &\T
b& b sTTq y] neTs T d T H s T . y < | s + >
eTsD+ #s s]+q e qT+& nejTy\qT d]+
nedsyTq y] neTsTksT. B nejTe<q+
n+{sT. |jT qT >T]+q de#s+ nqT+<+
|+-9: eT|+& e]&
#&+&.
s $dsq esZ\T (nqT+< $dsejTy\T)
eqe Xs+ neTTKyTq $dsejTeyTq eT|+&+ >T]+ MTsT
\TdTHsT.
eTq Xs+ + @ jT $dsejTy\THsTT?
}| ] T \ T, # s +, j T + y T T< q $
nejTy\ b<$T+> #jTe\dq |
$<T\Tq{, n<q+> $dsq |jTqT L&
HsysTd +{sTT.
}|]T\T: XdjT @s& sH&&
eT]jTT {$] e+{ es|<s\qT }|]T\T
jT{ |+|sTT. |+-10: }|]T\T, #s+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 89
#s+: #s+ nd+UyTq d<>+<T\qT * +T+~. y{ #T nH
sXH[\T+{sTT. d<>+<T\T s+ qT+& sT eT]jTT Jej H\
es\qT d+>VksTT. n Xs+ n~+> q { eT]jTT n e
y<T \eD\qT #eT s|+ jT |+| #s+ n<q|
$ds +>+> |]>D+ #&T+~. #s + duwj T dt >+<T \T du+ nH |<s
d$ksTT. B d+, yTq+, ds, sq|<s\T eT]jTT b{ e\qT
+{sTT. d+ >T]+q $Xc\qT >+<\jT+ |d\ |]o*+ yK
jsT#jT+&. T*H usT |<]+#+&.
o\ b+\ ed+# y] n e #eT edT+~. < #eT
|<T. Be\ y] Xs+ s $dsejTy b+{ esT\T
eksTT?
jT+: jT+ s+ #bsTTq bssD\ Vy>_HqT $q+
# d| & T u \ Ts _H , u \ Te] H , j T s=+ nH | s d es \T
qeTesTT. jTs=+ eT+ <s $d]+#&TT+~. |XjT+
|sd es\T \ee+& s |sd+bT =k eT]jTT dssTT&
VsH\T, eT+<T\T, $$TH\T, s\eD\T yTT<q y{b eT+
<s jT{ $d]+|&sTT. jT]j jqT jT+ |eTTK b
bwdT+~.
|< |>T (Large intestine): n~+>qTq *jT+, yT^wjT+ eT]jTT sH\
jTT \eD\T |<|>T jTT |DC+ (Epithelial) # ysT#jT&
eT\+uT jT $d]+|&sTT.
|+-11:jT+
n=~ y<T qjTT es|<s\T H{ \+ eT]jTT
| <| >T
{ <s L& jT |+|yjT&sTT.
s Je $dsq
$dsq $$< sq Je ysTysT> +T+~. @D Je |yTq
$dsejTy\T+&e. D+ es|<s\qT y|q |< jT{ (#T
q {) |+|sTT. eT+{ ed+# nMTu, bsMTwjT+ yTT<q$
d+# ]\ <s <y_dsD eT #|sTT. d+#]\T D+
n~+ > q { eT]jTT es| < s\qT d]ksTT. d+# ] \ T (Contractile
vacuole) D<e+ =~ =~> sT>T D |]~ #] |*be <s
d]+q es\qT jT |+|ksTT. |<qyTq $dsq D<y_dsD
(Osmosis) <s sT>TT+~.
VQD Je\T $$< sq $ds+>\qT * +& Xs+ es\qT
jT{ $d]ksTT. $ds+>\ jTT sD eT]jTT j d+w
90 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
d+\ qT+& eqe\ es |sT>T +T+~.
d+\T, d+{sT |yTq $ds+>\qT * +&e. | D+
{ |ds D sT>TH +T+~. b{ V*+~dt yTTyT T<> $ds +>\T
|ksTT. M{ C D\T n+{sT. |{`4qT |]o*+#+&.
|{`4
J$ |sT / esZ+ $ds eed
b{Cy D+ |]\+ qT+& y|q+ <s
b]|s, d+{s {|dsD n D\ <s s>&+ e\q
b{V*+~dt, eT{& CD\T
nH*& H|&j
sb& V]>+<T\T, ejTH H[\T
yTT\k yT{H|&j
H&s \|dsD eed
ddb\T, |\T, s<\T eT|+&\T
yTT $dsq
yTT\T L& +Te\> $d]kj?
syTq |X\T Xs+ *ksTT. @ JejT\HH n+ H\
bT> = qjTT es|<s\T L& jsesTT. $ #
eTTKyTq$. n jsq es\qT $d]+#& yTT |+> nejTy\T
+&e. yTT es|<s\ $q+ e&eTH |jT +Te\ b*q|&T
nHeT~> sT>TT+~. n+f yTT es|<s\ j L& nHeT~>
sT>TT+<qe. n$ yTT <V+ b>e&+ L& HeT~>H sT>TT+~.
|# yTT\T s|P, V]|< s+ u>\ yTT\T XdjT
sH&& eT]jTT { es|<s\T> $&T<\ #ksTT. sDq
d+j>jT H es|<s+> #jT& |s+<\ <s,
+&+ +{d <s yesD+ $&T<\ #jT&TT+~.
yTT\T es|<s\qT @$<+> dsTuT#ksTT < jT{ |+|ksTT?
yTT\T n~+ > q { uc+ (Transpiration) eT]jTT _+<Tke+
(Guttation) |jT\ <s jT{ |+|sTT. es |<s\qT \T, us&T
eT]jTT |+& \#d, | d y{ s\+ <s es\qT +Z #T+{sTT.
= yTT\T |+& es\qT CD\T (Raphides)> \#dT+{sTT. =
yTT\T es|<s\qT djTsD |j>|& |<s\T> esT=+{sTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 91
= yTT\T es |<s\qT ysT, \T, $H\ $w|P] |<s\T>
esT= XVs +Te\ qT+& s+#T& |j+#T+{sTT. M{
+& skjTH\ e\q yTT\ u>\T q& M\T sT +{sTT. n+<Te\
yTT\qT +Te\T qe. = skjTH\T me> $w|P]+> +&
M{ q +Te\T #bsTT.
+#+&`#]+#+&.
\T| yTT\T = nM yTT\qT \T, N&|sT>T\ b+<Te\q V #jTe?
= s\ yTT\\ yTT u>\ >jTyTq|&T = skjTH\qT
d$ksTT. n d$+q skjTH\T >j eqT yTT dV jT|& sTT.
= yTT\T s Dj T yTq |<s\qT y< * eT |jT T+ > esT=+{sTT.
|s>d+|s $q y|, bwD L& |j>|& #dT>\T>TsTT.
<: ysTT&|\qT *q yTT\T = skjT ky\# sC_jT+
u]j\qT ]+, XjT+ *+ dVJeq+ #dT+{sTT. $<yTq
dyTH\qT ~rjT JejT H\T (Secondary metabolites) n L&
n+{sT.
yTT\T ]w \ee~ \T, us&TqT s\Td +{sTT b+<T#?
yTT j
T JeskjT |<s\T s +&T s\T. n$ b<$ T Jej
H\T eT]jTT ~rjT Jej H\T |+&|<s\T, e+dT\T,
eT]jTT =e\ e+{ y{ b<$T Jej H\T n+{sT.
yTT\ k<sD |sT>T<\ eT]jTT n_e~ +& syTq $<T\
|j>|&y{ ~rjT Jej H\+{sT. <: \sTT&, {qT,
sdH\T, >TsT\T eT]jTT f\T. $ s+>T, dTydq * +{sTT. eTq+
j skjTH\qT nH s\T> |j+#T+TH+.
\sTT&\T
$ qjTT |H\T eT]jTT $w|P ]yT q $. yTT\ $$\
$ \ #jT&sTT.
q\eT+<T ds >+~ | b> yT

|+-11: sTT&T
92 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
yTT k<sD \sTT&\T, yTT @ u> #jT&sTT,
y{ |j>\T +~ |{ |]o*+#+&.
|{`5
\sTT& yTT |sT yTT u>+ |j>+
HH d+H n|dH*dt (d+H) us&T eT]j ysD
{H {jH {uyT (b>) \T $Td+V]D
e]H, =H |besY k$T|syT (>+CsTT) |\+ eTTeT+<T,H=|y]D
]d]H se*j ds+fH (ds>+~) ysT beTTTqT+& sD
|H |j ns_ (|yTT) $H\T H&eed s+
+_H nC&s +& (y|) $H\T, us&T, j+{d|
\T
kb\yTH yT |+&T, |e eTTeT+<T
|]sTT& >& #eT+ |c\T HXqT\T
eTq V \T>Cd \sTT&\qT #|+&?
{H\T: {H\T s q d+j>|< s\T. $ yTT\ $$\ \#jT &
+{sTT. eTT<TsT ><TeTes+ * +{sTT. {H\T {+> < qT
|<TqT#jT& eT]jTT eT+<T\qT|jksT. <: TeT, +>&T.
sdH\T: sdH H\qT * +&+ n~ $e ;C\ |. sdH\qT
y]wt\ |jksT. <: |qdt
|+-12(m): +>&T |+-12(_): TeT |+-12(d): |qdt

>TsT\T: y|, TeT yTT<q #T XK\T, +&+| >jq|&T n$ >TsT
e+{ |<s d$ksTT. >TsT { |\T= TT+~. ~ yTT >j
eqT <V<+ #dT+~. ]|s+> #d >TsT\T # $\Tyq$. y{
n+#T eT]jTT u+ &+> s+ > eT+<T\ j qT, Vs |<sqT
|jdT+{sT.
f: f >TsT> \> b\e +& <e|<s+. ~ yTT f
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 93
D < f H \ +T+~. V$j uJ*jTdt (ssT yTT)
yTT f qT+& ssT jsT#ksT. {| yTT qT+& j&qT
jsT#ksT.
|+-13(m): y| |+-13(_b): {| |+-13(d): ssT

{b yTT\ @ u> Je +<q+ j |jksT?
MT \Tk?
#sTT+> >yT nH~ qeT\&+ d+ jsT#jT&q syTq >TsT. |<s+ 5000
d+es\ |PsyT B jsT#dys #] <s\THsTT. |dT+ #sTT+> >yT
yTT jTT dVd<yTq f qT+& jsT#dTHsT. bjT+ e+{ yTT\
|b& s DTe\T eTq b\ \T>Ck sTT. y{ +& qjTT |<s\T #s d++<y T q
b\, de *ksTT.
ysTL& d$kj?
T>eTH nH e Xdy q |]o\q u>+> yTT\T H\qT+& =
<y\qT { |\TeyT +& = ky\qT H\ d$d+{sTT
n qT>=H&T. Te+{ d+|Tq\T | #&e#T. k] ydq
| H\T><T d+es\ s m+ msTeydq|{ L& me
|\kjT+ s<T.
|\kjT+ >Z& ys Xy\ @yTH d++<+ +<?
eTq +{ yTT* |*+q|&T ysq T+& | yT q ydq\T edT+ {sTT.
b+<T?
$d]+#&+ ` d$+#&+
$dsq eT]jTT ke+ s+& syTqy. s+&+{qT esyTq <
neds+ |<s\ s*+#&+ < jT{ |+|+#+ sT>TT+~. $dsq
nH~ Je\ es|<s\ =\+| >, ke+ nH~ |<X+ qT+& eTs
|<X es |<s\qT <*+#&+. n+<T ke+ jyTq~ n $dsq
j+ < n+{sT. <VsD eqe ` , #eT, eT+,
94 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed
sH & & yTT<qe $d]\T, b+CeTT\T, VsH\T, \+, nH$
ky\T> #|+{+.
yTT\T es\qT ys<s #T |]ds $d]ksTT. > \T,
us&T, |+&T s\&+ <s yTT\T es\qT =\+#T+{sTT. $$< sb\
ky\qT $&T<\ #ksTT.
yTT ky\T ` f, sdH, >TsT\T yTT<q$.
\ |<\T
j {H, H<e+, b&d{ , H[>T#+ , dMT|d d+e[H+, <sd d+e[H+,
n_yV<eT, n|yV<eT, *ddt, jTs=+, V+, &jTsY, Vy&j\ddt,
\sTT&\T, Je +<q+.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
Xs+ ]> $$< JejT\ e\q nH |<s\T @s&sTT. V*+# |<s\qT ysT#d
jT |+|& $dsq n+{sT.
eqe $dsq eed eT|+&\T, eTH\T, eTXjT+, |d+ +{sTT.
| eT|+&+ dTesT 10 $T*jTq eTH[\T (Nephron) * +T+~. eTH[\T
eT|+&\ sD eT]jTT j |eD\T.
eTH[ ueTH >T[, sXH[>T#+ dMT|d d+e[H+, V+, <sd d+e[H+
eT]jTT d+>VDH+ +{sTT.
eT+ @s&&+ H\T>T <X\THsTT. 1.>T#>\q+, 2.esD |q'XwD+, 3.H[ ke+,
4.n>& >\ eT+ @s&&+.
eTq Xs+qT+& eT|+ &\T q es\qT rdyk sTT. {de Td H\=\TsTT. \eD>& ,
pH eT]jTT s|&H eTB]ksTT.
&j\ddt jT++ * eT|+&+. ~ Xs+ @s&q es\qT =\ksTT. s+&T
eT|+&\T |P]> |#jT e\ eT|+&\ e]& #j*.
ysT ysT +Te\ $ds ejTy\T ysT ysT > +{sTT. <: nMTu`d+#] , b{ V\+~d`t
C\D\T, nH*&è\T, sb&èjTH H[\T, ddb\T, | \T, s < \TèT|+ &\T.
yTT | $dsejTy\T e. yTT\T , us&T, |+&, $H\ es\qT \#d,
| e# yTT\qT+& $&bsTT.
yTT Jej H\T s +&T s\T. 1. b<$ T Jej H\T. <: b{qT, sV &T,
=e\T, 2. ~rjT Jej H\T. <: \sTT&T, {qT, f eT]jTT sdqT. $
]+> beTTK * +{sTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 95
Je\qT+& es\qT =\+#&, $dsq |<s\T |<X+ qT+& eTs= |<X <\{
ke+ (Secretion) n+{sT.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. $dsq nq>H$T?(AS1)
2. nMTu $dsq m sT>TT+~?(AS1)
3. eqe\ $$< $dsejTy\T @$? n$ $d]+# |<s\T @$?(AS1)
4. B| HbH\T, eT|+ &\ sD, j |eD+ n #b&T. n y deT]ke?(AS1)
5. yTT\T es\qT @$<+> dsTuT #dT+{sTT?(AS1)
6. =+<sT e\T &j\ddt m+<T y&sT? < $T& q d+ @$T?(AS1)
7. <y_dsD+ nq>H$T? eTqXs+ deTT\ m k~+#&TT+~?(AS1)
8. |dsD, $ds eed\ @yTH d++<+ +<? +f @$T{?(AS1)
9. sD\T \|+&.(AS1)
(m) yk|dH m\|&T d$+#<T.
(_) eT+ yTT< eTjTT+> +& sTy sjTT+> esTT+~.
(d) n_yV<eT yd+ +f n|yV<eT yd+ e> +T+~.
(&) yd$ eT+ #*\++f > +T+~.
10. u<\T sjT+&.(AS1)
(m) dMT|d d+e[H+, <sd d+e[H\ $<T\T
(_) eT|+&\T eT]jTT eT eT|+&\T
(d) $dsq eT]jTT ke+
(&) b<$T eT]jTT ~rjT Jej H\T
11. eqe Xs+ &T + s+ +& 'P' nH nejTy\T yHeTT sTy|
|wXs & n+{|T +{sTT. |j>|& b{qT $q+ e&+e\ @s& es+ 'Q'
s+ <s 'R' nH <eT <s 'P' #sTT+~. 'P' nd+U+> +& 'S' nH e&bd H[\T
s e&bd $T*q s <eT 'T' <s |dsD eed |+|&TT+~.
es| < s\T 'Q' eT]jTT s \eD\T n~+ > q sT |dT | es+ 'U' nH <e+ @s&TT+~.
~ 'P' qT+& d++{ sD+ 'U' 'W' nH H\ <s yT+~. sTy <e+ 'X'
nH <s+ <s bT+~.(AS1)
(m) nejTe+ 'P' @$T{? (_) es+ 'Q' @$T{? (d) <eT 'R' |s$T{?
(&) 'T' |s$T{? () e&bd dH[ 'S' qT @eT+{sT?
(m|t) <e+ 'U' |s$T{? () <e+ 'U' |s$T{? (V#Y) 'V' sD\ |s$T{?
() 'W' H\ |s$T{? (C) <s+ 'X' |s$T{?
96 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed

12. 'B'nH $w|P] es\T s+ #]e\ s+ eT*q+> e] e Xs+ nejTe+ 'A'
#&bT+~. e bD+ s+#& n # <eT <s s yT*\T ]q >={\ <s
|+|+#sT. >={\T 'E' nH |<s+ #jT&sTT. M{ <eD+ 'F' *q {+
+#&sTT. <eD+ 'G, H' eT]jTT s+ deq sD+ *q eT&T |<s\T HsTT.
>={\ >T+& s+ |eVdTq|&T s+ es\T <eD+ 'E' #ssTT. XuyTq s+ ] ds
<s e s|dsD eed #]+~.(AS1)
(m) nejTe+ 'A' @$T{? (_) es|<s+ 'B' @$T{?
(d) |<s+ 'E, F' <eD\ |s$T{? (&) <eD+ 'G', 'H' eT]jTT 'I' @$T{?
() |q |s=q&q $<q+ @$T{?
13. m|{|&T Xs+ es\T jT{ |+|b @eTT+< }V+#+&.(AS2)
14. MT eT|+ &\T me\+ s>+> +#T=qT jTs\dt mTe+{ |X \T n&T>Te?(AS2)
15. MT |]ds\ >TsT# yTT$? >TsT yTT\ qT+& d]+#& mTe+{ $<q+
nqTd]ke?(AS3)
16. $$< s\ yTT\qT+& \_+# \sTT& d++~+q de#s n+s\+ < >+<\jT+
qT+& d]+ y~ jsT#jT+&.(AS4)
17. eT|+&+ \Te |+ ^d u>\T >T]+#+&.(AS5)
18. eH[ (Nephron) sD |+ dVjT+ $e]+#+&.(AS5)
19. eqe $dsq eed $dsq ]> esZ sU+ (Block diagram) <s #|+&.(AS5)
20. eT|+&+ $dsq ]> $<H $e]+# |{ ^jT+&.(AS5)
21. eqe $dsq eed n<T+> u$+q n+X\qT sjT+&.(AS6)
22. bs+ usTTH && e\ >T]+ #~ye <! e @syTq #sqT #|&e? m+<T?(AS6)
23. nejTe<q+ >T]+ eTq n e ne>Vq +~. | nejTe<q+ | ne>Vq |+#&
= H<\T sjT+&.(AS7)
24. bs+ #~$q sTy eT|+&\T deT+> |#jT& MT Vs| n\y mTe+{
esT\T #j\qT+THe?(AS7)
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. yqbeTT $ds nejTy\T ``````````````````````.
2. eT|+&+ n&T eTT<TsT ><TeTes| u> ``````````````````````` n+{sT.
3. Je { |eD+, njq >&qT eTB]+#& ``````````````````` n+{sT.
4. HbH |j>syTq |<s\ |q'XwD+ `````````````````````````` sT>TT+~.
5. >TsT eT]jTT sdqT ``````````````````````````` |<s\T.
6. ueTH >T[ eT]jTT Hu> *| `````````````````````````` n+{sT.
7. eT]j ysD |j+# \sTT& ``````````````````````````````.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 97
8. &j\ddt $T& q d+ ```````````````````````````````.
9. ssTqT ssT yTT jTT ``````````````````````````` qT+& jsT#ksT.
10. &j\ddt qT>=q y<T&T ```````````````````````````.
dsq de<H >T]+#+&

1. eqe $ds nejTe+ jTT |eD+ ( )
(m) qsH (_) HbH (d) H|&j (&) C\D+
2. u~+ $dsejTy\T ( )
(m) ejTH H[\T (_) s|& (d) eTH\T (&) CD+
3. eqe Xs+ eT+ |jD+# esZ+ ( )
(i) eT|+&\T
(ii) eTH\T
(iii) |d+
(iv) eTXjT+
(m) i, ii, iv, iii (_) i, ii, iii, iv (d) iv, iii, i, ii (&) ii, iii, i, iv
4. ejTH H[\T @J$ $dsejTy\T ( )
(m)yqbeTT (_) > (d) <|sT>T (&) &
5. eT+ |<q u>+ ( )
(m) jT]j (_) k&jT+ (d) sT (&) j{H
6. @J$ | $dsejTy\T +&e. ( )
(m) |\T (_) nMTu (d) ddb\T (&) m eT]jTT _
7. +~ y @ VsH eT$dsq | d++<+ +~. ( )
(m) m&q*H (_) yk|dH (d) j{H (&) kH
8. eT+ |dT|s+>T +&T sD+ @$T{? ( )
(m) jTs=+ (_) u*s_H (d) u*e]H (&) s&
9. eT+ @s& <X\ eT+ ( )
(m) >T#>\q+ esD |q'XwD+ H[ke+
(_) esD |q'XwD+ H[ke+ >T#> \q+
(d) esD |q'XwD+ >T#> \q+ H[ke+
(&) H[ke+ esD |q'XwD+ >T#> \q+
10. eT|+&+ uVb++ +& HbH u>+ ( )
(m) V+ (_) dMT|d d+e[H+ (d) <sd d+e[H+ (&) ueTH >T[
98 10e s> $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed

nqT+<+
nejTe<q+ J$ es+
|\ nejTy\ <q+ >T]+q dVqT |+#*q eX +~. b+<T+f nejTy\T <q+
#jT + <s b+ eT+~ b&, y] eTqT>& ~+ > &&e#T. |< qy] <Te#T.
y] C|\ u< |&T J$+# <T\T usTTH && nsTTq y] eTs=] J$+# eqeqT
#{#|e#T. b+<T+f eTq+ eqe\+. eT+ eTqdTq eqe\+.
re nHs>+ u<|& #eT+~ s>T\T nejTe <\d+ m<TsT#dTHsT. eT|+&\
e]& #d d<TbjT+ q dT|T\ dTesT 25 eT+~+f me eT+~ eT|+&\T e\dq
s>T\T m<TsT#dTHsT. |+ <<| 10`100 eT+~ |e<\ u]q |&TTHsT. y] =+<sT
usTTH && (100% yT<&T |#jT d) nsTTqysT +{sT. Te+{ e\qT+& nejTy\T dssTTq
deTjT+ d]+ y*q e\ neT]qsTT d+ 5 eT+~ +#e#TqT. nejTe<q+
#j \qTHy] d]jT q ne>Vq b e&+, neX\T q|{ y*q y] d]jT q de#s+
<=s& + <T . |uT , |y T dT| y< T \T usTTH && nsTTq e\ de#s+ e&+<T . y
ysT de#s+ n+~d nejTy\T y*q e\ |j>s+> +T+~.
V<su<T s+&T |uT y<X\ (kj eT]jTT yT) <<| 10 ss{ dT|T
nejTe e]& d<Tbj\T HsTT. eT|+&\T, jT+, >T+&, }|]T\T, |V+, eT+, #s+,
meTT\T, JsXjT+, (]j) +{ nejTy\T usTTH && e\ qT+& d]+ y*q
e\ e]& #jT e#T. B &esY {Hb+{ (Cadaver transplant) n+{sT. me] nejTy\T
y ysT nejTe e]& d<T bjT+ q dT| |sT qy<T #dT y*. nejTe<q+ #jT <\#Tq
ysT Te+{ dT| <sU dT bs+ d++ #j *. B=s = d#+ < dyd+d\ T |#dT H sTT.
nejTe<q+ |#d d#+< dyd+d\ eT]jTT |uT d+d\ de#s+ d]+ deT> y~
j sT#jT +&. n<q| de#s+ =s www.jeevandan.gov.in yud{ qT #&+&.
eTsD+ sTy L& Je+#e#T:
18 @ jTTe&T 5 eT+~ nejTe<q+ #X&T. &.d. sk +&+{ V <su<T 20 pH 2013.
18 d+es\ jTTe&T V#Y.jTdt.jTX+Y esY nejTy\qT n +&
eesY JeH <H d+d <s <q+ #X&T. $es y[ pH 18q {
>~Z]>T qT+& ] edT+&> |e<+ ]+~. |e<+ jTX+Y esY
re+> >jT|&&T. n y+H yT (C+ { |t yT& dHdt)
#ssT. yT qs dsq T n |+ usTTH && (100% yT<&T |#jT d )
#+~qT> |{+#sT. jTX+Y esY nejTy\qT <q+ #d q esT&T
eTsD+ sTy L& J$+# +{& n +& JeH<H #+~q \sY
*b&T. eesY +& qT+& nqTeT rdTHsT. jTX+Y esY jTT s +&T eT|+ &\T, >T+&,
y\T, jT+, eT|+&\qT d]+ nejTe <\ d+ m<TsT#dTq $$< dT|T\
nejTee]& =s n+<CX eT &ds\ JeH<H +#sY | q *bsT. jTX+Y *< + &T\T
m+ dV<jTT <!
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 99
bs+
5
jT+D ` deTqjT eed
|sE eTq+ q&e&+, |sT>&+, \T|>&+, yVH\T q&|&+ e+{

ss\ |qT\T #dT+{+. |qT\ ]wyTq Xs deTd *
+&&+ bT> Xs u>\ eT< deTqjT+ e\qH sT>TsTT. C
<*, deTd eT]jTT deTqjT+ nH eT&T b<$T jT\T *d |#d
eTq Xs+ #d | q <* sDuesTT. Xs+ <\&+ nH~
d+wyTq |jT. n+<T B >=| $Hd+ n L& #|e#T.
eTq+ n e <s|s+ *q b<\| {sT> \& deTd
+&&+ L& wyTq dy. nsTTq|{ eTq+ # eeT\T> s+&T |
+~ +& \&&yT eTq Xs deTd +#T+ q&e&+,
|sT>&+ e+{ wyTq |qT\T L& # *> #ddT+{+.
deTd, deTqjT+ nedseTjT =|qT\qT #|+&.
eTq Xs+ nH eed\T *d |#jT&+ e\qH n jT\T deT+>
sT>TTHsTT. <VsD eTq+ ~*q|&T eTq meTT\T, +&s\T eyT
nH s eed\T L& eTe+T bqT bwksTT. +&s eed nH
+&s\T eT |< |#ksTT.
+&s\ <*\ |sD *+#$ @$T{?
eTq Xs+ +& nejTy\T, DC\T, D\T |< |s+ |
#ksTT. e |]ds\ qT+& d+ \qT >V + <qT>TD+> |d+~ksTT.
|d+<q Xs+q, Xs+ <sq nH |qT\T s>& |sDksTT.
<VsD eTq+ s&TMT< q&TdTHeTqT+&. eTq+ m+ |s<q+>
q|{ sT edTq X+ $H, #dH y+H | |+{+. +
100 10e s> jT+D ` deTqjT eed
=+<s> d+<s nqT>TD+> m d+~+#>\T>T+?
|#<H\ |d+<q #|&+ (Responding to stimuli)
eTq+ |q #|q |#<H\ (Stimuli) |d+<q #|& dVjT+
#d~ @~?
dJe\T d+\ m+<T |d+~ksTT?
J$ jTT |]ds\ esT < esT d++~+q d+\T <
|#<H\T |#s\ sDeTesTT. Je\ |#<H |d+<q
#|sTT.
m\TqT#dq y+H H\H |* <y| |sT > &TT+~. yTT\T y\TTsTy|
|sT>TsTT. yesD+ y&, eT mesTTq|&T eTq #eT |&TT+~.
e |d+<q. J$ eTqT>& k+#\+f n |]d T \qT | |#<H
dsq |d+<q #|&+ neds+.
|#<H |d+<q #|&+ eT |< +T+~. B $$<
<X\T +{sTT. |d+<q\T Xs+ jT{ < |* yesD+ esTqT
< |#<H >T]+#&+ yTT<\esTT. |#<H|d+<q #s ~
yTT<{ <X. n+~q de#s |ks+ #jT&+ s+&e <X. de#s
$Xw+#&+ eT&e <X. |#<H dsq |jT #|&+ e] <X.
|#<H |#s#|&+ >T]+ eT]+ ne>Vq #dT& +~
#<+.
+`1
+~ |&TTq sqT |T&+.
b&yq d\T < nsMTsT b&yq dq sqT rdT+&. MT
dVT& s es |+`1 #|q $<+> uqy\T,
#|&Ty eT< y&$<+> |TeTq+&. MTsT +< |& sqT
|T& M\T> uqy\T, #|&T y qT sqT +& <>sZ >
+#+&. |dT+ MT y eT< q s kH |\T >T]+#+&
(kq+`m). MT dVT& sqT e<\eTq+&. n<deTjT+ MTsT
< |T+&.
MTsT sqT m& |THs n& |\T >TsT |+&
|+-1: s|T&+
(kq+`_).
MTsT sqT yTT< |\T >T]+q #f (kq+`m) |T>*>s?
MTsT sqT |Tq |<X+ (kq+`_), yTT< >T]+q |<X+ (kq+`m)
+f m+ |q q~?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 101
m+<T ]+~?
jT m+ y>+> ]+< MTsT nqT+THsT?
|#<H\ e\q +&s\ esT\T eksTT. +&s\ y>+ > e# esT\T
|d+<q\ sDeTesTT. |d+<q\ y>+ |#<H >V+# Xs
u>, |d+<qqT e|]# u> eT< # deTqj ddT+~.
$<yTq de#s |ks k<+ #d<esT?
dMT eed\T ` H& deTqjT+
(Integrating pathways`Nerve co ordination)
eTq Xs+ n Xs u>\ $<T\qT yT<&T jT+dT+< ^\T
qyTysT. yT<&T <*q e\ |esq >DjTyTq esT se&yT
y] qeT sD+. ^ Xs<s Xdy >\H (.|P. 129`200) s<+
qT+& +<|& yT&| <*q s| |]o\q ]| es, Xs u>\qT
jT++#&+ yT<&T b| dsq ne>Vq <T.
|+-2: >\H yT&| < *q s q # dsqT j&T. n # <*\T
eeT\T>H HsTT. B{ eTq Xs+ s+&T s\ H&T\T +{jT,
y{ { CH d++~++<, s+&e~ #s d++~++< >\H
sj e#&T. s $wjT+ CqH&T\T <HjT, #s
d++~+q H&T\T eeT\T>H HjT jTq n_bjT|&&T.
>\H n_bj se& sD+ @$T{?
H&T\ eT< +& deTqjT $<T\qT >T]+ 18e X\+ H{
Xdy \ n+> *jT<T. sy \+ Xs<s Xdy \ T H&T\T @$<+ >
|#kjTH n+X+| n<jTq+ #ksT. H& d+\T m |kseTejTH
$wj $<T# |ks+| \+ sT>TTq |j > |* \ nqTd+<q+
#jT&+ <s H& eed |#d $<H \TdTHsT.
yT<&T, yqTbeTT jTT $$\ qT+& jT\T<]q H&T\T Xs+
$$\ |d+<q\qT jT+kjT \TdTH+. n<$<+ > de#s
|ks esZ >T]+ eTq =+ es \TdT. H& D+ |#d $<q+
jTT j+ >T]+ eTq+ + mH $wj\T \TdTy* +~.
H&D sD+ (Strucutre of the Nerve cell)
+`2
H&D + XXd& T qT d <] |]o*+#+&. |+ ^d, u>\qT >T]+
|d+ |+`3 b\+&.

|H&D+qT dwyTq +< * +& &+&T\T
D<V+ (Cyton) +T+~. D<V+ |qT+& s+&T d D\T
s \ d q sD\T j T b& T # T = +<+
D<V+
eqT+{sTT. me d+K q q sD\qT
&+&T\T (Dendrites) n+{sT. b&e> q XH D+
sD ++ (Axon) n+{sT. +
+
++ Xs+ $$\ $d]dT+~. sHMsY DT|
+ e]+ =e |<s\qT *q eTjT*H eTjT*H =&T>T
#<+ +T+~. eTjT*H #<+ n&& >\ H&d+ ~
U\qT sjTsY DT|\T (Nodes of ranvier)
n+{s T . eTj T *H # < + > \ H& D \qT + <e+
eTjT*HdV H&D \ D\qT eTjT*H sV |+-3: H&D+
H&D\ n+{sT. eTjT*H =&T>T + |qTq ++
qT+& ysT#dT+~. H&D<V+ e+ yT<&T> yqTbeTT> <
yqTbeTTqT+& jT\T<s |w, <s H&d+<T\ (Synapse) > +T+~.
&+&T\T, H u>+ DC\ $d]+ +T+~.|+`3 yT<&T,
yqTbeTT, n&T>Tu>+ qT+& e# d+<T \T #|+#&sTT. yT<&T , yqTbeTT\
+& H&D\ &+&{, +\qT y{b&e <s+> >T]+#&+ w+.
eTjT*H =&T>T <s+> + >T]+#e#T. # D\T eTjT*H
sV H&D\T.
H&D+ H&eed jTT eT* |eD+ n eTq
\TdT. eTq H&eed dTesT 10 _*jTq H&D\T
HsTT. $ < { |yTq |<
d++< * +{sTT. H&D+ &+&T ys= H&d+ ~
D+ &+&>, H> *d |<X
H&Dd+~ (Synapse) n+{sT.
H&Dd+~ H&D+ qT+& eTs= H& D
de#s #syd j u>+. H&Dd+~ e<
s+&T H&D\ eT< @$<yTq Je|<s d+<H\T |+-4: H&Dd+~
bsTTq|{ skjTH\ <s>, $<TY |#<H\ (Signals) <s>
< s +&+{ <s> de#s+ D+ qT+& eTs= D |kseTeT+~.
H&Dd+<T\T yT<&T, yqTbeTT\| eT]jTT yqbeTT #T +{sTT.
+\T yT<&T, yqbeTT\ qT+& Xs+ $$\ |#<H\qT
rdTsTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 103

|#<q, |d+<q esZ\T (Pathways from stimulus to response)
C]|& sqT |TH + MTsT qT, y eT< deTqj #XsT.
M{ deTqjT|s#& H&T\T $$< esZ\qT nqTd]+#sTT.
de#s #syd esZ\qT { H&T\qT eT&T s\T> $u+#sT.
n_yVH&T\T (Afferent neurons) < CqH&T\T (Sensory neurons)
<V+ $$\ qT+& |#<H\qT +<H&eed (yT<&T,
yqTbeTT)\ rdTsTT. M{H CqH&T\T nL& n+{sT.
|+-5: CqH&
n|yVH&T\T (Efferent neurons) < #\H&T\T (Motor neurons)
+<H&eed qT+& |#<H\qT $$< Xsu>\ rdTsTT. M{
#\H&T\T nL& n+{sT.
|+-6: #\ H&
dVd++< H&T\T (Association nerves)

n_yV, n|yVH&T\qT *| H&T\qT dVd++< H&T\T n+{sT.
+`1 MT Xs+ @u>+
yT<&T < yqTbeTT
<X+>+ (Detector)>, @
u>+ sV+>+ (effec-
tor)> |#d+~?
n_yV, n|yV H&T\ <s
n_yV H&T\T dV d++< H&T\T n|yV H&T\T |#<H\ de#s |ks+
@$<+> sT>TT+< e
nqT+THe?
+`1 Cs sqT |TH
nejTy\ +&s\T
deTjT+ e #|q |d+<q|
jT+D q<, n~
|+-7: H&T\ $$< esZ\T
nj T + e ? (9e s >
+TDC\+ bs+ MTsT #~$q jT+ +&s\ de#s |
#T+&.)
eTqXs+, = d+<s\ eTq jT+D |jT\qT #|e\dq
neds+ L& edT+T+~. $<yTq |d+<q\qT |rs#s\T (Reflexes)
n+{sT. +~+ <s B ns+ #dT+<+.
+`3
y* ]> |rs#s
\TqT eTs= \T|q ydT msTTq \ MT<
Ls+&. b<+ u>+ H\ >\+& d#> y&TT+&*.
=& eTT+<Tu> # |T, y* | +~ u>+
ssT dT =+&. =& +&s\ s+ @yTH esT
e<y >eT+#+&.
eTq+ |P]#Hed q|{ =& +&s\ d+#
|+. Te+{ #s\qT njT+ #s\T (Involuntary
|+-8: y* |rs #s
reflexes) n+{+.
eTq+ |{u & deTjT+ < =& +&s+ eTq jT+D
|#dT+~. eTq Xs+ ]> jT\ meu>+ njT++>
+{jTqT+THs? m+<T?
MT \Tk?
y* |rs#s jTT yTT<> 1875 >T]+#sT. yTT<{ B |rs
#s +&<yq d+<V+#sT. eTTeT+<T q \T y yqTH&
]+q|&T y* |rs#s s><T. B { +<T |d]> H&esZ+
+T+< dweTeTq~.
e \ ee<T\ # =~ deTjT+ rdTH njT+ #s\
H&T\T nqTd]+# esZ+ # q~> +T+~. ~ yT<&T < #s<T.
jT+ #s \+{qT H&es+Z |<~ > +& | d]> yT<&T qT #sT T+~.
nd\T H&esZ\T n+f @$T{? |]o*<+?
|rs #s#|+ (Reflex arc)
19e X| e] es |rs#s ]w esZ nqTd]dT+<q
ne>Vq<T. CHejTy\ qT+& |#<H >V+, < yT<&T <
yqTbeTT |ue+>\ (+&s\) #s& ]wyTq esZ+ +T+~.
CHejTy\ qT+& yqbeTT, n&qT+& |ue+>\ de#s+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 105
]wyTq esZ+ |jDdT+~.
B |rs #s#|+ n+{sT.
yqTbeTT
eTq+ @<H |<THq edTe|q
CqH& n&T>T |{q|&T *+&s\T
#\H&
@$<+> d+~kj >eT+#+&.
|ue +&s+ |e<eXT eTq\T |<THq
q|&T nH |rs#s
#b\T k] |#d, *
+&s\T y>+> * yqT
rd T H T # k s TT. | +`9
|+-9: |rs #s |]o*+#+&.
Te+{ d+<s\ + mTe+{ s sV+>\T> |#ksTT?
H&T\eT< deTqjT+ >T]+ ~ @$T *jTCdT+~?
d+*+> >, nd+*+> > |qT\T #dTq|&T @+ sT>TT+<
(MT nqTue+ e# +T+~.) MTsT m|&H >eT+#s?
<VsD eTq+ yTT mTHeTqT+&. deTjT+ m&
|&TTHy +#T+ n&T>T\T yjT+ <! eT | eTT
#dT+ bsTT. m& n&T>T |{* n +#T+ n&T>Td C]
|&b+.
nsTT B d *+# $wjT+ @$T+f, n< *+&s\ yT<&T
jT+D = |yTq <*\qT rdTs>\+. <VsD |{u
& *+&s D\T |rs #s\bT yT<&T jT+D L&
|#ksTT. eTq+ Xs+ ]> # +&s <* \T jT+ eT]jTT |rs
#s esZ\T s+&+{ <s jT++#&sTT.
MT \Tk?
H&|#<q+ $Tc 100 MTs y>+ |jDdT+~.
@<H | <w +#T |rs #s#b ^jT+&.
eTq Xs+ jT+, njT+ #s \+{ H&eed jT+dT+ ~.
eTq Xs+ ]> # +&s<*\T jT+ eT]jTT |rs#s esZ\
<s jT++#&sTT. H&eedq T eTq+ $u>\ y>q eT]jTT H&T\T
m& qT+& jT\T<sTTHsTT nH $wj\ <s+>q n<jTq+ #<+.
H&eed s+&T $u>\T. n$ 1. +<H&eed (Central nervous system),
2. |]BjT H&eed (Peripheral nervous system).
+<H& eed (Central Nervous system)
yT<&T, yqTbeTT *d +<H& eedqT @ssTksTT. +<H& eed
n H& jT\qT deTqjT |sTdT+~.
yT<&T (Brain)
Xs |]eD+ b*q|&T eqe yT<&T s +Te\+{ +f
|<~> +T+~. yT<&T b\eTT nH nd ]yTq >{ |f neT]
+T+~. yT<&T qT | +#T yT+dt nH eT&T bs\T+{sTT. yT+dt
bs\T yqTbeTTqT L& | +#TsTT. bs\ eT< eTdw yTsT <e+
+T+~. ~ b\eTT, yT+dt\ \d yT<&T qT | \qT+& b&TT+~.
yT<&T jT{y| H&D\ <V\T * +& &<s+>T |<s+
@s&TT+~. u> &< s+>T b++ (greymatters) n+{sT. yT<&T
|* y| D<V \ mH\T +{sTT.
mH\T yT*H =&T>TqT * eTdw >s+
+{sTT. $ \> +{sTT. n+<T#
yT<&T u> \T| s+>T b++
(white matter) n+{sT. &<s+>T
eT< yT<&T
|<s+ |]~ y| +f \T| |<s+ nqTeTdw+
+<+ y| +T+~. m+<T+f | > + ~
q b++ qT+& yT*H =&T>T\ yqTbeTT
yT&T nu+>{
*q mH\T yT<&T qT+& y\T|*
|+-10: yT<&T
eksTT.
yT<&T jT+D +<+> |#dT+<H $wj 2000 d+es\ +<
^ Xs <s Xdy\T eTq *jTCXsT.
yT<&T +~ u>\qT * +T+~.
1. eTT+<T yT<&T (forebrain): eTdw + (cerebrum), <s>s+ (diencepholem)
2. eT< yT<&T (midbrain): <>\T (optic lobes)
3. yqT yT<&T (hind brain): nqTeTdw+ ( cerebellum), eTCeTTK+
(medulla blongeta)
MT \Tk?
yT<&T <<|> 400 >eTT\ sTe * +T+~. Xs+ yTT+ sTe yT<&T
sTe 2% q|{ Xs+ yTT+ qyTq X 20% X yT<&T |j +#&TT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 107

|{`1: yT<&T $$\T s]+# $<T\T
yT<&T u>+ $<T\T
eTdw+ (cerebrum) i) eqd keTs\ kes+ #q\qT, C|\qT, sD\T
y X, }VX, <>\qT, eT]jTT yqT jT+dT+~.
ii) nH nqTuT\qT }V+#>\>&+, #*, y&, u<, & yTT<q
y{ |d+~+#&+.
<s>s+ i) |+, u<, q+<+ e+{ uyyX\qT jT++#T.
(Diencephalon) ii) +&s\ <*\ |jT |#s\ +<\T (reflex cenle)
iii) uy<>\ +<\T
iv) { deTT\ s| & q +, Xs c>, < eT]jTT * +<\T.
v) Vb<\eTdt |jTw>+~ jT+dT+~. |jTw>+~ |<q
>+~> |#dT+~.
eT< yT<&T i) eTdw e\\+ qT+& yqTbeTT eT]jTT Cq |#<H\qT
yqTbeTT qT+& Vb<\eTdt |+|sTT. <w eT]jTT
$q& |jT |#s\qT #|sTT.
nqTeTdw+ i) Xs deTd u$T MT< Xs+ +& dT\qT { +&s\
<*\qT jT+dT+~.
ii) eTdw+ qT+& bs+uyTq jT+ #\H\qT jT+dT+~.
eTCeTTK+ i) XdjT, H&d+<q, s|&q+, V<jT d+<q e+{ #s\qT
jT++# +<+. (yky{sY nq> sH\| ]> #s\
|*+> sH\ yd+ esTT+T+~.)
ii) $T+>&+, <>Z&+, TeT&+, y+T\T #jT&+ e+{ |jT
|#s\qT jT+dT+~.
yqTbeTT (Spinal Cord)
yqTbeTT b&e> <<| dbs+ yqT yT<&T qT+&
yTT+&eTT |w \ + b&eH y|+ +T+~. yqTeTT H& \\
<s |j DdT + ~. yqTbeTT \T| |<s+ |]\+q, &<
|<s+ |*y| +T+~. yHeTT sTy|\ qT+& yqTbeTT
yT*H =&T>T\T *q mH\T jT\T<ssTT.
16e eT]jTT 17e Xu #+~q Xdy\T H& jT+D
yqTbeTT b >T]+ n<jTq+ #XsT. ^\T yT<&T jT+D|
|+-11: *jHs &y |b~+q ueqqT |{sT. = +Te\ yT<&TqT
=\+q|{ B|q\ |d+<q\qT #|+#&
>T]+#sT. *jHs &$ (1452`1519), d|H V
(1677`1771) M]<s | yT<&TqT =\+H n~
+&&+ >eT+#sT. n<$<+> #s q|&T>,
>Tq|&T> | +&s\ #\H >T]+#sT. |
y q TbeTT d ~ \Te> > T q| & T , y q TbeTT
|#jT be&+e\ | #be& L& M]<s |]o*+#sT.
| <sH\qT { yqTbeTT e\+ de#s yT<&T
qT+& e# de#s Xs u>\ |+| esZyT +&
jT+D +<+> L& |#dT+< #|e#T.
yqTbeTT @@ $<T\qT s]dT+< e u$dTHe?
eTq Xs+ sV+# n $<T\T HsT> yT<&T, yqTbeTT
eyT jT+kjT MTsT nqT+THs? m+<T? |+-12: yqTbeTT
MT \Tk?
yT<&T qT+& jT\T<s H&T\qT b\H&T\T (Cranial nerves) n, yqTbeTT qT+&
jT\T<s H&T\qT yqTH&T\T (Spinal nerves) n Xdy\T >T]+#sT. eTq <V+
yTT+ 12 \ b\H&T\T eT]jTT 31 \ yqTH&T\T +{sTT.
|]BjT H& eed (Peripheral Nervous System)
|+ #|q $<+ > yqTbeTT *d q yqTH&T\ s +&T d++<\T
eT\T (roots) +{sTT. = yqTbeTT yqT |w u>+ *d +f
eT]= <su>+ d++<+ * +{sTT. k{+& #+~q #sdt u
eT]jTT bH #+~q b+sTTdt yT+C+& nqT Xdy\T 19e X+
bs+u+ #dq |j>\T yqTbeTT d++~+q s+&T eT\T yssT
$<T \qT sVksTT n s|+#sT.|we T (ventral root) =\+q|&T
+Te mTe+{ #|<>Z #sqT |weT\+ |weT\
|wX+>+
#|<T. <s eT (ventral root) >+jTH
d]+q y+H +&s\ reyTq #s
q&+~. B { <s eT\+ +&s\
# \ H j T +d T + < | w e T\+
jT++#< *d+~.
| w e T\+ C H d + +~ +
de#s |* rdT= y <s <sX+>+ <seT\+ yqTH&
eT\+ +&s\ d+#+ =s d#q\qT |+-13: |]BjTH& eed
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 109
y\T|\ |+|T+~ 1882 ysT eT |j>\ <s *jTCXsT.
MT n_bjT+ |s+ @ eT\+ Cq < n_yVH&T\ qT+ d+\T
b+<TT+~?
|]BjT H& eed # $d yT q ~. +<T yqTbeTT |w ,<s eT\
d++~+q H& D\ <V\T e\> @s&q b\, dsTH&T\T +{sTT.
b\, dsT H&T\T yT<&T, yqTbeTT\ y| CHejTy\ eTs=y|
\T|& +{sTT.
H& n+\T +&s n+\ e< @$<+> |#kjT e u$dTHe?
|]BjT H& eed Xs+ = b+\ <VsD Xs n+s>\T.
sH\T, ds eT]jTT V<jT +&s u>\ njT+ $~ sVdT+~.
nTe+{ |]BjT H& eedqT djT+#~ H& eed (Automatic Nervous
System) n n+{sT. n++& #s+ = b+\ +&s\T
eT]jTT nd +&s\ jT+ $<T\qT s]dT+~.
eTq +{b| q~> |<~> es& djT+#~ H& eed <s
eTq Xs+ ]> njT+ $~ # <VsD> #|e#T.
eTq+ N{ >~ |y+#>H y+H eTq @MT q&<T. yT\ yT\>
>~ edTe \T q&&+ bs+_ksTT. m+<T+f n|{ eTq +{b| jTT
yd+ |s>&+ e\q me + +{ |* edT+~, n+<Te\ n& edTe\T
eTq q&sTT. N{ >~ qT+& y\T|\, n~ y\TTsT eq|&T
+{b| yd+ ZbsTT s{H| e + |&T #dT+~. s+&T
|jT\qT djT+#~ H& eed |u$+ #dT+~.
eTq Xs+ nH $<T\T H&T\ <s jT++#&, eT]= s
$<\T> jT++#&sTT. MT &ju{dt (#s y~) u<|& e\T
\Tk? s+ #s X+ |]q|&T ysT $~> e\T>, qT*H
+CHqT> rdTy* +T+~. qT*H >T]+ eTq m *d+~? B
e\q eTq Xs+ H&T\ <s +& eTs$<+> = $<T\T m
jT++#&j \TdT+~.
MT \Tk?
s+&T <Xu\ +< ]q |]X<q dsyTq d+|TqqT y\T>T rdT= e+~.
+BjT H&eed eT]jTT |sBjT H& eed +& eTq Xs+ JsH+
|yTq H&eed +<, n~ +BjT < |sBjT H& eed d++<+ +&
d++> | #dT+<, < s+&e yT<&T < Js H&eed (enteric) n |sT |{sT.

H&eed d++<+ deTqjT+
qT*H <
s |sYZ $X $<\j #+~q b \+>sY VH
nH y~ ssDXd b|dsY (Professor of pathology) 1868
eT>+~ sD+| |]X<q #dTq|&T n+<T k<sD D\
+f = _qyTq s+>T eT]jTT sH \T *q deTV\T>qTq
D\qT >eT+#&T. M{ (Islets of langerhauns, Islet nq>
B$) +>sYVH |{\T n |sT |{sT. n$ @@ $<T\qT
s]kj y] *jT<T.
# eT+~ M{ $~ \TdTe& |jT+ |+-14: b
#XsT. |j>\ u>+> |]o*+|&TTq
+Te eT>+~ qT+& u> rdydq|&T
+Te #s y~ (&ju{dt) u<|&
eTw jTT \D\T q&sTT. n+f s+
eT]jTT eT+ #s X+ me> +&{
ysT >T]+#sT. nsTT \+ H{ y<T\
y~ m edT+ < *jT<T . y~ sD+
eT+ e# Xdy\T n_bjT|&sT. |+-15: eT+
sy <X |]X<q +eT\+ (q|>T yTT<{ u>+) qT+& jT\T<s
eT H {yjT&+ e\q eT+ qdT+<. +>sYVH |{\T
k<sD+>H +{jT qT>=HsT. #jT&+ e\q +Te\ &ju{dt
\D\T q|&<T. B <s+> +>sYVdt |{\ eT]jTT s+ #s
X d++<+ +<H <sq+ \_++~. 1912 d+es+ +>sYVH
|{\T |yTq ky #d HsT> s+ d$kjT >T]+#sT.
B qT*H n HeTsD+ #XsT. {H uw qT (insula) nq> B$
n ns+ . nsTT n|{ + qT*H ysT #d |< qT>=q<T . 10 d+es\
sy {s+{, u+{+>, udt eT]jTT yT& Xdy\ +<+ [bsTTq
+Te\ eT+ qT+& qT*HqT ysT#jT>*>sT. eT >+~ \
n+sds (intravenous) +CH <s |<s (qT*H) q|&T
s+ #s X+ Zbe+, s>+> J$+ +&+ >eT+#sT.
|dT+ #s y~ u<|& y] qT*HqT #s+ +CH <s ksT.
qT*H skjT dyTq+. n~ nsTTq D+ qT+& s+
|y+#>H #s #|T+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 111

s skjT deTqj\T
eTq Xs+ u>+ ]> d+|T q\qT s+ |d] +# = |<s\T
|u$+ #d jT+ksTT. 1905 d+es+ k]+> nH +> Xs <s
Xdy s+ d$+# Te+{ |<s\ VsqT\T (Hormones) n |sT
|{&T. VsH\qT d$+# >+<T\ $H >+<T\ (Endocrine glands)
n+{sT. M{ ky\qT rdT= y& mTe+{ H\T>, >={\T>
+&e. n$ HsT> s+ \dbsTT. n+<Te\ >+<T\T jT+, eT+
e+{ >+<T\ +f _qyTqe u$ksT. jT+, eT+ e+{ >+<T\ ky\T
H\ |eVdT+{sTT. y{ H>+<T\T n+{sT.
eqe <V+ +& $H >+<T\T y{ VsH\qT
Xs+ m\|&T jT$T ksTT ky\qT
#jT e. <VsD m&q*H >+~ e yTT+
neT+~.
VsqT\T Xs+ ]> JejT \ MT< nH s\T>
|u y #|sTT. <VsD MT y+|&T T+f
@$T #ksT? MTsT yTTyTT<> #d #s @$T{? MTsT
|+-16: &|+<+ ujT|&q|&T MT Xs+ e# esT\T >eT+#s?
mes b{&\qTsT <! yTT<> eTq+ #d | qT #dq
y+H n& qT+& |sT>&yT.
b{&T+Tq eTqTw\T, +Te\ Xs uw m +T+< sjT+&.
k<sD+> eTq+ ujT|&|&T V<jT d+<q |sT>TT+~. Xd+# sT,
s| & q + L& |sT>TsTT. eTq Xs+| y+T\T u&T#T+{sTT (goose
bumps). n > eT]= Xs es T \T L & eTq q | & +&H
sT>TT+{sTT. +{b| $d]dT+~. #s+ #TsT<H * +T+~. eT
$dsq, eT\$dsq L& s>e#T. dTs b+ #seTqTq syH
eTq+ k<sD ksTT ek+.
> bs+ eTq+ H& deTqjT+ >T]+ n<jTq+ #X+. H&T\T
CH+~j\ qT+ B|q\qT +BjT H& eedqT n+<Cd n& qT+&
+&s\ <X\qT dT+~. | d+<s+ H& eed jTT #s #
|]$TyTq~. Xs+ esT\+{ n&q*H nH $H>+~ qT+&
$&T<\jT n&q*H nH skjTq VsH |u$+ #dT+~. Xs+ $$<
#s\T VsH\ <s jT++#& H& eed deTqjT|sTdT+~. H&
eed eT]jTT n+kMjT >+~ eed *d |#jT&+ e\q jT+D
deTqj k~ksTT.
n&q*H VsHqT <>\T \T>Cd < bs |jTq VsH n
m+<T n+{sT? MT b<jTT& n& \TdT+&.
$H>+<T \ eedq T n+ke eed (Endocrine system) n+{sT. $H
>+<T\T, n$ d$+# VsH\ $es\T |{ e&sTT.
|{`2: n+'ke >+<T\T
$H>+~ |sT +& kq+ d$+# VsH VsH |ue+ e\q Xs+ #| |d+<q
|jTw>+~ yT<&T n&T>T 1. ke{| meTT\ |sT>T<\
u>+ 2. |s{| <ssTT& >+~|q
3. >H&{| eTTc\T eT]jTT d ;X\|q
<ssTT& yT& <sH k<sD |sT>T<\ sT eT]jTT
JejT\|q
d ;X+ <s+ +< sTTksTT& >sXjT+ |sT>T<\
{e\jT+ |sT>T<\
28 sE\ TTT#+ jT+D
eTTc\T eTTw>DT\T fkdsH |sTw\ eTTK+|q y+T\
|sT>T<\, +&s\ n_e~, +sds+ esT
+ |esq,
|sTw + nejTy\ n_e~
n&q eT|+&+|q n&q*H V<jT d+<qqT |+#&+.
s+ #s X |+#&+.
V<jT <eT yk, +{b|
yk |+#&+.
H& eed eT]jTT n+ke eed <s jT++#& = $<T\qT
+, y{ C_qT jsT #jT+&.
|q'XsD j++ (Feedback mechanism)
|q *|q <> |esqqT C|+ #T+&. |+ eq|&T,
<>+ *q|&T m&q*H VsH s+ me> $&T<\eT+~.
|+ m+ deTjT+ +T+< >eT+#s?
|+ m+<T >TZT+~?
|+ me deTjT+ +f @eTeT+~?
|+ d\* |jT. s+ m&q*H me> $&T<q|&T
|+ meeT+< eTq \TdT. s+ n&q*H ksTT\T >T Z T q eT+H
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 113
|+ L& >TZ e] k<sD d ek+. n+f s+ m&q*H ksTT\T
|] |+ e+{ eqd dT\T @s&jT #|e#T.
s+ m&q*Hme> $&T<\sTT JejT \| m+{ |u e+ +T+~?
s+ #s k<sD ksTT +f myq|&T s+ me qT*H
$&T<\eT+~. #s X+ k<sD ksTT eq|&T qT*H $&T<\
ZbT+~. n+<T eTq Xs+ $H >+<T\T $&T<\ #d VsqT\T
jT$T |]eD+ Xs+ eT k<sD $<T \T sV+#& nedse TesTT.
B ns+ eTq Xs+ VsH\ eT]jTT $&T<\qT eTB]+#
jT++>+ +&*.
n+kMjT >+<T\T $&T<\ #d VsH\ |]eD+ eT]jTT deTjT+
eTq Xs+ n+sZ + > ]yT q |qXsD j++ (Feedback mechanism)
jT+dT+~. H&eed>, n+'ke eed> @~ $&$&> | #jTe.
s+&T *d deTqjT+ jT+D jT bZ+{sTT.
djT+#~ H&eed
V<jTd+<q, XdjT yTT<q |qT\qT yT&T nu+>{ nH yT<&T
u>+ jT+dT+< MT \TdT. Xs+ nH nejTy\T eTeT $<T\qT
s]+#&+ dV]+# H& eedqT djT+#~ H& eed (Autonomus
nervous syterm) n+{sT. k<sD+> yT&T nu+>{ eT]jTT djT+#~
H&eed s+&+{ deTqjT+ njT+ #s\ sT>TsTT.
djT+#~ H&eed Je\ ]> $$< jT\| @$<+> |uy
#|T+< \TdT+<+!
|{+`17qT |]o*+#+&. +~ |X\ de<H\T +#+&.
yH eTT <>sZ > q >+jT qqT+& @s&q H&T\T @@ Xs nejTy\
ysTT?
yTT<&T qT+& yTT<\jT H&T\T @@ nejTy\ #sT+{sTT?
dVqTu H&eed @@ nejTy\ $<T\| |ue+ #|T+~?
dVqTu |s H&eed @@ nejTy\ $<T\| |ue+ #|T+~?
dV qTu H&eed sV+# $<T \qT >T]+ e @$T ns+ #dT He?
dVqTu |sH&eed sV+# $<T\qT >T]+ e @$T ns+
#dTHe?
dVqTu |sH&eed sV+# $<T\qT >T]+ e @$T ns+
#dTHe?
yHeTT <>Zs> q >+jTqT\T H&T\<s yqTbeTT \T|&
+{sTT. yHeTT sTy| q >+jTqT eT]jTT d++~ H&T\
|+-17: djT+#~ H&eed
*d dVqTu H&eed @s&TT+~. yT<&T >+jTqT\T eT]jTT
yqTbeTT jTT e] u>+qT+& @s&q H&T\ dVqTu |s H&eed
@s&TT+~. s+&T H&eed\T *| @s&< djT+#~ H&eed. ~
|]BjT H&eed u>+>H |]>DksT.
yTT\ jT+D
yTT\T B|q\ m |d+~ksTT?
eTq Xs+ jT+D jT++>+ m |#dT+< \TdTH+ <!
yTT\ L& Te+{ jT+D eed +<? q + <s
\TdT+<+.
+`4
n| |\qT eTTT= |\T m |d+~kj #&+&. eTq+
eTTTq|&T |\T eTT&T#THj? @ ~X eTT&T#THsTT?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 115
|+-18: n|
MT \Tk?
yTyk|P& |e+ n&T>T u>+ uT>qTq yT{ \+ e+{ sD+
+T+~. B | (Pulvine) n+{sT. M{ D\ me> D+s neX\T eT]jTT
me yTT+ sT +T+~. { |&q+ e\q | qT \Te> +#TT+~. n|
yTT dsHd #\H (nastic movement) #|dT+~. B dsqTesq+ (Thigmo
trophism) n+{sT. eTq+ \qT eTTTq|&T $<TY |#<H\T nesTT.
|#<H\T yTT VsH\| |uy #|sTT. VsH\ e\q |s+ H\
<>Zs> q uT |* sT |+ ys u>\y| e\d yT+~. n+<Te\q |
>{<H T+~. <|*+> eTT&T#T= bT+~. 20`30 $Tc\ sy
| sT ] #s&+ e\q n~ >{|& \T ] \Te> essTT.
B|q \ |d+<q\qT #| yTT\ <VsD\T eT]=+{ sjT+&.
r>\T *q yTT\T <s #TT+ |sT>TsTT. n$ n m+<T
|sT>TsTT? M{ L& B|q\ #| |d+<q\T n #|e#?
yTT\T eT]jTT +Te\T s+&T L& eT |]ds\ B|q\
|d+<q\qT #|ksTT. |d+<q\ rsT yTT\ +Te\
ysTysT> +{sTT.
|< +Te\ H& eed eT]jTT n+ke eed +&&+ e\q n$
B|q\ |d+~ksTT. yTT\ ]wyTq n+ke eed>,
H&eed> <T. yTT\ VsH\ <s jT++# j++ +~.
yTT\T +, sT, w+, ds, &, >TsTsD, skjTH\T yTT<q
B|q\ nqT>TD+> |d+~ksTT. yTT\ VsH\qT |{ VsqT
(|{ n+f yTT\T n ns+) n+{sT. $ |q *|q B|q\ |d+<q\qT
jT+ksTT. |{ VsH\T yTT\ |sT>T<\ d++~+q @< n+X
jT+d deTqjT+ #dT + {sTT. { M{ |sT>T<\qT jT++# |<s\
L& n+{sT. +~ |{ = eTTKyTq |{ VsqT e&sTT.
|{`3 : yTT\ VsqT\T
VsqT\T |j>\T
nudd eT+ |s+<\T eTdT=qT, $H\ dTbed
H D+ |sT>T<\ eT]jTT +&+, ysT $u<q+.
d{H D$uqqT |s|+#&+. bs s\T |sT>T<\qT |s|+#&+.
\Ts\+& #jT&+. |s+<\T sT#T=H $<+> #jT&+.
<H |\T | se&+.
s*qT $H\ n+s. s\T yTT\&+. +&+ b&e&+. |w+#&
|s |+#&+ . | \ n_e~. s\T eT]jTT $H \ dTbedq T =\+#&+ .
$H\ dTbedqT >T]+ MT b<jTjTT #]+#+&

+`5
>E C& rdT= eT{ +|+&. C& >& n+#T y+& +&
&T $H H+&. #jT&+ e\ $q+ yTT\& +&+
eT]jTT ysT |sT>T<\qT #&e#T. 4`5 sE\ sT y $H \T yTT\&
eTq+ >eTk+. C& dss |+&. +&+, ysT m |sT>TT+<
|]o*+#+&. yTT H\T><T \T eq sTy +& n&+>
|&T u{q T> de+s+ > +#+&. ys+ sE\bT ysT eT]jTT
+&+ |sT>T<\qT |]o*+#+&..
+&+ ys+ sy de+s+>H |sT>TTq<?
+&+ jTT @ u>+ u> |]+~? @ u>+ |sT>T<\ <T?
esT rdT=e+~ @$T e u$dTHe?
+ n_eTTK+> yTT m<>& >eT+#+&. yTT |sT>T<\
sDyTq H\T e+q +&+|q mTe+{ |uy #|THj |+-19:
+ nqTesH |<]d B|q m |d+<q\T #|THj +y| e+>T
|]o*+#+&.
+ k +& u>+|q me H\T #s&+ e\q u>+ D\T
y>+> |sT>TsTT. < es u>+ D\T HeT~> |s>&+ e\q +&+
e+>TT+~.
e+q eT]jTT \Te> q +& u> d]+#+&. s+&T u>\
n&TqT d<] |]o*+#+&.
MTsT uV#s D\ s+ @yTH esT >eT+#s?
#sdt &]H eT]jTT n =&T bdt &]H + nqTesq+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 117
(phototropism)| = |j >\T #XsT. yTT +&+ =qu>+ b+se #
(Colioptyle) dbs+>qTq qT|s eTd +#sT. yTT | qT+&
+ k $<+> dss neTssT. n|&T n+s+ e+>&+ nH |
\D yTMT q&< T . sT y db s| qT|s >T+& |d] +|#d q |&T
yTT ~X e+>&+ ]+~. B <s+> n+s+|q bs + k
#dq|&T @< |ue+ |qT+& +~ |d]+#&+ e\q yTT e+|
sDeTeTq< ysT s]+#sT.
1926 jT|t.&T. y+{ nH &#Y e Xs <s
Xdy yTT\ e+| sDeTeTq @<
|uy ysT|s#&+ d|T\jsT. zT
<q| n+s+ jTT b+s+ e# ]+#&T.
+&+ =q|q n>sY n>sY eTTq |{ >+d|
n> +#&T. sTy n>sY n>sYqT q q
|+-20: y+{ |j>+
|f\T> ]+#&T. | |f e+{ n>sY =&T>T
]+q yTT +&+|q y| +& |{&T. sTy y{ N{>~
+#&T. >+ sTy b+s+ n>sY |{q u> s+&e y|q ]wyTq
e+| q&+~. |+`18 |]o*+#+&.
b+s e#+ d++<+ n>sY +&+ =qu>+ mTe+{ e+|qT
|<]+#<T. n>sY eTT +q u>+y| =~> e+| q&+~.
|j>+ <s+> y+{ }V++<$T+f b+s e#+ =qu>+
esT skjT B|q e\q ]+< skjT B|q\ qT n
|sT |{&T . $<+ > y+{ H nH yTTyT T<{ yTT VsHqT qT>=q>*>sT.
yTT\ nqTesH\T (Tropic and nastic movement in plant)
| |j>\ <s+> eTq+ >eT++<$T+f yTT u>\T uV
B|q \ Hq |&T #\H |<] ksTT. Te+{ #\H\qT nqTesq #\H\T
(Tropic movements) n+{sT. = d+<s\ B|H\ ~X #\q ~XqT
s]dT+ ~. eT]= deTj\ #\q ~X B|q \ ~XqT s]+#<T . Te+{
|d+<q\qT Hd #\H\T (nastic movement) n+{sT.
{ <>Zs |sT>TTq r> yTT |sT>T<\qT >eT+#+&. r>\T +&+
+ kTq y| |sT>TT+&& MTsT >eT+#e#T. yTT\T
+ nqTL\+> |d+~+#& + nqTesq+ (photo tropism)
n+{sT.
ysT u$Ty| |sT>TT+< eTq \TdT. n+f yTT\T >TsTsD
\+y|> |d+~ksTT. B >TsTqTesq+ (geo tropism) n+{sT.
sqT>, >&\qT> n+{|T= |]> yTT\ ysT ssTT < >&y|
qT+& <s+> H\ sT q b++y| |sT>TT+{sTT. Te+{ |d+<qqT
{ nqTesq+ (hydro tropism) n+{sT.
qT* r>\ dsyTq #\H #k+. # yTT\T + nqTesH
nqT>TD+> |d+~ksTT. <djT, sjT e+{ r>\ +&+
\Vq+> +& dq> +&&+ # | m>u<T. qT* r>\T yTTqT \Te>
|s>& <V<+ #ksTT. m>u yTT\ qT* r>\T dq>, b&e>
<s\ e~]> +&+|q +& dq sD\T @<H <s+y| |] <
#TT |qydT +{sTT. ds < &+ e\q *> |d+<q\qT dsqTesq +
(thigmo tropism) n+{sT.
|w+ jTT n+&XjT u> sT#d rjT> +T+~. d\T
eTs+<+ =s |w+ #TT s>& C|+ #T+&. |+ #+~q >+
jT |<s d$dT+~. skjTq |<s+ >+| |&q |s>sDTe\
B|q \T>CdT+~. B|q\ |s>sDTe\T |d+~+ yTT\TsTT.
|s>H+ |s>sDTe qT+ jT\T<] |\BsD+ =s n+& #sTT+~.
Te+{ skjT |<s\ |d+<q\qT skjTqTesq+ (chemo
tropism) n+{sT.
\ |<\T
|#<q+, |d+<q, H&D+, ++, H&d+~, CqH&T\T (n_yVH&T\T),
#\ H&T\T (n|yVH&T\T), nkdjTwH H&T\T, +<H&eed, yT<&T, yqTbeTT,
yT+dt, eTdw yTsT<e+, |]BjT H&eed, b\ H&T\T, Xs T H&T\T, n+'ke >+<T \T,
VsqT\T, |q'XsD jT++>+, e VsqT\T, Hd #\H\T, nqTesq #\H\T,
>TsTesq+, dsqTesq+, skjTqTesq+.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
eTq Xs+ $$< $<T\qT n+ke eed eT]jTT H& eed \d deTqjT+ #ksTT eT]jTT
jT+ksTT.
H& eed |d+<q\qT eT&T s\T> $uksTT. |rs |#s\T, jT+ njT+
#s\T.
eqe H& eedq T s +&T $u>\T> n< jTq+ #k+. 1) +BjT H& eed, 2) |]BjT H& eed.
+BjT H& eed eqe yT<&T eT]jTT yqTbeTT +{sTT. |]BjT H& eed s+&T s\T
1) b\ H& eed 2) XsT H& eed
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 119
djT+#~ H& eed s +&T s\T 1) dV qTu H& eed 2) dV qTu |sH & eed |sd s
u es #s\ y sDu\T.
H& D+ H& eed jTT j eT]jTT sD |eD+.
H&D+ qT+& eTs= H&D |#<q+ |kseTjT u> H&d+~ n+{sT.
VsqT u>+ nsTT eTs= u>+ y[ eTT nqTq \ k~ksTT.
|qXsD jT++>+ (feedback mechanim) VsH\ #s\qT jT+dT+~.
yTT\ ]w B|H\T }< +, skjTH\ e\q |d+<q\ e\q ]> #\H\qT (tropic
movement) n+{sT.
yTT\ VsH\ |sT>T<\qT |u$+ < s~+# VsqT, H\T, s*qT |sT>T<\qT
|u$+ #d nudd eT+ |sT>T<\qT s~dT+~.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. +~ U\ dsq de#s sjT+&.(AS1)
yTTq*q edTe| yT<&T de#s
\T |&+ $Xw+ \T
C]#jT&+
2. T> |#jT&+ e\q eTq Xs+ $$< $<T\qT sV+#>\T>TT+< MTsT nqT+THs?
nsTT <VsD $e]+#+&.(AS1)
3. MT Xs+ n+ke eed eT]jTT H& eed deTqjT+> |#dT+<q& =
<VsD*e+&.(AS1)
4. MTsT #b>T #d |<X+ >T+& yHsqT+&. MTsT y+H eTT eTdT+{sT. jT
]> d+|Tq\qT 1`5 es n$ ]> eT+ neTs+&.(AS1)
m) mH es $<TY |#<H\T, skjTH\qT $&T<\ #ksTT.
_) &+&{ D\| #]q B|H\T skjT #s\T $<TY |#<H\qT #ksTT.
d) $<TY |#<H\T D<V+ mH <s |+|ksTT.
&) skjTH\T dH|tqT <{ sy qsH #ssTT. n< $<+> nH $<TY |#<H\T
nH qsqqT <TsTT.
) es> qsH qT+& $&T<q |#<q+ >+~ y| #s&+ e\q #&T ydqqT >T]+#&
eT]jTT +&s D\T eTTqT eTdTe& |j>|&sTT.
5. dH|t n+f @$T{? de#s |ks+ ~ @$<+> |j>|&TT+~.(AS1)
6. +~ y{ eT<>\ &\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
n) B|q eT]jTT |d+<q
) n|yV eT]jTT n_yV H&T\T
) +BjT H& eed eT]jTT |]BjT H& eed
) >V+ eT]jTT |ue+
6. yTT\ + nqTesq+ m sT>TT+~?(AS1)
7. yTT\T B|q\ m |d+~kj <VsD*e+&.(AS1)
8. yTT\ ysT + esK+> |sT>TjTH $wj #|+#& |j > d+#+&.(AS1)
9. MT Xs+ VsH\ |ue+ e\q q& esT\ <VsD*e+&.(AS1)
10. sD H&D+, k<sD D+ +f @ $<+> _qyTq~? $e]+#+&.(AS1)
11. H&D sD+ |#<H\ |ks nqTe> +<? $Xw+#+&.(AS1)
12. eqe&T *yq +Te. $<yTq sj se& >\ sD\T #]+#+&.(AS1)
13. # +& H&D H * +& H&D H H q~. B e m deT]ke?(AS1)
14. nH |#<H\ dqT |<e+TH |rs #s\T #|+. eTq Xs+ >\ n<TyTq
jT+ eed >T]+ e @eTqT+THe?(AS1)
15. +~y jT+, |rs#s nud |rs #s\qT >T]+#+&.(AS1)
m) s&+ _) fT\T T&e&+ d) usT ysTT+#&+
&) H{ Vs+ |T>H \+ }s+ ) $|yT q X+ $q|&T #e\T eTdT&+.
16. +& yTTqT MT >~ { |q + @+ sT>TT+~?(AS2)
17. eTq Xs+ #s\+{ yT<&T jT+d @+ sT>TT+~?(AS2)
18. &sYqT *|q|&T #s\+{ yT<&T jT+d @+ sT>TT+~?(AS2)
19. +& q yTT eT\+ eT{ |&b+& @sT#d, < \+<T\T> y&BjT+&. MT
|]o\q\ <s b{{|yTqT $e]+#+&.(AS3)
20. | qT rdT MT Xs+ $$\qT < +&. MT Xs+ n+ dTyTq u>
>T]+#+&. ~+# deTjT+ L& <$<+> +T+<?(AS3)
21. yTT n>u >+ njT VsqT\ >T]+ n< jTq+ #jT & e @ |< nqTd]ke?(AS3)
22. yqTbeTT jT++# #s\ >T]+ MT bsX\ >+<\jT+ qT+& $es\T d]+#+&.(AS4)
23. +~ y\qT #<e+&. $H>+<T\ |qT\ b\+&.(AS4)
m) Je\T |syqH skjTq |<s\qT $&T<\ #ksTT.
_) $ H>+<T\ qT+& ky\T y\e&& d>> |#ksTT.
d) = CT\ $ skjTq ysVsT\T
&) H{>\T Vs+ \ueTjT |<X s H{>\qT ]+#& |seqqT |jksT.
24. MT bsX \ >+<\jT+ qT+& < n+s+ qT+& b\ H&T\T eT]jTT yqTH&T\ d++~+q
de#s+ d]+#+&.(AS4)
25. ++ `&+&{ , &+&{ \ eT< nqTd+<q+ #d |{ ^jT+&. $ $<+ > m+<T nqTd+<q+
#jT& +{sTT?(AS5)
26. yT<&T @$<+> s+#&TT+< $e]+#+&.(AS5)
27. e sB> +& M~ q&TdTq|&T nkT> |< X+ $|++~. |]d Xs+
nejTy\ eT< @$<+> deTqjT+ sT>TT+~. d+<s $e]+# sU ^jT+&.(AS5)
28. H&D+ y&qT dsq |<s\qT |j+ jsT#jT+&.(AS5)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 121
29. yT<&T |+^ u>\qT >T]+#+&.(AS5)
30. MT dV<sTT s> >~ #d |qT\qT 45 $Tc\T >eT+#+&. |qT\ jT+ #s\T,
njT+ #s\T @$?(AS5)
31. qT*r>\T <s #TT= r>| b+ >eT+#&+ V+> +{sTT.(AS6)
32. VsqT ]wyTq |<X+, ]wyTq | sV+#& $&T<\esTT. B| # yU
j sT#jT +&.(AS7)
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. yT<&T n|+ `````````````````````````````````````
2. s+&T H&D\T *du>+ ```````````````````````````````````
3. yTT n+\ (+&>+, ysT n>+) D\ b&e eT]jTT $u<qeTT\ sDyTq VsqT
````````````````````````````````````
4. <sH | ````````````````````````````````````
5. s*H eT]jTT qT yTT |sT>T<\ dV]d, nudd eT+ yTT |sT>T<\qT s~dT+~.
= d+|Tq\T +< e&sTT. M{ @ VsH nedseTeT+~? m+<T?
n) e* q |<|< <*j yTT\qT |+#& bw\bT ``````````````````````
VsH y&&T.
) b{ yTT\ =eT\T eT+<+> es& ``````````````````````````````````` VsH y&*.
) $H\qT Bs\+> \ #jT& ``````````````````````````````````` VsH y&*.
) +&+ =qu>+ ]+q sy bs yTT>Z\T |s>& `````````````````````` VsH y&*.
dsq de<H >T]+#+&

6. e q uyyX\| jT+D j&T. yT<&T @ u>+ |#jT&+ <T.
m) eTdw+ _) <s>s+ d) eT<yT<&T &) nqTeTdw+
7. n| \T eTT&T#T&+ e\q ]> u+.
m) sDqd+j>jT >Z&+ _) yTd +Te\ qT+& sD
d) yTT VsqT\ $&T<\ &) |sT>T<\ jT+D
8. eT<TyTV d++~+q >+~.
m) <ssTT&_) eT+ d) n~e &) |jTw

bs+
6
|T ` |qsT< eed
yTT\T, +Te\T sy s\qT #jT&+ <s y{ C

=qk+#& |T (Reproduction) nH JejT nedseTeT+~.
e\+ eTqT>& =qk+#& |T |j >|& T T+< MTsT u$dTH s?
Je\T m |sT>TsTT? < >\&+ e+{ d+<s b&bsTTq,
=\+|&q D\ kq+ m u neT+~? +<Td+ |j>|&
@<H | |T $<q+ +<?
Je\T |T <s sy s #ksTT. = s\ Je\T
ysTysT |]dT ysTysT s\T> |T #ksTT. <VsD bsMTwjT+
+{ Je\T nqTL\ |]d T ~<$ <s s +&T |\ Je\qT #d T + ~.
|jT # y>+ > s>& + b me d+K Je\T nesTT.
|L\|]dT s+&T |sMTwjT+\T <>Zs> #] +< |<s\qT |sds+
esT #dT +{sTT. n+<Te\ @s& Je\T |L\ |]d T \qT T>*q$>
+{sTT.
|T |f deTjT+ J$ qT+& J$ esT+T+~. = s\
Je nqTL\ |]dT\Tq|&T |T y>+> sT>TT+~.
Je\ |T m+ y>+> sT>TT+< \TdTH+<T +~ |j>+
#<+.
+`1
b\ u]j e~ #+<&+
|sT>T jse& ud\dt u]j &&TT+< eTq \TdT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 123
30 #+#\ >sT y# b\qT H rdT+&. < #+# |sT>TqT
\|+&. eTs= H n+ |]eD+ #\ b\qT rdT |sT>T \|+&.
s+&T H\ MT< eT |{ deTj qy<T #jT+&. | >+ k]
|sT>T jsq~ ~ |]o*+#+&. |sT>T >{ |&T +&&+ u]j\
deTV\T |sT>TTHjTq& d++. s+&T H\ |sT>T jse&
|f +#+&.
s+&T H\q deTj |sT>T jssTT+<?
dqT |sT>T +& u]j deTV\T 30 dq b\T |sT>T>
es&+ e\ u]j 30 sT |]>jT #|e#?
es\+ = s\ \ deTV\T qT+& |eTe&+ #
Xs+> +T+~ < ! # s\ \ J$ #+ =~ H\H |Pse T+~.
dt, u]j, m\T\T, e\T, @qT>T, eTqTw |T |f deTjT+
ed+ +T+< #|e#?
|T +, n+ $<H\ sT>TT+< +~ s>T\
\TdTHsT <! d+j> ;C\ \sTT +& e\+ q J$
|yTjT+H ]> |T n+ |T n+{sT. B >T]+ eT]=
$wj\qT |]o*<+.
n+ |T (Asexual reproduction)
n+ $<q+ |T $$< s\T> sT>TT+~. n+ Je\T
]| |T $<H\qT |]o*<+.
$ (Fission)
bsMTwjT+, u]j e+{ @ DJe\T s+&T < n++f
me eTT\T> $&be&+ <s |T sT>TT+~. $ k<sD+>
@s| * +{sTT. ~ k<sD+> kwe+> sT>TT+~.
bsMTwjT+ s+&T> $&be& ~<$ n, n++f me
|+-1: u>\T> $&b < VQ<$ n n+{sT. bsMTwjT+
bsMTwjT+ $ e+{ Je\ s#T> $<q+H |T sT>TT+~.
|sT>T jsjT eT+ u]j @$<+> $uq #+~+<
MTsT u$dTHsT?
sueq+ (Budding)
q J$ Xs+ qT+& ny b*\ q sD+ jT
|sT>TT+~. n~ q J$ qT+& ys d++> J$dT+ ~. <VsD
|+-2: dt sueq+ dt sueq+.
124 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
eTT\>T (Fragmentation)
= Je\T q J$ Xs K+&\ qT+& L& |s>>\e.
Xs+ @ K+&yT H yTT+ Xs @ssTdT+ ~. Te+{ $<q+
e\+ #<T qT |sT>T\T, y\T\T, qT, d s>s e+{ ds J e\
eyT sT>TT+~. Je\T + |T L& sT|>\e.
Xe \T, +<\T, = s\ yTT\ ~ k<sDyTq |T
$<q+> +T+~. |+-3: d s>s
$qsV |\T < nw |\T (Parthenogenesis)
|dT \+ eTq+ $qsV |\T ns{, < yTT<\>T |+&qT
n_e~|s#>*>+. ~ + |T $<q+ n+ |T $<q+>
esT #+~+q #s.
~ m sT>TT+< MTsT u$dTHsT?
~ | dVd<+> sT>TT+~. n+ |T
]| J$ =k] syTq n+ |T >TseT+~.
B |jT Ty T q \D \Tq Je\qT b+<+<T |j dTH +.
k<sD+> $<q+ n+&+ jTsD $uq eT]jTT
|\BsD+ #+<+&H d+jTT ;+> n_e~ #+<TT+~.
B q Je\T s+& bZ+{j? |+-4: $qsV |\+
$<q+ @s& |\ Je\T <jTd\T (2n)> +{sTT. b]HCddt
+ | ]| Je L& sT>TT+~. n++& s{|s #+~q
+Te e\+ b]HCHddt $<q+ jTsD $uq ] |\BsD
]H, s>bsTTH n+&+ n_e~ #+<TT+~. @ d |\ Je eT>
Je\T>qT, <jTd +f n$ & Je\T> n_e~ #+<TsTT. Te+{
$+ |T $<q+ H{>\T, NeT\T, +~>\ |dT+~. M{ n+
eT]jTT + |T $<H\qT <<|> k] >eT+#e#T. b]HCHd d t
]| yTT\T, +Te\ >T]+ MT b<jTT #]+#+&. ys yKqT
jsT #jT+&.
|qsT (Regeneration)
|P]> $u<q+ #+~q nH Je\ eT Xs K+&\
qT+& qq J$ # keTs+ \<T. n~ m n+f @<H
sD+ e\ J$ be&+ < eTT\e&+ ],
K+&\ | eTT = J$> |sT>TT+~.
|qsT |jT qT eTT\e&+> |s=qe#? m+<T?
|+-5: |H]j |qsT
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 125
@ syTq $ |jT e deTjT+ me deTV\qT
#jT& |j>|&TT+~?
+q \D \T >]w+ > s{\+f @ s| n+ $<q+ nqTL\yTq ~?
XFjT y| (Vegetative propagation)
q ksTT yTT\ dV+> < eT+> XFjT |< |T
sT>TT+~.
m) dVyTq XFjT |T
|\T: sDb\ e+{ yTT\ \ n+#T\ y+& qq yTT\T |sT>TsTT.
+&\T: sqsY\T, kq e+{ \Vq yjTT> +&\T H\qT qsTT
|+-6: sDb\ n& qT+& |#T ysT n_e~ #+<TsTT. y q yTT qT+& u>+
$&bsTTqsTT => @s&q ys dVjT+ = yTT\T> |sT>TsTT.
+&+ <s ]| yTT\ = <VsD\T >eT<+.
kqT ` y*dtH]j, ku \XH\T ` * =eTT\T ` |dT|
<T+| ` +><T+|.
ysT: &*j, eTT\+, s{ yTT<\>T y{| |]> qq yTT>Z\T |\T
*q +& u>\T> |sT>TsTT.
\Xq+ <T+| k\H +<+ ysT

|+-7
_) eT XFjT y|
#<q+ (Cutting)
q yTT qT+& s+ *q yTT u> ysT
#dq |&T #< q u>+ qT+& = yTT> |sT>TT+~.
#< q + #dq u> & H\ H{*. =~ sE\
|+-8: #<q+
ysT @s&, yTT>Z\T |] = yTT> |sT>TT+~.
<: +, >T_.
n+T = (Layaring)
yTT d+ D| nsTTH * q XKqT H\y|
e+, =+ u> >TsT jT |+#T> eT{ b*.
=~ \+ sy | +q u>+ qT+& = ysT
|+-9: n+T= nesTT. n|&T =eTqT q yTT qT+& ysT#j*. yqT
126 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
#dq u>+ = yTT> n_e~ #+<TT+~. <: eT, >HsT.
n+TT (Grafting)
+<T s +&T yTT\qT <>sZ > #]q|&T s +&+{ +&\T
*dbsTT yTT> |sT>TsTT. B H\ |sT>TTq
yTTqT k n, ys yTT qT+& ysT #jT &q ysT u>
djH n n+{sT. k, djH s+&+{ b*BH +
| |] q <s+ {*. y+#jT \D\T >\ yTT\qT
b+<+<T n+Tf $<H |jksT. s |<T\T
q|{ n+Tf $<H m+<T |jdTHs |&T
\TdT+<+. |+-10: n+TT
MT s+&T s\ |+&qT d #T HsTT nqT+<+. #T
|<$, e |+&# \D+ +~. nsTT |+&T sT> HsTT. +=
#T q~, sT |+&qT n~ d+K dT+~.
M{ @~ u< jT+> +&& @jT \D \qT m+| #dT +{e?
y+ \D\Tq yTT\qT #j\+f @ syTq XFjT y|
|j>|&TT+~?
sueq+ < $ < eTT\>T $<qyT<H, @s&q = Je\T
q Je\qT b* +{sTT. ~ yTH? m+<Te\q?
MT \Tk?
#<q +, n+T& + yTT<q $<H\ <s y|
#+< yTT\ <VsD\T ns{, nHd, H]+, <,
>T_ yTT<\>Tq$. yD k+|<jT |<T\
< T \T> n< T H q eT XFj | < T q
DC\esH |jdTHsT. DC\esq+ e\+
yTT\ = D\T < DC yTT |sT>T<\
s\T * q esq jq+ +q|&T n$ = yTT\T> |sT>TsTT. $<q+
y\ d+K yTT\qT e \ ee~ |+#e#T. B DC\ esq+ n+{sT.
n+T&+ s+&T yTT\ y+ \D\qT *|+<T neX+

\T>TT+~. n+T&+ <s djqT # =+<s> |P\qT, |+&qT
#dT+~.
eT XFjT , |jH\T`qc\T >T]+ de#s MT bsX\
>+<\jT+ qT+& < n+s\+ qT+& d]+ s> >~ #]+#+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 127
d<;C\T @s&T
k<sD+> [bTq |\ MT<, \Te q s=f eTT\|H, s
\Te Vs |<s\|q \ <s\ e+{ eT]jTT q\ b&sT e+{ |<s\qT
eTq+ >eT+# +{+. < MTsT eTTTq|&T q\ |<s+ MT #
yqT n+T+T+~. ~ sC|dt nH +<+ qT+& nsTTq |T
|<s+. MTsT 8e s> dJe\ ||+#+ nH bs+ B >T]+
HsT= HsT.
sC|dt e+<\ d+K dyTq |T u>\qT #dT+~. M{H
d<; C\T n+{sT. d< ;CXjT + (Sporangium) |*q|&T d<; C\T (Spores)
>* y|ksTT. d<;C\T Vs+|>, H\|> |&sTT. nq> eT,
q+ c> e+{ nqTL\ |]dT\T \_+qsTT n$ = sC|dt\T>
|sT>TsTT. # es sC|dt, eTsY, u]j, |sY e+{ |w+#
yTT\ < |< |T sT|+{sTT.
>
|j +`2
X\ +
sC|dtqT < k<sD EqT d<] dVjT+ |+#\+f <
eTq+ jT$T |]dT\ k++> |+#*. +<Td+ u&qT>, s=fqT>,
|\T> < Ls>jT\T > |j+#e#T. E |s>& 4`10
sE\ deTjT+ |&TT+~. (m\ sDeTjT E |+#&+ eT+~ <T.
B e\q reyTq k >T]e#T.)
|+-11(m): s=fMT< |sT>TTq sC|dt |+-11(_): d<] sC|dt |+-11(d): sC|dt d<;CXjT+
s=fqT >+bT sTjT +#&+ e\ < e\dq k+$T
|<s\qT >VdT+~. s=fqT bd d+ +, <| { \]+#+&.
n~ eTqT >V dT+ ~. |&T d+ |\ =+ >* +& <s+ eTT&yj T +&.
d+ $T> Vs |<s\ <s+>, N{ eT]jTT y# > +& |<X +
+#*. k<sD+> e+ >~ bsTT <>Zs> +& n\eTs B d]jTq
|<X+. < { <>Zs d+|q |+ u]+ +#e#T. eT |<X\ E
u> |sT>TT+~. s+&T eT&T sE E |s>&+ yTT< { s+&T
ys\ |P] ksTT |sT>TT+~.
128 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
|r s+&T sE\=k] < |d, =+ { #\T +&*. d+
e+ see<T. y s=fqT #T\ |TqsTT MT #T\T Xu+>
&T>Ty*. e\dq+ E @s& d&qT d<+ #d d<] dVjT+
#&*. |&T MT \ <s\ e+{ sD\T |ksTT. y{ MT< q\,
&<s+>T, |# s+>T\ T&|\ e+{ u>\T |ksTT.< qT+&
=+ u> nZ|f rdT bsX\ rdT= bsTT, b<jTT
dVjT+ d& <s d<] |]o*+#+&.
<X+: su|dt d&qT jsT #jT&+.
e\dq |]s\T: =~> E, d& (>E|\), esY d|t, sT, # >E\T
$<q+:
1. d&T eT< &|sY <s {#TqT yj*.
2. |+{| \ (tooth pick) dV jT+ =+ EqT rdT=, < d& T eT<
+& { #T| +#*.
3. |&T esT d|t jTT n+#T {#TqT T d]#d, +< { T&>\T
+& E| esT d|tqT neTs*.
4. esT d|t n+#T +& { {wO ||sT =\+#*.
5. d<] dVjT+ |]o*+#*.
k<sD E yTT\ dq <s+ e+{ +Te\T, |\T# +&+
+{ sD\T, M{ esq T&|+{ sD\T |ksTT. M{H d<; CXj \T
n+{sT. = d<;CXjT+ e+<\=B dd<;C\T +{sTT.
d<;CXjT+ |*q|&T d< ;C\T >* y|ksTT.
<$<+> |T ]| eT]= Je\ |sT sjT+&
d< ;CXjT |+ (Sporophyll)
|sY yTT\T L& d<;C\qT #ksTT. eTT~]q |sY \ n&T>T
u>+ &< s+>T +& nH eT#\T @s&sTT. eT#\qT ks n+{sT.
ks\T+& |\TqT d< ;CXjT |\T n+{sT. M{
d]+, C>> |]o*+#+&. d<;CXj HeT~>
d~ se+&. |\ d<;C\T+{sTT. M{ d<]
dVjT+ |]o*+#+&.
|>=&T>T\ >T]+ $Hs? n$ m |sT>TsTT?
s> #]+#+&.
|sY, sC|dt\ +& d<;C\T, d<;CXj
MTsyH b*\T >eT+#s? |+-12: |sY d<;CXjT |+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 129
+ |T (Sexual reproduction)
+eTT+<T MTsT #~$qT + |T d+j>;C\ \sTT
<s |\BsD |jT sT>TT+~. |\BsD+ * Xs jT>
n+sZ + >> sT>TT+~. Xs+ jT ]> < uV |\ BsD + (External
fertilization) n, Xs+ |\ ]> < n+s |\BsD+ (Internal
fertilization) n+{sT. s < \ e+{ u #s Je\ n+&\T Xs+ n+sZ + >
|\BsD+ #+<TsTT, sy |\BsD+ #+~q n+&+ $uq #+~ |+&+>
n_e~ #+<TT+~
# es #|\T, ujT#s\ uV |\BsD+ sT>TT+~. d J$
n~ d+K n+&\qT { $&T<\ #dT + ~. n<$<+ > |sTw J$ $T*jTq
XD \qT { $&T<\ #dT + ~. |\ BsD |jT | # jT++#&TT+~.
{ d, |sTw Je\T me d+K n+&\qT, XD\qT $&T<\ #ksTT.
s<\ $wjT+ eTTK+> eqe |yTq |T n+>\T
|sTw\, d\ n_e~ #+~ +{sTT. eTTc\T, XyV\T, bsTw,
|sY >+~ L&q |sTw |T eed, d ;X+, n+&yV (b|jT H
H+), >sXjT+, j L&q d |T eed >T]+ 8e s>
\TdTH+. s < \ ]> |T >T]+q $Xc\qT +> |]o*<+.
s < \ |T
eqe |T <VsD> rdT s<\ |T >T]+
\TdT+<+. n s < e~]>H eqe L& | +> n_e~#+ ~q
|T nejTy\T+{sTT.
eqe |T eed
|sTw |T eed
XyV
X>V |sTw |T eed s +&T eTTc\T (Testes)
bsTw >+~ uV+> +& d++{ sD+ neT] +{sTT.
BH eTTw>D (Scrotum) n+{sT. eTTc\ n~
d+K $T*jTq=B |sTw ;Dq XD\T
yTVq+ nesTT. |sTw |T nejTy\qT
|d+ \TdTe& eqe |sTw |T eed
m|&&$Tdt |+`13qT |]o*+#+&. |r eTTw+ #
eTTw+ \+_\T (Lobules) +{sTT. | \+_q u>
eTTw>D yT*]q q q H[\T +{sTT. M{ X
|+-13: |sTw |T eed < H[\T (Seminiferous tubeles) n+{sT.
130 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
$ <<| 80 d+.MT b&e * +{sTT. XH[\T (Vasefferentia) X
< H[\qT+& XD\ (Spermotozoa)qT d]ksTT. XH[\
*d m|&&$TdtqT @ssTksTT.& XD\T *+> \Te +{sTT.
& qT+& XH+ (Uretra) <s |d+ (Penis) n& qT+& Xs+
y\T|* y\Te&TsTT.
|sTw |T eed nqT+< >+<Tq bsTw >+~, s+&T |sY
>+<T \T *d >TsT e+{ ky #ksTT. B X+ (Semen) n+{sT.
~ XD\ bw|<s\qT n+~+#&+ b XD\ <*\
e<eT+> L& |#dT+~.
XD\T b&yq *q XujTT D\T. XD+ #*d
n+&+ y| |jD+#& |j>|&TT+~. |sTw\ 13,14 d+es\
ejTdTqT+& XD \ bs+uy T J$+ #\+b =qk>TT+~.
XD\ keTs+ ejTdT |sT>TTq=B ]bT+~.
fkdsH nH |sTw + VsH |sTw |T nejTy\ n_e~
jT+dT+ ~. eTTc\T $&T<\ #d |sTw + VsqT ~rjT + \D \
n_e~ &&jT MT \TdT. esT\T sT>TTq|& eTTc\T
XD\qT #jT&+ bs+_ksTT.
MT \Tk?
= s\ u]j\T, dJe\T n$ |]> n<sTT Je\ + e]yd
keTs * +{sTT. | C #+~q TyT< + |T keTs
jTT #jT&yT +& y{ n+ |< |T ]| Je\T> e]yksTT.
d |T eed
n+&\qT #d s+&T d ;X\T d <s Vs+ +{sTT. d
|T eed sD+, |rsT \TdT& |{+`14qT |]o*+#+&.
d ;X |{\ n+&\T n_e~ #+<TsTT. |{\T bs+u+
qq T&>\ s|+ +{sTT. M{ >|j T H |{\ T (Graphian follicles)
n+{sT. |{\ |]eD+b <e+ L&q Vs\TL&
n_e~#+<TsTT. |r |{q n+&+ +T+~. n+&+ |]|+
#+~q|&T, |{ |* n+&+ $&T<\eT+~. n+&+ $&T<\ e&
n+&sZ+ (Ovulation) n+{sT.
k<sD+> n+&\T y&{ >sT e+{ eTTK+ <s d ;yV
(Follopian tube) |yksTT. d ;yV, d ;X+ | qT+&
jT\T<] <d ] >&\T *q >sXj
T + sT #TT+~. n+&+ d ;yV
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 131
b|jTH H+ <s # * d T q | & T X D +
\sTT e\q |\BsD+ ] qq
>sT J$ n+ssD sT>TT+~.
n+&XjT+ s<\ |\BsD deTjT+
>sXjT+ n+&+ d ;yV <s >sXjT+
ê+ y| q |j DdT + ~. >sXj
T yV
jD n<Ty T q jT+ eedq T *
|+-14: d |T eed +T+~. deTjT+ >sXjT+
n_e~ #+<TTq |+& >V+ < e\dq bw\qT n+~+, es
|<s\qT jT |+|+# $<+> nqTL\\qT * +T+~. |\BsD+
s> eTT+<T >sXj T + +{ nqTL\\T @M |+#e. k<sD |]d T
>sXjT+ |\T# DC\ bs q~> +T+~. s ds|s L& e>
+T+~. |\BsD #+~q n+&+ < d+jTT ;+ |y+#& eTT+<T>
>sXjT |]eD+ |sT>TT+~. |&T B |* >&\T eT<Te>, <d]>
essTT. eT L&q <y d$ksTT. s ds|s L& u>
yTsT>T|&TT+~. |&T >sXjT+ |+& |k|q d<+> +<qe{.
>sXjT &+ esT\T @$<+> d+u$kj, |\BsD+ #+~q n+&+
>sXj #s& m+ deTjT+ |&TT+< sy \TdT+<+. |&T
n_e~ #+<TTq |+&+ ]> esT\ >T]+ #]<+.
|sjTTe |\BsD #+~q n+&+ d ;yV <s #*d q
deTjT+ deT $uq\T ] es >sXjT&+
H_sE e
q eT<TDC nT+T+~. nTq y+H
\+ >sXjT |* >&\ |+& |k|q sT>TT+~. sTy
sjTTe |+&+ = D\T |+& bwD, sD , <se&
|+-15: eqe |+&+ M\T> ysTysT #\T> n_e~ #+<TsTT.
|+& e]+ +& uV # |sjTTe (Chorion) n+{sT. |+&+
n_e~ #+<TTq|&T |sjTTe |]\+ qT+& dq ye+{ sD\T
>sXjT eT<TDC\+ |sT>TsTT. yT| >sXjT &+ bTq
y e+{ sD\ #T y>+> ~ qq s| eT&T>T\T @s&sTT.
|sjTTe DC\+, B qT= q >sXjT DC\+ *d CsjTTe
(Placenta)qT @ssTksTT.
|+& D\T, * D\T *d sjTTe @s&TT+~. |+& bwD n+
eXyTq sjTTe >s<sD ]q dTesT 12 ys\ @s&TT+~.
k<sD |]d *, _& eT< HsT> s |dsD s><T. <] s |dsD
eed\T |\T# #+ <s ysT #jT& +{sTT. B>T+& H, sH
132 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
|+-16: eqe |+&_e~ <X\T

& &, bw\T, es |<s\T $dsD |< <s syD #jT&sTT.
|+& #T \+ (Amnion) nH eTs= |+& #+ q+ H |sT>TT+~.
\+ |* Vs+ \ <e+ (Amniotic fluid) +&TT+~. \ Vs
<e+ n_e~ #+<TTq |+& <e+ eTqT n+~+#&yT +& q
q j+ n|\ qT+& L& sD *dT+~.
eTs= #+ m\+{sTTdt (Allantois) #+ |+&+ jTT VsH+
qT+& <$dT+~. kq d+, \| eTT&\ n+#T\T m\+{sTTdt & e<
*d |+& sjTTe *| H @ssTksTT. HH H_ sEe
(Umbellical cord) n+{sT. ~ |+& sjTTe *| s H\qT *
+T+~. B <s *qT+& _& bw|<s\T n+<CjT&sTT.
$<+> |+&+ qq+ ]> esL n_e~ #+<TT+~. >s<sD ]>
3 H\\ qT+& |+& uD+ (Foetus) n |\TksT. |+&+ |P]> n_e~
#+<& dTesT> 9 H\\T < 280 sE\T |&TT+<~. BH >se~\+
(Gustation period) n+{sT.
MT \Tk?
$$< Je\ dsd] >se~ \+ yssT> +T+~. |*, \ >se~ \+ 63
sE\T, >Ts+ 330 sE\T, e 280 sE\T, m\T\T eT]jTT #T+#T\ >se~ \+
20`22 sE\T +T+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 133
X qq+
>se~ \+ >&TdTq =B uD+> |\Te&TTq |+&+ |]
s|<\T+T+~. uD eTT&TH+<T M\T> >sXjT |]eD+
|sT>TT+~. k<sD+> |\BsD+ ]q 9 H\\, >se~ \+ e]
<X \ u>+ +~y|q >sXjT eTTK<s #sTT+~. k<sD+>
|de deTjT+ \ eTT+<T> jT edT+ ~. = deTj\ eTT+<T>
jT eksTT. |]d |de+ # w+. X qq+ < |]{H=|\T
m ekjTq~ |{ Xdy\ |P]> *jT<T. B d+wyTq
<wjT+> u$ksT
Xqq+, >sXjT +&s #\ d+# d&*\ bs+ueTeT+~.
#s\H |]{ H=|\T n u$k+. eTT+<T> >sXjT +&s d+#
d&*\T XeqT d |T eed jTT uV\ nsTTq j y|
HeT~> HT d]|&+ *ksTT. <X XeqT e]+jTTq
\+ |* n+<T <e |<s\T jT $&T<\esTT. |de+ d]jTq
$<q+ sT>T+~ nq& ~ dssTTq d++. n|&T >sXjT
+&s\ d+#\T \+>, n+ y>+> ] j <s XeqT uV
||+#+ H&TT+~.
Xe qT+& sjTTe es >\
H_sEeqT y<T\T ]+ ysT#ksT.
sjTTe XeqTq H_sEe jTT q u>+
\+ +#TbsTT =~ sE\ }&bT+~.
H_sE e
u> H_ n+{+. Xqq+ sy
\<e+ >sXjT +&s\ d+#+, sjTTeqT
jT Hf+es =qk>TT+~.
Xe |jTH qH+s+ n+{sT. >se~
e] <X Xwsk b*q <e+ dq
ê+ >+<T\ b>eT+~. eTTsTb\T <
|<eT dq+ (Colustrum) n |\Te&
<e+ HeT~> esT\ qeT+~.
|+-17: qq+ H eTT+<T <X X qq+ sy =~ sE\T dq >+<T \T
eTTsTb\H d$ksTT. qeC Xe\ y~ s< |+#& ~
neX+. B sy b\T d$+#&sTT. X qq nq+s+ s
q sy TTT#+ eTs bs+ueTeT+~. =ksT n+&sZ+,
|\BsD+, >s+ <\T, s ]> deTjT+L& sT>TsTT.
134 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed

MT \Tk?
+ |T b<q
n+ |T Je\T eTqT b*q Je\qT #jT&+ q J$
eyT +T+~. + |T s+&T q Je\T bZ+{sTT. s+&T Je\ eT&
\D \T sT y s eksTT. + |T me deTjT+, X e<e. u>k$T
yTy*q neds+ +&<T. + |T eT#T q |]ds\ deTse++>
dsTuT #dT& nqTyq Je\T nesTT. bs+ bs+u+ bsMTwjT+
]> +, n+ |TT\qT >T]+ #]+q n+X\qT >TsT #T+&.
yTT + |T
+Te\ b*q|&T |w+# yTT e d+w L&q +
|T $<q+ +T+~. ~ m sT>TT+< \TdT+<+. u$T|q
<<| 2,75,000 CT\|> yTT\THsTT. < = $TqV n |\
L&q $H\H #ksTT. MT *dq # yTT\T |w+#yTT.
y{ mHH s\THsTT. | C ]w+> +T+~. q _jT+ +
|]eD+ yTT<\T=, qT\ =B sTyq e\ es _qs\ yTT\T
+{sTT. Ve\jT |s\ |]> k e\T, dVs m&] |]> C+{
dt, n&e e\ XK\| |]> q q ]&\T yTT<qe |w+#
yTT. |w+# yTT + |T ]> $<q+ >T]+ HsT+<+.
|w+ ` |T u>\T
|w+#T yTT |c\ |T u>\T
+{sTT. |w+ sD |e[, s |e[,
dse[, n+&X+ nH u>\T +{jT MTsT +~
s>T\ \TdTHsT. | |{ |]o*+#+&.
j u>\qT >T]+ |sT sjT+&. yTT\
dse[, n+&X+, + D\qT (;D\T) *
+& |T u>\T.
s |e[, s |e[ sV+# $<T $T{?
MTsT d]+q |w+ |+^d u>\T >T]+
n$ sV+# $<T\qT sjT+&.
= |c\T dse[> n+&X+> @<
|T u> eyT * +{sTT. $<yTq
|c\qT @*+> |c\T (Unisexual flowers)
n+{sT. <VsD ksjT, ubsTT. dse[, |+-18: |w+ n+]sD+
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 135
n+&X+ s+&+{ * q |c\qT ~*+> |c\T (Bisexual flowers)
n+{sT. <VsD yT ds\ +& |s>X\ |sTw ;D\T
nesTT. n+&X+ n+&Xj\ +& n+&\ d ;D\T
nesTT. n+&X+ |<q+> eT&T u>\T+{sTT. |s>sDTe\qT
d]+# >+, |sTw ;D\T |jD+#& && \eTT, d |sTw
;D\T *d d+j>;+ @s& n+&XjT+.e |\BsD |jT
\ bbwksTT.
sD e+{ yTT |w+ |s>sDTe\T n< |w+ jTT >
#sTsTT. B d|s> d+|s+ (Self pollination) n+{sT. +{ yTT\
<VsD\T #| +&. yTT d|s> d+|s + sT|T+< < n #| &
@yH >T]+# <q \D\T +{j? y ds\T \+ H ~>Te
HjTqT+<+!
+{ yTT |sTw ;D\T @$<+> d ;D\ d+j>+
#+<TsTT?
|\T, \T |s>d+|s+ s|&+ @$<+> dVjT|&j +~
s>T HsTHsT <!
dse[, n+&X+ ysTysT |c\ +& yTT @$T sT>TT+~?
+~ s> T ksjT |c\qT >T]+ MTsT #~$q n+X\qT >TsT # T +&.
MT \Tk?
yTT\qT me \+ n< C #+~q yTT\qT+& ysT#d y{ d|s>d+|s+
sT|H keTs+ |sT>TT+~. n< C #+~q yTT +q|&T |s|s> d+|s+
sT|H keTs+ |sT>TT+< 1867 d+ #sdt &]H s|+#&T.
yTT |w+ |sTw ;D\T n< C #+~q s yTT\T

< n< yTT d |w+ d ;D\ |\ BsD + #+~ < |s| s >
d+|s+ (Cross pollination) n+{sT. >+ | |&q |s>sDTe\T (Pollen
grains) yTT\ @s&q |s> H+ n+& #s $<H |+`21
|]o*+#+&.
yTT\ |T bZH nq u>\qT |]o*<+. |sTw |T
nejTyq ds\ | u>+ X+ e+{ sD\T +{sTT. M{ |s>X\T
n+{sT. $ +e+{ |s>s DTe\qT *+{sTT. M{ u <+ dV jT+
dT\u+> |]o*+#e#T. |s>sDTe\T d |T u>yTq n+& #]
|\BsD+ #+~+ d+jTT ;C (Zygote) @ssTksTT.
136 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
+`2
|s>sDTe
|s>sDTeqT |]o*+#&+
d& T | #T { yjT +&. eT+<s, +, >&# eT+ |s>H+
e+{ @<H |c {|q yT\> +&. { s*q
#T\ e+{ sD\T |ksTT. y |s>s DTe\T. M{ |sTw; D\T
yTTs DTe
MT |j>X\ qT+& |s>sDTe d&qT rdT= d<] +< +
|]o*+#+&. MTsT |]o*+q |s>sDTe |+ ^jT+&. MTsT ^dq |{
+~ |+ b\+&.
|s>sDTe m D\T +{sTT?
|+ |s>H+ s+&T +<\T +&& >eT+#s? @D <X
q |s>sDTe qT+& $ @s&jT MTsT u$dTHs?
sT y @$T sT>TT+< \TdTy\+f n+&XjT sD+ m +T+<
|]o*+#&+ neds+. >+
n+&XjT sD+ \+
n+&qTq n+&+, n+&e++ dV jT+ n+&XjT +|*
n+#T nT= +T+~. yTT C{ n+&XjT+ n+&XjT+
{, s +&T < n+H me n+&\T+{sTT. |r n+&+ n+&+
d+j>;D+
eT< bw|<s\T, sT eT]jTT d\ d<;D\qT
|+&+
(Gamatophyte cells) *q |+&X+ (Embryo sac) +T+~.
# |w+# yTT |+&X+ 7 D\qT, 8 +<\qT |+-20: n+&sD+
* +T+~. yTT< d\ d<;+ 4 $uq\ sy 8 D\ d
edT+~. 3 D\T |+&X+ | u> #] bwD &&TsTT. M{ |b<
D\T (Anti podals) n+{sT. |+&X |Psu>+ 3 D\T+{sTT. y
s+&T dVjTD\T (Synergids), { d ;D+ +{sTT. $ |s>H+
|y+# esZ <>Zs> |+&X+ neT] +{sTT. eT+ +& D+
|<~> +& s+&T +<\qT * +T+~. B ~rjT +<+ n+{sT.
>+ D\T #s\qT *q >TsT e+{ |<s d$ksTT. ~
|s>s DTe\T yTT\& &&TT+~. |s>s DTe yTT\ @s&q |s>H+
|+&X+ |y+#>H =qu>+ |*bsTT s+&T |sTw ;D\T
|+&X+ $&T<\esTT. y{ { d;D+ \TdT+~. B
|\BsD+ n+{sT. eTs= |sTw;D+ |+&X+ eT< q ~rjT
+<+ *d n+s#<+ (Endo sperm)qT @ssTdT+~. |\ BsD +
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 137
>+
\+
|s>H+
|b~ D\T
n+&XjT+ <e +<+

n+& #\T
d+j>; D+ dVjT D\T
|+&+ +< D+ n+&D+
|+&X+
|+-21: |\ BsD + |+-22: d d+j>; <X
s +&TksT s>& ~|\ BD+ (Double fertilization) n+{sT.
~|\ BsD s>& e TH~ |w+# yTT\ jTT | . ~|\ BsD sy
n+&+ ]> q ]> nH esT\ sD+>, n+s# < + @s&&+ eT\+>
|+&_e~ y>e+eTeT+~. |+&+ { < s+&T ;<\T @s&sTT.
n+s#< |j+#T= ;<\T n_e~ #+<TsTT. n+f
n+s#<+ \Te #dq bw |<s\qT ;<\ $j+#T+{sTT.
= yTT\ ;<\T (<: &T) n+s#< |P]> $j+#T=
$H\T> essTT. |*+> bw |<s\ \Te\T |s>&+ e\q ;<\
|]eD+ |s>TT+~. yTTCq < eTT<+ e+{ eT]= s\ |w+#
yTT |+&+ $q+> m~> es <bT> n+s#< DC\+ L&
e~ #+<T +T+~.
|\ BsD + sT y d+jTT; + |\TesT $u q #+~ |+&+ @s&TT+~.
~ <&y T q e# @ssT#T $q +> esTT+~. n+&XjT + |] |]| +
#+~ |\+> esTT+~. sTy $T> |wu>\T D+ s*bsTT.
|\+ @@ |wu>\T |ksTT?
|\ BsD + sT y @s&q $q + nqTL\ |]d T yTT\ = yTT\qT
@ssTdT+~. |jTqT yTT\&+ (Germination) n+{sT.
+`3
$q+ yTT\&+
;<+ = ysTdq>\T < Xq>\qT rdT=, s+ Hqu+&.
|<e+s+
sTy { +|yd < =\+ +\qT rd >T& #T{
|<eT eT\+
eT +&. +\T & ]b+& sT \]d +&*.
|+-23: $q+ yTT\&+ sT y sE +\qT rdT= C>> || <\ qT s #&+&.
138 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
+ u>\qT |]o*+#+&. | |+ b\Td u>\qT >T]+#+&.
;<\T yTT @$<+> |j>|&sTT?
|{ es eTq+ yTT ]> + |T |]o*+#+ <! yTT
J$ #+ yTT +~ |+ |]o*+#+&.
|\BsD
+
m~q yTT d+jTT;+
|s> d+|s+
|+&+
|\ +
yTT\ $q+
yTT\&+
|+-24: |w+# yTT J$ #]
MT \Tk?
+ |T ]| Je\ k] |\ BsD + s>& + e\q d+jTT; + @s&TT+~.
yTT yTT<{ |\BsD+ e\q d+jTT;+, s+&ek] ]> |\BsD+ e\q n+s#<+
@s&sTT. |s>sDTe s+&T D\T+{sTT. M{ fq H[D+ s+&T
+<\T+{sTT.$ >+ qT+& + <s n+&Xj #sT sTT. +<+ n+&XjT +
>T+& #=#TbsTT n+& #sTT+~. s+& +<+ ~rjT +<+ d+j>+#+~
n+s# < @ssTdT+ ~. ~ d+jTT; + qT+& |]> = yTT bw| < s\qT n+~dT+ ~.
BH ~|\BsD+ n+{sT.
D $uq ` #]
Je+ =qk+| |jT k<sD+> Xs D\ qT+& < +
D \qT+& bs + u e Te T +~. D \T n+ eTT+< T q D \qT+&
qeTesTT ( $Tdt d\T & d\T) nH d<+ $sy (1821`1902)
nH Xdy |b~+#&T. ~ D$uq <s ]> qq D\
b<qqT $e]dT+~.
1852e d+ ssY syT (1852`1865) nH sH Xdy |+&D\|
|]X<q\qT <s+> #dT= D$uq >T]+ |]o\q\qT |#T]+#&T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 139
D$uq ]> $<q+ >T]+ \TdT& #dq yTT<{ |jT+> B
|s=+{sT.+TD\ ]> ~<$ |T |jT > jTq u$+#&T.
D$uq deTjT+ @+ sT>TT+<H~ ns+ #dTy\+f eTT+<T>
+<+ >T]+ \TdTy*. 1879e d+ y\sY |$T+>
(1843`1905) nH s\ +T, e D\ MT< |]X<q\T #X&T.
D$uq deTjT+ D +<+ <s| b>T\e+{ sD\T
\Te> N\TjT |]o*+#&T. |jTH n&T deT $uq
(mitosis) n |s=H&T.yT{dt (mitos) n+f dq <s\T n
ns + . $u q # + ~q y Cy T \T | \ D \ d e T+>
|+#&jT *b&T. D$uq nH <X\ ]T+< L&
qT>=H&T. yCeTT\T \T> +{jT qT>=q&+ n
|+-25: y\sY |$T+>
|]X<q\ eTTU+X+.
<X+ sy <s\e+{ sD\ yCeTT\ (s+>Ts+>T\
sD\T) |sT |{sT. Xdy\T D$uq, +<+ >T]+ |]X<q\T
#d|&T +< #d+<T $$< s+>T\ d\qT |j d +&ysT.
s+>T\qT |\Tq <s\e+{ yCyT\T s+>Ts+>T |+#$.
n+<Te\H M{ yCeTT\T n |sT|{sT. n$ \T> +{jT
>T]+#&T.
$V s (1850`1924) | yCyT nqTe+ sDyTq $_qyTq
n+X\qT (qTe\T) * +T+<, $u q deTjT+ |$ T+> |b~+qT
\Te $uq\T sT>TjT qT>=H&T. >>sY yT+& (1866) s
|]X<q\T #d |b~+q nqTe+ d\qT |q'|]o\q #X&T.
|*+> nqTe+ yCyT\ b eT]+ beTTKqT d+]+#T+~.
sTy \+ nqTe+ \T>Cd$ qTe\T> >T]+#&sTT.
D+bT yCeTT\T deq u>\T> $u+#&+. | D+q
yCyT\ d+K, q+ D+ q d+K deq+> +&+ eT]jTT
<jTd due+ +&&+, nsTT deT$uq\T sT>TH H
yCyT\ d+K m\|& +&+ JeXdy\qT Xs
>T]#d+ ~. D $u q ]H |\ D yCyT\ d+K eD\
deq+> m +T+< |]o*<e!
eqe\ D $uq |]o*d Xs D\+{ e~]>H n+&+,
XDq 46 yCyT\T+{sTT. eTs n+&+, XD+ *d
|\BsD ]q|&T @s& d+jTT;+ 92 yCyT\T+&*.
|+-26: >dt MdteTH sT>T +f yCyT\ d+K 184, 368 n |sT>T by*.
$<+> s>&+ <T.
140 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
>dt MdteTH (1834`1914) nH JeXdE&T mH |]X<q\ sy
qT>=q<eT+f
1. C Je\ yCyT\ d+K m s\T e]H ]w+ >, $<+ >
+T+~.
2. D $uq ]H yCyT\ d+K ds+>H +T+~.
MT \Tk?
>dt MdteH Je Xdy. n +{#| e> +&~. D\qT d<]
|j+ |]o*+#&+ w+>+&~. n+<T nqT s esZ\ <s q |]X<q\qT
=qk+#&T. Xd+ e\+ d]+q de#s+|H <s|& n_e~ #+<< T . d]+#&q
de#s >T]+ +#&+ eT]jTT qq $wj\qT qTe&+, y{ yU+#&+
L& |]X<H neT+~. >dt MdteH q +{#| e n $#]d e<>
Ls<T. q deTjq+ Xd $wj\qT >T]+ +#& {sTT+#&T. +>
nH+ >=|y&, <sbjTT& +#+&.
~j&sY uy] (1862`1915) 1904 d+ jTsD $uq >T]+q

de#s s]+#sT. sy 50 d+es\ \+ yCyT\ jTT
qT de#s sDyTq skjT due+ >T]+ mHH |]X<q\T
]>sTT. |*+> & ]u qsTT d& (DNA) jTT sD 1953
CyT yH eT]jTT bdt qT>=HsT.
Xs D\+{ deT$uq sT>TT+~. $uq |*+> @s& |\
D\ yCyT\ d+K eD\ deq+> +T+~. nsTT,
meTT |J$ s+&T s\ D $uq\T
+&s+ sT>TsTT. deT$uq yCyT\
#s+ d+K esT (2n`<jTd+)
H&D+ +&<T. jTsD $uq yCyT\
> + ~ d+K d> (n`@d+) >TZT+~
n MdteTH |]\q #X&T.
s+
s D\T
XD+ XD+
n+&+ |\BsD n|]|

#+~q n+&+ |T D+ n+&+
|+-27: D$uq
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 141
qTD\ jTsD $uq ] yCyT\ d+K d> Z+#&TT+<
*d+~. |+`27qT |]o*+#+&.
eqe\ D $uq
VQD Je\ D+ sD, j |eD+ n eTq \TdT.
D $uq dJe |jT. D $uq $<q+ @D Je\ yTT<\T n_e~
#+~q eqe es s+> sT>TT+~. Je\+{q $uq #+<
| D+ qT|s+> dsdeqyTq s+&T |\ D\T> $uq #+<TT+~.
D $uq e\qH |\BsD #+~q eqe n+&+ 9 H\ Xe>, 20
d+es\ e> es&+ sT>TT+~.
VQD Je D $uq |P]> jT++#& +T+~ n+f nedsyTq
# eyT $uq nqTeTdT+~. >T+& eT]jTT yT<&T D\T m|{
$uq #+<e. meTTeT D\T #TsT> $uq #+<T ms
s D \qT #d H +{sTT. ms s D \ J$\+ e (120 sE\T)
qT = D\T m|{| &T @s&TT+&e\dq neds+ +~. n+f <VsD
# y\T s+ sTTq+<qT+&. y+H s+ >&{ sky |T+~.
|<X + $$< skjTH\ |sD #s D\T yT D $u q #+<&+ ,
= Ds& >j eq&+ #ksTT. >jT+ |P]> eq y+H #s
D\ D $uq bT+~. B _q+> qsY D\ |sT>T<\
jT+ s\ |sD d+~+#+& D$uq\T sT>TH +{sTT.
k<sD D\ kq+ |sT>T e] n<sTT #+|sTT. D$uq
|j $<q+ >T]+ +> ns+ #dT y*q neds+ +~. { D#+
>T]+ \TdT+<+.
D #+ (Cell cycle)
M (1 hr)
G2 (3.5 hrs) dsk<sD+> D $uq |jT\qT
M
deT$uq (mitosis) n+{eTT. n~ 40 qT+
G2 60 $Tc\H |PseT+~ (d]>Z $uq
rdT=H deTjT+). s+&T D $uq\
G1 eT<qT+& deTj n+sX (interphase)
S n+{sT. <X D $uq nedseTjT
$$< |<s\ , DNA qT |<s+
S (10.5 hrs)
| ] deT$uq <s |\ D\
deq+> |+#&sTT. <XqT 3 |
G1 (10.5 hrs)
<X\T> eZ]+#sT.
|+`28: D#+
142 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
G1 <X: ~ deT$uq eT]jTT DNA | eT<>\ d+<q <X.
<X D |]eD+ |sT>TT+~.
S <X: ~ DNA d+XwD ]> <X. <X yCyT\T s{+| nesTT.
G2 <X: ~ DNA | eT]jTT deT$u q bs+u eT< >\ <X. D+>\T
$uq #+<TsTT. yCyT\T deT$uq d<eTesTT.
M <X: ~ deT$uq ]> <X.
deT $uq q $$< bed\ eT<>\ j d++< ns+
#dT& bT qsd+Vse eT]jTT CqH nH Xdy\T Dd+q
|jTqT (Cell fussion) |j+ mH |j>\T #XsT. (nqT+<+
#&+&) D d+q |jT <s D$u q jTT n+sX k<sD d <]
+< |+# yCeTT\qT >T]+#sT. D #+ eqT>+>
~X ]> D$uq <X\ <s\qT >T]+#sT.D<e+, +<+ eT<q
y|q+#+< skjTqXD d+\# $uq\T jT++#&jT
>T]+#sT. D#+ >T]+ ns+ #dT&+ M] |]X<q yT\TssTT e+{<
#|e#T.
+`4
jTsD $uq $$< <X\qT |]o*+#+&
MT |j>X\ deT$uq $$< <X\qT #|+# XX d&\qT
rdT= d<] +< + C>> |]o*+#+&. MTsT |]o*+q y{
|{\T ^jT+&. MT |]o\q\ +~ |{\ b\+&.
D $uqq D <e $uq < d{qddt n+{sT. < |*+>
s+&T |\ D\T @s&sTT. DC\+ D\ D $uq s>& D
$uq $$< <X\qT $&$&> >T]+#&+ w+. |{`1 |]o*+#+&.
|<eT <X eT<d <X #\q <X n+<X

|+-29: deT$uq
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 143

|{`1: D$uq
<X $esD
1. |<eT <X 1. yCyT\T $+&sD #+~ eT+> b{>, <d]> essTT (+
d<] +< |+# jsesTT). +<+ q<eT+~.
2. | yCyT \Te> N* e{&T > sb+<TsTT. n$ d+{$TjTsY
\|& +{sTT.
3. +<#+ n+sqeTeT+~.
4. & e+{ d+{jqT * q d+{kyT $uq #+~ +& |]s
@ssTdT+~. (+T D\ eyT d+{j +{sTT.)
(jTsD $uq e yCyT\T \T> @s&e.)
2. eT<d <X 1. yCyT\T +& |\ + <>sZ <T \TsTT. d+{$TjTsY\T +& +Te\
\T|& +{sTT.
2. d+{$TjTsY N*bsTT s+&T =e{&\T ysesTT.
3. #\q <X d+{$TjTsY\qT n+{ q +& +Te\T d+#+ #+<&+ e\q
=e{&\T <y\ y| >&sTT.
4. n+ <X 1. =e{&\T b&e> <s| b>T\ e~]> e]bsTT. dw+> q&e.
] yCyT\T> esTTqjTqe.
2. |\ +<\ #T +< #\T @s&sTT.
3. D #+ H=T @s&+ <s+ s+&T |\ +<\T ysesTT
(+TD\). n< yTT\ nsTT +& |]s+ b++ De# |<s+
< D|\+ @s&+ <s s+&T +<\T ysesTT.
4. +<+ s+&T> $&bT+~. sTy d{byT $uq sT>TT+~. s+&T
D\T @s&sTT.
jTsD $uq (Meosis)

Xs D\+{ k<sD+> ]> deT $uq e +& jTsD
$uq + |T d+j>;C\T @s&|& sT>TT+~. jTsD
$uq s+&T <X\ +{sTT. yTT<{ <X jTsD $uq eD\
(s+&T \ yCyT\T+{sTT.) s+&TksT $uq ]q|{ yCyT\
$uq e+ k] sT>TT+~. s+&e <X k<sD deT$uq e~]>
+T+~. yCyT\ $u q s>< T . { |\ D\ yCyT\T deq+>
|+#&sTT. n+<Te\ H\T>T |\ D\T @s&sTT. eD\ +f
144 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
d>+ yCyT\H * +{sTT. qT M{H @d\T (
yCyT\T+{sTT) n+{sT. $uq yCyT\ d+K d>
Z+#&sTT. qT $uqqT jTsD $uq (Reduction division)
n+{sT.
|<eT <X`1 eT<d <X`1 #\q <X`1 n+<X`1 |\D\T

|+-30: jTsD $uq
|s>T\ B >T]+ $es+> n<jTq+ #ksT.

deT $uq ` jTsD $uq\ eT< MTsT >T]+q &$T{? |{
sjT+&.
eD\ +f |\D\ yCyT\ d+K d> Z+#b
@eTeT+~?
~ + |T <s @s& d+| m+{ |ue+ #|T+~?
|T ` s>+ (Reproductive health)
us |uT+ $yV+ #dTe& q ejTdT> eT>|\\ 21
d+es\T, &|\\ 18 d+es\T> #<+ #d+~. m+<T?
sT < <sT |\\T #\T nqTe&+ ke u< n u$ks?
s>syTq deeT+f @eTqT+THsT?
u\ $yV\qT bVks? m+<T?
k<sD+> Xs |sT>T<\ ]q|{ + |]| |P]be#T.
qT, Xs+> < eqd+> + #s\ bZq& jsT>
q|{ + + |]| k~+#& +&be#T. <uT |\*
, |+# deTs L& +&be#T. n+ |< u<qT s]+#+<T
Xs+>, eqd+> q keTs+ +<? <? nq n+X eTq+ m
ssTTk+? $wjTyT ssD se&+ eTq+<]| $$< s\ &
+&e#T. # sq \ bZqeT dVT\T \e+ |e#T.
b<\+ +&e#T. T++q nH s\T> e&\T +&e#T.
+> s]+#Ty*q~ eTqyT. |uT+ eT]jTT d#+< d+d\T u\\
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 145
V\T s+#&, u\ $yV\T s~+#& dVs n+<CksTT.
+{ |]dT\ dsq sj\T rdTe&eTH~ n+ |<qyTq n+X+.
+~ s>T eTq y<T\T m+<T eksTT nH bs+ ] qT+&
] nH s\T> y<T\T d+$TksTT n HsTH+ <! + #s\T
Xs d++<y T q $ { + y<T \T nH+ ] qT+& eTs=] y|ksTT
nq&+ d+<V+ <T. >H]j, d|*dt, yTT<q + y<T\T u]j\
|+-31: <s d+$TksTT. msTT& (AIDS - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)
s& ]H &X+sT 1 e+{ y<T\T ysdt <s y|ksTT.
msTT& ~q+
msTT& y~ sDyTq ysdt @$T{?
+ y<T\T me> dTs+ + sb\ e\q X~#jT
d<T\T yTT<q |sD\ e\q, s e]& e\q ] qT+& ]
d+$TksTT. = d+<s\ *qT+& _& L& y|ksTT.
<Ts<weXT eTqsw+ msTT&y~>dT\ <X+H yTT<{ kq+
+~. 2011`12 d+ |uT >D+\ |s+ 24 \\ |> HIV b{y
s>T\T qT \Tk+~. sT y kq+ s, eTVsc\T HsTT. <<|
| 300 eT+~ sT msTT& y~>dT\T> qT >T]+#sT.
| d+es+ sw Hu |sTw\ 1.07 X+, d\ 0.73 X+
eT+~ HIV >TseTHsT. ~L& s sc\H eTq sw+ H me>H
+~. y~ >TseTq y] eTTK+> 15`49 d+es\ ej deTV+
0.09X+ +&> >]D d\ 1.22 X+ eT+~ Hs >D+\T
*jTCdTHsTT.
ss X, nHs>+, sT<>+, e\d\T, k+|<j\T, TuT, $\Te\T
b{+#be&+, $#\$&q+, e_#s+ yTT<q$ HIV |\& sD+
neTHsTT.
|uT + ART (Anti Retroviral Therapy) +<\ <s HIV y~>dT \
y< d<T bj\T \>Ck +~. s>+, T+ d+ e T $u>\T AIDS s\q
d+ nH ne>Vq se\T sVdTHsTT. X (ASHA-Accredited
Social Health Activist), s& ]H m|dt yTT<q se\ <s AIDS
y~ \D\T, |e<\T, ysD #s\qT \T| ne>Vq *+#<T
w#dTHsT.
k s> ssqT MT bsX\ V+ HIV >T]+, de+|
*> <Twuy\ >T]+ #]+#+&.
AIDS s>T\ |, y]T++ | $e #|&+ L& ke
<Ts#syT. B MTsT n+^]ks? m+<T?
146 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
T+ jT+D esZ\T (Birth Control Methods)
k<sD+> + s+ >s<sD <]rdT+~. >s<sD d Xs+q
eTqdTq nH esT\qT rdT=dT+~. y d >s<sD dTeTTK+>
q|&T < |*+> yT s>+ <H |e<+ +T+~. qT >s<sD
s>+& mH esZ\T d+#&sTT.
d >s + <] +# +& +&+ d+ |\ BsD s> +& eTT+<T C>\ qT
rdTe& >s s<+ (contraception) n+{sT. @< |s D + < skjTq+
(eT+<T\T) |j+ d\ >s<sDqT n&T+f <H >ss< k<q+
(controceptive) n+{sT. |dT + >s s< $<HH n+<TuT HsTT.
u|syTq |sD\T> +&yT\T eT]jTT &j|yT\T (Cap) yTT<q$
|j+#e#T. e\+ |\BsD |jTH +& + n+Ty<T\T
{Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)} y|+#+& L& n]&+
|j>|&sTT. $ +& s >ss< esZM L& + y<T\
y| s~+#e. H{ <s rdT=H e\T < d + nejTy\
+# e\ skjTH\T < VsH\T n+&Xj\T n+& $&T<\
#jT+& |\BsD+ s>+& #ksTT. sE |sTw\ d+ L&
+{ e\T n+<TuT e#sTT. e\ e\q XD\T #bsTT.
qTH M{ XDHqT\T < d]d& (spermicides) n n+{sT.
>sXjT <s+ neTs& Mq |sY`T, \|t yTT<q$ m+
|uee+yTq >ss< k<H\T> |j>|&sTT. ny+ >s<sD
+& >ss< k<q+> |sY`T |jd n~ >s s+&
s~+#e#T. , u>k$T y @< + n+Ty~ +f <
|<T.
sH+
XyV
m|&&$Tdt q>T
eTTw+
|sY`T ]+#&+ eTT&yjT&+ |{y j
T &+
yd$T`XyVqT
]+ eTT&yjT&+ u$T`b|jTH H
]+ eTT&yjT&+
|+-32: T+ jT+D |<T\T
d |sTw*<] T+ jT+D (birth control) d+ Xd\T
n+<TuT HsTT. |sTw\ #d Xd XH ]+ H+
s+&T es\qT >{> { eTT&yksT. n+<Te\ XD\T $&T<\ +&
n& +#&sTT. |< ydM T (Vasectomy) n+{sT. d\ n+&H+
(Fallopian tubes) q u> ]+, rdyd es\qT >{> eTT& yksT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 147
#jT&+ <s n+&+, n+&H+ y+& #ksT. B uMT
(tubectomy) n n+{sT.
ke <Ts#s\ es bs+
qq+ * e&+ nHs> <]rdT+~
Xe qe&+ nH~ d+w y T q Jeq |jT . d\ 18 d+es\T
+&q sy Xe qe& Xs+> d<+> +{sT. ssd,
|<]+, eT&qeT\T, u\ $yV\ eTTKyTq sD\T. T+ d+eT
XK $es\ |s+ eTq<X+ | @{ 21X+ eT+~ u*\T |de
deTjT+H #bTHsT. bwVs |+ L& |de deTj eTT+<T,
|de+ sy eTsD <]rdT+~. { 18 d+es\ ejTdT +&+&
nesTT\T $yV n+^]+#L&<T.
uD V\qT |+&.
H{ q nejT ujT >=| XdyH, |eTTKyTq y<Ts,
qyTq +s, n+ue+ |#d |]b\s, ||+# ]yH,
n<TyTq b<jTTs, s|{ ujT s HjTs e#T. &|\
|{+< <w+#&+, uD V\ b\&&+ eT+~<T. &|\qT b&&+
n+f eqe C b&Te&yT.>s+H &|\\qT sD+> #+|Tq
sD+> @s&TTq d, |sTw w >DjTyTq >T <Z \ +<q *k+~.
eTq |uT + $wjT + nH #{\qT sb+~+, u DV\ jT+D
w#k+~. uD V\q |&eTH~ eTq ke u<.
eT< \+ &sT k+& k+> <s *+>ssD |\qT
s|&+ <T. m+<T?
+< d+q s>syTq Jeq $<H\qT n\esTe&+ <s +
y<T\qT s+& s~+#e#T.
>+\T, *jTysT, ]+f me eT+~ + d++<\T
|TL&<T.
>ss< k<H\T n+<TuT q|{ jTeT<yTq, e+yTq
Jeq+ >&b*.
y >s + <*qT d+<V + * eT+ &s qY T d+|~+ s]+#Ty*.
@< y~ kqT s]+#& d+|Ps+> rdTy*.
s>+ |++<+f ds+ sTTqf. eT+ Xs s>+ eT+
eqd s> *dT+~. H{ u\\T s|{ <s us bsT\T m<>&
eqe |qsT`s>+ >T]+q |P] CH * +&*. n|&
s>e+yTq deC ]+#>\T>T+.
148 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
\ |<\T
d+, XeTT, eTT\T e&+, |qsT, XFjT |T, eT |T,
nw |\q+, ]+#T, dueq+, n+TT, >|+>, k, djH, DC\esq+,
eTsT, \+, H_&T, deT$uq, jTsD $uq, =e{&, yCyT, uDV,
HIV`msTT&, ydMT, uMT.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
1. J$ XX+> eT]jTT s+s+> =qk>T |T # neds+.
2. |T s+&T s\T` + eT]jTT n+ |T.
3. + |T q qT+& d>+ qTe\T d+ n+~+#&sTT.
4. d+j>+, yTT>Z =&> +, eTT\T e&+, |qsT, d<; C\ yTT<\>Tq$ n+ |T
s\T.
5. # yTT\T +&+, ysT , \T yTT<q XFjT u>\ <s L& = yTT\qT #dT +{sTT.
<H XFjT |T n n+{sT.
6. eTyTq XFjT |T m+ ] beTTK \<T.
7. DC\esq+ yTT\qT |+#T qT>=q&q <T |jT. |jT <s e d\+
eT]jTT e deTjT+ n~ d+K yTT\qT |+#e#T.
8. >|+> |< <s sTq \D\T >\ yTT\qT #jTe#T.
9. q esZ #+~q +Te\ + |T |+> n_e~ #+~q nejTy\T |sTw
eT]jTT d |T eed\ <s sT>TT+~.
10. Je neds+ yTs D\qT d]#jT& (repair) < |#jT D\ kq+ = D\qT
#jT& eT]jTT d+j>;C\ d+ D$uq #+<TsTT.
11. D$uq s+&T s\T> sT>TT+~. m) deT$uq < Xs D $uq _) jTsD $uq
< |T D $uq.
12. k<sD+> J$ <V sD+ bZH D\qT XsD\ d+j>;C\ d+
|j>|& D\qT qT D\T n n+{sT.
13. D$uq jTT D#+ (G1, G2, S eT]jTT M) <X\qT #&e#T
14. D#+ d+XwD <X (S <X) Bs\+ sT>TT+~. <XH qTe\T s{+| (duplication)
#+<TsTT.
15. deT$uq |*+> @s&q |\ D yCyT\ d+K q\ d+K deq+> +T+~.
$uq |<eT <X, eT<d <X, #\q <X, n+ <X\T+{sTT.
16. D<e+ jTT $uqH D<e $uq (cytokinesis) n n+{sT.
17. jTsD $uq eD\ s+&TksT $uq ] H\T>T |\D\T @s&TsTT.
18. |T |jT Xs, eqd m<T>T<\ eT]jTT |P] s>+ m+ neds+.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 149
19. + y<T\T y| #+< $<H\T eT]jTT y{ >T]+q jT<s\qT | sT \TdTy*q
eX \<T.
20. msTT& y~ ysD <T. eq msTT& s+& H Jeq+ >&|&+ dsq esZ+.
21. |dT+ T+ jT+D nH >ss< esZ\T n+<TuT HsTT.
22. s>e+yTq de sD+ eTq | ] u<.
23. X qq+ H eTT+<T>H *+>ssD | #jT &+ # Hs+ . u DV\qT |&+ neds+ .
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. #| eT]jTT | +{ Je\T |k nd+UyT q n+&\qT $&T<\ #jT & >\ sD$T{?(AS1)
2. VsZ |\BsD+ n+f @$T{ $e]+#+&. <VsD\T sjT+&.(AS1)
3. +~y eT<>\ u<\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
m) deT$uq ` jTsD $uq _) |sTw d+j>;+ ` d d+j>;+
4. yTT |\BsD |jTqT >T]+ $e]+#+&.(AS1)
5. n+ |T $<H\qT >T]+ q <VsD\ $e]+#+&.(AS1)
6. + |T @$<+> n+ |T $u~dT+~? eT&T sD\T \+&.(AS1)
7. XD\T y $<T\T s]+#& @$<yTq nqTL\H\qT b+~ HsTT?(AS1)
8. |\BsD #+~q n+& >sXjT+ \T|e&+ d+ TTTke#+ |#d eT]jTT
|qseeTe +T+~. k<sD+> TTT#+ yTT<, |Pse m+ deTjT+ rdT+T+~?(AS1)
9. >sXjT+ |sT>TTq |+& bwD neds+. |+& bw\T m n+~+#&sTT?(AS1)
10. >sd Xe @jT |<s\qT * s+ d+>V+ e$ (placenta) |+|T+~?(AS1)
11. >sXjT+ eT{ X+ (amniotic sac) jTT $~ @$T{?(AS1)
12. + |T jTT u$T{?(AS1)
13. JeCT\ jTT Hu \&/ XX+> \T#TdyT |T m dV]dT+~?(AS1)
14. deT$uq eT]jTT jTsD $uq\ eT< u<\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
15. TTTke deTjT+ >sXjT >& ]> esT$T{?(AS2)
16. @D Je\ nqqTL\ |]dT\ deT$uq #+<TsTT
| yKqT deT]ks?(AS2)
17. $ y Hq ` s+>Ts+>T\ |P\T eT]jTT |<yq |\T >\ yTTqT |+#\qTH&T. MTsT
n d+# |< @$T{? m+<T?(AS3)
18. * yTTH=< ys dV |*+, ysT =q n&T #< H \qT rdT+&. y{ @< s+>T s+q+
#d d <] +< |]o*+#+&. D$u q <X\ ueT\qT ^d, n$ @ <X #+~qy >T]+#+&.(AS3)
19. MT <>sZ >e d+<]+, n& s T \T #s , #eT+, yTT<q |P\yTT\T, +><T +|\T,
<=+&jT\T yTT<q Ls>jT\T yTT<q y{ m |+&dT H s n& \TdT+&. MTsT d]+q
de#s+ q y~ jsT#d, s> |<]+#+&.(AS4)
150 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed
20. ] beTTK >\ yTT\ |+| MT eT]jTT sc\ @$<+> #|&TTHs q
de#s MT bsX \ >+<\jT+ eT]jTT +s{\ qT+& d]+#+&. < <s+> y~
j sT#jT +&.(AS3)
21. deT$uq $$< <X\ L&q D#+ >T]+ b#sTqT jsT#jT+&.(AS4)
22. |sTw eT]jTT d |T eed\ \qT ^d |sT sjT+&.(AS4)
23. +< #|q yTT u>+ @$T{ >T]+#+&. <| yK sjT+&.(AS5) >+
\+
24. yTT\ ]> + |T b#sT s|+ *jTCjT+&.(AS5)
25. yTT\ |\BsDqT $e]+#& # ^d |sT sjT+&. n+&XjT+
#+
|s>sDTe >T]+ = n+X\qT sjT+&.(AS5) d+j>;+
26. y Je\ jTsD $uq s><qT+&. y |*\T @$<+>
+{sTT?(AS6) |X`23 |+&+
27. Je+ XX &&TTq D$u qqT e @$<+ > n_q+~ke?(AS6)
28. + y<T\T y|+#+& rdTy*q C>\qT >T]+ MT n_bj\qT sjT+&.(AS7)
dsq de<H >T]+#+&
1. n+&\qT #d d |T eed u>yT~? ( )
m) n+&XjT+ _) m|&&$Tdt d) >sXjT eTTK<s+ &) b|jTH H+
2. XD+`n+&+ *d |jTqT @eT+{sT? ( )
m) b>+fwH _) |s +fwH d) |]CwH &) |PH
3. |sTw |T eed @ u>+ XD\qT #dT+~? ( )
m) ydt &|sH _) m|&&$Tdt d) u&sY &) kyT
4. XD+, n+&+ jTT De# m #~dT+~? +~y dsq< mqT+&.( )
m) n+& D#+ s+< N\&+ <s _) n+& e# skjTH\ ]+#&+ <s
d) n+& De# =s&+ <s &) n+&e#+ U\qT H=&+ <s
5. n+&+, XD\H |<~> +T+~. m+<T? dsq< mqT+&. ( )
m) n+&+ me D\ * +T+~
_) |\BsD nq+s+ |sT>T<\ e*q bw |<s\qT * +T+~.
d) eT+<yTq De#\qT * +T+~ &) |< +< * +T+~.
6. +~y >sd Xe |sT>T<\| |uy #|qy$? dsq< mqT+&. ( )
m) d>s{ b> skjTH\T _) \V d) eT+<T\T &) |e
7. eqe J$ #+ <X\qT d+#T +~y @~ dsq~? ( )
m) X<X ` u\<X ` es<X ` ejq<X
_) u\<X ` X<X ` ejq<X ` es<X
d) es<X ` X<X ` ejq<X ` u\<X &) |yM e
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 151
nqT+<+
&s Y bT qsd+ Vse eTq <X+ >]+#< q |eTTK DXdy .
jTq eTq sw+ >T+sT eTTb >eT+ sT|<
T++ +#sT. jTq eekjT+ n+f m+ eTe. jTq
q& .m.sY. qT+& eekjT+ jT+.jTdt |{ b+<sT.
sTy |]X<q\T d+ nyT] ysT. n& b> yTT\|
DJeXd+ |j >\T #XsT. q |j >\ u>+> 1952 d+
eqe Xs+ @s&q D qT+& V D\ XD ysT#k&T.
&. bT q]+Vse
1963 d+ q |]X<q\ |.V#Y.& b+<&T. sTy q
|]X<q\qT d{{ qT+& qsY D\| |j>\ y| eT[+#&T. jTq D <*\
(Cell kinematics) | $dTyTq |j>\T #X&T. n&T deT$uq sDeTjT s
(Triggering factor) >T]+#&+ w #X&T.
eqe D+ n~ k<sDDyTH < qsY DyTH |sT>T<\
e<eT+ +q|&T 20 qT+& 24 >+\|q $uq
#+<TT< >T]+#&T. C deT$uq 40 qT+& 60 $Tc
|PseT+~. s+&T D$uq\ eT<>\ $se n+sX
(Interface) n+{sT. B 1, jTdt, 2 nH bed\T+{sTT.
D#+ $$< <X\qT \TdT& b se eT]jTT
V D+ CqH\T D d+q |jT\qT |j+ s+&T D$uq\
eT<>\ $se , n+sX bed\qT |]o*+#sT. D#+ ]> D$uq\T skjTq
XD d+\ Bq+ eqT>+>, ~X sT>TjT >T]+#sT. jTq |]X<q\T
D$uq\| |]X<qT\ sT|Tq m+<s Xdy\ ~L *#sTT. eTq \T>Ty&q
Xdy e{&\qT+f poturao@yahoo.com yTsTT & H ne+&.
MT V+B |d+ q e eTTsa H < >jT+ #<e+&.

< >T]+ MT s> #]+#+&.
swjT XsY kd seT+ (RKSK) d++~+q de#s d]+#+&.
152 10e s> |T ` |qsT< eed

bs+
7
JejT\ deTqjT+
eqe Xs+ z n<T jT++. #&{ m+ k<sD+> |+H

m+ d+w sD * +T+~. MT Xs+ +& n<TyTq d+wqT
MTsT m|&H }V+#s? Je\ $$< JejTq XdjT, JsjT,
s|dsD, $dsq jT\qT sV+# nejTy\T Xs+ ]w |<X\
neT] +& y{ s+q |qT\qT sVksTT. +es eTq+ Xs+
]> $$< JejT\ >T]+ $&$&> #<TeH+. jT+D`deTqjT+
n<jT+ e+ Xs+ ]> = jT \T m jT+ |< T deTqjT+
#dT+ sT>Tj HsTH+. eTq+ ns+ #dT& M\T>
JejT \qT $&$&> |]o*kyT | @ JejT L& s jT \ d++<+
+& +]> |#jT<T. < { nH s\T> d++<\qT
@ss#T deTqjT+ |#ksTT. n<jT+ JejT\ JsjTqT
<VsD> rdT= $$< eed\ eT< d++<\T m+ d+w+> +{j
eT]jTT Xs+ JejT \T n+ n<T+ > m deTqjT+ #dT +{j
\TdT+<+. Js jT b\T|+#TH VsH+ u>\qT, Vs H+
$$< <X\ Vs+ m Js+ neT+<H $wj \qT k] | #T +<+.
HsT qT+& bjTTe es y|+ q VsH+ Vs+ @ @ u>\
>T+& |jDdT+< sjT+&.
JsXjT+ Vs $q+ #jT&+ @ JejT &&TT+~?
JejT\ @ JejT nsTTH |#jT&+ $|\yT Xs+|
m+{ |ue+ #|T+~?
Xs s>+> +#&+ JejT\ <| eTs={ |sds+
<s|& +{sTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 153
uy ns+ #dTe& JsjTqT <VsD> rdT= ~ $$<
eed\ m deTqjT+ * +T+< $Xw<+. Jseed *yjT&+
yTT<\T= Vs $j>+ (X> es&+) es Xs+ ]> jT\
nqTd+<H $es+> HsT+<+.
* yjT&+
eTq Vs+ neds+ n m \TdT+~?
+`1
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(9) >T]+#+&. MT dVT\ #]+#+&.
|{`1
ydq sT <X+ n\d sd+ Vs neds+ Vs #q
@ @ s\T * |sTksTT?
\e+< *d #d B|q\ e\q |*yT$T{?
eTq * \T>T+< *jTCjT& @ eed d+\qT |+|T+~?
ds, * yk+< *jT& |<q sD+ s|dsD eed
<+~. s+ nH s\ |<s\T m++ ksTT +&\H~ Jseed|
<s|& +T+~. y{ >C |<qyTq~. s+ >C ksTT\T Zb
y+H eTq * ydTqT> n|dT+~. n> JsXjT+ U nsTTq|&T
n+<T d$+#& b{H XDT\ L&q ^*H nH VsH d$dT+ ~. JsXj T
>& = D\T ^*H (Ghrelin) qT d$ksTT. JsX+ VsH
d$+#&+ e\ * d+\T nesTT. JsX+ qT+& yT<&T *
d+\T #s>H * ]\T JsXjT+ yTT<\esTT. eTT+<T yT<&T
&jTH d|H eT]jTT y>dt H& (10e b\H&) d+\qT #syjT&+
\b bwksTT. * ]\T <<| 30`45$Tc\ es =qk>TsTT.
^*H ksTT |]q|&T * |#<H\b Vs+ H\H B|q ueq
\T>TT+~.
+< < |]BjT H& eed\ @ H&eed * |#<H\qT jT+dT+ ~?
m+{ jT+D\T * |#<H\| |ue+ #|sTT? n$ Vsq
d++<yTqy < H& d++<yTqy < s+&H?
154 10e s> JejT \ deTqjT+
* |#<H\qT #d jT b\T|+#T=H @yH H\T>T eed\ qT
d+#+&?
eTq &T | +&T> +&, + m+{ Vs+ neds+ <T n|+q|&T
|H (leptin) nH eTs VsH d$+#& * nDydT+~.
k<sD+> |sp eTq+ ]wyTq yH Vs+ rdT+{+.
|sE deTj eTq \eT+~. +{ |]d bsX\ uq
$se eTT+<T |]jT& MTsT nqTu$+# +{sT. * ]\ eT]jTT
\+#Y u eT< d++< MTsT >T]+# +{sT <!
* |#<H\ |ue+
H{ ]> JsjT $$< nejTe eed\T bZ+{sTT. nejTy\T
eT]jTT nejTe eed\T b\T|+#TH $<q+, sV+# |qT\T yTT<q
$wj\ >T]+ \TdT+<+.
* ydq|+# ueq eTq* Vs+ rdTH+<T |s|dT+~. nsTT
*> q|{ Vs+ b&bsTTqT> +f H{ rdT eTT+< <
qe<qT+{+. +{ nqTuy\qT MTsT ~es b+~ +{sT <!
#&bsTTq Vs >T]+#&+ |<qb bw+# u>yT~?
sTsyTq uq+ #dTq|&T n+<T dTydq * |+#TT+<
u$dTHs?
sT eT]jTT ydq |sds d++<+
sT, ydq s+& < qT+& eTs={ ysT#jTq+> |qydT
+{sTT. n$Hue d++<+ <sH $$< Vs |<s\ sT#T\T m
+{j ydq\ <s |d>>\T>TTH+. nsTT reyTq \TT, <>TZ
u<|&TTq|&T eTq |D+~jT+ d]> |#jT<T. n|&T $$< Vs
|<s\ sT#T\qT d]> >T]+#eTT.
ydy Vs+ jTT sT m+{ esT +&<T. Vs+ jTT
ydq >T]+#&+ \TT e\ |u$eTeT+~. n+f ydq, sT s+&
>V+#>*H Vs| sT >T]+#>\T>TeTqe.
sT#T\qT \TdTe&+ n+f Vs|<s+ skjTq u<\qT { n~
jT>, |>, #<T>, |\> < e$T (|jTT\ e+|sT) sT#T\T>
>T]k+. sT eT]jTT ydq\qT >T]+# CH+~j\ |sds #s\ e\H eTq+
rdT=H Vs+| eTq <<+ |u$eTeT+~.
+~ + <s sT |D+~jT+ <s m |u$+ neT+<
\TdT+<+.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 155
+`2
J\s, k+|, \T>& eT]jTT |qT qeT\&+
eTT+<T> y eTT eTdT+& =+#+ J\sqT H{ ydT= d|
qeT\+&. sy = k+| +\T qeT\+&. y{ sT >T]+#>*>s?
sT >T]+#& m+ deTjT+ rdT+~? sy H{ Xu+> &
q | eTTqT qeT\+&. sTy \T>& eTT* rdT= qeT\+&. nsTT
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e |]o*+q n+X$T{?
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b*jT+{ #w\T \+ s>*+<, n|&T> eTq sT *jT<T.
eTs$<+> #b\+f Vs|<s\ sT#T\T |<s+ <e
s|+ q|& dT\u+> \TdT>\+. H\T| $$<
s\ sT yTT>Z\T $$< s\ sT#T\T >T]+#T
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yT<&TqT #sTsTT. n& $Xw+#&q syH eTq Vs|<s+ jTT
sT \TdT+~.
s+&T |<s\ sT#T\T $&$&> >T]+#>*>s? < s+&+{ sT
+<? sDyT$T{?
eTT Xw ds + z |\T# {bs * +T+~. eTq+ ydq #dq|&T
>* *j& ydq |<s nDTe\T bs sT>TsTT. eTT eT]jTT
H\T| >\ skjTq >V\T < |D >V\T (olfactory receptors)
d+\qT H& |#<\ s|+ yT<&T |+|sTT. yT<&T d+\qT
$Xw+ ydq eT]jTT sT >T]dT+~.
Vs |<s\qT H{ ydTq|&T @eTeT+~?
sT \TdT& |j>|& H{ u>$?
u>\T ++ |qT\T sVkj \TdT+<+.
+`3
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eTdT= ydq #&+&. MT dVT\ dVjT+ $$< Vs |<s\qT
sT #&+&.

| H n\+ ydq |T> +T+<? |fq ydq\T sT d+<q\|
|ue+ #|kjT MTsT u$dTHs?
MTsT m s\ Vs|<s\qT d]>Z >T]+#>*>sT?
ydq eT]jTT sT @<H d++<+ +< >V +#s? n$ @$T{ sjT+&.
e\+ #&&+ <s Vs+ sT> +< #|>\s?
=ksT e\+ +jT, eTjT, e$T&jT yTT<q |sT $q>H
H{ }sTsTT. |&T eTq+ \ |*\ ks+X MT yT\
dV jT+ $Xw < +. k<sD+> eTq+ s Dj
T +>, eTT dTydq>
HjTqTq sH Vs |<s\qT sT #k+. n+<T eTq+ H|&T
eTq *jT+& eTq , eTT eT]jTT H\T @ @ Vs |<s\qT
qe# m+|#dT+{sTT.
yH byy nH swH Xdy B| = |j>\T #d Vs+ >T]+
#q eq y+H eTq H{ s]dT+< qT>=H&T. (+~
B|q`|d+<q) MTsT byy +Te\ |esq| ]|q |j>\ >T]+
9e s> #]+#sT <!
sT| |ue+ #| eTsyH s B|q\T Hj?
u> y&> q b\T < { q|&T sT d+<q @eTeT+~?
= |<s\T y&> q|&T, = |<s\T #\> q|&T sTs+>
+&& MTsT >T]+# +{sT <!
@ c> e< q|&T |<s\T sTs+> +{jT MTsT u$dTHsT?
sT H\T eT]jTT n+* d++~+q $wjT+
| & T eTq+ s T \ Td T & + H{ y s T y s T u >\T m
|j>|&Tj \TdT& +~ + #<+.
+`4
H\TMT< #s >T[\T
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n+* L&<T. k|ty#YqT |j+ MTsT H\T| +q #s >T[\
sT m+d|{ \TdT>*>s >T]+ deTj qy<T #jT+&.
|&T n< |j> H\T n+* H=|{ #jT+&. #s >T[\
sT, H\T| +q|{ qT+& deTj qy<T #jT+&. sTy #T
#s <eD &|sY |j+ H\T| yjT+&.
H\T b&> q|&T sT \TdT+<?
@ $<q+ s> sT >V+#&+ &&+~? m+<T?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 157
| { *d+<$T+f H\TqT n+* H=|{q|& eTq+
Vs|<s\ sT dT\u+> >T]+#>\T>T+. H\T CH+~jTeT
<|q sT yTT>Z\T \e eTq+<] \TdT. sT yTT>Z\T q >T[\qT
n+* *, |q sT#T= +{sTT. y{ sT *| Cq D\T +{sTT. @<H
H\TVs|<s+ H\T| +q|&T n~ H\T <s d$+# \+
]bT+~. H\T n+* H=q|&T Vs|<s+ sT yTT>Z jTT <s
H= sT D\qT #] sT d+\qT <>|sTdT+~. de#s+ yT<&T
|+`2: H\T
#s> H yT<&T sT >T]dT + ~. k<sD+> eTq+ Vs qeTT\TH H\TqT
eT]jTT n+*
n+* T \T ydT+{+. <s sT nqTu$k+.
+~ b#sT sT CH d++~+ m+{ esZ sdT+~?
sT eTT HsT H\T
yT<&T ydq >V\T \ >+<T \T sT >V\T
H{ \ >+<T\T |#jTb @+ sT>TT+~?

sT >V\T |#jTb eTq+ rdTH Vs+| < |ue+ m
+T+~?
HsT q$T jT++
y H{ = <+\T }&bjsTT nqT+& n|&T Vs+ qeT\&
nqTe> +T+<?
+`5
y>sY +q #|dt |j>+ <s eTq+ Vs m+<T qeT*?
Vs+ m $qeTeT+< \TdT+<+.
#|dt eTTqT s+&T eTT\T> #jT+&. eTTqT # qq
eTT\T> #jT+&. eTs= eTTqT n> +#+&. s+&T ;sT rdT+&. <
s +&T $Tqs y{sY u{ rdT=, | u> ] +#+&. |&T +< $T*q
u>\qT ;sT> |j+#Te#T.
s+&T ;sqT d>+ es y>sY +|+&. < qq eTT\T>
b&#dq #|dtqT, eTs= < $T*q #|dtqT yjT+&. MT neT]qT
<|+& +#+&. >+ sTy ;sqT |]o*+#+&.
@ ;sT #|dt s> ]+~? eTT\T#dq #|dt u>e <
|P]> q #|dt u>e?
| |j >+ Vs j++> eTT\T #jT e\dq neds \T|T+~.
n+<T H{H Vs+ q q eTT\T> #jT&*. B e\q Vs|
|]\+ yX\+ |] JsjT dVjT|& |<s\ #s s|&
&&TT+~.
H{ j++> eTT\T #d |jT m sT>TT+~?
H{ @ u>\T +<T &&TsTT?
@jT eed\T |jT u>eTesTT?
Vs qeT\&+ <+\T m+ |j>|&jT MT \TdT. H{
+& $$< s\ <+\T JsjT m &&j \TdT+<+.
+`6
<e& <+\ neT]qT *| qeTH < |{
< MT dVT H{ >eT+#+&. <+\ s+
eT]jTT |]eD+ Hj? y{ s } #sD\T
sV+# | @<H d++<+ +<? <+ d+, } } n>#sD\T
<+\ neT] $<H $e]dT+ ~. q |+ <s+> s<\T
+\T
#sD\T @ |qT\T sVkj +#+&. MTsT +~
s>T\ +\T |<THq n+#T\T * +{jT
s<\T LdT> +{jT #sD\T, n> #sD\T
#<TqT> +{jT HsTHsT <! |+`3: <+\ neT]
+\T @$<+> |j>|&jT MTsT u$dTHsT?
Vs yT> qs& |e# <+\T @$?
Vs N\& |e# <+\T @$?
<+ d+ n+f @$T{? MT <+ d sjT+&.
|+ <s+> +~ |{qT |P]+#+&.
|{`2
<++ |sT <+\ d+K s+ $<T\T
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 159

H{ +& e\js| +&s\T Vs H{ Vs+ H&+q
eT]jTT H{ #T ~*+#&+ q dV jT|& sTT. Vs HsT > $T+>&+
k<+<T. { <+\T Vs $d], q$T*, q eTT\T> $q+
#ksTT. $<H qeT\&+ <s #s+ #jT&+ (Mastication) n+{sT.
|d+ <e& |]\ +&s\T Vs <+\ +~ H{ =s&+
eT]jTT qeT\&+ jT\qT sVksTT. <e& n+s +&s\T Vs+
q$T|&T <e&qT |, +<, eTT+<T, yqT ~*+#&+ &&TsTT.
Vs+ q$T|&T +~ <e& eyT |, +< <\&+ MTsT >eT+#
+{sT.
<+\T Vs qeT\&+, $ds&+ && H\T <*\T Vs
\+ \T| H{ Vs+ deT+> $d]+#&+ &&TT+~. H{
+&s\T Vs dVs+ H& dVjT|&sTT. 5e b\H&
<e& n+s +&s\ <*\qT jT+dT+~.
H{ Vs+ q|&T \+ d$+# ksTT |sT>TT+<?
\+ +& Vs q$T |jT sT>TT+<?
\+ sV+# s $<T\T @yH Hj?
\+ jTT bqT \TdT+<+.
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|+&| \+ jTT #s
|H[qT rdT= d>+ es { +|+&. < {&T |+&
\|+&. |+& { u> *des |H[qT ~*+#+&. = #T\
|+& $TXe y#Y>dt rdT+&. = #T\ {+sY nj&H *|
|+& |<s | #jT+&. < @s& *`q\T|s+>T |+& |<s
<e|sTdT+~. |&T $TXe s+&T deq u>\T> #jT+&. s+&T
|H[ <eD+ deq+> +& C> rdT+&. |H[
{ dqT \+ \|+&. s+&e |H[ @MT \|+& +#+&. 45
eTTc\T sy #T d\ {+sY nj&H <eD+ |H[ \|+&.
<eD+ @yH esT\T >eT+#s? esT m+<T ]+~?
H{ Vs+ rdTq|&T L& < |jT =qk>TT+<?
njT+ H&eed #s e\q \>+<T\T d$ksTT.
~ Vs eT> #d q$T* $T+>& nqTL\+> jsT#dT+~. n|&T
Vs+ >TsT eTT< esTT+~. B u\dt (Bolus) n+{sT. H\T
dVjT+ $T+>&+ e\q ~ VsyV #sTT+~. \+ +&
\ myT C nH m+Cy T |< |< |+&|< s nDTe\qT qq nDTe\T>
esTdT+~. k<sD+> #s\T> esTdT+~. $T+> jjT++>+ L&
H& deTqjT+ |#dT + ~. yT<&T +&+ <>sZ eTCeTTK+ jT+D
+<+ +T+~. <+\, H\T dVjT+ Vs q$T* #s+ #jT&+
e\ Vs |<s\ |]eD+ $T+>& nqTe> esTT+~.
Vs |<s| |]\ |]eD+ |s>&+ e\ u+ @$T{?
Vs qeT\+& $T+ @+ sT>TT+~?
\ myTC Vs+ | #s sT|& e<eT due+ m +&*?
H{ pH esT +T+< e n_bjT|&TTHy?
+`8
>+ $seT+ H{ pH qT |+#T
MT skjTqXd b<jTT& n& pH s+>T|{ dV
rdT+& (|+`4qT #&+&). q pH ||sY eTTqT rdT= H\T|
+#+&. <|q @s&q s+>TqT s+>T|{ #d #&+&. pH $\TeqT
>T]+#+&. eT<V uq+ sy pH ||sTqT H\T MT< + |+#+&.
MT |]o\q\qT qy<T #jT+&. MT |]o\q\qT MT dVT |]o\q\
b* #&+&. d+ H\T>T pH &+>T\qT >T]+#+&.
H{ k<sD ksTT pH $\Te m+? ~ eTjTTe? sjTTe?
pH @yH esT\T >eT+#s? esT m e+~?
m+{ pH \ myTC u> #s s|>\<T?
$$< s\ Vs\qT rdTq|&T H{ pH m+{ b bwdT+~.
$$< s\ Vs|<s\qT H deTjT+ pH $\TeqT |+#+&. q$T*
$T+q sTy L& |+#+&. MT |]o\q\qT qy<T #dT& e\dq
|{qT MTs jsT#dT+&. n s\ |<s\T k] qsT <! {
|{ |P]+#&+ =+<s|&e<T. q+ deTj rdT+&. (pH $\Te 7
H my s+, pH $\Te 7 H y eT+, pH $\Te 7 +f d+
n >T]+#*.)
| |\ qT { d$+#&q \+ Vs s e< eT+ es&
&&TT+~. \ myTC Vs+ #s sT| e<eT+
nqTL*dT+~.
H{ ]> JsjT && $$< eed$?
H{ Js |jT sy Vs+ m& yT+~?
|+`4: pH d\T
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 161
MT \Tk?
|>\T ~+q|&T k+> (\+) m+<T sTT+~?
X#s Je\ (Nocturnals) >T]+ MTsT $H +{sT <! $ sy #TsT>
+{sTT. nsTT eTq+ |>{y #TsT> +&, sy $X+ rdT+{+. Xs+
eed\ eTq+ | #dTq|&T #TsT> +{sTT. n+<T eTw ~y#sT\T (Diurnal
animals) n+{sT. eTq Js eed |>{y #TsT> +&&+ e\q n~ Vs d]+
JsjT s|& d<+> +T+~. n+<T |>{y ~d H{ <s d$+# \+
\~+&TqT &T|T+~. sy s><T. k<sD+> sE eTq+ 1`1.5
s #k+.
VsyV Vs |jD+
H{ qeT\&q Vs+ $T+>&+ <s H & VsyV #sT T+~.
Vs $T+>+ @jT eed\T *d |#ksTT. +~ sU|+
VsyV jTT sD, j \D\qT $e]dT+~. |{ |]o*+
|X\ yT\T e+&.
d+#+ d&*\ e\ >& eTT<> q$T* $T+q Vs+

+&s\ s+>+> |]k*{ <*\ <s
<*\T eksTT. JsXjT+ #sTdT+~.
~ b&yq >=+ e+{ sD+. VsyV >&\T Xc d$ksTT

B |u>+ >d \T|T+~.
VsyV >&\T, dk|
+~ u>+ JsXj X>\ qTqT| +&s\qT
\T|T+~. *+{sTT.
de#s sU+ VsyV >T]+ @$T *jTCk+~?

VsyV @$<yTq sD * +T+~?
VsyV Vs+ |jD+#& Xwds+ m |j>|&TT+~?
+`9
VsyV Vs+ (food bolus) m |jDdT+< >eT<+.
b d u eTTqT rdT+&. >=+ |* u> qH |P
|+`5: d u
|PjT+&. n> s+&T +><T+|* rdT= Xu+> & b&> T&
+><T +| qH |P |PjT+&. sTy +><T+|\qT d\T u |yX|+&.
>={ |dT +><T+|qT >=+ ~ > #jT+&. +><T+|\T
>=+ <T\TTq $<H C>> |]o*+#+&.
>=+>T+& +><T+|\T <\& m H=*? qH m |#dT+~?
Vs yV +& +&s\T L& Vs +~ H& <$<+>
|#kj?
Vs yV |]k*{ #\q+
|{ |]o*+#+&. Vs yV Vs+ kH, Vs yV >&\
]> #\H |]o*+#+&.
Vs| eTT< kq+ esT m d+u$ ++~?
MTsT +eTT+<T #dq +><T+|\T ~
|j> |{ myTH b*\qT MTsT |V | <\&+
>eT+#s? n$ @$T{? VsyV d+e]D
VsH| >&\T CsT&T >TD+>\ >TsT +&s+ d&\&+
|<s d$ksTT. B Xw + (Mucus) n+{sT. +&s y#+
Xw+ #eTTsT |#d VsyV >&\ V +&s+ d&\&+
Vs+ eTT<
s>+& b&TT+~. Be\q Vs u\dt
+&s jT<d
qH|P dq +><T +| VsyV dT\u+ >
<T\T +~ CsTT+~. B &T> Vs
u\dt \+ dT\u+> < JsXjT+ JsXjT+
#syjT&+ |j>|&TT+~.
VsyV >&\T s+&T sq yT qTqT| |+`6: Vs| eTT< |]k* #\q+
+&s\qT * +{sTT. |* bs e\js +&s\T y\T|* bs
d+us +&s\T +{sTT. e\js +&s\T d++q|&T Vs|
eTT< yqT +& Vs yV u>+ eTT&T#T Vs eTT<qT +~ ]>
e& *dT+~.
d+ us +&s\ d+#+ e\q VsyV u\dt eTT+<Tu>+ b&e
Z >=+ y&\eT+~. u\dt eTT+<T <T\TT+~. +&s\ d+#
y# <* \ e\q s+ >++{ #\q+ @s& Vs u\dtqT JsXj T +
H&T T+~. |jT qT |]kdd t (Peristalsis) n+{sT. ~ njT+yT q ~,
eT]jTT njT+ H& eed Bq+ jT++#&TT+~.
VsyV Vs u\dt dT\u+> <T\& dVjT|&<$T{?
k<sD+> Vs qeT\+& $T+>L&< < =+<s|& ss>
qe< d\V*dT+{sT. m+<T? +#+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 163
JsXjT+ sTTs\T e+{~
VsH+ e~]> JsXj T + >=+ +& d+ m+<T ]yT
+~?
JsXjT+ |jT\T m sT>TsTT?
H{ Vs+ Vs+ q|&T T>Z H\T Cq H&T\T eTesTT.
H& |#<\ s|+ d+\qT yT<&T #syksTT. de#s yT<&T
$XwdT+~. yT<&T qT+& |ksyTq de#s+ #\ H&T\ <s JsXjT|
>&\qT #ssTT. ss>+<T\T yT sssk d$ksTT.
Vs+ JsXj #sTHd] JsXjT| >&\T V&] eT+e+{
\yTq e\T, s Jss k \qT d$dT+ ~. q |&T L& > sT>TT+~.
=k] y+T\T nsTTq sTy >=++ eT+> qT n|+#&+ MT
nqTueeTjT +T+~. eT+ sD+ @$T MTsT u$dTHsT?
d H& eed e\qH @s&TT+~. JsXjT +&s\ *> d+#
d&*\T Vs e\T eT]jTT s Jssk\ *| \TsTT.
Jssk\T Vs yT Ce+{ <e+ esTksTT. BH yT (chyme)
n+{sT. = |< b{H nDTe\T L& & Jsy T ds |<s\T> esTsTT.
JsXjT| +&s\T #s ]| |]# n+X+ @$T{?
\T| eT]jTT \T |jT\qT JsXjT+ m+<T sVdT+~?
JsXjT+ JsjT eTT+| <X #sTHd] JsXjT >&\ d+#\T
>TZeTTK+ |&sTT. |*+> JsXjT+ q|>T sT#TH u>+ >\
d+e]D +&s (pyloric spincter) d+#+ #+~dT+ ~. n+<Te\ +eT+
|* <] @s& nd+|Ps+> JsyTq Vs+ =~=~ y<T
+eT\+ $&T<\eT+~.
|] y+ |] y+ |] y+
eTdyjTT eTdyjTT =~> se+
eTT+<T <\&+: |
]k* qs&+: JsXjT+ |]k* yqT H&+: d\ |]eD+ yTqT
#\H\T Vs <*\T, +&s\ <*\T +eT\+ |+|T+~. n< deTjT+
#{qT+& eTs= #{ y>+> +&&+ e\ Vs+ $T> Vs |<s+ eT]+> Js+
~*ksTT. yT> qs&TT+~. e& M\T> ] JsXjT+ #s
yqT H&TT+~.
|+`7: JsXjT+ |]k{ #\q+
nd+|Ps+ > Jsy T q Vs+ d\ y<T JsXj
T + qT+& +eT\+
m+<T #sTT+~?
|]k* jT Vs+ q |<X yqT +& +&s+ d+dT+~.
n+<Te\ Vs+ eTT+<Tq +&s+ d&\TT+~. jT e\q Vs+| &
@s& JsH + <s eTT+<T H &TT+~. +&s\ s+ > @s& d+#+
< nqTd]d @s& d&*\T Vs eTT+<T ~*+#&+ &&sTT.
|]kddt #s s>&+ @jT u>\T $T& +{sTT?
|]kdd t @ ~X sT>TT+~? (VsH+ @ es qT+& yTT<\eT +~?)
|]kddt n|de~X ] @$T sT>TT+~?
y+T\jT|&T nd+|Ps+> JsyT yT s|+ q Vs+
VsH+ yqT H&& MTsT >eT+# +{sT. |+` 7 +{
es ~X ]> |]k*{ #\q ~XqT >T]+#+&.
#T+< < m&H HeTsTyd e < ><qT >eT+#s? y{ yT&
eT]jTT >=+T u> C>> |]o*+#+&. >=+T qT+& H{ es @<
<T \TTqT #&e#TqT. < sy e < > < qeT\&+ yTT<\T|&TT+~.
BH HeTsTyjT&+ n+{sT. +<T @+ sT>TT+< #|>\s? Vs|
eTT< (u\dt) +Te JsXjT+ dMT| u>+ qT+& H{ es yqT
<T\T+<qe. n+f ~ es ~X sT>TTq |]kddt #\q+.
e, >< e+{ HeTsTyd +Te jT ds k<sD+. m+<T+f >u>u
q$T*$T+q Vs \Te #dT& y{ JsXjT+ n<q| e+{
sD+ +T+~. eqe jT VsH d]|&, es|<s\qT
jT |+| sD |#s> |j>|&TT+~.
JsjT H{ yTT<\eT+< eTq \TdT. VsH+ >T+& Vs+
|jDdTq|&T JsjT ]> | <X =+ deTjT+ rdT+T+~. Js
eed Vs#\q+ $<+>q, deq \ee<T\q s><T.
\ee~ |{qT |]o*<+.
|{`3
X+ JsXjT+ U e&+ q|>T U e&+
50% 2.5 qT+& 3 >+\T 2.5 >+\T
yTT+ 100% 4 qT+& 5 >+\T 30 qT+& 40 >+\T
(|<|>T <s |jD+)
(~ e\+ d>T eyT. |<s\ <*\ e e m+ &
+T+~. ~ rdTH Vs+, deTj { esTT+T+~.)
eTq JsXjT+ ]w |]eD+ >\ d+ e+{~ <T. k> >TD+ >\
+{ sD+. eTq+ rdTH Vs{ JsXjT |]eD+ |sT>TT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 165
n> Vs|< s |]eD { Jss k \T d$ksTT. rdT=H Vs |]eD+
d++<+ +& m\|& |]eD+ Jssk\T d$d n$ JsXjT
>&\qT HXq+ #jTe#TqT.
y eTq+ #&bsTTq < Xs d]|& Vs|<s\T q|&T
Jsj jT++>+ < >TsT|{ Js+ #jT& s]dT+~. njT+
H&eed nBq+ |#d JsXjT >&\ n\& @s&, Js+
Vs+bT yTqT L& jT H{ydT+~. BH eTq+ y+T\T>
|]>Dk+. k] VsT> qT\T (belchining) edT+{sTT. n|&|&T
qT\bT =+ <e+ JsXj T + qT+& | ~* VsyV <s H{
#sT T+~. ]q y+H #r u>+ (VsyV) >=+T eT+ @s&TT+~.
JsXjT+ qT+& e\T | _ |eV+#&+ e\ sT>TT+~. JsXjT
|#s \ B <VsD> #| e#T. +{ +&s d+#\T njT++>
djT+#~ H&eed Bq+ |<e b\H& <s jT++#&sTT.
JsjT JsXjT+ \yTq e\T d$dT+< eTq \TdT. JsXjT|
>&\ qT+& d$+#& V&] eT+ eTq Xs+ >{ meTT\qT d+
Js+ #jT>*q+ \+> +T+~. eT] JsXjT+ d+ e\ ky\
u]qT+& qqT qT m s+#T+T+~? B ns+ #dTe& +~
+ #<+.
|j>X\ +
eT+ eT]jTT | |j>+
MT & qT+& s +&T |# |\T d]+#+&. | |{*jT+
C < yCH |PjT+&. eTs=< n> e~jT+&. 1 < 2 #T\
\Vq e s+&T |\| yjT+&. ns>+ sy |\qT |]o*+#+&.
MT |]o\q\qT MT HTT sjT+&.
|\ m+{ esT\T >eT+#sT?
@ |+ esT\T >eT+#sT? @ |+ esT s><T sD$T{?
eT |ue+ qT+ qT s+q<$T{?
JsXjT+ >+<T\T \yTq e\T d$+q|{ JsXjT| >&
= >+<T\T Xw |<s d$ksTT. ~ JsXjT| >&\| |\T#Hq
bs @s&TT+~. ~ eT |ue+ qT+& JsXj sdT+~. |{*jT+
C #d | JsXj T | >&\ Xw + (mucus) #d | b\e#T. Xw ds +
+&&+ e\H JsXjT+ d+ e\ ky\ e\q m+{ V s>+&
sD b+<T+~.
JsXjT+ qT+& |e\ Vs |jD+
Vs+ JsXjT+ qT+& q|e |y+q|&T n~ sd+ e+{
$TXeT+ +T+~. q|e |y+q|&T Vs >\ eT due+
>\ d{H (Secretin) eT]jTT =*dkH (Cholecystokinin) nH VsqqT
d$+|Cd T + ~. VsqT eT+, jT + eT]jTT q |e >& Jss k \qT
|s eTsd+, sssd+ eT]jTT +sk\qT d$+|CksTT.
q|e m+<T b&e> yT*\T ] #T +T+~?
q|e\ XwD m sT>TT+~?
q |>T\ |* \+ +& ye+{ sD\T Vs+ bw
|<s\qT | yT q |< m+| #dT XwksTT. q|>T\ >&\T m\| &
q |]eD+ +& nDTe\H >VksTT. |< nDTe\T $T*bsTT. 9e
s> MTsT bkbs >T+& |<s\ <* >T]+ #~ysT <! $wj \qT
q |e\ ]> XwD b*#&+&.
+`10
||sY >=+ eT]jTT e+&+q \T
10I20 d+.MT. =\\T >\ #sT ||sTqT rdT+&. < eT&
s+&T es\T n+{+ >=+ #jT+&. |& 20I20 d+.MT. =\\T>\
eTs= #sT ||sT rdT+&. < L& |q #| qT> >=+ j sT#jT +&.
< yTT<{ >=+ <s+&. <s>*>s? |&T 20I20 d+.MT. =\\T
>\ eTs= ||sT qT rdT+&. < |+ #|qT Mq eT&\ T eT&e+&.
s+&T es\qT n+{+ >=+ #jT+&. MT eT&\ >=+ js+<qe.
< yTT<{ >=+ <s+&. <s>*>s?
s+&T >={\ |j+q \ yX b* #&+&. yX\+
& |++<? y |]qT >eTd sD\T \TdT+&.
q|e >&\ |* \+ y\ d+K y e+{ sD\T +{sTT.
M{ +# w\T (Villi) n+{sT. y e+{ sD\T | eT&\ |+`8:
>\ d++<yT+{? | >=+
q |e |* \+ +& +#w\T nH sD\T q|e\
|* >&\ |]\ yX |+#TsTT. <s syTq eT&\ Vs+
me d| +& Xs+ >V+|& keTs+ |sT>TT+~.
& ]> #s\ @jT eed\T *d |#dTHjT MTsT u$dTHsT?
eed\T JseT+&\eT+ *d |#dTHjT u$dTHs? m+<T?
m+<T <T?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 167
|DC\+ VsH+ Xs+ +& n+s nejTy\+{H
|yTq sD * +T+~. m+<T+f uV ||+#+
sX H[\ qT+& eTq+ rdTH Vs+ e\q *> y$ < yTq u skjTq
B|q\T B re+> |u$+ #dT+{sTT. B eT\+>
Xw
+
Xw > + ~ +&s sD\qT, H& sD\qT deTqjT |sT#T+
]> nH <*\ \jT+> |e\T n_e~ #+<sTT.
*+|t >+<T\T
JsjT, XwD, $dsq jT\ q b Jssk\qT
\|&+, Vs |<s\qT VsyV ~*+#&+
due+ eeTeT+~.
|+`9: q|e $\dt JsH + H& eed H& D\ L&q m+ d+w y T q
H& e\j * +T+~. Xdy\T eedqT s+&e yT<&T> |\TksT.
Xs+ s>s< |d+<q\qT s +&e yT<&T m |#sTTk+<H n+X+|
# |]X<q\T sT>TTHsTT. y~ s< eed 70% es VsH+
#s y~ s\qT d+V]+ jT |+| #s\| +B]+#& +T+~.
Jseed |e d+K +& u]j\T JseT+&\+ H&
eed D\ m nqTd+<q+ #dT>\T>TTHj Xdy\T eT
|]X<q\ <s \TdTH |jT+ #dTHsT. T> d JsH+
H&DC\ deTT<jT+ e\+ JsjT s|&+ < n|&|&T * ]\
d+ \T |+|&+ es |]$T+ +& eTTKyTq de#s |+| qs{H
MTsY |yT +T+< \TdT+~. Xs+ ~>Te u>+ + s+&e
yT<&T > |\e& Jse T+&\+ H&eed b\+ |< yT<&T d+~+#&
+T+~. ~ =+es eTq eqd ksTT ssTT+#&+bT Xs+
= y<T\qT ssTT+#&+ \ b eVdT+~. eqd & H|&T
$s#H\T e&+ +{ |]dT\T MTsT nqTu$+# +{sT.
~ eTq @$T \T|T+~?
s+&e yT<&T |ue+ m+>H q|{ ~ *$\T, +#&+
< sj\T rdTe&+ e+{ |qT\qT sV+#<T. VsyV qT+&
bjTTe es <<| 9 MT. b&e * JsH& eed> (Enteric Nervous
System) |\Te& s+&e yT<&T nH H&T\T bs\ s|+ JsH|
>&\ $T& +{sTT.
<<| 100 $T*jTq H& D\T s+&e yT<&T $T& +{sTT. ~
yqTbeTT < |sBjT H& eed H& D\ d+KqT $T+ +T+~.
JsH& eed eTV H& D\ deTT<jT Js eed jTT n+s
||+#+, n+<T >\ |<s\ >T]+ \TdT&, nqTu #+<&
&&TT+~. Vs qq sDTe\T> $q+ #jT&+, bw\qT
>V+#&+ eT]jTT es\qT $d]+#&+ +{ JejT\qT |s#&+
eT]jTT deTqjT+ #jT& nH skjT |<T\T, j+ $TXDsD
$<H\T, \jT<yTq +&s d+#\T <y+ {> Jsj #s\
sT>T +{sTT.
s +&e yT<&T q<q djT |d+<q\qT, CH+ ~jT X * +&&+ e\
Jseed d++~+q mH |qT\ sVDqT yT<&T d++<+ +&
d++> jT+dT+~.
Js eed |<s\T dCe> se&, jT y& M\T>
eed + d+w @s& +&e#Tq Xdy\T u$dTHsT.
q|e+ jT @$T <T\TT+~?
es\ $dsq jTT s+&T |<q esZ<s\T |q #|&sTT. s+&+{
e\+ |e\ <s ]> |jT @~?
sT, \eD\T, jT]j e+{ Js+ es\T s+
<s eT|+ &\T, #s + yTT<q $ds nejTy\
es\ $dsq #] y{ <s $d]+#&jsTT.
Js+ Vs |<s+ eT\+ s|+ $d]+ |&TT+~.
XwD+ |<s\T Xs+ qT+& jT |+|+#&& |<|>TqT

#sTsTT. |jT m sT>TT+~?
>T|&T $T*bsTTq & { b& n<T&T + rdT= eTT<
#jT+&. sy < dT+> ] #&+&. @+ >eT+#sT? n<T&T
+ { b& { |\T+~ <!
nedsyTq, es |<s\T |< |>TqT #]q|&T < { |<|>T
>&\T XwksTT. |]k{ s+ >\T es| < s\qT |< |>T qT+& |wH+
~*ksTT. |< |>T =H m&eT u>+ eT \Te #d {+
|#dT+~. { |q'XwD+ #+<TT+~. $T*q es\T |<|>T e]
u>yT q |wH+ \Te #jT &sTT. <Ts+Z <+ L&q |dT | s+>T
esH k<sD+> eT\+ (Faecal matter) n+{+. <T|] ~ Xs+ qT+&
bjTTe (Anus) <s jT $d]+|&TT+~.
eT\ $dsH Xs+ @ u>+ jT+dT+~?
#s jT+e? njT+e? m+<T?
|<|e e] u>+ +& s+&T +&s bs\T bjTTe jTT d+e]D
+ & s \T> (Anal sphincter)> @s & sTT. | * d + e]D + & s +
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 169
nj T + + >qT uV d + e]D + & s +
|wH+ jT++> |#dT+~. $ eT\$dsq esZ
jT+ksTT.
d+e]D VsH+ + m&H d+e]D +&s\T
+&s+ Hj? m&?
bjTTe y e q Xs y*q |]eD+
H me <y\qT rdTH&qT+<+.
n|&T me> q <e+ Xs+ qT+& @$<+ >
|+`10: bjTTe d+e]D +&s+
=\+#&TT+~?
+es eTq+ $$< eed\ T eT&> |#d Js jT |jT &&+
#X+.
|jT dCe> k>& y*q X m& qT+& deTLsTdT+~?
|e\ qT+& s+ #]q JsyTq Vs |<s\T @eTesTT?
Vs+ qT+& X b+<\+f n~ sD+ #+<*. +<Td+ XdjT
s>*. |jT Vs+ qT+& X m $&T<\eT+~?
#d jT H yjTT>DT\ >&\ <s s+ #sTT+~.
& qT+ ms sD |y+ Xs+ n D\ ds|s
#jT&TT+~. n< deTjT+ s+ sH & & }|]T\
yjTT>DT\ #sT T+~. Xd jT n~ jT |+|&TT+~. D
bw\T sD+ #+~ X $&T<\eT+~.
$&T<q X D\ m& \e +T+~?
eTq Xs+ me> q \eD\qT jT |+| eed @~?
Xs+ qT+& \eD\T @ esZ+ <s jT eksTT?
XdjT #d, #d jT \ <s >* XddT + {+. njT++>
]> #s\qT djT+#~ H& eed eTCeTTK+ jT+dT+~.
XdjT ]>|&T <s$q+ <*\ <s s'|+s ~*+
}|]T\ d+#, y#\T *dT+ ~. n~ H *q >* }|]T\
<s s+ #sTT+~. H DC\ s+ <s syD #jT&TT+~.
d+wyTq Jsj $<q+ nH s\ nejTy\T, nejTe eed\T
deTqjT+ |#ksTT. JsjT H{qT+& bjTTe es y|+ q
VsH+ JsjT sT>TTq|{ B Xdeed, s |dsD eed,
H& eed\ deTqjT+ m+ neds+. b Vs+ sD+ #+<&+
|<s\ syD, X < yTT<q |jT\T #T#dTe. n
s>qsTT <| { <s|& q Je eed\ *bsTT.
\ |<\T
^*H, |H, sT >V\T, skjTq >V\T, sTyTT>Z\T, Vs u\dt, |]kddt,
yT, d+e]D +&s+, d#w\T, eTCeTTK+, yT<&T +&+.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
Vs+ d]> JsyT XwD ] X $&T<\#d |jT\ eTq+ rdTq Vs+ qq sDTe\
s|+ $&>=&*.
eqe Js eed +&s eT]jTT H& eed\T s+& bZ+{sTT.
Js eed | H& eed 100 _*jTq H& D\T +{sTT. $ +&s d+#\T, s
|dsD, JsjT eT]jTT bw\ XwD, VsH+ s jT\qT deTqjT|sTksTT.
JsXjT+ d$+#& ^*H nH VsH * ]\ |#<\qT *dT+~. |H nH eTs VsH
* nDydT+~.
H\TqT n+*, H=&+ e\q dT\u+> sT >TsT|>\+.
sT, ydq <>sZ d++<+ * +{sTT. eTT eT]jTT H\T|q Tq skjTq >V\T d+ \qT
H& |#<\ s|+ yT<&T #syksTT. <s ydq, sT >T]+#>\T>T+.
d$+#&q \+ s e< e * +& |+&|< s\ Js jT &&TT+~. djT+#~
H& eed jT+D \ >+<T\ qT+& $&T<q \+ Vs eT> #jT&+ e\q
qeT\&+, $T+>&+ dT\ueTeT+~.
H{ Vs+ >\ +&sjTT u>yT H\T. ~ sT \TdTH nejTe+ eyT +& H{
Vs+ Vs ~*+#&+, \T|&+, $T+>&+ e+{ |qT\qT L& sVdT+~.
$T+> |jT d++~+q deTqjT+ yT<&T +&+ #s +<+ Bq+ +T+~.
JsH+ jTT +&s\ d+# d&*\ e\q s+>+{ #\q+ @s& Vs eTT+<T Hf
jTqT |]k\ddt n+{+. +&s s+>+ JsH+ n+{ |jDdT+~.
njT++> ]> |]k\ddt qT djT+#~ H& eed eT]jTT Js H& eed jT+ksTT.
JsXjT| +&s d+#\ eT\+> JsXjT+ Vs+ \T& @s& ns|Tq |<syT yT.
+eT\+ yT |yX jT++# +&s |] < d+e]D +&s+ n+{+.
\yTq eTyT q HCl JsXj T + P qT eTjT T+> +#T b{qq T Js+ #d m+Cy T #s \
H
&&TT+~.
JsXjT+ Jssk\T Vs Js+ #d yT $TXeT+> esTksTT. <H yT n+{sT.
JsXjT+ d$+# e\ e\q < V s>+& JsXjT >& Xwds+ sdT+~.
Vs =s&, qeT\& <e&qT |, +<, yqT, eTT+<T ~| Vs $ds&+
<e& |]\ +&s\T eT]jTT <e& n+s u>+ +&s\T &&TsTT.
q|e $ |]\ yX |+ bw\qT >V+#&+ &&TT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 171
Js eed | H& eedqT k++> Js+s H& eed n+{sT. B s+&e yT<&T n
L& |\TksT.
|< |e qT+& es\qT eT\+ s|+ bjTTe qT+& jT |+|&& bjTTe e<qTq uV
bjTTe d+e]D +&s+ eT]jTT n+s bjTTe d+e]D +&s+ jT+ksTT.
Vs|<s\ sD, syD eT]jTT $j>+ =s JsjT, XdjT, s|dsD e+{ Je
jT \ eT< deTqjT+ neds+ . j |jT \T d]> s]+#& +&s eT]jTT H& jT+D\T
&&sTT.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. * ] n+f @$T{?(AS1)
2. eTq+ q Vs Js+ #jT& Xs+ @jT eed\T &&sTT?(AS1)
3. Vs |<s\ ydq * |+#TT+< s| nH&T. n yK dsq<H? m?(AS1)
4. |]k\ddt eT]jTT d+e]D +&s\ >T]+ sjT+&.(AS1)
5. +< q Jseed u> |]o*+#+&. ~ @$T{? ~ s]+# |qT\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
6. +~ y q sD\T \|+&.(AS1)
(m)H\T n+* H=|T <s sT s> \TdT>\+.
(_) Vs |<s\T y&> q|&T sT *jT<T.
(d) s+ >C ksTT Zq|&T eTq * ydT+~.
(&) q|>T #TT= q || e~]> +T+~. |X`5
7. +~ y eT< +& u<\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
(m) u\dt`yT (_) q|>T`|<|>T
(d) edwH`sT$THwH (&) yTT<{ yT<&T`s+&e yT<&T
8. MT HsT q$T jT++. n m #|>\e?(AS1)
9. edwH n+f @$T{? n+<T && $$< s\ <+\qT >T]+ $e]+#+&.(AS1)
10. Vs|<s\T H{ qT+& VsyV <s JsXj #s esZ+ +&s eed jT+D @
$<+> |#dT+~?(AS1)
11. q|>T #TT= nH eTT&T\T> +&{ >\ sDyT<H +<? JsjT n<$<+>
&&TT+~?(AS1)
12. +~ u>\ |]k*ddt $<T\qT \T|+&.(AS1)
(m) VsyV (_) JsXjT+ (d) q|>T (&) |<|>T
13. JsH& eedqT s+&e yT<&T> |]>D+#&+ m+es deT+d+?(AS1)
14. Vs|< s\qT #dqy+H sCwt *> +<H&T. w q *> <q ~. <e\q sCwt
*yjT&+. w * yjTb&+ ]+~?(AS1)
15. sT eT]jTT ydq @$<+> d++<+ * H&T?(AS1)
16. Vs|< s\ #\q+ MT |]o*+q +&s d+esD\ T @$T{? y{ >T]+ | + > $e]+#+&.(AS1)
17. \ >+<T\ H\T eTdT=b @eTeT+~?(AS2)
18. JsjT $T& q H&T\ deTqj ns+ #dTe& |Xe[ jsT#jT+&.(AS2)
19. q|e\ s+, b&e VsH+ e~]>H +& @+ sT>TT+~?(AS2)
20. \+ jTT #sqT ns+ #dT& |+&| m+{ |j>+ #XsT? |j> |< $<H\qT
>T]+ $e]+#+&.(AS3)
21. sT >T]+#T n+* jTT bqT s]+# q |j> d+#+&.(AS3)
22. MT bsX\ >+<\jT+ qT+& * d++~+q de#s eT]jTT \qT d]+ y~
j sT#jT +&.(AS4)
23. Vs|<s\ qT+& sT d+y<q yT<&T #s e u + ^d #|+&.(AS5)
24. VsyV |]k* <* \qT #| + ^d, u>\qT >T]+#+&. VsyV |* \+
Xwds+ jTT eXqT $e]+#+&.(AS5)
25. q|>T + #w\ sD *| + ^jT+&. Jseed, s|dsDeed\ >\
dVd++< $e]+#+&.(AS5)
26. Vs|<s\ ydq < y{ #dqy+H * |s|+#&TT+~. B d+#
^jT+&.(AS5)
27. H{ qT+& JsXjT+ es Vs|<s\ <*\qT #| |{ ^jT+&. Vs <*\ @ @
H&T\T, +&s\T &&sTT.(AS5)
28. byy |j> |_+_+# sH ^d, < d]bjT H< sjT+&.(AS6)
29. $ds jT+yT q JsXj MTsT m n_q+~ksT ? |jT m deTqjT+ #jT &TT+~.(AS6)
30. m+ y$<+ L&q Je |jT\qT >T]+q MT uy\ $qT sjT+&.(AS7)
31. |dT bs+X <w |T=, Vs+ rdT=H deTjT+ n\yT #dTy*q @ s+&T
n+X\qT >T]+ MT $TT d\V ksT?(AS7)
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. eTq <+\ neT] w 3:2:1:2 nsTT B 1 < ddT+<+f ````````````````````````````.
2. e+dT\ Bs X+K\T Jseed ``````````````````````````````` u>+ $q+ #jT&sTT.
3. JsjT+ d$+#& \yTq eT+ ```````````````````````````````.
4. ``````````````````````````
+& |D>V\T yT<&T de#s #syksTT.
5. \+ jTT pH due+ ```````````````````````````.
6. +~ |s #<e+&. dsq |<\ U\T |P]+#+&.
(1) ````````````````````````````
VsH ksTT V#T>TZ\ |*+> * u<\T eT]jTT Vs
|<s\ $j>+ <s|& +{sTT. JsXjT+ +& q ueq +f eT] Vs+ rdTy\
n|+#<T . eTs= VsH. (2) ````````````````````````` d$+#& * +Z ydT + ~. eTq+ Vs
rdT=q|&T H{ # > qeT\+ sT>TT+~. B=s (3) ````````````````````````` +&s\T q$T
|jT &&TsTT. nsTT (4) ````````````````````````` <e&\ +&s\T, <e&\T | , +< eTT+<T,
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 173
yq <\& < qeT\& (entric nervous system) &&sTT.(5) ``````````````````````````````
H&T\T <e&\ +&s\ <*\qT jT+ksTT.
(6) `````````````````````````````
H&eed sD+> \+ e+, \+ Vs
\|+, qeT\&+ eT]jTT dT\Te> $T+>&+ sT>TsTT. \+ (7) ``````````````````````
|+&|<s\qT #s\T> esTqT. < |*+> Vs qeT\&+ eT]jTT $T+>&+ e\q
VsyV #s + (8) ``````````````````````èT]jTT (9) ``````````````````````````` e\q jT++#&sTT.
H\T sT>V+ qT sTq >V+#T (10) ``````````````````````````` H& eTTKyTq~.
1. |H, ^*H, >dH, d{H
2. ^*H, |H, d{H, >dH
3. n+sZ +&s\T |]\ +&s\T, e\jT +&s\T, \Te +&s\T
4. |]\ +&s\T, n+sZ +&s\T, yT& +&s\T, b&yq +&s\T
5. 5e b\ H&, 2e b\ H&, 5e eTTK H&, yqT H&
6. +<H& eed, |]\ H&eed, d+ H& eed
7. |C, dTC, >\C, nyTC
8. yT&T nu+>{, d]yT, 8e yqTH&, b\ H&, 7e b\ H&
9. yT<&T +&+, yT&T nu+>{, eT<yT<&T
10. 6e b\H&, 5e b\ H&, 10e b\H&, <H&
dsq de<H >T]+#+&
1. +~ @ d+<s+ ns> sT #&>\T>Te. ( )
(m) H\T| #s ydT=q|&T (_) H\T| #s <eD bdq|&T
(d) H\T n+* H=|{q|&T (&) qeT\+&, <| +& y+H eT+q|&T
2. |]k*ddt #\q+ m+<T+f ( )
(m) \Te +&s\ d+#+ e\q (_) e\jT+ +&s\ d+#+ e\q
(d) njT+ H&eed jT+D e\q (&) Jssk\ |ue+ e\q
3. JsXjT+, +eT\+ s#TH # +& d+e]D +&s+ ( )
(m) ]j (_) |] (d) q (&) >d
4. +#w\ @ u>+ <s >C eT]jTT nyTH e\ XwD sT>TqT ( )
(m) m|B*jT D\T (_) s XH[\T (d) Xwsd H\T (&) |e
5. * d#q\ jT++# yT<&T u>+ ( )
(m) yT&T (_) & mdtd|H (d) d]yT (&) eT< yT<&T
6. eqe\T n+sZ <Vq jT++ e+{ysT. m+<T+f ( )
(m) Vs |<s\T JsyT X $&T<\eT+~ (_) XdjT <s CO y\Te]ksT
2
(d) JsjT e] <X es\qT $d]ksT (&) Xe+yTq Jssk\qT d$ksTT

nqT+<+
eqe JsjT eT] d\ $wsD <]rdq #] sTEe
&T| {
sE \y sTCeTTq $Tw>H B|\ + bsY eH ed+# 19 d+es\ dsTT+{
e]H nH d & |e<XT Tb |* &T | T{ >jT+ nsTT+~. <su >+ >&\qT JsXj
=\T#T+ |< >jTyT+~. reyTq ske+ sT>T+~. y+H d y<T&T & ;e+{qT
d+ |*|+#sT. jTq >j Xu|] jT eq }|]T\T eT]jTT JsXjT u>\qT
|* H{ >j T{&T. e]H &+ # weT &sY u$+#&T. eTsTd{ sE dsTT+{
e]H J$+ +&{ #d & ;e+{ Xsbj&T. qq y< |]Cq+, H| D |j +
>j #d k< yTq +es n J$ |+# |jT + #X&T. <<| s +&T d+es\
nq+s+ >jT+ |P]> e+~. n JsXjT+ Xs >&\ *dbe&+ e\q |<
s+<+ @s&+~. >j+ =+ u>+ dV y{ b*q eT @s&+~. B <s dsTT+{
e]H JsXjT+ ]> #s\qT #&>*>&T. & ;e+{ e]HqT m&eTy| | s+<+ >T+&
<sT n+>T\ b&e>\ >={ &T| |+| Jssk\qT d]+#&T. < n+X\qT >T]+#
|jT + #X&T. Vs|< s <s+{ s+<+ >T+& JsXj T + e~y&T. < =+d| &T |H
+ b+> Js+ nsTTq sTy <| |]X<q\qT #dy&T. mH |j>\T #d JsjT
d++~+ nH = $wj\qT qT>=H&T.
n|{es JsXjT+ >T]+ eTq+ q Vs &+ y& *dT+< jT+++{<
|*jTuf +&+{< ss \T> u$+#ysT. & ;e+{ |j >\T Js jT >T]+ n|{es
q n_bj\+{ |{|+#\T #XsTT. 1882e d+es+ pH 16e Bq jTq q |]X<q\
ks+X |{+#&T. ~ y<s+>+ qq |]X<q\ H+~ |*+~.
& ;e+{ q |]X<q\ \TdTq $wj\T
Vs+ JseTeTq deTjT+ JsXjT+ c> m+{ esT +& ds+> (1000 F/
380 C) +T+~.
ss sd+ sT +& n~ |]eD+ V&] eT+ +T+~.
sssd+ JsXjT+ \Te #jT&<T. Vs+ JsXjT+ #]q|&T eyT d$dT+~.
Vs+ JsXjT+ #s>H JsjT yTT<\eT+~.
Vs+ H{<s rdTbsTTH JsXj T + Vs+ #] * rsTT+~. (s+<+ <s Vs
|* |+|y&T.)
y<s+>+ JsjT d++~+ = $wj\ yTTyTT<{ $wsD\T nsTTq|{ & ;e+{
|j>\ |*\T, * e& >\ sDyT$T? JsH+ ]> $wj\T yT<&T m \TdT+~?
@ sD+ Jss k \T d$+#&sTT? Vs+ Jss k \ *d $<+ > @+ dV jT|&T T+~? Js |jT
dV> sT>TT+<? < H&, +&s eed\T e+{ s eed\T L& bZ+{j? +{ eTsH
= |X\ <] rd+~. y<s+>+ qq |]X<q\ <V<|&+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 175
bs+
8
nqTe+
eTq#T q $X\ ||+# |]o*+qsTT +#q JesdT\T
|ksTT. Jes s+&T $wj\T eTq* n+ Xs >T]#ksTT.
y| bD{ +& n<TyTq y$<+, |]o*+#d eTsy| y{eT<
+& ksb\T # +> n|ksTT. Je\T m |]DeT+ #+<j
ns+ #dTy\+f y$<\qT, ksb\qT ns+ #dTy* +T+~.
@<H JeC |]DeT+ ]+~ n n+f n~ e\+ esTqT +&
esT <]rdq n+X\qTL& *jTCdT+~. nsTT |]DeT+ m
#T#dT+T+~? ~ HeT~>, ds+> sT>TT+< VsT> q|\+>
sT>TT+<? |]DeT+ = Je\qT < _qyTq y{ sb+~+#&
eyT |]$TyTq<? |T bs+ |T |jT <s k<sD+>
|f Je\T *<+&T\ \D\qT b+<&+b = = \D\T L&
|+b+<TjT HsTH+ <! sTy ]> +{ = esT Jes
e# >T]+|<q = \D\ <]rksTT.
= \D\T m qeTesTT?
|]DeT+ *<+&T\ qT+& ysd+> ekj?
|]DeT+ M{ b @yTH +T+<?
bs+ | $wj\+{ #]<+.
= \D\T ` y$<\T (Characters and variations)
k] MT T++ >T]+ +#+&. MT neHq\ @ @
\D\ b*\THsTT? MTsT >eT+q n+X\ |{ sjT+&. +{b|
s+>T, ET s+, s+>T, eTT, eTTK+, #$ yT, uqy* eTT<, MTsT
176 10e s> nqTe+
>T]+#>*q n+X\ C_ sb+~#+&. |{ y| q \D\T
eTs=y| n$ neTqT b* Hj, HqqT b* Hj sjT+&.
m \D\ e MT *<+&T\qT b* He?
MT *<+&T\ sTe] +& eyT |dTq b*\T @yH
Hj? n$ @$T{?
n$ m& qT+& e +{jT e u$dTHe?
$wj\ >T]+ \TdT& eTs= + #<+.
+`1
q \D\qT MT neTeT, HqeT, jT\ b* |{ sjT+&.
|{`1
\+ H q~ neT q~ neTeT, HqeT, jT\ q$
]+>T\ ET HqeT
q, MT neTq, MT neTeTq |+# \D\T @$T{?

, MT neTeT |+# \D\T @$?
MT neTeT qT+& \D \T m d+$T+#jT e nqT+THe?
q, MT neTq +& MT neTeT |+# \D \T @yH Hj?
MT neT \D\qT m&qT+& b+~ +T+< e nqT+THe?
+`2
MT s> MT dVT\ mesH sT>T] m+| #dT +&. +~ |{
q \D\qT |]o*+ sjT+&.
|{`2
MT dVT #s+ #$ yT\T uqy* qT<TsT b&e qT>T&T s \D\T
|sT s+>T (n+T/ d#> ) eTT< s+>T
MT \D\qT mesH dVT b\+&. m \D\T MT, MT

dVT {> qT >eT+#sT?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 177
MT \D\T me> MT *<+&T\qT b* +{j? MT dVT\qT
b* +{j?
MTsT MT *<+&T\+f _q+> +&&+, MT dVT\+f _q+>
+&&+ f n u$dTHs? m+<T?
|+-1: nejTy\ y$<\T
<>sZ d++<+ >\ deTV\ #+~q Je\ eT< >\ \D \ +& u< \qT
y$<\T n+{sT. e+Xbs+|s+> eq = \D+ L& n|&|&T
y$< qee#T.
y$<\ >T]+#>*> +{j?
= \D\T | |+#+& <>T= eTq+ >T]+# $<+> L&
+{sTT. (9e s> y$< eT]jTT eZsD nH bs+ syTq s+&T
yTT\ | MTsT #dq >TsT#T+&.)
+`3
sD < &T jT $H\qT |]o*+#+&.
sj se& (kesD d+) me jT\qT, $H\qT
|]o*+#+&.
s+> q s+&T $H\qT >eT+#>*>s?
$ ysT> +&& sDyT$T? ($H\T n+&\qT+& @s&jT
MTsT |T bs+ HsTHsT)
y$ <\T m+<Te\ eTTKyTq $> u$+#*? J$ < Hu y$ <\T
@$<+> |j>+ *ksTT.
Xu\T> y$<\qT >T]+, | y{ bqT >T]+ m+<s Je
Xdy\T n<jTq+ #dH HsT. eTTK+> 19e X+ yTT<{ Xdy\T
m+ X$T+#sT. y] w |*+>H y$<\T m #T#dT+THsTT n$
sTy s\ m n+~+#&TTHjTH~ eTq+ \TdT>*>+. 19e
X+H $wjT+ mH |j> TTEe\qT n+~+q >=| Xdy
>sY CVH yT+&. n w >T]+ n<jTq+ #<+.
y$ <\T m @s&sTT? n$ @$<+ > sT y s\ n+~+#&jT
178 10e s> nqTe+
\TdTe&+ d+1857e d+es+ >sY CVH yT+& |]X<q\T
bs+_+#sT. yT+& dj <X #+~q eT >TsTe. jTq q |j >\qT
#jT& |j>X\H < $X$<\jH mqT<T. q #] H
q |j>\qT #dT+&y&T. @&T d+es\T w #d q dTBs |j>\
de#s, |]X<H ks D+> $e]d yd+> sd |#T]+#&T.
yT+& nH yTT\qT |]o*+q sTy s yTT\T |j>\
# nqTL\eT ssD e#&T. qT |]o*+q n+X\qT >T]+ qqT |+-2: >>sY CH
H |+#THy&T. sy |D[qT d<+ #dT |j >\T #jT &+ yT+&
<s q |X\T de<H\qT b+<\ XsTT+#TH&T. n+<T>qT
34 s\ #+~q |~y\ s yTT\| n<jTq+ #X&T.
s yTT\qT C>> |]o*d yTT mH \D\ $T>y{H
ysT> +&{ yT+& >T]+#&T. <VsD = yTT\T b&e> +f,
= b{>, = >T+&{, |dT| s+>T $H\qT * +f, eT]= eTT&\T
|&, |#> +& $H\qT * +{sTT. yT+& 7 \ es \D\T
>\ s yTT\qT q n<jTq+ d+ mqTH&T. |{`3qT |]o*+#+&.
1. |]| $H \ s+ &\qT >T]+#T` $H \T >T+&+> Hj
< eTT&\T * Hj n |]o*+, >T+& eT]jTT eTT&\T >\
y{ m+#TH&T.
2. ;<\T < n+s#<+ s+>T &\qT >T]+#T` $q ;<\T
< n+s#<+ b*bsTTq |dT|, |Xe+yTq |dT| eT]jTT s+C
s+>T>, |# s+>T q$ HsTT. s+>T u<+ #&>H
|dT+~. m+<T+f $q e#+ bs<s+> +T+~ {.
3. $q e#+ s+>T &qT >T]+#T` $q e#+ \> (\ |P\T q
y) &<, &<, eTT<TsT ><TeT s+>T *#T\T \ <
+& +&$.
4. |]| |\+ jTT s+ &\T >T]+#T` |]| |\+ +&T> <
qTqT|> eT]jTT H=\T *> +T+~. H=\T *q |\+ +\
eT< H=\Tq+<Tq |\ +\T eTT&\T|& +{sTT.
5. n|]| |\+ jTT s+>T &\T >T]+#T` n|]| |\T +f
qT+ eTT<TsT |# < |dT|s+>T +{sTT.
6. |c\ kq+ &\T >T]+#T` êd+ < Ksd+. |c\T ^y\
+f +&+ b&eH ^y\ +{sTT. y Ksd+ nsTT XK\
es >T#+ >, >TT\ T> +{sTT. yTT\ +&+ e] u>+ n&T qT
>eTd y&\T> e]qT #&e#T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 179
|{`3: yT+& s yTT\ (F1 s+ d+sD) m+| #dT=q |<q \D\T
\D+ VsZ \D+ n+sZ \D+ F2 s+ X+

\+ \T|
|w+ s+>T 705:224 3.15:1
êd+ Ksd+
|w+ q kq+ 651:207 3.14:1
|dT| |#
$q+ s+>T 6022:2001 3.01:1
>T+& eTT&\T
$q+ s+ 5474:1850 2.96:1
#<TqT e+s ]q
jT s+ 882:299 2.95:1
|# |dT|
jT s+>T 428:152 2.82:1
b&e b{
+&+ b&e 787:277 2.84:1
180 10e s> nqTe+

7. +&+ b&e u<+ >T]+#T` +&+ b&e yssT s\T> +T+~
( | yTT b&e ds \DyT +T+~).
s>e+yTq yTT\qT eT{ |+ @~ b&e, @~ b{ s
#+~q< \TdT+~. \D |]o*+#&+ d+ #d |j>\ 6 qT+& 7
n&T>T\ b&eq yTT 3/4 ` 1 1/2 n&T>T\ b{ yTT d+sD + sT|sT.
Je\ $w \D\T (Characters), \D+X\T (Traits)> VsZ+
nejT, m\|& \D sDyTq s\qT (Factors)
* +{jT yT+& |]\q #X&T. n> | \ qT *+# \D +X\T
s+> *q Je\T y Hu + # +{jT L& yT+&
u$+#&T. |dT+ j \D+X\qT #| s yTT\ qs+q
n< \D\T | +& +{jT yT+& }V+#&T. $H\T \D+X\qT
|d]> y{ qs+ qT+& b+~ +&e#T.
q yTT\T eT \D+X\qT, $H\ @$<+> n+<CksTT? b&yq
yTT\T m\|& b&e yTT\H #kj? yT+& mHH |j>\qT
#d |$<yTq |X\ de<H\qT djT+> \TdT& w #X&T.
yT+& #dq |j>\ <VsD\T
yT+& @ |j>+ #dH < d++~+q n+X\+{ m|{|&T
sd|THy&T. +~ n+X\qT |]o*d yT+& m |j>\T sV+#&,
m |\BsD\T ]b&, m yTT\| |j>\T #X& eTq+ \TdTe#T.
1. yTT<{ |j>+ 15 yTT\| 60 |\BsD\T.
2. s+&e |j>+ 10 yTT\| 58 |\BsD\T yT+& q |j >\ s yTTqT
m+| #dT& sD\T
3. eT&e |j>+ 10 yTT\| 35 |\BsD\T
dwyTq \D\T * +&&+
4. H\Ze |j>+ 10 yTT\| 40 |\BsD\T.
~*+> |c\T * +&&+
5. <e |j>+ 5 yTT\| 23 |\BsD\T |s> d+|s + s|&
+
6. se |j>+ 10 yTT\| 34 |\BsD\T d+D nqTe> +&&+
7. @&e |j>+ 10 yTT\| 37 |\BsD\T.
yT+& mH s\T> |j>\T sV+q|{ y{q{ &]+
k<sD s|+ es& eTq+ >eT+#e#T.
eTTK \D = s\ es VsZ+ #d yTT\H yT+& q
|j>\ d+ mqTHy&T. n+{ yTT\T \D X<C> (pure
breed) yT+& |s=H&T. <VsD s $H\T |dT| < |#
s+>T eyT +{sTT. { eTq k\u+ d+ \D\qT |dT| Y
qT, |#qT y qT dksT. |sds es \D\qT * +&,
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 181

X<C (Pure beeds) #+~q yTT\qT yT+& m+#TH&T. y{ eT<
|s|s>d+|s+ s|&+ <s q |j>\qT sV+#&T.
MT \Tk?
s @y] yTT. ~ q J$ # d+es+ |P]#dT+~.
||+#+ nH b+\ s dT\u+> |s>>\T>TT+~. .|P. 2000
d+ b kH s qT> #] <s\THsTT. .|P. 2250`1750
\+ Vs| |dT bkH yjTe us< X b++ s |+&+qT>
sTEe\THsTT. n> >+>qB |]yV b++ <D us<X+
s |+ |+&+#ysT. B $$TH m, d, , eT]jTT _+|\T, Ca,
Fe, Mg, Mn, P, S eT]jTT Zn \eD\T L& HsTT.
|dT| |# $H\ X<CT\ s\ yTT\ eT< |s|s>

d+|s+ #jT>..
F1 s+ ( first filial) : yTT<{ s+ < d+ F1 s+ (first filial)
n yT+& |sT|{&T.
s+ yTT\ |dT|s+>T $H\H * HsTT.
F2 s+ ( second filial) : F1 s+ yTT\ eT< d|s> d+|s +#dq |&T

@s& y{ s+&e s+ (second filial), F2 s+ n+{sT.
(<<| 75% |dT | $H \T >\ yTT\T eT]jTT 25% |# $H \T

>\ yTT\T @s&sTT).
F3 s+
( third filial) : F3 s+ (yT+& yTT\qT d|s> d+|s
>T]#d @$T qT>=Hs+f
2 3
1 1 2 3
1. 25% yTT\T |P]> eT]jTT |dT| $H\qT eyT #jT>*>sTT.

2. 75% |dT|s+>T $H\qT, 25% |# $H\qT #jT>*>sTT.
3. e\+ |# $H\qT eyT #jT>*>sTT.
|$<yTq |]o\q\ qT+& yT+& = n+X\qT |]\q #X&T.
182 10e s> nqTe+
yTT<{ |]\q: | s yTT | | \D s+&T s\qT *
+T+~. \D *+#& sDyTq < s+ (factor or trait)
n+{sT. yT+& n C>> X<C T\qT eyT |j >\ d+ mqTH&T.
eTq <VsD rdT=q |dT|, |# s\T | C X<yTq qs+
(parental generation). |dT|s+>T \D *+# s+&T s\ s
#+~qy +{jTqe. n+f X<C (qs+) |dT|s+>T $H\qT
#dT+<+f < s+&T s\ s #+~q$> +{sTT. y{H 'YY'
n |\T<+. eTs= X<C (qs+) |# s+>T $H\qT #dT+<+f
< >\ s +&T s\ s #+~qy +{sTT. y{ 'yy' > d<+.
s+&e |]\q: |T |*+> d+ s+&T s\T q
qT+& ={ b+<TsTT. n$ =$> eT]jTT $_q+> +&e#T.
eT&e |]\q: d+ \_+q s+&T $_q s\ s+ eyT
VsZeTeT+~. eTs s+ n+sZ+> +&bT+~. n+f Y (|dT| s+>T
sDyTq s+) VsZ s+ nsTT, Yy nH s+&T s\Tq|{ Y
s+ ~ e\q |dT| s+>T eyT VsZeTeT+~. n+<Te\ s q s+ |s>
yTT $H\T |dT| s+>TH +{sTT. d+|s+
F1 s+ jT{ eeTjT \D VsZ \D+ (dominent factor)
n, | |+# \D n+sZ \D+ (recessive factor) n n+{sT.
s+&e |]\q |s+` |s|s> d+|s+ ]q sy d+
X<C qs+ qT+& s+ (Y) eT]jTT eTs X<C qs+ qT+&
eTs s (y) b+<TT+~. n+f d+ n yTT\T s +&T s\ s\qT
(Yy) * +{sTT. eT&e |]\q |s+ n yTT\T |dT | s+>T $H \H
ksTT. (Y) s+ jTT ~ me> +T+~.
Yy ............... (yellow)
y y
Yy ............... (Yellow)
Y Yy Yy
Yy ............... (yellow)
Y Yy Yy
Yy ............... (Yellow)
s yTT\ |dT| s #+~q$. F1 s+ eeTjT \D+ VsZ
\D+. e+ ~ n+sZ \D+> >T]ksT.
F1 s+ d|s> d+|s+
F1 s+ \_+q yTT (Yy s\T >\$) d|s> d+|s+ sT|>
@s&q = yTT Y eT]jTT y s\T @ s+>HH *dbe#T. n$ YY,
Yy, yY, yy e#T < n deq+ L& +&e#T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 183
y y
Y YY Yy
y yY yy
=> @s&q $H\T | <<| YY, Yy, yY, yy s\ q
s\T deq d+K +{sTT. Y s *qe |dT| s+>T
$H\ksTT. nsTT yy s\Tq$ eyT |#s+>T $H\ksTT.
1. YY s\qT * q yTT\T <<| 25% +{sTT. ne |dT | sy.
2. yy s\qT * q yTT\T <<| 25% +{sTT. ne |#y.
3. yY s\qT *$ <<| 25%, Yy s\qT *q$ <<| 25%
+{sTT. e |dT|s+>T $H\H @ssTksTT.
F1 s+ = $H\T |dT| s+>TH H y{ H{ e# sy
s+ = |# s+>T $H \qT @ssTksTT. n+f $H \ | | \D \qT{
y{ n+sZ \D\qT eTq+ n+#H yjTeT nseTe+~ <!
<Xs|+ (Phenotype)
F1 s+ = $H\T |dT|s+>TH +{sTT. y{ H{ 75%
|dT| $H\qT e>, 25% yTT\T |# yTT\qT #ksTT. qT,
jT |+# \D <Xs|+>qT, w <Xs| w>qT
|\TksT. <Xs| w 3:1.
qTs|+ (Genetype)
F1 s+ 75% |dT|s+>T $H\# yTT 25% X< |dT|s+>T
yTT\T < (YY) s #+~q$. MH deTjTT>C\T (homogygous) n+{sT.
e syTq \D\T * HsTT. $T> 50% |dT| $H\T (Yy, yY)
s #+~q$. M{ $weTjTT>C\T (Heterogygous) n+{sT. $T*q
25% |# $H\# yTT\T (yy) X<C #+~q$. $ L&
deTjTT>C. s yTT\T |<]+# ds| duy\qT, d+ue e
Yy ns\ ddTH+. BH qTs|+ n n+{sT. qTs| w
1:2:1 (25:50:25).
F2 s+ yTT\qT d|s> d+|s+ #jT>
1. YY s\qT *q s yTT\ eT< d|s> d+|s+ #d |dT| (yy)
s+>T $H\Tq yTT\T eyT eksTT. yTT\T q{ qsT X+
|dT|s+>T $H\H kjT |j>\ |*+> s|+#&sTT.
184 10e s> nqTe+

Y Y Y y y y
Y YY YY Y YY Yy y yy yy
Y YY YY 1 y yY yy 2 y yy yy 3
2. Yy < yY s\qT *q yTT\ eT< d|s> d+|s+ ]|d 75%

|dT| eT]jTT 25% |# s+>T $H\qT ksTT. n+f 3 : 1 w
yTT\qT ksTT.
3. yY s\T q yTT\T e+ e\+ |# s+>T $H\qT eyT
ksTT. | $$< <s\ u< eV+# s\T nH+ +{sTT.
{ H me s\T +{jTH eTq |]\qqT |<e?
B yT+& |j >+ m |s # e #T? s +&T \ |eTTKyTq \D \qT
<w+#T |j> #j*.
1. s\ s+>T` |dT| < |# (Y, y \# d<+)
2. s\ s+` >T+&+ < eTT&\T (R, r \# d<+)
|dT| eT]jTT >T+& \D\T VsZ \D\ eTq \TdT. |&T
s+&T s\ X< deTjTT> yTT\ $H\qT rdT+<+. { >T+&,
|dT| s, s+&e~ eTT&\T eT]jTT |# s #+~q~.
|*+> @s&q d+ yTT+ >T+&, |dT| $H.

YYRR yyrr
|rB Yy Rr s\qT * +{sTT.
|s| s > d+|s +
m+<T+f |dT | (Y) eT]jTT >T+& (R) s +& VsZ

\D\T { F1 s+ < yTT<{ s+ yTT+ >T+&, YyRr
|dT| $H eksTT.
|s> d+|s+
M{ |s> d+|s+ #+~q|&T >T+& , |dT|
(Yy Rr < YYRR) $H \T, = >T+& eT]jTT |#
(yy RR < Yyrr), eT]= eTT&\ T >\ |# $ (yyrr)
@s&sTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 185
eT] s+ yTT\T m++ X+ @s&sTT?
s +&T ysT ysT \D \Tq|&T n$ sT y s m #sT jTH $wj
$e]+#& yT+& d+ ePVq d<+ (Law of independent
asortment) |b~+#&T. B >T]+ MTsT | s>T\ HsT+{sT.
b<$T ne>Vq d+ nqT+<+ #&+&.
F1 s+ < d+ @< \D+ eyT jT |+#&+ eTq+
#X+. |dT|, |# $H\ d+sD |j>+ #d n |dT| $H
e#sTT. m+<T ]+~? \D sDyTq s+&T s\T
(deTjTT>C\T) H, y{ { eyT d+ VsZ e TeT+< eTs={
n+sZ+> +&bT+< yT+& $XB]+#&T. BH VsZ d+ (Law
of Dominance) n+{sT.
|<sD d+ |s+ @ \DH sDyTq s+&T s\T <
jTT>$\\ ={ q& qT+& d+ \_ksTT. nsTT q\
jTT>$\\ @< s+ jT<# (Random)> d+ n+~+#&+
sT>TT+~. B |<sD d+ (Law of Segregation) n+{sT.
s+ qT+& eTs= s y|#+< \D\qT nqTe+ \D\+{sT.
yT+& s yTT\| #dq |j>\ <s $ y| #+<Tj eTq+
>eT+#+.
+-4
yT+& nqTe+ d\qT dT\u+ > ns+ #dT & + #<+.
y*q |]s\T
m) 3 d+.MT. b&e eT]jTT 1 d+.MT. y&\T >\ #sT eTT\T 16
_) 2 d+.MT. b&e eT]jTT 1 d+.MT. y&\T >\ #sT eTT\T 16
d) msT| >T+&\T ` 16
BAG A &) \ >T+&\T ` 16
) #sT, d\T, d#Y|H, |.
1 2 3 4
|<: 4I4 >&T\T+& #sT| ^d |+ #|q
BAG B
5 6 7 8 $<+> n+\T, >TsT\qT sjT+&.

`1: X<C (Pure breed)
9 10 11 12
MTsT jsT#dq 16 b&e 16 b{> +&
13 14 15 16 #sT eTT rdT+&. \T> @ss#|&T
| b{$>, b&e$>, < s+&>
+{sTT.
186 10e s> nqTe+
|&T s+&T d+#T\T rdT+&. |d+ 16 + |{\T +& s+&T
d+#T\ yjT+&. | d+ 8 b&e, 8 b{ |{\T +{jTqe.
'A' d+ |sTw;D+>q d+ d;D+>q u$+#+&. |&T
'A' d+qT+& # n+~q |{ rdT >#<s+ 1e >& +#+&.
n> 'B' d+qT+& L& # n+~q + |{ rdT 1e >&
+#+&. MT d+#T + |{\T nsTTbjT< | >& s+&T #=|q
+#T &+&. MT d+ U njTd] | >& s+&d + |{\T
+{jTqe. y{ >eT+qsTT s +& b&e, s +& b{, { b&e,
{ b&e { b{ \T |ksTT.
s+& b&e |{\ \T m HsTT?
s+& b{ |{\ \ d+K m+?
{b{, { b&e *q \T m HsTT?
|s+ m+X+> HsTT? y{ w m+?
<s MTsT @$T >eT+#sT?
< msTe, \T| >T+&\T |j+ &+&. eq |*\qT yTT<{
b* #&+&. nqT+<+ q qT &+&. @$T >eT+#s MT
s> #]+#+&
q\ qT+& d+
n&T >] e~]> H&T. nesTT n#T yTq b* n n+T+&+
eTq+ $+H +{+. *<+&\ qT+& |\\ \D\T < >TD\T
nqTe++> n+~+#&sTT.
+~ #jT&+ <s eqe\ nqTe+ \D\qT >T]+
\TdT+<+.
*<+&T\ qT+& |\\ d+$T+# +{ \D\H eTq+ nqTe+
\D\T < nqTe+ >TD\T (Inherited traits) n n+{sT. n> $H\
s+>T, $q e#+, +&+ b&e yTT<\>Tq$ L& nqTe+ \Dq
yT+& n_bjT+.
$_q \D\T *<+&T\ qT+& d+ b+< |jTH nqTe+
(Heredity) n+{sT. > nqTe+ e\q s+ qT+& eTs s
\D\T n+~+#& e+Xbs+|s+ (Inheritance) n n+{sT.
\D\T m VsZeTesTT?
| >TD+ < \D+ s\T < jTT>$\\T n+f,
\D #+~q _q s\T <s VsZeTejT yT+& |]\q #X&T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 187
|dT+ s\H CqTe\T (Genes) n n+THeTT. qTe nH~
| D +<+ +& +<eT| n+f DNA jTT u>+. ~
\D+ < >TD VsZ|s#& jT++# n+X+. ysdt\ \D\qT
RNA jT+dT+~.
MT \Tk?
CyT yH eT]jTT bdt nH Xdy\T 1953 +_& $X$<\jT+
#dq |]X<q DNA jTT |P] sD qT>=HsT. DNA nDTe d]\+> +& yT
e~]> +T+< >T]+#sT. sH <+< +&* (Double helix) n n+{sT. ~
@ss+> neTs&q #s\T eT]jTT bd ]yT +T+~. B n&H, >H,
<$TH eT]jTT d{dH nH q s\T yTe neT] +{sTT. b+H eT]jTT eT]dt
$*H\T L& DNA $wsD yH, \ *d |#XsT. qTXd+ qq
|j>\ <]rdq n<T $wsD >qT yH eT]jTT \ +< Hu
VQeT e+~. DNA jTT skjT
due+ Je\ \D \qT s]dT+ ~. ET,
#s| s+>T yTT<q$ +{ \D\
<V s D \T. DNA j T T s k j T
sD+ @ q esT *H n~ d+
jTT \D\ esT sDeTeT+~.
yH |+-3: esT y$<\ <]rksTT.
DNA
eqe\ *+> ssD

eTq \D\T e+Xbs+|s+> eqT>H |f Xe jTT
*+>ssD L& e+Xbs+|s s\T+{sTT. |T bs+ d\ |
]> <Ts#s\ >T]+ #]+#+. C Xe *+>ssD sDyTes
\TdT+<+. | eqe D+ 23 \ (46) yCyT\T+{sTT. y
23 \qT Xs yCyT\T (Autosomes) n, $T*q qT +
(Allsomes or sex chromosomes) n n+{sT. + yCyT\T s+&T
s\T> +{sTT. { (X) eT]jTT s+&e~ (Y). s+&T yCyT\T *+>
ssD #ksTT. &y] s+& XX yCyT\T+{sTT. eT>y] XY
yCyT\T+{sTT. d d+j>;C\ (n+&+) X yCyT
+T+~. |sTw d+j>;C\ (XD ) s +&T s\T+{sTT. X yCyT
*q$, Y yCyTqT *q$. Y yCyT q XD+. X yCyT
q n+&+ *d |\BsD ] XY yCyT\ @s&q Xe nusTT
ne&T.
188 10e s> nqTe+
Y yCyT q XD+ X yCyT q * + +& +
n+&+ *d |\ BsD ] @$T sT>TT+~? yCyT\T yCyT\T
Xe *+> ssD #d~ neHq mesT?

&|\ |{+< d +~+#&+ dsq<H?
*+>+ nH~ \De? >TDe? B yT+&
|b~+q VsZ d+ e]dT+<?
eTq q \D\ eTq *<+&T\qT b*
+{j? nesTT nusTT
MT \Tk?
+& *
+ yCyT\ $wsD
*<+&T\T
y\sY dH eT]jTT <eTdt V+{
ysZH\ T 1956e d+es+ q |+& > 44+XY 44+XX
(&k| yT\H>dsY) >T]+ =\+_j
jTe]{ n<jTq+ #XsT. &k| 22
+X X
22
+Y Y
XD+ XD+ 22+X 22+X X n+&+
X
*+> dV\> \D\qT qT>=H|&T n+&+
\ D \ s D eTj T qTe\T
y Cy T \ qT s ] +# & q ~.
&k| e+Xbs+|s >T]+ y qTs+
|P]> n<jTq+ #XsT. nesTT
(44+XX)
nusTT
(44+XY)
nesTT
(44+XX)
nusTT
(44+XY)
|]DeT+ (Evolution) |+-4

Je\T |T ]||&T y$<\T (variations) @s&TT+{sTT.
Hu + |T , DNA nqTy<+ ]> @yH | \T < esT\T
y$<\ <]rksTT. ny y{ d+ L& n+~+#&sTT.
J$ Hu |]ds\ nqT>TD+> @$<yTq y$<\T #T
#dT +{sTT? y |* $T{? nq n+X\qT ns+ #dT e& |jT <+.
+`5
s\ |sT>T Hu y$<+
+~ + s|sT>T\ Hu y$<+ eT]jTT < |uy #<+.
yTT<{ + #|qT 12 ms s |sT>T\qT deTV+>
}V+#T+&. n$ b<\|q , |# \| edksTT. $ + |T
<s d+ @ssTksTT. qT s# y$<\T @s&T +{sTT. ms
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 189
s |sT>T\T \ Vs+> |j >|& sTT. \T |sT>T* q&+ my
y{ Hu HeT~> ZbT+~.
|+-5: s|sT>T\ Hu y$<+

|&T, $$< d+<s\qT >T]+ <+.
d+<s+`1:
s |sT>T |T deTjT+ s+>T y$<+ @s&+~. <
|*+> d+ ms s+>T <T\T> |# s+>T e+~.
|+-6: msT| eT]jTT |# s |sT>T\T

|# s |sT>T qT+& e# sy s\ |#y nesTT.
\T |# #T, \|qTq |# |sT>T\T \ y+H q&e.
qT y{ qbjsTT. ms s |sT>T |d #\T Hd$. <+
|# |sT>T\ d+K sEsE |]bsTT+~. n< deTjT+ ms$ eT+>
ZbjsTT.
s+>T y$<+ |# |sT>T, ms s+>T |sT>TH me> eTqT>&
dVjT|&+~. +$<+> #d |# |sT>T\T eT s+>TqT dV+>
m+| #dTHsTT n #|e#T. \ dV m+| sD+ e&+ eTq+
#&e#T. \T me> ms s |sT>T\qT rHdb e] n$ $T>\e.
qT | dV+> s |sT>T\ Hu Vs+d+ #dq |jT\T
190 10e s> nqTe+
y$<+ <s |]De <] rd+~. < |*+> s |sT>T\ Hu
|]ds\ nqTyq nqTL\H\qT b+~ eTqT>& k+# #d+~.
eTs= d+<s+ >T]+ <+.
s+& d+<s+:
d+<s + L& s+>TH y$ < + @s& |T <s sy s\
n+~+#&TT+~. ms s |sT>T\ qT+& *s+>T |sT>T\T e#sTT.
qT *s+> d+ n+~+#& y{ d+K |]+~.
|+-7: * eT]jTT msT| s |sT>T\T

|# \T, b<\|q *, ms s |sT>T\T \ dw+ > |+#$.
qT y{ dT\u+> q>*>$. eTT+<T d+<s+ |# s |sT>T\
e~]> s+>T esT eq|{ n~ * s+>T s |sT >T\ u+ #L s<T .
s |sT>T\ Hu eTT+<T> @+ ]+<+f n& * eT]jTT msT|
s+>T |sT>T\T me> HsTT. |<X @qT>T e+< }V+#T+&.
|sT>T\T q b<\>T+& @qT>T q&T#T+ y* < +<|&
|# |sT>T\T #bsTT. y @yH J$+ HjT+f y n~+>
* s |sT>T +{sTT. m+<T +#+&. qT y{ HuH HeT~>
|sT>T bT+~. n+f =ksT q Hu\ d+> < VsT>
d+u$+# d+|Tq\ |*+> qTe\ bq'|q+ esT\T @s&sTT.
BH qT $k|q+ (Genetic drift) n n+{sT. ~ L& Hu y$<
<]rdT+~.
|&T eTs= d+<s #<+.
eT&e d+<s+:
|+-8: bwVs |+ *q s |sT>T\T

s |sT>T\ Hu eT+> |sT>T +~. nqT+& VsT> n$
+& b<\ @<H >T\T k+<qT+&. n|&T \T q+#&+ < y{
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 191
d+K Zbe&+ e\q s |sT>T\ dsq Vs+ \_+#<T. |dT\T +&*
edT+~. qT s |sT>T\ sTe ZbT+~. esT qT|<syTq
DNA qT es<T . sy = d+es\ yTT\ >T Z b<\T eTqT|{
s>+> e]bjsTT.
n|&T s |sT>T\ sTe m+{ &\T ekjT e u$dTHe?
] eT]jTT nqTe+ \D\T eT]jTT |]DeT+
+ |T sT|=H Je\ |T d+ |+> +&
DC\+ ;D\qT >T]+ |T bs+ #]+#+.
y s |sT>T\ q+ Vs+ \_+#be&+ e\q sTe Z
esT ;D\ DNA esT rdTs<T. f sTe nH \D+
nqTe++> d+ n+~+|&<T. |]De <]rjT<T. n+f syTq
esT\T nqTe++> sTy s\ n+~+#&e ns+ #dTe#T.
|T DC\+ $TqV, $T> DC\ ]> esT\T ;D\
DNA esT\T rdT=se. { J$ q J$\+ b+~q
nqTuy\qT y{ q d+ n+~+#<T. y$ |]De <V<+ #jTe.
esYy<+ ` JH u|dt esY (1774`1829)
|Ps| sE\ Je m+{ esT\T +&e m|{ $<+ >
+{jT |\T $Xd+#ysT. JH u|dt esY Je|]DeT
d<+ |b~+q yTT<{ Xdy. = y\ d+es\ +
s|\T +\ eH +&e esY u$+#&T. H\|q eT]jTT
# +~ =eT <=] Vs+ \_+#+& bj Vs =s
sD+> s|\ T yT&k # |q q XK\qT n+<Ty*q neds+
|+-9: JH u|dt esY @s& +&e#T. qT yT&k | XK\qT n+<Te&+ e\q yT&
(1774-1829) HeT~> k>&+ yTT< +&e#T. m+<T+f |<|< yT&qT k
|j+#&+ eT\+> = s\ sy s|\ yT& kbsTT
|&T qT kq yT& >\ s|\ $se+ ] +T+<
jTq u$+#&T. J$ q eTqT>& d+ neds+ =B
n_e~ #dTq \D\qT < >TD\qT ] >TD\T (acquired
characters) n+{sT. esY n_bjT+ |s+ $<+> ]+q
>TD\T eT d+ n+~+#&T +{sTT. BH ] >TD\
nqTe+ n+{sT.
>ddt Mdtedt d<+ m\T\| |j>\T #d
|+#&T. n&T m\T\ \T =\+#&T. d+
|+-10: s| eeT\T>H \ +#sTT. sy s+ m\T\ \T L&
192 10e s> nqTe+
=\+#T+ n 22 s\ es #X&T. nsTT |k] m\T\T \H
|{sTT. XsyTq esT\T |]ds\ sD+> @s&H ds n~ eT d+
n+~+#&e MdteH s]+#&T.
&]+ ` #sdt ssY &]H (1809`1882)
| esD+ (natural selection) nH |U d<+ &]H |b~+#&T.
+>+& <XdT&q #sdt &]H q 22e jT HMS ; nH H
||+ # y|+ > |]X<q d+ jT\T<] <T d+es\T |j D+#&T.
>b>dt Be\ dV mHH |<X\qT n&T d+<]+#&T. j
|<X\ yTT\T, +Te\ >T]+ D+> n<jTq+ #X&T. n>
m+ de#s, TTEe\qT L& d]+#&T.
&]H >b>dt Be\ q deTV #+~q | \ sD+
y$< >T]+#&T. y{H &]H |+#Y |\T n+{sT. &]H |+#Y
|\ eTT d\yTq esT\T +&& jTq >eT+#&T. esT |+-11: #sdt &]H
|\ m |j>|&TT+~? (1809 ` 1882)
Large ground finch (seeds) Cactus ground finch Vegetarian finch (buds) Wood pecker finch (insects)
|+-12: &]H |+#Y |\T

dsY #sd t sdq Principles of Geology |d + jTqqT m+ |u $+
#d+ ~. nsTT u>[ esT\T eT<+ > sT>TjTH #sd t |b<qqT
&]H n+^]+#<T. nH qq esT |< esT <]rkjT $
|sqyTq $> +{jT &]H u$+#&T. n> e\dt |b~+q |U
#+~q An Essay on the Principles of Poplulation Hu d<++ |u e+
&]H| n~+ > +&~. edt |]o\q |s+ Hu >TDX& |sT>TT+f
(1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ....) y{ Vs neds\T n+X& |< |sT>TTHsTT
(1,2, 3, 4, ....).
&]H | esD+ nH d<+ |b~+#&T. n+f | eyT
J$ eTqT>& k+# q+# nH $wj ssTTdT+~. n+f
eTqT>& k+#>\<H | mqT+T+~. |jTT y$<\T q Je
eTqT>& =qkksTT. sT|j> \D\T < >TD\Tq$ HXqeTesTT
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 193
< n$ q |]ds\ qT+& =\+#&sTT.
m.sY.y*dt nqT Xdy L& | esD+ <sH =J e\T <$ kjT
*b&T. n+X ms s |sT>T $wjT+ eTq+ >eT+#+. y{
\T HXsTT { y{ Hu |]ds\ qT+& HeT~> =\+#&+~.
n< deTjT+ |# s |sT>T\T \ s+>T *dbsTT \
|+# +& +&+ e\q eTqT>& k~+#>* >sTT. { y{ Hu |]+~.
BH | esD+ n+{sT.
+#+&`#]+#+&
n&$ s+&T sq +\T HjTqT+<+. s+ # y>+>
|sT>>\e. s+&e s+ n+ y>+> |sT> e. d+V\T, |\T\T, +\qT y{&
Vs+> rdT+{sTT. eT] @ s+ +\T eTqT>& kkj }V+#+&? @ s+ +\
Hu eT+> ZbT+~. m+<T?
y $ < \T | j > s y T q $> q| & T n$ b V +# & sTT.
Vsy T q y n+]ksTT. Hu eTqT>& d+ ]> bs+ \yTq <
>\TdT+~. | L& |jTT y$<\H <]dT+~.
|C me d+K d+ +& #dT+~. n$ Vs+, d\+,
|T $wjT+ b{ @s& b{&TsTT. n> s CT\ Je\q
bs+ #j* edT+~. Jeq+ d+ ]> bs{+ \yTqy TsTT.
BH eTqT>& d+ bs+ (Struggle for existance) n+{sT. bs+
* +&& j>eTeTT\ ks Jeq+ n n+{sT.
\yT D ~ = CT\ $sy <]rdT+ ~. MT |]ds\ yTT\T,
+Te\ MTsT eTqT>&d+ bs+ #d +{sT. yTT\q yTT\,
|{q |\ = eyT & >eT+# +{sT. MT nqTuy\ <s+>
eTqT>&d+ bs+ >T]+ MT s> #]+#+&.
&]H d<+ ks+X+
1. Hu @< deTV+ y$<\qT d+]+#Te#T.
deTV+ n Je\ s+> b+<e.
2. y$<\T q\ qT+& d+ nqTe++> n+~+#&sTT.
3. d+ n~ d+K +f n~ eTqT>& d+ bs{ <]rdT+~.
4. |]DeT+ nH~ HeT~>, s+sjT+> sT>TT+~.
5. q |jT T \D \T Je\H, qy eTqT>& =qk+#& ns
* +{sTT. { |T <s Je\T n~ d+H #ksTT.
194 10e s> nqTe+
6. |jTT y$<\T * eTqT>& kdTq Je\T nqTe++> d+
y{ n+<Ck sTT. n> | s+ q s>& + e\q y$ <\T ds k<sD
\D\esTT.
7. |sesD+ esT\T ed Je\T y{ nqT>TD+> esT\T <
nqTL\H\qT d+]+#T = |]dT\ J$+#>\T>TsTT.
8. | JeC dTBs\+ esT\T #T#dT+ +&, n~ =
C @s&{ <]rdT+~. = C, yTq C _q+> +T+~.
u$T|q n CT\T $<+> @s&qy.
MT \Tk?
#sdt &]H, & sd ydt\ #q\T +&$.
&]H Je |]DeT d<+ sb+~dTq deTjT+ ydt sdq
s n+<TH&T. ydt +&Hwj Be\ q |]X<q\
>T]+, | esD+ >T]+ sX&T. qT +qT>H ydt
d<++ L& +&+ &]HqT # Xs >T]#d+ ~. sy
&]H, ydt *d Journal of Linnaean Society | |
esD+ >T]+ yk |#T]+#sT. < sy &]H q
|eTTKyTq >+<+ CT\ (The Origin of Species) |#T ]+, |& sd ydt
| esD+ >T]+ $e]+#&T.
CT\ (Speciation)
= CT\T m nesTT?
C Hu y$<\T |]ds\ nqTL\yTq \D\qT b+<&+
eTq+ #X+. n b+~q Je |ue++> eTqT>& k~+#>\T>TsTT.
n< C #+~q Je nsTTH, e*q nqTL\H\qT b+ n+]+bsTT. eTT+<T #]+q ms, |# s |sT>T eTq
eT+ <VsD. qC ]> qq esT\qT d |]DeT+
(micro evoluation) n+{sT.
|&T = = CT\T m @s&j #<+. = CT\T @s&{
CT\ (speciation) n < d\ |]DeT+ (macro evoluation) n
n+{sT.
ms, |# s |sT>T\T ++> *d d+ b+<>\e eTq
\TdT. nsTT ms, |# s |sT>T\T @y sD\# # \+
ys b jjT }V+#T+& (<VsD \T y{ q& H s# T =
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 195
rdT[ <s+> m& Cs$&#jTqT+&). = d+es\ s+&T s\
s |sT>T\q m+ y$<+ @s&TT+~. sy n$ nqT+&
*dq|{ |T s|e. d+ #jTe. @<H Je\T y{
C Je\H \e&+, d+H b+<&+ sT>TT+~. $<+> = CT\T
@s&TT+{sTT.
Je |]DeT+`<s\T
Je\ |]DeT+ m ]+~? Xdy\T <H TTEe\T < <sH\T
y\+{sT. s|+#&+ # eTTK+. n<$<+> Je|]De L&
TTEe\T neds+. n+{ = <VsD\T |]o*<+.
|]DeT d++<\qT >T]+ eTq+ n<jTq+ #d|&T @ \D\T
keqyTqy eTq+ m >T]k+?
sDkeT, jkeT nejTy\T
@yH \D\T $$< Je\ $<+> HjT+f n$ y+{ #+~q
|PsJ$ qT+& nqTe++> eqT >T]+#e#T. $T+>\+ yC\T
(<&), >_ s\T (m>s&), sT (|sT>&),
#T+#Tm\T (e&), eTqTw #T\T (|Te&) $$<
s\T> |j>|& eTT+<] #\H+>\ n+]sD+ +T+<+f MTsT
XsbsT. Mq+{ |Ps+>\ n+]sD\T, meTT\ neT]
+{sTT. dXsT\ |P\ qT+& |]DeT+ |*+> @s&qyq
sTEe\T \T|THsTT. nejTy\H sDkeT nejTy\T (Homologous
organs) n+{sT. $<y T q |]De n|k] |]DeT+ (Divergent evolution)
n+{sT.
nejTy\ s+ b*\Tq+ eq
n$ |P\ qT+& @s&*q neds+ <T .
>_\+, |\ s\ >T]+ @eT u$+#*?
eqe&T sT|* $T+>\+ >_\+ |\T, >_\ s\T HsTT. &\T,
\T\ s\T e. nsTT &\T, \T\ +f
|\T, >_\T <={ # <>Z]
d++<+ \e ns+ #dTe#?
$wjT+ sj e#eTT+<T
| \T, >_\ s \ >T]+ +=+#+ C>>
|]o*<+. >_\+ s\ b&e>qTq y
eT< k>& eTT&T#T& M\T> q
|+-13: deTs| nejTy\T #s|++ (Petagium) |dT+~. |\
196 10e s> nqTe+
s \T \ | &q eTT+<] #\H+>\T. s +&+{ sD+, nejTy\T
ysTysT> q|{ n$ sV+# $~ e+ f. n+<Te\H n$ s+&T
#&& $<+> |ksTT. nsTTq|{ s+&+{ eT\+ {<T.
sD+ ysTysT> q|{ syTq | s]+# y{ jkeT
nejTy\T (Analogous organs) n+{sT. $<yTq |]De n_k]
|]DeT+ (Convergent evolution) n+{sT.
|+& Xd <sH\T (Embryological evidences)
+`6
yH eTT >\ Je\ |+&_e~ $$< <X\ qT |]o*<+. y{ b*\T,
u<\qT >T]+#+&. MT $TT\ #]+#+&.
J$ n+&+ yTT<\T= d+|P]> m<>&+
es >\ $$< n_e~ <X\qT >T]+q n<jTq+
#jT&H |+&_e~ Xd+ (Embryology) n
n+{sT. | &+u + (Tadpole) | H me>
#|qT b* +T+~. ~ < ddT+~? n+f
#|\ qT+& | \T |]DeTeT+ |* +> @s&jT
u$+#e#?
#| qT+& eqe es >\ $$< Je\ fish Salamander Tortoise Chick Hog Calf Rabbit Human
|+&\ >T]+#<q (Remarkable) b*\T

m +{jT+f dT|d< |+&_e~ Xdy nsTTH |+-14: |+& Xd <sH\T
=*<XqTq |+& ys=< qT+& ysT> >T]+#&+ w+. $wjT+
@$T *jTCdT+~? | J$ J$#] |P\ sD \D\qT
|<]dT+~. D+ +q|&T Je\+{ keq |P&T
(Common ancestor) Hs, <qT+& Je\ |]DeT+ #+<jTH ueq
\+ #LsTT+~.
C\T (Fossils)
= y\ d+es\ + e+q = Je CT\T >T]+ eTq
\TdT. n$ |dT+ J$+ e. n+]+bjsTT. y{ =+{
eTq+ C\ s|+ #&e#T. <: sd\T\T. $ m+ |< Xs
|]eD+ *q +Te\T. $ # @ + u$TMT< ed+#$.
\eT+ n$ n+]+bjsTT. y{ |dT+ eTq+ #&+. sd\T\T
L& |{ +Te\ e~]>H ed+#$ n #|& Xdy\T nH
sTEe\T d]+#sT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 197
C\T n+f @$T{?
bNq JejTT> ed+q Je\ *jTCd, | d<+>
u<|s#&q e |<s\H C\T n+{sT. |sq Je\T < e\
#+~q @ u>yTH C+> @s&e#T. = | |]dT\ Je\
sq |<s\T D+, |P]> s\q #+<+& +&+ e\ C\T
@s&sTT. u$T |* bs { |* | \ (Sediments) C\T
sb+<TsTT.
bNq Je\ Xs u>\T meTT\T, <+\T, =eTT\, $H\T, |\T
< b<eTT<\T yTT<q$ C\ s|+ \_ksTT. k<sD+> #bsTTq
Je\ Xs+ [ q+bT+~. =ksT Xs+ yTT+ < @yH =
u>\T dV+> q+b+& +& C\T> sb+<TsTT.
<VsD @<H #bsTTq + Ts< bsTT+<qT+&.
n~ n+ dT\Te> q+#<T . Ts< eT+> m+&, >{| & |]d T \T+f
eT{ |\ <V+, Xs u>\T, |d<+> u<|s#&
eTT<\T> +&bsTT. #&b+& +&bsTTq eTT<\qT
C\T n+{sT.
|+-15: + C\qT > T ]+q n< j T H
|sJeXd+ (Palaeontology) n n+{sT.
u >s Xdy (Geologist) +
#| >\T>TsT. sH &{+ > |< |j +
C\ ejTdTqT < n$ ed+q
qT>=+{sT. n+<T s&j<] |<sq
sH, jTTsjT+ eT]jTT b{wjT+ jTT
k{|t\qT |jksT. C\ |* K
\eD\ < C\Tq \\ k{|t\
nsJ $ +#&+ <s C\
|+-16: &Hksdt n+#H yksT.
sH &{+> |<, s&j<] k{|\ >T]+ MT skjTqXd
b<jTT #]+#+& < >+<\jT+ qT+& de#s+ d]+#+&.
s>>~ |<]+#+&.
=ksdt nH &Hksdt + eTq sw+ ~u< jeTq|*
e< \_++~. nsT<q >=| + <<| 160 $T*jTH d+es\
+H{ |Ps Esd jTT> #+~q~. 14 MTs b&e, 5 MTs q
C V<su<T _.jT+._s dH d+sY u<|]#sT.
198 10e s> nqTe+
MT \Tk?
]j|] nH d+<q dTe < b*
+T+~. | \H? ddb\H? < s +&+{H? s +&T
$_q deTV\ #+~q \D\qT * +& Je\qT
d+<qdTe\T n+{sT. ]j|] jTT + ]j|]
|\ T\T, ddb\qT+& |]DeTeT+ <$ +#jT *jTCdT + ~. n+<Te\ B | \,
ddb\ eT< d+<q+> u$ksT.
eqe |]DeTeT+ (Human evolution)
<T eqe&T |dT sb d+]+#T=H es sT>T q |]DeT
|jTH eqe |]DeT eT+ n+{sT. yTT\T, +Te\+{ e~]>H
eqe L& |]DeT #] +T+~. ~eqe e |+# Je\T 7
\\ 50 y\ d+es\ |PsyT u$T| +&ysT. eqe\ (Vy
d|jTH) #+~q n |sq + u$T| eqe\ 2 \\ 50 y\
d+es\ |PsyT qT \T|Tq~. eqe |]DeT e |]o*<+.
Vy V_\dt `1.6 ` 2.5 $T*jTH d+es\ |Ps+ ed+#ysT.
Vy msdt `1 ` 1.8 $T*jTH d+es\ |Ps+ ed+#ysT.
Vy d|jT H j+&s dt` 2,30,000 ` 3,00,000
d+es\ + ed+#ysT.
Vy d|jTH (|dT eqe\T)` 40 y\ d+es\
|Ps+qT+& eddTHs \Tk+~.
u>+|q ed+# eqe\ eTTK \D\, Jeq
$<H\ m+ y$ < + +T+~. # \+> |\+<sT |+-17: eqe |]DeT+
u>+| ed+# s eqe CT\ >T]+ #]dTHsT. #s+ jTT
s+>TqT{ q\C, \C n >]+ #ysT. CT\T s +& ysT ysT > |]DeT+
#+<j n # \+> #]dTHsT. JeXd|s+> eqe deTV\T
d++<+ $ n nq& @ <seT <T { eqe\+<s f C
n eT\qT+& |]DeT+ #+<s | <s\ <s \Tk+~.
n++& =y\ d+es\ qT+& eqe\T u $T|q eddT H sT.
|dT+ eqe deC\T u>+ MT< m& eddTq| eqe\+
| qT+& eqys! n|sq eqe&T VAyd|jT H & ed+qT
<\THsTT. eTq qT de#s+ L& |H eT\H dk+~. n+f
s +&T $T*jTH d+es\ |Ps+ & eqe\T+&ysT. sy $$< sD\
e\ eTq |P\T |qT e~* jT e#sT. =+<sT n& +&bjsT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 199
e\d jT\T<]q ysT | qT+& dj sTy eT< dj,
jTTswj, <D dj, sT dj b+\ $d]+#sT. y] =+<sT
+&Hwj Be\ qT+& |jDd |*|H MT<T> d*j #ssT. n>
u]+> \d+~ <{ nyT] #sTHsT. ys+ <] < \+
|jT+#<T. e\+ |jD+#\H H|+ |jD+#<T. n|{ neds\T,
sD\T ysT |jD+# |]=* +{sTT. eTTK+> eTT+<T, yqT,
>T+|\T>, k] =+ =+ eT+~ yse ]=sT $&b |
qT+& <s+>, | $$< b+\ |jD+#sT.
n|{ eqe deC\T # e\d\ sD\T @yT +{j #TqT+&
eTs= #{ m |jD+ +{s +#+&. MT s> #]+#+&.
u>V+ n JeCT\ eH eqe\T L& Je|]DeT+
esT#+~qys. n> s JeCT\ b*q|&T k<yTq+ es
kse++> J$+#& |jTdH +{sT.
eqe&T ` q&# neXcjTy\ eTjT+
|]DeTeT+ u>+> neds+ nejTy\T eT+> D+bsTT.
n D + b+&, sT|j >+> $T*bsTTq nejTy\H neXcjTy\T
(vestigial organs) n+{sT.
eTq Jseed |<|>T n+TqT> +& +&T+ (appendix) nH
u>+ >T]+ MT \TdT. eqe JsjT n~ @$<+>q &&<T.
+<\T e+{ XVsT\ e+ JsjT eTTKyTq $~H s]dT+~.
+&T+ e~]> sT|j>+> +& neXcejTy\T eqe <<|
180 HsTT. <VsD #$yT, #s+| X\T, eT>y] s>+<T\T
yTT<\>Tq$. n+<T#H eqe& q&# neXcjTy\ eTjT+ n n+{sT.
\ |<\T
y$<\T, d+, \D\T, <Xs|+, qTs|+, $weTjTT>+, deTjTT>+,
d+ ePVq d<++, jTT>$\\T, nqTe+, Xs yCyT\T, +
yCyT\T, | esD+, dVC nejTy\T, |+&_e~ <sH\T, eqe |]DeT+.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
# <>Zs d++<+ >\ Je\ y$<\T |ksTT.
y$<\T s+ qT+& eTs= s m n+~+#&jTH deTdqT >T]+ \TdTe&
1857e d+es+ >>sY CH yT+& |]X<q\T bs+_+#&T.
200 10e s> nqTe+
s yTT\ |e\ s+>T, kq+, $H\ s+>T, |\+ s+, +&+ b&e yTT<q @&T |
\D\qT |j>\ dyT yT+& mqTH&T.
s\ yTT<{ d+ < F1 s+ $H\T |dT|s+>T +{sTT.
F2 s+ 75% |dT |s+ >T $H \ 25% |# $. BH <Xs|+ n+{sT. <Xs| w 3:1.
F2 s+ 75% |dT |s+>T $H \ 25% X<C #+~q$ (YY) >, 50% yTT\T |dT |s+>T
VsZ \D+>, |# n+sZ \D+> * HsTT. $T*q 25% X< |# C
#+~q$. BH qTs|+ n+{sT. qTs| w 1:2:1.
s yTT |r <s < \D u< eV+# s+&T s\qT * +T+~. y{H jTT>
$\\T (allele) n n+{sT.
\D \ sDyTq s\T s \D \| <s|& +& d++> d+ n~+#&&
d+ ePVq d<++ n n+{sT.
|dT| eT]jTT |# $H\# yTT\ eT< d+sD+ ]| d+ yTT+ |dT| $H
dT+~. m+<T+f |dT|s+>T VsZ s+ qT.
q\T eT jTT> $\\ @< s jT<#> d+ n+~ksT.
q\ qT+& \D\T < >TD\qT d+ b+< |jTH nqTe+ (heredity) n n+{sT.
eqe D+ 23 \ yCyT\T+{sTT. M{ 22 \qT Xs yCyT\, 1 qT
+ yCyT\ n+{sT.
] \D \T < >TD\qT d+ <s sy s\ n+~+#&jT esY |b~+#&T.
B ]>TD nqTe+ d+ n+{sT.
|r JeC eT d+KqT e~ #dTe&+ d+ n~+> d+ #ksTT. y{ eTqT>&
d+ bs+ ], \yTq$ eyT >\TksTT.
deTs|, nqTs| nejTy\T eT]jTT |+&_e~ $$< <X\ T |]DeT d++<\qT $e]+#&
sTEe\T> |j >|& sTT.
$_q Je = \D \ b*\T +&e#T. m+<T+f ne |P\ qT+& |]DeTeT+
@s& +&e#T.
bNq jTT> ed+q Je\T, e\T dV |jT \ sD+> |P]> [b+& $T*bsTTq
y TTEe\H C\T n+{sT.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. y$<\T n+f @$T{? Je\ y$<\T @$<+> |j>|&sTT?(AS1)
2. $<] (|]X<&T) X< b&e yTT (TT) X< b{ yTT (tt) d+sD+ sb\qTH&T.
eT] F1, F2 s\ m+{ yTT\T e# neXeTTq~? $e]+#+&.(AS1)
3. Xdy qs + m\T\ \qT ] +#&T. eT] m\T\ d+ \T+{j? +&y?
MT n_bj $e]+#+&.(AS1)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 201

4. e$T& sT e$T& |+&T u> dq #TH=< #X&T. < >T
+&+, $Td+Vs eT+<T\qT y{qT |]o*+#&T. n> eTs e$T& #TqT #X&T. <
$Td+Vs\qT |j+#<T, e e$T&|+&qT * q~. nsTT sT me
e$T&|+&#, $Td+Vs\T y&qeds+ #T+f u>T+T+< nqTH&T. eT] sT
sTq |s+ = e$T& #TqT dw+#e#? @$<+> k<eTeT+< $e]+#+&.(AS1)
5. @ d+s d+sD+ |j> <VsD $e]+#+&. nqTe+ d\ < eTq+
ns+ #dTe#T? $e]+#+&.(AS1)
6. d+ ePVq d<++ n+f @$T{? <VsD $e]+#+&.(AS1)
7. eqe\ *+> ssD m #T #dT+T+~? <VsD $e]+#+&.(AS1)
8. &]H jTT | esD+ d<+ <VsD $e]+#+&.(AS1)
9. y$<\+f @$T{? dsq <VsD $e]+#+&.(AS1)
10. k<sD+> e MTsT |]o*+q y$<$T{?(AS1)
11. yT+&, s yTT @jT \D\qT |j>\ dyT mqTH&T?(AS1)
12. yT+& \D +X\T (traits) nH |< @$<+ > |j +#&T. <VsD $e]+#+&.(AS1)
13. qs+, F2 s\ eT< yT+& >T]+q u<$T{?(AS1)
14. Xe *+> ssD sD+ eT>ys. B n+^]ky? MT de<H b#sT <s
$e]+#+&.(AS1)
15. deTs|, nqTs| nejTy\qT >T]+ |+> $e]+#+&.(AS1)
16. C\ d++~+q de#s Xdy\T m |jksT?(AS1)
17. yT+& q |j>\ d+ s yTTqT mqTH&T. n+<T >\ sD\T @yT +{jT MTsT
u$dTHsT?(AS2)
18. esY |b~+q ] >TD\ nqTe+ d+ y ds q < nsTT ||+ #+ m +&~?(AS2)
19. MT T+ duT \ nqTe+ d+ \D \T/ >TD\qT >T]+q de#s d]+#+&. de#s
$Xw+ sjT+&.(AS4)
20. Je |]DeT <sD\ d++~+q +~ de#s+| MT n_bj sjT+&.
|\T, ddb\T, ujT#s\ e~]>H s<\T H\T>T qT * HsTT. M+{
|Ps+>\ sD+ $<+ > q|{ n$ #j *q |qT\T nqT>TD+> nejTy\T sb+s+
#+<sTT.(AS4)
21. sH &{+> |< >T]+q de#s d]+#+&. uXk u~+# b<jTT\
$wjTyT @yT$T #]+#s sjT+&.(AS4)
22. d+ ePVq d<+ #| >&T \ { b# sTq T ^jT+&. w $e]+#+&.(AS5)
23. yT+& |j>\ @ d+s d+sD+ ]| $<q+ >T]+ > #<s ^d $e]+#+&.(AS5)
24. >&bsTTq Je eTVjTT>\ eqe |]DeT+ m ]+< *|+<T #sTqT jsT
#jT+&.(AS5)
25. | |j >s y T q \D \qT eyT bVdT+ < *jTCd sH q T j sT#jT +&.(AS6)
202 10e s> nqTe+
26. eTqT>& d+ bs+qT ns+ #dTe& MT |]ds\ @jT <VsD\qT < @jT
d+<s\qT MTsT |]o*+#sT?(AS7)
27. eqe |]DeT+ >T]+ d>+ jsT#jT+&.(AS7)
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. Je\ esT\ <]rd $<H ````````````````````````````` n+{sT.
2. yT+& |j>\T ```````````````````````````````` qT $e]ksTT.
3. d+ePVq d<+ $e]+# |j>\ |]o*+q \D\T ````````````````````````.
4. msT| s+>T |c\Tq yTT \T| s+>T |c\Tq yTTqT |s> d+|s + #dq |&T @s& yTT
`````````````````````````````
X+ $TXeT |c\# yTT\T+{sTT.
5. TT, YY < Tt, Yy \ eeTjT \D+ ````````````````````````````````.
6. & Xe 23 \ Xs yCeTT\T+{sTT.yT 18 d+es\ ejTdT eq|&T yT
```````````````````
\ Xs yCeT\T ````````````````````` \ + yCeTT\T+{sTT.
7. CHu ```````````````````` XD |sT>TT+f Vs eqsT\T ``````````````````` XD |sT>TsTT.
8. d]> q&e yT me\+ J$+#<T. &]H d<++ |s+ ~ ```````````` qT *jTCdT+~.
9. $T+>\+ <& |j>|& yeTT> e]q eTT+C sD+ >Ts+ ```````````````````
|j>|& esT #+~ +T+~.
10. C\ >T]+ n<jTq+ #d Xd $u> `````````````````````````````` n+{sT.
dsq de<H >T]+#+&

11. +~ y >T_ yTT d++~+ y$< <V<|&~. ( )
(m) s+>T\T>\ s |\T (_) eTT (d) r>\T (&) |+
12. yT+& |s+ jTT>$\\ +& \D+. ( )
(m) qTe\T \T> +&&+ (_) \D u< eV+#&+
(d) ;D\ (&) n+sZ \D+> +&&+
13. | esD+ nq> ( )
(m) | j> *q \D\qT m+| #jT&+ (_) Je\ | |#s s|&+
(d) |j>+ \D\qT | es+#&+ (&) m, _.
14. |sJe Xdy B d++<+ * +{&T. ( )
(m) |+& Xd <sH\\T (_) <sH\T
(d) neXw nejTe <sH\T (&) |e
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 203

nqT+<+
yT+& d+ ePVq d<++ (Law of independent assortment)
+ e s eTq+ y T +&
RY Ry ry rY
sV+q @ d+sD |j>\
>T]+ |]o*+#+. |&T s+&T
RR YY RR Yy Rr Yy Rr Yy
RY
\ \D\T @$<+> s+
qT+& eTs= s
RR Yy RR yy Rr yy Rr Yy
n+<CjT&j nH n+X+|
Ry
yT+& sV+q |j>\qT
n<jTq+ #<+.
Rr Yy Rr yy rr yy rr Yy s+&T \ ysTysT \D\
ry
eT< ] > d + s D ~d + s
d+sD + (Dihybrid cross) n+{sT.
Rr YY Rr Yy rr Yy rr YY
rY
s y T T \ | $ < + >
~d+s d+sD+ s|>, d+
9 :3 :3 :1
|dT| (YY) >T+& (RR) eT]jTT
eTT&\T (rr), |# (yy) \D\T
|+#sTT. F1 s+ yTT\ eT<
Round yellow Wrinkled, yellow
d|s> d+|s+ ]|q|&T j
Round, green Wrinkled, green \D \T, s \D \ d++>
*dbsTT F2 s+ @s&+~.
> #<s C>> |]o*+#+&. ~d+s d+sD+ @s& $$< s\
\sTT\qT >T]+#+&.
(1) RRYY (2) RRYy (3) RrYY (4) RrYy (5) RRYy (6) RrYY (7) RrYy
(8)RrYy (9) RrYy nH$ >T+& eT]jTT |dT| $H\#$.
(1) RRyy (2) Rryy (3) Rryy nH$ >T+& eT]jTT |#$.
rryy nH$ eTT&\T eT]jTT |#$.
| |* \qT { | \D sDyTq s+ d++> + d+j
;C\ eTq> * qT s s D se# T . n+f s \H (Factors)
d + y T q $> + d + j > ; C\ <s nqTe+ + > d +
n+~+#&sTT n #|e#T.
H me \D\ jTT nqTe+qT >eTd, \D\
204 10e s> nqTe+
sDyTq s\T ys \D\| <s|&+& d++> d+ \_+#& < n+~+#&
d+ ePVq d<+eT n+{sT.
| \D sDyTq < jT++# s\T+{jT yT+& u$+#&T. |dT+
s\H eTq+ qTe\T (Genes) n n+TH+. | \D sDyTq qTe\H
jTT>$\\T (Allele) n+{sT. jTT> $\T s+&T s\T. \D s+& syTq
s\T+f < deTTjTT>+ (Homozygous) (YY, RR) n, \D es \D\Tq
qTe\T > +f < $weTjTT>+ (Heterozygous) (Ry, Rr) n n+{sT.
yT+& |j>\qT dT\u+> ns+ #dT& +~ &T<+.
m$T~ b&yq #sT eTT\T rdT+&. y
E F G H
={ d, |sTw d+j>;C\qT dkjT
nqT+&. y{ A, B, E, F >&T \ = < A 1 2 3 4
s +&T #=|q |+&. sy E eT]jTT A >&T \
q #sT\qT 1 d+K q >& s|+&. E B 5 6 7 8
eT]jTT B \ #sT eTT\qT 5 d+K q
>& s|+ &. n> F eT]jTT A \ #sT\ qT C 9 10 11 12
2, F eT]jTT B \ #sT\qT 6 >& D 13 14 15 16
s|+&. |&T 1, 2 eT]jTT 5, 6 >&T\\
s+&T b&y{ #sTeTT\T +{sTT.
#]+#+&:
X<C >T]+ @$T ns+ #dTHsT?
<$<+> q #sT eTT\qT, s \D\T> }V+#T= MT $TT\ *d &+&.
MTsT >T]+q n+X\| $TT\ \d +, #]+ y~ sjT+&.
`2: @ d+s d+sD+ (Monohybrid cross)
H\T>T b&yq, H\T>T b{ #sTeTT\qT rdT=, b&e #sT eTT\qT A, B
>&T\qT, = b{ #sT\qT E, F >&T\qT +#+&.
E eT]jTT A >&T\ #sTqT 1e >& s|+&.
E eT]jTT B >&T\ #sTqT 5e >& s|+&.
F eT]jTT A >&T\ #sTqT 2e >& s|+&.
F eT]jTT B >&T\ #sTqT 6e >& s|+&.
#]+#+&: F1 s+ >T]+ MTs+ ns+ #dTHsT.
`3: ~ d+s d+sD+ (d+ qT ePVq d<++)
16 b&e #sTeTT\T, 16 b{ #sTeTT\T, 16 ms>T+&\T, 16 \ >T+&\qT rdT+&.
4 b&e #sTeTT\qT A, B, E, F (4G4G4G4R16) >&T\ |+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 205
4 q #sTeTT\qT C, D, G, H (4G4G4G4R16) >&T\ |+&.
4 ms >T+&\qT A, C, E, G (4G4G4G4R16) >&T\ |+&.
4 \ >T+&\qT A, C, E, G (4G4G4G4R16) >&T\ |+&.
sy
E, A >&T\ #sT eTT, >T+& 1e >& s|+&.
( >& s+&T #sT eTT\T, 2 >T+&\T yTT+ 4 +{sTT.
E, B >&T\ #sT eTT, >T+& 5e >& s|+&.
E, C >&T\ #sT eTT, >T+& 9e >& s|+&.
E, D >&T\ #sT eTT, >T+& 13e >& s|+&.
<$<+> n >&T\ #sTeTT\T eT]jTT >T+&\qT C>> s|+&.
#]+#+&:
d+ ePeVq d<++ >T]+ @$T ns+ #dTHsT? $TT\ \d +#+&,
#]+#+&. (MT b<jTT\ dVjT+ rdT+&) b&e eT]jTT msT| VsZ \D\T>, b{
eT]jTT \T| n+sZ \D\T> u$+#+&.
+~ >&T\ @ \D\T se& neXeTTq< sjT+&.
I. +~ >&T\
1. b&e eT]jTT msT| 2. ..................................
3. .................................. 4. ..................................
5. .................................. 6. ..................................
7. .................................. 8. ..................................
9. .................................. 10. ................................
11. ................................
II. +~ >&T\
4. ................................. 8. ..................................
12. ...............................
III. +~ >&T\
13. ............................... 14. ................................
15. ...............................
IV. +~ >&T\
16. ...............................
206 10e s> nqTe+

bs+
9
eTq |sesD+` eTq u<
eTq | ] eTq#T q |]ds\ |]#jT + +T+~. eTq#T

q |]ds\T Je\ eTqT>& MT< |ue+ #|ksTT. JeC\+ MT< |ue+
#| Je, u s\b skjTq s\+{ >\ |sd s d++<
|sesD+ (Environment) n+{sT. Je\T eT#T q dJe e n+X\
deTT\ k~+#& s++s+ |jTdH +{sTT. JyesD+
(Bio spere) +& n+X\ #jT |< JeC\+ |#s \T sT|H
+{sTT. JeC\+ eTqT>& k+#& HeT~> |]DeT+ #+<& $
&&sTT. >*, H\, sT, + yTT<q u s\qT e s\T
(Abiotic) n, JeCq+{ *| dJe s\T (Biotic) n n+{sT.
J$ q neds\ y*q ks\qT H deTLsT\>\<T. Je\T
eT eTqT>& d+ #d se\T |]ds\ s n+X\ MT< |ue+
#|e#T. =k] <e\ @s& qw+ |]ds\ deTT\qT <rjTe#T.
Vs >=\TdT\T (Food chain) Vs C\+ (Food
web) >T]+ Je sdT\T y{ eT< >\ Vs |sy T q
d++< >T]+ MTsT +~ s>T HsTHsT
<! @<H Vs| >=\TdTqT |]o*+qsTT
Vs| >=\TdT eTs= Vs| >=\TdT d++<+
qT |dT + ~. Vs| >=\TdT\ *d Vs
C @ss#& >eT+#e#T. Vs|
>=\TdTqT |]o*d @~ < Vs+> d]+#
n\yTqT |+b+~+#T+T+< ns+ #dTe#T. |+-1: Vs d++<\T
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 207
Vs C\+ +& uD| >TsT\ T Vs ds L >\ d++< dksTT.
|+`1 q +Te\qT |]o*+#+&. y{ eT<>\ Vs d++<\qT
uD| >TsT\ #| Vs| >=\TdTqT jsT #jT+&.
MTsT sdq < jsT #dq Vs| >=\TdT <sT\T eT]jTT
$j><sT\ |sqT sjT+&.
MTsT ^dq uD| >TsT\T < dksTT?
MT |]ds\, d+ H\T>T Vs| >=\TdT\qT >T]+#+&. M{
<sT\T, $$< ksTT\ $j><sT\ |sqT sjT+&.
MT |]ds\ $$< Vs| >=\TdT\qT >T]+# deTjT+ y{ b&e
e> +&&+, H\T>T ksTT\H $T+ +&be& MTsT >eTksT.
n++& Vs| >=\TdT <sT\ qT+& $j><sT\ es (|<e T,
~rjT, rjT) y=B |ksTT Je\ d+K >TZT+&&+ >eTksT.
dJe n+X\T y{eT< @$<yTq Vs d++<\qT *+{sTT. Vs
d++<\qT <w +#T= esD eed Vs+ <sT\ qT+& <X\
y> $j><sT\ #sTT+~.
<sT\T b<$T ~rjT rjT qksTT
$j><sT\T $j><sT\T $j><sT\T $j><sT\T
= <VsD\T |]o*<+.
>& $T& | beTT ><
>& +<\T q &\T
>& yT eqe&T
Vs| >=\TdT\T # es H\T>T ksTT\H m+<T * +{sTT?
<sT\ qT+& $j><sT\ y =B Je\ d+K m+<T >T Z T +~?
|X\ yT\T *j\+f +~ s>T\ #]+#&q =
$wj\qT eTq+ >TsT #Ty*. J$ qT+& eTs= J$ @$<+> X
~ neT+< Vs| >=\TdT #|T+~. ~ me yTT+ (80
qT+& 90%) X Je\ qT+& XdjTq, s jT\ <s nsTTq
w+ s|+ qwb e&+ sT>TT+~. Vs| >=\TdT eT&T ksTT\ sy
X eyT q ksTT $j><sT\ n+<TuT +T+~.
JyesD+ mH esD eed\THsTT. ueT<sK, <y\ eT<>\
owd ek ueesD eed\ qT s]ksTT. n< $<+ > |
u eT< s K <>sZ > q *eT+Cs |s , eTq <X+ Ve\jT |s \qT
n~sV+#||&T esD eed\ ek\qT eTq+ >eT+#e#T. |s
208 10e s> eTq |sesD+ ` eTq u<
b<\ +& esb n&e\ (Tropical rain forests) yTT< |s Ks
b++ s+s+ eT+#T, VeTb+ n+eTeT+~.
owd |u$+ #d esb+, c>, dss yTT<qe esD
eed\qT ssTTksTT. <VsD n~ esb+ q# n&e\T n~+>
+{sTT. n&e\ s ssTT+#~ c> eT]jTT +. n<$<+>
n\ esb+ q b+\ m&sT\T+{sTT.
Vs| >=\TdT nH |<+ d+qT>, Je\ eT< Vs d++<\T
n+ ds+> > esT\ qT +& > +&e. <VsD
Vs |\T m|&bT $T&\T, n+ |sT>T\qT eT]jTT s s\
\qT +{sTT. eTsy| ><\T, s+<T\T $$< s\ |\qT eT]jTT
q s<\qT Vs+> rdT+{sTT. eq n+<T#H d+<s+ Vs|
C\+ (Foodweb) nH |< y&&+ dT> +T+~. m+<T+f ~ b&yq ,
n~ d+K k< |& Vs d++<\qT d+#&y T +& yTT+ deTT<jT+
d+wyTq n+s d++<\ ]> |jDeTH ydy |_+_dT+~.
dsT qT+& >V+|&q X, bwksTT qT+& sy bw ksTT
n+~+#&T esD eed n+ |d]dT+~.
|+`2qT |]o*<+. \T s n&e\T
ed+# Je\ eT<>\ d++<\qT |+
#|T+~. Vs| e\ +Te\T |
k H \qT $ T+# T = +& & + | +
#&e#TqT. | +Te Vs C\+
]w kH * +T+~. B +Te jTT
Vs C\| yd+ < #Y (Niche) n
e]ksT. <VsD, \ qT+& sk\qT |
m|&T nH \ kq+ +f \qT
qq eTT\T> #d < =] <e&\Tq >=+>[
|sT>T\ eTs= kq+ +T+~. yTT\ qT+&
Vs >V+# + e+{ +Te\ #YqT
* HsTT. +Te\ \H +{sTT.
, $ |]eD+q eT]jTT Vs >V +# |+-2: Vs C\+
$<q+q ek #|sTT. eq #Y nH |<+, Vs C\+
+Te jTT $T+q dsq kH eT]jTT VsH +&, < Jeq
$<H \T|T+~. yd+ nH~ +Te jTT yd d\yTqf #Y <
T<sTeqT n+f J$ #d | d+#]+# |<X\qT Vs+ b+<
$<H yTT<q y+{ dw+> e]dT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 209
JyesD |s$ T&T
Vs| >=\TdT Je\ eT< Vs
d++<\qT $e]+qT>H JyesD
Xd |s$T&T J$ qT+& eTs= J$
]> X |dsDqT \T|sTT. |t
|s$T& >T]+ MTsT $H +{sT. Vs|
>=\TdT Je\ eT< d++<\qT
# | & < e] + # & es D
|+-3: | |s$T& Xdy \ T |s$ T& (Pyramid) nH ueqqT
|jksT. $$< bw ksTT\ esD eed jTT sD |s$T&
s|+ sU+> #| JyesD |s$T& (Ecological pyramid)
n+{sT. _{wt esD Xdy #sdt mH 1927 esDXd |s$T&
sU\qT ||<eT+> |yX|{&T. |s$T& |su>+ <sT\T (|<eT
bwksTT), y{| eT+> s bwksTT\T (|<eT, ~rjT, rjT
$j><sT\T) <| { #=|q |s$T& Ks+ es neT] +{sTT.
esDXd |s$T&T eT&T s\T> +{sTT. n$ 1.d+U|s$T&T
2.Je<es |s$T&T 3.X |s$T&T. bs+ eTq+ d+K |s$T&T eT]jTT
<es |s$T& >T]+ #]+# |jT+ #<+.
MT \Tk?
|s$T& sD+ C$TrjT +T+~. jT{ |]\T uTCs+ +&
y{ es\T |=q \TksTT. |s$T& n&T>Tu>+ eTTFjT+> < #TsTFjT+> <
VQeTTFjT s+ +T+~. #Tsks |s$T&\ #Tsks+> +& jT{
|]\T e+ uTCs+ +{sTT. k<sD+> |s$T&\T H +{sTT.
d+U |s$T&T (Pyramid of number)
Je\ eT< Vs d++<\|q n<jTq+ #jT&yT
rjT +& JeXdy\T bwksTT\ Je\ d+KqT
$j><sT\T b\& + | d q ]#s T . V s | e\qT
~rjT
$j><sT\T <VsD> rdT=, | bwksTT q Je\ d+KqT
b\T n+#Hy<+. Je\ d+KqT b\&+ #
|<eT $j><sT\T me, me, $$<, e, n e nH |<\qT
<sT\T
|j+#e\d +T+~. Je\ d+K\ eT< @<H
d++<+ q<? $$< bw ksTT\ >\ Je\
|+-4(m): d+U |s$T& |]eD\qT b\e#?
Vs| >=\TdT Je\ d+KqT
|s$T& nH sU|+ <s #|e#TqT.
|s$ T& |u>+ Vs| >=\TdT |
bwksTT (Trophic level) >\ Je\
d+KqT ddT+~. |<eT $j><sT\
ksTT qT+& n|< e+kVsT\ es,
Vs| >=\TdT | bwksTT,
k<sD+> Je\ |]eD+ |sT>T
+T+~. Je\ d+K >T Z +T+~.
<VsD |+`5 #&+&. n&$ m|&
q$>, me d+K +{sTT. m|&qT |+-5: d+U|s$T&
Vs+> >V+# n+\ |sT>T\T |]eD+ |<~>qT, d+K e>qT
+T+~. |sT\qT H VsTq ><\T < s+<T\ |]eD+
n|<> qT, d+K n e>qT (s+&T es +&e#T) +T+~. d++<
|s$T& s|+ dw+> #|e#TqT.
+< e&q Vs| >=\TdT\, d+U |s$T&\qT ^jT+&.
1) eT]#T \T e&+|
2) >& +<\T &\T
| s+&T Vs| >=\TdT\ d+U |s$T& sD+ $<+> +<?
ekyTH Hj? +f n$ @$T{?
k<sD+> n esD eed\ d+U |s$T& s+ \Te>
+T+~. = |]dT\ n+f #T <sT nsTTq|&T < @<H
bwksTT Je\ d+K <sT\H me> q|&T |s$T& sD+
esTT+~. |s$ T& sD+ @$<+ > H, <sT\T |su >H $TksTT.
Je<es |s$T&T (Pyramid biomass)
Je<es n+f @$T{?
sDq d+j>jT, dss dVjT+ sH & & k|q <s
@s&q Je d++< sq |<syT Je <es (~ sDq d+j>jT
dss dVjT+ sH & & k|q <s @s&TT+~). #T, >T\T,
|+\T, >&, Xe\T, { yTT\T, eekjT eT]jTT nsD d++< neb\T,
yTT\ +Te\ $d]\ Je <esX. X> es& Mq e,
+T d++< |<s Je <es (Bio mass) n+{sT. Je <es X
d+ $jd, n~ JeX (Bio fuel) neT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 211

| bwksTT Je<es |]eD, $$< bwksTT\ q
sX\ eT< >\ d++< *jTCdT+~. ueesD eed\, <sT\
qT+& e+kVsT\ es Je<es eT+> >TZ +T+~. n+<Te\ Je
<es |s$T& sD+ {sT> +T+~. esD eed <sT\
Je <es s bw ksTT\ q Je\ Je <es +f # e>
+T+~.
|s$T&\T m|& s_eTTK+>H +{sTT. m+<T?
<VsD CesD eed <sTq { yTT\ Je <es,
M{ Vs+> rdT=H dwjTqT eT]jTT XVs #|\ Je <esH
# e. q #|\T H |<, e+kVs #|\ Je <es # me>
+T+~. n+<Te\ $<yTq |s$T& sD+ \+<T\T> +T+~. Vs|
>=\TdT bw ksTT qT+& sy bwksTT 10 qT+& 20% es
Je <es ~ neT+~.
d+U|s$T&qT s> |qsTT Je <es |s$T& @s&TT+~. bw
ksTT\ eT<>\ Vs d++<\qT ns+ #dT& dT\u+> +T+~. m|&
Hu >&| <s|& #dq Je <es ddT+~. n+\ |sT>T\
Je<es ~ <seTeT+~. < $<+> Je <es Vs| >=\TdT
e] es =qk>TT+~. n+f esD eed Je <es bw ksTT
qT+& sy bwksTT VseTeT+< eTq+ |+> #|e#T.
MT \Tk?
+<H \| (u $T eT s\ nyjTT $q jT <s @s&q |{*jT+,
u>TZ yTT<q +<H\T) eTq+ <s|&& Z+#&, >* \Tc Z+#&, Je
<es L& +<q eqsT> $j+#e#TqT. Je <es +<q+> y&q|&T
L& sH & & $&T<\eT+~. , n~ Je <es @s&&, ] >* qT+&
>V+#&TT+~.
bwksTT Je <es, < +~ ksTT Je <es H
e> +T+~. m+<Tq>, Je <es nH~ n+<TuT q yTT+
Vs =\eq+. +Te\T eT Vs >V +q|&T, < =+u >+
eyT sy bwksTT VseTjT = DC\T @s&&
$j+#&TT+~. Vs+> >V +q Je <es # es $d]+ |&&+
< X |j+#&be&+ sT>TT+~.
+Te\ n$ >V+q Vs Xs DC\+> esTH keTs+
e> +T+<, Je <es |s$T& \T|T+~. $T*q Vs+ Js+
+& $d]+|&TT+~ < bwD e+{
jT\ nedseTjT X , XdjT
$q+ #jT&TT+~. # +Te\T, eTT
>V+q Vs+ 10%H $T+#+&, Xs
DC\T jse&+ $j+#T+{sTT.
= XVsT\T ne> eyT X
|j+#T+{sTT. #|\qT Vs+> rdTH
eqe&T q Vs| >=\TdTqT <VsD>
rdT= eT]+ $es+> n<jTq+ #<+.
Vs| >=\TdT, deTT<+ |]\ {
*j& yTT\T (e |e \T`Phytoplanktons)
<sT\T. $ ds+ qT+& X XwksTT.
{ | + T C\+ (+ T | e \T` Zoo
planktons) yTT\qT Vs+> >VksTT.
+T |e \qT #|\ T +{sTT. Vs| >=\TdT
e]> #|\qT eqe&T Vs+> >Vk&T. |+-6: Je <es |s$T&
| Vs| >=\TdT jTT Je <es |s$T&qT +~$<+> #|e#TqT. eqe&T
| Vs| >=\TdT, | bwksTT dTesT> 90% Vs+ qwbe&+ (1 .>)
sT>TT+~. 1000 \ { yTT\T 100 \ {| +T |e\
nedseTeT+~. 100 \ +T |e\T 10 \ #|\
] #|\T eqe DC\ nedseTesTT. Je #|
<es |jT, yTT\ (<sT\) |yTq dX (dss (10 .>)
|*+>)| bwksTT\T y=B eT+> qwbe&+ sT>TT+~. Vs|
>=\TdT <sT\ <>Zs +& +TC me X n+<TuT
+T+~. Vs| >=\TdT bwksTT\ d+K e> +f, e]ksTT +T |e \T
+TC me X \_dT+~. (100 .>)
X |s$T& (Phyramid of energy)
Je\ |sT>T<\ eT]jTT Xs u>\ sD, D+q u>\ e |e \T
|q]sD nedseTjT |<s\T eT]jTT X Vs+ eTTKyTq eqsT> (1000 .>)
+T+~. due Vs+ skjTq X. ~ \Te #jT&q dX
s|+ +T+~. s+s+ |<s\qT >V+#&, d+BjT |<s\
eT]jTT d+BjT |<s\ qT+& ]+BjT |<s\ e]&, y{
$&T<\ Je\ $$< jT++>\T (Mechanisms) HsTT. yTT\T KC\qT
H\ qT+& >VksTT. $ {bT y <s yTT Xw+#&sTT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 213
Je\ eTqT>& sD q d+j>jT neTTKyTq |jT . ds+, sH
& & eT]jTT sT e n+X\T nsTTq|{ $ Je\ m+ neds+.
<sTq |# yTT\T |<s\qT X s|+ (Vs+) e],
Je ||+# $j><sT\ n+<TuT +#TsTT. <sT\ qT+&
$$< $j><sT\ Vs+ eT]jTT X ~ ns+ #dT& Vs|
>=\TdT\T, Vs C\\T &&TsTT.
yTT\T < +Te\T < s+&+{ qT+& Vs >V+#&+ e\q
+Te\T nedsyTq KC\qT b+<TsTT. KC\T s+s+ u$T qT+&
=\+|&T, >V+|&T yTT\ u>eTesTT. sy yTT\qT
Vs+> >V+# +Te\ Xs+ u>eTesTT.
MTsT H Vs+ $$< |<s\qT m+|#dT+&. n$ \_+# eqsT\qT
>T]+#+&. <VsD |sT>T \_+# $<H #<+. |sT>TqT b\ qT+&
jsT#ksT. b\T e qT+& \_ksTT. e >& Vs+> rdT+T+~.
>& yTT\T sDq d+j>jT <s Vs jsT#ksTT. Vs+
@syTq<H < eT\+ |# yTT <!
J$, Vs+ >V+#>H < X Xs+ $$< |+<\qT nqTd]dT+~.
>V+q VseT+ Js+ <T. +T d++< Vs+ y+T\T, \T,
\ uV nd| + s\T, eT<Td eT]jTT meTT\T, e d++< Vs+
d\TC eT]jTT *H\qT # +Te\T Js+ #dTe. +{ Js+
|<s u>\T $d]+#&&+ <s> y+s|+ > Xs+ qT+& jT
|+|&sTT.
ksX <sT\T (skjTqX) $j><sT\T (skjTqX)
w+ w+
Xw+#&q X (XdjT eT]jTT $dsq <s qwb~), |sT>T<\
eT]jTT |T <s Xs+ = Je <es jse& n+<TuT
+T+~. eTsD+#&+, s>\ u]q |&&+ < y]+> \T s\&+ e\q
Je\T =+ Je <es qwbsTT. Je <es |PVs| >=\TdT
<s (Je\T eTsD+, [be&+ e\q) ] |sesD (H\, sT, >*)
#sTT+~. $T*q Je <es XVsT\T < |su\T Vs+>
$j+#T>, < X esD eed sy q bwksTT
|ydT+~.
Xs+ |<s\T |y+#&+, sy Je\T eTsD+#&+ eT]jTT
[be&+ e\q n$ H\, sT, >* #s&+ nH~ s+s+ #jT+>
sT>TH +T+~. Je\T eT]jTT y{ |sesD eT< ]> |<s\
|dsDqT |<s #jT+ < \eD\ syD < Jeu skjTq e\jT+
n+{sT n MTsT 9e s> \TdTHsT.
dsT qT+& \_+# ksX esD eed <sT\ |ydT+~.
|# yTT\T eT]jTT sD q d+j>jT qT ]| u] j\T (|V ]+
* +&&+ e\q) |, s JeM ksX Xw+#e eT]jTT <
skjT X> (Vs+) ese.
<sT\ qT+&, skjT X $j><sT\, bwksTT
qT+& sy bwksTT |d]dT+~. |r bwksTT Je\T, n$ Xw+q
X # es $$< |qT\, |sT>T<\ eT]jTT |T e+{ Je jT\
$jksTT.
sTy bwksTT Je\ X =+u>+ eyT #sTT+~.
$wjT+ Je\ eqe ] jT+\ ed+ n+> <T. s e+{
yVH\ +q y& |{ |P]> >X> es+& #es
ws|+ qwbe&+ sT>TT+~. dV yk\ X $$< |qT\
$j+#&TT+~. #s $&T<q wX, ] esD eed
#sTT+~.
eqe sb\T ` esD eed| y{ |ue+:
eqe sb\ e\q ]> \Tw+ esD eed\T @$<+>
\TweTeTHj +~ s>T\ \TdTH+. eekjT+ d+ n&e\qT
qs&+ e\q esD eed\T |e<syTq esT\ >TsejT, B e\q
| bwksTT Je\T @$<+> |u$eTej eT]+ $es+> ns+
#dTH |jT+ #<+.
=sT <!
||+#+ |< |\ bwVs n+~+#&+ eT+{ dsdT\T
m+>H |j>|&TTHsTT. y{ =sT dsdT {. eTq sw+ c,
><e] q<T\ eT< $d]+ q =sT
dsd T #| <q |< eT+{ dsd T .
~ <<| 6121 #<s| MTs yTs
$d] + +T+~. =s T dsd T qT+& es<
sT 61 .MT. b&e>\ |fsT y>T
>T+& |eV+ +>U+ \TdT+ ~.
=sT |]yV b+\T kse+yTq
+&TeT{ yT\T * +{sTT. |+-7: =sT dsdT
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 215
1999 qe+sT us |uT+ =sT dsdTqT | d+sD +<+>
|{ + +~. & 193 s\ | CT\T $$< s\ +T eC yd+>
+&&+ b mH s\ eT+<T yTT\T L& |sT>TTHsTT. dj,
sT sb <X\ qT+& nsY, e] H\\ eT<\+ | @{ <<| 20
\\ |\T dsdT e\d eksTT. dsdT| <s|& <<| 20 $T*jTq
|\T J$dTHsT. |>V \T n+~dTq de#s+ |s+ > eT&T
<Xu\T> dsdT yX\+ Zb+~. \Tc\T \TdT+&&+ e\ JeC
eTT| @s&T+~. |P& #s& + e\ es<\ T ds k<sDeTjsTT. +~ |{ q T
|]o*+#+&.
|{`1
1967 H{ yX\+ 2004 H{ yX\+
$u>+
(#..$T.) (#..$T.)
sT $d]+q dsdT yX\+ 70.70 65.65
\T| +&q u>+ 0 47.45
<yTq \T| +&q u>+ 0 15.20
es\+ es<\ >TsjT b++ 100.97 0
s=jT\ #sTe\T 0 99.74
e]|+& b\T 8.40 16.62
eTD\T 0.31 1.37
yTT+ 180.38 180.38
@ d+es+ dsdT sT $d]+ |<X+ me> +~? m+<T?
dsdT <+> \T| |s>& sD+ @$T e u$dTHe?
dsdT yX\+ Zb& sD\T @$T{?
| sD\T \Tc <]rkjT #|e#? m+<T?
=sT dT<s b+\ qT+& |\T e\d se& sD\T @$T{?
dsdT \Tc >Tsq eTT|qT @$<+> qT>=HsT?
80e <X + qT+& =s T b++ s=jT\T, #|\ |+|+ (Acqua culture)
n+ u< jTyT q ybs+> $d] ++~. n+<Te\ nH eT+~ |T&<sT\
<w B| & dsdT eTD\ >Ts+~. 1996 H{ # b+\ \T
{ { |yV eT[+ dsdTqT k>Tu$T> essT. ~ dsdT dV
|yV ~XqT e]yd+~. n+<Te\ dsdT { \Te keTs+ >DDjT+>
ZbsTT+~.
dsdT |]yV b++ eekjT+, |]XeT\T $|+> $d]+#sTT.
y>T\T e+\T ss\ \Tc\qT dsdT #syjTk>sTT. eekjT
skjTH\T, msTe\T, #|\ #sTe\ es\T, |]XeT\ qT+& y\Te& es
skjTH\T, eTT| es\T, >V es\T yTT<q e dsd T *d \Tc
*dTH sTT. me bw\T *q es\T (Anthropogenic pollutants) \T|
$|+> |s>& sDeTeTHsTT.
|*+> dsdT sT sdue+, eTT]>, bw |<s\ L&
+&&+ e\ { ]> H |]eD+ (DO) ZbsTT+~. C$ H
&e+& (BOD) me e&+ e\q \#s\| re |ue+ *+~. &
|\ \\Tw+| ne>Vq be&+ e\ &jT]j, \s, fbsTT&,
nMT_jddt yTT<q { <s y|+# y<T\T re+> y| #+<sTT.
M{ bT <eT\ e+{ yV\ <s y|#+< y<T\T L& |sTT.
s=jT\T, #|\ e+{ \#s\TL& \Tc >Tsj sTT. b\T eekj
j>+ +& bjsTT. ~>T& ZbsTT+~.
|dT + dsd T esD eed |P&\ T, eTD\T, \Te\T eTdTbe&+,
(Eutrophication) yTT<q +\qT m<Ts=+{+~. \sY e\q <<|
15 s\ k #|\ CT\T n+]+bjT |e<+ |&sTT. { ]>
H |]eD+ bZ e&+ e\ { |]\+| Xd+# #|\ CT\T |]>sTT.
dsdT| $$< s\ |uy |{`2 |]o*+#+&. +~ |X\
de<H\T +#+&.
|{ `2
eqe
deTd eekjT+ #|\ |+|+ |]XeT\T
sb\T
C$
1. |\ e\d >Z&+ - + - -
2. e+TC\+ >Z&+ - + - -
3. s>s\T - - - +
skjT
jT{|wH + + - +
$w|<s\ y| + + + -
u
yT\T yjT&+ + + - -
es<\ T + + - +
d#q: (G) deTd\| |ue+ #|T+~.
(`) deTd\| |ue+ #|&+ <T.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 217
e\d |\ MT< |ue+ #|+# n+X\T @$T{?
u deTd\ Je d++< deTd\ eT< @<H d++<+ +< e
u$dTHy? n$ @$T{?
skjT deTd\T @s&& sD\T @yT +{sTT?
{ ]q H |]eD+ Zb @eTeT+~?
eTT]>, bw |<s\T *q q { (Biological oxygen demand)
my? y? <s *> |ue+ @$T{?
=s T |]yV b+ |\T nH +<T\ >Tse& sD\T @$T{?
|\ e\d| \Tw+ m+{ |ue+ *++< e u$dTHe?
us |uT |sesD+, nM eT+XK =sT dsdT |]sD d+
|swH =sT |< |yX|{+~. | |k~+q =sTqT n& Jeq
deTT |qsT<]+#Te&+ m+ neds+.
+`1
MT |]|s\ q @<H ({) esD eedqT |]o*+#+&. n+<T
+& $$< Vs| >=\TdT\T, Vs C\qT >T]+ +~ esYw{ <s+>
y~ sjT+&.
esYw{
Tdu T \ |sT: ```````````````````````````````````````````````````` ~: ``````````````````````````
esD eed |sT: ````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
{b>|: ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
>T]+q <sT\T yTT\ |sT / d+K: `````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
+Te\ |sT / d+K: ```````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
>T]+q $j><sT\ |sT / d+K: ````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
XVsT\T (b<$T $j><sT\T): ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
e+kVsT\T (~rjT $j><sT\T): `````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
qksTT e+kVsT\T (rjT $j><sT\T): ``````````````````````````````````````````````
y{eT< >\ Vs d++<\T, n\yT: ````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
Vs| >=\TdT |+: `````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
Vs C\+ |+: `````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
esD eed e n+X\T: ``````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
esD eed @yH |e<\T b+ Hj? n$ @$T{?: `````````````````````````````````
|]cs\T d+#+&: ````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````
n&e\qT q], d\+ |+\qT |+&+#&+ e\q deTd q
esD eed, Vs<H\T, <T+|\T, |X>d+ d+ b\ syTq
|+\qT (Mono culture) |+&+#&+ e\q ndV+> e]b+~.
$$< s\ |+\qT eTq+ me yTT+ |+\qT |+&d, Vs+ L&
|< yTT+ \_dT + ~. |]d Vs+| <s|& , >T qT *+# +<\
e+{ |sqJe\ nqTL\+> +T+~. y VsH >T *+#
|sqJe\ d+K y>+> |sT>T b |*+ # <Tss+> +T+~.
|]d n~>$ T+#& eTq+ nbjTsy T q skjTH\qT |d d& T , >T\HX\T
eT]jTT +<HX\qT y&&+ ]+~. # skjTH\T eT+ |uy
#|q|{ M{ y&+ = deTd\qT dw++~. HXq+ #j*q eTT\qT
eyT #+|, s Je\ nbjTs+ < dsq H> |]>D+#*.
n+{ $THXqyTB <T.
MT *dq MTsT $q @yH s+&T HXqT\ |sT \|+&.
MTsT eTT\T, +<\ qT+& Vs| +\T, <H\qT d+s+ #Te&
+{ @$<+> \Te #ksT?
|dd&T $#DsV+> |uy #|, me d+K s
+Te\qT HXq+ #ksTT. M{ eTT\qT Vs+> rdT=H +Te\T
eT]jTT sT\ VseTjT +Te\ +{sTT. |*+> |dd&T Vs|
>=\TdT\ nqVyTq esT\ <]rd, esD eed jTT deTT\qT
<rksTT. $ H\ *dbsTTq|&T n$ *+# |u e+ + nbjTs+ >
+T+~.
|dd& e\q *> $w|P] |ue+ # \+ b +T+~. =
HXqT\T eT]jTT >T\HX\T $q+ #+<>*q$> +{sTT. $
e \+H k<sD+> d+es+| sTbjTsyTq |<s\T>
$q+ nesTT. b<sd+, s, dd+ *jTTq |dd&T $q+ #+<e.
$q+ |dd&T # nbjTsyTq$. $ = bw ksTT
+BeTe |s$T& Ks u>+ +& +Te\ Xs\ #]
nbjTsyTq ksTT |sT+{sTT. Vs| >=\TdT \Tc\T #s&
C$ eek|q+ (Bio accumulation) n+{sT. Vs| >=\TdT
bwk sTT qT+& sy bwk sTT #]q \Tc\T k+BeTjT $<H
C$ eBsD+ (Bio magnification) n+{sT.
eqe s>+| C$ eek|q+ Je d+#jTq |uy >T]+q eTs=
|]X<H n+X |]o*<+.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 219

@<Tu<T ]sjTsY (EBWR) #| \yTD |sT+Tq
useT\\Tèqe\| |u e+
us<X+ |D b+\ |]ds\ |eV+# q<T\T eT]jTT {
\#d ]sjTsY\ ed+# \#s\ <c |e<s |]dT\T eT+>
|]bTHsTT. useT\\ d+#jTq+, eTjTT, n~ bw\ #]
eT]jTT |]> { \Tw+ { ed+# Je\ eTqT>& dy\T>
|]D$TdTHsTT.
| D , b]X$T s D , < T Jeq
$< H\T, eqe\ \ s D +>
u s e T\\T < > Z s { eqs T \
\TdTH sTT. B e\q JeC\+ \Tw {H
Jeq+ =qk+#e\dq <Td @s&T+~.
+{ |]dT\ J$+# #|\T V \Tw
yes D re+> | d +~+# &
>eT+#sT. n+<Te\ eT<\+ #|\qT
|+-8: @<Tu<T ysY ]CsjTsY V\Tc\T Jed\T> u$dTHsT.
@<Tu<T ysY ]sjTsY { dd+ (pb), &jT+ (cd), $TjT+
(Cr), e+>dt (Mn), (Ni) eT]jTT sH < |syT (Fe) yTT<q
useT\\T m+ y<T |sT>TTHj n+#H yjT& n<jTH
#|{sT. @<Tu<T ysY ]sjTsY +<|<X s+>s& +~.
B |]ds b+\ u> \Tw s q |]XeT\T, ess k jTH\T y\Te]+#
eekjT \T H\= HsTT.
d|qdt ]j nH b\TdT\ #| k<sD+> n~ b{H\qT *+&,
e <s n+<] dT\u+> \_+# Vs+. @<Tu<T |]ds b+\
|\T #|* Vs+> rdT=+T+{sT. #| n< jTq $T+ mqTe&+
]+~.
#| $$< DC n+f jT +, eT|+ &\T eT]jTT yTT|
>H eT]jTT =e\ uT> useT\\TqT >T]+#sT.
q\>=+& ;;q>sY #sTeq $<yTq |]X<q #d {
eT]jTT #|\ qeTH\qT d]+ @<Tu<T |*\ bsT. nsTT
@<Tu<T eT+{ ]sjTsY H ;;q>sY ]sjTsY e \TwyTq~>
>T]+#sT. ;;q>sY @<Tu<T 30.MT. <s+ +~. ;;q>sY ]sjTsY
#|\ H @<Tu<T #| >CH eT]jTT *|&T e>q useT\\
d+#jTq+ me>q qT |]X<q *d+~.
| d+es+ es eTT+<T (| e]`yT) es\+ (pH`d|+ sY)
eT]jTT es\+ sTy (nsY`qe]) eT&T \ sT, #|\
qeTH\qT d]+ |]o*+#sT. |\+qT eT&T s\ qeTH\T eT&T
|<X eT&TksT n+f yTT+ 27 qeTH\qT d]+ useT\\ $XwD
#XsT. 2005 qT+& 2007 es |]X<q #XsT.
@<Tu<T #| useT\\ |]eD+ <X d>T H me> qT
*d+~. n> useT\\ d+#jTH |]o*d n+{ H me qTeTT
+&> dd+, $TjT+, , &jT+ sTy kH HsTT. eT\\T
Vs C\+ <s #|\ D #] n& qT+& eqe\ #sTTHsTT.
#|\ jT+, yTT|\T, eT|+&\ &jT+ n~+> #sT+~. n
e >&\ L& #|\T &jT+ V dT * +&&+ e\
~ #|\ DC\+ dT\u+> #]+< >T]+#sT. $TjT+, qTeTT,
, dd+ sTy kH\ HsTT.
eT&T \ >eT+qTsTT es\+H #|\ useT\\
d+#jTq+ me> qT qT>=q&+~. eqe\ VsC\+ <s
useT\\ d+#jTq+ |] n~ sbT, reyTq s+, eT|+&\
D, y+T\T yTT<q nH Xs sT>T\ >Tse& >T]+#sT.
|Db++ |D[sV n_e~, nqTeT H |]XeT\T,
|D es\ e\q @<Tu<T ]sjTsY \Tw+ re+> |]bsTT+~.
#|\H +& s \#sJe\ e\q L& VsC\+ <s eqe\
#] s>+| reyTq |uy \T>CdTHsTT.
{ eqsT\ m&qT+& \Tw\T e #sTTHsTT?
{ e+# #|\ Xs\ usV\T m #sTTHsTT?
|]X<\T { \Tw |]eD+ es\ me> qT >T]+#sT
<! ~ m+<T sT>TT+< e u$dTHe?
{ <=] #|\qT q&+ e\ |\T nH y<T\ >T]e&
sD+ @$T{?
q<T\| q\ T ]d, & H\\qT, deTT<rs\qT $Td, n&e\qT
qsT, u$T <T |+\qT |+&d, \Te\T, sV<sT\T, |D\T
eT]jTT q>s\qT ]d eqe&T dV esD eed\qT mH esT\
>T]#X&T. esT\T dV esD eed\ eddT q e +TdeTT<j\qT
# es e]yXsTT.
<VsD |< |D+ jTT n_e~ rdTqsTT, eT&T s\
esT\qT #&e#TqT.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 221
m) = e +T CT\T #bsTT.
_) = e]q, = |]d T \ nqTL\+> esT=, e d+K eTqT>&
=qkksTT.
d) = e]q, = |]dT\ qT+& u b+<T, y{ d+KqT
|+#T+{sTT.
MT \Tk?
$TyT{ y~ yTT< 1956e d+es+ CbH eTj{ ||sY >\
$T$TyT{ q>s+ qT>=HsT. 1932 qT+& 1968 es k s=swH y] skjTq
|]XeT qT+& $&T<q $T< yTsT L&q es, $TyT{ y~ sD+. ws
deTT< (Shiranui sea), $TqyT{ nU+ +& #|\ <s M{ H k eTqTw
$T< yTsT #] Hs>\ <]rd+~. |*+> |\T\T, \T, |+<T\T, eTqTw\
eTsD\T 36 @> =qk>sTT.
eqe sb\T |sesD+ MT< m+{ <Twuy *ksTT nq&
#H ]q d+|TqqT |]o*<+.
|#T MT< Vd+
J$+ m<TsjT dsk<sDyTq $|T\qT+&
@ J$ | +#T<T . 1958e d+es+ #H <X+
|#T\T m<Ts=qTe+{ <sTDyTq |]dT\qT
VQX u>+ MT< @ J$ nqTu$+ +&<T.
|sesD $|T dV +> d+u$ +q~ <T. |P]ksTT
eqe |<yT. n|&T #H y{&&q+>
||+#+ |T\T y{&&qT m& <K\T e.
|+-9: |e<+ |#T\T
#H |uT+ b]X$T T\qT |+# ~X
>MTD sT\qT |< mTq bV++~. b]X$T
]+> k~+#& mH |D[\T
s b+~+#s T . n_ e ~ # + ~q < X \ e~]>
=+<s> <TqT s|~<TH+<T #H |uT+
< e # | { + ~. nsTT n| { < # H
eekj<] deyT. <eT+ u>+> 5000
T+u\ deTV\T> @s& eekjT+ #jT&+
|+-10: |#T\| <+&j nq~ eTTU+X+. Be\ |+ ~>T& s{+|
nsTT+~. yTT<{ $jT+ sTy d+es eT]+ |< \\qT
sb+~+#&+ ]+~. yesD+ n+<T dV]+#<T. =+ |+
~>T& eq|{ q |*\qT k~+#bjeTH ujT+ |uT
eekj~sT\T ~>T& me> >{sT. |&T \T |\
neds\ Vs ds|s eT<>\ deTT\| re+> |ue+ #bsTT.
BqT+& |+#T& n~sT\T eT |< |#T\| H{sT. &+>T\
qT+& d+es \+ |#T dTesT> 1.8 \ <q| +\T q<
n+<Te\ Vs =s @s&+< |{+#sT. |#T\| Hs ybsT. |,
|D |\+<] |#T\| jTT<+ #j*+~> <+#sT.
|\+ e\\T | |< d+K |#T\qT |T #+|&+ yTT<\T
|{sT. $w|j>+ #XsT. Tb\ XsT. n$ n\d $dT>T m>s
+<|& #bjTes &|\T ysTTd Xu\T #XsT. >qT HXq+ #XsT.
>T&qT |>\>={sT. e] |#T |\\qT L& e<\+& #+|XsT. |uT
#+|q |#T \ d+K <s+> bsX \\T, |uT s\j\ VQeH\qT,
>T]+|qT +~. sT y =+eT+~ Xdy \ T #bsTTq |#T \ Js eed
|<s\qT |]o*+#sT. < eT&T e+T\T |+\qT HXq+ #d $T\T
+&> e+T eyT <q| +\T qT qT>=HsT. |#T \T eqe\
m+ |j>+ *+# |\ y] |]X<q\ <s ssD e#sT.
|#T\qT HXq+ #d |jT\ e\q |+ ~>T& |s>b> eT]+>
ZbsTT+~.
+ \TdTq sTy |#T\qT #+| <e |uT |yd+~.
n|{ s>*q qw+ ]bsTT+~. $T&\qT H |#T\T be&+
|+\| $T&\ <& mesTT+~. < bT |L\ yesD |]dT\T
L& &jsTT. n|< sTe <]rXsTT. $T&\qT #+|&
HXqT\qT |<y T T+ $j+#&+ bs+_+#&+ H\ HD D + bsTT+~.
b\ |#j*q sT\T eekjT+ TuT b&+ y\d+K
>e\qT e~* |]XeT\ ]\T> |#jT& e\d ysT.
@ Vs| >=\TdT >T]+ |q #]+#&+ ]+~?
|+b\ Vs| >=\TdTqT, <eT+ @$<+> +|]++~?
nes<\T |sesD+| m+{ |uy #bsTT?
esD eed J$ #+|&+ ueyTH? ~ @$<+> |e<+
*++~?
ydy |#T u<T? |+ ~>T& >Z& dsq sD+ @$T{?
Xdy\T @+ qT>=HsT? |qT d]~<TH $<+> dVjT|&>*>s?
m+<T #jTbjsT?
eqe #s\T |sesD+ MT< @$<yTq |uy *dTHsTT?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 223
+{ $|T\T d+u$+#+&, e m+{ d\V\T ke?
8e s> JeXd |d + eTq$ > jT+ #<e +&. |dT + eTq |]ds\
L& |#T \T yTT<q | \T n+]+ bjT |e<+ \>& >\ sD\qT
MT s> #]+#+&.
ysD #s\T
$Td+Vs\ e\ *> nbjTsyTq |uy\ qT+& eTq* s Je\qT
y]+# esZ\ >T]+ d |dd&qT y&&+ |P]> |&yT D #s>
|dT+~. n |dd&qT y&&+ |P]> |yj\ #|&+ dT\uyT,
N&\qT jT++# $<H\ MT< <w +#*. |dd&qT y&q sy L&,
>T e\q Vs qw+ sT>TT+~. |dd&qT y&&+ |P]> |yd |+\|
<&#d y<T\ |]d @$T{? n$ m jT++#&sTT. |]> Hu
nedseTjT |+\T @eTej +#+&.
| + \ V # d N& | & \ qT y]+# + < T nqTd ] +# | < T \T
|e<sV+> +&&+ b |]ds\ |]sD nqT>TDyTq C$
jTe\qT b{+#$> +&*. n|&T eyT Bs* deTd dsq
|]cs+ <=sTT+~. n+{ = #sDj>yTq |<T\qT |]o*<+.
|+ e]&: |r d+es+ |+qT +& ysTysT |+\qT |+&+#
|+e]& $<H b{+#&+ e\ >T qT, y{e\ *> qc y]+#e#T.
>T d++~+q |Ps|s\qT \TdT&+: @ >T\T m y|dT+~.
B eT\ sD\T @$T{ nH $wj\qT |P]> ns+ #dT&+e\q |+
qc y]+#e#T.
C$ jT+D: >T *+# s\qT H |sq Je\qT X#s
e+du \T (Nocturnal predators) |yX |&+ <s >T qT y]+#e#T.
e+<+: >T *+# $T \ |sTw Je\ |qsT keTs + jT
e+<+ #jT&+ <s y{ y| n]e#T.
qT ]esq s\T: $$< s\ >TqT, yesD |]dT\qT TH
qTd++< s\ n_e~#j T &+ <s |sT>TeT+<T\ $qj> +Z #e#T.
|sesDH * +&&+: s sD\ b*d eqe sb
|sesD+ eT]jTT dV ||+#+| reyTq |ue+ #|THsTT. qT
|sesD+ | H $\Te\qT * |e]+#*. #{\T q+ eq d]b<T.
|sesD+ |s+> @~ d] nsTTq<, @~ d]< \TdT |e]+#*.
|s |sesD+ |]sD | dsq ne>Vq * +&*. |
s+#T&+ n+f eTq* eTq+ b&T&yT. MT +^w |d+ 6e jT{
"Or will the dreamer wake" nH |< #ee+&.
kq+
1. es|H +<+ 2006 =sT dsdT 1967 qT+& 2004 es |]dT\T nH n+X+| #dq
|]X<q |\T.
2. $<k>sY >TeT&e*, s$X+sY |k, oqT q eT]jTT |eH. .eT=+& @<Tu<T ]CsjTsY|
#dq |]X<q +swq s |t |t dHdt, jf, bs]dsY |#T]+#&q
|]X<q |+.
\ |<\T
Vs| >=\TdT, Vs C\+, Vs |s$T&, d+U |s$T&, Je<es |s$T&,
$Td+Vs\T, C$ eek|q+, C$ eBsD+, |sesD H.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
J$qT+& eTs= J$ X|kseTjT $<H Vs C\+ *jTCdT+~.
Vs| >=\TdT uD\T Vs < H J$ eT< d++< dksTT.
Je\ eT< d++<\qT X |yV d+U|s$T&, Je <es |s$T&\ <s *jTCjTe#T.
|s$T& nqTq~ C$TrjT s+ q sD+.
d+U|s$T& Vs| >=\TdT = bwksTT q Je\ d+KqT *jTCdT+~.
Je <es |s$ T& Vs| >=\TdT = bw ksTT q Vs \u qT, X eT<s\qT
*jTCdT + ~.
Je <es Je +<q+> L& |j+#e#T.
>T ysD |+\ |j+# $Td+Vs\T $w|P]yTq$ e&+ e\q |sesD
V *ksTT.
Vs >=\TdT \Tc\T |y+#& C$ eek|q+ n+{sT.
bw ksTTqT+& eTs= bwk sTT \Tws\T |y + b>T|&& C$ eBs D + n+{sT.
nbjTsyTq |uy\T +& n~ b+<& |+ e]&, JejT+D, qTd++<
s\ n_e~ yTT<q |<T\T |sT>T eT+<T\ |ej\T> |#ksTT.
nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. Vs|>=\TdT bwksTT qT+& eTs= bwksTT ~ nsTTq X @eTeT+~?(AS1)
2. esD eed |s$T&T eT]jTT Vs| >=\TdT\T y{ dksTT?(AS1)
3. @<H Vs| >=\TdT jTT d+U|s$T&| \|TT{ sjT+&. +< e&q d+U |s$T&
qT+& e @+ >V+#e?(AS1)
m) #T _) + d) e&+|
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 225
4. Je <es nq>H$T? +< e&q Vs| >=\TdTqT <VsD> rdT=, Je <es
|s$ T&qT ^jT+&.(AS1)
m) >& _) XVsT\T d) e+kVsT\T &) >< < s+<T
5. bs+ #~$q sT y $w|P ] |<s\ y&+ esD edq T @$<+ > |u $+ #dT H sTT nH
<| MTsT ns+ #dTq $wj\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
6. $T\ u]qT+& |+\qT, Vs|<s\qT y]+# $Td+Vs\qT |j+#? <
|ej\qT +#? $wjT + >T]+ MT n_bj, < >\ sD\qT sjT+&.(AS1)
7. bwksTT n+f @$T{? JyesD |]$T& n~ < *jTCdT+~?(AS1)
8. esD eed X |dsD >T]+ $es+> \TdTy\+f, y$T |X\qT n&T>Te?(AS2)
9. Vs| e\qT+& e+d u\qT =\d @+ neT+~?(AS2)
10. MT |s{ yTTqT |]o*+#+&. <sT\T, $j><sT\ d++<+| d+| y~
sjT+&.(AS3)
11. Je <es |s$T&qT $e]+#\+f m+{ de#s+ nedseTeT+~?(AS4)
12. m>Te bwksTT $j><sT> qT }V+#T= d+U|s$T&qT ^d < ~>Te ksTT\ >T]+
sjT+&.(AS5)
13. MT { $<sT\ #q+ *+#& |sesD dV|Ps \| H<\T sjT+&.(AS7)
14. $Td+Vs\ y& |yd H\ \Tw+ y]+#& dVjT|& @yH eT&T se\qT
d+#+&.(AS7)
dsq de<H >T]+#+&
1. Vs| >=\TdT < yTT<\eT+~? ( )
m) XV] _) e+kV] d) <sT &) @B<T
2. <d+ yTT\T b{|&e? ( )
m) sT _) Vs+ d) d\+ &) |e
3. $Td+Vs\ y& |P]> |yjT&+ n+f ( )
m) |sT>TeT+<T\ y&+| jT+D
_) |sT>TeT+<T\ X<+
d) |sesD dV|Ps eekjT |<T\qT bV+#&+.
&) JeskjTH\ |]XeT\qT eTd ysTT+#&+.
4. #sdt mH |s+ +~ y dsq y+. ( )
m) e+kVsT\T |s$T& Ksu>+ +{sTT.
_) |s$T& Ksu>+ me X >V+#&TT+~.
d) |s$T& Ksu>+ <sT\T +&e.
&) m eT]jTT d
bs+
10
dV eqsT\T
sT, H\, n&e\T, e +TC\T yTT<q dV eqsT\ >T]+, y{

d+s+# $<H\ >T]+ +~ s>T\ eTq+ \TdTH+. eqe
sb\ e\ dV eqsT\T \Twe Te&+ >T]+ L& eTq+ \TdTH+.
u$T| dV eqsT\T m+ |w\+> HsTT. M{ eTq+ dsq
$jdTHe? dV eqsT\qT |u$+ #d eqe $<H\T,
eqsT\qT dTds | s T #T+ d+s+ # |jT \qT >T]+ eTq+ \TdT+<+!
MT |]ds\ >\ dV eqsT\qT qy<T #jT+&. n e>
n+<TuT q eqsT @< qT>=, < >T]+ $es+> \TdT+&. +~
|X\T, dV eqsT\ >T]+ eT]+ \TdTH $TeT* +|CksTT.
|dT+ MT |]ds\ n e> n+<TuT q dV eqsT @~?
n~ MT| m+{ |ue+ #|T+~?
n+eTT+<T < |Ps+ eqsT n~+> +&<?
\+ >&TdTq=B eqsT m+<T ZbsTT+~?
eqsTqT b&Ty\+f @+ #j*? (y+ #ke?)
|< qyTq dV eqsT jTT =s @s& @eTeT+< \TdTe&
+<|<X s+&T >e\ sV+q |]X<q\qT n<jTq+ #<+.
d+<s + `1: es+> s +&T >e\ |]d ($.ss&, d+sY |s Y mH$T
n+& kw d&dt, u>+|{, V<su<T`2003 jTT |+ qT+& d]+#&q~)
es+> u>s \T |w\+> q eq|] >eT+, { =s
re+> q e&#s >e\T ds #jT&sTT. ue\ <s { bsT<\, {
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 227
ed, < n+<TuT| |P] ne>Vq, ue\ >D+\T d]+#sT.
s+&T >e\ ue\ k+<s qT+&, |Xe[ |j+ ue\
<s {bsT<\| nedsyTq de#s+ d]+#sT.
k+ ue\Tq 25 T+u\ jTT ke, ] n+X\ d++~+q
de#s eTs= |Xe[ <s $es+> d]+#sT. > 5 d+es\ qT+&
u>s \ n+<TuT eq esT\qT, T+ duT\qT n&
\TdTHsT.
e&#s >eT+ ue\ |ejM e. eq|] >eT+ +&
#sTe +&T #sTe> es&&+ e\q { d<TbjT+ u>H +~.
MT \Tk?
{ |yV\ n&+> s, eT{ n&T\T
{ @sT #d { \\qT +&T #sTe\T
(Percolation tanks) n+{sT. +eT{, dT, +s,
>T\s yTT<q y{ u> *| <|q {
e#T> bs\T bs\T> #sTe H\qT, n+#T\
y+& |sT. sTy B >{> <TsTH
#ksT. eekjT+ d+ { ds|s #jT& +&T #sTe
eT{ eTT @sT #ksT. |P] { \ eT{ n&T>T eT{ eT< H\T>e+T
mT eTTqT @sT #ksT. n+<Te\ q+ { $&T<\ #dT& M\T\T>TT+~.
eT\T |+ $<H\T, u>[ d>T\T, eT* d<Tbj\T ke
de\T e+{ n+X\ <c eq|], e&#s >e\T $<+> HsTT. s+&T
>e\ q sT\T # me d+K HsT. dsd] T+ <jT+
eq|] me. s+&T >e eekjTyT eTTKyTq JeH<s+. ue
{bsT<\ eT\+. T+ <jT+, u>s\+ jTT ksTT|H <s|&
+T+~. T+ <j |u$+ #d |+\ eT+, >e ysT>
+~.
> = d+es\T> esb+ d]|& H, >eT |\T e]
|+&+#& d+d<qT #bsT.
|{`1
>eT+ yTT+ yX\+ {bsT<\ *q ue\ d+K X+| |]eD+
(ms\) uyX\+ jTT X+
eq|] 3791 25 155 25
e&#s 2970 15 175 25
228 10e s> dV eqsT\T
eq|] m ms\ u$T, {bsT<\ ed +~?
eq|] u$T yTT {bsT<\ ed *+#\+f m ue\T
neds+?
eq|] >eT+ ue\ d+K e> q|{ {bsT<\ ed >\ u
yX\+ e&#s H me. ~ m k<+? {bsT<\ *q u$T
jTT yX\+ |sT>TTq Hu esT +T+<?
k>Tu$T yX\+ eq esT, ue\ d+K eq esT X+, >
5 d+es\ q |+\ eT+ yTT<q n+X\ >T]+ >eT |\T #|q
$es\T |{`2 e&HsTT.
>e Hu 5 d+es\ <<| 10% |]+~.
|{`2: <T d+es\ sy |]d
eekjT u$T usTue\ d+K |+ eq esTX+

>eT+ e] | qTe\T yTT+
esT X+ >TZ<\ X+
K s K s
eq|] -14 -39 -17 -17 163 86 11 -17
e&#s -30 -68 -22 -50 27 138 -05 -50
K K|tqT s s;|+qT ddT+~.

TTD $\Te\T >TZ<\qT, <H $\Te\T |sT>T<\qT dksTT.
|{ ue\ d+K 155 nsTT, < + y{ d+K m+?
ue\ d+K Zbe&+ nH~ @+ ddT+~?
ue\ d+K Zbe&+, |+\| @$<yTq |ue+ #|T+~?
s+&T |{\qT b\+&. s+&T >e q {bsT<\ ed >\ u
yX\+ >T]+ s+&T |{\T @+ #|Hj sjT+&.
@ >eT+ me> |u$yT+~?
>e |+&+# |+\ s\ eq esT @$T{?
me q u >s \ksTT #s& , |]\+ qT+& sT $] e&
Z+#& $q ue\ <<| usTue\T> es&sTT. > <
ue\ m+&bsTT {ksTT u> |&b sTT+~. H{ e&# s 85%, eq|]
45% ue\T m+&bjsTT.
y eq|] 45% ue\T m+&b, ue\ d+K 39% Zb, m+
X+ ue\T, >=|ue\T> es&sTT?
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 229
s+&T >e\ $es\qT b\+&. @ >eT+ ue\T me d+K
m+&bjsTT? eTs >eT+ $<+> s>be& >\ sDyT$T{?
e u$T >\ dqsT sT\T, me u$T>\ sT\ mesT ue\T
m+&be&+ e\q me |u$yTHsT?
y {eqsT ZH < { d<TbjT+ bsTTqsTT, n~ H\ jTT
due+| m+{ |ue+ #|T+~?
m+&bTq ue\T, b+ |\T @$<yTq |ue+ #|THsTT?
e&#s sT u> Zbe& >\ sDyT$T{?
ue\T, usTue\ { $<T# jT |+|#ksT. |+|dqT
_+#T, ||\qT < >={\qT b\ _+#T, y{ d+s+#T,
$<T# _\T\| q sT\T me &TqT KsT #dTHsT. ms+| |{q
|T& eT]jTT #dTq KsT eq|] >eT+ ({ d<TbjT+ q >eT+)
# e eT]jTT e&#s >eT+ ({ d<TbjT+ n e >\ >eT+)
# me.
|{`3: q, |< sT\T ue\ <s {bsT<\| ysT u]+# y] KsT
usTu$ T u$ { bsT<\ ue\ <s { bsT<\
>eT+ sT s+ *+#&q u$T X+ nsTTq KsT yTT+/ ms/
(n&T>T\)
K|t s; d+es+
eq|] |< 130 ` 200 2.50 1.24 25,000 ` 70,000
q 110 ` 180 2.00 1.13 25,000 ` 65,00
e&#s |< 90 ` 300 1.53 0.87 22,000 ` 50,000
q 60 ` 200 0.99 0.46 20,000 ` 45,000
q eT]jTT |< sT*<] { eqsT n+<TuT $<+> +<?
b++ q | e { n+<TuT $<+> +&?
s; \+ H K|t |+ \+ u$ qT+& me u $T {bsT<\
\_dT+~. ~ m k<|&TT+~? B sT m $j+#Ty*.
u$ <s, 2.5% k>Tu$T {bsT<\ \_d, yTT+ u$T sT
n+<\+f m ue\T neds+?
ue\ d+K, u$ T` s +&+{ @~ KsT| me |u y #|T +~?
e&#s >eT+ dqsT sT q yTT+ k+ k>T u$T| KsT#d
&T m+? q sT &TqT @$<+> b+<T&T?
dqsT s T < q s T \T KsTqT +Z #Ty\+f @ #s \T #|{ *?
(<: { m<& TH |+\T |+#&+)
{ bsT<\ ed >\ u yX yTT+ |+#\+f usTu$ jTT
TqT |+#&yT q |]cse? neqT < <T < m+<T?
MT \Tk?
> = d+es\ qT+& TTT|eH\ s& esT\T d+u$ +#&+ e\q, u >s \
$j>+| & |]+~. &*+>, q >=|ue\T, usTue\qT e&+ e+{ #s\
e\q $#DsV+> sh+ u>s y&&+ e\q, eqsT u> ]bTq~.
eTq sh+ 1998`2002 eT<\+ dsd]> { ksTT 3 MTs< Z+~.
|{`4: |+\ qT+& b+~q <jT+
ms <jT+ ms d+es
>eT+ sT s+ e] e]
K|t s; | qTe\T <jT+
eq|] |< 8200 8700 4900 3300 25100
q 7046 8490 10889 3110 29535
e&#s |< 10698 5970 4000 3595 24263
q 9128 7380 3031 2650 22189
e&#s @ |+ qsT # u<jT+> +T+~?
eq|], e&#s >e\ |<, qsT\ eT< q & @$T{?
eq|] e] <T\T @ |+ qsT u<jT+> +T+~?
e] { n~+> $j+#TH |+ nsTTq|{, sT\T m+<T
e]H |+&+#\qT+THsT?
]bTq { eqsT jTT |ue+ sT\| @$<+> +~?
e&# s eddT q q s T jTT <jT+, n KsT d]|& < q<?
e&# s q s T \ jTT <jT jTyTq |]d T \ s |< q sDyT H
Hj?
e&#s q sT eekjT+ e>, u<jT+> +T+<
nqT+THs?
q neds\T rsTe& sT s eT\qT m+#Ty?
e&#s { ed q sT| @$<yTq |ue+ #|dT+~?
d+sY |s Y es k*&]{ (d+ <u<T, +< |<X ), >e\ m+&bTq
ue\ sT #sTH, u>s\| dTds+| <w +B]++~.
sT\+<s d$Tw> { |+#T= y&TH $<+> bV+#sT. {
eqsTqT |j+#TH $<+>, sT\T q, |< >|\T> @s&sT. &|t
eT]jTT d+s d {bsT<\ (yT ]>wH) |<T\qT nqTd]+#
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 231
sT\T d] b+<sT. es| { d+sD +&T >T+\qT (Percoloaton
pits) ysT.
+&T >T+\T m+&bsTTq usTue\ ] { \\T |+#&
&&sTT. dyT+T T\T < s 30 d+.MT. eT+<+>\ >T, \T
]ksT. |\ s, eT{ +|sT. $ { |yV + #d
u>s\\qT |+#TsTT.
ue\ sT #s #jT&+ m?
e&#s m+&q ue\ sT #s #dqsTT sT @$<+>
dVjT|&TT+~?
|q <V]+q n<jTq+, { eqsT eT]jTT sT\| < jTT |ue+
>T]+ @+ #TT+~?
n+<] sT
u$T| q yTT+ {, deTT<\T, eTV deTT<\T, u>s\
q { 97 X+ |s. 2.5`2.75% eyT eT+sT. B 1.75`2%
(eT&+ s+&T e+T\T) sT >wjTsT, eT+#T, VeTb+ s|+ >&{
+T+~. 0.7`0.8% eT+sT u>s\+>, H\ { $] s|+
+T+~. 0.01% +f e |]eD+ eT+sT |]\ \+ s|+
dsdT\T, q<T\ +T+~. eT+sT # e> q|{ $#D
|j+qsTT # \+ es n+<TuT +T+~.
{ $#D m $j+#e# nq+THe?
e&#s H eq|] sT\ |]d u>T+&& sDyT$T{?
e& # s , eq| ] >e\ s T \T, u > s \eqs T \qT @$< + >
d+s+#T+THsT?
MT \Tk?
|Ps+ ysYw& (s+&T q<T\T < \Te\ eT<>\ u b++) <s+>, |DTq
sT\T >eT d]V<T\qT ssTT+#ysT. s+&T >e\ eT<>\ eTTsT>T {bsT<\ eed
<s+>, V<T\ T ss TT+#&$. eed duT \+<s M{ ke+> n+^]+#ysT.
{ eqsT\qT deTse++> |j+#T&+H n_e~ < +T+~
n *|q eTs= n<jTH |]o*<+.
d+<s+`2: =|* >eT+ { jeq+ ~X> |jT+
dsq esZ<s+ >eT |\T n+<TuT q { dsq
@$<+> y&Te#TH n<jTq+ *jTCdT+~. n<jTH eTT+<T,
=|* >eT+ jTT ds +~ $wj\qT \+ #d+~. (i) k>Tu$T H
;&T ueTT\T $d+> +&$ (ii) e nsd (iii) X$T\T e>
+&ysT (iv) q eT\ < b\ $Td+Vs\T < msTe\T
me> y&ysT (v) |+ ~>T& e> +&~ (vi) >eT+ { d+sD
sD+ { L& <T. <, <j |+b+~+# $<H\T (H\,
{ d+sD |<T\T) >eT+ m neT\T ]>j |]o*<+.
+swq |t dsY Hd{ |sY d$T`m]& {| (ICRISAT)
>eTdT\qT |< d+K $< e+T\qT #jT&yT +&, dsq <s {
\Te eT]jTT H\ d+sD sD\T #|& e\dq k+qT
n+~+#sT. |<T\ ke+>, e>+> sT| +B]+|&sTT.
= eqsT\qT ] b+<&, =+{ ]b+& d+s+#Te&
|<T\T dV]+#sTT. eq, dTds jeq+ #|&+ ]+~.
ICRISAT n+f @$T{? m& +~? n~ sV+# se\| MT
b<jTT #]+ y~ jsT#jT+&.
deTT<jT <] $<H\T (Community based interventions)
300 qT+& 2000 |T.MT. { \Te #d 14 sD\T ({ eT{
eT]jTT 13 s q\T) &+ ]+~. 60 q +&T >T+\T eT]jTT
38 Vs b\+ >T |P] #XsT.
|+-1: ke #sTe |+-2: +sY d<+

MT \Tk?
ls+k>sY bCqT b#+b&T bC n L& n+{sT. ~ ><e] q~| q
bC. \+>D b++ n~ u> ~ JeH<s+. +q>sY, es+>, ~u<,
q\>=+&, KeT+ ydT\ neds\qT bC rsTdT+~. ><e] q~|, s sh+
q ]+#&+ e\q, me X+ sT +< |<X
#s+&H | sc\ \Te #jT&T+~. >dT
2013 >D+\ |s+ bC jTT n+#H
yjT&q { \Te keTs+ 80.66 {.m+.d.\T. os+ k>sY bC
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 233
& \ T < n&T \ T ]+#&+ <s q\Te < \ \Te (lsyTk>sY
bC ]sjTsY qT+& e#~) <>Zs >\ 28 m+&q ue\ sT #s
#jT&+ ]+~. n++& es|sT d+s+#T>*>sT. = { \Te
sD { $j><sT\ d+|T+ @s&+~. sD\ \Te #jT&q
sT, m+&q ue\ u>s \+> sT #sT eyT |j+#&q~.
sT <] $<H\T (Farmer based interventions)
sT <] se\T ssTT+#T |s eT b\ e>+>
H\, { d+sD se\qT neT\T#XsT. y&\T # jT&+, e
mT |]> |+\T |+#&+ , +sY d<+ #jT &+ yTT<q jeq |< T \T
b{d H\, sT, bw\T <T]j>+ +& b&TTHsT. \T| ysD
|<T\T b{+#&+uT 38 Vs b\ #T Bs#Tsks+ >T
&+, y\T\ n&+> +sY +<\T @sT #jT&+ <s es| {
d+sd T H sT. >T \+> +&+<T H\ H {H \\T |]>+<T >M T<
>]d&j (b& H\ |]> >yT yTT)\qT |+#TTHsT. sT\T eT&>
{ $j+#T&+, dd<+ |<T\qT b{dTHsT.
|+-3: y&\T # |< |+-4: >]d&j |+|+
y&\T # rjT&+, dd< |<T\T b{+#&+ e\q VsT 250

\ |> Cq\T, 50 \|> yTTCq\T n~ ~>T& k~+#sT.
_+<Td<+ neT\T #jT &+ e\q 70% { b<T| #jT >*>sT. +eT+
$<q+ nsTTq|{ <Ts< we XT ||+ #y|+ > |{ e\+ 2% eekjT
ueTT\ eyT $<q+ neT\T sT>T+~.
;&T ueTT\ n_e~ ` yTT\ |+|+
s& y+&, b\T, \Te\ > y+& |j>syTq CT\ yTT\qT
|+#&+ <s ;&T ueTT\ n_e~ #jTe#T. 0.3 MTs mT \qT { 10
MTs <s { #=|q +sY +<\qT
@sT #XsT. d|\+ yTT\ b nH
|j>syTq CT\ yTT\qT >]d&j
yTT\qT sT\T |+#&+ yTT<\T |{sT. 2500
|+& #T, f #qT H{sT.
=| * dtd& dV eqsT\qT d~j>+
|+-5: +sT ueTT # |+|+
#dT &+ ysT nqTd]+q esZ\T @$T{?
dtd&\ { b<T| #jT& @ @ |<T\qT nqTd]+qT>
MTsT >T]+#sT?
+<|<X n+<TuT q yTT+ sT 3814 y\ $T*jTq L_
n&T>T\T ({.m+.d.)
|j+#&q yTT+ sT ` 2300 {.m+.d B,
{bsT<\ ` 2268 {.m+.d
>Veds\ ` 21 {.m+.d
|]XeT\ ` 10 {.m+.d
X < ` 1 {.m+.d
2025 d+es nedseTjT sT 3989 {.m+.d. B {bsT<\
3814 {.m+.d, >Veds\, 122 {.m+.d |]XeT\, 51 {.m+.d, X
< 2 {.m+.d\T neds+.
{ eqsT\| C>eV+#+f @+ sT>TT+<qT+THe?
u$wT eTq neds\T @$<+> rsT>\eTqT+THsT?
s sc\T < nedsyT s <X\| eTq+ <s|&e\d
edT+<qT+THs?
+< |<X eekjT+ {bsT<\ d+, y& { +Z #&+ k< e?
n~ @$<+> k<|&TT+~?
{ $dsD, $j> #{\T nedse? nsTT m+<T?
+<|<X {bsT<\ d+ n+<TuT q { eqsT\T
m+ X+ u yX\+ s { eqsT\ e\q {bsT<\ d<TbjT+
b+~+~?
u>s \qT |+#Ty*q neds+ m+H +~. me X+ sT
eekjTs+>+ $j+#&TT+~. ><e], c e+{ |< q<T\T
q|{, u>s eekj, {bsT<\ eT<s+.
eTq sc q<T\T m+es u<jT+> +& n+yTs
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 235
s eqsT\T 5% |j>|&+ <T. B >\
#sTe\T 15% sD+ @$T{?
\Te\T 37% u>s \qT |+#Ty*q
u>s\+ 43% nedss @$T{?
u > s \ eqs T \T y > + >
|+-6: ] b T HsTT < ! B
{bsT<\ ks\T $ds+ |ej\T @$T{?
><e] qB\T eTq sw+ os+k>sY yTT<q bC\qT +|&
d]b&+<T. |qTq sc\T |]$TT\ $T+ { $jdT+&&yT
B |<q sD+. $wj\ <X\T, sc\T n+<] HjT+ *>
#&\+f @+ #j*.
d]|& {bsT<\ ks+ *+#\+f sc\T, <X\T @$<+>
|#j*?
sT nH~ |qsT<]+|<q eqsT nsTTq|{, n<T| +& B
$jdb @+ sT>TT+< L& eTq *d +&*. s n_e~
seT+ (UNDP United Nations Development Programme) |s+
m& e d++~+ y] { ds|s 1700 |T.MT. H e +<,
b+\ { eqsT\T u> ZbTHjT ns+. s d$T jTT
Vs eT]jTT eekjT d+d (Food and Agriculture Organization) n+#H
|s+ 2025H{ $$< <X\ eddTq 1.8 _*jTq |\T {=s
deTeTesT.
+`1
MTsT eddT q |]ds\ @$<+ > sT |j +#&T+~. <T]j>+
#jT&T+~ eT]jTT |q'#jT+ #jT&TT+< n<jTq+ #jT+&. dV
$<sT\ T, b<jTT\ dV jT+ |Xe[ sb+~+, <T qT n< jTq+
#jT+&. n+<] sT n+~+# $<H\qT nHw+ #]+#+&.
eTq#T +& dV eqsT\T
>*, sT, H\, KC\T, +<H\T, yTT\T, +Te\T u$T| +& dV
eqsT\T. eseq+ eT]jTT u$wT Je\ u+ b+<\+f dV
eqsT\T d+s+#&*.
eTq+ J$+#& nedseTjT Vs+, sT, >*, yd+ n dV
eqsT\ qT+& \_ksTT. = dV eqsT\T |j>+q sy, ]
#jT &TsTT. M{ |qsT<] +|< q eqsT\T (Renewable resources) n+{sT.

+<H\T e+{ eqsT\qT |qsT<]+|eTT. k] M{ |P]>
y& T q s TT , n$ m| { ] bsTTqf . n e \+ $
$j+#&sTT. , $ jsy\+f # \+ |&TT+~. M{H
|qsT<]+| eqsT\T (Non renewable resources) n+{sT.
|\T # es dV eqsT\qT HXq+ #dT+{sT. +Te\qT
y{&sT. n&e\qT q] ydTHsT. B e\q H\, >* eT]jTT {<s
>TseT+~. |u sTTwy T q eekjT |< T \ e\q H\ ks+ bZ T+~.
+<q eqsT\T ]bTHsTT. sT, >* \TweTeTHsTT.
dV eqsT\qT $#D q+ |jd # \+ es $
n+<TuT +{sTT. d+sD <s |\T dV eqsT\ es Z+
dsq $j+#*.
MT \Tk?
||+#+ # b+\ { $j>+| w<\T HsTT. d*j sTe
e\ d+u$+q reyTq { =s e\q \ |&+, yVH\T &>&+, =\qT
{ +|&+ e+{ sb\T w~+#\ sT\T C#XsT. n+<Te\ |\ {
$j>+| ne>Vq *+~. e<qT n]>*>sT.
> s+&T Xu\ eqe Hu n~+> |]+~. Vs+, ,
edTe\ , syD, $<T# d+ +<H eT+&+#&+ d+ dV
eqsT\qT _*jTq |\T $jdTHsT. eTqT>& =qk+#&eTH~, dV
eqsT\qT $#D |j+#&+| <s|& +T+~.
eqsT\qT d+s+ #e\dq neds+ s neds\ $u~ dT+ ~. =+ eT+~
|\T |]XeT k|+#& nM b++ dsq< u$ksT. \| |]XeT
ysT n&$ #qT sD |j+#\qT+{sT. ybs +|
u $T| |]XeTqT < c|+>eqT ]+#\qT+T+~. neds\
ybs esZ\L b\\L dT>H $\Tyq $>H n|+#e#T..
n&$ yTT\T, +Te\ >T]+ |P]> eT]be&+
sT>T+~.
+Te\T s yk\ s* bjT y{ qw+ #L sTd
u$wT |j>|&e\dq eqsT\qT ]bjT #d, H&T
n+<TuT q eqsT\+{ HXq+ #d eTq+ n_e~ jTT
|jH\qT dTH+.
sT | MT |]ds\ @<H eTTK eqsTqT >T]+
sjT+&. |+-7: dTds n_e~
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 237
n_e~, d+sD s +&+{ b<q$Td eTqT>& k+#e#TqT. u$s\
nedseTjT dV eqsT\qT n+<TuT +&$<+>, eTq+ |sesD
|j+#TqsTT n~ dTds_e~ neT+~. dTds+> J$+#\+f eTq+
mH s\ eqsT\qT C>> $jd d+s+#Ty*.
MT |]ds\ |<q eqsTqT y&T d+s+#TH$<+> sT\qT
m d+d<T\qT #ke?
dTds jeH, =|* >eTdT\T @+ #XsT?
n&$: |<q |qsT<]+|<q eqsT
n&e\T # beTTK>\e nqTe& sDyT$T{? n+{]{
| $T*q K+&\+{q n&e\T HsTT. yTT\, +Te\
>=| yd+> HsTT. ||+# n&e\T }|]T\ e+{$ eT]jTT =
J$ bw\q+~+# |eTTK kq+. q T\# n&e\qT,
$#DsV+> HXq+ #dTH+. \| < eekjT+ < n_e~ |]
|\T n&e\qT qsTTHsT. | d+es+ u$T| 36 $T*jTq ms\
n&e\T (+<|<X d>u>+ H me u>+) q]yjT&TTHsTT.
n&e\q q]yjT&+ e\q eqCT\ yk\T HXqeTesTT H\
meeT+~. V] >V yjTTe\T (Green house gases) $&T<, u>[
y#<H (Global warming) <]rksTT. ||+#+ $&T<\jT V] >V
yjTTe\ yTT+ 15% yjTTe\T n&e\qT qs& + e\qH $&T<\eTHsTT.
nM T\ dsD d+ e+#s eT]jTT JeHb~ d+, eTqT>&
d+ n&e\| <s|& J$+# |\T n&e\T qs& + e\q # qwb THsT.
u$ wT eqsT\T n+<] n+<TuT +&\+f, n&e\ dTds
= eTTK |<T\qT nqTd]+#&+ # eTTK+. neT<$, yT es\T
y] >eTdT\ *d #qT *+#T= n&e\qT b&+<T ysT #dq
|jT+ eTsTe~.
u$wY s\ nM eqsT\qT n+<Cj\+f dTds nM $<H\qT
(Sustainable forestry practices) nqTd]+#&+ neds+. skH ycsTT\T
#dq seT+ eTq esZ<s+. neT<$, yT es\T, >eTdT\+<s
*d >eT dMT|+ +& n&e e\qT ={yjT+& b&T=HsT.
+{ n<TyTq <e\T eTq |sesD b&T&+ d]ksTT.
n&$ q] \| d]+ sue q+ Ty\q sE>] es+> bs+
#d n&$ |X+yTq dVd++< >&|& |q |PHsT. |
b&+<T 29 jTe\ djT#+ #dT HsT. eTqsw+ L& #+#T\T,
>+&T\T n&e\ J$d n&M d+|<qT b&T+Tq $<q+ >T]+ MTsT
7e s> n&$ eTq Jeq+ bs+ #~ysT <!
n&e\qT b&T& dTds nM |<T\T = b{+#*. <VsD
# e> #T qs&+, dV+> #T ] m<>& neX+ *+#
|< T \T b{+#&+ , ms TTq #T, |< |< #q T |< mTq q] yd $<H\qT
w~+#&+ yTT<q$.
|q'#jT e\q #qT d+s+#e#TqT. <VsD #H eT]jTT yT
<X\ |\T sjT& eT]jTT s neds\ y& , sTusTqT
] y&&+ <s n&e\qT d+sdTHsT. ||+#+ + d>u>+
] y&&+ ], ||+#+ = q neds+ rs&yT +&
u$T|qTq #qT b&qeT+~. = \| edTe\ <T\T> y<TsT
e+{ s |ej\ #dq edTe\T y&e#T. y<TsT y>+> |]>
\yTq >&C yTT.
H\ (Soil)
Vs H\ # eTTKyTq~. eTq nedsyTq |+\T |+&+#\+f
# kse+yT q H\ +&*. eqC yTT\T |s>\H H\ neds+ . yTT\T,
+Te\T eT]jTT s eqsT\qT d+s+ #Te& eTq+ #d n |jT \T,
H\ d+sD|H <s|& +{sTT.
b\+ s+ |+qT |\TesT |+&+#&+ e+{ |usTTwyTq
eekjT |<T\T H\ bw\qT =\ksTT. =+& b+\qT <Tq&+
e\q sT, >* <s H\ # meeT+~.
H\\ d+sD $<H\ +sY |{ |+\ (Contour strip cropping)
|< {. $<q+ H\y\T n&+>, >*M# ~X n&+> <T =
esTd = s+ |+qT yksT. <VsD esTd yTTCq eTs=
esTd ><TeT + esTd esY (|*+) |+\T |+&+#&+. ysTysT
|+yTT\T ysTysT s\ ysT eed\qT, _q |]eD+ \qT *
+{sT. { H\eTjT+ s>+& b&TsTT. n> |+d|&T
L& = yTTqT < q >T+|qT rdyjT&+ e+{ m+| e+ |<T\T
(Selective harvesting) b{+#&+ e\ $T*q yTT\T H\ =T b+&
|{ +#TsTT.
Je y$<+ (Biodiversity)
u$T| eddTq Je\ >\ y$<yT Jey$<+. | qT+& eTq
\_+# T\ T eT]jTT u\ Je y$ < + qT+& b+<TTqy. Vs |<s\T,
sD\ |j+# |<s\T, Ww<\T \_+#\H eT]jTT |]XuyTq,
s>syTq H\ +&\H Je y$<+ m+ neds+.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 239
C Zb&+ yTT<+~ n+f n~ u ||+#+ qT+& n<X+
uTqT> u$+#*. H&T Je\T n+]+# sT dV+> ]> <H
1000 sT me Xdy\ n+#H. y{&&+, \Tw+, yk\ $<+d+
e+{ sb\T Jey$< $HXH <]rdTHsTT. u$T| >\ yTT+
JeCT\ d+K *jTbe&+ e\ m Je\T n+]+bTHj \TdTe&+
w+. Xdy\T | d+es+ y\=\~ = Je\qT qT>=+THsT.
<VsD |He 19 e\qT \TdTq sy, Xdy\T 1200 $$<
;{ CT\qT qT>=HsT. B 80% CT\ >T]+ nd\T *jT<T.
u$T| eddTq CT\ d+KqT >T]+q $$< n+#H\ <s+>, |
d+es+ eTq+ 200 qT+& 1,00,000 CT\qT e&+ sT>TT+~.
Vs eqsT\T y$<+>, deT~> +&$<+> eTq+ Je y$<
b&Te\dq neds+ +~. Vs+ H Je y$<+ >=|~. <VsD
||+#+ yTT+ 50,000 qT+& 70,000 e CT\qT Ww<\ j
$jdTHsT.
MT \, bsT\ >\ HqT #d |X+dT+< < , H
>& |+#& m yTT CT\qT |P]> HXq+ #Xs MT \Tk? $<+ >
|+# >& s <X\ qT+& rdT=eq~.
MT |]ds b+\ HqT |]o*+#+&. < b&Te&
m+{ jeq |<T\T b{dTHsT?
H qT+& =\+# $$< yTT\ |sqT e* qT+& qT+&. sT
L& b\+ < $<H b{k&? H Jey$< bVdT+<?
+`2
MT +{, |]ds b+\ m s\ \THj qT+&. n
syTq \T +{j? \ |sqT #sT| sjT+& (\
|sT *jTb |<y] n& \TdT+&). | \+, ys=ksH,
\ qy<T #jT+&. n #d d+es
\+ n<jTq+ #jT+&. m|&T me s\ \T |dTHj qT+&.
sy d+es\ yTH n<XeTjj n<jTq+ #jT+&.
eq CT\qT, y{ yk\qT s+#+<T = |uT\T <qeH\qT,
X+\qT @sT #XsTT. = CT\T n+]+be& <]rd y{&&+ ,
#|\T |&+ e+{ |qT\qT w~+# |jT+ sT>T+~.
+<H\T (Fossil fuels)
u>TZ, |{*jT+, dV yjTTe e+{ +<H\T y\ d+es\

+s + bTbsTTq e, +T
dV yjTTe 7%
s\ qT+& nesTT.
+<H\T eTq @$<+> qH\T 24%
|j>|&sTT? nDTX 1%
y{ m+<T d+s+#Ty*? es\T 24%
|{*jT+qT yVH\H +& bd ,
s\T 2%
d+<{, ssT, HH, eT+<T\T, k+<s
|<s\T, yTq+, |]Xu T\T, yTZ 42%
|]s\T yTT<q$ jsT #jT&+q
|+`8: us<X+ = eqsT\ $j> X+
|jksT.
+<H\T ] b+& +&\+f y{ d+s+#Te&+ neds+.
M{ eT+&+q|&T $&T<\jT yjTTe\T \Tc \T>CksTT. {,
+<H\ $j>+| n<T| +& #dTy*.
Xdy\T +<H\ |ej\qT nHwdTHsT. sT, s
yVH\T q&|& Xq +~+#>\ |qsT<] +|< q Je +<H \qT (Bio fuels)
#jT& |jTdTHsT. dsT&T, >*, sT yTT<\>T y{ qT+&
$<TYqT #jT&+ Xdy\T $jT+ k~+#sT.
MT \Tk?
j & C{b sdt
jTT $H \T y&&+ nH~ X dTds
k~+#&+ us<X+ jTT |D[
eTTKyTq |T +. C{b yTT\ |+|+ |
+< |<X |uT +, ]\jTH +|
|+< #dT+~. C{b yTT\qT
|+ HDyTq j &qT
#jT& +| H& e< 200 {| {| $H\T
ms\ d d]++~.
+<H\qT C>> $jd, | s y{ d+s+#*.
$<TY Bb\qT, |]s\qT y&q|&T d#Y\qT ] yjT+&. $<TYqT <#d
|]s\qT eyT =q+&. Mq|&T q&e&+, dqT |j+#&+ #j*.
s e+{ k+ yVH\ +& dT\T, s e+{ |C syD eed\
<s |j Dd u< jT+. $<+ > #d deC m |j >|& T T+<
s> #]+#+&.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 241
ks, |eq, \, n\\ $<T<T >T]+q de#s d]+#+&. k|t
|d+ jsT#jT+&.
nDT$<TY < |uy\ >T]+ MT b<jTT #]+#+&.
KC\T
u $T K eqsT\T bZ THsTT. qT>=&q, >T]+#&q # KC\T
]bjsTT. n\$TjT+, qTeTT jTT K \Te\T < K b\T
qTeTsT>bT+&&+ e\q y{ <s\T # |]bjT neX+ +~.
eT\\ jsT #d |]s\T, jT+\ jTT <s\ |], y{ =q&+
eT]jTT $j+#&+ wyTbT+~.
|s b+\ e\T #|{ |]\ eTqT s*+#&+ e\q
(MTR), s e\ e\q |sesD+ HXqeTeT+~. H\qT, yTT\T, +Te\
yk\qT $<+d+ #ksTT. e\ e\q, $w skjTH\T |]ds esD
eed #] sT, >* e+{ eqsT\qT \Tw+ #dTHsTT.
sK+& e+{ | |j\ sD\T +#+&.
+`3
sE |\T e\| dTeTTK+> sT . e\T sT>TTq b+
|\T s>&TTHsT. +{ d+|Tq\qT >+<\jT+ < ys |\
qT+& d]+, KC\ e\ |ue+| d$THsY @sT #jT+&.
u<jTyTq e $<H\T eT]jTT |<s\T |q'#jT |<T\T K
eqsT\qT d+s+ #&+ dV jT|& sTT. <VsD bH s j <sT,
{yTTu j y& |<s\qT |q'#jT+ #ksT. nyT]
nsTTq qTeTT dTesT> 1/3e e+T qTeTT {yTTu qT+& |q'#jT+
#jT&q<.
d+sD ` eTq u<jTTyTq dV
d+sD| d qeT+ <T. |sq \+q TTw\T L&
C e|]#sT. eqe, +T e sb\ < { eTT&|&
d++< * HsTT. B @ < ++ *q|{ n~ eTs=<|
|uy #|T+~.
` leT +~s>+B, 6 e], 1980q ]q ||+# d+sD $<q
(World Conservation Strategy) s|\q deTjT+...
1960`69 d+es \+ # <X\T y{ |sesD eqsT\qT <w
+#T= JeH =qk+#sTT. , C n+#H\ |s+, eT&=+T\
eqe Hu |qsT<]+| $<+> eqsT\qT $jdTHsT. eqsT\
|qsT<sD | ] b +T+~.
q n&T>T d+sD| >=| $j\ srksTT. d+sD eT]jTT
jeq+ >T]+ =|* >eT+ jTT n<jTq+ @+ \T|+~?
|sesD d+sD nedseTjT eT&T 'R' (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)
\ >T]+ \TdTH +{sT. n$
+Z #&+ : eqsT\qT e> e< #jT +& $j+#&+ . sTTq q\qT,
|+|\qT d]#jT &+, kH\ >~ wes y&+ +Z #&+ <s { $j>
+Z #e#T. neds+ deTj $<TBb\qT, bqqT s&+ e\q $<T#
b<T|> y&Te#T.
$<+> + @ eqsT\ $j> Z+#e#T?
] y&&+ (|q]j>+): bsjT+& ] |j+#Te&+.
] y&&+ e\q yTT\qT b&&yT +& \Tc
Z+qyseTeeTT.
eTq eqs T \qT d + s + # T e& ] @j T ed T e \qT
$j+#e#TqT?
|+&T>\T, y\ d+<s\ |<mTq $<TY n\+sD\T
nedseT e u$dTHy? |+-9: es\ #dq T
|q'#jT+: ~ nksT k<+ be#T. <VsD bdqT
|q'#jT+ #jT&eTH~ # wyTq, |e<syTq |jT. bd
>\ d+w e\q deTd qeTeT+~. bd e\q m
|j>\THj n s\ qc\ HsTT. syTq bdqT
n< s+ qT+& |q'#jT+ #j*. eq, $$< s\ bd\qT
|q'#jT + #jT & eTT+<T ysT #j *. = < = s+ > |+-10: |q'#jT+
]d #j* +T+~. M{ ]d*+> |jT >T]#d|&T C>>
|s ysT#j*.
+{ #qT bsyd eTT+<T es\qT m+<T ysT#j*?
#T es\qT bsyjT& bd d+ |&+ eT+<H?
d+sD deTV\T
H\qT @$<+> |j+#, @jT b+\ H\qT <qeH\,
d+sD +<\ {sTT+# |uT+ #{\qT sb+~dT+~. |]XeT\
\Tw jT+D |]s\qT neTsTe&+ e+{ $<H\ <s |sesD
\Tw+ qT+& b&& L& |uT+ #{\qT #dT+~. es>, eqsT\qT
d+s+# y] |sesD$T e+{ VQeTT\qT L& dT+~.
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 243
mH n+srjT d+d\T d+sD| X< #|THsTT. essD\qT
b&&+, +Te\T n+]+b+& d+s+#&+ eT]jTT >* Xu|s#&+
e+{ sb\qT d+d duT\T \|sTdTHsT. 1948 |uT, |yT
deTV\ dyT q+ < +swq jTjTH |s Y < qswH |t H#s Y (IUCN)
@s&+~. 1980 ~, ||+# d+sD $<H |b~++~. mH <X\
|uT\T y{ d+sD |<\qT n_e~ #dTe&+ IUCN $<H\H
nqTd]+#sTT. n++& IUCN nH d+d |e<+ n+#Tq q eqCT\qT,
CrjT <qeH\T, d+sD +<\T, |sesD d++~+q n+X\
ksTT |]o*dT+~.
=|* >e <VsD> rdT=, >eTdT\ eT]jTT s d+d\
bqT #]+#+&.
n+srjT, CrjT, sw d+d\T eyT eqsT\ jeq+ b
eVkj? jeq |jT yTT+ mesesT bZ+{sT?
e, dVT\T @jT esZ\ <s eqsT\qT d+sksT? | eTq+
L& |<q eqsH? @$<+>?
MT +{ sE m s { y&TTHs qT+&. n y&&+
nedse? CrjT |eD\ |s+ m+ sT neds+?
eTq u<qT >T]<+. dVeqsT\qT d+s<+.
\ |<\T
+&T #sT e, d d<+, usTue\T, dTds n_e~ Je +<H \T, +sY |{| + \
$<q+, >T, \ sVD.
eTq+ @+ HsTH+?
eqsT\ d+sD, eqsT\ jeq+ # neds+.
eqsT\T k+> $w>\$. k | y{| jT+D * +&*.
eqsT\ $j> Zd, eqsT\qT ] $jd |sesD+| & Z+# $<+> |\qT
d+d<+ #jT&+ neds+.
u>TZ, |{*jT+ e+{ +<H\qT eTq+ |P]> ]b+& $#D |j+#Ty*.
sc\T, <X\ eT< q $u<\T eqsT\ n+<TuT n&+ s<T.

nudH yTsT>T|s#T+<+
1. ||+# +<q eqsT\ >D+ $es\ y~ |s+ 2010 H{ ||+# y|+> 188.8 $T*jTH
qT\ qH \e\T HsTT. $ sujT 46.2 d+es\ eyT d]bsTT n *jTCXsT.
qH eqsT\qT b<T|> |j+#T&q e d+# #s\T @$T{? b<T|> y&TqsTT
]> |]De\T @${?(AS1)
2. +< e&q de#s #~$, +< e&q |X\ yT*e+&.(AS1)
l+ s+&T eT+&\ sy |> >e\ qT+& |\T #], |yT +|
deTT< rs+ \|{q dT e re+> es+#sT. |uT + bC q T s<T #jT b,
y] bsTqT res+ #keT V#]+#sT. rs b++ qT+& $\Tyq KC\qT y*rd <X + H
dT e #|<*#sT. dT e+ yTT<\T|{q nM d]V<T b++H |\T
edksT .
(m) >eT |\T $<+> es+ bs&&+ dsq<H?
(_) bs&&+ e\q >eTdT\T @ eqsT\qT b&T>\sT?
(d) dT qT+& y*rdq $\Tyq KC\ e\ >eTdT\T @yTH u+ b+<Ts?
(&) rs b++ |yT +| m+<T e\qT #|{\qT+~?
() B |uT b @$T{?
(m|t) dT e+ n& |\ Jeq+| m+{ |ue+ #|T+~?
3. dTds_e~ n+f @$T{? eqsT\ jeq+ @$<+> |j>|&TT+~?(AS1)
4. dV eqsT\ d+sD`jeq+| $es+> sjT+&.(AS1)
5. k+> q eqsTqT |q]j+#TH = esZ\qT d+#+&.(AS1)
6. n&e\qT, eqJe\qT m+<T d+s+#Ty*?(AS1)
7. n&e\ d+sD $<H\qT =+{ d+#+&.(AS1)
8. dV eqsT\T # y>+ > n+]+bTHsTT <! B e\q ]> |]De\qT }V+#+&.(AS2)
9. |{\T + y[ sV& +<H\ $j>+ >T]+ +s #jT&
|Xe[ sb+~+#+&.(AS2)
10. +<q eqsT\T, H\ks+ b&&+, es|sT u<|s#&+ e+{ @<H n+X |<]+#&
qeTHqT jsT#jT+&. MT #q\ y~ sjT+&.(AS3)
11. MT b++ dV eqsT\qT |qsT<]+#& w#dTq >e\T, sT\T, ysT nqTd]dTq
$<H\qT \TdT= y~ sjT+&.(AS4)
12. H& e< ONGC ysT #|{q dV yjTTe jTT &*+> |qT\ >T]+# MTsT $H +{sT. B
d++~+q de#s d]+, dV yjTTe | y~ sjT+&.(AS4)
13. MT |]ds b+\ @ |<sHH |q'#jT+ #d jTT < |]XeT\T Hj? |<s
|q'#jT+ m sT>TT+< $es+> sjT+&.(AS4)
14. eTq <X+ |{*jT+ $j> d+# @<H >|qT d]+ |]o*#+&.(AS4)
+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D 245
m) eTq nes\ q+ sT>TTq<?
_) @ \+ >]w $j>+ ]+~?
d) |~ d+es\ \+ MTsT >eT+q esT @$T{? (<: 2004 qT+& 2014)
&) |{*jT+ b<T|> y&T& MTsT # d#q\T @$T{?
15. dV eqsT\qT d~j>+ #dT&yT <X eTq+ #d de n #|e#T. B e deT]ky?
m+<T?(AS6)
16.\ eqsT\ k\u { |+\ m+| eekjT $<H\T +&*. $wjT+ sT\
ne>Vq *+#& H<\T jsT#jT+&.(AS7)
+~ U\qT |P]+#+&
1. Je +<q ............... yTT\qT |jksT.
2. Jey$< b&T&+ Vs+ dyT <T ...................... L&.
3. ]b +<q eqsT <VsD ......................
4. u>s\T Zb+& b&T& nqTd]+#<q |ejT |< .............
5. e]k>T ...................... |<X\ nqTyq~.
dsq de<H >T]+#+&
6. +&T >T+\ e\q |j>+ ( )
m) eekj sT n+~+#&+ _) u>s\ eT{\T |+#&+
d) es| { \#jT&+ &) es\+ e# es<\qT n]&+
7. e { ks\T q b+\ sT\T nqTd]#<q $<q+ ( )
n) d\* |+\T |+&+#&+
) ybs |+\T |+&+#&+
) _+<Td<+ #jT&+
) |+ $seT+ |{+#&+
m) n, _) n, , d) n, &) ,
8. us<X+ ny>+> n+]+bTq +<q eqsT\T ( )
m) dV yjTTe _) u>TZ d) |{*jT+ &) n
9. |]ds\ Vs skjTH\T |<yTT+ $&T<\ e& sD+ ( )
m) |]XeT\T _) >qT\T d) $Td+Vs\T &) <T k+
10. dTds n_e~ nq> ( )
m) e<qT n]&+ _) dsyTq |sT>T<\
d) qw+ y{\+& n_e~ #jT&+ &) e deTjT+ me #jT&+

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313610th Class Biology-TM New Text Books 24092014

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JeXd +

& mH. |+<sY s&, b|dsY V&,

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esY |, >| &C+>

+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D iii

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4. de#s dsD H| D\T, bs |d + $_q ueq\qT ns+ #dT e& nedsy T q

6. n_q+~+#&+ , $CqXk HsTe&+ <s |, eqeXeTqT

1 bwD ` Vs ds|s eed 10 pH 1

2 XdjT ` X < eed 10 pH / p 26

3 |dsD ` |<s syD eed 10 p 51

4 $dsq ` es\ =\+| eed 10 >dt 78

5 jT+D ` deTqjT eed 10 d|+sY 100

6 |T ` |qsT< eed 15 nsY 123

7 JejT\ deTqjT+ 10 qe+sY 153

8 nqTe+ 15 &X+ sY 176

9 eTq |sesD+ ` eTq u< 10 qe] 207

+<|<X |uT+ y]# |+|D ix

Je\+{ |sT>T<\ e+{ JejT\qT s]+#T&+ d+ Vs+

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sV&{| #s]| b+CyT\T @$?

Vs+ HsT dVs+ >d

|] JsXjT+ ]j JsXjT+ VsyV

n+eT\+ q|>T |< |>T

Vs yV d++~+q s>s n+X\T

30. +~ |{ |]o*+#+&. +, c+ #s\ >T]+ MTs$T ns+ #dTHs sjT+&.(AS5)

24 10e s> bwD ` Vs ds|s eed

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|+-4: eqe Xd eed

|V ` yjTT |ks+ |V >* |V Vs| eTT<qT

32 10e s> XdjT ` X < eed

>T+& qT+& }|]T\ |eV+#

yjTTe]& (s XH[\ qT+& D\, D\ qT+& yqT)

sDq d+j>jT, XdjT\T #&{ es #s\T>

}|]T\ yjTT e]& nq d+#T\e+{ sT>TT+~.

50 10e s> XdjT ` X < eed

MTsT @+ >eT+#sT? $X+qT, C+> s H& d+<q $<+>

s H (Rene Laennec) nH Xdy 1816 d+ d k |qT qT>=H&T.

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|+`3: V<jT+ +& #T |+`4: V<jT+

>T+& >&\T n+{ eT+<+ Hj?

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60 10e s> |dsD ` |<s syD eed

@e\jT, ~e\jT |dsD (single, double circulation)

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|+`15(m): sH+ s+ |+`15(_): s+ >&T

yTT\ |<s\ syD

e\\ D\T eT\X\De#+

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76 10e s> |dsD ` |<s syD eed

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=> @ edTe qT #dH <bT, es| < s\T L& @s&eTH~

n~e >+~ e <eT

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