Professional Documents
Culture Documents
David Simchi-Levi
( S) Policy
(s,S)
li
Supply Contracts
Risk Pooling
Risk Pooling
Customers,
demand
centers sinks
Sources: Field warehouses:
Plants vendors Regional warehouses: Stocking points
ports Stocking points
Supply
Production/purchase
costs Transportation costs Transportation costs
management
GM has reduced parts inventory and transportation costs by
26% annually
Goals:
Reduce Cost, Improve Service
By not managing inventory successfully
In 1994, IBM continues to struggle with shortages in their
ThinkPad line (WSJ, Oct 7, 1994)
In 1993,
1993,
Liz
Liz Claiborne said its unexpected earning decline is
the consequence of higher than anticipated excess
In
I 1993
1993, Dell
D ll Computers
C t predicts
di t a loss;
l Stock
St k plunges.
l Dell
D ll
acknowledged that the company was sharply off in its
forecast of demand, resulting in inventory write downs
(WSJ, August 1993)
Understanding Inventory
The inventory policy is affected by:
Demand Characteristics
Lead Time
Number of Products
Objectives
j
Service level
Minimize costs
Cost Structure
The Effect of
Demand Uncertainty
Most companies treat the world as if it were
predictable:
Production and inventory planning are based on
forecasts of demand made far in advance of the
selling season
Companiies are aware off demand
d d uncertainty
i
when they create a forecast, but they design their
planning process as if the forecast truly represents
reality
The Effect of
Demand Uncertainty
Most companies treat the world as if it were
predi
dicttable:
bl
Production and inventory planning are based on forecasts of
demand made far in advance of the selling season
Companies are aware of demand uncertainty when they
create a forecast, but they design their planning process as
if th forecast
if the f t ttruly
l represents
t reality
lit
Recent technological advances have increased the
level of demand uncertainty:
Short product life cycles
Increasing
g product
p varietyy
Demand Scenarios
30%
Probabiliity
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
80
10
12
14
16
18
Sales
Profit =
Revenue - Variable Cost - Fixed Cost +
Salvage
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
What to Make?
Question: Will this quantity be less
than equal to,
than, to or greater than average
demand?
Average demand is 13,100
Look at marginal cost Vs
Vs. marginal
profit
if exttra jackkett sold
ld, profit
fit is 125 80 = 45
i 125-80 45
if not sold, cost is 80-20 = 60
So we will make less than average
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
SnowTime Scenarios
Scenario One:
Suppose you make 12
12,000
000 jackets and
demand ends up being 13,000 jackets.
Profit = 125(12,000) - 80(12,000) - 100,000 =
$440,000
Scenario Two:
Suppose you make 12
12,000
000 jackets and
Profit = 125(11
125(11,000)
000) - 80(12,000)
80(12 000) - 100,000
100 000 +
20(1000) = $ 335,000
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
SnowTime Expected Profit
Expected Profit
$400,000
$300,000
ofit
Pro
$200 000
$200,000
$100,000
$0
8000 12000 16000 20000
Order Quantity
$400,000
$300,000
ofit
Pro
$200 000
$200,000
$100,000
$0
8000 12000 16000 20000
Order Quantity
$400,000
$300,000
ofit
Pro
$200 000
$200,000
$100,000
$0
8000 12000 16000 20000
Order Quantity
SnowTime:
Important Observations
Tradeoff between ordering enough to meet
demand and ordering too much
Several quantities have the same averag ge
profit
Average profit does not tell the whole story
story
Question:
Q ti 9000 andd 16000 unit its
lead to about the same average
profit
fit, so whi
hich
h do
d we preffer??
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
Probability of Outcomes
100%
80%
bility
60% Q=9000
Probabi
40% Q=16000
20%
0%
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
10
30
50
-3
-1
Cost
Retail DC
Manufacturer Manufacturer DC
20:00
Stores
Demand Scenarios
30%
Probabiliity
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
80
10
12
14
16
18
Sales
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
Order Quantity
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
Order Quantity
000
Retail DC
Manufacturer Manufacturer DC
20:00
Stores
400,000
300 000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Order Quantity
Retailer Profi
Profit
(Buy Back=$55)
600,000
$513 800
$513,800
500,000
Retaile r Profit
400,000
300 000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Order Quantity
Manufacturer Profit
(Buy Back=$55)
600,000
Manufacturrer Profit
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
M
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Production Quantity
Manufacturer Profit
(Buy Back=$55)
600,000
$471,900
Manufacturrer Profit
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
M
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Production Quantity
Supply Contracts
Retail DC
Manufacturer Manufacturer DC
20:00
Stores
400,000
Retailer P
300,000
200,000
100 000
100,000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Order Quantity
400,000
Retailer P
300,000
200,000
100 000
100,000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Order Quantity
600,000
500,000
400,0
000
00
300,000
200,000
100,0
000
00
M
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Production Quantity
Manufacturer Profit
(Wholesale Price $70, RS 15%)
700,000
,
Manufacturrer Profit
600,000
500,000 $481,375
400,0
000
00
300,000
200,000
100,0
000
00
M
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Production Quantity
Supply Contracts
Supply Contracts
Retail DC
Manufacturer Manufacturer DC
20:00
Stores
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
Su
200 000
200,000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Production Quantity
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
Su
200 000
200,000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
60
70
80
90
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Production Quantity
optimization
Buy Back and Revenue Sharing contracts
achi
hieve this
thi objecti
bj tive through h risk
i k
sharing
$65
and rent for $3
Hence, retailer must rent the tape at least 22 times before
earning profit
Retailers cannot justify purchasing enough to cover
the peak demand
In 1998, 20% of surveyed customers reported that they
could not rent the movie they wanted
Profit =
Revenue - Variable Cost - Fixed Cost +
Salvage
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
$400,000
$300,000
ofit
Pro
$200 000
$200,000
$100,000
$0
8000 12000 16000 20000
Order Quantity
Initial Inventory
Suppose that one of the jacket designs is a
model produced last year.
Some inventoryy is left from last year
Assume the same demand pattern as before
500000
400000
300000
P rofiit
200000
100000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
50
00
50
50
65
80
95
11
12
14
15
Production Quantityy
500000
400000
300000
P rofiit
200000
100000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
50
00
50
50
65
80
95
11
12
14
15
Production Quantityy
500000
400000
300000
P rofiit
200000
100000
0
00
00
00
00
0
00
50
00
50
50
65
80
95
11
12
14
15
Production Quantityy
500000
400000
P rofit
300000
200000
100000
0
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
110000
120000
130000
140000
150000
160000
Production Quantity
le el
The difference between the two levels is driven by
the fixed costs associated with ordering
ordering,
transportation, or manufacturing
Distributor
Factoryy
DC End User
DC
4) Production
3) Order 1) Order
Planning
a g
Processing Processing
2) Forecasting
Order Flow Replenishment
P d t Demand
Product D d
250 225
200
150 150
Demand 150 125
100 104
(000's) 100 75 61
50 48 53 45
50
0
r
n
c
ar
ct
ay
l
n
b
ug
p
Ju
Ap
De
No
Ja
Fe
Se
Ju
M
M
M h
Month
25
20
ncy
Frequen
15
10
5
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
,0
,0
,0
,0
,0
5,
0,
5,
00
25
50
75
00
$2
$5
$7
$1
$1
$1
$1
$2
Value of Orders Placed in a Week
Reminder:
The Normal Distribution
St d d D
Standard Deviation
i ti = 5
Standard Deviation = 10
Average = 30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
60
distributor
will not stock out during lead time.
Intuitively
Intuitively, how will this effect our policy?
Inventory Position
Inventoory Levvel
Lead
Time
0
Time
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
Analysis
The reorder point has two components:
To account for average demand during lead time:
LTAVG
To account for deviations from average (we call this safety
stock)
z STD LT
where z is chosen from statistical tables to ensure that the
probability of stockouts during leadtime is 100%-SL.
Example
The distributor has historically observed weekly
demand d off:
AVG = 44.6 STD = 32.1
Replenishment lead time is 2 weeks,
weeks and desired
service level SL = 97%
Average demand during lead time is:
44.6 2 = 89.2
Safetyy Stock is:
1.88 32.1 2 = 85.3
Reorder point is thus 175, or about 3.9 weeks of
supply at warehouse and in the pipeline
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
Base-Stock Policy
Target Inventory
Units Expected UB
Expected LB
Time
r1 r2 r3
L L L
Risk Pooling
Consider these two systems:
Warehouse One Market One
Supplier
Warehouse Two Market Two
Market One
Supplier Warehouse
M k t Two
Market T
Copyright 2002 D. Simchi-Levi
Risk Pooling
For the same service level, which system will
require more inventory? Why?
For the same total inventoryy level , which
answers?
Risk Pooling:
Important Observations
Centralizing inventory control reduces both
safety stock and average inventory level for
the same service level.
This works best for
Hig
gh coefficient of variation,, which reduces
required safety stock.
Negatively correlated demand. Why?
What other kinds of risk pooling will we see?
Safety stock?
Service level?
Overhead?
Lead time?
Transpportation Costs?
inventory
ownership, to suppliers (31%)
from
1998 to 2000
Overall the increase is from 8.0 turns
per year
pe yea to oover
e 133 pe
per yea
year o
over
e a five
e
year period ending in year 2000.
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