DC Machines

• Energy is needed in different forms:

• Light bulbs and heaters Æ electrical energy
• Fans and rolling miles Æ mechanical energy
Î Need for energy converters

• Continuous energy converter are called electrical machines

• Motors and generators
• Operate in both modes
• AC electric supply Î AC machines (synchronous and asynchronous)
• DC electric supply Î DC machines
 Electromagnetic Conversion

• Conductor moving in magnetic field

•Motional voltage

e = Blv

• Current carrying conductor in magnetic field

•Electromagnetic force

f = Bli

• Both phenomena occur simultaneously in energy conversion process

 Electric Machines – construction

• Basic structure of electric machine

• Stator and rotor

• Slots with conductors
• Cylindrical machine = uniform air gap
• Salient pole machine = nonuniform air gap
• Iron core Æ maximize flux density
• Laminations Æ reduce eddy-current (AC)
• Conductors interconnected to form windings
• Armature winding = in which voltage is induced
• Field winding = the one that produces the primary flux
• Permanent magnet can be used to produce the flux
 DC Machines
• Can operate as motor and generator but mainly used as motor
• variable speed, large and small power range

• Field winding currying DC-current in stator produces flux symmetrically

distributed about pole axis = dirrect axis
• Armature winding in rotor Æ Alternating voltage is induced
• Mechanical commutator and brush assembly rectify the voltage
• Commutator-brush combination makes armature current distribution
fixed in space

• mmf of armature winding along quadratic axis Æ maximum torque

 Evolution of DC Machines

• Turn a-b
• sides placed on diametrically opposite slots
• terminals connected to slip rings
• brushes provide access to revolving turn a-b

• induced voltages on each side of the turn are in series

• induced voltage in the turn is alternating
• its waveform is the same as that of flux density in space
 Evolution of DC Machines
• Slip rings replaced with commutator segments
• copper segments separated by insulating material
• Segment Ca connected to terminal a and Cb to terminal b

• Motion of the rotor counterclockwise

• terminal under N-pole positive with respect to terminal under S-pole
Æ B1 positive terminal and B2 negative terminal
Æ voltage rectified
ÆThe commutator and brush combination can rectify the voltage
• Large number of turns in several slots
connected in series through
commutator segments
Æ Voltage with less ripple.
 Operation of Commutator and Brushes

• When the turn passes the interpolar region

• the turn is short-circuited
• the current in the turn will reverse
 Armature Windings - Terms and Definitions

Large machines have more than two poles

Æ most of the conductors are in region of high flux density
• electrical degrees θed
• mechanical degrees θmd
• p number of poles
p
θ ed = θ md
2
• pole pitch = distance between centers of two adjacent poles =180o ed
•coil pitch = distance between two sides of a coil
• full-pitch: coil pitch = pole pitch
• short-pitch: coil pitch < pole pitch (mainly in ac-machines)
Armature Windings - Lap Winding

• one coil between two adjacent

commutator bars

• 1/p of the total coils are connected

in series

• suitable for high-current low voltage

number of parallel paths = number of poles

= number of brushes
Armature Windings - Wave Winding

• p/2 coil connected in series

between two adjacent
commutator bars

• suitable for high voltage low current

• number of parallel paths = 2

• number of brushes positions = 2 or more
• number of brushes is increased in large
machines to minimize the current density
In brushes.
 Armature Windings - Voltage

• the voltage induced in a turn

et = 2 B(θ ) lω m r
• average value of the voltage induced in a turn
Φp
et = 2 B(θ ) lω m r = ωm
π
• flux per pole Φ
Φ Φ
B(θ ) = =
Α 2π rl p
N number of turns in the armature winding
• induced voltage in the armature winding a number of parallel paths
Z total number of conductors =2N
N Np
Ea = et = Φ ω m = KaΦ ω m
a πa • machine constant
• Ea independent of operation mode
Np Zp
• in generator: generated voltage
Ka = Ka =
πa 2π a
• in motor back emf
 Armature Windings - Torque
• the force on a conductor
Ia
f c = B(θ )lic = B(θ )l
a
• the torque on a conductor

Tc = f c r
Ea = K aΦ ω m
• the average torque on a conductor
Ia Φ pI a
T c = B(θ ) l r =
a 2π a
• the total torque developed • machine constant
NΦ p Np
T = 2 NT c = I a = K aΦ I a Ka =
πa πa
• power balance
T = KaΦ I a
Ea I a = KaΦ ω m I a = Tω m
Ea = K aΦ ω m
 Magnetization

• field mmf on d-axis

• armature mmf on q-axis
• no coupling (see later)

• Magnetic core with infinite permeability at low values of flux (ampere-turns)

2 Fp Fp
Φ= =
2R g Rg
 Magnetization - Curve

2 Fp Fp
Φ= =
2R g Rg

• increased Fp Æ increased Φ Æ saturation

• induced voltage proportional to flux times speed

 Classification of DC Machines
• field and armature circuits can be connected in various ways
• wide variety of performance characteristic
• field pole can be exited by series and shunt windings
• series winding large current, shunt winding small current
• if both are used series winding on top of shunt winding
• also permanent magnet can be used (equivalent to a)

• a - separately excited machine

• b - series machine
• c - shunt machine
• d - compound machine
 Separately Excited DC generator
• prime mover with constant speed
• armature connected to electrical load
• steady-state Æ inductances ignored
• terminal characteristic (variation of voltage with load current)

• field winding
Vf = Rf I f
• armature winding
Ea = Vt + I a Ra

Ea = K aΦ ω m
∆VAR voltage drop
• operating point due to armature
reaction (see later)
Vt = I t RL
Ia = It
Vt = Ea − Ra I a
 Armature Reaction

• no-load

• armature field

• flux density increases in one half of the pole

and decreases in the other half of the pole
• saturation -> reduction of flux per pole
 Armature Reaction

• saturation effect -> flux per pole decreases

• the zero flux density region moves from the q-axis
 Armature Reaction

Ea = Vt + I a Ra
• armature reaction in equivalent field current

I f(eff) = I f(actual) − I f(AR)

• terminal characteristic

Vt = Ea − Ra I a
Ea = K aΦ ω m
 Armature Reaction - Compensating Winding

• Armature reaction distorts

the flux density distribution,
produces demagnetizing
effect and shifts the zero
flux density region from the
d-axis.
Æ Poor commutation and
sparking.

• much of the rotor mmf can

be neutralized by using a
compensating winding fitted
on the main pole faces and
connected in series with
armature winding.

Æexpensive solution used

only in large machines with
abrupt changes in armature
current (steel rolling mile)
 Shunt Generator - Voltage Buildup
• residual magnetism Æ Ear Æ If1ÆEa1ÆIf2 …
• (Ra<<Rf) and field mmf aids residual magnetism

• saturation Æ maximum armature voltage (point P)

• In reality voltage buildup following the magnetization curve

Rf < Rfc (Rfc critical field circuit resistance)

• 3 conditions for voltave buildup:

•Residual magnetism
•Field mmf aids residual magnetism
•Rf < Rfc
 Shunt Generator - Voltage - Current Characteristics

• steady-state equations function of If

Ea = Vt + I a Ra Ea = K aΦ ω m
Vt = I f Rf = I f ( Rfw + Rfc )
Vt = I L RL Ia = If + IL
• procedure to get the terminal characteristic (no RA)
• magnetization curve + field resistance line

Ea − Vt
Vt = I f Rf Ia =
Ra
• for a given If we get Vt and Ia
• plot Vt vs. Ia

• if It=0, Ia= If Æ Vt0 ≠ Vp

• voltage drops faster with armature current

because voltage drop Æ field current drop
 Shunt Generator - Voltage - Current Characteristics

• pq is proportional to Ia

Ea − Vt
Ia =
Ra
• qr represent armature
reaction in equivalent
field current

I f(eff) = I f(actual) − I f(AR)

 Compound DC Machines
• shunt field winding provides the major portion of the mmf in the machine
• series winding compensates voltage drop due to RaIa and armature reaction

• short-shunt • long-shunt

Vt = Ea − I a Ra − I t Rsr Vt = Ea − I a ( Ra + Rsr )

I t = Ia − I f I t = Ia − I f
Vt
If =
Rfw + Rfc
• cumulative compound machine Æ fluxes aid each other
• differential compound machine Æ fluxes oppose each other
 Compound DC Machines

• generated voltage

Ea = K a (Φ sh ± Φ sr )ω m
• shunt and series mmf act on the same circuit
Feff = Fsh ± Fsr − FAR
N f I f(eff) = N f I f ± N sr I sr − N f I f(AR)
N sr
I f(eff) = I f ± I sr − I f(AR)
Nf • cumulative compound machine
• differential compound machine
• almost constant current
 Series Generator

Ea = Vt + I a ( Ra + Rsr )

I t = Ia • terminal characteristic
 Interpoles or Commutator Poles

• armature current reversal is delayed

due to coil inductance and reactance
voltage ie. voltage induced in the
moving coil by the quadratic flux.

• interpole is needed to compensate

armature reaction.

• used with compensating winding in

large machines
 DC Motors – Shunt Motor
• generator • motor

• the field circuit is independent of

the armature circuit because both
circuit are fed from voltage source

Vt = I a Ra + Ea

I t = Ia + I f

Ea = KaΦ ωm = Vt − I a Ra
• Armature current and speed depend on the mechanical load
 DC Motors – Power Flow and Efficiency

• efficiency

Poutput
η=
Pinput

• core losses are included

in the rotational losses
 Separately Excited DC Motor
Torque – Speed Characteristics
Ea = KaΦ ωm = Vt − I a Ra

T = KaΦ I a

Vt − I a Ra Vt Ra
ωm = = − 2
T
K aΦ K aΦ (K aΦ )

• for constant flux and voltage

good speed regulation

• armature reaction decreases the

flux Æ less speed drop
• speed control by
• armature voltage control
• field control
• armature resistance control
 Separately Excited DC Motor – Armature Voltage Control

• rated field current

• constant Ra
ωm = K1Vt − K 2T

• constant torque • constant voltage

Ra = 0

• in actual applications Ia is kept constant (needs closed-loop operation)

T = KaΦ I a constant torque

 Separately Excited DC Motor – Field Control

• Ra and Vt constant
• If variable (rheostat Rfc)

• magnetic linearity
KaΦ = K f I f
Vt Ra
ωm = − 2
T
K f I f (K f I f ) constant torque – constant power
• no-load speed

Vt If = 0
ωm ≈ Æωm = infinity
Kf If
• constant flux

ωm = K 3 − K 4T • Field control
• less expensive
• slow
• speed response sluggish
Separately Excited DC Motor – Armature Resistance Control

• Vt and If constant
• Ra = Ra + Rae variable

Vt Ra + Rae
ωm = − 2
T
KaΦ (KaΦ )

ωm = K 5 − K6T

• method used still in

transit system vehicles

• low efficiency
• expensive resistance needed to carry Ia
 Series Motor
• magnetic linearity

KaΦ = Ksr I a

Ea = Ksr I aωm

T = Ksr I a2
Ea = Vt − I a ( Ra + Rae + Rsr )

Vt Ra + Rsr + Rea Vt Ra + Rsr + Rea

ωm = − = −
Ksr I a K sr K sr T K sr

• large starting torque – subway car, automobile starter, hoist, crane, blender
• speed control over a wide range
 Starter

• back emf is zero at start

Vt − Ea
Ia =
Ra
Vt
Ia start
=
Ra

a variable external resistance is used

to reduce the starting current

Vt − Ea
Ia =
Ra + Rae
• at normal operation the electromagnet holds
the handle and the external resistance is zero
Torque – Speed Characteristics