Unit 5 Physics Notes

Electric Fields:
- A field is region in which a force acts between objects at a distance from one another. An
electric field is generated by a charged object, and acts upon other charged objects.
- Electric field strength is defined as the force per unit charge at a given distance from a point

charge: = where is the field strength, is the force and is the positive charge.
- An electric field can be represented by electric field lines, which denote the direction that a
positive charge will accelerate in if placed upon the line. They begin on positive charges and
end on negative ones (or ad infinitum), and are normal to surfaces where they meet them.
- Coulombs law states that the force between two charged objects can be calculated using the

equation = 4 2 , where and denote the positive charges on the two objects, is their
0
separation, and 0 is the permittivity of free space (a constant).
- If two metal plates have a potential difference across them, they will become oppositely
charged. If they are parallel, the electric field between them will be uniform. The work done,
, to move a positive charge from the negative plate to the positive one would be =
(where is the distance between plates and is the force exerted by the field, using

= ). As the potential difference, , is equal to , this gives another expression for the field

strength: = = .
-A uniform electric field will cause a charged particle to accelerate uniformly in the direction
of the force acting upon it. If the particle starts from rest it will move in a straight line; if it has
a component of velocity normal to the field it will move in a parabola.
Magnetic Fields:
- When an electric current passes through a wire, it induces a magnetic field around it as shown
(right). By convention, a wire carrying current out of the page
is represented by a circle with a dot inside; one carrying
current into the page is represented by a cross enclosed by a
circle.
- In a solenoid (coil of wire), the fact that current is travelling
in opposite directions either side strengthens the field inside .
the coil: it is roughly uniform. Outside the solenoid the field
lines lead from one end to the other, similar to a bar magnet,
where lines originate from the north pole and terminate at
the south.
- Placing an iron cylinder in the centre of a solenoid greatly
increases the strength of the magnetic field; this is the basis
of an electromagnet. . . . . . .
- When a current-carrying wire is placed in a uniform magnetic
field, the interaction between the fields will cause a force to
act upon in it (this is known as the motor effect). The direction of the force may be identified
by Flemings left-hand law: providing the field and current are perpendicular, they can be
represented by the index and middle fingers of a left hand respectively; the direction of the
force is indicated by the thumb.
 - The magnitude of the force acting upon a wire in the above situation is proportional to the
length of the wire, the current it carries, the sine of the angle between the wire and the field,
and the magnetic flux density (a quantitative measure of field strength): = .
- Magnetic flux density is given the symbol and is measured in teslas: one tesla is the
magnetic flux density required to exert a force of one newton on a wire carrying a current of
one ampere at right angles to the field. Qualitatively, magnetic flux density can be
represented by the density of flux lines in a diagram.
Particle Movement in Magnetic Fields:
- If a charged particle is moving at velocity , the distance that it travels in time is . The

current, , is the charge flow per unit time: = where is the positive charge on the
particle. Substituting these expressions into the equation = gives the force the

particle will experience in a uniform magnetic field: = = . (if = 90,

= ).
- The direction of the force acting upon a charged particle moving at right angles to a uniform
magnetic field will be at right angles to both the field and the particles motion by Flemings
left-hand law. Providing the magnetic flux density remains constant, this will cause the
particle to move in uniform circular motion.
- The radius of the particles trajectory can be determined using the equations = and
2 2
= : = = .

- The force acting on a particle moving in a magnetic field is proportional to the particles
velocity; in an electric field the force is only dependent on charge. This means that when
particles in both an electric and a magnetic field (arranged perpendicular to one another so
they exert opposing forces), slower particles will be more affected by the electric field whilst
faster ones will be more affected by the magnetic field.
- Normal magnetic and electric fields as described can be used to make a velocity selector:
when a charged particle has a specific velocity, the magnetic and electric forces acting on it
will be in equilibrium so a particle so it will pass through the fields undeflected. This velocity

satisfies = = , where is the electric field strength and is the magnetic flux
density.
- A Bainbridge mass spectrometer uses magnetic and electric fields to analyse the masses of
isotopes:
o A beam of ionised particles is fired through perpendicular electric and magnetic fields
of strength and 1 respectively; the particles which emerge have a uniform velocity

of .
1
o These particles enter a uniform magnetic field of flux density 2; they move in uniform

circular motion and the radii can be measured. As = and = , = and
2 1 1 2

= 1 2 .
Electromagnetic Induction:
- Electromagnetic induction is the reverse of the motor effect: instead of a field causing motion
in a current-carrying wire, the motion of a wire perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field
causes the electrons in the wire to move and generate a potential difference, which, providing
a circuit is completed, gives a current.
 - The direction of an induced current can be determined by Flemings right-hand rule: the
directions of the wires motion, the field and the current are represented by the thumb, index
and middle fingers of a right hand respectively.
- During electromagnetic induction, a wire cuts a magnetic field. The amount of magnetic field
that is cut can be quantitatively defined by the quantity magnetic flux, . This is the product
of magnetic flux density and the projection of an area A onto a plane normal to the magnetic
field: = where is the angle between the area being measured and the magnetic
field. Magnetic flux is measured in webers (Wb): one weber is the magnetic flux when one
tesla of magnetic flux density is cut by one square metre at right angles.
- Motors and generators often have multiple turns of wire in coils: the quantity flux linkage
( where is the number of turns) is often more appropriate. It is measured in weber turns.
- The magnitude of an induced current depends on the resistance the circuit. The induced emf,
however, however, is independent of the resistance: it is equal to the rate at which magnetic
flux is cut. This is known as Faradays law.
- The direction of an induced current will oppose the flux change which causes it due to the
alignment of the magnetic fields; if it did not, energy would not be conserved as the current
induced by motion of a wire would induce motion in the same direction, inducing more
current ad infinitum. Instead, in accordance with Newtons third law, the force causing the
wire to move is opposed by the force the field exerts upon the wire this is known as Lenzs
law.
()
- Faradays and Lenzs laws can be combined in the following equation: = = ,
where is the induced emf.
AC Current:
- In alternating current, electrons have no overall motion along a wire: they oscillate about a
mean position: a graph of current against time will show periodic oscillation. An AC current
can be described by its frequency and amplitude.
- Alternating current is used in mains electricity because it causes a varying magnetic field
which can be exploited in generators and transformers.
- A basic AC generator consists of a coil of wire which rotates in a magnetic field. As it rotates,
it cuts the field at a rate which varies depending upon the angle between the coil and the
field: when the coil is horizontal the angle is zero, so the magnetic flux the coil cuts is
maximum (as = ). If = 90, = 0. This generates a continually oscillating emf,
and thus an alternating current.
- As for a given power output, voltage and current are inversely proportional, and for a given
resistance, current and power loss are directly proportional, it is most efficient to carry
electricity at high voltages. However, these are dangerous in domestic situations: a
transformer is required to change the voltage between supply cables and households. A step-
up transformer increases the voltage, whilst a step-down transformer decreases it.
- A transformer consists of two coils of insulated wire wrapped around an iron core. When an
alternating current is supplied through the primary coil, it magnetises and demagnetises the
core periodically. This change in magnetic flux induces an emf in each loop of the secondary
coil in accordance with Faradays law; as the loops are in series, the number of loops on the
secondary coil is directly proportional to the output emf.
- The ratio of the input emf to output emf in a transformer is equal to the ratio of turns on the

primary and secondary coils: = .

Capacitors:
 - A capacitor is an electrical component which stores electrical energy (generally small amounts
for short periods of time) and readily discharges it. The circuit symbol for a capacitor is .
- A capacitor is formed from two metal plates separated by an insulator, normally rolled up to
save space. When there is a potential difference across the capacitor, the plate connected to
the negative terminal gains electrons and becomes negatively charge whilst the other plate
becomes positively charged. No current passes across the capacitor, unless the pd is high
enough to cause damage.
- The capacitance of a capacitor is the charge stored per unit potential difference across it: =

where is capacitance, is charge, and is potential difference. Capacitance is measured

in farads; one farad is one coulomb per volt (microfarads, , are more common, as one farad
is very large).
- When capacitors are connected in parallel, each has the same potential difference across it.
For three parallel capacitors with capacitance 1 , 2 and 3 , the charge on each will be 1 ,
2 and 3 respectivel (where is the potential difference across them). Thus the total
charge is (1 + 2 + 3 ) = where is the total capacitance of the circuit; when
capacitors are in parallel the total capacitance of the circuit; when capacitors are connected
in parallel the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances.
- If three capacitors, capacitance 1 , 2 and 3 are joined in series in a circuit with emf , by
Kirchhoffs second law 1 + 2 + 3 = (where is the pd across capacitor ). As charge is
conserved within the circuit, the charge on each plate of each capacitor has the same
magnitude, and, as adjacent charges cancel, the charge stored () in the entire circuit is equal
1 1 1 1
to that across each capacitor: = + + = + + .
1 2 3 1 2 3
- The Energy stored by a capacitor is equal to the area under the line when the pd across the
1 1 2
capacitor is plotted against the charge stored: = 2 . As = , = 2 2 = 2 .
Discharging Capacitors:
- Consider a circuit formed of a fully charged capacitor of capacitance connected to a resistor
of resistance . The potential difference across the resistor is equal to , and as by

definition current is the rate of flow of charge, = . Thus, as the capacitor discharges,

the rate of discharge can be expressed by the differential equation = = ;

1 1
= = +


= 0 (where 0 is the initial charge).

- Dividing both sides of the above equation be gives = 0 . Dividing both sides of this

equation by gives = 0 ; when a capacitor discharges, charge, voltage and current all
decrease exponentially with respect to time.
- In SI units, capacitance is measured in 2 4 1 2, and resistance in 2 2 3. Thus,
the units of the quantity are 2 2 4 3 1 2 2 = ; for this reason, the product
of capacitance and resistance in a circuit powered by a discharging capacitor is known as the
time constant.
Uses of Capacitors:
- One modern use of capacitors is in nuclear fusion: a very large quantity of high-voltage
capacitors can be charged and discharged in nanoseconds, generating a massive power
output which can be used as activation energy in nuclear fusion. At present, this is not a viable
source of energy as more energy is used to start the reaction than is given out.
 - Capacitors can be used in AC circuits:
o A rectifier only allows current to flow in one direction; a capacitor can be connected
to one to smooth the output and release an almost-constant direct current.
o If an input voltage contains both alternating and direct current, a capacitor will give a
fluctuating output in accordance with the AC, but the DC will result in a fixed charge
and be effectively blocked.
o Capacitors are used in analogue radios to give a high output pd at specific frequencies
this is electrical resonance.
- Other uses of capacitors include:
o Storing energy momentarily for a camera flash.
o Supplying backup power to a computer.
o Displacement sensors/microphones: the capacitance of a capacitor changes with the
separation of the plates; sound or motion can alter this.
The Nucleus:
- Initially, it was thought that atoms consisted of electrons floating in a sea of positive charge.
This was disproved, however, when alpha particles were fired at a thin layer of gold foil and
a small proportion were deflected. In order for a force strong enough to deflect an alpha
particle, the point charges of the particle and the atoms positive charge must be in very close
proximity: it was deduced that atoms contained a very small, dense region of positive charge
at its centre known as the nucleus.
- This discovery, along with that of the neutron several years later, led to the formation of the
Bohr model of the atom: a nucleus of tightly bound protons and neutrons (each of mass 1u)
orbited at a (comparatively) great distance by negatively charged electrons, with almost
negligible masses of 0.00055u.
- In the nucleus, protons are about 2 1015 apart. According to Coulombs law, they should
2
thus experience a repulsive force of = 57.5. To keep them together, an
4(21015 )2 0
2
attractive force greater than this is required. The gravitational force is (21015 )2
= 4.65
1035 ; negligible, so there must be a stronger force acting between the nucleons. This force
is known as the strong nuclear force.
- The strong nuclear force acts between nucleons at very short distances. It is very strong: at
around 23.8 1015 separation two nucleons will experience over 20000N of attractive
force; this decreases very rapidly with distance. At distances of less than 2.4 1015 the
strong force is repulsive: in a nucleus nucleons settle at an equilibrium separation where the
resultant force is zero. For neutrons this is only the strong force, whilst for protons there is
also a (very small) electrostatic force.
Nuclear Properties and Reactions:
- The number of protons (proton number) in a nucleus is denoted ; the number of total
nucleons (nucleon number) us denoted . A nuclide (a specific nucleus) can be denoted in
shorthand.
- Two nuclides with the same proton number but different numbers of neutrons are known as
isotopes. Isotopes share chemical properties but have differing masses.
- Nuclei may react in high-speed collisions or in radioactive decay. Such reactions can be
represented by nuclear equations; for example, 238 234 4
92 90 + 2 + 4.2 denotes the
decay of uranium-238 to thorium-234 by release of an alpha particle and energy.
 - During nuclear reactions certain quantities are conserved: mass/energy (these are
interchangeable), momentum, charge, spin and strangeness (a property of quarks) are
examples.
Fundamental Particles:
- Subatomic particles can be divided broadly into three groups: baryons, which are heavy
particles such as protons and neutrons, leptons - light particles such as neutrinos or electrons,
and mesons of intermediate mass.
- Every matter particle has an equivalent antiparticle, with identical mass and other properties,
but opposite charge. When a particle and an antiparticle meet, they annihilate: all their mass
is converted to energy in the form of photons.
- A fundamental particle is a particle that cannot be broken down into smaller elements.
Electrons and neutrinos are thought to be fundamental; hadrons (baryons and mesons),
however, are not: they are comprised of quarks.
- Quark theory postulates that several types of fundamental particle known as quarks exist.
2 1
Examples include the up quark (charge + 3 ; denoted ) and the down quark (charge 3 ;
denoted ), as well as top, bottom, strange and charm quarks. Each quark has a corresponding
antiquark, denoted by a bar (e.g. or ).
- Quarks are influenced by the strong force and combine to form hadrons, such as the proton
() or neutron (). Mesons are formed of a quark and an antiquark; the + meson has
quark configuration .
Decay:
- In addition to gravity, electromagnetism and the strong force, there exists another interaction
between particles known as the weak nuclear force. The weak interaction between quarks is
responsible for the phenomenon of decay.
- There are two types of decay: and + . In decay a nucleus releases an electron (a
particle) and an antineutrino; one neutron becomes a proton (e.g. 146 147 + 10 + 00 ).
In + decay a proton decays into a neutron, releasing a positron ( + particle) and a neutrino
(e.g. 168 167 + 01 + 00).
- Writing neutron decay in terms of quarks ( + + ) allows spectator quarks
to cancel: the actual decay occurring is a down quark to an up quark: + + .
Similarly proton decay simplifies to + + + . Without the neutrino, spin would not be
conserved within the system.
Radioactivity:
- Unstable nuclei have a tendency to decay into more stable ones, emitting radiation.
Radioactive decay is spontaneous (independent of external conditions such as temperature
or pressure) and random (it is impossible to predict when a nucleus will decay).
- There are three types of radiation:
o Alpha (): the release of a helium nucleus ( 42). Alpha particles have a relatively low
speed (about 0.05c) and a low penetrating capability, but are the most ionising form
of radiation.
o Beta (): the release of an electron or positron. Beta particles travel at around 0.99c
and have intermediate range, penetration and ionising capability.
o Gamma (): the release of high-frequency EM waves. Gamma photons travel at the
speed of light and have a long range and high penetrating power.
- All alpha particles from a source have a uniform kinetic energy and range, whereas beta
particles have varying energy levels and ranges.
 - The radioactivity of a substance can be quantified: the activity of a source is the rate at
which it emits radiation. An emission of one particle per second gives an activity of one
Becquerel (Bq). The activity of a source is proportional to the number of nuclei present ().
The constant of proportionality is known as the decay constant : = .

- Activity can be thought of as the rate of decrease in with respect to time: = . Thus

= . Solving the differential equation gives = 0 where 0 is the initial number

of nuclei; multiplying by gives = 0 .
- The half-life of a radioisotope is the time taken for half of a source to decay; it is independent
1 1 1
of the value of 0 as the equation = 2 0 0 = 2 0 cancels to give = 2 =
2 2
; the half-life of a radioisotope with decay constant is .

- Examples of the practical uses of radioactivity include:
o Smoke detectors: these contain americium-241 which releases -particles. These
cause a current to flow within the alarm. Smoke entering the detector absorbs -
particles, reducing the current: this is detected by the circuitry and the alarm is
sounded.
o Carbon dating: a natural proportion of the carbon in the world is the radioisotope
carbon-14. In a living organism the 146 is constantly exchanged and replenished, but
in a dead one no new 146 is added; it decays to 147 by decay. AS the half-life of
carbon-14 (5570 years) is known, the proportion of carbon-14 in organic matter can
be used to determine the age of a sample.
Fission and Fusion:
- Einsteins theory of relativity theorises the equivalence of mass and energy; if an object gains
energy it also gains mass. The relationship is given by the equation = 2 .
- When nucleons are in a nucleus, they have a lower mass than when they are separate. This is
because their separation requires work to be done against the strong force: nucleons gain
potential energy if they are separated. The difference in mass, and consequently the energy
required to separate the nucleons and electrons in an atom, is known as the binding energy,
- A more useful quantity is the binding energy per nucleon. The graph to the right shows how
this varies with nucleon number: the peak
corresponds to 56 26 ; theoretically the most stable
nucleus. Combination of lighter elements (fusion) or
splitting of heavier elements (fission) will thus release
energy.
- Fission can be induced in nuclei such as uranium-235
when a slow neutron is absorbed. One such reaction
is as follows: 10 + 235 236 135 97
92 92 52 + 40 +
1
4 0 + 155. There are other reactions that have different fission products and number
of neutrons released.
- Energy from fission is used to generate electricity in nuclear power stations. A nuclear reactor
contains a core, where fission occurs, and a steam generator: carbon dioxide is heated in the
core and carries the energy to water, which vaporises and turns a turbine, generating an
alternating current.
- As more than one neutron (which is able to set off another fission reaction) is produced in a
fission reaction, if uncontrolled, a chain reaction will take place releasing massive amounts of
 energy (as in an atomic bomb). Boron control rods, which absorb excess neutrons, are used
to moderate the reaction.
- Neutrons travelling at too high speeds will not induce fission; other nuclei are used to slow
them down. Assuming elastic collisions, smaller nuclei are best: the common candidates are
deuterium and carbon. Carbon is the most common as it is cheap, stable and conducts heat
well.
- Nuclear reactors produce radioactive waste that can be harmful. This must be disposed of
responsibly and contained until it is no longer active; this may be many years.
- Nuclear fusion of light elements into heavier ones occurs in stars such as the sun, where
temperatures and pressures are very high. This releases a large amount of energy.
- A common fusion reaction is that of hydrogen nuclei to form helium. The pathway is as
follows: 11 + 11 21 + 01 + 00; 11 + 21 32 + ; 32 + 32 42 + 11 + 11. Overall
four protons combine to form a helium nucleus, two positrons (which annihilate with
electrons), two neutrinos and two gamma ray photons.
- Fusion has been attempted on earth as a method of generating energy. However, the massive
activation energies required mean that it is currently not economically viable.
X-Rays:
- X-rays are electromagnetic waves with wavelength between 10-9m and 10-12m. They are used
in medical imaging because of their ability to pass through tissues whilst being absorbed by
bone.
- Electrodes and a vacuum tube are used to generate X-rays: electrons from the cathode are
accelerated through a very high potential difference (around 100000V) to the anode; if they
have sufficient energy, X-rays will be emitted. This is because the high-energy electrons
dislodge other electrons, exciting them: when they return to the ground state the energy is
released in the form of X-rays.
- X-rays, fired at a metal surface, cause the photoelectric effect. Unlike with UV light, X-rays
have so much energy that the work function is negligible: the energy of the emitted electrons
is effectively the same as that of the X-ray photons.
- If an X-ray photon collides with matter, pair production can occur: this spontaneously
generates an electron and a positron, the mass/energy equivalent of which (including kinetic
energy) is equal to the energy of the X-ray photon (over 1MeV).
- X-rays produced in an X-ray tube will have certain more common wavelengths corresponding
to energy levels for the metal electrons. This makes monochromatic (uniform wavelength) X-
rays easy to produce. When monochromatic X-rays are fired at, for example, graphite, they
are scattered when they hit free electrons. By conservation of momentum and energy,
photons deflected through a greater angle will have a lower energy and thus a longer
wavelength this is known as the Compton Effect.
X-Ray Images:
- X-rays may be fired at a patient to image the inside of the body: they pass through less dense
tissues and are absorbed by denser ones so that only some reach a phosphorescent plate on
the other side, which turns black where the photons hit it.
- An X-ray from a point source will spread out as the distance from the source increases: the
intensity (power per unit area) decreases in proportion to the reciprocal of the square of the
distance. Such X-rays are normally unsuitable for imaging as the image produced is unclear
due to the spreading of the beam.
- X-rays used in imaging are collimated: they are altered so all beams are parallel and intensity
does not vary as much over short distances. The intensity, , of a collimated beam is given by
 the equation = 0 , where 0 is the initial intensity, is the distance from the source,
and is the attenuation coefficient a constant specific to the medium the X-ray passes
through.
- An X-ray image can be enhanced using the following methods:
o Using more sensitive X-ray film (this also results in less exposure of the patient to
radiation).
o Using digital image intensifiers or methods such as false colour.
o Using a contrast medium that absorbs X-rays such as a barium meal: the barium, which
X-rays cannot pass through, enters the intestines and improves the contrast, allowing
soft tissues to be imaged. A contrast medium in blood can be used to image blood
vessels (an angiogram).
- A computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan produces a 3D X-ray image. It does this by using
a thin, fan-shaped beam which rotates around the patient and is detected by multiple sensors,
building up a slice of the patient. The beam then moves upwards until a full image is
produced.
- A CAT scan gives a 360o, 3D image, so areas obscured by a D X-ray may be seen in greater
detail. However, they are more expensive than traditional X-rays and involve a higher dose of
radiation.
Radioactive Tracers and the Gamma Camera:
- A radioactive tracer is used to diagnose or treat illnesses. A gamma ray source (as alpha or
beta would be absorbed) with an appropriate half-life is used. One example is technetium-
99m, which is used to monitor the function of a variety of organs by tracking its motion
through the body.
- A gamma camera is a method of detecting gamma ray photons emitted from a tracer such as
technetium-99m. It uses a scintillating crystal of sodium iodide which fluoresces when a
gamma photon hits it; the light is detected by photomultiplier tubes which relay information
to a computer. Lead tubes collimate the rays so only vertical rays hit the crystal, allowing their
source to be accurately determined.
- Another form of gamma ray photography is a positron emission tomograph (PET): a
radiolabelled form of glucose is used which emits positrons. These annihilate with electrons
at their source, giving out gamma ray photons which move in opposite directions; detecting
these identifies the line upon which the source lies.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging:
- When a torque is applied to a spinning object such as a gyroscope, it induces precession: the
axis of rotation moves in a circular motion at an angle to a central line. Precession can also be
induced in nuclei which have an overall spin (i.e. an odd number of nucleons) when they are
placed in a magnetic field. The frequency of precession (the Larmor frequency) is proportional
to the magnetic flux density; it is equal to 4.25 107 .
- A precessing nucleus has two spin states: one high-energy and one low-energy. When a radio
wave of the same frequency as the Larmor frequency is absorbed by the nucleus, it will
promote it to the high-energy state. It then relaxes, re-emitting the radio wave, which may
be detected. The time taken to relax depends on the environment of the nucleus this allows
tissues to be differentiated in an MRI scam/
- An MRI scanner monitors the nuclear magnetic resonance of hydrogen nuclei (protons). A
large, strong magnet (1.4T) surrounds the patient. A smaller magnet is used to fine-tune the
field in a specific place so that nuclei have differing Larmor frequencies; radio waves emitted
differ so their origins can be identified. Pulses of radio waves are emitted by the scanner, then
 the relaxation time is measured at each point. A computer can then use this information to
produce a detailed 3D image of the insides of the patient.
- MRI is beneficial as it gives a high-quality image of the entire body (even parts encased by
bone) with no ionising radiation or side-effects. However, scans are costly and time-
consuming, and due to the magnetic fields metallic or ferrous objects cannot be taken into
the scanner.
Ultrasound:
- Ultrasound describes sound waves with a frequency above the range of human hearing
(>20000Hz). The ultrasound waves used in medical imaging are normally in the order of
magnitude of 106Hz.
- Ultrasound is generated by the piezoelectric effect: certain crystals oscillate at very high
frequencies when a potential difference is applied to them. This effect also works in reverse:
when crystals are exposed to ultrasound they generate a pd which can be amplified in an
ultrasound transducer. Thus, in a transducer, the same crystal can be used to transmit and
receive ultrasound waves.
- In an ultrasound scan a transducer sends pulses of ultrasound through a gel into the patient.
At boundaries between tissues some is reflected back and picked up by the transducer. The
time taken for echoes to return gives the distance between tissue boundaries.
- There are two types of ultrasound scan:
o An A scan, which simply registers the return of pulses to the transducer and allows
measurements to be taken.
o A B scan, which uses an array of transducers to give a detailed image of the area being
scanned.
- In order to determine the fraction of intensity of an ultrasound wave, the quantity acoustic
impedance, , is used: = where is the density of a medium and is the speed of sound
through it. The fraction of reflected intensity between two media of acoustic impedance 1
2
and 2 is given by the equation = (2 +1 ) , where 0 is the initial intensity and is the
0 2 1
reflected intensity.
- In order for an ultrasound to work, enough sound must pass into a medium to be detected
upon reflection; 2 and 1 must be close to one another so is small compared to 0 . This is
known as impedance matching and is the reason why a gel is used otherwise the majority
would be reflected and not reach past the skin.
- If a sound is emitted by a source moving towards to an observer, the observed frequency of
the sound is higher than the emitted frequency as more wavefronts reach the observer per
second this is known as the Doppler Effect. If a wave is travelling with speed and frequency

, in one period it will normally move a distance of . However, if the source is also moving at

velocity , an additional distance of is moved in one period by the source, so the observed

wavelength is = .

- The Doppler Effect can be used to measure the speed of blood. An ultrasound wave reflected
by blood cells will have a higher frequency if the blood is moving towards the transducer and
a lower one if it is moving away. The image of the transducer reflected in the blood cell is
moving at twice the speed of the cell (), so the wavelength of the reflected ultrasound pulse
2
is ; the new frequency of the wave is 2.
The Structure of the Universe:
- Common components of the universe are as follows:
 o Galaxies: these are clusters of billions of stars which rotate slowly around a nucleus,
at which there is a higher density of stars. There are thought to be around 108 galaxies
in the universe.
o Stars: these are bodies which emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
This energy comes from nuclear fusion under the extremely high temperatures and
pressures caused by the stars gravitational force.
o Planets: these are relatively cold objects which orbit stars in roughly circular
trajectories. Planets may have moons smaller natural satellites.
o Comets: small bodies consisting of ice and rock, which fragments, leaving a visible trail.
They orbit in elliptical or hyperbolic trajectories.
- The universe has a very low average density. However, some areas have a higher density of
matter, so have a higher gravitational attraction. Over time, the density of these areas
increases until a cloud of dust and gases forms a nebula. As particles move towards each
other they gain kinetic energy the temperature rises. Eventually the temperature and
pressure rise enough for nuclear fusion to occur, forming a star.
- A small or medium-sized star such as the sun can exist for billions of years, fusing hydrogen
to helium in equilibrium with the gravitational force. Eventually, the hydrogen will run out;
the star collapses. The increase in pressure following the collapse allows helium nuclei to fuse
the star grows rapidly into a red giant. However, once the helium runs out, small and
medium stars eject ions and collapse into a very small, dense and cooling body known as a
white dwarf.
- A larger star will use up its stores of hydrogen and helium much faster than a smaller one.
Following the red giant phase, the collapse is great enough for heavier elements to fuse, up
to iron. Eventually the pressure is great enough for protons to absorb electrons and become
neutrons; one of two events occurs:
o The star explodes outwards, releasing massive amounts of energy in a supernova. The
energy is enough to fuse all of the naturally occurring elements, and the debris
spreads, eventually forming new nebulae.
o The star still explodes, but an extremely dense core of neutrons remains, forming a
rotating neutron star which emits EM radiation. If the pressure is large enough, the
neutron star can collapse to a black hole a singularity of infinite density and a
gravitational pull from which light cannot escape.
Astronomical Distances:
- When measuring distances in astronomy the orders of magnitude involved make metres an
impractical unit different ones must be used. The first of these is the astronomical unit (AU).
This is the mean distance from the earth to the sun, about 1.496 1011 m.
- The distance to stars can be measured using triangulation: measuring the angle of a star at
six-month intervals (so the earth travels a distance of 2AU) and using trigonometry to deduce
the distance. The parsec as a unit of distance equal to the height of a right-angled triangle of
1
base 1AU and opposite angle of 1 arcsecond (3600 or 4.848 106 radians). Using the small-
1
angle approximation sin , 1 = 4.848106 = 2.063 105 = 3.086 1016 .
- Another astronomical unit is the light-year (ly). This is the distance travelled by light in a
vacuum (speed = 3.00 108 1 ) in one year (3.16 107 seconds). It is equal to
approximately 9.461 1015 m.
Properties of the Universe:
 - Previously, the universe was thought to be infinite. However, in the 19 th century, the
astronomer Olber showed that this is paradoxical. Assuming the universe is, on a large scale,
uniform with stars per unit volume, a thin shell around the earth of radius contains 4 2
stars where is the shells thickness. The intensity of the light from these stars is inversely
4 2
proportional to 2 : = 2 = 4. Thus the brightness of each shell is the same,
independent of distance. Infinite numbers of shells would mean that the sky should be
infinitely bright an obvious contradiction.
- Observation of the emission spectra of various stars shows a shift towards the red end of the
spectrum. This may be explained by the Doppler Effect, and suggests that stars and galaxies
are moving away from each other. The observed wavelength of a wave emitted by a source
+
receding at velocity is given by = = (1 + ), so = 1 + = 1 + = .
This enables the speed of a galaxy to be calculated from its redshift.
- Research by Hubble showed that the speed of a galaxys recession is directly proportional to
its distance from Earth. The constant of proportionality is known as the Hubble constant, 0 ,
and is thought to have a value of around 7km s-1 Mpc-1, though this is difficult to determine
and the error is still unknown.
- Hubble showed that all parts of the universe are moving apart at the same rate relative to
one another; that 0 is constant throughout the universe. This is part of the cosmological
principle: that, on a large scale, the universe is isotropic (i.e. uniform in all directions) and
homogeneous (i.e. of uniform density).
- The expansion of the universe suggests that, unless matter is continually being created, all
matter in the universe was initially at a single point. In 1965, Penzias and Wilson discovered a
seemingly uniform constant microwave background radiation of wavelength 1.1cm,
corresponding to an object of temperature 2.7K. This confirmed this hypothesis, known as
the Big Bang Theory. The idea of an expanding universe finite in size and age removes Olbers
paradox.
- Hubbles constant is equal to the speed of a galaxy divided by its distance from earth. The
time taken for a galaxy to move this distance from the Big Bang (the age of the universe) is

the reciprocal of this amount: = . Assuming that galaxies move at a uniform
speed (i.e. neglecting gravitational forces acting upon them), the age of the universe is equal
1
to (where 0 is measured in s-1); approximately 13 billion years.
0
The Evolution of the Universe:
- The currently accepted model for the evolution of the universe from the Big Bang to present
is as follows:
o 10-43s after the Big Bang, the universe was at a temperature of 1027K and all four forces
were unified.
o After 10-34s the temperature was 1022K. Gravity separated from the other forces, and
quarks and photons formed.
o After 10-16s the temperature was 1016K; the strong force separated and leptons
formed from photons. There was more matter present than antimatter.
o After 10-3s the weak and electromagnetic forces separated. The temperature was
1010K and quarks were entirely part of hadrons. Matter and antimatter annihilated
until matter prevailed.
o After 100s, the temperature fell to 107K. Much of the universe was in a plasma, and
hydrogen nuclei began to fuse, forming helium and lithium nuclei.
 o After 100000 years, the temperature was low enough for atoms to be formed. The
cosmic background radiation came into being.
o After 1 million years, the temperature was 6000K and the universe began to gain a
structure.
o After 1 billion years the first stars started to collapse and produce heavier elements.
o At present day, after 13 billion years, the mean temperature of the universe is 2.7K.
- The future fate of the universe depends on its density. If the universe is dense enough
gravitational force will overcome the expansion and it will collapse in a big crunch (closed
universe); If its density is lower, it will expand forever (open universe). If it is of a critical
density it will continue to slow until its rate of expansion asymptotes to stationary (flat
universe).
- The critical density of the universe, , may be derived as follows:
o In order for a galaxy of mass a distance from the centre of the universe to escape
the gravitational pull of the galaxies behind it, it must have a kinetic energy equal to
1
or greater than its gravitational potential energy: for critical density = 2 2 ,
where mass of the universe exerting a gravitational pull on the galaxy and is its
speed.
1
o =0 = 2 02 2.
4 4 1 4 1 3 2
o = 3 3 , so 2 = 2 02 2 3 = 2 02 = 80 9.5
3
1027 3 .
- The density of the universe is thought to be around 10-27kg m-3, suggesting an open universe.
However, the error in this value is high, so the true fate of the universe is still uncertain.