Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Presented by :
Luciane Cunha
Introduction
Reservoir Management
GAS
OIL
WATER WATER
Impermeable Layer
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 3
Reservoir Image
Fault Patterns
Areal Extension
Physical
Properties
Structural Gas
Dip
Fluid Oil
Contacts
Stratification Water
Aquifer Size
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 5
Reservoir Image ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN
SHAPES and VOLUMES correlations
structural surfaces sedimentar body shapes
isopachs facies variations
boundaries microscopic reservoir structure
Representative Model
Type of Simulators:
- Physical
- Mathematical
a) Analytical
b) Numerical Simulators
Analytical Models:
MBE
Tank Model
- Isotropic -> Kx = Ky = Kz
- Homogeneous Reservoir -> , Kro, Krw, Krg, So, Sw, Sg, Bo,
Bg,Rso,o, g are same throughout the tank
MBE, which is based on tank model does not flow from one point in the
reservoir to another point.
MBE is a powerful tool for reservoir performance analysis, particularly
when there is negligible pressure difference (i.e. pressure gradient) in
the reservoir.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 12
Numerical Reservoir Flow Simulation
Analytical Models:
Diffusivity Equation
1 p c p
r =
r r r k t
c
-> Hydraulic Diffusivity
k
Solution of diffusivity equation gives the pressure distribution in
the reservoir at different times.
Physical Models:
problem: lack generality we need to modify the physical model for each
reservoir under study.
water oil
The tanks still obey physical laws (specially the conservation of mass);
What it is different from the tank model for MBE, is that now is possible to allow
for fluid to flow from one part of the reservoir (for example, Tank 1) to
another point (for example Tank 2).
There is pressure difference in each tank and consequently there is fluid flow.
-A complete set of PDE and auxiliary conditions, which describe the flow
pressures in the reservoir.
????????????????????????????
Uncertainty
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 18
Mathematical Models contain three main sources of error:
Note:
multiphase can also be subdivided into black oil or compositional simulators. Using one-
phase or multi-phase depend on what flow process(es) taking place in reservoir being
studied.
-Geometry
1-D
well
1-D
x
Radial
Linear
3-D
History Matching
Data
In general, an engineer interested in doing a reservoir simulation study would follow the following
steps:
- Develop study objectives
- Develop or select an appropriate simulator
- Review, collect and estimate appropriate data
- Make preliminary runs to establish model parameters and limitations
- Match available history
- Predict performance under different operating scenarios
- Analyze results and prepare a report
- Plan additional work
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 25
6. Why Use Simulators?
No other way to solve the problem
Cheaper or more reliable than other methods
Complement other more traditional techniques
Increase profitability through improved reservoir management
Assess economic and technical risks through sensitivity studies
Enhance credibility with third parties
Predict consequences of reservoir development and management decisions
Establish relative merits of alternative operating strategies
Resolve arbitration and utilization disputes
Monitor reservoir performance
Respond to safety, environmental and regulatory concerns
Improve communication among interested parties
Train engineers and operators
Choose the optimum IOR scheme for a given reservoir
Assess the impact on ultimate recovery of changing to a different IOR scheme
Establish data needs during various stages of field development
Assess the impact of assumptions on the analysis of well tests
Optimize well location and well completion
Assess possible advantages of horizontal wells over vertical wells
Troubleshooting
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 26
7. Options and Features of Modern Reservoir Simulators
a) Preprocessors
b) Postprocessors
c) Phase and component
d) Gridding options
e) Solution Techniques
f) Special features
g) Well control
h) Group control
i) Injection control
j) Sale gas production control
k) Cross flow between zones
l) Non-Darcy effects
m) Initialization
n) Aquifer models
o) Pseudofunctions
p) Control of simulator performance
General Concept:
Note:
1
1kPa =psi ; 1m 2 = 1.1013darcy ;
7
viscosity; 1 m 3 / s = 543440 B / d
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 28
Grids and Grid Numbering:
- Problem unknowns: pressures and fluid saturations at each block of a grid.
- We need to have a system for identifying each block:
j
x
i
Each block is identified by two numbers, i and j, with i increasing in the normal x-direction and j
increasing in the y-direction.
7 3 10 6 2 5 8 11 10 11 12 5
1 8 4 11 1 3 6 9 1 2 3 4
D4 D2 Cyclic
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 29
For three-dimensional grid -> we need three numbers to identify a
given block. z
y
k
j
x
i
Linear Flow Between Two Adjacent Blocks (i) and (i+1):
qi->i+1
ki ki+1
Ai Ai+1
i i+1
Pi Pi+1
xi xi+1
Positive x-direction
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 30
Consider, first, flow in the right-half of block i. Writing Darcys equation,
k i A i p i p i +1 / 2
qii+1 =
x i / 2
Consider now, flow in the left-hand of block i+1. Writing Darcys equation,
k i +1 A i+1 p i +1 / 2 p i+1
q i i + 1 =
x i + 1 / 2
The flow rate is the same in the two blocks. Eliminating p i +1 / 2 from both
equations above we can obtain the following equation:
2 A i, jk i, j A i+1, jk i+1, j 1
Ti+1/ 2 , j =
A i, jk i, j x i+1, j + A i+1, jk i+1, j x i, j
(i,j+1)
and
2 A i, jk i, j A i, j+1k i, j+1 1 (i,j-1)
Ti, j+1/ 2 =
A i, jk i, j yi, j+1 + A i, j+1k i, j+1yi, j
r1 is chosen arbitrarily;
re
ri = i1r1
rN+1 rN N1r1 ( 1)
re = =
rN+1 ln
where is calculated from the equation ln
rN
where N is the block number (N=4 in figure above)
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 33
once the block centers are located, block boundary ri+1/2 can be calculated
ri+1 ri ri ri1
ri+1/ 2 = and ri1/ 2 =
r r
ln i+1 ln i
ri ri1
applying Darcys law
ki,k+1
i,k+1 zi,k+1
ki,k
ri-1/2,k
i,k zi,k
ri+1/2,k
Ai-1 Ai Ai+1
ki-1 ki ki+1
i-1 i i+1
Pi-1 Pi Pi+1
xi-1 xi xi+1
injection rate, q*i
qi* (positive=injection/negative=production)
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 37
For Block i the mass balance is:
SC q ii+1 SC (q i1i + q i* ) + 0 0 = 0
where internal injection of the fluid
sc q ii+1 sc q i1i sc q i* = 0
Multiplying by 1
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
1 2 3 4 5
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) + q1* = 0
T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) = 0
*
Block 3 (i=3): T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) + q3 = 0
T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) = 0
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 41
Block 4 (i=4): T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) + q *4 = 0
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) q *4 = 0
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) = 0
T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) + q1* = 0
T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) = 0
T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) = 0
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) q *4 = 0
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) = 0
Adding all the equations we have: q1* q *4 = 0 this is called Material Balance check
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 43
Flow in Two-Dimensions q*i,j (external injection)
(i,j+1)
i
Mass Balance for Block (i,j) for time t
Remember the Notation:
q ii+1 = Ti+1 / 2 (Pi Pi+1 )
Leaving Entering + (Mass at t+t Mass at t) = 0
osc qi, ji, j+1 + osc qi, ji+1, j osc [qi, j1i, j + qi1, ji, j ] + osc q * i, j + M M = 0
where
M = xyh osc
obs: the corners dont enter in the equation, they are taken in account in a different way.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 44
Ti+1 / 2, j ( i, j i+1, j ) + Ti, j+1 / 2 ( i, j i, j+1 )
x x
x x
y y y y y
Tx and Ty (boundaries)=0
i,j,k+1
Tx i+1 / 2, j,k ( i+1, j,k i, j,k ) Tx i1 / 2 , j,k ( i, j,k i1, j,k ) + i,j+1,k
i-1,j,k i+1,j,k
i,j,k
Ty i, j+1/ 2,k ( i, j+1,k i, j,k ) Ty i, j1/ 2,k ( i, j,k i, j1,k ) +
i,j-1,k
Tz i, j,k +1/ 2 ( i, j,k +1 i, j,k ) Tz i, j,k 1/ 2 ( i, j,k i, j,k 1 ) + qi*, j,k = 0 i,j,k-1
Generally,
For 1-D:
Ti+1/ 2 (i+1 i ) Ti1/ 2 (i i1) + qi* = 0
Di = Ti 1 / 2
Fi = Ti + 1 / 2
Luciane Cunha
Ei = (Di + Fi ) 47
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI
For 2-D:
Tx i+1 / 2, j ( i+1, j i, j ) Tx i1 / 2, j ( i, j i1, j ) +
Remember,
2 Ax i, jkx i, j Ax i+1, jkx i+1, j 1
Tx i+1/ 2 , j =
Ax i, jkx i, j x i+1, j + Ax i+1, jkx i+1, j x i, j
Z i, j,k i, j,k 1 + Bi, j,k i, j1,k + Di, j,k i1, j,k + Ei, j,k i, j,k +
Fi, j,k i+1, j,k + Hi, j,k i, j+1,k + Si, j,k i, j,k +1 = qi, j,k
where, qi, j,k = qi*, j,k
Zi, j,k = Tzi, j,k 1/ 2
Bi, j,k = Tyi, j 1/ 2,k
Di, j,k = Txi 1/ 2, j,k
Fi, j,k = Txi + 1/ 2, j,k
Hi, j,k = Tyi, j + 1/ 2,k
Si, j,k = Tzi, j,k + 1/ 2
Ei, j,k = (Zi, j,k + Bi, j,k + Di, j,k + Fi, j,k + Hi, j,k + Si, j,k )
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 49
Solution of the Flow Equations: Direct and Iterative Methods:
E 2 2 + F2 3 = q2 (2a)
D 3 2 + E 3 3 + F3 4 = q3 (2b)
D4 3 + E4 4 = q4 (2c)
Eqs. (2a), (2b) and (2c) are 3 simultaneous eqs. and 3 unknowns, 2 , 3 , 4 . The
solution to this system of equation can be obtained by,
E 2 2 + F2 3 = q2 (2a)
D 3 2 + E 3 3 + F3 4 = q3 (2b)
D4 3 + E4 4 = q4 (2c)
each eq. contains 3 unknowns (first and last eqs. contain only 2
unknowns);
unknowns are ordered in such a way that for a given eq., 2 of the
unknowns occur in the previous eq. and 2 occur in the next eq.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 52
Tridiagonal Structure
x x = x
x x x = x
x x x = x
x x x = x
x x x = x
x x = x
Note:
-The first equation does not have an a1;
-The last equation does not contain a cN.
-The subscripts on a, b, c in any equation are the same as the number
of the equation.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 54
The solution algorithm is as follows:
c1 d1
For i=1 calculate w1 = and g1 =
b1 b1
d i a i g i 1
gi =
b i a i w i 1
Then:
D 3 2 + E 3 3 + F3 4 = q3 (2b)
D4 3 + E4 4 = q4 (2c)
Solution Procedure:
The idea is to use each equation in order to improve the value of one of the s -> so-
called diagonal element.
Eqs. 2a will be use to calculate improved values of 2
Eqs. 2b will be use to calculate improved values of 3
Eqs. 2c will be use to calculate improved values of 4
To better understand the solution procedure lets write the equations the following way:
new
2 = (q 2 F2 old
3 ) / E2 (3a)
new
3 = (q 3 D 3 new
2 F3 old
4 ) / E3
(3b)
+1
- determine yes
d max
= max i +1 i = max new
i
i
i
iold end
+1
- compare d max with tolerance
,
no
old
4 = new
4 ( = +1 );
old
3 = new
3 ;
old
2 = new
2
2
wb =
1+ 1 g
where g = spectral radius of the seidel matrix can be determined as:
+1
dmax
g = lim
n
Note:
dmax
if wb = 1 -> Gauss-Seidel
if wb 1 -> negative weight on the previous iterate and greater than one, on the new Gauss-Seidel
iterate.
The sum must be close to zero, because what goes into the system (+) must come out
(-).
Poor MB -> answers are certainly doubtful
Good MB not necessarily guarantee the validity of the answer.
Residuals:
R i = Ti+1 / 2 ( i'+1 i' ) Ti1 / 2 ( i' i' +1 ) + qi*
Compressibility:
1 V 1 dV
C = = is isothermal
V P T V dP
m
density = =
V d(m / ) d
C=
m d dP
1 d d
C= = CdP
dP
P
ln = cP P
ref ref
ln = c(P Pref )
ref
= e c (P Pref ) if c is small (10-6 to 10-7 kPa-1)
ref
Assumptions:
Mass is constant, but volume changes as a function of pressure.
density of slightly compressible fluids changes with pressure (i.e. it also changes with time)
= (P) or = (P, t )
Flow behavior of slightly compressible fluids will be time dependent. What this means
in practice is that the pressure distribution in the reservoir will change with times,
n n+1 n+ 2
i.e. Pi , Pi , Pi , etc
Where n, n+1, n+2, etc denote different times.
t = time step (or time elapse between 2 states of the reservoir)
n = n*t Pin (initial pressure) Future (2 years from today)
n+1 = (n+1) *t
Today (n=0) t = 1 day
t = 1 day (365*2) (365*2) 730 calculations
730 calculations
t = 1 year 2 2 calculations
calculations
i-1 i i+1
qi-1->i qi->i+1
Block i:
Pore Volume = i A i x i = i Vi
Mass at t = i Vb i t
Mass at t+t = i Vb i t + t
sc Ti + 1 / 2 ( i + 1 i )t sc Ti 1 / 2 ( i i 1 )t + qi* sc t =
= i Vbi ( t + t t )
n+1
for = sc [1 + c(Pi Psc )]
sc Ti + 1 / 2 ( i + 1 i )t sc Ti 1 / 2 ( i i 1 )t + qi* sc t =
Now
= i Vbi [ sc (1 + c(Pin + 1 Psc )) sc (1 + c(Pin Psc ))]
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 66
c i Vbi n+1
Ti+1 / 2 ( i+1 i ) Ti1 / 2 ( i i1 ) + qi* = (Pi Pin )
t
Note: There are TWO time levels (n) and (n+1), for the RHS term, there are, yet,
no time levels specified for the potentials (or pressure) on LHS term.
Must specify a time level for LHS terms and have a time level on F, choice n or n+1
So: n+1 or n
c i Vbi n+1
Ti+1 / 2 ( i?+1 i? ) Ti1 / 2 ( i? i?1 ) + qi* = (Pi Pin )
t
1- Time Level n Explicit Scheme Method
c i Vbi n+1 *
Ti+1/ 2 (Pin+1 Pin ) Ti1/ 2 (Pin Pin1 ) = (Pi Pin ) + Ti + 1 / 2 g(Di + 1 Di ) Ti 1 / 2 g(Di Di 1 ) qi
t
ci Vbi n + 1
Ti + 1 / 2 (Pin+ 1 Pin ) Ti 1 / 2 (Pin Pin 1 ) = (Pi Pin ) + i
t
Calculation is very simple. However, the size of the time step t is usually restricted
(to be small) to ensure stability of the solution.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 68
Stability:
In some problems, the round off errors accumulated during the arithmetic operations to obtain
the solution grow with time, to the extent that their magnitudes become significant and
the solution becomes meaningless. In these cases, the system is said to be unstable.
On the other hand, there are systems when the round off errors accumulate but their
magnitudes are kept with in bounds. The solution is therefore ok and these systems are
said to be stable.
Conditionally Stable:
Solution will be stable if conditions are satisfied. For example, the time step sizes (t) is
set in such a way that the round off errors accumulation is kept under control.
Karpluss
Given the equation
c i Vbi n+1
Ti+1 / 2 (Pn
i+1 P ) Ti1 / 2 (P P ) + q =
i
n
i
n n
i 1 (Pi Pin )
*
i
t
for any i
c i Vbi
t
Ti+1 / 2 + Ti1 / 2
Procedure: first calculate t for every i, choose min.
ci , j Vbi , j n+1
Cumulative Mass Change i , j t
( Pi , j Pin, j )
MB = = =1
Cumulative Input / Output qi,j *
i,j
po pb
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 75
Bg
g
pg
Obs: Usually the PVT information is given to the reservoir simulators in a table
format. The simulators evaluate the PVT properties by means of linear interpolation.
Relative Permeability k ro , k rw , k rg
k effective
Definition k r =
k absolute
Capillary Pressure
Pcow = Po Pw Pcgo = Pg Po
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 76
MULTIPHASE FLOW (Cont.)
Rock-Fluid Properties Determination:
Capillary Pressure
The capillary pressure is a function of:
type of fluids;
rock type;
relative quantity of fluids (saturation);
history of the saturation process (drainage or imbibition).
drainage curve
PCow (S w ) = p o p w
imbibition curve
(oil: non wetting; water: wetting) entry pressure
PCog (S g ) = p g p o 0
Swc Sw 1
wetting phase
(gas: non wetting; oil: wetting) critical saturation of
the non-wetting phase
residual saturation of
the non-wetting phase
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 77
Two phase system
Calculation of
drainage
drainage/imbibition
imbibition
Oil
i VbiSno+i 1 i VbiSnoi
[oscqoii + 1 oscqoi 1i + q t + *
]
Bno+ 1
oi
B n
osc = 0
i oi
V S n+1
V S n
Toni+1/ 2 ( noi++11 noi+ 1 ) Toni1/ 2 ( noi+ 1 noi+11 ) + qo* i + =0
i bi oi i bi oi
tBno + 1 tBn
i oi
Mobility Relationships:
* 2rk rw kh w 2rk rgkh g 2rk ro kh o
qw = *
qg = *
qo =
wBw r r = rw gB g r oB o r
r = rw r = rw
q o* k ro w B w
=
q *w k rw o B o
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 82
Solution Procedure:
IMPES
1a. expand the accumulation terms of all three equations to extract the
saturations terms;
1b. multiply each equation by a suitable multiplier, in such a way that when
the equations are added, the saturations terms cancel;
1c. left with one equation in pressure only;
1d. solve for the grid;
1e. solve for using original mass balances.
Introduction
Newtons Method - This is the standard approach for solving the fully implicit
finite difference equations for multiphase flow in reservoirs.
f(x)=0
df
f (x ) f (x 0 ) + (x x 0 ) + K
dx x0 higher order terms = 0
f (x 0 )
We can solve the above expression for x x x 0 as x = x x0
df
df
f (x k +1 ) 0 = f (x k ) + k +1 dx x0
(x x ) + K
k
dx xk
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 84
f(x)
f(x0)
f(x) = 0
x1 x x0
1
f
f (x ) = 0 = f (x 0 ) + (x x 0 ) + K
x x0
f
f (x k +1 ) = 0 = f (x k ) + ( x k +1 x k ) + K
x xk
Problem: If the initial guess is poor and the function is very curved, Newtons
method will diverge.
and f (x ) = 0
N
f
f (x) = f (x ) +
0
By Taylor Series Expansion, we have ( x i x i0 ) + K
i =1 x i x i0
0
Note: for reservoir simulation problems, a good first guess ( x ) is usually
the values of the dependent variables at the old timestep.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 86
Black-Oil Model Fluid Flow Equations in Difference Form
Vijk S
t w + q ww ijk
t Bw ijk
(1)
Oil:
( To p o ) i ( To o D) i + ( To p o ) j ( To o D) j + ( To p o ) k ( To o D) k =
Vijk S
t o + q owijk (2)
t Bo ijk
Gas:
(Tg p g ) i ( Tg g D) i + (To R go p o ) i (To R go o D) i + (Tg p g ) j (Tg g D) j +
( To R go p o ) j ( To R go o D) j + ( Tg p g ) k ( Tg g D) k + (To R go p o ) k ( To R go o D) k =
Vijk S g S
t + R go o + (q ww ijk + R goijk q owijk )
t B B o (3)
g ijk
(Tp p p ) l = Tpl + 1 / 2 (p pl + 1 p pl ) Tp l1 / 2 (p pl p pl 1 )
( Tp p D) l = Tpl + 1 / 2 pl + 1 / 2 (D l+1 D l ) Tp l1 / 2 pl 1 / 2 (D l D l1 )
A i+1 / 2 k x k rp
Tpi + 1 / 2 =
x i + B
p p i+1 / 2
where
- Ai+1/2 is the cross sectional area normal to the x-direction
at block boundary i+1/2.
F( y) = 0,
where the objective is to find y (unknowns for all the blocks at a given
time-step) so that the above equation is satisfied.
( + 1) ( )
( )
J y = F ,
( + 1) ( + 1) ( )
where J is the Jacobian matrix, y =y y is the change of the
unknown over the iteration and is the residual at the end of the nth
( )
F
iteration.
-Through the ordering index (example: the central block is placed in the eighth
position).
11 12 13 14 15
3
2 6 7 8 9 10
J=1 1 2 3 4 5
i=1 2 3 4 5
The derivative of the equation for block (i,j) with respect to the unknowns in block (l,m) is:
Darcys Equations
Law of State
Kr and Pc
Conservation
relationships
of Mass Law
Non-linear partial
differential equations that
describe the fluid flow
through porous media
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 95
Eqs. For Multiphase Flow - Introduction
Black-Oil Model:
Three phases (water, oil and gas), three components
(water, oil and gas)
Oil component only flows as an oil phase, water
component only flows as an water phase and component
gas can flow as gas phase or dissolved in the oil phase
The gas quantity that is dissolved in the oil is a function
of the solubility ratio which is a function of the pressure
(determined experimentally)
Represents very well the behavior of majority of
reservoirs and, it is because this, the most used
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 97
Eqs. For Multiphase Flow Main Models
Compositional Model:
Three phases (water, oil and gas), arbitrary number of
components (water + hydrocarbons)
Water component in general only flows as a water phase
and the hydrocarbons components may flow as a gas or oil
phase
The components distribution is done by means of a
flash procedure which is a function of the pressure and
compositions
Much more complex and computationally intensive
Simulation
Cell
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 99
Mathematical Model Discretization Concept
P P
x x
Posting of results.
Pressure
Pressure
Properties Variables
CMG:
IMEX (Black-Oil)
GEM (Compositional)
STARS (Thermal)
10,000
Number
1,000
100
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
year
Ano
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 106
Well Management: Designing & Controlling
Production Parameters
Production Constraints
Well Productivity (function of reservoir rock and fluid properties, fluid saturations
and type and effectiveness of well completions. It is affected by reservoir
permeability, fluid viscosity, oil bubble point pressure, relative permeability,
perforation quantity and quality, fraction of formation open to flow, well stimulation,
well drainage volume, and in gas wells, turbulent flow near the wellbore)
Wellbore Hydraulics (is influenced by BHP, wellhead pressure, measured and
vertical depth, GLR, WOR, tubing size and lift mechanism)
Surface System Hydraulics (is influenced by choke size, flowline size and
configuration, separator backpressure and the number of flowing phases)
Surface Facility Capacity
External production constraints
Statutory Controls
Operating Guidelines
Wellbore Utility and Availability
Economic Production
Market Constraints
Disposition of Produced Gas
implest form: assigns user-specified well rates or pressures to individual producing
Hierarchy of Control
History Mode
Prediction Mode
Setting Production and Injection Rates at Individual Wells,
Groups of Wells, and for the Reservoir
Workover Algorithm
Drilling Algorithm
Data Requirements
Select one or
more images for simulation
Input to simulator
Select grid & average
data to get block
properties
History Matching
Data
Software Available
Analytical Phase
Modeling Phase
History match Phase
Prediction Phase
Feasibility Study
What to describe?
Which is the adequate support for description?
How to describe property between wells?
How to incorporate dynamic data information?
How to deal with uncertainty?
Representation of Heterogeneity
3-D Grids
Up-Scaling
Geostatistics
Uncertainty Quantification and Risk Analysis
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 121
Determination of Critical Heterogeneities
to Fluid Flow
In Simulation:
Use of more Flexible Grids
More Flexible
More Regular
Structured Type 4
Corner
Type 5 Point
Type 6 Grids
3D Type 7
Grids Others
Non Structured
1. Independent Grids
for Characterization and Simulation
2. Overlapping Grids
for Characterization and Simulation
Adequate Approach:
To Have in Mind the Approximate Character of the Solutions.
Simple Formulas:
Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Means
Power Law Average (w)
Combined Averages (Le Loch)
1 w 1/w
Kw =( k )
n
Particular Cases:
w = 1 : Arithmetic Mean
w --> 0 : Geometric Mean
w = -1 : Harmonic Mean
Equilibrium Methods
Dynamic Methods
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 139
Geostatistical Simulation Methods
Comparison Between Available Methods
Streamline Simulators
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 140
Motivation
Conventional Simulators:
Complex Models: high computational cost
Limited grid dimension
Streamline Models:
Faster runs for a similar grid
Lower computational cost
More refined grids
Characteristics:
Numerical calculation of the velocity field
Streamline generation
1-D Saturation solution at each streamline
Numerical dispersion and grid effect reduction
Characteristics:
Implicit solution for pressure a few times during the
simulation run
Explicity solution for saturation
More efficient and with the same numerical
dispersion level that the conventional simulators
Commercials
FrontSim (TSC - Noruega)
StreamSim (Stanford)
RC2 (Datta-Gupta - UT)
Multiclient Projects
UTSTREAM (UT)
In-house Development
2-D, uncompressible, gravitational effects
optimization;
reservoir simulation;
(d d ) CD (d d )
sim obs 1 sim obs T
( (
= a exp O mest ))
( )
Minimization of O mest gives the most probable model;
Ideally, one would like to sample .
Emerging technology.
Virtual Reality
iCentre
Luciane Cunha
Collaboration
Collaboration 165
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI
Reservoir Model Characteristics
Non structured grids
3D Models
Fault Representation
Seismic Information
Lateral K Variation
Geoestatistic
Well Test Information
Different Rock Regions
Absolute K Upscaling
Pseudo-Functions Calculation (Kr)
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 166
Simulation Grid Characteristics
Assumptions:
2p 1 p 1 C t p
2
+ =
r r r 0.0002637 k t
for radial coordinates and slightly compressible fluid
Solution
Bounded Cylindrical Reservoir (Exact Solution)
Infinite Reservoir with Line Source Well (rw=0)
Pseudo-steady (Semi-steady) State Solution
Infinite Reservoir with Wellbore Storage
qB 2t D
2
3 e nt D J 12 ( n reD )
p wf = p i 141.2
kh reD 2
+ ln reD + 2 [ 2 2
4 2
]
n =1 n [ J 1 ( n reD ) J 1 ( n )]
Where
re kt
reD = t D = 0.000264
rw C t rw2
qB 948Ct r 2
p = p i + 70.6 Ei
kh kt
Where Ei = exponential integral
e u
E i ( x) =
u
x
du
E i ( x ) ln(1.781x )
For x>10.9 : E i ( x ) 0
When is it appropriate to use the Ei solution?
Ct rw2
5
Ct re2
3.79x10 < t < 948
k k
For most well tests (in the region of interest) the logarithmic approximation is used
qB 948Ctr 2
p = p i + 70.6 [ln(1.781 )]
kh kt
Flow influenced by the wellbore (i.e. rw = 0 assumption not valid) or flow
influenced by boundaries/discontinuities cant be handled by equation.
qB rS qB rs
p S = 141.2 ln 141.2
ln
k S h rw kh rw
qB k r
p S = 141.2 S where S = 1 ln s
kh kS rw
The greater the contrast between ks and k, and/or the deeper into the
formation the damage extends, the larger the value of S. There is no
upper limit on the value of S.
k k
1 > 0 > 0 kS < k
kS kS
Some newly drilled wells will not flow at all before stimulation. For these
wells k S 0 , and S
qB 948C t rw2
+ p s
p i p wf = 70.6 Ei
kh kt
qB 948C t rw2
2 k 1 ln rs
= 70.6 Ei k r
kh kt
s w
2
qB 948Ctrw
pi pwf = 70.6 [Ei 2S]
kh kt
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 186
Using log approximation:
qB 1688C t rw2 k
2
rs
p i p wf = 70.6 [ln 1 ln ]
kh kt ks
rw
2
qB 1688Ct rw
p i p wf = 70.6 [ln 2S]
kh kt
qB 1 1688C t rw2
p i p wf = 141.2 [ ln S]
kh 2 kt
S
Effective wellbore radius reff = rw e
[ The PSS flow period is characterized by the pressure change with time being
constant (dp/dt=C) at all points in the reservoir ]
PSS occurs at
Ct re2
t > 948
k
and cannot be analyzed using the line source solution.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 189
Consider the exact solution:
qB 2t D 3
e n2 t D 2
J 1 ( n reD )
p wf = p i 141.2 2 + ln reD + 2 [ 2 2
kh reD 4 2
]
n=1 n [J 1 ( n reD ) J 1 ( n )]
where
re kt
reD = t D = 0.000264
rw C t rw2
qB 2t D 3
p wf = p i 141.2 2 + ln reD
kh reD 4
or in dimensional variables,
qB 0.000527kt re 3
p wf = p i 141.2 + ln
kh C t re2 r 4
w
1 A 1 2.2458
p D = 2t DA + ln( 2 ) + ln
2 rw 2 C A
where CA is the shape factor (It is a geometric factor
characteristic of the system shape and well location)
and 0.0002637kt kh
t DA = pD = (p i p )
Ct A 141.2qB
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 193
John Lee, Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 1
qB re 3
p = p 141.2 ln
kh r 4
considering Skin
qB re 3
p = p 141.2 ln + S
kh r 4
where:
A = drainage area
CA = shape factor (drainage area and well location dependent)
1 tD
log approximation p D (t D , rD ) = [ln + 0.80907]
2 rD2
24Cs dp w
q sf = q +
B dt
dp D (t D , CsD )
q sf = q[1 CsD ]
dt D
Well A
rAC rAB
Well B
Well C
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 209
At well A:
p i p wf = (p i p ) due to well A + (p i p ) well B + (p i p )well C
q A B 948C t rwA
2
p i p wf = 70.6 {E i 2S A }
kh kt
q B B 948C t rAB
2
q
70.6 C B 948 C r 2
70.6 Ei E t AC
kh kt kh
i kt
Note: infinite reservoir use Ei solution. In dimensionless form:
B
p A = 141.2 { q i p D ( t D , rD ) + S A } .
kh
No flow
between
1 and 2
qB 948C t rw2
p i p wf = 70.6 {E i 2S}
kh kt
This technique is called the method of images and can be used to model
complex well/boundary situations.
(q 2 q 1 )B 1688 C t rw2
2S }
p 2 = (p i p wf ) 2 = 70.6 {ln
kh k (t t )
1
From well 3 producing at q3-q2, starting at t > t2 (elapse
time = t - t2)
(q 3 q 2 )B 1688C t rw2
2S }
p 3 = (p i p wf ) 3 = 70.6 {ln
kh k (t t 2 )
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 214
p = (p i p wf ) = p1 + p 2 + p 3
B 1688 C t rw2
p = (p i p wf ) = 70.6
kh (q i q i 1 ){ln
k (t t )
i 1
2S }
In dimensionless form
B
p = 141.2
kh (q i q i 1 )p D (t t i 1 ) D , rD ) +S}
qB 1 10.06A 3
pwf = p 141.2 ln 2
+ S
kh 2 CArw 4
q 0 .00708 kh
J= =
p p wf 1 10 .06 A 3
B ln + S
2
2 A w 4
C r
As time increases, more of the reservoir is influenced by the well and rinv
increases.
1/ 2
kt
rinv =
t in hours , r in feet
948 Ct
The family of type curves of this type most often used were generated
analytically by Ramey and Agarwal. They are referred to as Rameys
curves or Agarwals curves or storage skin model. They have two
parameters in that distinguish the curves from one another: skin factor,
S, and wellbore storage CD. For an infinitely acting reservoir, the
specifications of CD and S uniquely determines the value of PD at a
given value of tD
(Note that rD does not enter the equation, as it is r/rw and as we are
measuring the pressure at the wellbore rD=1)
qB t p + t
p ws = pi 162.6 log( )
kh t
Where:
Semi-log plot straight line slope: m = -162.6 qB/kh
Horners time: (tp+t)/t
t p + t qB
p ws = p i + m log( ) where m = 162.6
t kh
tp t
At the instant of shut-in
qB crw2
p wf = p i + 70.6 {ln(1688 ) 2S}
kh kt p
crw2
p wf = p i + m{log(1688 ) 0.869S}
ktp
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 227
At shut-in time t
t p + t
p ws = p i m log( )
t
Combining these two equations gives
p ws p wf 1688crw2 t p + t
Skin s = 1.151( ) + 1.151 log + 1.151 log( )
m kt t
0.000148kt x
L=
ct
Time required for the slope to double: 1.9E5ct L2
t x =
k
t is long for large L and low k, alternative approach may be used:
* qB 3792ct L2
p ws = 70.6 Ei
kh kt
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 229
qB t p + t
Compare to p ws = p i 162.6 log( )
kh t
qB
Define m = 162 . 6
kh
For a boundary,
slope = 2m
pws 1300psi/cycle
2m
650psi/cycle
m
(t+tp)/t tx
4m
pws
2m
(t+tp)/t
MBH
Estimation of static drainage area pressure
Obtained by computing build-up curves for wells in various
positions and areas of various shapes and comparing
extrapolated p* with static average pressure
Build-up curves were calculated using imaging techniques
and principle of superposition
Series of plots of kh(p * p ) / 70.6qB vs. 0.000264ktp / ct A
were prepared
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 232
Matthews-Brons-Hazebroek Method (MBH Method)
Build-Up test analysis method for Pseudo-Steady State reservoirs
For tp >>t, (tp +t)= tp and log[(tp +t)/ t]=log tp -logt
p ws = cons + m log( t )
Calculations of permeability and skin factor are similar to Horners
method
Plot of pws vs. t is made on semi-log scale increasing from left to
right
Wellbore effect is estimated similarly to Horners method and can be
estimated with equation:
0.14S
170,000Ce
t =
kh /
End of semi-log straight line can be estimated from:
c t A
t = (t DA )est
0.000264k
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 233
This technique is much simpler (less calculation on the time
variable)
However:
MBH assumes that the well has reached PSS before shut-in
for buildup
PSS P
r re = cons tan t
t
False pressure p* may be estimated from MBH plot by using
p * = p 1hr + m log( t p + 1)
qB
p * = p 1hr + m log t p m = 162.6
kh
Procedures:
Starting with uniform pressure in the reservoir
Producing a well at the constant rate
Rate and pressure are recorded as a function of time
Application:
Estimation of reservoir permeability
Estimation of skin effect
Estimation of drainage volume, initial oil in place
Detection of reservoir heterogeneities and boundaries
Interpretation:
Diagnostic plots
Type curves
Pressure derivative analysis
p wf 0.0744qB
= substitute Vp = re2h
t C t re2
p wf 0.234qB
=
t C t Vp
0.234qB
Vp = only when the boundaries are reached )
p wf
Ct ( )
t
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 241
Drawdown Test
Idealized constant rate solution:
qB 1688Ct rw2
p wf = p i + 162.6 [log 0.869S]
kh kt
Skin effect:
p i p1hr k
S = 1.151[ log + 3.23]
2
m Ct rw
Permeability:
qB
k = 162.6
mh
p
. real gas pseudopressure: p
(p ) = 2
pB
(p ) Z( p )
dp
p sc T q g 125.3 i C ti rw2
(SI) (p wf ) = (p i ) + 3.733 [1.151 log( ) (S + D q g )]
Tsc kh kt
The term D q reflects a non-Darcy pressure loss. It takes into account the
g
(field units) p sc T q g r
(p wf ) = (p i ) + 50300 [ln( e ) 0.75 + S + D q g ]
Tsc kh rw
(SI) p sc T q g r
(p wf ) = (p i ) + 3.733 [ln( e ) 0.75 + S + D q g ]
Tsc kh rw
(field units)
2 2 qg Zi i T 1688iCti S + D qg
p wf = pi + 1637 [log( )( )]
kh ktp 1.151
(SI)
2 2 qg Zi i T 11.64iCti S + D qg
p wf = pi + 1.508 [log( )( )]
kh ktp 1.151
(SI) p1hr p wf k
S' = S + D q g = 1.151[ log( 2
) + 2.10]
m i Ctirw
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 249
Buildup equations can be developed with the use of
superposition for p<2000psi or 14000kPa
(field units) 2 2 q g Zi i T t p + t
p ws = p i 1637 [log( )]
kh t
(SI)
q g Z i i T t p + t
p ws 2 = p i 2 2.15 [log( )]
kh t
Skin
(field units) p
2
p wf
2
k
S' = S + D qg = 1.151[ 1hr log( 2
) + 3.23]
m iCtirw
(SI) p
2
p wf
2
k
S' = S + D q g = 1.151[ 1hr log( ) + 2.10]
m i C ti rw2
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 250
John Lee, Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 1
The value of n varies from 1.0 for laminar flow to 0.5 for turbulent flow
0.5<n<1, and is sometimes regarded as a measure of the turbulence of
flow (values of n -> 0.5 look for positive skin)
The constants C and n are not constant at all but depend upon the
pressure dependent fluid properties ( , CS , Z ).
2
p R p 2wf = aq st + bq st2
where
i Zi T re i ZiT
a= [ln( ) 0.75 + S' ] b= D
kh rw kh
The equation can be arranged to
2
pr p 2wf
= a + bq st
q st
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 258
2
pr p 2wf
A Cartesian plot of vs. q st q st is a straight
line with slope b and intercept a.
pi Z p TD
b = 1422
kh
For SSS
2
p p 2wf = aq g + bq g2 , ri > re
where pZpT r p Z p TD
a = 1422 [ln( e ) 0.75 + S' ] b = 1422
kh rw kh
2
p p 2wf = aqg + bq g2 ri < re
where b is the same as for SSS
Procedures:
1. for constant t determine b from the plot of
2
(p p 2wf ) / q g vs.q g
2. using the stabilized data point, determine a from
2
a = [(p p 2wf ) stab bq gstab
2
] / q gstab
pZpT re
a = 1422 [ln( ) 0.75 + S' ]
kh rw
Design guidelines:
Choice of the test
Choice of the equipment
Choice of flow rates
Duration of flow rates
Hemiradial
Early radial
Late linear
1
Wellbore
Storage
John Lee, Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 9
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 280
Horizontal Wells Geometry Definitions
Governing Equation:
162.6qB k zk x t
p i p wf = log 10 2
3.227 + 0.868sd
k z k x L w Ctrw
Interpretation:
162.6qB p k zk x
k zk x = sd = 1.151 1 hr
log 10 + 3.23
merf L w merf Ctrw
2
Governing Equation:
325.2qB k zk x t
p i p wf = log 10 2
3.227 + 0.868sd
k z k x L w Ctrw
Interpretation:
325.2qB p k zk x
k zk x = sd = 2.303 1 hr
log 10 + 3.23
mhrf L w mhrf Ctrw
2
1800D 2zCt 125L2w Ct
End of hemiradial flow: t Ehrf = t Ehrf =
kz ky
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 283
Early linear flow
Horizontal Well Flow
Regimes (3)
Governing Equation:
8.128qB t 141.2qB
p i p wf = + ( sc + sd )
Lw k x Ct L w k z k x
Interpretation:
8.128qB Lw k zk x
kx = sd = p t = 0 s c
melf L w h Ct 141.2qB
h kx d z
sc = ln + 0.25 ln ln sin 1.838
rw kz h
160L2w Ct
End of early linear flow: t Eelf =
ky
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 284
Late-Pseudoradial flow
Horizontal Well Flow
Regimes (4) Lw
< 0.45
Governing Equation: bH
Governing Equation:
8.128qB t 141.2qB b
p i p wf = + ( s p + sc + H sd )
bHh k x Ct b H k z k x Lw
Interpretation:
8.128qB L bH k zk x
kx = sd = w p t = 0 s p sc
mllf b H h Ct bH 141.2qB
Time of occurrence:
4800Ct ( L w / 4 + D y ) 2 1800Ct D 2z 1650d x2 Ct
t Sllf = t Sllf = t Ellf =
ky kz kx
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 286
Horizontal Well Flow Wellbore Storage
Regimes (6)
Governing Equation:
25.65A wb qBt
C = Vwbc wb C= C=
wb cos 24 p
Time of occurrence:
( 4000 + 240sd )C
t Ewbs =
k xk y Lw /
Vertical permeability
1. Basic Concepts
2. Buckley Leverett Theory
3. Overview of EOR Processes
4. Compositional Simulation
5. Miscible Displacement
6. Chemical and Polymer Flooding
7. Steam Simulation and Steamdrive
8. In-Situ Combustion
da Capillary Force
db
dF2
dF1
dFc
Relationship between Capillary Pressure and Superficial tension
da/2
N
M
dF1
d1 Capillary Pressure
MN da / 2
sin d1 = =
R1 R1
da / 2
sin d2 =
R2
dA = da.db
dF1 1 dF2 1
Pc = . + .
db R 1 da R 2
1 1 2
Pc = ( + ) Pc =
R1 R 2
R
This tension is responsible for the rising and depression of fluids in capillars, i.e., determines by which
fluid the solid is preferably wet.
The wettability property and the adhesion tension varies according to the fluids and solids used,
2oa cos oa
Pc =
r
Water
Oil Water
Most Common Reservoir Fluid Distribution. Oil
Most Common Reservoir Fluid Reservoir Fluid Distribution in an Oil
Distribution. Wet Reservoir.
Drainage Imbibition
Drainage and Imbibition.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 298
Basic Concepts: Capillary Pressure
0 100%
Saturation
Curve of the Gradient vs Elevation in the Capillaries with Uniform and Equal Diameters.
A
B
h
0 100%
Capillary Pressure
Saturation
Imbibition
0 Saturation 100%
Capillary Pressure Curve.
the relationship between the capillary pressure measured in the lab and the corresponding capillary pressure
in the reservoir will be given by
PcL L cos L
=
PcC
C cos C
It is intuitive that the curvature radius is a function of the saturation. Since from the Plateau law the
capillary pressure is a curve of the superficial tension and from the curvature radius, we conclude that
the capillary pressure is a function of the saturation and from the superficial tension.
Thus we obtain another formula to transform the lab data into the field data. Even though the two
ways will generate slightly different results, both are used to the same final objective.
K o Ap
Qo =
oL
Relative Permeability
K g Ap
Qg =
g L
Kro(krnw)
Drainage
K Ap
Qw = w
w L Imbibition Krw(krw)
Sw(Sw)%
(After Amyx et al)
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 302
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities,
Relative Permeability
Sw(Sw)%
Kg/K
Wettability 1: Unconsolidated
Ko/K
2: Consolidated
Saturation%
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 303
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities,
Relative Permeability
So(%)
Relative Permeability
Anisotropy of the Porous Media
Sw(Sw)%
displacing kp
M= p =
displaced p
w k w o k rw o
M w o = = x = x
o w k o w k ro
four-spot seven-spot
five-spot
two-spot
Peripherical Pattern
1-Sor Oil
Injected Water
Swi
Connate Water
rw rBL
Mixture (liquid)
Oil (liquid) Oil (liquid)
CO2
&
Oil
CO2
CO2 contacts residual oil, allowing oil to flow outside the smaller
pores.
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 313
EOR Polymer Injection
Increase the oil recovery by means of the increase of the horizantal and
vertical displacement efficiency of the injected fluid;
Vapor generator
Injetor well Producing well
Transition from
Vapor to water
vapor
Oil
bank
Injector well
air oil
ignio
Burned
zone Combustion
zone
Reservoir containing light oils (gas condensates or volatile oils) vapor/liquid equlibrium
depends on composition as well as pressure.
In this case rigorous flash calculations must be made with equilibrium K values or an
equation of state (EOS) to determine hydrocarbon phase compositions. Viscosities
and densities can then be calculated from phase compositions.
Beta Type Fluids (Black-Oil): the PVT behavior is represented by a simple form
through volume factors and gas-oil solubility relationship. In this case the global
hydrocarbon composition inside the reservoir remains constant during the entire
reservoir life.
Phases
Components
(in the reservoir)
(surface conditions)
Oil Oil
Gas Gas
Water Water
Considerations:
- three phases (oil, gas and water);
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
- nc components ; Fluid Properties
- Fluids
Beta Type each component
(Black-Oil): can bybe
the PVT behavior is represented present
a simple in factors
form through volume each one
and gas-oil orrelationship.
solubility all phases.
In this case the global hydrocarbon composition inside the reservoir remains constant during the entire reservoir life.
Definitions:
a)Mass fraction of component i in gas phase (Cig)
mass of component i
C ig =
mass of gas phase
mass of component i
C io =
mass of oil phase
mass of component i
Ciw =
mass of water phase
A(C iw w v w ) x
A (C io o v o ) x + x
+
In the gas phase =
A(C ig g v g ) x + x
+
In the water phase =
A(C iw w v w ) x + x
*
If q o= injection/production rate of oil phase by unit of rock volume
Mass injection/production rate of i in the elementary volume = (Cio qo* + Cigqg* + Ciw q *w )Ax
Ax [ C io S o o + C ig S g g + C iw S w w )
t
x 0 , we have:
(Cio o v ox + Cig g v gx + Ciw w v wx ) + Cio qo* + Cig qg* + Ciw q *w =
x
=
t
[(Cio Soo + CigSgg + Ciw S w w ) ]
Substituting Darcys Equation and rewriting the previous equation in terms of differential operators we have
(Cio o v ox + C ig g v gx + C iw w v wx ) + C io q o* + Cig q g* + C iw q *w =
x
= [ (C io S o o + C ig S g g + C iw S w w )]
t
C kk (p o o D) C ig gkk rg (p g g D) C iw w kk rw (p w w D)
io o ro + + +
o g w
+ Cio q o* + Cig q g* + Ciw q *w = [ (Cio S o o + Cig S g g + C iw S w w )] I=1,2,,nc
t
o = o (p o , C 1o , C 2o ,..., C nco )
g = g (p g , C 1g , C 2g ,..., C ncg )
w = w (p w , C 1w , C 2 w ,..., C ncw )
o = o (p o , C 1o , C 2o ,..., C nco )
g = g (p g , C 1g , C 2g ,..., C ncg )
w = w (p w , C 1w , C 2 w ,..., C ncw )
k ro = k ro (S g , S w )
k rg = k rg (S g )
k rw = k rw (S w )
So + Sg + S w = 1
Pcgo (S s ) = p g p o
Pcwo (S w ) = p o p w
nc
C
i =1
io = 1,
nc
Additional Equations C
i =1
ig = 1,
nc
C
i =1
iw =1
fig = fio
fig = fiw
I=1,2,,nc (Phase Equilibrium Eq. /
f = fugacity in pressure units)
Phase-equilibrium information
Phase densitities
Phase viscosities
Compositions of the reservoir hydrocarbons and of any injected hydrocarbons
Separator conditions
Information for the calibration of the EOS (Peng-Robinson & Soave-Redlich-
Kwong) (for each component: critical pressure, temperature, specific volume,
molecular weight, acentric factor and for each pairs of components specify the
binary interaction coefficients. Phase densities are computed using the EOS.
Usually component lumping is applied (pseudo components)
2. Well Characterization
- perturbation of a situation in equilibrium (flow)
- small diameter (well spacing recovery x economical feasibility)
- production or injection
- type of completion
- workover, stimulation
- artificial lift method
3. Objectives
- Compute volumes in-place
- regulars updates of reserve values
- production optimization
- optimization of daily production
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 332
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING (cont.)
- centralization of information
- identification of production mechanisms
- prediction of reservoir behavior
- exploitation plan definition
- analysis of production history
5. Main Difficulties
E R (reserve)
P (production)
Ta time
I II III
Phase Delimitation Properties Analysis of Performance
(ELuciane
errorCunha
margin in the recovery estimative) 334
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI
Main Goals:
Steps:
Volumetric Method
Material Balance Method
Decline Curves Analysis
Prediction by means of Analytical Methods
Prediction by means of Numerical Methods
required understanding of
(1) the fundamental concepts of reservoir characterization, reservoir modelling,
reservoir simulation, and field management;
(2) the links between the various types of data; and
(3) the processes for integrating and processing all available information.
Which are the error bars in the orginal oil and gas in
place volumes, and aquifer also?
Systemic x Occasional
Subjective x Objective
Development Project
Analytical Phase
Modeling Phase
Prediction Phase (history matching)
Economical Analysis
RESERVOIR EOR
PATTERN
ANALOGOUS CLCULOS
FIELDS MANUAIS
SIMULATION MODEL
(analysis of different cases)
PERFORMANCE ECONOMICAL
PREDICTION EVALUATION
DEVELOPMENT
Luciane Cunha Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI 341