Contents

List of contributors xi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xv

Part One Introduction 1

1 Introduction to hybrid electric vehicles, battery electric vehicles,
and off-road electric vehicles 3
F. Herrmann, F. Rothfuss
1.1 Electric mobility: mobility of the future 3
1.2 Overview of different electric propulsion systems 6
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of electric vehicles 8
1.4 Applications in the field of electric road and off-road vehicles 11
1.5 Conclusion 14
1.6 Sources of further information 14
References 14

2 Carbon dioxide and consumption reduction through electric vehicles 17

H. Helms, C. Kmper, U. Lambrecht
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Energy consumption and CO2 emissions of vehicle production 22
2.3 Energy consumption of electric vehicles 23
2.4 Life-cycle energy consumption and CO2 emissions compared 26
2.5 Potential interactions of electric vehicles with power generation:
a case study from Germany 28
2.6 Outlook 32
References 33

3 The market for battery electric vehicles 35

B. Schott, A. Pttner, M. Mller
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Current market situation 37
3.3 Market forces and barriers 40
3.4 Market potentials 45
3.5 Economic impacts 47
References 51
viContents

4 Battery parameters for hybrid electric vehicles 55

C. Arbizzani, F. De Giorgio, M. Mastragostino
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Battery parameters for HEV applications 56
4.3 Overview of lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors for use in HEVs 64
4.4 Limits to and potential future developments of lithium-ion
batteries and supercapacitors 68
4.5 On road transportation in the future 69
References 70

Part Two Types of battery for electric vehicles 73

5 Leadacid batteries for hybrid electric vehicles
and battery electric vehicles 75
J. Garche, P.T. Moseley, E. Karden
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Technical description of the LAB 76
5.3 Environmental and safety aspects of LABs 85
5.4 Different types of automotive LABs 87
5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of LABs in HEV
applications: general 91
5.6 Potential future developments in LABs and HEVs 96
5.7 Market forecast 99
5.8 Sources of further information 100
References 100

6 Nickelmetal hydride and nickelzinc batteries for hybrid electric

vehicles and battery electric vehicles 103
M. Fetcenko, J. Koch, M. Zelinsky
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 Technical description of NiMH and NiZn batteries 103
6.3 Electrical performance, lifetime, and cost of NiMH and
NiZn batteries 109
6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of NiMH and NiZn batteries in
HEVs and battery electric vehicles 115
6.5 Design issues of NiMH and NiZn batteries in HEVs and battery
electric vehicles 116
6.6 Most suitable applications of NiMH and NiZn batteries 121
6.7 Environmental and safety issues with NiMH and NiZn batteries 122
6.8 Potential future developments in NiMH and NiZn batteries
for HEVs and battery electric vehicles 122
6.9 Market forces and future trends 124
References 125
Contentsvii

7 Post-lithium-ion battery chemistries for hybrid electric vehicles

and battery electric vehicles 127
P. Kurzweil
7.1 The dawn of batteries succeeding lithium-ion 127
7.2 Lithium-sulfur battery 133
7.3 Lithium-air battery 140
7.4 All-solid-state batteries 147
7.5 Conversion reaction materials 152
7.6 Sodium-ion and sodium-air batteries 154
7.7 Multivalent metals: magnesium battery 159
7.8 Halide batteries 163
7.9 Ferrite battery 165
7.10 Redox-flow batteries 166
7.11 Proton battery 166
References 166
Appendix: abbreviations and symbols 171

8 Lithium-ion batteries for hybrid electric vehicles and battery

electric vehicles 173
A. Perner, J. Vetter
8.1 Introduction and requirements for hybrid electric vehicle,
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, and electric vehicle
Li-ion batteries 173
8.2 Cell designs 174
8.3 Battery pack design 180
8.4 Environmental aspects 182
8.5 Safety requirements 183
8.6 Future developments in cell chemistries 184
8.7 Future developments in Li-ion battery packs 185
8.8 Market forces and future trends 188
8.9 Summary 189
References 189

9 High-performance electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries

for electric vehicles 191
H. Kim, S.-M. Oh, B. Scrosati, Y.-K. Sun
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Cathode 192
9.3 Anode (high-performance anode materials for lithium-Ion
automotive batteries) 217
9.4 Conclusions 232
Acknowledgments 233
References 233
viiiContents

Part Three Battery design and performance 243

10 Design of high-voltage battery packs for electric vehicles 245

C. Linse, R. Kuhn
10.1 Introduction 245
10.2 Components of HV battery packs 246
10.3 Requirements of HV battery packs 258
10.4 Future trends 261
10.5 Sources of further information 261
References 262

11 High-voltage battery management systems (BMS) for electric

vehicles 265
A. Hauser, R. Kuhn
11.1 Introduction 265
11.2 Requirements for HV BMS 265
11.3 Topology of BMS 269
11.4 Design of HV BMS 272
11.5 Future trends 280
11.6 Sources of further information 280
References 281

12 Cell balancing, battery state estimation, and safety aspects of battery

management systems for electric vehicles 283
A. Hauser, R. Kuhn
12.1 Introduction 283
12.2 Battery cell balancing overview 284
12.3 Battery state estimation 293
12.4 Safety aspects of BMSs 303
12.5 Future trends 321
12.6 Sources of further information 322
References 322

13 Thermal management of batteries for electric vehicles 327

C. Huber, R. Kuhn
13.1 Introduction 327
13.2 Motivation for battery thermal management 327
13.3 Heat sources, sinks, and thermal balance 332
13.4 Design aspects of thermal management systems 335
13.5 Exemplary design calculations 344
13.6 Technologies in comparison 350
13.7 Operational aspects 350
13.8 Future trends 355
13.9 Sources of further information 355
References 356
Contentsix

14 Aging of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles 359

M.A. Danzer, V. Liebau, F. Maglia
14.1 Introduction 359
14.2 Aging effects 359
14.3 Aging mechanisms and root causes 362
14.4 Cell design and cell integrity 367
14.5 Aging of battery packs 369
14.6 Testing 372
14.7 Field data 375
14.8 Modeling and simulation 376
14.9 Diagnostic methods 380
14.10 Extension of battery lifetime 383
14.11 Summary 384
References 384
15 Repurposing of batteries from electric vehicles 389
V.V. Viswanathan, M.C. Kintner-Meyer
15.1 Introduction 389
15.2 Problem being addressed 392
15.3 Advantages of battery repurposing 393
15.4 Ongoing activities 395
15.5 Performance requirements for various grid-storage applications 405
15.6 Issues and mitigation 406
15.7 Market forces and future trends 411
15.8 Additional sources of information 412
References 413
16 Computer simulation for battery design and lifetime
prediction 417
A. Salvadori, D. Grazioli
16.1 Introduction 417
16.2 Literature review 421
16.3 Essentials of the multiscale modeling approach 427
16.4 Simulations 431
16.5 Conclusion 437
Acknowledgments 437
References 438
Part Four Infrastructure and standards 443
17 Electric road vehicle battery charging systems and infrastructure 445
B. Lunz, D.U. Sauer
17.1 Introduction 445
17.2 Mobility behavior and charging infrastructure 446
17.3 Classification of battery charging systems and infrastructure 451
17.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the solutions for
battery charging systems and infrastructure 455
xContents

17.5 Market forces and future trends 462

17.6 Sources of further information 465
References 465

18 Standards for electric vehicle batteries and associated

testing procedures 469
E. Cabrera Castillo
18.1 Introduction 469
18.2 Standards for electric vehicle (EV) batteries 470
18.3 Testing procedures for EV batteries 474
18.4 Future trends in battery testing 488
18.5 Sources of further information 491
References 493

19 Licensing regulations for electric vehicles: legal requirements

regarding rechargeable energy storage systems 495
T. Goldbach
19.1 Introduction 495
19.2 Objective of the legal requirements 495
19.3 Meetings of rechargeable energy storage systems (RESS) to
develop the requirements for vehicles of categories M and N 496
19.4 Work in the informal working group 496
19.5 Content of the legal requirements 500
19.6 Outlook 501
Appendix: abbreviations and symbols 501

20 Recycling lithium batteries 503

B. Scrosati, J. Garche, Y.-K. Sun
20.1 Introduction 503
20.2 Battery recycling 504
20.3 Recycling technologies 508
20.4 Early work 511
20.5 Recent developments 513
20.6 Government regulations 515
Acknowledgment 516
References 516

Index 517