Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Fundamental Chemical Laws

1. The law of conservation of mass (Lomonosov, 1748; Lavoisier, 1789). In chemical reactions,
matter is neither created, nor destroyed. The total mass of the materials that react is equal to
the total mass of the materials produced in the reaction. A chemical reaction rearranges
atoms, but does not create or destroy them.
2. The law of definite proportions (Proust, 1808). A given compound always contains exactly
the same proportion of elements by mass.
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
46 g 71 g 117 g
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl, Na
50 g 71 g 117 g,
4 g left over
Subsequent development of chemistry showed that there exist compounds of both
constant (daltonides) and variable (bertholides) composition. The composition of daltonides is
expressed by simple formulas with the whole indices, e.g. H2O, HCl, CH4, C6H6. The
composition of bertholides is variable and expressed by fractional indices. Thus, titanium(II)
oxide, TiO, in fact has a composition ranging from TiO0.7 to TiO1.3, and TiO2 from TiO1.9 to
TiO2.0 depending on the conditions of synthesis. For zirconium(III) nitride, the following
compounds are known: ZrN0.50, ZrN0.69, ZrN0.74, ZrN0.89. Bertholides are spread among oxides,
hydrides, sulfides, nitrides, carbides, silicides, and other crystalline inorganic materials.
3. The law of multiple proportions (Dalton): when two elements form a series of compounds,
the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with one gram of the first
element can always be reduced to small whole numbers. This is just a way of saying that one
atom of A combines with one atom of B forming AB, or with two atoms of B forming AB2,
or with three atoms of B forming AB3, and so on. For example, carbon and oxygen form two
different compounds: carbon monoxide, CO, and Carbon dioxide, CO2. Ten grams of carbon
combines either with 13.3 g of oxygen or 26.6 g of oxygen. The ratio 13.3 : 26.6 reduces to 1
: 2. This small whole number ratio is just what the laws of definite proportions and multiple
proportions predict a specific amount of carbon combines only with a specific amount of
oxygen, or twice that amount of oxygen.

Lomonosovs Atom-Molecular Theory (1741)

1. All substances consist of molecules.

2. Molecules consist of atoms.
3. Particles molecules and atoms are in permanent motion. Heat originates from the internal
motion of these particles.
4. Molecules of simple substances consist of identical atoms, while molecules of complex
substances are made of different atoms.
 Daltons Atomic Theory (1808)

1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.

2. The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in
some fundamental way. All atoms of the same element have the same fixed mass, and atoms
of different elements have different characteristic masses. The same is true for size and other
properties.
3. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other.
A given compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms changes in the way they are bound
together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.

Dalton denied the existence of molecules of simple substances. According to him, simple
substances consist only of atoms, while complex substances are composed of complex atoms.
Denial of the existence of molecules of simple substances seriously retarded the development of
chemistry.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction. An
element is a substance composed of only one kind of atom. A molecule is the smallest particle of
a pure substance that has the composition and chemical properties of that substance and is
capable of independent existence. Gaseous oxygen usually exists as a diatomic molecule a
molecule made up of two atoms. An oxygen molecule can split in a chemical reaction into
oxygen atoms, which can then combine with other atoms or molecules. The formula for oxygen
is O2; O2 is called dioxygen. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine molecules are also diatomic.
Helium, neon, argon, krypton exist in the gaseous state as single atoms. An atom of helium is
therefore also a molecule of helium, and molecular helium is monatomic. Certain forms of sulfur
and phosphorus exist as polyatomic molecules which are molecules containing more than two
atoms.

Monatomic molecules

He Helium
Ne Neon
Ar Argon
 Diatomic molecules

O2 Dioxygen
N2 Dinitrogen
Cl2 Dichlorine

Polyatomic molecules

P4 Tetraphosphorus
S8 Octasulfur

When one atom of element A combines with one atom of element B, they can form a
molecule of a compound AB or A-B. Molecules may contain from one to hundreds of atoms.
The line between A and B, A-B, represents a chemical bond, the force that holds the atoms
together.

Atom
More than a hundred elements have been discovered, and each one has been given a name
and a symbol. Although more than a hundred seems a large number of elements to study, they
can be organized into a pattern that makes it very easy to learn their properties. Moreover, for the
purposes of chemistry, all the elements can be regarded as being constructed from only three
subatomic particles.
The atom consists of a tiny nucleus with a diameter of about 1 10-15 m and electrons that
move about the nucleus at an average distance of about 1 10-10 m from it. The chemistry of an
atom is mainly determined by its electrons. Nucleus consists of protons, which have a positive
charge equal in magnitude to the electrons negative charge, and neutrons, which have virtually
the same mass as a proton but no charge.

Particle Symbol Mass in kg Relative Charge in Coulombs

charge
Electron e- 9.11 10-31 1- -1.60 10-19
Proton p+ 1.67 10-27 1+ +1.60 10-19
Neutron n 1.67 10-27 0 0

The nucleus has small size compared with the overall size of the atom and extremely high
density. The tiny nucleus accounts for almost the entire atoms mass.
An important question is If all atoms are composed of the same components, why do
different atoms have different chemical properties? The answer lies in the number and the
arrangement of the electrons. The space occupied by the electrons constitutes most of the atomic
volume and these are the parts that intermingle when atoms combine to form molecules. The
number of electrons possessed by a given atom greatly affects its ability to interact with other
atoms. The atoms of different elements, which have different numbers of protons and electrons,
show different chemical behavior.
 A sodium atom has 11 protons in its nucleus. Since atoms have no net charge, the number of
electrons must equal the number of protons. Therefore, a sodium atom has 11 electrons moving
around its nucleus. Each sodium atom also has neutrons in its nucleus, and different types of
sodium atoms exist that have different numbers of neutrons:
23 24
11 Na 11 Na
These two atoms are isotopes or atoms with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
Mass number
23
11 Na Element symbol
Atomic number
The atomic number Z (number of protons) is written as a subscript, and the mass number A (the
total number of protons and neutrons) is written as a superscript. This particular sodium atom is
called sodium-23. It has 11 electrons, 11 protons, and 12 neutrons. Because the chemistry of an
atom is due to its electrons, isotopes show identical chemical properties. In nature most elements
are mixtures of isotopes.

Elements and isotopes Protons Neutrons Mass number

Carbon (Z = 6)
12
6 C 6 6 12
13
6 C 6 7 13
Oxygen (Z = 8)
16
8 O 8 8 16
17
8 O 8 9 17
18
8 O 8 10 18
Bromine (Z = 35)
79
35 Br 35 44 79
80
35 Br 35 45 80
Uranium (Z = 92)
234
92 U 92 142 234
235
92 U 92 143 235
238
92 U 92 146 238

For example atomic number 9 means that the atom has nine protons. The element with
atomic number 9 is called fluorine, symbolized by F. The atom is represented as 199 F and is
called fluorine-19. Since the atom has nine protons, it also must have nine electrons to achieve
electrical neutrality. The mass number gives the total number of protons and neutrons, which
means that this atom has 10 neutrons.
 The atomic number Z is equal to the total number of protons in the nucleus in every atom of
an element. The atomic number determines the identity of an atom. Every atom with an atomic
number of eight is an oxygen atom. Atoms with atomic numbers nine or seven are atoms of
fluorine or nitrogen, respectively. The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in
an atom. The mass number A is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in
a nucleus, and is the whole number closest to the atomic mass of an element.
A = Z + N


mass atomic
number of
number number
neutrons
The number of neutrons, or neutron number, N is the difference between the mass number and
the atomic number.
N=AZ
For example, helium (Z = 2) atoms have two protons in their nuclei. For helium with mass
number four, the nuclei each contain 4 2 = 2 neutrons. An atom of fluorine with Z = 9 and A =
19 contains nine protons and 10 neutrons. The numbers of neutrons and protons in the nuclei of
light elements are about equal. Atoms of the heavier elements have more neutrons than protons
in their nuclei. Bismuth atom nuclei, for example, each contain 83 protons and 126 neutrons.

Molecules and Ions

The most interesting characteristic of an atom is its ability to combine with the other atoms to
form compounds. Atoms have electrons and these electrons participate in bonding one atom to
another. The forces that hold atoms together are called chemical bonds. One way that atoms can
form bonds is by sharing electrons. These bonds are called covalent bonds, and the resulting
collection of atoms is called a molecule. Molecules can be represented in several different ways.
The simplest method is the chemical formula, in which symbols for the elements are used to
indicate the types of atoms present and subscripts are used to indicate the relative numbers of
atoms. For example, the formula for carbon dioxide is CO2, meaning that each molecule contains
one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Examples of molecules that contain covalent
bonds are hydrogen (H2), water (H2O), oxygen (O2), ammonia (NH3), and methane (CH4). More
information about a molecule is give by its structural formula, in which the individual bonds are
shown by lines. Structural formulas may or may not indicate the actual shape of the molecule.
For example, water might be represented as
O
H O H or
H H
The structure on the right represents the actual shape of the molecule. The structural formula for
ammonia is
N
H H
H
Atoms connected to the central atom by the dashed line are behind the plane of the paper, and
atoms connected to the central atom by wedges are in front of the plane of the paper. The
structural formula for methane is
H

C
H H
H
A second type of chemical bond results from attractions between ions. An ion is an atom or a
group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. To see how the ions are formed,
consider what happens when an electron is transferred from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom
(the neutrons in the nuclei are ignored). When one electron stripped off, the sodium with its 11
protons and 10 electrons, now has 1+ charge, it has become a positive ion, a cation.
Na Na+ + e-
If an electron adds to chlorine, the 18 electrons produce the net 1- charge. The chlorine has
become an ion with a negative charge. It has become an anion.
Cl + e- Cl-
Because anions and cations have opposite charges, they attract each other. The force of attraction
between oppositely charged ions is called ionic bonding. Sodium atoms and chlorine gas (Cl2)
react to form solid sodium chloride, which contains Na+ and Cl- ions packed together. A solid
consisting of oppositely charged ions is an ionic solid, or a salt. Ionic solids consist of simple
ions, as in sodium chloride, or of polyatomic ions as in ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), which
contains ammonium ions (NH4+) and nitrate ions (NO3-).
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of the molecules, atoms, and ions of two or more
substances. A solution of any substance in water is an aqueous solution. Solutions have two
components, the solvent and the solute. The solvent is the component present in the larger
amount. The solvent is the medium in which the solute has dissolved. When an ionic compound
dissolves in water, all of the ions separate from each other and move independently. The
dissociation of an ionic compound is the transformation of a neutral ionic compound into
positive and negative ions in solution. Atoms, molecules, or ions in a solution attract solvent
molecules (solvation). For aqueous solutions, the combination of solute with water molecules is
hydration.
 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
Noble
gases
Alkali
metals Halogens
1 Alkaline 18
earth
1A metals 8A
1 2
H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
Na
22.99 24.31 Transition metals 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
35.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Au
La Ir Pt Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112
Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
(223) 226 (227) metals nonmetals

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanides 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Actinides 232.0 (231) 238.0 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)

As the elements were discovered and their properties determined, similarities and differences
became apparent. For example, sodium and potassium, both prepared from hydroxides (NaOH
and KOH), look alike (soft, silvery solids) and have similar properties. Fluorine and chlorine
(both gases) also resemble each other. But fluorine and potassium or sodium and chlorine are
quite dissimilar. It seemed it should be possible to classify or arrange the elements in some way
that would make sense of such similarities and differences. Mendeleyev (1869) found the ways
to arrange the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, so that those with similar properties
were placed together in a table. Mendeleyev stated that elements if arranged according to their
atomic mass show a distinct periodicity of their properties (periodic law). A table in which
elements are arranged according to the periodic law is a periodic table. Where the then-known
elements did not fill out his scheme, Mendeleyev left gaps and predicted the properties of the
elements that should fill the gaps. The agreement between Mendeleyevs predictions and the
properties of the later-discovered elements that filled these places is remarkable.
The letters in the boxes are the symbols for the elements. The number shown above each
symbol is the atomic number (number of protons) for that element. For example, carbon (C) has
atomic number 6, and lead (Pb) has atomic number 82. Most of the elements are metals. Metals
have characteristic physical properties such as efficient conduction of heat and electricity,
malleability (ability to be hammered into thin sheets), ductility (ability to be pulled into wires),
and a lustrous appearance. Chemically, metals tend to lose electrons to form positive ions. For
example, copper is a typical metal. It is lustrous (although it tarnishes readily), it is an excellent
conductor of electricity (it is used in electrical wires); and it is readily formed into various
shapes, such as pipes for water systems. Copper is found in many salts, such as blue copper
sulfate, in which copper is present as Cu2+ ions. Copper is a member of the transition metals
shown in the center of the periodic table.
The relatively few nonmetals appear in the upper right-hand corner of the table, except
hydrogen, a nonmetal that resides in the upper left-hand corner. The nonmetals lack the
properties that characterize the metals chemically, they tend to gain electrons in reactions with
metals to form negative ions. For example, chlorine is a typical nonmetal. Under normal
conditions, it exists as Cl2 molecules; it reacts with metals to form salts containing Cl- ions
(NaCl), and forms covalent bonds with nonmetals (hydrogen chloride gas, HCl).
The periodic table is arranged so that elements in the same vertical columns (groups or
families) have similar chemical properties. For example, all the alkali metals, members of Group
1A lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr)
are very active elements that readily from ions with a 1+ charge when they react with nonmetals.
The members of Group 2A beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr),
barium (Ba), and radium (Ra) are the alkaline earth metals. They all form ions with a 2+ charge
when they react with nonmetals. The halogens the members of Group 7A fluorine (F),
chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At) all form diatomic molecules. Fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, and iodine all react with the metals to form salts containing ions with a 1-
charge (F-, Cl-, Br-, and I-). The members of Group 8A helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) are noble gases. They all exist under normal
conditions as monatomic gases and have little chemical reactivity. The horizontal rows of
elements in the periodic table are called periods. Horizontal row one is the first period (it
contains H and He); row two is the second period (elements Li through Ne); and so on.

Naming Simple Compounds

Chemical compounds are characterized by their formulas. A chemical formula includes the
symbols for the elements combined in a compound, with subscripts indicating how many atoms
of each element are included. The formula HCl represents a molecule of hydrogen chloride,
which consists of one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine, and the formula H 3PO4
represents one molecule of phosphoric acid, which consists of three atoms of hydrogen, one atom
of phosphorus, and four atoms of oxygen.
Names such as lead, blue vitriol, quicklime, Epsom salts, milk of magnesia, gypsum, and
laughing gas are common names. Using common names for all five million chemical compounds
would lead to an unacceptable chaos. The solution is to adopt a system for naming compounds.
Chemical nomenclature is the collective term for the rules and regulations that govern naming
chemical compounds.
Inorganic binary compounds are compounds composed of two elements. Type I involves
binary ionic compounds that contain a cation always written first in the formula and an anion.
1. The cation is always named first and the anion second.
2. A monatomic cation takes its name from the name of the element. For example, Na+ is called
sodium in the names of compounds containing this ion.
3. A monatomic anion is named by taking the route of the element and adding -ide. Thus the Cl-
ion is called chloride.
 Cation Name Anion Name
H+ Hydrogen H- Hydride
Li+ Lithium F- Fluoride
Na+ Sodium Cl- Chloride
K+ Potassium Br- Bromide
Cs+ Cesium I- Iodide
Be2+ Beryllium O2- Oxide
Mg2+ Magnesium S2- Sulfide
Ca2+ Calcium N3- Nitride
Ba2+ Barium P3- Phosphide
Al3+ Aluminum
Ag+ Silver

Compound Ions present Name

NaCl Na+Cl- Sodium chloride
KI K+I- Potassium iodide
CaS Ca2+S2- Calcium sulfide
Li3N Li+N3- Lithium nitride
CsBr Cs+Br- Cesium bromide
MgO Mg2+O2- Magnesium oxide
CsF Cs+F- Cesium fluoride
AlCl3 Al3+Cl- Aluminum chloride
LiH Li+H- Lithium hydride

There are many metals that form more than one type of cation and thus form more than one
type of ionic compound with a given anion. Such cases are referred to as binary ionic compounds
(type II). For example, the compound FeCl2 contains Fe2+ ions and the compound FeCl3 contains
Fe3+ ions. In such cases, the charge on the metal ion must be specified. The systematic names for
these two iron compounds are iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride, respectively, where the
Roman numeral indicates the charge of the cation. The older system for naming these ionic
compounds is used for metals that form only two ions. The ion with the higher charge has a
name ending in ic and the one with the lower charge has a name ending in ous. In this system,
for example, Fe3+ is called the ferric ion and Fe2+ is called the ferrous ion. The names for FeCl3
and FeCl2 are then ferric chloride and ferrous chloride, respectively.

Common type II cations

Ion Systematic name
3+
Fe Iron(III)
2+
Fe Iron(II)
2+
Cu Copper(II)
Cu+ Copper(I)
3+
Co Cobalt(III)
2+
Co Cobalt(II)
 Sn4+ Tin(IV)
Sn2+ Tin(II)
Pb4+ Lead(IV)
Pb2+ Lead(II)
Hg2+ Mercury(II)
Hg22+ Mercury(I)
Ag+ Silver(I)
Zn2+ Zinc
Cd2+ Cadmium

Compound Ions present Name

CuCl Cu+Cl- Copper(I) chloride
HgO Hg2+O2- Mercury(II) oxide
Fe2O3 Fe3+O2- Iron(III) oxide
MnO2 Mn4+O2- Manganese(IV) oxide
PbCl2 Pb2+Cl- Lead(II) chloride
CoBr2 Co2+Br- Cobalt(II) bromide
CaCl2 Ca2+Cl- Calcium chloride
Al2O3 Al3+O2- Aluminum oxide
CrCl3 Cr3+Cl- Chromium(III) chloride

An example of an ionic compound that contains polyatomic ions is ammonium nitrate,

NH4NO3, which contains the polyatomic ions NH4+ and NO3-. Polyatomic ions are assigned
special names that must be memorized.

Ion Name Ion Name

Hg22+ Mercury(I) NCS- Thiocyanate
NH4+ Ammonium CO32- Carbonate
NO2- Nitrite HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate
(bicarbonate)
NO3- Nitrate ClO- Hypochlorite
SO32- Sulfite ClO2- Chlorite
SO42- Sulfate ClO3- Chlorate
HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate) ClO4- Perchlorate
OH- Hydroxide CH3COO- Acetate
CN- Cyanide MnO4- Permanganate
PO43- Phosphate Cr2O72- Dichromate
HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate CrO42- Chromate
H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate O22- Peroxide
C2O42- Oxalate
 A series of anions that contain an atom of a given element and different numbers of oxygen
atoms are called oxyanions. When there are two members in such a series, the name of the one
with the smaller number of oxygen atoms ends in ite and the name of the one with the larger
number of oxygen atoms ends in -ate, for example, sulfite (SO32-) and sulfate (SO42-). When
more than two oxyanions make up a series, hypo- and per- are used as prefixes to name the
members of the series with the fewest and most oxygen atoms, respectively.

Compound Ions present Name

Na2SO4 Na+SO42- Sodium sulfate
KH2PO4 K+H2PO4- Potassium dihydrogen phosphate
Fe(NO3)3 Fe3+NO3- Iron(III) nitrate
Mn(OH)2 Mn2+OH- Manganese(II) hydroxide
Na2SO3 Na+SO32- Sodium sulfite
Na2CO3 Na+CO32- Sodium carbonate
NaHCO3 Na+HCO3- Sodium hydrogen carbonate
CsClO4 Cs+ClO4- Cesium perchlorate
NaOCl Na+OCl- Sodium hypochlorite
Na2SeO4 Na+SeO42- Sodium selenate
KBrO3 K+BrO3- Potassium bromate

Binary covalent compounds constitute type III. They are formed between two nonmetals.
Although these compounds do not contain ions, they are named similarly to binary ionic
compounds.
1. The first element in the formula is named first, using the full element name.
2. The second element is named as if it were an anion.
3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms present.
4. The prefix mono is never used for naming the first element. For example, CO is carbon
monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide.

Prefix Number indicated Prefix Number indicated

Mono 1 Hexa 6
Di 2 Hepta 7
Tri 3 Octa 8
Tetra 4 Nona 9
Penta 5 Deca 10

Compound Systematic name Common name

N2O Dinitrogen monoxide Nitrous oxide
NO Nitrogen monoxide Nitric oxide
NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
N2O3 Dinitrogen trioxide
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide
 PCl5 Phosphorus pentachloride
PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride
SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride
SO3 Sulfur trioxide
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
P4O10 Tetraphosphorus decoxide
Nb2O5 Niobium(V) oxide
Li2O2 Lithium peroxide
Ti(NO3)4 Titanium(IV) nitrate

The reverse process formulas from names is also important.

Name Chemical formula

Vanadium(V) fluoride VF5
Dioxygen difluoride O2F2
Rubidium peroxide Rb2O2
Gallium oxide Ga2O3

When dissolved in water, certain molecules produce a solution containing free H+ ions
(protons). These substances are acids. An acid can be viewed as a molecule with one or more H +
ions attached to an anion. The rules for naming acids depend on whether or not the anion
contains oxygen. If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the prefix hydro-
and suffix -ic. For example, when gaseous HCl is dissolved in water, it forms hydrochloric acid.
Similarly, HCN and H2S dissolved in water are called hydrocyanic and hydrosulfuric acid,
respectively.

Acid Name
HF Hydrofluoric acid
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HBr Hydrobromic acid
HI Hydroiodic acid
HCN Hydrocyanic acid
H2S Hydrosulfuric acid

When the anion contains oxygen, the acidic name is formed from the root name of the anion
with a suffix of -ic or -ous depending on the name of the anion.
1. If the anion name ends in -ate, the suffix -ic is added to the root name. For example, H2SO4
contains the sulfate ion (SO42-) and is called sulfuric acid; H3PO4 contains the phosphate ion
(PO43-) and is called phosphoric acid; and CH3COOH contains the acetate ion (CH3COO-)
and is called acetic acid.
2. If the anion has the -ite ending, the -ite is replaced by -ous. For example, H2SO3, which
contains sulfite (SO32-), is named sulfurous acid, and HNO2, which contains nitrite (NO2-), is
called nitrous acid.
 Acid Anion Name
HNO3 Nitrate Nitric acid
HNO2 Nitrite Nitrous acid
H2SO4 Sulfate Sulfuric acid
H2SO3 Sulfite Sulfurous acid
H3PO4 Phosphate Phosphoric acid
CH3COOH Acetate Acetic acid
HClO4 Perchlorate Perchloric acid
HClO3 Chlorate Chloric acid
HClO2 Chlorite Chlorous acid
HClO Hypochlorite Hypochlorous acid

Tutorial Problems

1. When hydrogen is burned in oxygen to form water, the composition of water formed does not
depend on the amount of oxygen. Interpret this in terms of the law of definite proportions.
2. Several compounds containing only sulfur (S) and fluorine (F) are known. Three of them
have the following composition:
i. 1.188 g of F for every 1.000 g of S;
ii. 2.375 g of F for every 1.000 g of S;
iii. 3.563 g of F for every 1.00 g of S.
How do these data illustrate the law of multiple proportions?
3. Hydrazine, ammonia, and hydrogen azide all contain only nitrogen and hydrogen. The mass
of hydrogen that combines with 1.00 g of nitrogen for each compound is 1.44 10-1 g, 2.16
10-1 g, and 2.40 10-2 g, respectively. Show that these data illustrate the law of multiple
proportions.

4. Two elements, R and Q, combine to form two binary compounds. In the first compound, 14.0
g of R combines with 3.00 g of Q. In the second compound, 7.00 g of R combines with 4.50
g of Q. Show that these data are in accord with the law of multiple proportions. If the formula
of the second compound is RQ, what is the formula of the first compound?

5. Give the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of each of the following atoms:
a. 238
94 Pu
65
b. 29 Cu c. 52
24 Cr

d. 42 He
60 54 42
e. 27 Co f. 24 Cr g. 22Ti
64
h. 30 Zn
76 86 75
i. 32 Ge j. 36 Kr k. 33 As
41
l. 19 K
6. An atom has nine protons and 10 neutrons in the nucleus. What is its symbol?

7. Write the atomic symbol ( AZ X ) for each of the isotopes described below.
a. Z = 8, n = 9
b. the isotope of chlorine in which A = 37
c. Z = 27, A = 60
d. p+ = 26, n = 31
e. the isotope of I with a mass number of 131
f. Z = 3, n = 4

8. What is the symbol for an ion with 63 protons, 60 electrons, and 88 neutrons?

9. An ion contains 50 protons, 68 neutrons, and 48 electrons. What is its symbol?

10. What is the symbol of an ion with 16 protons, 18 neutrons, and 18 electrons?

11. Which is the symbol for an ion that has 16 protons, 16 neutrons, and 18 electrons?

12. Fill in the following table.

Symbol Number of Number of Number of Net charge

protons in neutrons in electrons
nucleus nucleus
33 42 3+
128 2 54
Te
52

16 16 16
81 123 1+
195
78 Pt
238
92 U
20 20 2+
23 28 20
89
39 Y
35 44 36
15 16 3-
13. Fill in the following table.

Elemental Number of Number of Number of Charge on Name

symbol protons neutrons electrons species
41 2
20 Ca
190
78 Pt
223
87 Fr
139
53 I
3
2 He 2
7 6 Carbon
14 15 0
18 18 Sulfur
30 24 Iron
118 3+ Gold

14. Identify each of the following elements:

a. A member of the same family as oxygen whose stable ion contains 54 electrons.
b. A member of the alkali metal family whose most stable ion contains 36 electrons.
c. A noble gas with 18 protons in the nucleus.
d. A halogen with 85 protons and 85 electrons.

15. Choose from the following list the symbols that

a. make up a group of isotopes of an element
b. have the same number of neutrons, and
c. have the same mass number (four different sets).
i. 12N ii. 13B iii. 13N iv. 14C v. 14N vi. 15
N
16 16 17
vii. N viii. O ix. N x. 17F xi. 18Ne

16. The number of copper atoms in a 3.0 g lump of copper is 2.8 1022. How many electrons are
present in the sample? How much do they contribute to its mass?

17. Calculate
a. the number of electrons
b. the total mass of electrons
in 1.0 kg of iron, in which there are 1.08 1025 atoms.

18. Evaluate each of the following as an acceptable name for water:

a. Dihydrogen oxide b. Hydrogen hydroxide
c. Hydroxide hydride d. Oxygen dihydride
19. Why is calcium dichloride not the correct systematic name for CaCl2?

20. Name each of the following compounds.

i. NaCl xvi. Li3N xxxi. SF2
xLv. BaCrO4
ii. Rb2O xvii. Ag2S xxxii. N2F4
xLvi. NH4NO3
iii. CaS xviii. MnO2 xxxiii. SO2
xLvii. CH3COOH
iv. AlI3 xix. TiO2 xxxiv. ICl3
xLviii. NH4NO2
v. Hg2O xx. Sr3P2 xxxv. P2S5
xLix. Co2S3
vi. FeBr3 xxi. KClO4 xxxvi. N2O4 L. ICl
vii. CoS xxii. Ca3(PO4)2 xxxvii. CuI Li.
Pb3(PO4)2
viii. TiCl4 xxiii. Al2(SO4)3 xxxviii. CuI2 Lii.
KIO3
ix. CrO3 xxiv. Pb(NO3)2 xxxix. CoI2 Liii.
H2SO4
x. Cr2O3 xxv. BaSO3 xL. Na2CO3 Liv.
Sr3N2
xi. Al2O3 xxvi. NaNO2 xLi. NaHCO3 Lv.
Tl2(SO4)3
xii. NaH xxvii. KMnO4 xLii. S4N4
Lvi. SnO2
xiii. CaBr2 xxviii. K2Cr2O7 xLiii. SF6
Lvii. Na2CrO4
xiv. ZnCl2 xxix. NI3 xLiv. NaOCl
Lviii. HClO
xv. CsF xxx. PCl3

21. Write the formula for each of the following compounds.

i. cesium bromide xii. lithium nitride xxiii. potassium cyanide xxxiv. sodium sulfite
ii. barium sulfate xiii. chromium(III) xxiv.. copper(II) nitrate xxxv. aluminum
hydrogen
carbonate
sulfate
iii. ammonium xiv. tin(II) fluoride xxv. lead(II) sulfide xxxvi.
nitrogen trichloride
chloride
iv. chlorine xv. ammonium acetate xxvi. lead(IV) sulfide xXXvii. hydrobromic acid
monoxide
v. silicon xvi. ammonium xxvii. copper(I) chloride xXXVIII. bromous
acid
tetrachloride hydrogen sulfate

vi. chlorine xvii. cobalt(III) nitrate xxviii. gallium arsenide xxxix. perbromic acid
 trifluoride
vii. beryllium oxide xviii. mercury(I) xxix. cadmium selenide xL. potassium hydrogen
chloride
sulfide
viii. magnesium xix. potassium chlorate xxx. zinc sulfide xLi. calcium
iodide
fluoride
ix. sulfur difluoride xx. sodium hydride xxxi. Ammonium xLii. cesium perchlorate
hydrogen phosphate
x. sulfur hexafluoride xxi. sodium oxide xxxii. mercury(I) sulfide
xi. sodium dihydro- xxii. sodium peroxide xxxiii. silicon dioxide
gen phosphate

22. For each of the following ions, indicate the total number of protons and electrons in the ion.
For the positive ions in the list, predict the formula of the simplest compound formed
between each positive ion and the oxide ion. For the negative ions in the list, predict the
formula of the simplest compound formed between each negative ion and the aluminum ion.
a. Fe2+ c. Ba2+ e. S2-
-
g. Br
3+
b. Fe d. Cs+ f. P3-
3-
h. N

23. The formulas and common names for several substances are given below. Give the
systematic names for these substances.
a. Sugar of lead Pb(CH3COO)2
b. Blue vitriol CuSO4
c. Quicklime CaO
d. Epsom salts MgSO4
e. Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2
f. Gypsum CaSO4
g. Laughing gas N2O

24. Predict the formula and the name of the binary compound formed from the following pairs of
elements.
a. Ca and N c. Rb and F e. Ba and I
g. Mg and S
b. K and O d. Mg and Se f. Al and Se
h. In and Br

25. By analogy with phosphorus compounds, name the following: Na3AsO4, H3AsO4,
Mg3(SbO4)2.

26. For each formula or name, chose the correct name or formula.
 a. SF6 i. Sulfur(VI) fluoride ii. Sulfur hexafluoride iii. Sulfur(VI)
hexafluoride
b. CuSO4 i. Copper(II) sulfate ii. Cupric sulfate iii. Copper sulfate
c. NaF i. Sodium(I) fluoride ii. Sodium fluoride iii. Sodium fluorite
d. MgO i. Manganese oxide ii. Manganese(II) oxide iii. Magnesium oxide
e. OH- i. Hydroxide ion ii. Oxyhydride iii.
Hydroxygen ion
f. Manganese(III) oxide i. MnO ii. Mn2O3 iii. MnO2
g. Lithium nitride i. LiN ii. Li3N iii. LiN3
h. Gold(III) hydroxide i. Au(OH)3 ii. Al(OH)3 iii. Gd(OH)3
i. Antimony(III) nitrite i. An(NO2)3 ii. Sb(NO3)3 iii. Sb(NO2)3
j. Barium silicide i. Ba2Si ii. BaSiO4 iii. BaS2

27. Write the formulas of the compounds formed from the ions given below. Name these
compounds.
a. Ca2+, CO32- e. Zn2+, IO4- h. Li+, P3-
+ 2- 3+ -
b. NH4 , Cr2O7 f. Co , Cl i. Al3+, OH-
c. Al3+, PO43- g. Fe3+, NO3- j. Na+, O22-
3+ 2-
d. Bi , SO3
k. Cd2+, CN-

28. All of the following names are incorrect. Give the correct names.
a. CuSO4, copper sulfurtetroxide
b. IF3, iodine fluoride
c. I2O7, iodine(VII) heptoxide
d. FeCl2, ferric chlorine
e. PCl5, phosphorus pentoxide
f. Sn(CrO4)2, tin dichromate
g. (NH4)2SO3, ammonia sulfate
h. W2(Cr2O7)3, tungsten(II) chromate(III)
i. N2O3, nitrogen oxide
j. NaClO4, sodium chlorate

29. Determine the charge of the ions in parentheses [or brackets] in the following formulas.
a. Na2(MnO4) c. NaCd2(P3O10) e. Ca3(CoF6)2 g. (UO2)Cl2
b. K4[Fe(CN)6] d. Na2(B4O7) f. Mg3(BO3)2 h. (SbO)2SO4

30. Determine the ionic charges of the groups in parentheses.

a. Ca(C2O4) c. Mg3(AsO4)2 e. (CrO2)F2
g. (PaO2)S3
b. Ca(CH3COO)2 d. (MoO)Cl3 f. (PuO2)Br

31. The formula of potassium arsenate is K3AsO4. The formula of potassium ferrocyanide is
K4Fe(CN)6. Write the formulas of
 a. calcium arsenate
c. barium ferrocyanide
b. iron(III) arsenate
d. aluminum ferrocyanide

32. The formula of calcium pyrophosphate is Ca2P2O7. Determine the formulas of sodium
pyrophosphate and iron(III) pyrophosphate.
 Stoichiometry
The area studying the quantities of materials consumed and produced in chemical reactions is
chemical stoichiometry.

Atomic Masses

One atom of uranium has a mass of 3.9527 10-22 g and one atom of hydrogen has a mass of
1.67380 10-24 g. The true mass of an atom is the value of its mass in mass units, such as grams.
A relative atomic mass is more convenient. It is much easier to think of a uranium atom as about
238 times more massive than a hydrogen atom. Relative atomic masses are proportional to the
actual masses of the atoms. One element is chosen as a standard, it is assigned an atomic mass,
and all other atomic masses are expressed relative to the standard.
The modern system of atomic masses (1961) is based on 12C as the standard. In this system,
12
C is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu) and the masses of all other atoms
are given relative to this standard. For example, measurements show that
13 Mass 13C
Re lative atomic mass of C 1.0836129
Mass 12 C
Since the atomic mass unit is defined such that the mass of 12C is exactly 12 amu, then on this
scale
Mass of 13C = (1.0836129)(12 amu) = 13.003355 amu

exact number by
definition
The atomic masses of other atoms can be obtained in a similar fashion.
The atomic mass of each element is given in the periodic table. The number given for carbon
is not 12 but 12.01. The reason for this discrepancy is that the carbon found on earth (natural
carbon) is the mixture of isotopes 12C, 13C, and 14C. All three isotopes have six protons but they
have six, seven, and eight neutrons, respectively. Because natural carbon is a mixture of isotopes,
the atomic mass for carbon is an average value reflecting the average isotopic composition.
Natural carbon is composed of 98.89 % 12C atoms and 1.11 % 13C atoms. The amount of 14C is
negligibly small at this level of precision.
98.89 % of 12 amu + 1.11 % of 13.003355 amu
= (0.9889)(12 amu) + (0.0111)(13.003355 amu) = 12.01 amu
The average mass for an element is called the average atomic mass or, simply, the atomic mass
for that element.
The mass for each element listed in the table is an average value based on the isotopic
composition of the naturally occurring element. For instance, the mass listed for hydrogen
(1.008) is the average mass, which is a mixture of 1H, 2H (deuterium) and 3H (tritium).
 Mole
Samples of matter typically contain so many atoms that a unit of measure, the mole, has been
established for use in counting atoms. The mole (abbreviated mol) is the number equal to the
number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of pure 12C. This number is 6.022 1023. It is called
Avogadros constant, NA. One mole of something consists of 6.022 1023 units of that
substance. 12 g of 12C contains 6.022 1023 atoms. A 12.01 g sample of natural carbon contains
6.022 1023 atoms of naturally occurring carbon.
Element Number of atoms present Mass of sample (g)
Aluminum 6.022 10 23 26.98
Copper 6.022 1023 63.55
Iron 6.022 10 23 55.85
Sulfur 6.022 10 23 32.07
Iodine 6.022 10 23 126.9
Mercury 6.022 10 23 200.6

The mole is defined such that a sample of natural element with a mass equal to the elements
atomic mass expressed in grams contains one mole of atoms. This definition also fixes the
relationship between the atomic mass unit and gram. Since 6.022 1023 atoms of carbon (each
with a mass of 12 amu) have a mass of 12 g,
12 amu
(6.022 10 23 atoms)( ) 12 g
atom
6.022 1023 amu = 1 g

exact number
An atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1
12 of the mass of one 12C atom. One atomic mass unit is
equal to 1.6606 10-24 g.
Example
Americium is an element that does not occur naturally. Compute the mass in grams of a
sample of americium containing six atoms, if one atom has a mass of 243 amu.
Solution
amu 1g
6 atoms 243 2.42 10 21 g
atom 6.022 10 amu23

Example
Compute both the number of moles of atoms and the number of atoms in a 10.0-g sample of
aluminum.
Solution
The mass of 1 mole (6.022 1023 atoms) of aluminum is 26.98 g.
1 mol
10 g 0.371 mol
26.98 g
 6.022 10 23 atoms
0.371 mol 2.23 10 23 atoms
1 mol
Example
A silicon chip has a mass of 5.68 mg. How many silicon atoms are present in the chip?
Solution
1g 1 mol 6.022 10 23 atoms
5.68 mg 1.22 10 20 atoms
1000 mg 28.09 g 1 mol
Example
Calculate both the number of moles in a sample of cobalt containing 5.001020 atoms and the
mass of the sample.
Solution
1 mol
5.00 10 20 atoms 8.30 10 4 mol
6.022 10 atoms
23

58.93 g
8.30 10 4 mol 4.89 10 2 g
1 mol

Molar Masses
A chemical compound is a collection of atoms. For example, methane consists of molecules
that each contains one carbon and four hydrogen atoms (CH4). The mass of one mole of
methane, that is the mass of 6.022 1023 CH4 molecules, contains one mole of carbon atoms and
four moles of hydrogen atoms:
M(CH4) = 12.01 g / mol + 4 1.008 g / mol = 16.04 g / mol
This is the molar mass of methane. The molar mass of a substance is the mass in grams of one
mole of the compound. The molar mass of a known substance is obtained by summing the
masses of the component atoms.
Example
The formula for juglone is C10H6O3.
a. Calculate the molar mass of juglone.
b. How many moles does a sample of 1.56 10-2 g of juglone represents?
Solution
a. M = 10 12.01 g / mol + 6 1.008 g / mol + 3 16.00 g / mol = 174.1 g
1 mol
b. 1.56 10 2 g 8.96 10 5 mol
174.1 g
Example
a. Calculate the molar mass of calcium carbonate.
b. A certain sample of calcium carbonate contains 4.86 moles. What is the mass in grams of
this sample? What is the mass of the CO32- ions present?
Solution
a. M(CaCO3) = 40.08 g / mol + 12.01 g / mol + 3 16.00 g / mol = 100.09 g / mol
100.09 g
b. m(CaCO3 ) 4.86 mol 486 g
1 mol
M(CO32-) 12.01 g / mol + 3 16.00 g / mol = 60.01 g / mol
 60.01 g
m(CO32 ) 4.86 mol 292 g
1 mol
Example
How many molecules of isopentyl acetate, C7H14O2, are contained in 1 g of this compound?
How many atoms of carbon are present?
Solution
M(C7H14O2) = 7 12.01 g / mol + 14 1.008 g / mol + 2 16.00 g / mol = 130.18 g / mol
1 10 6 g 1 mol 6.022 10 23 molecules
N 1 g 5 1019 molecules
1 g 130.18 g 1 mol
7 atoms
5 1015 molecules 4 1016 atoms
molecule

Percent Composition of Compounds

There are two common ways of describing the composition of a compound: in terms of the
numbers of its constituent atoms and in terms of the percentages (by mass) of its elements. The
mass percents of the elements are obtained from the formula of the compound by comparing the
mass of each element present in one mole of the compound to the total mass of one mole of the
compound.
M(C2H5OH) = 2 12.01 g / mol + 6 1.008 g / mol + 16.00 g / mol = 46.07 g / mol
mass of C in 1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
Mass percent of C 100 %
mass of 1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
2 12.01 g / mol
100 % 52.14 %
46.07 g / mol
mass of H in 1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
Mass percent of H 100 %
mass of 1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
6 1.008 g / mol
100 % 13.13 %
46.07 g / mol
mass of O in 1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
Mass percent of O 100 %
mass of 1 mol C 2 H 5 OH
16.00 g / mol
100 % 34.73 %
46.07 g / mol
Example
Compute the mass percent of each element in carvone (C10H14O).
Solution
M(C10H14O) = 10 12.01 g / mol + 14 1.008 g / mol + 16.00 g / mol = 150.2 g / mol
10 12.01 g / mol
% C 100 % 79.96 %
150.2 g / mol
 14 1.008 g / mol
% H 100 % 9.394 %
150.2 g / mol
16.00 g / mol
% O 100 % 10.65 %
150.2 g / mol
Example
Penicillin F has the formula C14H20N2SO4. Calculate the mass percent of each element.
Solution
M(C14H20N2SO4) = 14 12.01 g / mol + 20 1.008 g / mol + 2 14.01 g / mol + 32.07 g / mol +
4 16.00 g / mol = 312.4 g / mol
14 12.01 g / mol
% C 100 % 53.81 %
312.4 g / mol
20 12.01 g / mol
% H 100 % 6.453 %
312.4 g / mol
2 14.01 g / mol
% N 100 % 8.969 %
312.4 g / mol
32.07 g / mol
% S 100 % 10.27 %
312.4 g / mol
4 16.00 g / mol
% O 100 % 20.49 %
312.4 g / mol