Structure of Human Ear

Ears are extremely sensitive device with the help of which we are able to hear.

The ear consists of three basic parts - the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Each part of
the ear has a specific role in the task of detecting and interpreting sound. The outer ear is called
pinna. It collects and transmits the sound to the middle ear through the auditory canal.

At the end of the auditory canal there is a thin membrane called the eardrum or tympanic
membrane. The eardrum moves inward and outward as the compression or rarefaction reaches it.
In this way the eardrum vibrates. These vibrations are amplified by the three bones namely the
hammer, anvil and stirrup in the middle ear.

The middle ear transmits these vibrations to the inner ear. Inside the inner ear, the vibrations or
the pressure variations are converted into electrical signals by the cochlea. These electrical
signals are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve and the brain interprets them as sound.

there are three small bones in each ear of a human body. These are known as ossicles. So there are total
of six ossicles in both ears

The smallest bone in ear is called the stapes.

The inner ear is hollow, embedded in the temporal bone, the densest bone of ... The human ear can
generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and .... The surface area of the tympanic
membrane is many times that of the stapes ...
It also aids in balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system.

Eye Health Center

Picture of the Eyes

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The eye is a slightly asymmetrical globe, about an inch in diameter. The front part of the eye (the part you
see in the mirror) includes:
The iris (the pigmented part)
The cornea (a clear dome over the iris)
The pupil (the black circular opening in the iris that lets light in)
The sclera (the white part)
The conjunctiva (an invisible, clear layer of tissue covering the front of
the eye, except the cornea)
Just behind the iris and pupil lies the lens, which helps to focus light on the back of the eye. Most of the
eye is filled with a clear gel called the vitreous. Light projects through the pupil and the lens to the back
of the eye. The inside lining of the eye is covered by special light-sensing cells that are collectively
called the retina. The retina converts light into electrical impulses. Behind the eye, the optic nerve
carries these impulses to the brain. The macula is a small sensitive area within the retina that gives
central vision. It is located in the center of the retina and contains the fovea, a small depression or pit
at the center of the macula that gives the clearest vision.
Eye color is created by the amount and type of pigment in the iris. Multiple genes inherited from
each parent determine a persons eye color.

eye Conditions

Age-related macular degeneration: A loss of central vision in both

eyes.

Amblyopia (lazy eye): One eye sees better than the other, a
problem of childhood development. The weaker eye may or may not
wander. The weaker eye is called the "lazy eye."

Astigmatism: A defect that causes an inability to properly focus light

onto the retina. Astigmatism causes blurry vision that can be
corrected with glasses or contact lenses.

Black eye: Swelling and discoloration around the eye as a result of

injury to the face.

Blepharitis: Inflammation of the eyelids near the eyelashes.

Blepharitis is a common cause of itching or a feeling of grit in the
eyes.

Cataract: A clouding of the lens, which hinders the passage of light

through the lens.

Chalazion: An oil-making gland gets blocked and swells into a

bump. Often confused with styes, chalazions are not caused by
infections.

Conjunctivitis: Also known as "pinkeye, conjunctivitis is an infection

or inflammation of the conjunctiva, the clear layer that covers the
front of the eye. It is usually caused by allergies, a virus, or a
bacterial infection.

Corneal abrasion: A scratch on the clear part of the front of the eye.
Pain, light sensitivity, or a feeling of grit in the eye are the usual
symptoms.

Diabetic retinopathy: High blood sugar damages blood vessels in

the eye. Eventually, weakened blood vessels may overgrow the
retina or bleed, threatening vision.

Diplopia (double vision): Seeing double can be caused by many

serious conditions. Diplopia requires immediate medical attention.

Dry eye: Either the eyes dont produce enough tears, or the tears
are of poor quality. Dry eye can be caused by medical problems
such as lupus, scleroderma, and Sjogren's syndrome.
 Glaucoma: Increased pressure inside the eye slowly reduces vision.
Peripheral vision is lost first, often going undetected for years.

Hyperopia (farsightedness): Inability to see near objects clearly. The

eye is too short for the lens, or certain eye muscles have
weakened with age.

Hyphema: Bleeding into the front of the eye, behind the cornea.
Hyphema is usually caused by trauma.

Keratitis: Inflammation or infection of the cornea. Keratitis typically

occurs after germs enter a corneal abrasion.

Myopia (nearsightedness): Inability to see clearly at a distance. The

eye is too long for the lens, so light isnt focused properly on the
retina.

Optic neuritis: The optic nerve becomes inflamed, usually from an

overactive immune system. Painful vision loss in one eye typically
results.

Pterygium: A thickened conjunctival mass usually on the inner part

of the eyeball. It may cover a part of the cornea, causing vision
problems.

Retinal detachment: The retina comes loose from the back of the
eye. Trauma and diabetes are common causes of this medical
emergency.

Retinitis: Inflammation or infection of the retina. Retinitis may be a

long-term genetic condition or result from a viral infection.

Scotoma: A blind or dark spot in the visual field.

Strabismus: The eyes do not point in the same direction. The brain
may then favor one eye, causing decreased vision (amblyopia) in
the other eye.

Stye: Bacteria infect the skin on the edge of the eyelid, creating a
tender red bump.

Uveitis (iritis): The colored part of the eye becomes inflamed or

infected. An overactive immune system, bacteria, or viruses can be
responsible.

The eye
Here you can find out more about the human eye and how we see.
The eyes are undoubtedly the most sensitive and delicate organs we possess, and perhaps the
most amazing. They present us with the window through which we view the world, and are
responsible for four fifths of all the information our brain receives which is probably why we
rely on our eyesight more than any other sense.

How we see

The images we see are made up of light reflected from the objects we look at. This light enters
the eye through the cornea. Because this part of the eye is curved, it bends the light, creating an
upside-down image on the retina (this is eventually put the right way up by the brain). Find out
more about how we see.

How we see
The images we see are made up of light reflected from the objects we look at. This light enters
the eye through the cornea. Because this part of the eye is curved, it bends the light, creating an
upside-down image on the retina (this is eventually put the right way up by the brain).

Focusing on a nearby object Focusing on a distant object

What happens when light reaches the retina?

The retina is a complex part of the eye, but only the very back of it is light-sensitive. This part of
the retina has roughly the area of a 10p coin, and is packed with photosensitive cells called rods
and cones. These allow us to see images in colour and detail, and to see at night.

Cones are the cells responsible for daylight vision. There are three kinds - each responding to a
different wavelength of light: red, green and blue. The cones allow us to see in colour and detail.

Rods are responsible for night vision. They are sensitive to light but not to colour. In darkness,
the cones do not function at all.

Focusing the image

The lens focuses the image. It can do this because it is adjustable - using muscles to change
shape and help us focus on objects at different distances. The automatic focusing of the lens is a
reflex response and is not controlled by the brain.
Sending the image to the brain

Once the image is clearly focused on the sensitive part of the retina, energy in the light that
makes up that image creates an electrical signal. Nerve impulses can then carry information
about that image to the brain through the optic nerve.

Common eye problems

Short sight (myopia) and long sight (hypermetropia) are common conditions, both caused by the
cornea and lens not focusing properly on the retina.

Short sight is where the eyeball is elongated or the lens is too thick, causing the image to focus in
front of the retina.

Long sight is where the eyeball is too short or the lens too thin, causing the image to focus
behind the retina.

Sightsavers prevents and cures eye

diseases and restores sight

There are other sight-threatening conditions

which are not so easily corrected or overcome.
Cataract, trachoma, glaucoma and river
blindness, for example, will cause complete
blindness if left untreated. Sightsavers is
preventing and curing these diseases and
restoring sight where possible.

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

The human brain is hugely interconnected but three

major components can be identified: the
cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem.

The brainstem which includes the medulla, the

pons and the midbrain, controls breathing, Important structures in the human brain
digestion, heart rate and other autonomic processes, Picture from Wikipedia
as well as connecting the brain with the spinal cord (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain)
and the rest of the body.

The cerebellum plays an important role in balance, motor control, but is also involved in some cognitive
functions such as attention, language, emotional functions (such as regulating fear and pleasure
responses) and in the processing of procedural memories.

The cerebrum (or forebrain), which makes up 75% of the brain by volume and 85% by weight, is divided
by a large groove, known as the longitudinal fissure, into two distinct hemispheres. The left and right
hemispheres ("left" and "right" refer to the owner's point of view, not an outside viewer's) are linked by a
large bundle of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum, and also by other smaller connections called
commissures.

Most of the important elements of the cerebrum, are split into symmetrical pairs in the left and right
hemispheres. Thus, we often speak of the temporal lobes, hippocampi, etc (in the plural), although this
website generally follows the convention of speaking of the temporal lobe, hippocampus, etc (in the
singular), which should therefore be taken to mean
both sides, within both hemispheres. The two
hemispheres look similar, but are slightly different in
structure and perform different functions. The right
hemisphere generally controls the left side of the
body, and vice versa, although popular notions that
logic, creativity, etc, are restricted to the left or right
hemispheres are largely simplistic and unfounded.

The cerebrum is covered by a sheet of neural tissue

known as the cerebral cortex (or neocortex), which
envelops other brain organs such as the thalamus
(which evolved to help relay information from the
brain stem and spinal cord to the cerebral cortex)
and the hypothalamus and pituitary gland (which Lobes of the cerebral cortex
control visceral functions, body temperature and Picture from Wikipedia
behavioural responses such as feeding, drinking, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain)
sexual response, aggression and pleasure). The
cerebral cortex itself is only 2 - 4 mm thick, and contains six distinct but interconnected layers. It is
intricately grooved and folded into the familiar convoluted pattern of folds, or gyri, allowing a large surface
area (typically almost 2m2) to fit within the confines of the skull. Consequently, more than two-thirds of the
cerebral cortex is buried in the grooves, or sulci.

About 90% of all the brains neurons are located in the cerebral cortex, mainly in the "grey matter",
which makes up the surface regions of the cerebral cortex, while the inner "white matter" consists mainly
of myelinated axons, over 170,000 km of them. As many as five times that number of glial cells exist to
support the active nerve cells.

The cerebral cortex plays a key role in memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought, language and
consciousness. It is divided into four main regions or lobes, which cover both hemispheres: the frontal
lobe (involved in conscious thought and higher mental functions such as decision-making, particularly in
that part of the frontal lobe known as the prefrontal
cortex, and plays an important part in processing
short-term memories and retaining longer term
memories which are not task-based); the parietal
lobe (involved in integrating sensory information
from the various senses, and in the manipulation of
objects in determining spatial sense and navigation);
the temporal lobe (involved with the senses of smell
and sound, the processing of semantics in both
speech and vision, including the processing of
complex stimuli like faces and scenes, and plays a
key role in the formation of long-term memory); and
the occipital lobe (mainly involved with the sense of
sight).

The medial temporal lobe (the inner part of the

temporal lobe, near the divide between the left and
The Limbic System and Basal Ganglia
Picture from How Stuff Works
(http://people.howstuffworks.com/
swearing.htm/printable)
right hemispheres) in particular is thought to be involved in declarative and episodic memory. Deep inside
the medial temporal lobe is the region of the brain known as the limbic system, which includes the
hippocampus, the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the
epithalamus, the mammillary body and other organs, many of which are of particular relevance to the
processing of memory.

The hippocampus, for example, is essential for memory function, particularly the transference from
short- to long-term memory and control of spatial memory and behaviour. The amygdala also performs a
primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions and social and sexual behaviour, as
well as regulating the sense of smell.

Another sub-cortical systems (inside the cerebral cortex) which is essential to memory function is the
basal ganglia system, particularly the striatum (or neostriatum) which is important in the formation and
retrieval of procedural memory.