KLUniversity Transportation Engineering Lab Manual

INDEX

S.No Name of the Experiment Page No

General
1 Aggregate Crushing Value Test
2 Aggregate Impact Value Test
3 Los ngeles Abrasin Test
4 Shape Tests
(a) Flakiness Index
(b) Elongation Index
5 (a) Benkleman Beam
(b) Merlin Cycle
6 (a) Gradation of Aggregates
(b) Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Tests of Aggregates
7 Penetration Test
8 Softening Point Test
9 Flash and fire point
10 Ductility Test
11 Loss on Heating
12 Bitumen extraction test
13 Marshall Stability Test

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
1.0 General
Aggregates form a major part of the pavement structure and it is one of the primary
materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates have to bear load stresses and
abrasive action caused by movement of vehicles on the roadways and runways. They
should also be water and weather resistant. Aggregate are used in construction of
pavement surfaces, be it cement concrete, bituminous concrete or water bound macadam.
Aggregate also serve as granular base course layers underneath superior pavements. Thus
the properties of the aggregates are of considerable significance to highway engineers.

Key Characteristics of Road Aggregates: The Desirable properties of road aggregates,

which are generally studied by laboratory testing, are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Characteristics of road aggregates

Property Indicator
Strength Crushing
Hardness Abrasion
Toughness Impact
Durability Soundness
Flakiness, Elongation and Angularity
Shape Factor
Number
Adhesion with Bitumen Stripping
Specific Gravity Density
Porosity Water Absorption

Tests to determine the properties of aggregates: The tests that are to be performed to
know the quality of aggregates for usage in pavement construction are listed below:
1. Aggregate Crushing Value
2. Aggregate Impact Value
3. Los Angeles Abrasion Value
4. Shape Tests (Flakiness Index, Elongation Index and Angularity Number)
5. Benkleman Beam and MERLIN Cycle
6. Gradation of Aggregates, Specific Gravity and Water absorption

Standards for Testing of Aggregates: Indian standard codes giving guidelines in the
field of aggregate testing are given in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 IS codes on aggregate testing

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S No Name of the Test Test Method
1 Aggregate Crushing Value IS: 2386 part 4
2 Aggregate Impact Value IS: 2386 part 4
3 Loss Angels Abrasion Value Test IS: 2386 part 4

4 Shape Tests (Flakiness Index, Elongation Index) IS: 2386 part 1

5 Gradation of Aggregate IS: 2386 Part 1

Specific Gravity, Water absorption and Bulk Density for

6 IS: 2386 part 3
aggregates

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Exp No 1: Aggregate Crushing Value Test
The strength of coarse aggregates is determined by aggregates crushing test. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a
gradually applied compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate
possessing low aggregate crushing value should be preferred.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the standard aggregate crushing value test consists of the following:
1. Steel cylinder with open ends and internal diameter 15.2 cm, square base plate,
plunger having a piston of diameter 15 cm, with a hole provided across the stem
of the plunger so that a rod could be inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in
the cylinder.
2. Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 11.5 cm and height 18 cm.
3. Steel tamping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 1.6 cm and length
45 to 60 cm.
4. Balance of capacity 3 kg with accuracy upto 1 g and IS sieve of sizes 12.5 mm,
10mm and 2.36 mm for sieving the aggregates.
5. Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tonnes, at a uniform
rate of loading of 4 tonne per minute.

Procedure
1. The aggregate passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve is selected
for standard test. The aggregate is dried by heating at a temperature 1000 C to 1100
C for a period of 4 hours, and then is tested after cooling to room temperature.
2. The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of
approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times by the rounded end
of the tamping rod.
3. The surface of the aggregates is levelled ant the cylindrical measure is weighed.
4. The aggregates are transferred from cylindrical measure to the steel cylinder
resting on the base plate in three layers, each layer being subjected to 25 blows
and the surface is levelled.
5. On top of the sample in the cylinder, plunger is inserted so that it rests on the
surface in level position. Load is applied at a uniform rate of 4 tonnes per minute
until the total load is 40 tonnes and then load is released.

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6. The crushed aggregates are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a 2.36 mm
IS sieve and the material which passes through the sieve is weighed.

Observations and Calculations

Empty weight of cylindrical measure, Wc= g
Table 1.3 Observation table for aggregate crushing value test

Trail Number
S. No Details Average
1 2
Weight of aggregate sample in the
cylindrical measure, W1 g
1
(excluding empty wt of cylindrical
measure)
Weight of crushed aggregates after
2
passing through 2.36 mm sieve, W2 g

W
3 Aggregate Crushing Value: W2 * 100
1

Result
Aggregate crushing value = % (Rounded to the nearest whole number)

Specifications
Indian Roads Congress (IRC) and BIS have specified that the aggregate crushing value of
the coarse aggregates used for base layer should not exceed 45%. For aggregates used in
surface courses, the aggregate crushing value shall not exceed 30%.

Applications
The aggregate crushing value is an indirect measure of crushing strength of aggregates.
Low aggregate crushing value indicates strong aggregates, as the crushed fraction is low.
The aggregates used for the surface course of pavements should be strong enough to
withstand the high stresses due to wheel loads, including the steel tyres of loaded bullock-
carts. As the stresses at the base and sub-base courses are low, aggregates with lesser
crushing strength can be used in the lower layers of the pavement.

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Exp No 2: Aggregate Impact Value Test
Toughness is the property of a material to resist impact. Due to traffic loads, the stones
are subjected to the pounding action or impact and there is possibility of stones breaking
into smaller pieces. The road stones should therefore be tough to resist fracture under
impact. A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stones i.e., the resistance to fracture
under repeated impacts may be called an impact test for road stones.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the aggregate impact value test consists of the following:
1. A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 7.5 cm and depth 5 cm for
measuring aggregates.
2. Steel tamping rod with one end rounded, having a diameter 1 cm and length 23 cm.
3. Balance of capacity 3 kg with an accuracy of at least 1 g, IS sieve of sizes 12.5 mm,
10mm and 2.36 mm for sieving the aggregates.
4. A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining constant
temperature at 1000 C to 1100 C.
5. Impact testing machine.

Procedure
1. The aggregate passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve is selected for
this test. The aggregate is dried by heating at a temperature 1000 C to 1100 C for a
period of 4 hours, and then is tested after cooling to room temperature.
2. Aggregates are filled in three layers in the cylindrical measure and each layer is
tamped 25 times with tamping rod.
3. The net weight of the aggregates in the measure is determined.
4. The cup of the impact machine is firmly fixed in position on the base plate and
whole of the sample is transferred to the cup and compacted by tamping with 25
strokes.
5. The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38 cm above upper surface of the
aggregates in the cup, and allowed to fall freely on the aggregates.
6. The test sample is subjected to 15 blows, each being delivered at an interval not less
than one second.
7. The crushed aggregates are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a 2.36 mm IS
sieve and the material which is passed through the sieve is weighed.

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Observations and Calculations
Weight of cylindrical measure, Wc= g
Table 1.4 Observation table for aggregate impact value test
Trail Number
S. No Details Average
1 2
Weight of aggregate sample in the
cylindrical measure, W1 g
1
(excluding empty wt of cylindrical
measure)
Weight of crushed aggregates after
2
passing through 2.36 mm sieve W2 g

W
3 Aggregate Impact Value: W2 * 100
1

Result
Aggregate impact value is= % (Rounded to the nearest whole number)

Specifications
IRC and BIS have specified that for the aggregates used in surface courses, the aggregate
crushing value shall not exceed 30 %. The maximum permissible value is 35 % for
bituminous macadam surface course, 40 % for water bound macadam surface course, 45
% for cement concrete base course and 50 % for water bound macadam sub base courses.

Applications
The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of the resistance of aggregates
under sudden shock or an impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to
a slow compressive load. Impact load assesses the sustainability of aggregates with regard
to the toughness, for use in pavement construction.

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Exp No 3: Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Resistance to wear or hardness is an essential property for road aggregates, especially
when used in wearing course. Road stones should be hard enough to resist the abrasion
due to the traffic. When fast moving traffic fitted with pneumatic tyres and steel tyres of
animal drawn vehicles move on the road, the soil particles present between the wheel and
road surfaces causes abrasion on the road stone. To test sustainability of road stone to
resist abrasive action of traffic, Los Angeles abrasion test is carried out in the laboratory.

Principle
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative
rubbing action between aggregates and steel balls used as abrasive charge. The pounding
action of these balls also exits while conducting the test just similar to the field
conditions. This test has been standardized by the ASTM, AASHO and also by the BIS.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the standard Los Angeles Abrasion Value test consists of the following:
1. Los Angeles abrasion testing machine.
2. Sieves for grading the aggregate to standardized grades of A, B, C, D, E, F and G for
the test.
3. Abrasive charges, consisting of cast iron spheres (balls), with each sphere
approximately 4.8 cm in diameter and 390 to 445 g in weight. The number of balls
to be used in the test is decided as per grade of aggregate, indicated by Table 1.7.
4. IS sieve with 1.70 mm opening to separate the fines after the abrasion test.
Table 1.5 Los Angeles Abrasion grading table

Weight in grams of each test sample in the size Abrasive

range, mm (Passing and retained on square holes) Weight
charge
of
Grading (number
charges,
80- 63- 50- 40- 25- 20- 12.5- 10- 6.3- 4.75- of
g
63 50 40 25 20 12.5 10 6.3 4.75 2.36 spheres)

A - - - 1250 1250 1250 1250 - - - 12 500025

B - - - - - 2500 2500 - - - 11 458425

C - - - - - - - 2500 2500 - 8 333020

D - - - - - - - - - 5000 6 250015

E 2500 2500 5000 - - - - - - - 12 500025

F - - 5000 5000 - - - - - - 12 500025

G - - - 5000 5000 - - - - - 12 500025

Procedure
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1. Clean aggregates are dried in an oven at 105 to 110 0 C, confirming to any one of the
grading A- G, as per table 1.7.
2. Aggregates weighing 5 kg for grading A, B, C or D and 10 kg for grading E, F or G
are taken. Corresponding charge as per grading table is also taken.
3. The charge and the aggregate are placed in the air tight cylinder of Los Angeles
machine, which is rotated for revolutions equal to 500 for grading A, B, C or D and
1000 for E, F or G respectively.
4. The machine is balanced and driven in such a way as to maintain uniform peripheral
speed. Then the material is discharged from the machine taking care to take out the
entire dust.
5. Using a sieve of size greater than 1.7 mm, the material is sieved to first separate the
coarser and finer portions. The finer portion is separated and further sieved on a 1.7
mm IS sieve.
6. Since a lot of finer material is lost, material retained is weighed and recorded.

Observations and Calculations

Type of grading used for testing:
Table 1.6 Observation table for aggregate abrasion value test
Trail Number
S. No Details Average
1 2
1 Weight of aggregate taken, W1 g
Weight of aggregate retained on 1.7
2
mm sieve, W2 g
Weight of aggregate passing through
3
1.7 mm sieve, W1 -W2 g
Aggregate Abrasion Value:
4 W1 - W2

* 100
W
1

Result
Los Angeles abrasion value is= % (Rounded to the nearest whole number)

Specifications
IRC and BIS have specified that the aggregates used in surface courses, the Los Angeles
abrasion value shall not exceed 30 %. The maximum permissible value is 35 % for
bituminous macadam surface course, 40 % for water bound macadam surface course, 50
% for water bound macadam base course and 60 % for water bound macadam sub base
courses.

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Applications
Los Angeles abrasion test is a very widely accepted test to assess the hardness of
aggregates used in pavement construction. This test is very popular as the aggregate is
subjected to a combined action of abrasion, attrition and impact simultaneously. Hence
this test would be of great significance in material characterization.

Exp No 4: Shape Tests

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The particle shape of aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and
elongated particles contained in it and by its angularity. The shape of aggregates plays a
important role in pavement construction. The evaluation of shape of the particles is made
in terms of flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number.

Flakiness Index
The flakiness index of aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles whose least
dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths (0.6 times) of their mean dimension. The
test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

Apparatus
The apparatus consists of:
1. Standard thickness gauge.
2. IS sieves of size 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm.
3. A balance to weigh the samples.

Procedure
1. The sample is sieved with the sieves as mentioned in table 1.16.
2. A minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested are taken and weighed.
3. To separate flaky particles, each fraction is gauged through the appropriate slot of
thickness gauge by passing each piece of aggregate thickness wise.
4. The amount of flaky material passing the gauge is weighed to an accuracy of at least
0.1 percent of the test sample.

Table 1.7 Aggregate sizes required for flakiness and elongation indices
Passing sieve, mm Retained sieve, mm Flakiness index Elongation index
63.0 50.0 Required Not required
50.0 40.0 Required Required
40.0 25.0 Required Required
31.5 25.0 Required Not required
25.0 20.0 Required Required
20.0 16.0 Required Required
16.0 12.5 Required Required
12.5 10.0 Required Required
10.0 6.3 Required Required

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Observations and Calculations
Table 1.8 Observation table for Flakiness Index
Size of Aggregates Weight of the Weight of
Thickness
Passing Retained fraction aggregates in each
Gauge (0.6
through on consisting of fraction passing
times the mean
IS sieve, IS sieve, 200 pieces, through thickness
sieve), mm
mm mm kg gauge, kg

Total W= w=

Result
Flakiness Index of the aggregates = (w/ W) 100 %
Specifications
IRC and BIS have specified that the aggregates used in bituminous macadam and water
bound macadam, base and surface courses, the flakiness index value shall not exceed 15
%. The maximum permissible value is 35 % for bituminous carpet i.e., asphaltic concrete,
bituminous penetration macadam, etc.

1.7.2 Elongation Index

The elongation index of aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles whose
greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and four fifth (1.8 times) of their mean
dimension. The test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

Apparatus
The apparatus consists of:
1. Standard length gauge.
2. IS sieves of size 50, 40, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm.
3. A balance to weigh the samples.

Procedure
1. The sample is sieved with the sieves as mentioned in table 1.16.
2. A minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested are taken and weighed.
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3. To separate elongated material, each fraction is gauged individually, lengthwise, in a
length gauge
4. The amount of elongated material retained on the gauge is weighed to an accuracy
of at least 0.1 percent of the test sample.

Observations and Calculations

Table 1.9 Observation table for Elongation index

Size of Aggregates Weight of
Weight of the
Passing Retained Length Gauge aggregates in each
fraction
through on (1.8 times the fraction retained
consisting of
IS sieve, IS sieve, mean sieve), mm through length
200 pieces, kg
mm mm gauge, kg

Total W= w=

Result
w
Elongation Index of the aggregates = W * 100 %

Specifications
Though elongated shape of the aggregates also affects the compaction and the
construction of pavements, there are no specified limits of elongation index value as in
the case of flakiness index for different methods of pavement construction.

Combined Flakiness and elongation Index

To determine the combined flakiness and elongation index, the flaky stone from the
representative sample are first separated out. The elongated particles are then separated
out from the remaining (non-flaky) stone metal. The value of combined flaky and
elongated aggregate are found by adding up the flaky stone with elongated stone. The
percent by weight of flaky as well as elongated particles is the combined flakiness and
elongation index. This is significant, as the codes specify a combined value, instead of
individual values of flakiness and elongation.

Angularity Number
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Based on the shape of aggregate particles, stones may be classified as rounded, angular
and flaky. Angularity or absence of the rounding of the particles of an aggregate is a
property, which is of importance because it affects the ease of handling a mixture of
aggregate and binder or the workability of the mix. Determination of angularity number
of aggregate is a laboratory method intended for comparing the properties of different
aggregates for mix design purposes and for deciding their gradation requirements.

The angularity number of an aggregate is the amount by which the percentage voids
exceeds 33 after being compacted in a prescribed manner. The angularity number is found
from the expression, (67 minus the percent solid volume). Here the value 67 represents
the percentage volume of solids of most rounded gravel which would have 33 percent
voids.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the angularity number test consists of the following:
1. A metal cylinder closed at one end of about 3 litre capacity, the diameter and
height of this being approximately equal, i.e., about 15.64 cm diameter x 15.64
cm height.
2. A metal tamping rod of circular cross section, 16 mm in diameter and 60 cm in
length, rounded at one end.
3. A metal scoop of about one litre headed capacity of size 20 x 10 x 5 cm.
4. A balance of capacity 10 kg, with a accuracy of at least 1.0 g.

Procedure
1. The cylinder is calibrated by determining the weight of water at 27 0 C required
to fill it.
2. Aggregate amounting to at least 10 kg of the predominant size, as determined by
the sieve analysis on the 20, 16, 12.5, 10, 6.3 and 4.75 mm IS sieves, is taken.
3. The aggregate is dried in oven at 1100 C for 24 hours and cooled to room
temperature.
4. Thereafter the aggregate are placed in the cylinder in three layers, each layer
tamped 100 times.
5. The cylinder is weighed along with the aggregates, and then filled up with water
such that, water is flush with the brim of the cylinder.
6. Cylinder with aggregates and water together is weighed.
7. The specific gravity of aggregates is determined.
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Observations and Calculations

Weight of aggregates filling the cylinder, W = kg
Weight of water required to fill the cylinder, C = kg
Specific gravity of the aggregates, G =
100 * W
Angularity Number = 67 - =
C * G

Result
Angularity Number= (Rounded to the nearest whole number)

Specifications
The angularity number of the aggregates generally ranges from 0 for rounded gravel to 11
for crushed angular aggregates.

Applications
For the pavement constructions, flaky and elongated particles are to be avoided,
particularly in surface course. If flaky and elongated aggregates are present in appreciable
proportions, the strength of the pavement layer would be adversely affected due to
possibility of breaking down under loads. In cement concrete the workability is also
reduced. However, the reduction in strength in cement concrete depends on the cement
content and water-cement ratio.

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Table 1.10 Specifications of Aggregates for Road Works

Pavement Water Aggregate Combined Polished Stone

Specification Soundness
layer Absorption Impact Value FI + EI (%) Value (%)
Granular Sub
Sub base 2 30 - 12 -
Base (GSM)
Water Bound
Sub base /
Macadam 2 30 - 12 -
base
(WBM)
Wet Mix
Macadam Base 2 30 - 12 -
(WMM)
Bituminous
Binder
Macadam 2 30 30 12 -
course
(BM)
Dense
Bituminous Binder
2 27 30 12 -
Macadam course
(DBM)
Premix Carpet
Wearing 1 30 - 12 55
(PMC)

Mix Seal
Wearing 2 30 - 12 -
Surface (MSS)
Semi dense
bituminous Wearing 2 27 30 12 55
concrete
Bituminous
Wearing 2 27 30 12 55
concrete

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Exp No 5(a): Benkleman Beam
General
The H-3220A Benkelman Beam Apparatus is a convenient and accurate device used for
measuring the deflection of flexible pavements under moving wheel loads.
Operating on a simple lever arm principal, the device consists of a reference beam body,
two-part probe beam, and rear zero adjustment assembly. The dial indicator is not
included and must be purchased separately.
The Benkelman Beam has the following key features:
Lightweight aluminum construction for easy transport to test site locations.
Telescoping design for easy set up and reduced storage space requirements.
Easy-reading dial indicators for fast and accurate deflection measurements.
Built-in vibration system for improved dial indicator accuracy and repeatability. These
operating procedures do not contain all of the required information
on the complete test procedures used to measure the deflection of flexible pavements
under moving wheel loads. Please refer to the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) test method T256 for more information.
Installation
Assembly and Preliminary Setup
Indicator Installation
The following instructions cover preliminary adjustments of the digital indicator;
final adjustments for individual operating techniques and field conditions can be made
in the field.
1. Place the Benkelman Beam on a sturdy workbench or table. Loosen the lock nut (Fig.
1, #39) and the stop screw (#34). This stop screw acts as a mechanical stop, preventing
the dial indicator from bottoming out when
the unit is moved with the beams extended. Later adjust the screw correctly to eliminate
the possibility of repeated bottoming, which can cause severe damage to the dial
indicator.
2. Deflect the spring clip and extend the center and end beams (Fig. 1, #16
& #22) out about two feet. Remove the locking studs (#15 & #14) from
their storage holes and place them aside for later installation. 3. Gently install the
indicator into the indicator collet (Fig. 1, #7), loosening the collet nut, if necessary. By
placing a finger through the hole on the side of the inner frame beam, move the beam
through its extreme up and down range. Watch the indicator as you move it. (If you are
using a dial indicator,

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
count the number of pointer revolutions your dial indicator makes from one extreme
to the other, and record this number for future reference.)
Adjust the stop screw (#34), turning it in a clockwise direction, so the indicator does not
bottom out when its in the up position. This point is reached when the indicator reading
does not move while the operator is turning the stop screw.
4. After adjustment, turn the stop screw (Fig. 1, #34) in a clockwise direction, until
approximately .004 of movement is registered on the indicator. Now tighten the lock nut
against the frame. Recheck the adjustment, making
sure the indicator is not bottomed out when the frame beam is moved to the extreme top
of its travel. (When using a dial indicator turn the stop screw (Fig. 1, #34) in a
clockwise direction, until approximately two divisions
of pointer movement are shown on the dial indicator.)
5. Turn the thumb wheel (Fig. 1, #45) until the bottom of the leveling screw
(Fig. 1, #49) is about 1-" below the bottom of the frame.
6. Moving the Benkelman Beam to a smooth, hard, level floor, extend the beams to
their full length, locking them into position with the locking studs.
7. Note the relative position of the front follower tip (Fig. 1, #18) and the
dial indicator pointer. If the front follower tip is not on the floor, loosen the lock nuts
(#25) and screw the front leveling feet into their supports until the indicator is about in
its mid range. Making sure the two leveling feet are an equal distance from the bottom
of the frame, use the lock nuts to lock them in place. The indicator is now in its correct
location, protected from bottom- ing damage.
8. Before carrying the Benkelman Beam with its beam extended, it is suggested that
the operator remove the dial indicator from the indicator collet. This practice will prevent
any shock movement, prolonging the accuracy and performance of the dial indicator.
Operation
A. Place the unit 4.5 feet (1.37 m) behind the point of the pavement to be tested. Insert
the probe beam between the dual tires of the vehicle, centering it so the tip of the probe
rests on the test point.
B. Turn on the vibrator system and adjust the position of the rear support (Fig. 1, #45)
so the dial indicator is set to zero. Lock the rear support inplace with its locking screw
(Fig. 1, #3). If additional adjustment is necessary, it can be done by repositioning the
height of the front legs. Zero the digital indicator or note the dial indicator reading.
C. Drive the test vehicle forward at the test speed, recording the maximum dial
indicator reading as the vehicle advances.

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D. After the vehicle has stopped (approximately 25 feet or 7.62 m in front of the test
point), record the final dial indicator reading.
E. Turn off the vibrator system.
Calculations
The H-3220A series Benkelman Beam has a level ratio of 2:1, the H-3221HA Digital
indicator has been calibrated to read the true deflection of the beam probe point,
eliminating the need for any conversions. (For those using dial indicators: Pavement
Reading = Maximum Reading minus Final Reading.)

Indicator Models Available

H-3221HA Horizontal, Digital Indicator, 1-inch range, .001 accuracy
H-3222 Vertical Dial Indicator, 1/2" range x 0.002" divisions
(travel is 1" on dial)
H-3222M Vertical Dial Indicator, 14 mm range x 0.02 mm divisions
(travel is 28mm on dial)

Specifications
Main Body: 55" (1397 mm) long, black aluminum finish
Probe Beam: Aluminum, 8ft. (2.4 m) long, telescopes into case for storage
Probe Fulcrum: Ball pivot bearing, gives lever ratio of 2:1
Vibrator System: Operating switch mounted on top of instrument section
(requires 4 D size batteries, supplied) Indicators: (not included)
Leveling Wheel: Adjust beams to proper elevation
Open Length: 12ft. (3.7 m) long
Weight: Net 35lbs. (15.9kg)

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Fig 1.1 Benkleman Beam Apparatus

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual

1 #10-32 x 1/2 Pan HD, Machine Screw 10 41 1/4" Spring Washer 1

2 #10-32 x 1/2 Pan SOC. HD, Cap Screw 1 43 Rubber Bumper 1

3 Thumb Screw Knob 1 44 Buzzer 1

4 Leveling Block Top 1 45 Thumb Wheel 1

5 #6-32 x 1/2 Binding HD, Machine Screw 9 46 Thrust Bearing 2

6 #6-32 Keps Nut 8 47 Leveling Screw 1

7 Indicator Collet Assembly 1 48 Leveling Block Bottom 1

8 Switch Logo 1 49 Crutch Tip 1

9 Switch 1 50 #10-32 x 1/2 Set Screw, Dog Point 1

10 Battery Holder 1 51 Snap Latch 2

11 Battery "D" Size 4 52 Battery Box Cover 1

12 #6-32 x 1/4 Binding HD, Machine Screw 12 53 Cover Box 1

13 #6 Internal Tooth Lockwasher 7 54 1/4-20 x 1/2 SOC. HD, Cap Screw 2

14 Beam Locking Studs Rear 2 55 Front Support Left 1

15 Beam Locking Studs Front 2 56 Bearing Housing Assmebly 2

16 End Beam Assembly 1 57 Pivot 2

17 #10-24 x 1-1/4 Binding HD, Machine Screw 1 58 Plastic Grommet Large 2

18 Follower Tip 1 59 Plastic Grommet Small 2

19 Stop Block #2 1 60 Frame Beam 1

20 #10-32 x 3/8 Binding HD, Machine Screw 4 61 Plastic Grommet Small 1

21 #10 Flat Washer 2

22 Center Beam Assembly 1
23 Stop Block #1 1
24 Beam Retainer Spring 1
25 3/8-16 Hex Nut 2
26 Leveling Foot 2
27 5/16-18 Hex Nut 2
28 5/16-18 x 2 Set Screw Cup Point 2
29 #10-32 Keps Nut 3

30 Main Frame 1
31 Front Support Right 1
32 #6-32 x 5/16 Flat Head Screw 8

33 Handle 1
34 #10-32 x 1-1/4 Binding HD, Machine Screw 1
35 Box Cover, Hold Down Rod 2
36 #8-32 Keps Nut 4
37 Guide Rod Cover 2
38 Guide Rod 2
39 1/4-20 x 1/2 Hex HD. Screw 2
40 1/4-20 Hex Cap Nut 2

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Exp No 5(b): MERLIN CYCLE
Machine for Evaluating Road roughness using Low cost INstrument

The MERLIN, based upon the UK Transport Research Laboratory (T.R.L.) design, is
used to measure road roughness. The MERLIN is inexpensive, easy to use and easily
maintained.

The longitudinal unevenness of a roads surface, roughness is both a measure of the

roads condition and an important factor in determining vehicle operating costs. It is
usually measured on a standard roughness scale such as the Bump Integrator scale or the
International Roughness Index (IRI). The MERLIN is designed to measure the roughness
of calibration sections.

The roughness of a road's surface is an important measure of road condition and a key
factor in determining vehicle operating costs on poor quality surfaces. This report
describes a simple roughness measuring machine which has been designed especially for
use in developing countries. It is called MERLIN. The device can be used either for direct
measurement or for calibrating response type instruments such as the vehicle-mounted
bump integrator. The MERLIN is having a metal frame 1.8 metres long with a wheel at
the front, a foot at the rear and a probe mid-way between them which rests on the road
surface. The probe is attached to a moving arm, at the other end of which is a pointer
which moves over a chart. If the road were perfectly smooth, the probe would always lie
on a straight line between the bottom of the wheel and the rear foot. If the road were
uneven, the probe would usually be displaced above or below the line. The machine is
wheeled along the road and at regular intervals the position of the pointer is recorded on
the chart to build up a histogram. The arm is pivoted close to the probe so that a
movement of the probe of 1mm will produce a pointer movement of 1cm. The width of
this histogram can be used to give a good estimate of roughness in terms of the
International Roughness Index. Merlins are in use in a number of developing countries

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual

Fig 1.3 MERLIN Cycle Apparatus

The roughness of a section of road is measured by wheeling the MERLIN along the road
with the frame raised. Once every wheel revolution, the frame is lowered so that
the probe and rear foot touch the ground and the resulting pointer position is recorded as
a cross on the chart.Two hundred measurements are made to produce a histogram. The
width of the central 90 per cent of the histogram is measured from the chart and this can
be converted directly into roughness from conversion equations that is supplied.
Roughness in terms of the Merlin scale, D, is obtained by first plotting the recorded data
onto a histogram. Five percent of the total number of recorded observations is counted in

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
from each end of the distribution with the position marked. The value D, in millimetres, is
then obtained by measuring the distance between the two marked points, representing a
data spread of 90% for the collected data. With the value of D obtained, IRI by correlation
can be calculated from given Equation
IRI = 0.593 + 0.047D
where
IRI is the roughness in terms of the International Roughness Index, measured in
metres per kilometre (m/km), and
D is the roughness in terms of the Merlin scale measured in mm.
The equation is valid for D greater than 42mm and less than 312mm,
which equates to IRI greater than 2.4 m/km and less than 15.9 m/km.

24
K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Exp No 6(a): Gradation of Aggregates
Gadation of Aggregates is the procedure for determining particle size distribution of
aggregates by sieving or screening through square openings. This is the first step in
designing the mix of any pavement layer. Particle size distribution helps determine
important properties like durability, permeability and workability of aggregates. Particle
size distribution of aggregate helps in designing mixes so as to minimize void content and
maximize the density.

Apparatus
The apparatus for sieve analysis consists of the following:
1. Sieves conforming to IS: 460-1962 specifications for test sieves are to be used.
Sieves sizes required for the gradation of coarse aggregates 80mm, 63mm, 50mm,
40mm, 31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm and 4.75mm.
2. A balance or scale, which can easily be readable and accurate to at least 0.1
percent of the weight of the test sample.
3. A sieve shaker for shaking.

Procedure
1. Sample is first brought to an air-dry condition before weighing and sieving. This
is achieved either by drying at room temperature or by heating at a temperature of
100oC to 110C in for 4 hours and cooling it back to room temperature.
2. The air-dry sample is weighed, and sieved successively on the appropriate sieves
starting with the largest. Taking care to ensure that the sieves are cleaned before
use.
3. Each sieve is shaken separately over a clean tray until not more than a trace
passes, but in any case, for at least two minutes. The shaking is done with a varied
motion, and with frequent jarring, so that the material is kept moving over the
sieve surface in frequently changing directions. Material shall not be forced
through the sieve by hand pressure. Light brushing with a soft brush on the under
side of the sieve may be used to clear the sieve openings, for finer sieves.
4. Optionally, a sieve shaker can be used, instead of manual shaking.
5. On completion of sieving, the material retained on each sieve, together with any
material cleaned from the mesh, is weighed.
6. Results as cumulative percentage by weight of sample passing each of the sieves,
is recorded.

25
K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Observations and Calculations
Total weight of sample, W=
The weights retained on successive sieves are recorded in the observation table below:
Table 1.11 Observation table for sieve size analysis
IS Sieve Weight of Percentage of Cumulative Percentage
Designation sample weight Percentage of passing
retained (gm) retained (%) weight (%)
retained (%)

Results
Results are calculated and reported as either:
1. Cumulative percentage by weight of the total sample passing each of the sieves,
rounded to the nearest whole number. Or,
2. Percentage by weight of the total sample passing one sieve, and retained on the
next smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1 percent.
Graphical Record of Results of Sieve analysis is done on the chart shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Chart for Recording Sieve Analysis Results

Specification on Maximum Weight Retention
While doing the sieve analysis, care should be taken to see that the retained weight on
each sieve is not more than the maximum specified as shown in Table 1.4.
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 K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual

Table 1.12 Maximum weight retention specification

Maximum weight retained at the completion of sieving
Maximum Weight for
IS Sieves
45cm Diameter Sieve kg 30cm Diameter Sieve kg
50 mm 10 4.5
40 mm 8 3.5
31.5 mm or 25 mm 6 2.5
20 mm 4 2.0
16 mm or 12.5 mm 3 1.5
10 mm 2 1.0
6.3 mm 1.5 0.75
4.75 mm 1.0 0.50
3.35 mm - 0.30

Applications
The sieve analysis determines the gradation, which is the particle size distribution of
aggregate sample. It helps in quality control of aggregate at the crushing plant. It helps to
determine optimum mix of various grades of aggregate. It is also helpful for quality control
of existing pavement layers, and also in determining damage sustained by aggregate in
those layers.

27
K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Exp No 5(b): Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Tests of Aggregates
The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or quality
of the material. Aggregates having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those
with high specific gravity. This property helps in a general identification of aggregates.
Water absorption also gives an idea on the internal structure of aggregate. Aggregates
having more absorption are more porous in nature and are generally considered
unsuitable, unless found to be acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness tests.

Apparatus
The apparatus required for these tests are:
1. A balance of at least 3 kg capacity, with a accuracy to 0.5 g.
2. An oven to maintain a temperature range of 100 to 1100 C.
3. A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of
convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance.
4. A container for filling water and suspending the wire basket in it.
5. An airtight container of capacity similar to that of basket, a shallow tray and two
dry absorbent clothes.
6. Pycnometer of 100ml for aggregates finer than 6.3 mm and Specific gravity bottle
for Mineral filler

Procedure for aggregate coarser than 6.3 mm

1. About 2 kg of aggregate sample is taken, washed to remove fines and then placed
in the wire basket. The wire basket is then immersed in water, which is at a
temperature of 220 C to 320 C.
2. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by
lifting the basket 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop, 25
times at a rate of about one drop per second.
3. The basket, with aggregate are kept completely immersed in water for a period of
24 0.5 hour.
4. The basket and aggregate are weighed while suspended in water, which is at a
temperature of 220 C to 320 C.
5. The basket and aggregates are removed from water and dried with dry absorbent
cloth.
6. The empty basket is suspended back in water tank and weighed.
7. The surface dried aggregates are also weighed.

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
8. The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and heated to about 110 0C in the oven
for 24 hours. Later, it is cooled in an airtight container and weighed.

Procedure for specific gravity determination of aggregate finer than 6.3 mm and
mineral filler
1. A clean, dry pycnometer is taken and its empty weight is determined.
2. About 1000g of clean sample is taken into the pycnometer, and it is weighed.
3. Water at 27 0C is filled up in the pycnometer with aggregate sample, to just
immerse sample.
4. Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by
shaking pycnometer, placing a finger on the hole at the top of the sealed
pycnometer.
5. Now the pycnometer is completely filled up with water till the hole at the top, and
after confirming that there is no more entrapped air in it, it is weighed.
6. The contents of the pycnometer are discharged, and it is cleaned.
7. Water is filled up to the top of the pycnometer, without any entrapped air. It is then
weighed.
For mineral filler, specific gravity bottle is used and the material is filled upto one-third of
the capacity of bottle. The rest of the process of determining specific gravity is similar to
the one described for aggregate finer than 6.3 mm.

Observations and Calculations

1. Aggregate coarser than 6.3 mm
Table 1.13 Observation table for Specific gravity and water absorption

Observed
S.No Details
Values
1 Weight of saturated aggregate and basket in water: W1 g
2 Weight of basket in water: W2 g
3 Weight of saturated aggregates in air: W3 g
4 Weight of oven dry aggregates in air: W4 g
5 Apparent Specific Gravity: W4 / [W4 (W1 - W2 )]
6 Bulk Specific Gravity: W4 / [W3 (W1 - W2 )]
7 Water Absorption: [(W3 W4 ) x 100]/ W4

Results

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K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
Bulk Specific Gravity =
Apparent Specific Gravity =
Water Absorption = %

2. Aggregate of size finer than 6.3 mm

Table 1.14 Observation table for Specific gravity test (finer than 6.3 mm)

Observed
S.No Details
Values
1 Weight of Pycnometer in air: W1 g
2 Weight of aggregates and Pycnometer: W2 g
3 Weight of aggregates, Pycnometer and water: W3 g
4 Weight of water and Pycnometer in air: W4 g
Apparent Specific Gravity: (W2 W1) / [(W4 W1) - (W3 -
5
W2 )]

Results
Apparent Specific Gravity =

3. Mineral Filler
Table 1.15 Observation table for Specific gravity test (mineral filler)
Observed
S.No Details
Values
1 Weight of specific gravity bottle in air: W1 g
2 Weight of mineral filler(MF) and specific gravity bottle: W2 g
3 Weight of MF, specific gravity bottle and water: W3 g
4 Weight of water and specific gravity bottle in air: W4 g
5 Apparent Specific Gravity: (W2 W1) / [(W4 W1) - (W3 - W2 )]

Note: It is to be noted that in case the mineral fillers which react with water, like lime or
cement, kerosene is used instead of water. Kerosene has a specific gravity of 0.8. The
apparent specific gravity would then be 0.8*(W4 W1) / [(W4 W1) - (W3 - W2)]

Results
Apparent Specific Gravity =

Specifications
30
K L University Transportation Engineering Lab Manual
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about
2.5 to 3.0 with an average value of about 2.68. Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 to
about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally use in road surfacing.

Applications
Specific gravity of aggregates is considered as an indication of strength. Material having
higher specific gravity is generally considered as having higher strength. Water
absorption of aggregate is a measure of porosity. This value is considered as a measure of
resistance to frost action, and as a measure of sustaining weathering action.

31
2.0 General
Bitumen is the binder material used in flexible pavements. These binders, when mixed
aggregate produce a dense impermeable matrix. Binders hold the aggregates together, at
the same time provide flexibility to resisting deformations. Studying the properties of
bitumen is therefore of importance in proportioning and designing bituminous concrete
mixes.

Bitumen: Bituminous binders used in pavement construction work include bitumen and
tar. Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by distillation of petroleum crude where as
road tar is obtained by destructive distillation of coal and wood. Both bitumen and tar
have similar appearance as both are black in colour: both the materials can be used in
pavement work, but have different characteristics.

Modified Bitumen: Modified bitumen is the bitumen whose property has been modified
by adding performance-enhancing modifiers. The most commonly used
modifiers are synthetic polymers, natural rubber and crumb rubber. The use of
modified bitumen is encouraged for special applications like stress absorbing
membranes for sealing of cracks, for inter-layer, for delaying reflection cracks
and for surface dressing of heavy traffic roads like National Highways and
Expressways.

Tests to determine the properties of bitumen: The testing which is to be performed to

determine the properties of given bitumen and modified bitumen sample is listed out here.
1. Penetration Test
2. Softening Point Test
3. Flash & fire point
4. Ductility Test
5. Specific Gravity Test
6. Solubility Test
7. Elastic recovery of modified bitumen
8. Separation difference test on modified bitumen

Standards for Testing of Bitumen: Indian standard codes giving guidelines in the field
of bitumen testing are given in table 2.1.

32
 Table 2.1 IS codes on bitumen testing

S No Name of the Test Test Method

1 Bitumen Coating and Stripping Test IS: 6241
2 Solubility Test IS:1216
3 Elastic Recovery Test on Modified Bitumen IS:SP:53

4 Separation Difference Test on Modified Bitumen IS:SP:53

33
 Exp No 7: Penetration Test
Determination of absolute viscosity of bituminous materials is not easy. Therefore the
consistency of bitumen is determined indirectly by penetration test. Various types and
grades of bituminous materials are available depending on their origin and refining
processes. The penetration test determines the consistency of these materials for the
purpose of grading them. The basic principle of penetration test is the measurement of the
penetration (in units of one tenth of a mm) of a standard needle in a bitumen sample
maintained at 250 C in five seconds, the total weight of the needle assembly being 100 g.
The softer the bitumen, the greater will be the penetration.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the penetration test consists of the following:
1. A flat-bottomed cylindrical metallic container 55mm in diameter and 35 mm or 57
mm in height.
2. A straight, highly polished cylindrical hard steel needle with conical end. The
needle is provided with a shank approximately 3.0 mm in diameter into which it is
immovably fixed.
3. A water bath, maintained at 25 10 C containing not less than 10 liters of water,
the sample is immersed to depth not less than 100 mm from the top and supported
on a perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from of the bottom of the bath.
4. Penetrometer
5. A small tray which can keep the container fully immersed in water during the test.

Procedure
1. The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency between 75 0C and 100 0C above
the approximate temperature at which bitumen softens.
2. The sample material is then poured into the container to a depth at least 15 mm
more than the expected penetration.
3. The sample containers are cooled in atmosphere at a temperature of not less than
13 0C for one hour.
4. Then they are placed in temperature controlled water baths at a temperature of 25
0
C for one hour.
5. The sample container is placed in the transfer tray with water from the water bath
and placed under the needle of the penetrometer.

34
 6. The penetrations of all samples are obtained, by taking at least three
measurements on each sample, at a distance of at least 100mm.

Observations and Calculations

1. Pouring temperature, 0 C = 0
C
2. Period of cooling in atmosphere, minutes = minutes
3. Room temperature, 0 C = 0
C
4. Period of placing samples in water bath, minutes = minutes
5. Actual test temperature, 0 C = 0
C

Table 2.2 Observation table for Penetration test

Sample No 1 Sample No 2
Readings Test Test Test Mean Test Test Test Mean
1 2 3 Value 1 2 3 Value
dial Initial
reading Final
Penetration Value

Results:
Mean Penetration value of the given sample of bitumen is=

Specifications
The Indian Standards Institution has classified paving bitumen available in this country
into six categories depending on the penetration values. Grades designated A are from
Assam Petroleum and those designated S are from other sources.

Table 2.3 Bitumen grade sheet

Bitumen A 35 & A 45 & A 65 & A 90 & A 200 &

A 25
Grade S 35 S 45 S 65 S 90 S 200
Penetration 175 to
20 to 30 30 to 40 0 to 50 60 to 70 80 to 100
value 225

The penetration values of various types of bitumen used in pavement construction in

India range between 20 and 225. For bituminous macadam and penetration macadam,
Indian Road Congress suggests bitumen grades of 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. In warmer

35
regions lower penetration grades are preferred and in colder regions bitumen with higher
penetration values are preferred.

Applications
Penetration test is the most commonly adopted test on bitumen to grade the material in
terms of its hardness. Depending upon the climatic condition and type of construction,
bitumens of different penetration grades are used, 80/100 bitumen denotes that the
penetration value ranges between 80 and 100.

36
 Exp No 8: Softening Point Test
Bitumen does not suddenly change from solid to liquid state, but as the temperature
increases, it gradually become softer until it flows readily. The common procedure is to
liquefy the bitumen by heating. The softening point is the temperature at which the
substance attains a particular degree of softening under specified condition of test.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the softening point test consists of the following:
1. Ring and Ball apparatus.
2. A bath, having, bath liquid as water for material having softening point below 80 0
C and glycerine for material having softening point above 800 C.
3. Mechanical stirrer is used for ensuring uniform heat distribution at all times
throughout the bath.

Procedure
1. The sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 100 0C above the
approximate softening point until it is completely fluid. It is then poured in heated
rings placed on a glass plate, which is coated with a solution of glycerin and
dextrin to avoid of sticking of bitumen to the metal plate.
2. After cooling the rings in air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is trimmed and
rings are placed in the support.
3. The samples are immersed in distilled water, which is kept at 5 0C for 15 minutes
after which the balls are placed in position, on top of the sample in the ring.
4. The temperature is then raised at a uniform rate of 5 0C per minute with a
controlled heating unit, until the bitumen softens and the balls on top of them sink
through. This process is repeated for at least two observations.

Observations and Calculations

1. Bitumen grade =
0
2. Approximate Softening point = C
3. Liquid used in the bath =
4. Period of cooling in air, minutes = minutes
5. Period of cooling in water bath, minutes = minutes

37
 Table 2.4 Observation table for Softening point

Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2

Test property Ball no Ball no Ball no Ball no Mean Value
1 2 1 2
Temperature (0 C) at
which sample
touches bottom plate

Results
0
The mean value of softening point of the given sample: C

Specifications
The range of softening point values specified by the Indian Standards Institution for
various grades of bitumen available in India is given. The minimum value for Assam
petroleum A 25 & A 35 is 55 to 70 0C, S 35 is 50 to 65 0C, A 45, S 45 & A65 is 45 to 60
0
C, S65 is 40 to 55 0C, A 90 & S 90 is 35 to 50 0C and A 200 & S 200 is 30 to 45 0C.

Applications
Softening point is essentially the temperature at which the bituminous binders have an
equal viscosity. The softening point of tar is therefore related to the equi-viscous
temperature (e.v.t). The softening point found by the ring and ball apparatus is
approximately 200 C lower than e.v.t. Softening point, thus gives an idea of the
temperature at which the bituminous material attains a certain viscosity. Bitumen with
higher softening point may be preferred in warmer place. Softening point is also
sometimes used to specify hard bitumen.

38
 Exp No 9: Flash and fire point
Flash Point - The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapours from the material to momentarily catch fire in
the form of a flash under specified test conditions.
Fire Point - The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test flame
causes the material to ignite and burn for atleast 5 s under specified test conditions.

Apparatus:
The apparatus for this test are as follows:
1. Pensky-Martens closed tester consisting of cup, lid, stirring device, cover shutter,
flame exposure device, as seen in figure 2.1.
2. Pensky -Martens open tester as above with the modification, that the cover of the
cup is replaced by a clip which encircles the upper rim of the cup and carries
thermometer and test flame.

Fig 2.1 Pensky Martens Closed Tester and Cover

39
Procedure
1. Clean and dry all parts of the cup and its accessories thoroughly before starting the
test. Taking extra care to avoid the presence of any solvent used to clean the
apparatus after the previous test.
2. The cup is filled with the material to be tested up to the level indicated by the
filling mark. Lid is placed on the cup and it is setup on the stove. Care is taken, to
ensure the locating devices are properly engaged. A thermometer is inserted,
whose range is dependent on the range required.
3. The test-flame is lit and adjusted so that it is the size of a bead of 4 mm in
diameter. Heat is applied at a rate such that the temperature-recorded by the
thermometer increases between 5 to 6C per minute.
4. The stirrer is turned at a rate of approximately 60 revolutions per minute. The test-
flame is applied at each temperature reading which is a multiple of 1C upto
104C. For the temperature range above 104C, the test flame is applied at each
temperature reading which is a multiple of 2C. The first application of the test-
flame is made at a temperature at least 17C below the actual flash point.
5. The test-flame is applied by operating the device controlling the shutter and test-
flame burner so that the flame is lowered in 0.5 seconds, left in its lowered
position for one second, and quickly raised to its high position. The stirring is
discontinued during the application of the test-flame.

Observations and Calculations

Bitumen grade/ Cutback type and grade:
Type of equipment:
Rate of heating:
Barometric pressure: mm of Hg
Table 2.5 Measurement of rate of heating

Time, min 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Temperature, 0C

Corrections are made to flash point value to correct for atmospheric pressure at the rate of
1C increase/decrease for a pressure of 25 mm below/above 760 mm of Hg.

Table 2.6 Observation table for flash and fire point test
40
 Test Number
Test Property Mean value
1 2 3
Flash Point
Fire point
Variation from mean value

Result
The flash point for grade bitumen is: C
The fire point for grade bitumen is: C

Specifications
As per Indian Roads Congress and IS codes 1209 and 73. Specifications have been shown
in table 2.6. In these specifications, repeatability is also specified.
Table 2.7 Specification of Flash and Fire point test

Temperature C Repeatability C Min Values

Flash Point 3 175

Fire Point 6 210

Applications
Different bituminous materials have quite different values of flash and fire points. When
the bitumen or cutback is to be heated before mixing or application, utmost care is taken
to see that heating is limited to a temperature well below the flash point. This is essential
from safety point, as heating over the flash point could cause fire.

Exp No 10: Ductility Test

41
In flexible pavement construction where bitumen binders are used, it is of significant
importance that the binders form ductile thin films around the aggregates. This serves as
satisfactory binder in improving the physical interlocking of the aggregates. The binder
material which does not possess sufficient ductility would crack and thus provide
pervious pavement surface. Ductility is expressed as the distance in centimetres to which
a standard briquette of bitumen can be stretched before the thread breaks.

Apparatus
The apparatus for the ductility test consists of the following:
1. A briquette mould which is made of brass metal. Both ends called clips possess
circular holes to grip the fixed and movable ends of the testing machine.
2. A water bath is maintained at 270 C containing not less than 10 liters of water, the
sample is immersed to depth not less than 100 mm from the top and supported on
a perforated shelf not less than 50 mm from of the bottom of the bath.
3. A square-end trowel or putty knife sharpened on end.
4. Ductility machine: It is equipment which functions as constant temperature water
bath and a pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate.

Fig 2.2 Ductility Mould

Procedure
42
 1. The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 750 C to 1000 C above the
approximate softening point until it is fluid.
2. It is poured in the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate, after a solution of
glycerin and dextrin is applied at all the surfaces of the mould exposed to bitumen.
3. After 30 to 40 minutes after the sample is poured into the moulds, the plate
assembly along with the sample is placed in a water bath maintained at 27 0 C for
30 minutes.
4. The sample and mould assembly are removed from water bath and excess bitumen
material is cutoff by leveling the surface using hot knife.
5. After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly is again placed in water bath
maintained at 270 C for 85 to 95 minutes.
6. Two or more specimens may be prepared in the moulds and clipped to the
ductility machine so as to conduct these tests simultaneously.
7. Start the machine and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally
8. Record the distance at which the bitumen thread of each specimen breaks, is
recorded (in cm) to report as ductility value.

Observations and Calculations

1. Grade of bitumen =
2. Poring temperature, 0 C = 0
C
3. Test temperature, 0 C = 0
C
4. Period of cooling, minutes, (a) in air = minutes
(b) in water bath before trimming = minutes
(c) in water bath after trimming = minutes

Table 2.8 Observation table for Ductility of Bitumen

Briquette Number
Test Property Mean Value
1 2 3
Ductility value (cm)

Results
Mean ductility value of the given bitumen sample: cm

Specifications

43
The minimum ductility values specified by the Indian Standards Institution for various
grades of bitumen available in India are given. The minimum value for Assam petroleum
A 25, A 35, A 45, A65, A 90 & A 200 are 5, 10, 12 and 15 cm respectively. The minimum
value for other sources S 35, S 45, S 65 & S 90 is 50 and 75 cm respectively.

Applications
A certain minimum ductility is necessary for a bitumen binder. This is because of the
temperature changes in the bituminous mixes and the repeated deformations that occur in
flexible pavements due to the traffic loads. If the bitumen has low ductility value, the
bituminous pavement may crack, especially in cold weather. The ductility values of
bitumen vary from 5 to 100. A minimum ductility value of 50 cm is specified for
bituminous construction.

44
 Exp No 12: Bitumen extraction test
Bitumen extraction test is a procedure for the quantitative estimation of bitumen in hot-
mixed pavement mixtures and pavement core samples. Aggregate obtained by this test
can be used for sieve analysis, to determine gradation of aggregate used. The paving
mixture is extracted with trichloroethylene using extraction equipment. The bitumen
content is calculated as the difference between the weight of the original sample and the
weight of the extracted aggregate, moisture content, and ash from the extract. This test is
extensively used for quality control and sometimes also for pavement performance.

Apparatus
The apparatus required for this test is:
1. Oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 110 50 C.
2. A balance for measuring weights to 0.001 g.
3. Volumetric flask of 1000 ml previously tared and calibrated.
4. Water bath maintained at approximately 200 C.
5. Thermometer readable to 0.10 C.
6. Electric stirrer, capable of mixing liquids inside a volumetric flask.
7. Trichloroethylene, conforming to IS: 245-1970.
8. Extraction apparatus consisting of a bowl and an apparatus, within which the bowl
can revolve at controlled variable speeds up to 3,600 rpm. The apparatus is
provided with a container for retaining the solvent thrown from the bowl and a
drain form removing the solvent.
9. Filter rings of felt or paper, to fit the rim of the bowl.

Procedure
1. The mixture is firstly softened by placing it in a large flat pan and warming it until
it can be handled. It can be heated to a maximum temperature of 110 50 C .
2. The test sample is normally obtained by splitting a larger sample. The size of the
test sample is governed by the nominal maximum aggregate size in the mixture
and will conform to the weight requirements shown in table 3.4.
3. Based on the field conditions, water content of a representative portion of the
mixture, is determined. The mass of water in the extraction test portion is
calculated, by multiplying mass percent water by the mass of the extracted test
portion.
4. An appropriate size sample is taken into a bowl and weighed.

45
 5. The sample in the bowl is covered with trichloroethylene and allowed to stay for
sufficient time, to allow the solvent to disintegrate the sample, for a maximum of
1 hour. A previously dried and weighed filter ring is fixed around the edge of the
bowl, the cover of the bowl is clamped on the bowl tightly. A 1000 ml volumetric
flask is kept under the rotarex drain to collect the extract.
6. The centrifuge is started, revolving slowly at first, and then gradually increasing in
speed to the maximum, or until the solvent ceases to flow from the drain. The
machine is allowed to stop, 200 ml of solvent is added, and the procedure
repeated.
7. Sufficient 200 ml solvent additions are used (not less than three), so that the
extract at the end is clear and not darker than a light straw color. The extracts and
washings are collected in the 1000 ml volumetric flask. Solvent is added to the
extracts and washings, collected in the volumetric flask, to bring the level slightly
above the calibration mark.
8. The flask is placed in a water bath maintained at approximately 200 C, and allowed
to remain in the bath for about 30 minutes. As the solvent contracts during this
period, it would be better to add solvent to maintain the level near the calibration
mark.
9. A long electric stirrer is inserted, through the neck of the flask and the extract
stirred thoroughly. Immediately after that, the thermometer is inserted in the neck
of the flask and the temperature recorded to the nearest 0.10 C, when it has reached
equilibrium.
10. After reading the temperature, a few drops of solvent with a pipette are quickly
added or removed, as necessary, to bring the bottom of the meniscus to the
calibration mark.
11. The outside of the flask is quickly dried and weighed, along with its contents to
the nearest 0.1 g. The filter ring is removed from the bowl and dried in air.
12. Carefully as much of the mineral aggregate adhering to the filter ring and the
bowls is scraped and brushed into a flat drying pan.
13. The aggregate and filter ring are dried to a constant weight in an oven maintained
at 110 50 C, for a minimum period of 1 hour.

Observations and Calculations

Weight of water in sample, Ww = g
Specific Gravity of Fines, Gf =
Specific Gravity of Bitumen, Gb = (to the nearest 0.01)
46
Specific Gravity of Solvent, Gs = (to the nearest 0.0001 at about 200 C)
Weight of Flask and contents, W = g
Weight of Flask, Wfl =g
Weight of dry aggregates, Wa = g
Weight of sample before extraction, D = g
Weight of fines in the filter paper, Wff = g
Weight of Bitumen and Fines in Solvent, Wx = D - Wa - Wff - Ww = g

G
f
W - W fl - W x -

Weight of Fines in solvent, W =f
G b
1000 -
W x
Gb - G f Gs
= g

Bitumen content, B % = W -W
x f
* 100
D
= %
It has been observed in calibration tests with mixtures of known bitumen content, to add
0.1% to the bitumen extracted.
Final bitumen content, Bc % = B+0.1 = %

Results
% by weight of bitumen in the mix = %

Specifications
As per the requirement of AASHTO codes, based on nominal size of aggregate, certain
minimum weights for samples are prescribed. These requirements are required, as
extraction results are less reliable on a small sample for large nominal sized aggregates.
Table 2.9 Sample size requirements
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size, mm Minimum Weight of Sample, gm
4.75 500
9.5 1000
12.5 1500
19.0 2000
25.0 3000
37.5 4000

47
 3.0 General
Bituminous mixes are used in the surface courses of flexible pavements. The desirable
properties of bituminous mixes are stability, density, durability, flexibility, skid resistance
and construction workability. Bituminous mixes are tested to get the optimum design mix,
which can be used for construction. Marshall Stability test is the most prominent test
procedure in designing mixes. Bitumen extraction test is a method of estimating bitumen
content in bituminous mixes. The extraction test is used as a quality control test for mixes
in the field. Mix design is done as per the provisions of IRC 29-1988. Bitumen extraction
is done as per AASHTO Guidelines.

48
 Exp No 13: Marshall Stability Test
The resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of bituminous mixture is
measured when the same is loaded at the periphery at 5 cm per minute. This test
procedure is used in designing and evaluating bituminous paving mixes. There are two
major features of the Marshall method of designing mixes namely (i) DensityVoid
analysis (ii) StabilityFlow tests. The Marshal stability of the mix is defined as a
maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test temperature at 60 0 C.
The flow value is the deformation the Marshall Test specimen undergoes during the
loading up to the maximum load, in 0.25 mm units. This test is aimed at determining
optimum binder content for the type of aggregate mix and traffic intensity.

Apparatus
The apparatus required for this test are:
1. Mould Assembly to mould the mix sample.
2. Sample Extractor for extracting sample from mould.
3. Compaction Pedestal with Hammer.
4. Oven, hot plate and mixing apparatus.
5. Water bath and thermometers, of range upto 2000C, with 2.50C sensitivity
6. Breaking head, loading machine and flow meter.

Procedure
1. The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and the filler material are proportioned and
mixed in such a way that final mix after blending has the gradation within the
specified range.
2. Approximately 1200 g of aggregates and filler are taken and heated to a
temperature of 1750 C to 1900 C.
3. The compacted mould assembly and rammer are cleaned and kept preheated to a
temperature of 1000 C to 1450 C.
4. The bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121 0 C to 1380 C and the required
quantity of the first trail percentage of bitumen is added to the heated aggregates
and thoroughly mixed using a mechanical stirrer or by hand mixing with trowel.
5. The mixing is done at a temperature is about 1500 C to 1700 C.
6. The mix is then placed in the preheated mould and compacted by a rammer with
75 blows on either side.

49
 7. The compacted specimen will now have a thickness of 63.5 3.0 mm. At least
two specimens but preferably three specimens are prepared in each trial; bitumen
content is normally varied at 0.5 % increments upto 6 or 6.5 %.
8. The compacted specimens are allowed to cool to room temperature, the sample
height and weight is determined, theoretical density is calculated.
9. The specimen is then coated with paraffin wax, weighed in air and then in water
for determining volume and later bulk density.
10. The specimens are then transferred into a water bath, kept at 60 0 C for 30 to 40
minutes. They are then removed, dried and placed in Marshall test head. Their
Stability and flow values are noted. They are corrected for variation from average
height.

Observations and Calculations

Three tests are performed on the mix specimens, and observations for all of them are
carried out.
1. Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimens:
Gt = Average specific gravity of aggregates =
W1 = Percent by weight of M1 aggregates = %
W2 = Percent by weight of M2 aggregates = %
W3 = Percent by weight of M3 aggregates = %
W4 = Percent by weight of mineral filler = %
Wbi = Percent by weight of bitumen in total mix = %
G1 = Apparent specific gravity of M1 aggregates =
G2 = Apparent specific gravity of M2 aggregates =
G3 = Apparent specific gravity of M3 aggregates =
G4 = Apparent specific gravity of mineral filler =
Gbi= Specific gravity of bitumen =

The theoretical specific gravity of the mix is given as:

100
G
t
W W W W W
1 2 3 4 bi

G G G3 G G
1 2 1
4 bi

2. Density and Void Analysis:

Wa = Weight of specimen in air =
Ww = Weight of paraffin coated specimen in water =
50
 h = Height of specimen =
V = Volume of specimen =
Gb = Bulk density = Wa/(Wa-Ww) =

100(Gt - Gb)
V v = Air voids in the mix = = %
G t

V = Volume of bitumen = G *
b
W bi
= %
G b
bi

VMA = Void in Mineral Aggregates = Vv + Vb = %

100 *V b
VFB = Voids Filled with Bitumen = =
VMA
Table 3.1 Observation table for density and voids
Height
Weight (g) Bulk
Sample Bitumen of
Density Gt Vv Vb VMA VFB
No content,% sample,
Gb
mm in air in water
1
2
3
Average
1
2
3
Average
1
2
3
Average
1
2
3
Average

3. Marshall Stability and Flow Values:

C = Correction factor for height variation =
Marshall Stability value =
Flow value =

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 Table 3.2 Observation table for Marshall Stability and flow value
Bitumen Stability Value Flow value
Sample Flow dial
content 0.25mm
No Measured Corrected reading
percent units
1
2
3
Average
1
2
3
Average
1
2
3
Average
1
2
3
Average

4. Optimum bitumen content determination:

B1 = Bitumen content corresponding to maximum density =
B2 = Bitumen content corresponding to maximum Stability =
B3 = Bitumen content corresponding to 4% voids content =
Bo = Optimum bitumen content = ( B1 + B2 + B3 ) / 3 =

In addition to these, graphs are plotted between, with bitumen content on x axis, and:
1. Bulk density, Gb
2. Marshall Stability, M
3. % voids in total mix, Vv
4. Flow value, f
5. % voids filled with bitumen, VFB

Results
Optimum bitumen content = %
Marshall Stability at optimum bitumen content = kg

52
Marshall flow value at optimum bitumen content, 0.25 mm units = mm
Voids in total mix at optimum bitumen content, Vv =%
Voids in mineral aggregate filled with bitumen, VFB = %

Specifications
As per IRC 29, dealing with bituminous mix design has specifications, given below:
Table 3.3 Specifications of optimum mix

Test Property Specified Value

Marshall Stability, kg 340

Marshall Flow Value,
8 to 16
0.25 mm units
Voids in Total Mix,Vv % 3 to 5
Voids in mineral aggregates
75-85
Filled with Bitumen, VFB %

Applications
The Marshall Stability test method is very simple and rapid method for designing
bituminous mixes scientifically. The stability values obtained in this test procedure
indirectly represent the strength of a paving mix at a zero vertical stress level which is
critical. Mixes with very high Marshall Stability values and very low Flow values are not
desirable as the pavements of such mixes may be brittle and are likely to crack under
heavy traffic.

53