Chapter 17 Selection and Evolution

1: Variation 2
2: Comparisons 5
3: Natural Selection 6
4: Artificial Selection 9
5: Sickle Cell Anaemia 12
6: Cases 14
7: Antibiotic Resistance 38
8: Essays 42
9: Learning Outcomes and Extra Notes 44
Colour Coding:
Key Words
Important Key Words
Key words in the Question
Additional Comments
Predicted Questions in Purple
Selection and Evolution
Prepared and Compiled by Michael Fork

Chapter 17
CIE Notes for Biology A2
Prepared and compiled by Michael Fork
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1: Variation
(O/N 09 41) In order for natural selection to occur a population must show phenotypic variation. 2m
Explain why variation is important in natural selection.
1. Variation means there are differences in characteristics shown by organisms belonging to the same natural
population or species.
2. Phenotypic variation results in different survival rates among organisms of the same species as some
individuals possessing particular variations will be more suited to survive and reproduce.
3. Therefore the reproductive rates of individuals are unequal.
(O/N 02) State the 2 major factors that contribute to phenotypic variation in a plant species. 2m
1. Environment
2. Genotype
(M/J 05)
Explain whether resistance to chloroquine in P. falciparum is an example of continuous or discontinuous variation.

2m
1. Discontinuous
2. Single gene
3. Different alleles have large effect/resistant v non-resistant
(O/N 13 41) Mammoths are extinct mammals related to elephants. About three million years ago, the ancestors of
mammoths migrated from Africa into Europe and Asia. There, about 1.7 million years ago, the steppe mammoth
evolved and became adapted to the cooler conditions. Then, about 700 000 years ago, as the climate changed and
the Arctic became much colder, the woolly mammoth evolved.
Woolly mammoths showed a number of obvious adaptations to reduce heat loss, including thick fur, small ears and
small tails.
Explain how variation and natural selection may have brought about the evolution of the woolly mammoth from the
steppe mammoth. [5]

in context of woolly mammoth
1. individuals varied (in their phenotypes) ;
2. (phenotypic variation) caused by, genetic variation / mutation ;
3. change in, selection pressure / environmental conditions ;
4. idea that variation increases the chance of some individuals surviving / AW ;
5. named adaptation explained ; e.g. better insulation / smaller surface area to volume
6. survivors breed ;
7. passed on alleles to offspring ;
8. changed allele frequency (in population) ;
(M/J 15 41) Explain why offspring produced by cross-pollination and self-pollination differ in their genetic variation.
[3]
self-pollination
1. gametes / alleles / genes / DNA, come(s) from one parent ;
2. gives, less genetic variation / more genetic uniformity ;
3. results in inbreeding ;
4. increases homozygosity / decreases heterozygosity ;
ora for cross-pollination
(O/N 09 41)
Complete Fig 4.1 by writing letters to represent the sets of chromosomes in bread wheat.
AABBCC
Explain why hybridisation between emmer wheat and goat grass 2 would have produced a sterile hybrid, if doubling
of chromosome number had not occurred. 3m

If doubling of chromosomes has not occurred
1. Chromosomes would not be able to pair
2. Because chromosomes in the 2 sets are not homologous
3. during prophase 1/ meiosis 1
4. Therefore gametes cannot be produced
With ref to Fig, suggest why Triticum urartu and Triticum turgidum are classified as different species. 2m
1. Unable to breed
2. to produce fertile offspring
3. Reproductively isolated
Triticum turgidum emerged as a new species without being geographically isolated from Titicum urartu.
Outline how geographical isolation may result in speciation. 3m
1. Species split into 2 populations by geographical barrier
2. Different selection pressures/ environmental conditions on the 2 populations
3. Different features, selected/ advantageous
4. There is a change in gene pools/ allele frequencies
5. Over time they become unable to interbreed
(M/J 14 41) Wheat, Triticum aestivum, owes its origin to hybridisation involving three different, but related, species
of grass, A, B and C. Each of these species had seven pairs of chromosomes (2n = 14).
The hybridisation process is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Using the symbols in the key, complete Fig. 3.1 by writing in the chromosome sets of T. aestivum. [1]
AABBCC
At the points labelled Y and Z in the hybridisation process, a fertile hybrid was produced from a sterile hybrid.
Explain why the hybrid (AB) is sterile and what occurred at the point labelled Y in Fig. 3.1. [4]
1. meiosis is unsuccessful in, sterile hybrid/AB
2. gametes cannot be formed
3. chromosomes cannot pair up/chromosomes are not homologous during Prophase 1

4. Meiosis occurs when chromosomes double A tetraploid
5. failure of cell division results in all chromosomes in one daughter cell
6. chromosomes can now form pairs/ gametes can be formed/ meiosis can be completed
When the phenotype is controlled by a small number of alleles of a particular gene, it may be genetically
determined, giving rise to discontinuous variation.
When the phenotype is controlled by the additive effects of many genes (polygenic), it may be affected by the
environment as well as genes, giving rise to continuous variation.
2: Comparisons
(M/J 03)Describe how artificial selection differs from natural selection. 3m
1. Artificial selection is carried out by humans
2. who choose organisms with useful characteristics that are of benefit to them
3. Natural selection is carried out by environment.

4. Those with the features best adapted to the environment survive. They reproduce and pass on their alleles
to their offspring.
5. This may lead to a change in the gene pool of the population and over time may lead to evolutionary
change.
3: Natural Selection
(M/J 13 41) One allele of the DRD4 gene has been found more frequently amongst individuals whose personality is
described as impulsive and exploratory. Describe the mechanism whereby an allele such as this could have become
common in the human population. [3]
1. Natural selection operates

2. Individuals possessing this allele will be more suited to the environment than those who do not possess the
allele, therefore having a selective advantage and are more likely to survive and reproduce and pass on this
favourable alleles to offspring.
3. This causes a change in the gene pool as the allele increases in frequency over time.

(M/J 07) Describe the role of natural selection in the spread of bacterial strains, such as A and B, when antibiotic is
used. 4m
1. Antibiotic provides selection pressure
2. The susceptible bacteria die. Resistant bacteria survive, reproduce and pass the resistant allele to offspring
(vertical transmission). The resistant bacteria may also pass the resistant allele to other species via plasmid
transfer (horizontal transmission).
3. As a result, frequency of the resistant allele in the population increases
(O/N 10 41) Explain the role of natural selection in the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. 3m
1. Antibiotic is selective agent/ provides selection pressure
2. Resistant bacteria, survive/ reproduce
3. Pass resistant allele to offspring
4. Frequency of resistant allele in the population increases
(M/J 14 41) The genotypes of deer mice from three different populations, each living at a different altitude, were
analysed. Fig. 5.1 shows the relative proportions of deer mice with aspartic acid (white areas) and glycine (black
areas) at position 64 in the -polypeptide of their haemoglobin.
Describe the effect of altitude on the frequency of the haemoglobin alleles in these populations of deer mice. [2]
1. as altitude increases frequency of glycine increases
2. Allele with glycine more frequent at high altitudes / Allele with aspartic acid more frequent at low altitudes/
intermediate frequency of either allele at intermediate altitude
The partial pressure of oxygen is relatively low at high altitudes. Haemoglobin containing glycine at position 64 in the
-polypeptide chain has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin with aspartic acid at this position.
Suggest how natural selection could account for the difference in allele frequency in deer mice living at high
altitudes and low altitudes. [2]
1. There is genetic variation in deer mouse population

2. at high altitude mice with glycine are more likely to survive/ have selective advantage
3. mice with glycine reproduce at high altitude
4. and pass on the glycine allele
5. partial pressure/ concentration of O2 acts as a selection pressure
6. This disadvantage the haemoglobin with very high affinity at low altitude
7. as haemoglobin are less able to unload oxygen in respiring tissues

(O/N 14 43) For some genetic diseases, the proportion of individuals that have the disease can vary in different parts
of the world. Sometimes this is due to different environmental conditions. The number of cases of PKU is
approximately ten times higher in Europe than in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Individuals who are carriers of the recessive allele for PKU are more resistant to ochratoxin A, produced by a
fungus found on contaminated grain products.
Ochratoxin A has been linked to a form of renal cancer.
The fungi that produce ochratoxin A are less common in dry regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa.
Suggest and explain the mechanism which has resulted in the different number of cases of PKU in European and Sub-
Saharan populations. [5]
1. natural selection.
In Europe
2. There are more fungus/ ochratoxin A
3. fungus acts as selection pressure
4. heterozygotes/ carriers, have selective advantage
5. (heterozygotes/ carriers) survive and reproduce A selected for/ less likely to develop renal cancer
6. And reproduce to pass on the advantageous/ PKU, allele
7. frequency of PKU allele increases
8. idea that people with PKU are treated so also pass on recessive allele ;
accept ora Sub-Saharan Africa
(M/J 15 41) Explain how natural selection produced the smaller flower size of the plants grown for five generations
in the glasshouse. [5]
1. There is a range of flower sizes in original population

2. genetic variation (affecting flower size) in original population I mutation
3. The selection pressure is absence of bees / insect pollination (in greenhouse)
4. Thus, plants with small flowers are at a selective advantage
5. alleles for small size passed to offspring I gene
6. frequency of advantageous / smallness allele increases
7. This is a form of directional selection
8. temperature / irrigation / space / competition, different in field and glasshouse ;
Suggest how smaller flowers could lead to an increase in self-pollination.[1]

1. anthers and stigma / stamens and carpels, closer together
4: Artificial Selection
(M/J 14 42) what is meant by artificial selection
1. individuals with desired features chosen to breed.
2. selection by humans.
(O/N 14 41) All modern breeds of dog belong to the same species and are thought to have originated from 14
ancient breeds by the process of artificial selection. The golden retriever is a modern breed that is often used as a
guide dog for people who are blind or visually impaired.
(a) Explain how the principles of artificial selection would have been used to produce golden retrievers with the
characteristics required for a guide dog. [4]
1. Parents with desirable features such as having a clam temperament/ obedient/ intelligent are chosen to
breed together by humans
(Note: give one example of the desirable features; e.g. calm temperament/ obedient/ intelligent)
2. The offspring with desirable features are then selected again and chosen for breeding
3. This process is repeated over many generations
4. Over many generations, there will be an increase in frequency of desired alleles
(M/J 07) Define what is meant by artificial selection. 4m

1. Humans apply selection pressures on organisms for the benefit of human.
2. Parents with desirable feature are chosen for breeding
3. In the case of cattle, Hereford and Aberdeen Angus breeds have been selected for the quality and quantity
of their meat whereas other breeds such as Jersey and Guernsey have been selected for their high milk yield.
(O/N 02)
1 (i) Outline the principles of selective breeding. 3m
1. Selection for particular trait(s)
2. Of benefit to man
3. Artificial selection

4. Choosing which individuals may breed
5. Assuming trait heritable
6. Ongoing selection / ref. time number of generations
(ii) Explain briefly why selective breeding tends to reduce genetic diversity. 3m
1. Small number breeding individuals
2. May not have all alleles
3. Loss of alleles linked to discarded traits
4. Inbreeding / backcrossing
5. Many generations
6. Increases homozygosity / decreases heterozygosity
(O/N 03) in what ways maintaining a captive population of an endangered species differs from selective breeding
3m
1. Selective breeding reduces genetic diversity
2. Captive breeding needs to maintain maximum diversity
3. Selective breeding chooses parents on grounds of particular phenotype/characteristics
4. Captive breeding parents should not be chosen for particular phenotype/characteristics
5. Weak/unattractive, organisms may house needed alleles
6. Captive breeding is solely for the benefit of the species
(O/N 03) why selective breeding is carried out 2m
1. To produce desirable change in phenotype
2. For benefit of man
3. By artificial selection
4. Of parent(s) showing desired features
(M/J 15 42) Artificial selection has been carried out for thousands of years. An example of this is the Santa Gertrudis
breed of cattle, which grow fast and tolerate high temperatures and high humidity. This breed was developed from
the following two breeds:
English shorthorn cattle, which grow fast but do not tolerate high temperatures and high humidity.
Brahman cattle from India, which tolerate high temperatures and high humidity.
Explain how artificial selection has taken place to produce Santa Gertrudis cattle. [ 3 ]
1. humans (as selective agent)

2. shorthorn and Brahman bred together
3. offspring with ideal characteristics chosen to mate
4. repeated over many generations
5. allele frequency for ideal characteristics increases
6. directional selection
Suggest two other characteristics that may be selected for when carrying out artificial selection in cattle.[2]
1. docility
2. ref. to milk production / high fertility
3. hornlessness
4. ref. to meat production
5. disease resistance
Artificial selection can result in inbreeding. Suggest problems that may result from inbreeding.[3]
1. inbreeding depression / lack of hybrid vigour
2. more chance that harmful recessive alleles may be expressed
3. decrease in heterozygosity / increase in homozygosity
4. less genetic variation

(O/N 04) Sticky rice has a high market value in China, but is susceptible to a major fungal disease of rice called rice
blast. Non-sticky, hybrid rices are more resistant to rice blast.
Explain briefly how sticky rice might be selectively bred to show resistance to rice blast. 4m
1. Interbreed sticky rice with, hybrid/resistant, rice
2. Practical detail
3. Produce/collect, seed and grow
4. Select plants with both sticky rice and resistance
5. Interbreed these and select best
6. Idea many generations
7. Back cross to parent for alleles of background genes
(M/J 04) The new hybrid variety, VND 404, was ready for trial planting on 6000 hectares in 2002. The differences
between VND 404 and its parent variety, IR 59655, are summarized in Table 2.1.
With reference to Table 2.1, explain how the new variety of rice was produced within five years. 4m
1. Artificial selection
2. (often) faster than evolution
3. Man selective agent
4. (dependent on) variation in, IR59655/parent variety
5. Plants chosen for desired traits and interbred
6. Offspring selected for desired traits and interbred
7. Ref. to traits in table
(O/N 06) A trial was set up in southern Germany to see if the two parent species of the sterile hybrid could be grown
successfully in Europe and to compare their growth with that of the hybrid. Some of the results of the trial are
shown in Table 1.1.

With reference to Table 1.1, describe a possible selective breeding programme for producing an improved variety of
Miscanthus for growing in Europe as a source of biofuel. 4m
1. Offspring selected
2. For harvestable dry mass and ability to withstand winter
3. Need to be fertile
4. Need to flower early
5. Idea, time/several generations, needed for selection
6. Idea backcrossing to parent species
7. To increase contribution re trait
8. Ref. background genes
9. Detail ; e.g. viable way of starting with hybrid/ emasculation/bagging before and after pollination
(c) M. sinensis is grown in European gardens as an ornamental plant. Many ornamental

garden plants show variation in their phenotypes and genotypes.
Explain how such variation has arisen in garden plants. 3m
1. Artificial selection/selective breeding
2. Man selective agent
3. Mutations (give different traits)
4. (different) people have selected for different traits
5. Different plants, suited to different conditions/seen to be attractive/in fashion
5: Sickle Cell Anaemia
(M/J 04) Explain why the sickle cell allele occurs at such high frequencies in some areas. 4m
1. There is high frequency of sickle cell allele in malarial areas
2. Homozygous normal suffer/ die from malaria

3. Homozygotes for sickle cell allele die from sickle cell anaemia
4. Heterozygotes have sickle cell trait but are resistant to malaria
5. They have selective advantage and are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on the recessive sickle cell
allele
(M/J 06)Sickle cell anaemia is a blood disease that is frequently fatal when homozygous. It is caused by an autosomal
recessive allele. Heterozygous have sickle cell trait and appear normal.
In places where malaria is endemic, explain the possible health consequences for a person who is homozygous
dominant and for a person who is homozygous recessive for the sickle cell allele. 2m
Homozygous dominant for the sickle allele- Die from malaria
Homozygous recessive for the sickle cell allele- Die from sickle-cell anaemia
(M/J 06) Explain why heterozygotes have a strong selective advantage in areas where malaria occurs. 3m
1. Heterozygotes are resistant to malaria
2. They have selective advantage and are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on the recessive sickle cell
allele
(O/N 07)
Explain why malaria is found in the areas shown but not in areas such as northern Europe and South Africa. 2m
1. Mosquitoes are vectors/ carries malaria
2. Conditions in those areas are suitable for mosquitoes
With reference to figure, explain the relationship between the distribution of sickle cell anemia and malaria. 4m
1. Areas of SCA and malaria incidence match
2. Homozygous, recessive/ for SCA allele, die of SCA
3. Homozygous, dominant/ for normal allele, susceptible to/ die of malaria

4. Heterozygotes have sickle cell trait but are resistant to malaria
5. They have selective advantage and are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on recessive sickle cell allele
6. SCA no advantage outside of malarial areas

7. SCA and malaria both act as selection pressures
Sickle cell anaemia

At low oxygen levels red blood cells are distorted (sickle shape) which leads to blockage of capillaries and the
destruction of many red blood cells by phagocytosis leading to severe anaemia.
The possession of a sickle cell allele in heterozygotes gives them a selective advantage.
6: Cases
(O/N 04) (M/J 13 42)

Explain how drying up an extensive lake system to just a few isolated ponds could have resulted in the evolution of
four new species of desert pupfish. 4m
1. Pools separate fish
2. The geographical isolation/ allopatric isolation prevents interbreeding and there is no gene flow between
populations
3. This physical barrier can result in genetic drift
4. Conditions different in the different pools
5. Different characteristics selected for in different pools
Conditions would vary in different pools and therefore different characteristics would be selected for in different
pools
Indicate how environmental factors can act as stabilizing forces of natural selection in an isolated pool after the
initial evolution of a new species. 3m
1. Conditions remain the same within each pool
2. Extreme phenotypes selected against/ do not survive
3. Only those fish well adapted to conditions in each pool survive
Suggest what may happen if water levels rose and isolated pools once more form an extensive lake system. 2m
1. Ref competition between species/ niche and competitive exclusion
2. Reduction in number of species/ not all species will survive
3. Species restricted to different areas
4. All/ most species survive
5. One species likely to be better adapted than all the other species
6. There could be hybridisation/ interbreeding/ no interbreeding
Make reference to niche and competitive exclusion, the fact that different species may be restricted to different
areas or to the fact that one species may be more adapted than all other species.

Competitive exclusion: The Competitive Exclusion Principle says that no two species can occupy exactly the same
niche in a given ecosystem. There would be too much competition between them, and one of them would be
"excluded" from the ecosystem if it didn't change its niche.
(O/N 09 41) Describe and explain the expected changes in the population size of A, aquaticus over the following few
months. 5m
1. Population increases slowly at first/ ref lag phase
2. Because adjusting to pond environment
3. Then steep increase/ log phase/ exponential increase/ rapid growth or reproduction phase
4. Because abundant food source
5. Stationary phase
6. Fall in population size/ death phase/ decline phase
7. Due to predation/ build up of waste
8. Competition for named resources; example food shortage
9. Idea of further increase and fall/ Ref Population size may be cyclic
(O/N 09 42) State the likely isolating mechanism and the type of speciation taking place. 2m
Isolating mechanism: Geographical barrier
Type of speciation: Allopatric
Explain how speciation is occurring in the house mouse populations of Madeira. 5m

1. Mouse populations are separated by geographical barrier- mountains.
2. Populations cannot interbreed and there is no gene flow between populations.
3. This physical barrier can result in genetic drift.
4. New alleles are produced when mutation occurs.
5. Different environmental conditions lead to different selection pressures and different alleles selected for,

causing a change in gene pool or allele frequency.
6. Different populations ultimately cannot interbreed R different species
This is a model answer for all similar questions.
(O/N 05) Describe how environmental factors appear to have acted, during drought years, on the beak size of finches
as an evolutionary force of natural selection. 3m
1. Most birds that survive drought years have larger beaks
2. Because they have been able to feed on larger seeds
3. These characteristics are inherited
4. After drought years mainly birds with large beaks remain to breed
(O/N 05) Finches with small beaks were found to be smaller than finches with larger beaks.
Explain the stabilizing force of natural selection on the beak size and size of birds in normal years. 3m

1. Abundance of smaller seeds in drought free years
2. Large beaks and bodies no longer at an advantage
3. Smaller bodies and beaks selected/ survive to reproduce
4. Ref Smaller birds produce more offspring/ require less food
5. Ref Competition in normal years
6. Ref Overproduction of offspring
7. Extreme phenotypes unfit
8. Ref Very small birds are unable to open any seeds
(O/N 05) Outline the mechanisms that may have let natural selection lead to evolution of the 13 species of Darwin
finches now found on the Galapagos Islands. 2m
1. Allopatric speciation takes place as the islands are isolated
2. Different environmental conditions/ selection pressures act on different islands
3. Ref Adaptive radiation (This point has not been mentioned after 2005 in questions similar to this, just ignore it.
There is very little information available on this point.)
4. Ref Stabilizing selection (This point has not been mentioned after 2005 in questions similar to this, just ignore
it. There is very little information available on this point.)
(O/N 06)
Explain the meaning of the term species. 2m
1. A group of organisms, with similar morphological, physiological, biochemical and behavioural features
occupying the same niche, which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated
from other species.

State the likely isolating mechanism and type of speciation taking place. 2m
Isolating mechanism- Land barrier
Type of isolation- allopatric
Explain how the process of speciation occurred in the snapping shrimp population. 4m
1. Shrimp populations are separated by geographical barrier.
(M/J 10 42) With reference to table, describe the evidence that D. miranda may be more closely related to D.
persimilis than to S. pseudoobscura. 2m
1. Divergence values less for persimilis than for pseudoobscura (at all DNA regions)
2. Use of figures
Suggest why there is more divergence in some regions of DNA than in others. 2m
1. Some regions of DNA more prone to mutation than others
2. Mutation in some regions is likely to be fatal (so not seen in populations) as it causes change in essential
protein

3. There tends to be less divergence if DNA is part of an important gene
The area where D. pseudoobscura is found is separated from the area where the other 2 species are found by a high
range of mountains.
Explain how the species D. pseudoobscura could have evolved from a population of D. miranda. 4m
1. Allopatric speciation has taken place.
2. D. pseudoobscura populations are separated by geographical barriers.
7. Different populations ultimately cannot interbreed. R different species
(O/N 10 43) Calculate the percentage decrease in population size between the years 1975 and 1977. 2m
Suggest why some G. fortis were able to survive the drought while others died. 3m

1. Drought reduced available food/ fewer small seeds produced
2. Finches with larger beaks survived or finches with smaller beaks died
3. Finches with larger beaks have been able to open tough fruits
4. Finches with larger beaks have been able to feed on larger seeds
5. Tough fruit/ size of seed acted as selection pressure
Natural selection was taking place on Daphne Major.

State the type of natural selection operating on G. fortis during the drought and explain your answer. 2m
Type of natural selection: Directional/ evolutionary
Explanation: Selection pressure acts on one extreme of range
(M/J 11 41) Using Fig 8.2 and Table 8.1, describe the relationship between the hedgehog population density and the
changes in the populations of lapwings and redshanks. 3m
North island
1. Fewer/ less abundant, hedgehogs allow increase in both lapwing and redshank
2. Breeding pair figs for either bird for 1983 and 2000/ percentage change in population over that time for either
bird
South island
1. Presence of hedgehogs causes decrease in both lapwing and redshank
2. Breeding pair figures for either bird for 1983 and 2000 or percentage change in population over that time for
either bird
Suggest an explanation for the increase in the oystercatcher population on the south island, despite the increase in
the hedgehog population. 2m
1. Oystercatchers have less competition
2. Hedgehogs mostly eat lapwing and redshank eggs/ hedgehogs don't eat oystercatcher eggs
3. Oystercatcher eggs are too large/ camouflage/ inaccessible/ distasteful or oystercatcher defend their nests
Explain why the population of hedgehogs on one of these islands may eventually become a different species from
that on mainland Scotland. 4m
1. Allopatric speciation takes place
2. The hedgehogs populations are separated by geographical barriers.
(M/J 12 41) Explain what is the term species. 2m
1. A group of organisms, with similar morphological, physiological, biochemical and behavioural features
occupying the same niche, which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated
from other species.
Isolating mechanism- Geographical/ land barrier
Explain how the process of speciation occurred in the greenish warbler populations. 5m
2. The greenish warbler populations are separated by geographical barriers.
(M/J 10 41)
With reference to Table 5.1, state the species to which A. brunneus appears to be most closely relates. 1m
A. porcatus
The researchers put forward the hypothesis that the three species, A. brunneus, A. smaragdinus and A. carolinensis,
have originated from three separate events in which a few individuals of A. porcatus spread directly from Cuba to
three different places.
Explain how the results in Table 5.1 support the researchers' hypothesis. 3m
1. A. brunneus, A. smaragdinus and A. carolinensis have smaller differences with A. porcatus (than with others)
2. Therefore more closely related to A. porcatus than to each other
3. Use of figures
4. AVP; e.g. comment about the comparatively low figures for A. brunneus with A smaragdinus / ref different
times of separation (suggesting that the numbers indicate the order of time in which the other three species
separated from A. porcatus)
Explain how a population of A. porcatus that became isolated on an island could evolve into a new species. 4m
2. The lizard populations are separated by geographical barrier- water.
(M/J 12 42) Explain how disruptive selection has been maintained in this species of seahorse. 3m
1. Mates selected by size
2. Few intermediates mate
3. Intermediates-sized seahorses are selected against (habitat for intermediate-sized seahorses may no longer
available/ the intermediate-sized horses may be predated)
4. Seahorses with extreme phenotypes are selected for. Alleles for extreme phenotypes (more likely to be)
passed on
State the term given to the type of selection where variation in a characteristic is maintained in its existing form over
time. 1m
Stabilising
Two different species of seahorse are found in the coastal waters.
Suggest how these two different species of Hippocampus could have arisen. 2m
1. Sympatric/ occurs in same location or allopatric/ physical separation
2. Ref different selection pressures
3. Eventual reproductive isolation/ no longer interbreed
(M/J 08)
(O/N 14 41) The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, is found worldwide. It is able to breed with all other members of the
genus to form fertile hybrids.
The distribution of some of the species belonging to the genus Canis is shown in Fig. 1.2.
The dingo and the grey wolf species have distinct ranges but the ranges of three species of jackal overlap in East
Africa.

Table 1.1 shows whether members of different species of the genus Canis are able to breed with each other.
(i) Suggest the type of isolating mechanism preventing:

the three species of jackal interbreeding
the dingo mating with all the other members of the genus Canis apart from the domestic dog. [2]
Jackal: behavioural/ reproductive isolation

Dingo: geographical isolation
(ii) Using the information in Fig. 1.2 and Table 1.1, state:
one reason why the members of the genus Canis could be described as one species
All breeds form fertile offspring with (domestic) dog
one reason why they should be described as separate species.

Different types of jackal do not interbreed (to produce fertile offspring)
(M/J 14 42) Fig. 4.2 shows the number of offspring sired plotted against the body length of the adult male lizards.
Fig. 4.3 shows the number of offspring sired plotted against the fastest running speed (sprint speed) of the adult
male lizards.
(i) With reference to Fig. 4.2 and Fig. 4.3, describe the relationships between
body length and the number of offspring produced
sprint speed and the number of offspring produced. [4]
body length
1. no relationship (between body length and number of offspring) ;
2. small/ intermediate, body length produce more offspring ;
sprint speed
3. lizards with greater sprint speed sire more offspring ;
4. use of two paired figures from Fig. 4.3 to support relationship ;
(ii) Research has also shown that, in a population of collared lizards with varying leg lengths, those with longer hind
legs are able to run faster. With reference to the results shown in Fig. 4.3, explain how, over time, this could lead to
a change in the mean hind leg length in a population of collared lizards. [3]

1. lizards with longer (hind) legs will tend to have more offspring
2. so will have a greater chance of passing on their alleles
3. (over time) the frequency of alleles (for long hind leg) will increase
4. so mean hind leg length will increase
(c) Explain how a population of collared lizards that became isolated on an island could evolve to form a new species.
[5]
1. no breeding/ allele flow/ gene flow, between (lizard) populations
2. different selection pressures/ different (environmental) conditions
3. mutations occur
4. advantageous alleles are selected for/ passed on to the next generations
5. change in, allele frequency/ gene pool
6. causes genetic drift
7. (eventually) The two populations are unable to interbreed
8. allopatric speciation
(O/N 13 41) Scientists synthesised woolly mammoth haemoglobin in order to investigate whether or not the
different haemoglobin was part of the mammoths adaptation to a cold climate.
The affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen is affected by the changes in temperature that can occur in mammals, for
example in active muscle tissue or close to the skin surface.
It is advantageous for Arctic mammals to have haemoglobin whose affinity for oxygen is only slightly affected by
changes in temperature. This is often achieved by using substances called red cell effectors, which bind to
haemoglobin.
Fig. 2.1 compares the effect of temperature on the affinity for oxygen of woolly mammoth and Asian elephant
haemoglobin, with and without red cell effectors.

(i) Suggest why it is advantageous for Arctic mammals to have haemoglobin whose affinity for oxygen is only slightly
affected by changes in temperature. [2]
1. still able to offload oxygen (in cold temperatures)
2. surface tissues colder than body temperature
3. so can maintain oxygen supply to surface tissues
(ii) Explain whether or not Fig. 2.1 provides evidence that woolly mammoth haemoglobin is better adapted for a cold
climate than Asian elephant haemoglobin. [4]
1. Slight difference in effect of temperature on haemoglobin alone
2. So no evidence that woolly mammoth haemoglobin are better adapted
3. Greater reduction in effect of temperature on haemoglobin with red cell effector in woolly mammoth
4. So woolly mammoth haemoglobin (with red cell effector) better adapted to cold
5. ref. change to oxygen binding sites
6. So can offload oxygen at low temperatures
(O/N 13 41) Maize originated in the Americas, and 55% of the worlds maize production is from this part of the
world.
Fig. 5.1 shows the mean yields of maize in the USA between 1860 and 2010
Describe the changes in grain yield between 1860 and 2010. [3]
1. no change between 1860 and 1930
2. increases from 2.2 to 10 tonnes from 1930 to 2010
3. use of figures including units
The greatest improvement in maize yields came after growers realised that maize hybrids have a much greater yield
than inbred lines.
Between 1860 and the 1930s, maize was allowed to pollinate naturally in the field. From the 1930s onward, maize
seed was produced using double-cross hybrids.

To produce a double-cross hybrid:
two different maize plants, A and B, are crossed to produce a hybrid, C
two other maize plants, X and Y, are crossed to produce a hybrid, Z
the hybrid C is then crossed with the hybrid Z, to produce the double-cross hybrid.
From 1960 onwards, maize seed was produced using single-cross hybrids. This involves crossing one inbred
(entirely homozygous) plant with a different inbred plant.
Explain why single-cross hybrids are genetically uniform, but double-cross hybrids are not. [3]
1. single-cross hybrids have homozygous parents
2. each has inherited the same alleles
3. So they are uniformly heterozygous
4. double-cross hybrids have heterozygous parents
5. each can inherit different combinations of alleles, (mixture of homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive and
heterozygous hybrids)
(c) An experiment was carried out in 19961997 to investigate the relative effects of genotype and environment on
the yield of maize.
Maize seeds with different inbreeding coefficients were used. The greater the inbreeding coefficient, the greater
the degree of homozygosity in the maize plants.
Maize seeds with different inbreeding coefficients were planted in two different areas in 1996, and in the same two
areas in 1997.
Fig. 5.2 shows the results.
(i) Inbreeding depression is a reduction in vigour that results from inbreeding.

Explain how the results in Fig. 5.2 demonstrate inbreeding depression in maize. [2]
1. the greater the inbreeding coefficient, the lower the yield
2. in each site in each year
3. use of figures

(ii) Explain how the results in Fig. 5.2 show that the environment affects maize yields. [2]
1. the yield differs at different sites / in different years
2. for the same inbreeding coefficient ;
3. use of figures
4. named environmental factor e.g. rainfall / temperature / mineral content of soil
(O/N 13 43) The evolutionary origin of the four-legged amphibians (such as frogs and toads) from fish has been the
subject of much debate for many years.
Among living fish, the rarely-caught coelacanth and the lungfish are thought to be most closely related to these
amphibians.
Samples of blood were taken from two coelacanths that were captured recently near Comoros.
The amino acid sequences of the and chains of coelacanth and lungfish haemoglobin were compared with the
known sequences of amphibian adults and their aquatic larvae (tadpoles). Organisms with more matches in the
amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain share a more recent common ancestor than those with fewer matches.
The comparisons with three species of amphibians, Xenopus laevis (Xl), X. tropicana (Xt) and Rana catesbeiana (Rc)
are shown in Table 2.1.
(a) (i) Explain whether or not the information in Table 2.1 supports the suggestion that coelacanths and amphibians
share a more recent common ancestor than do lungfish and amphibians. [4]
1. coelacanth chain has higher percentage of matches
2. with both adult and larval amphibians
3. coelacanth chain has higher percentage of matches with larval amphibians (rather than adults)
4. figures to support mp1 or mp3 or mp6 (comparing coelacanth with lungfish)
5. supports closer relationship of coelacanth and amphibia

6. (but) lungfish chain has higher percentage of matches with adult amphibian (than coelacanths)
7. does not support suggestion / supports closer relationship lungfish and amphibia
(ii) Suggest why adults and tadpoles of the same species of amphibian have different amino acid sequences in their
haemoglobin.
1. larvae aquatic and adults (partly) terrestrial
2. different oxygen concentration available
3. need haemoglobins with different oxygen affinities
(b) Coelacanth haemoglobin has a very high affinity for oxygen, suggesting that coelacanths, which have been
captured at depths of between 200 m and 400 m, live in water that has a low concentration of oxygen.
Explain how an environmental factor, such as the low concentration of oxygen in deep water, can act:
(i) as a stabilising force in natural selection [2]

1. In a constant environment
2. oxygen concentration acts as a selective agent
4. organisms that are best adapted to these conditions survive
5. extreme (phenotypes) are selected against
6. ref. narrow range of genetic variation / allele frequency maintained ;
(ii) as an evolutionary force in natural selection. [3]
1. ref. change in oxygen concentration
2. (low) oxygen concentration acts as selective agent
3. some individuals (in population) are better adapted
4. these are more likely to survive
6. sketch graph
7. populations develop in different concentrations of oxygen
8. disruptive selection
9. sketch graph
Allow either mp6 or mp9 but not both
(c) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. [3]
1. The same species are separated into separate populations
2. By geographical isolation.
3. prevents interbreeding between populations / no gene flow
4. ref. to different selection pressures at different situations.
5. Results in change in allele frequencies
6. Eventually, both populations do not successfully interbreed
7. allopatric speciation
8. ref. to genetic drift / founder effect / different mutations / (different) new alleles ;
(M/J 15 42) Spartina alterniflora is a grass that grows in salt marshes. It spreads by means of seeds and by
underground stems. On its native east coast of North America it prevents salt marshes from being eroded by the sea
and provides a food source for a large number of different species of animals.
Some time after its introduction to the west coast of North America in 1973, S. alterniflora hybridised with
Californian cord grass, S. foliosa. The hybrid now outcompetes the native species.
The hybrid differs from its parent species in a number of ways:
it is taller
it produces very large numbers of pollen grains which are dispersed by wind to the other species, producing
yet more hybrid plants
it produces larger numbers of seeds capable of germination

it can self-pollinate.
State the structural features that are characteristic of a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each feature
contributes to successful pollination. [5]
1. lots of pollen grains made so more chance of pollination

2. pollen grains, light / smooth / aerodynamic, so easily transported
3. no / small, petals / corolla, so stamens / anthers / stigma, outside of flower
4. long filaments so anthers outside of flower
5. anthers outside of flower / versatile anthers, so pollen released
6. long style so stigma outside of flower
7. stigma outside of flower / stigma has large surface area, so traps pollen
Suggest how self-pollination could help the population of hybrid plants to increase. [3]
1. not dependent on, external factors such as wind.
2. other plants (for cross-pollination) may be at a distance
3. maintains (hybrid) gene pool
4. keeps advantageous (hybrid) characteristics in offspring
Suggest why the hybrid plant is not considered to be a new species of Spartina. [1]
1. can breed with parent species / not reproductively isolated from parent species
ThisisUCLES 2015 and copyright document which is restricted for the 9700/42/M/J/15
a confidential own use of the original purchaser only. Please e-mail to ciebiologynotesfora2@gmail.com
(M/J 13 41) Sarawak is an area of south-east Asia that is largely covered by tropical rainforest. Logging has been
allowed in large parts of the forest. A study was carried out to estimate the population size of different species of
mammals living in the rainforest: before logging immediately after logging two years after logging four years
after logging.
Table 8.1 shows the results of the study for six species of mammal. Where numbers were too small to measure the
population density, the species were recorded as present.
(a) Calculate the percentage rise in the small squirrel population from before logging to two years after logging.
Show your working. [2]
550(%);;
(b) Suggest why populations, such as that of the small squirrel, do not increase in size indefinitely. [4]
1. limiting/density dependent, factors or described;

2. reached carrying capacity/AW;
3. competition/AW;
4. for, food/nesting sites/resources;
5. large population attracts predators;
6. large population spreads disease more easily;
(c) Suggest why marbled cats and small-clawed otters became extinct in this area but the other mammals did not. [2]
1. not many to begin with;
2. are carnivorous;
3. prey numbers fell;
4. slower reproductive rate;
5. more likely to migrate (to other areas);
(O/N 13 43) Maize was developed from a wild plant called teosinte, which grows from Mexico south to Argentina. It
is thought that cultivated maize was derived from teosinte only once.
Maize has been found at archaeological sites dated to 5500 years ago.
(a) Fig. 5.1 shows the genetic diversity at ten gene loci in teosinte and in cultivated maize. This was determined by
sequencing the DNA base pairs at each locus, and calculating how much each of these base sequences varied. The
gene loci are numbered in order of the degree of diversity in teosinte.
(i) Compare the genetic diversity of teosinte with that of cultivated maize. [2]

1. greater in teosinte than in maize
2. greater at 9 loci / less at 1 locus / except at locus 7
3. greatest difference at locus 10
4. use of comparative figures
(ii) Suggest reasons for the differences in genetic diversity between teosinte and cultivated maize. [3]
1. artificial selection / selective breeding
2. humans carry out selection
3. of plants with desirable traits
4. not all alleles selected (in cultivated varieties)
5. increased homozygosity
6. idea that greater variety of alleles are needed to survive in the wild environment
(b) Most farmers today grow maize from seeds that have been produced by crossing two different homozygous
parents.
Explain why this is done. [3]
1. to avoid inbreeding depression
2. hybrids have, higher yields / hybrid vigour
3. avoids expression of harmful recessive alleles
4. ref. to genetic uniformity
5. (which) results in easier, cultivation / harvest
7: Antibiotic Resistance
(O/N 02) Describe how antibiotic resistance arises in a bacterium. 2m
1. Chance / random
2. Mutation
3. Of chromosome / plasmid / DNA
(O/N 02) Describe how antibiotic resistance spreads through a population of bacteria. 3m
4. Natural selection
5. Antibiotic = selective agent
6. Vertical transmission
4. Horizontal transmission
5. Conjugation / transformation / transduction / description of process

(b) With reference to Table 2.1, suggest why
(i) all five species of bacteria are relatively resistant to antibiotics C and D 3m
1. Sample sites not free from contact with antibiotic
2. Allele / gene / mutation giving resistance to one gives resistance to another
3. Small / common / easily achieved, mutation
4. On plasmid so easily transferred
5. AVP
(ii) species 1 shows less resistance than the other species to antibiotic A 2m
1. Not closely related to other species
2. Less horizontal transmission
3. More easily killed by antibiotic
4. Different enzymes / pathways
5. AVP
(iii) none of the species of bacteria shows resistance to antibiotic B 2m

1. Affects, crucial pathway / pathway with no alternatives
2. Requires large mutation
3. Requires series of mutation
4. AVP
(c) It is often assumed that restricting the use of antibiotics will prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance in
bacteria.
With reference to Table 2.1, comment on this assumption. 3m
1. Not supported
2. Except in case of antibiotic B
3. Bacteria supposedly not in contact with antibiotic show resistance
4. Up to 100% of colonies tested
(O/N 03)
Explain briefly how the spider mite population may overcome the herbivore resistance of the Lima bean leaves. 4m
1. Random/chance/spontaneous
2. Mutation
3. Different, enzyme/metabolic pathway
4. Mutant mites survive and reproduce
5. Pass mutation to offspring
6. Fitter
7. Increase in resistance allele frequency
8. Ref. recessive mutation v. dominant mutation
(M/J 05) It is unlikely that these bacteria existed before crude oil pollution became a serious problem in the seas.
Explain how the bacteria that break down naphthalene and anthracene might have evolved in the stomachs of
whales. 3m
1. Bacteria natural gut inhabitants
2. Whales ingest oil
3. Spontaneous mutations occur
4. Bacteria able to breakdown anthracene/naphthalene
5. These bacteria favoured by natural selection
6. These bacteria survive and reproduce/increase in numbers
(M/J 05)

Explain why CQR P. falciparum are now widespread. 4m
1. Natural selection
2. Chloroquine much used
3. Chloroquine = selective agent
4. Susceptible die/resistant survive/ref. selective advantage
5. Resistants more likely to reproduce
6. Pass their pfcrt to their offspring
7. Allele frequency increases over generations
With reference to Table 1.1,

Suggest why the CQR alleles from Africa and
Asia code for such similar sequences. 2m
1. Gives good resistance
2. Spread because selective advantage
3. One ancestral to other/have
common ancestors
4. Selected for after appearing
independently
(O/N 05)

Explain how resistance to Propoxur has arisen and spread in some populations of mosquitoes. 4m
1. Mutation
2. Chance / random / pre-existing / spontaneous
3. Substitution
4. Change in a-acid alters shape of active site
5. Cannot be blocked by Propoxur
6. Selective advantage/natural selection
7. Propoxur selective agent
8. Resistants survive longer and pass allele to offspring
(O/N 06)
(a) (i) With reference to Fig. 1.1, describe how the quantity of antibiotics used changed during this 40 year period.
3m
1. Increases (throughout)
2. (mostly) 30 tonnes per year every 5 years
3. Increase less between years, 15 and 25/30 and 40
4. Comparative figs. ; (2 quantities + 2 years)
(ii) Explain the relationship between the percentage of resistant bacteria and the quantity of antibiotics used. 4m
1. (originate by) mutation
2. Pre existing/random/spontaneous (mutation)
3. Increased use of antibiotics increases selection

4. Reference to antibiotics as the selective agent
5. Ref. natural selection
6. Susceptible bacteria die/resistant bacteria survive
7. Resistant bacteria pass resistance to offspring
8: Essays
(M/J 05) Explain why variation is important in natural selection. 6m
1. Variation means there are differences in characteristics shown by organisms belonging to the same natural
population or species.
2. There are two forms of variation: continuous and discontinuous.
3. Genetic variation, whether caused by the reshuffling of alleles during meiosis and sexual reproduction or by
the introduction of new alleles by mutation, can be passed on by parents to their offspring giving differences
in phenotype.
4. Variation in phenotype can be due to interaction of genotype and environment.
5. Phenotypic variation results in different survival rates among organisms of the same species.
6. In the struggle for existence, some individuals possessing favourable characteristics will be more suited to
the environment, therefore having a selective advantage and are more likely to survive and reproduce and
pass on favourable alleles to offspring. Those with disadvantageous characteristics die.
7. Therefore the reproductive rates of individuals are unequal.
Phenotype is the feature or characteristic resulting from the interaction of the genotype and the environment.
The genotype represents the genetic characteristics which are inherited and are not affected by the environment.
Natural selection is the process by which individuals with characteristics that are advantageous for reproduction in a
specific environment leave more offspring in the next generation, thereby increasing the proportion of their genes in
the population gene pool over time.
(M/J 05) (O/N 08) Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species. 9m
1. Allopatric speciation is the development of a new species due to geographical isolation, in which two
populations of the same species are separated from each other by a physical barrier such as a mountain,
river or ocean.
2. Due to physical barrier, populations cannot interbreed and there is no gene flow between populations.
3. Natural selection operates as the different environmental conditions leads to different selection pressures
and different alleles selected for, leading to change in gene pool or in allele frequency.
4. Over time, different populations ultimately cannot interbreed and would be two different species.

5. Sympatric speciation does not involve geographical separation of populations at the time at which genetic
isolation occurs. It requires the development of some form of reproductive isolating mechanism which has
arisen by selection within a geographically confined area. This may be structural, behavioural, physiological
or genetic.
6. Behavioural isolation can prevent reproduction if, for example, one part of a population becomes active at
night and the other is only active during the day.
7. The most common method of sympatric speciation involves polyploidy. A polyploid organism is an organism
that has more than two sets of chromosomes.
8. Polyploidy can be due to malfunction occurring during meiosis when the chromosomes fail to separate.
In M/J 05, the definition of species is given a mark.
Species: A group of organisms, with similar morphological, physiological, biochemical and behavioural features,
which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other species.
(O/N 12 43) Outline how artificial selection differs from natural selection. 6m
(O/N 08) Describe and explain, using an example, the process of artificial selection. 7m
1. Humans apply selection pressures on organisms for the benefit of humans.
2. Parents with desirable feature are chosen for breeding
3. In the case of cattle, Hereford and Aberdeen Angus breeds have been selected for the quality and quantity
of their meat whereas other breeds such as Jersey and Guernsey have been selected for their high milk yield.
7. Reduction in the variation of alleles in the population increases the risk of homozygosity
8. Techniques such as artificial insemination and embryo transplantation have increased the success of
selective breeding in animals

(M/J 06) (M/J 09) Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution. 8m
1. Individuals in a population have great reproductive potential and yet the numbers in a population remain
roughly constant.
2. This is because many die due to environmental factors and therefore do not reproduce.
3. There is variation amongst members of a population.
4. Genetic variation leads to change in phenotype. Those with the features best adapted to the environment
survive.
5. They reproduce and pass on their alleles to their offspring.
6. This may lead to a change in the gene pool of the population and over time may lead to evolutionary change.
(M/J 02) Explain why mutations for antibiotic resistance spread so rapidly among bacteria. [6]
1. (most bacteria) reproduce rapidly
2. Frequent DNA replication
3. Chances for, mutation / mistake / error increased
4. No / fewer, editing enzymes
5. Mutations passed to large number of descendants / ref vertical transmission
6. Mutations may be on plasmids
7. Transferred via horizontal transmission
8. Even to different species
9. Conjugation / process described
10. Transformation / transduction / process described
11. Ref selection
9: Learning Outcomes and Extra Notes
Gene pool: The total variety of genes and alleles present in a sexually reproducing population.
(M/J 11 42)
Individuals in a population have great reproductive potential and yet the numbers in a population remain roughly
constant. This is because many die due to environmental factors and therefore do not reproduce. There is variation
amongst members of a population and those with the features best adapted to the environment survive. They
reproduce and pass on their alleles to their offspring. This may lead to a change in the gene pool of the population
and over time may lead to evolutionary change.
Evolution: A long-term change in the characteristics of a species, or in the frequency of particular alleles within the
species. Evolution happens when the genetic composition of a population changes over successive generations.
When the changes are sufficiently great, a new species may be formed.
Explain, with examples, how environmental factors can act as stabilizing or evolutionary forces of natural
selection.
There are 3 different ways in which natural selection acts on the phenotype in a population: stabilizing selection,
directional selection and disruptive selection.
Stabilizing selection operates when phenotypic features coincide with optimal environmental conditions and
competition is not severe. Extremes of the phenotype range are selected against, leading to a reduction in variation
as more individuals tend to conform to the mean. Stabilizing selection occurs in the natural selection of birth mass in
humans.
Directional selection operates in response to gradual changes in the environment. It operates on the range of
phenotypes existing within the population and exerts selection pressure which moves the mean phenotype to the
phenotypic extreme. Once the mean phenotype coincides with the new optimum environmental conditions,
stabilizing selection will take over. This kind of selection brings about evolutionary change by producing selection
pressure which favours the increase in frequency of advantageous alleles in the population. Individuals which has
the characteristic most suited to the environment are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their
advantageous alleles to the next generation. Overtime, there is an increased in frequency of advantageous allele in

the gene pool. Directional selection is seen as operating on the peppered moth in a polluted environment.
Disruptive selection can be very important in bringing about evolutionary change. Fluctuating conditions within the
environment, such as those associated with season and climate may favour the presence of more than one
phenotype within the population. Selection pressures acting from within the population as a result of increased
competition may push the phenotypes away from the population mean towards the extremes of the population.
This can split a population into two subpopulations. If gene flow between the subpopulations is prevented, each
population may give rise to a new species. Disruptive selection may have contributed to the evolution of Darwin's
finches.
Explain how all organisms can potentially overproduce.

Individuals in a population have great reproductive potential to increase their populations as each parent can
produce more young than required to maintain the population at a constant level. If there are no selection
pressures, which are environmental factors that keep populations in check such as disease, competition for food and
predation, then all the young will survive to adulthood and reproduce, causing the numbers in a population to
increase exponentially.
Environmental factors which act as selection pressures can be biotic or abiotic.

Biotic (caused by other living organisms): Predation, competition for food, infection by pathogens
Abiotic (caused by non-living components of the environment): Water supply, light, nutrient supply in the soil,
changes in temperature
Describe the processes that affect allele frequencies in populations with reference to the global distribution of
malaria and sickle cell anaemia.
The parts of the world where the sickle cell allele is most common are also the parts of the world where malaria is
found.
In parts of the world where the Anopheles mosquitoes that transmit malaria are found, and where malaria is
common, SCA and malaria both act as selection pressures.
Selection against people who are homozygous for the recessive sickle cell allele, HbSHbS is very strong, because they
suffer from sickle cell anaemia.
Selection against people who are homozygous for the normal allele, HbAHbA, is also very strong, because they are
more likely to die from malaria.
In areas where malaria is common, heterozygotes, HbAHbS have strong selective advantage, they do not suffer from
sickle cell anaemia and are much less likely to suffer badly from malaria. Heterozygous people with malaria only
have about one third the number of Plasmodium in their blood compared with normal homozygotes, HbAHbA. They
are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on sickle cell allele.
The allele Hbs therefore continues to survive in populations where malaria is present.
The actual frequency of the sickle cell allele in the population varies according to the amount of malaria.
In parts of the world where malaria is not common, there is no selective advantage in having this allele, and it is very
rare.
Genetic variations arise via:

1. Mutations (chromosome mutations and gene mutations)
2. Independent assortment of parental chromosomes in meiosis
3. Crossing over of non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I
4. Random fusion of male and female gametes in sexual reproduction
5. Random mating between organisms with a species

A mutation in a gamete will be inherited, whereas a mutation in other body cells (somatic cells) will not be passed to
offspring. Somatic cell mutations may affect the phenotype and therefore, the survival of the organism but play no
direct part in evolution.
When genetic variation arises in organisms:

1. It is expressed in their phenotypes
2. Some organisms have phenotypes are better suited to the environment, giving them selective advantage,
therefore are better able to survive, reproduce and pass on their advantageous allele to the next generation
3. Natural selection operates, causing a change in the gene pool and allele frequencies of the population
4. It may lead to new species
In evolution, fitness is described as the ability of an organism to pass its alleles to subsequent generations,
compared with other individuals of the same species. The "fittest" individual in a population is the one that that is
best suited to a particular environment and produces the largest number of offspring that survive to reproduce
themselves.
Continuous and discontinuous variation
1. When there is a complete range of measurements from one extreme to another for a named characteristic, it
is an example of continuous variation.
2. Although quite different at the extremes, differences between some individuals are slight and grade into each
other so individuals often do not fall into distinct categories.
3. When a frequency distribution is plotted against a continuous variable, like height, the resulting bell-shaped
curve is called a normal distribution.
4. Features showing continuous variation can usually be measured and are therefore described as quantitative,
5. Characters that display continuous variation are not controlled by a single gene, but by many polygenes. This is
called polygenic inheritance.
6. Continuous variation is the product of polygenes and the environment.
7. For example, individuals who are genetically predetermined to be the same height actually grow to different
heights due to variations in environmental factors such as diet.
8. Some characteristics in organisms fit into a few distinct forms; there are no intermediate types. This is called
discontinuous variation.
9. In the ABO blood grouping, for example, there are four distinct groups: A, B, AB and O.
10. Discontinuous variations are described as qualitative and are usually controlled by a single gene.
11. Environmental factors play a minimal role in discontinuous variation.
[New Syllabus] Outline the Hardy-Weinberg Principle.

1. States that as long as certain principles are fulfilled, the frequency of a particular allele is likely to remain
approximately the same over many generations.
2. The conditions are:
The population is large
There is random mating between individuals in the population.
There is no significant selection pressure that give particular genotypes an advantage or disadvantage.
There are no new mutations
There is no introduction of new alleles by immigration.
3. Equation 1: p+q=1
Equation 2: p + q2+ 2pq = 1
2
[New Syllabus] Describe how selective breeding has been used to increase the milk yield of dairy cattle.

1. Dairy cattle are breeds of cattle that are kept for milk production.
2. Selective breeding is done by using female cows that have high milk yield and bulls whose female relatives
have high milk yield.
3. Semen is taken from the bull and used to inseminate many cows using artificial insemination procedures.
4. This increases the volume and quality of milk produced by cows.
5. However, producing so much milk can weaken their general health.
6. Carrying large quantities of milk in their udders can cause problems with leg joints.
[New Syllabus] Discuss the molecular evidence that reveals similarities between closely related organism with
reference to mitochondrial DNA and protein sequence data.
1. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is inherited through female line.
2. mtDNA mutates faster than DNA because it is not protected by histone protein and oxidative
phosphorylation in the mitochondria can produce forms of oxygen that acts as mutagen.
3. Studies suggests that all modern humans are the descendants from one woman, called Eve.
4. This is derived from the molecular clock hypothesis, which assumes a constant rate of mutation over time.
5. The greater the number of differences in the sequence of nucleotides, the longer ago they shared the
common ancestor.
6. The protein sequence data can be used in a similar way.
7. For example, the amino acid sequence of protein cytochrome c, involved in the ETC can be compared.
8. Differences in the amino acid sequence suggests how closely or distantly related particular species are.

Chapter 17 Selection and Evolution

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1: Variation 2

Selection and Evolution

Prepared and Compiled by Michael Fork

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Explain whether resistance to chloroquine in P. falciparum is an example of continuous or discontinuous variation.

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ora for cross-pollination

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3. Natural selection is carried out by environment.

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1. Natural selection operates

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1. There is genetic variation in deer mouse population

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1. There is a range of flower sizes in original population

Suggest how smaller flowers could lead to an increase in self-pollination.[1]

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(M/J 07) Define what is meant by artificial selection. 4m

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1. humans (as selective agent)

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(c) M. sinensis is grown in European gardens as an ornamental plant. Many ornamental

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6. SCA no advantage outside of malarial areas

Sickle cell anaemia

(O/N 04) (M/J 13 42)

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Explain how speciation is occurring in the house mouse populations of Madeira. 5m

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Natural selection was taking place on Daphne Major.

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Isolating mechanism- Geographical/ land barrier

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(i) Suggest the type of isolating mechanism preventing:

Jackal: behavioural/ reproductive isolation

one reason why they should be described as separate species.

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(i) Inbreeding depression is a reduction in vigour that results from inbreeding.

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(i) as a stabilising force in natural selection [2]

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1. lots of pollen grains made so more chance of pollination

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(iii) none of the species of bacteria shows resistance to antibiotic B 2m

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With reference to Table 1.1,

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