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C 862831
 HOLLOW
SECTION
JOINTS

Proefschrift
T e r verkrijging van d e g r a a d van d o c t o r in
de t e c h n i s c h e w e t e n s c h a p p e n a a n d e
T e c h n i s c h e H o g e s c h o o l Delft,
o p g e z a g van d e rector m a g n i f i c u s
prof.ir. B.P.Th. V e l t m a n ,
voor e e n c o m m i s s i e a a n g e w e z e n d o o r het
c o l l e g e van d e k a n e n te v e r d e d i g e n o p
d o n d e r d a g 2 9 april 1 9 8 2 te 1 4 . 0 0 uur

door

Jacob Wardenier
Civiel Ingenieur,

G e b o r e n te Steenwijkerwold

Delft University P r e s s / 1 9 8 2
Dit proefstuk is goedgekeurd
door de promotor
prof.ir. A.A. van Douwen

Coverdesign: Ben Aalbers

Copyright: 1982 by Delft

University Press, Delft,
The Netherlands.

No part of this book may be

reproduced or used in any form
or by any means - graphic,
electronic, or mechanical,
including photocopying, recor-
ding, taping or information
storage and retrieval s y s t e m s -
without written permission of
the publisher: Delft University
Press.
Met dank aan Riet
Erik-Jan en Marieke
CONTENTS
1. Introduction. 1
2. Strength properties of hollow sections for basic loadings. 13
3. General principles for the determination of the design
strength of predominantly statically loaded joints made of
hollow sections. 75
4. Joints of circular hollow sections. 95
5. Joints with a rectangular hollow section chord and rectan-
gular of circular hollow section bracings. 183
6. Joints with hollow section bracings and an I- or H-section
as chord. 301
7. Joints with hollow section bracings and a channel section
as chord. 337
8. The fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints. 367
9. Design recommendations. 441
10. Bibliography. 499
ABSTRACT

Joints of hollow sections and joints of hollow sections with open

sections generally behave in a quite different way as joints of open
sections. Due to the non-uniform stiffness of the intersections in the
joints, the load transfer may be very complex. This study deals with
the behaviour and strength of such connections. Based on analytical
criteria, simplified models and test results design strength formulae
and recommendations are developed. Although it deals mainly with
predominantly statically axially-loaded joints, also joints loaded by
bending moments and special types of joints are discussed. Besides
the static behaviour the fatigue behaviour is considered. Although
most chapters have been based on previous publications of the
authorthefieldcovered in thisstudy iswiderand itgivesan uptodate
"State of the Art" for the design of hollow section joints.
This study is written in such a way that it can be used as a vademecum
for those who are involved in the design of structures of hollow
sections while it gives for the researchers a survey of the existing
evidence in this field.
SAMENVATTING
Vele voorbeelden in de natuur tonen de uitstekende sterkte eigen-
schappen van buisvormige elementen met name ten aanzien van
druk, buiging en wringing. Uit estetisch oogpunt zijn deze gesloten
profielen aantrekkelijk voor architectonische ontwerpen. Door de
vorm worden vooral ronde buisprofielen lager belast bij wind-,
stroming- en golfbelasting. Al deze eigenschappen maken het
buisprofiel op zichzelf een aantrekkelijk constructie-element. Door
de ontwikkeling van de vierkante- en rechthoekige buisprofielen
kunnen verbindingen op eenvoudige wijze worden gerealiseerd. Het
ontbreken van inzicht in het gedrag en gegevens ten aanzien van de
sterkte van deze verbindingen vormde evenwel in diverse gevallen
een belemmering bij de toepassing.
Vooral in de zeventigerjaren is in dit opzicht een grote vooruitgang
geboekt door de vele onderzoekingen waarbij vooral de cordinatie
en uitwisseling van gegevens in internationaal verband een grote rol
heeft gespeeld. Met name dient hier genoemd te worden de inter-
nationale vereniging van buisfabrikanten, "Cidect" en het "Interna-
tional Institute of Welding". Een belangrijk deel van het onderzoek
in de zeventigerjaren werd uitgevoerd in Nederland. In diverse
onderzoek rapporten en publicaties zijn aan deze resultaten
bekendheid gegeven.
Het aantal verbindingstypen en de belastingsmogelijkheden zijn zo
omvangrijk dat het voor een gebruiker onmogelijk is al deze
gegevens ter beschikking te hebben, terwijl in vele gevallen in
wetenschappelijke publicaties niet een eenduidige evaluatie tot
rekenregels voor het ontwerp en de berekening is opgenomen. Vele
hoofdstukken in deze voorliggende studie zijn voor een groot deel
gebaseerd op publikaties en voordrachten van de auteur. Om met
name voor de praktijk het praktische gebied te vergroten zijn deze
publicaties niet samengevat maar is een boek geschreven in een
zodanige vorm dat het voor ontwerpers en constructeurs kan dienen
als een vraagbaak, terwijl het onderzoekers een overzicht geeft van
de huidige stand van onderzoek op dit gebied. Door deze opzet zijn
in de meeste gevallen detail gegevens ten aanzien van afmetingen
proefstukken, proefopstellingen en metingen achterwege gelaten.
Alleen in die gevallen waar deze niet voldoende internationaal
bekend mogen worden verondersteld, zijn deze behandeld dan wel
opgenomen. Hoewel het accent ligt op overwegend statisch belaste
verbindingen wordt ter informatie ook het vermoeiingsgedrag van
buisverbindingen besproken.
Na een kort historisch overzicht en de gebruikte terminologie in
hoofdstuk 1 volgt een beschrijving van de algemene sterkte eigen-
schappen van buisprofielen in hoofdstuk 2. Hierin wordt nader
ingegaan op de geometrische- en mechanische eigenschappen van
buisprofielen, de grondbeginselen voor het ontwerp en de sterkte bij
belasting op trek, druk, buiging, afschuiving, torsie en gecombineer-
de belastingen. Hierbij komen instabiliteit door knik, plooi of een
interactie van beide aan de orde. Verder worden interactieformules
gegeven voor de berekening volgens de plasticiteitsleer van door-
sneden bij gecombineerde belastingen.
In hoofdstuk 3 worden de algemene principes voor de bepaling van
rekensterkten voor buisverbindingen behandeld. Hierbij worden de
grenstoestanden, de karakteristieke sterkte bepaling en de
evaluatie tot rekensterkten besproken.
Hoofdstuk 4 beschrijft de verbindingen van ronde buisprofielen.
Hierbij ligt het accent op axiaal belaste T-, Y-, X-, K- en N-verbin-
dingen. Na een beschrijving van de bezwijkcriteria, bezwijkvormen,
modellen en beschikbare experimentele onderzoekingen worden
de ontwikkelde formules voor de sterktebepaling behandeld en de
evaluatie tot rekensterkten. Verder worden op eenzelfde wijze door
momenten- en door momenten en normaalkracht belaste verbin-
dingen behandeld. De sterkte van bijzondere verbindingstypen is
voor zover mogelijk gerelateerd aan dat voor de basis verbin-
dingstypen.
Hoofdstuk 5 behandelt de verbindingen van vierkante- of recht-
hoekige buisprofielen. Evenals in hoofdstuk 4 voor ronde buis-
profielen worden de axiaal belaste verbindingen het uitvoerigst
behandeld, daarnaast is evenwel ook momentbelasting beschouwd.
De sterkte van verbindingen met een rond buisprofiel als wandstaaf
en een vierkant- of rechthoekig buisprofiel als randstaaf wordt op
een eenvoudige wijze gerelateerd aan dat voor verbindingen van
vierkante buisprofielen. De sterkte van bijzondere verbindingstypen
is voor zover mogelijk weer gerelateerd aan dat voor de basistypen,
te weten T-, Y-, X-, K- en N-verbindingen.
In de hoofdstukken 6 en 7 worden axiaal belaste verbindingen
behandeld waarbij de wandstaven uit een buisprofiel bestaan en de
randstaaf uit een open profiel.
In hoofdstuk hebben de behandelde verbindingstypen een l-profiel
en in hoofdstuk 7 een UNP-profiel als randstaaf.
Na een beschrijving van de bezwijkcriteria, bezwijkvormen en
experimentele onderzoekingen worden de analytische modellen
behandeld waarna de evaluatie tot rekensterkten wordt beschreven.
Hoofdstuk 8 beschrijft het vermoeiingsgedrag van buisverbindin-
gen. Na een beschrijving van de belangrijkste invloedsgrootheden
worden de beschikbare analyse methoden en de experimentele
resultaten behandeld. Aan het eind worden richtlijnen voor de
berekening van op vermoeiing belaste buisverbindingen gegeven.
In hoofdstuk 9 worden de aanbevolen rekenregels voor de bereke-
ning van T-, Y-, X-, K-, N- en KT-verbindingen gegeven. Deze komen
overeen met die welke zeer recentelijk door Subcie XVE van het
International Institute of Welding (WW) zijn aangenomen van welke
commissie de auteur voorzitter is. Naast de basistypen behandeld in
de IIW richtlijnen zijn nog een aantal verbindingstypen toegevoegd.
Het vermoeiingsgedrag is in een bijlage behandeld.
Hoofdstuk 10 geeft een bibliografie van alle bekende en van belang
zijnde publicaties (tot oktober 1981) op het gebied van buis-
verbindingen.

Dit boek is zodanig geschreven dat een ontwerper of constructeur in

de meeste gevallen met hoofdstuk 9 kan werken. Indien hij
aanvullende informatie wenst danwel het te beschouwen probleem
niet in hoofdstuk 9 behandeld wordt, kan hij nadere informatie
vinden in n van de hoofdstukken 4 tot en met 8 afhankelijk van de
profielvormen die in de verbinding voorkomen.
Daarom is ieder hoofdstuk zodanig geschreven dat het in principe
een op zichzelf staand geheel vormt. Met name vooronderzoekers is
daarnaast in hoofdstuk 10 een volledige bibliography gegeven.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to express his gratitude to his colleguages of the

group "Steelstructures" of the Delft University of Technology,
Department of Civil Engineering and the group "Steelstructures" of
the Institute TNO for Building Materials and Building Structures for
their encouragement and assistance during the years that the
relevant research programmes were carried out. Particular
acknowledgement is due to Mr. C.H.M. de Koning for his work
regarding these research programmes.

For the very helpful discussions and exchange of information the

author wishes to thank:
The members of the Dutch Study Group SG-TC-18 "Tubular
Structures".
The members of Subc. XV-E of the International Institute of Welding.
The members of the Joint- and Fatigue Working Groups of Cidect.

He is also indepted to Dr. G. Davies for checking some chapters on

language, Miss M.M. Laros for typing the manuscript, Mrs. O. van
Paassen for compiling the publications of chapter 10 on the
computer, Mr. W.F.H. Ritterand his staff for drawing the figures and
to Mr. J.J. Wensveen for making the fotographic reproductions.
 1-1

INTRODUCTION

Contents

1.1. History
1.2. Terminology
1.2.1. Structural sections
1.2.2. Combinations o f sections
1.2.3. S i n g l e plane joints
1 . 2 . 4 . Three d i m e n s i o n a l joints
1.3. References
1-ii
 1-1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Hi s t o r y

Many examples i n nature demonstrate the e x c e l l e n t p r o p e r t i e s of the

h o l l o w s e c t i o n as a s t r u c t u r a l element i n r e s i s t i n g c o m p r e s s i o n ,
t e n s i o n , bending and t o r s i o n forces.
The tube a l s o combines these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n an a t t r a c t i v e manner,
which p l e a s e s many a r c h i t e c t s . F u r t h e r the c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n has
proved to be the b e s t shape f o r elements s u b j e c t e d t o w i n d - or wave
1oadi ng.

From the e a r l i e s t times man has used the t u b u l a r shape made o f

various m a t e r i a l s ; at f i r s t i n bronze and c o p p e r , l a t e r i n c a s t iron
and f i n a l l y i n s t e e l and
aluminium. F o r a l o n g time
the tube has been used t o
convey l i q u i d s and g a s s e s ,
but r e a l s t r u c t u r a l applic-
ations started l a t e r .
In the p a s t c e n t u r y some
b r i d g e s were made i n which
the t u b u l a r shape was used
e.g. the F i r t h o f F o r t h
Bridge i n Scotland (1890),
shown i n f i g . 1 . 1 . In t h i s
case the t u b u l a r elements
Fig. 1 . 1 . F i r t h of F o r t h B r i d g e were made of r o l l e d p l a t e s
which were r i v e t e d together,
because a t the time o t h e r
connecting methods d i d not
exist.

In t h e same c e n t u r y methods
were developed f o r t h e
f a b r i c a t i o n o f tubes o r
c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s .
The Englishman Whitehouse
Fig. 1 . 2 . Continuous w e l d i n g process s t a r t e d p r o d u c i n g tubes by

3
 1-2

rounding a s t r i p and j o i n i n g i t t o g e t h e r by forming and w e l d i n g (fire

welding). The welded tubes grew i n importance a f t e r the development
o f the c o n t i n u o u s w e l d i n g process by Fretz-Moon i n 1930 ( f i g . 1.2).
Besides these processes i n which the t o t a l tube i s heated i n an oven
and the edges are e x t r a heated by an exothermal r e a c t i o n o f g a s ,
processes have a l s o been developed i n which the tube i n i t i a l l y was
c o l d r o l l e d and the edges to be welded were heated by e l e c t r i c
r e s i s t a n c e . The e l e c t r i c r e s i s t a n c e w e l d i n g processes are a t the
p r e s e n t time the most i m p o r t a n t ( f i g s . 1.3 and 1 . 4 ) .

Fig. 1 . 3 . E l e c t r i c R e s i s t a n c e Welding Fig. 1 . 4 . I n d u c t i o n Welding

The f i r s t development i n seamless h o l l o w s e c t i o n s were made by the

Mannesmann b r o t h e r s , who developed i n 1886 the p i e r c i n g m i l l shown
in f i g . 1.5 i n which b i l l e t s c o u l d be p i e r c e d . Some y e a r s l a t e r the

Fig. 1 . 5 . Mannesmann P i e r c i n g M i l l F i g . 1.6. Pilger M i l l

 1-3

Pilger mill (fig. 1.6) was i n t r o d u c e d i n which the p i e r c e d b i l l e t s

(blooms) c o u l d be r o l l e d i n t o long t h i n w a l l e d t u b e s . More r e c e n t l y
o t h e r methods based on the same p r i n c i p l e s were developed f o r the
f a b r i c a t i o n o f seamless t u b e s . Another method i s t h a t i n which the
billets are p i e r c e d by p i e r c i n g p r e s s e s .

E s p e c i a l l y a f t e r the second w o r l d war w e l d i n g processes were

p e r f e c t e d which have become very i m p o r t a n t f o r j o i n i n g together
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y so f o r the f a b r i c a t i o n o f large
d i a m e t e r tubes which are formed from p l a t e s i n "U" and " 0 " presses
and welded by submerged a r c w e l d i n g ( f i g . 1 . 7 ) . The submerged a r c
process has a l s o been used i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f l a r g e diameter
s p i r a l l y welded t u b e s , but these have o n l y g e n e r a l l y been used f o r
piles.

Fig. 1 . 7 . Large d i a m e t e r tube Fig. 1 . 8 . Mero Connector

fabrication

Due to the s p e c i a l end s h a p i n g needed f o r the d i r e c t connection

between t u b e s , s p e c i a l c o n n e c t o r s were developed e . g . Mero shown i n
fig. 1 . 8 , which s t i m u l a t e d the use o f i n d u s t r i a l systems.
The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p r e f a b r i c a t e d connectors and l a t e r the d e v e l o p -
ment o f computers and m a t r i x
c a l c u l a t i o n methods, s t i m u l a t e d
the development o f space s t r u c -
tures. However these connectors
were r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e and
i t was t h e r e f o r e very d e s i r a -
b l e to s o l v e the problems rela-
ted to the d i r e c t connection
between t u b e s . In a p e r i o d in
Fig. 1 . 9 . M u l l e r Machine which r i v e t e d s t e e l structures

5
 1-4

w i t h gusset p l a t e s were common, many welded s t r u c t u r e s were a l s o

designed w i t h g u s s e t s , which i n general are not needed f o r tubular
j o i n t s . With the development o f s p e c i a l machines ( f i g . 1.9) f o r end
p r e p a r a t i o n , most f a b r i c a t i o n problems were s o l v e d f o r making use o f
c i r c u l a r tubes i n s t r u c t u r e s . However f o r d e s i g n , c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s
were needed. In the e a r l y f i f t i e s the f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were
c a r r i e d out i n Germany by Jamm [10] to determine the j o i n t strength
of t u b u l a r j o i n t s . Due to the s p e c t a c u l a r i n c r e a s e o f the market these
were f o l l o w e d by i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n s e v e r a l o t h e r countries.
For s e v e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n s however
the end p r e p a r a t i o n s needed f o r
the d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n between the
c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n s remained a h a n d i -
cap ( f i g . 1 . 1 0 ) . T h i s was the
reason f o r the development o f s e c -
t i o n s w i t h n e a r l y the same p r o p e r -
t i e s as the t u b e , but which c o u l d
Fig. 1 . 1 0 . J o i n t s o f CHS' be connected i n a s i m p l e r way. In
1952 the f i r s t rectangular hollow
sections (RHS) were produced by
Stewarts and L l o y d s . These s e c t i o n s
can be j o i n e d e a s i l y and need o n l y
a s t r a i g h t c u t as end p r e p a r a t i o n
(fig. 1 . 1 1 ) . Now problems were
solved regarding manufacturing,
Fig. 1 . 1 1 . J o i n t o f RHS end p r e p a r a t i o n and w e l d i n g , so
from t h a t p o i n t of view the way
was now open f o r the use o f a l l k i n d s of h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i n s t r u c t u -
ral applications.
The c o n t i n u i n g problem was: "How to c a l c u l a t e the j o i n t s t r e n g t h " . For
the j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were
a l r e a d y c a r r i e d o u t , which l e d to the f i r s t German Standard DIN 4115
in this f i e l d . In the f i f t i e s a l s o some p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s were c a r r i e d
out on s i m p l e j o i n t s made o f r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s [11] and i n
the l a t e s i x t i e s f o l l o w e d by more i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Due to the i n c r e a -
sed use o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i n o f f s h o r e a p p l i c a t i o n s i n the
s i x t i e s many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out r e g a r d i n g the j o i n t
s t r e n g t h under p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y l o a d i n g .
Besides the e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s an attempt was a l s o made t o
 1-5

develop t h e o r e t i c a l o r semi t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s , which either

f a i l e d or l e d to c o m p l i c a t e d e x p r e s s i o n s due to the complex s t r e s s
distribution i n the j o i n t , and the many parameters i n f l u e n c i n g the
j o i n t s t r e n g t h . T h i s was the reason t h a t n e a r l y a l l d e s i g n formulae
were based on a l i m i t e d number o f t e s t s , and due to the different
assumed f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a they c o n s e q u e n t l y showed l i t t l e conformity
w i t h each o t h e r .
Communication i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n s such as e.q. C i d e c t ^ 1
and
11W ' made a b e t t e r exchange of knowledge p o s s i b l e , and t h i s had a
s t i m u l a t i n g e f f e c t on r e s e a r c h programmes s i n c e they were d i s c u s s e d
internationally.
In the l a s t ten y e a r s much r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d out i n several
countries. In the Netherlands r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d s t a r t e d i n 1970.
In 1973 an e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h programme was prepared by the Dutch
Study Group SG-TC-18 ^ i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h the J o i n t Group o f
3
Cidect.
The o b j e c t was to f i l l up the main e x i s t i n g gaps i n knowledge and to
compare e x i s t i n g data and e x i s t i n g f o r m u l a e . Due to the f a c t that
previous theoretical investigations had l a r g e l y f a i l e d , for practical
reasons the programme was l a r g e l y e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n s i s t e d o f the
t e s t i n g o f about 450 j o i n t s . The f i n a l o b j e c t i v e was to a r r i v e at
recommendations and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r j o i n t s made o f v a r i o u s types
o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and combinations of h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and open s e c -
tions .
The t e s t s i n the Netherlands were c a r r i e d out a t the I n s t i t u t e TNO
f o r B u i l d i n g M a t e r i a l s and B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e s and the Stevin
L a b o r a t o r y of the D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y . B e s i d e s the
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h i s programme i n the Netherlands o t h e r pro-
grammes were c a r r i e d out i n the U . K . , Germany, F r a n c e , J a p a n , U . S . A .
and P o l a n d .
In t h i s study the r e s u l t s of the v a r i o u s s t u d i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d .
For d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t e s t i n g programmes, apparatus etc.
r e f e r e n c e i s made to the r e l e v a n t r e p o r t s and p u b l i c a t i o n s .
Besides the predominantly s t a t i c a l l y a x i a l l y loaded l a t t i c e girder
joints the a v a i l a b l e evidence r e g a r d i n g o t h e r types of j o i n t s loaded

^Cidect = Comit I n t e r n a t i o n a l pour l e Dveloppement e t l ' E t u d e de

la Construction Tubulaire
2)
'IIW = International I n s t i t u t e o f Welding
3)
'SG = Staalbouwkundig Genootschap.
7
 1-6

by moments i s b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d . A l t h o u g h the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r o f
tubular joints i s another s u b j e c t , a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of
the a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n .

1.2. Termi nology

1.2.1. Statural.sections

In the p a s t , when o n l y c i r c u l a r shaped h o l l o w s e c t i o n s were p r o d u c e d ,

i t was common t o speak about the " t u b e " . L a t e r , a f t e r the development
o f square and r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s , these forms c o u l d n o t p r o p e r l y
be c a l l e d tubes and the d e s i g n a t i o n " s t r u c t u r a l h o l l o w s e c t i o n s " was
i n t r o d u c e d w i t h the f o l l o w i n g abbreviations:

S.H.S. = structural hollow s e c t i o n

C.H.S. = c i r c u l a r hollow section
R.H.S. = rectangular hollow s e c t i o n

1.2.2. Comtn n a t i o n s _ o f _ s e c t i o n s

In s t r u c t u r a l systems d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s can be used f o r members. In

the j o i n t s these members have t o be connected t o g e t h e r . To a v o i d
j o i n t i n g p r o b l e m s , the members s h o u l d be chosen i n such a way t h a t
jointing will be e a s y . The most common c o m b i n a t i o n s f o r s i n g l e plane
trusses are given i n f i g . 1 . 1 2 .

BRACINGS CHORD T Y P E OF JOINT described in

cc chapter /.
o o

a n a RR chapter 5

CR chapter 5
o a

o I X CI
chapter 6

I I RI

n CU
o
chapter 7

n RU

Fig. 1 . 1 2 . Combinations o f s e c t i o n s

1.2.3.

S i n g l e plane j o i n t s in l a t t i c e structures signify joints o f members

l y i n g i n a s i n g l e p l a n e . These can be d i v i d e d i n t o j o i n t s which

8
 1-7

p r i m a r i l y t r a n s m i t a x i a l l o a d s through the j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r o f
members, arid those which p r i m a r i l y t r a n s m i t moments.

a . A x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s

P r e d o m i n a n t l y a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s are i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 1.13.

a: T- AND Y - JOINT b: X-JOINT

9o
;l - /fa* + 7 / +
1
4- + - / - f-
+
IT
tt-

1
c: N - AND K-JOINT d: KT-JOINT

V I S

Fig. 1 . 1 3 . A x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s

The K - , N- and K T - j o i n t s can be d i v i d e d i n t o gap j o i n t s i n which the

b r a c i n g members a r e d i r e c t l y connected t o the chord w i t h a weld gap
between t h e b r a c i n g s a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n area o f t h e chord f a c e , and
overlap j o i n t s i n which one o r both b r a c i n g s a r e double shaped.
The d e f i n i t i o n o f o v e r l a p i s expressed as -jj- x 100% as shown i n
f i g . 1.14.

definition overlap

Fig. 1 . 1 4 . D e f i n i t i o n gap and o v e r l a p

In general f o r s i m p l i c i t y o f d e s i g n the members a r e u s u a l l y arranged

i n such a way t h a t a l l c e n t r e l i n e s a r e n o d i n g . In t h i s s i t u a t i o n the
e c c e n t r i c i t y i s zero. Sometimes f o r s i m p l i c i t y o f end p r e p a r a t i o n i t
i s common t o connect the b r a c i n g members w i t h a c e r t a i n gap o r o v e r -

9
 l a p t o the c h o r d . I f the
L X
c e n t r e l i n e s of the b r a c i n g s
V-!I- -^'-^---^ 4-
.-I . . IJ V- -H V meet o u t s i d e the c e n t r e line
j e = - - j - _ e g . J l _ - j f e
of the chord towards the o u t -
Fig. 1.15. D e f i n i t i o n of e c c e n t r i - s i d e o f the t r u s s , t h e e c c e n -
city tricity i s termed positive
(fig. 1 . 1 5 ) . In the o p p o s i t e
s i t u a t i o n the e c c e n t r i c i t y i s termed negative,

b. Moment c o n n e c t i o n s

P r e d o m i n a n t l y moment c o n n e c t i o n s a r e :
- Vierendeel joints ( f i g . 1.16)
- L-joints ( f i q . 1.17)

E 3 >

Fig. 1 . 1 6 . Vierendeel joint F i g . 1-17. L-joint

1.2.4. Xbree_d^mensional_joints

Spacial j o i n t s are j o i n t s w i t h members i n more than one plane and

a l s o loaded i n more than one p l a n e . In these types o f j o i n t s the
l o a d i n g can be p r i m a r i l y a x i a l l y o r i n some s i t u a t i o n s combinations
of a x i a l loads and bending moments. In
I space s t r u c t u r e s f o r r o o f s the l o a d i n g i s
generally p r i m a r i l y a x i a l l y . a n d the j o i n t s
g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t of prefab c on n e c tor s
(figs. 1 . 8 and 1 . 1 8 ) .

Fig. 1 . 1 8 . Connector Fig. 1 . 1 9 . Three d i m e n s i o n a l joint

10
 1-9

Spacial joints c o n s i s t i n g of members d i r e c t l y welded t o g e t h e r can be

primarily axially loaded or p r i m a r i l y loaded by moments, depending on
the s t r u c t u r a l system ( f i g . 1.19).
These types of j o i n t s a r e o n l y be b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s report.

References

1. W a r d e n i e r , J. Tubulr structures
D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y of T e c h n o l o g y ,
February 1973 ( i n Dutch)

2. Mannesmann H e r s t e l l u n g und Prfung von Stahlrohren

Mannesmannrhren - Werke

3. B e r a t u n g s s t e l l e fr Rechteckhohlprofile f r den S t a h l b a u
S t a h l Verwendung M e r k b l a t t 224

4. B e r a t u n g s s t e l l e fr R e c h t e c k h o h l p r o f i l e f r den S t a h l b a u
S t a h l Verwendung M e r k b l a t t 387

5 . Wanke, J . Stahlrohrkonstruktionen
S p r i n g e r V e r l a g 1966 ( i n German)

6. Brodka, J . Stahlrohrkonstruktionen, Verlagsgesel1 -

s c h a f t Rudolf M l l e r , Kln-Braunsfeld,
1968

7 . Stradtmann, F.H. Stahlrohr Handbuch

Vulkan-Verlag, Dr. W. C l a s s e n , Essen

8 . Wuich, H. Schweiszverfahren f r die Herstellung

von Rohren und P r o f i l e n
Der S t a h l b a u Nr. 9 - 1969

9. A l l e n , J.S. The making of p i p e , Metal Construction

and B r i t i s h Welding J o u r n a l Nr. 1 - 1969

10. Jamm, W. Gestaltfestigkeit geschweiszter Rohrver-

bindungen und R o h r k o n s t r u k t i o n e n bei
s t a t i s c h e r B e l a s t u n g , Schweissen und
S c h n e i d e n , 1951, S o n d e r h e f t

1 1 . Stewarts and L l o y d s The l o c a l c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h of RHS

Junctions, Report C/E 6 4 / 6 5 / 1 ,
Stewarts and L l o y d s Ltd.

12. Rose, W. Data u n i f i c a t i o n , C i d e c t , May, 1978

11
 1-10

12
 2-1

STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF HOLLOW SECTIONS FOR BASIC LOADINGS

Contents

Symbols
2.1. Geometrical properties
2.1.1. Tolerances in geometry
2.2. Mechanical properties
2.3. Bases f o r design
2.4. Tension
2.5. Compression
2 . 5 . 1 . Member b u c k l i n g
2.5.2. Local buckling
2.5.3. Interaction l o c a l - and member b u c k l i n g
2.5.4. Buckling lengths
2.6. Bending and shear
2.6.1. Elastic design
2.6.2. Plastic design
2.7. Torsion
2.8. Combined l o a d s
2.8.1. Elastic design
2.8.2. Plastic design
2.9. References.

Appendix 11 1 Interaction bending moment and shear load

11-2 Interaction bending moment and a x i a l load
11 - 3 Interaction axial l o a d and shear load.
 2-11

Symbols used i n c h a p t e r 2

A cross-sectional area

\ area e n c l o s e d by t h e mean c o n t o u r o f a s e c t i o n
c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area e f f e c t i v e f o r shear
A
Q
E modulus of elasticity
G shear modulus o f elasticity
I moment of inertia
L t o r s i o n a l moment of inertia
moment of i n e r t i a about y - y axis
yy
moment of i n e r t i a about z - z axis
rotation capacity
rotation capacity at f i r s t yielding
r o t a t i o n capacity at p l a s t i c y i e l d load
L p e r i m e t e r of a s e c t i o n
H moment
bending moment
M
b
bending moment ( z - z axis)
M
bz
bending moment ( y - y axis)
\ p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y
reduced p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y by shear l o a d
P,Q
n

M p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y about y - y axis

p.y reduced p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y by shear about y - y axis
%,Q,y p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y about z - z axis
n ,
W
M

reduced p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y by shear about z - z axis

t o r s i o n a l moment
M
t
load
N
non d i m e n s i o n a l member b u c k l i n g strength
N
non d i m e n s i o n a l s t r e n g t h f o r i n t e r a c t i o n by member and l o c a l
N'
buckling
ultimate j o i n t strength
local b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h of a RHS ( w i t h i ndex f o r s i dewal 1 l o r 2 )
non d i m e n s i o n a l l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h o f a RHS ( w i t h index for
side wall 1 o r 2)
local buckling strength of side wall 1 o f a RHS
vl
local b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h o f s i d e w a l l 2 of a RHS
*v2
critical member b u c k l i n g l o a d due to member b u c k l i n g or due
t o i n t e r a c t i o n o f member- and l o c a l buckling

14
 2-iii

squash l o a d c a p a c i t y
reduced squash l o a d c a p a c i t y by shear
shear load
characteristic action (general)
p l a s t i c shear y i e l d c a p a c i t y of a s e c t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e or s t r e n g t h o f an element
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c strength (general)
working force (general)
s t a t i c moment

e l a s t i c modulus about a r e l e v a n t axis

e l a s t i c modulus about y - y axis
e l a s t i c modulus about z - z axis
torsional "modulus" o r constant
p l a s t i c modulus
p l a s t i c modulus about y - y axis
p l a s t i c modulus about z - z axis

e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f a RHS
b-2t
equivalent width of a section ( l o c a l buckling)
b-t
external chord w i d t h
e x t e r n a l w i d t h of b r a c i n g 1 o r 2
constant
o u t s i d e diameter o f a CHS
d-2t
d-t
external depth of a RHS
h-2t
h-t
radius of gyration
r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n about y - y axis
r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n about z - z axis
local buckling constant
mean c o n t o u r l e n g t h o f a c r o s s section
effective length
system l e n g t h

15
 2-i v

corner radius
mean c o r n e r r a d i u s 0 . 5 ( r . + r )
1
1 o'
r.
inner radius
o u t e r radi us
wall thickness
wall t h i c k n e s s o f the chord

a c o e f f i c i e n t f o r b u c k l i n g curves

a shape factor

6 mean w i d t h r a t i o between b r a c i n g s and chord

safety f a c t o r or enhancement factor
material factor
f a c t o r t a k i n g account of the s e r i o u s n e s s o f a t t a i n i n g a
limit state
y i e l d s t r e s s (generally design value)
d e s i g n v a l u e of the y i e l d s t r e s s f o r a c o l d f i n i s h e d hollow
e,eq
section

a stress

a. critical local buckling stress

ultimate material stress
shear s t r e s s
shear y i e l d stress
maximum e l a s t i c s h e a r s t r e s s
max
angl e
angle of twist

X exponent i n i n t e r a c t i o n formulae
auxiliary factor
X sienderness
X non d i m e n s i o n a l s l e n d e r n e s s f o r member b u c k l i n g
X' non d i m e n s i o n a l s l e n d e r n e s s f o r i n t e r a c t i o n between member and
local buckling
E u l e r s l e n d e r n e s s f o r member b u c k l i n g
E u l e r s l e n d e r n e s s f o r i n t e r a c t i o n o f member and l o c a l buckling
X
E
slenderness ratio for local buckling
buckling coefficient.

16
 2-1

2. STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF HOLLOW SECTIONS FOR BASIC LOADINGS

B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g the j o i n t s t r e n g t h i t i s u s e f u l to d e s c r i b e a t first
the b a s i c s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of h o l l o w s e c t i o n s which i s briefly
given in t h i s chapter.

2.1. Geometrical properties

The g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of s t r u c t u r a l h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are recorded

i n standards [1 to 9] and i n the l i t e r a t u r e o f tube f a b r i c a t o r s and
tube s u p p l i e r s . In general these p r o p e r t i e s are c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g e x a c t
formulae which take account o f a l l s e c t i o n dimensions i n c l u d i n g corner
radii. To i n d i c a t e which dimensions m a i n l y i n f l u e n c e the s e c t i o n a l
p r o p e r t i e s a p p r o x i m a t i v e formulae can be used. These a p p r o x i m a t i v e
f o r m u l a e g i v e n i n Table 2 . 1 . can e a s i l y be deduced from the e x a c t for-
mulae. The a p p r o x i m a t i v e formulae f o r r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s do
not t a k e account o f the c o r n e r r a d i i . For hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
the c o r n e r r a d i i are g e n e r a l l y small:

outside 0.5t S r 2t
0

inside 0 . 5 t r. 1.5t
1

For c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s these are l a r g e r to a l l o w w e l d i n g a t

the c o r n e r s . Based on an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f V e i t [ 2 3 , 24] t h e i n n e r cor-
ner r a d i u s o f c o l d f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n s s h o u l d meet f o l l o w i n g require-
ments:

Table 2 . 2 .

Mild steels r.
wall thickness n
a c c . Euron 25- 72
t (mm) t
or e q u i v a l e n t

Fe 360 - B o r 12 < t 16 > 3

C
)f
Fe 430 - B o r 8 < t <S 12 i 2
C

Fe 510 - B o r c J 6 < t < 8 > 1.5

t 6 s 1.0

In the Revised D r a f t Dutch R e g u l a t i o n s f o r T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s [18]

t h e s e requirements are the same w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f Grade Fe 510
r
f o r which the -- v a l u e s are p r e l i m i n a r y i n c r e a s e d by 0 . 5 .

17
 2-2

Table 2.1

Sectional
circular hollow sections rectangular hollow sections
properties

z
- r b h
d_ = d - t h = h - t

1
1 h, m=
D D
- t
1
' b m

cross sectional A=i.(d -d ) 2 2

TT . d . t A = bh - b. . h .
area m

bh 3
- b. . h | h b - h -Jp
3 3

t-
n

moment o f
<d -d ) 4 4 17
A$
inertia
l
zi' 12 !
yy :
12
TS m
4
- d 4 bh - b
3
i . h? hb - h^b
3 3

elastic
d

T- d .t(l--r-;
2

modulus =
17. 1 5h
<yy
:
5E "
4 m

? 7
plastic (d -d )
3 3
b h - b. . h?
2
hb
-h b r

modulus
"p- d!.t 4

radius of i
gyration 0.35 d yy
yy

torsional 2h . b
2 2

moment o f T " IA ' 6 ^

TT
d
d . t
3
* m m
inertia 4 m

(d -d ) 4 4

torsional
2 b . h . t
constants m m

F o r s q u a r e h o l l o w s e c t i o n s t h e f o r m u l a e c a n be d e r i v e d from those f o r rectangular

h o l l o w s e c t i o n s by s u b s t i t u t i n g h = b and h and b

2.1.1. Tolerances_in_geometry

The tolerances in geometry are important for the determination of the

characteristic values of the j o i n t strength because this depends on

the dimensions of the sections. The tolerances are described in some

national and i n t e r n a t i o n a l standards [1 to 9, 1 8 ] . Due t o the fabri-

cation process there are slight differences between hot finished and

cold finished hollow sections. In general the tolerance limits do not

vary much between the various fabricators with the exception of the

corner radius. An indication of the tolerances according to the ISO

standards is illustrated in tables 2 . 3 . and 2 . 4 .

18
 2-3

Table 2 . 3 Tolerances for steel structural hollow sections

Cold f i n i s h e d s t e e l SHS Hot f i n i s h e d s t e e l SHS

ISO/DIS 4019 [2] ISO/DIS 657/XIV [l]

Characteristic circular h o l l o w s q u a r e and r e c t a n - c i r c u l a r hollow square r e c t a n -

sections g u l a r hoi low s e c - s e c t i o n s gular hollow sec-
tions tions

+ 1% o f o u t s i d e + 1% w i t h a + \% o f d i a m e t e r 1% w i t h a
Outside diameter with a minimum o f ,, w i t h a minimum minimum o f
dimensions minimum o f + 0 , 5 mm ' o f + 0 , 5 mm 0 , 5 mm
+ 0 , 5 mm

Thickness t + 10% w i t h a minimum o f + 0 , 2 mm, - 12,5% w i t h a minimum o f - 0 , 4 mm

o u t s i d e the weld area

Squareness of 90 + 2 90 1
sides

Concavity/
convexity
lt 2
> + 1%

Outside corner see table see table

r a d i us

Straigntness 0,2% of t o t a l length 0,2% o f t o t a l length

Twist 2 mm p l u s 0 , 5 mm/m 2 mm p l u s 0 , 5 mm/m

Length (exact) 10 10
i 6 m + Q mm + Q mm

15 15
> 6 m
+ g mm + g mm

This tolerance s h a l l be measured a t a d i s t a n c e o f n o t less than 100 mm f r o m t h e

end o f t h e s e c t i o n .

This tolerance shall be measured i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f the tolerance on outside

dimensions.

Table 2.4 Corner radius for steel structural hollow sections

Se< t i >n r

r
max
in

external
calc jlations

internal
t is the s p e c i f i e d

NOTE - The v a l u e s o f
thickness.

r ,
m v

and r i for larger sections

c o l d f i n i s h e d SHS
c a c

have s t i l l t o be a g r e e d and
135 mm | s 160 mm x 80 mrr 3 t 2,5t l,5t are the s u b j e c t o f f u r t h e r
study.
hot f i n i s h e d SHS

t 100 mm | 150 x 1 0 0 2t l,25t l,Ot

19
 2-4

2.2. Mechanical properties

The s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are d e l i v e r e d a c c o r d i n g to n a t i o n -
a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l st a ndards e . g . Euronorm 25-72 [ 1 0 ] . In these s t a n -
dards the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s such as y i e l d s t r e s s , u l t i m a t e s t r e s s
and e l o n g a t i o n are s p e c i f i e d . In the n a t i o n a l codes of p r a c t i c e the
d e s i g n v a l u e s f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s are s p e c i f i e d which g e n e r a l l y agree
w i t h the minimum s p e c i f i e d y i e l d stress.
Due to c o l d forming some s t a n d a r d s a l l o w an i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s t r e s s for
the d e s i g n value of the y i e l d s t r e s s o f c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s .
A c c o r d i n g to the D r a f t European Recommendations f o r Thin W a l l e d C o l d
Formed Members [12] and the D r a f t Dutch R e g u l a t i o n s f o r T u b u l a r
Structures RB'78 [18] the d e s i g n y i e l d s t r e n g t h may be c a l c u l a t e d from
the formula of L i n d and S c h r o f f [25].
At each c o r n e r of 90 the y i e l d s t r e n g t h may be i n c r e a s e d to the ulti-
mate s t r e n g t h of the parent m a t e r i a l over a l e n g t h of c = 5 to 7 times
the t h i c k n e s s . The i n c r e a s e of y i e l d s t r e n g t h a t the c o r n e r s i s then
averaged over the c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a .

4.c.t.q .+(L-4.c.t)q
t e

a
e,eq

L = perimeter
a ,0.
e = d e s i g n values f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s and u l t i m a t e s t r e s s of the
parent m a t e r i a l .

In the RB'78 [18] the i n c r e a s e i s l i m i t e d to 25% of the d e s i g n value

of the parent m a t e r i a l .
To v e r i f y t h a t the i n c r e a s e of the y i e l d s t r e n g t h a t the c o r n e r s is
not reduced by w e l d i n g , t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out on T- and K-joints
made of c o l d - and hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s [ 2 6 , 2 7 ] . The joint
s t r e n g t h s were e v a l u a t e d u s i n g the measured stub column y i e l d stress.
This analysis showed no obvious d i f f e r e n c e between the j o i n t s which
were made of c o l d f i n i s h e d - and those which were made of hot finished
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 2 . 5 . and 2 . 6 .
D e t a i l e d measurements of the v a r i a t i o n of the mechanical properties
of the c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s around the p e r i m e t e r showed that
the L i n d - S c h r o f f method leads to a s a f e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the design
y i e l d s t r e s s namely a < a g as shown i n f i g . 2 . 7 . [28].
stub column

20
 2-5

N 3 be

s e n H-*^

SE
o cold f i n i s h e d sections
hot f i n i s h e d sections
+ n o r m a l i z e d cold f i n i s h e d
sections

0.5 1.0
b-| + D2

2b n

Fig. 2.5. Test r e s u l t s f o r K j o i n t s (see f i g . 5 . 2 1 . . p a g e 5 . 2 6 ) .

Fig. 2.6. Test r e s u l t s for T joints.

21
 2-6

600

H
E
500

* ;
400 0 /

300

200
-W- - X^J- A
V

3/
/
Z stub
C e

-0"
-o-!
col
e q

100

0
wall 1 2
. ' 'I
Fig. 2.7. Measured v a l u e s of a g and o^. i n a c o l d - f o r m e d r e c t a n g u l a r
h o l l o w s e c t i o n 100 x 100 x 4 mm.

2.3. Bases f o r design

In the p a s t the v e r i f i c a t i o n o f the s t r e n g t h o f s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s was

based on the s t r e n g t h a t working l o a d . The s t r u c t u r e was c o n s i d e r e d
t o be s a f e i f the c a l c u l a t e d s t r e s s e s i n i t d i d not exceed the p e r m i s -
s i b l e s t r e s s e s . The p r i n c i p l e o f v e r i f i c a t i o n i n the p e r m i s s i b l e
s t r e s s method was then as f o l l o w s :

Y
s

or

S J * (2-3)
s Y

where:
a = s t r e s s due to the a c t i o n s
a = v i e l d s t r e s s o f the m a t e r i a l
e
S = working f o r c e
R = s t r e n g t h o f the element
Y S = safety factor.
In t h i s method the s a f e t y f a c t o r covers d i f f e r e n t u n c e r t a i n t i e s which
may be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s e.g.
- the a c t i o n s :
The u n c e r t a i n t i e s c o n c e r n i n g v a r i a b l e a c t i o n s and permanent a c t i o n s

22
 2-7

are e v i d e n t l y different.
- the s t r e n g t h of the e l e m e n t s :
The s t r e n g t h o f the elements depends on the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s of
the m a t e r i a l s , the g e o m e t r i c a l dimensions and the b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s e s .
- the c a l c u l a t i o n methods:
The c a l c u l a t i o n method can be based on e x a c t t h e o r i e s , on s i m u l a t i o n
by approximate t h e o r i e s o r on t e s t s which cause d i f f e r e n t uncertain-
ties. F u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s a r e made sometimes.

The i d e a l s o l u t i o n would be a method based on a p r o b a b i l i s t i c theory,

e n s u r i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e s a f e t y , i n terms of p r o b a b i l i t y against
c e a s i n g of the s t r u c t u r e o r elements of i t to f u l f i l its function
under the a c t i o n s l i a b l e to o c c u r d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and p r o p e r use.
Such a p r o b a b i l i s t i c a n a l y s i s l e a d s to c o m p l i c a t e d a n a l y t i c a l expres-
sions. For t h i s reason d i f f e r e n t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s have been introduced
i n the mathematical t rea t ment of the uncertainties.

The J o i n t Committee of S t r u c t u r a l S a f e t y (JCSS) has d e f i n e d f o u r

l e v e l s of s a f e t y a n a l y s i s [20]:
Level 0 : A d e t e r m i n i s t i c a n a l y s i s i n which the d e s i g n l o a d and
the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h are d e f i n e d as d e t e r m i n i s t i c
v a l u e s . A l l c e r t a i n t i e s are covered by an o v e r a l l
safety factor e.g. the p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s method.

Level I : A s e m i - p r o b a b i l i s t i c a n a l y s i s i n which the d e s i g n load

and the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h are d e f i n e d as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
values. In t h i s method p a r t i a l s a f e t y f a c t o r s are i n -
troduced to cover the r e m a i n i n g u n c e r t a i n t i e s .

Level II : A p r o b a b i l i s t i c a n a l y s i s w i t h some, w e l l d e f i n e d s i m -
p l i f i c a t i o n s i n the a n a l y t i c a l treatment o f the random
variables.

Level III : An exact p r o b a b i l i s t i c analysis.

An e x a c t p r o b a b i l i s t i c method, a t l e v e l III, or a s i m p l i f i e d p r o b a b i l -
i s t i c a n a l y s i s , at l e v e l II i s a t t h i s stage not a c t u a l l y usuable for
codes of p r a c t i c e . T h e r e f o r e the ISO [19] and ECSC [12] have adopted
a semi p r o b a b i l i s t i c method, o r l e v e l I. In t h i s method the character-

23
 2-8

istic v a l u e s f o r d e s i g n l o a d s and d e s i g n s t r e n g t h s have a 5 % p r o b a b i l -

i t y o f not being exceeded.

The c o n d i t i o n ( 2 . 2 ) or ( 2 . 3 ) i s then r e p l a c e d by:

R.
effect H v Q J 6
T~T { 2 A ]

s K
V Y
c

where:
= characteristic action
R^ = characteristic strength
Y S = enhancement f a c t o r f o r the actions
y = material factor
'm
Y C = f a c t o r t o take account of the nature of the s t r u c t u r e and i t s
behaviour and the s e r i o u s n e s s of a t t a i n i n g a l i m i t state.

Sometimes the f a c t o r s Y M and T C a r e combined to one f a c t o r whereas in

other s i t u a t i o n s these f a c t o r s are s u b d i v i d e d . The f a c t o r Y s is also
assumed t o be a f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i a l c o e f f i c i e n t s . The n u m e r i c a l value
o f these l o a d - and m a t e r i a l f a c t o r s w i l l generally be d e r i v e d using
level II or l e v e l III methods.

The s t r e n g t h o f the s t r u c t u r e i s determined by the s t a t e i n whtch It

ceases t o f u l f i l the f u n c t i o n , or t o s a t i s f y the c o n d i t i o n f o r which
i t was d e s i g n e d . It i s c a l l e d a l i m i t s t a t e . The l i m i t s t a t e s can be
p l a c e d i n two categories:
- the u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e s , which are those c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the
maximum l o a d c a r r y i n g capacity.
- the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s , which a r e r e l a t e d t o the criteria
governing normal use o r durability.

The a c t i o n s can a l s o be p l a c e d i n two categories:

- d i r e c t a c t i o n s such as permanent, v a r i a b l e and i n e r t i a l loads.
- i n d i r e c t a c t i o n s due t o imposed d e f o r m a t i o n s .

The ECCS i n general recommends the f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s f o r the p r o b a b i l -

ity o f r e a c h i n g the l i m i t states:

limit states normal service at erection

ul t i m a t e 10" 5
4.10" 4

serviceability 5.10-3
 2-9

Based on t h i s c h o i c e of r i s k l e v e l the f o l l o w i n g l o a d f a c t o r s are d e t e r -

mined f o r the fundamental l o a d i n g combinations f o r the u l t i m a t e l i m i t
states:

Permanent a c t i o n s :
If they i n c r e a s e the e f f e c t produced by v a r i a b l e a c t i o n s y $ = 1.3.
If they decrease the e f f e c t s produced by v a r i a b l e a c t i o n s Y s = 1.0.

V a r i a b l e a c t i o n s : always Y s = 1.5.

F u r t h e r f o r a c c i d e n t a l combinations c e r t a i n r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s are
given. For the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s the l o a d f a c t o r s f o r per-
manent a c t i o n s and v a r i a b l e a c t i o n s are Y s = 1.0.
The Y M f a c t o r t a k e s account of u n c e r t a i n t i e s due to a p o s s i b i l i t y of
unfavourable d e v i a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h s from the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value,
the p o s s i b i l i t y of a l o s s of s t r e n g t h d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and the p o s -
s i b i l i t y of a r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e n g t h because o f l o c a l d e f e c t s . For s t e e l
sections a
Y M = 1.0 can be adopted [ 1 2 , 1 9 ] .

In t h i s c h a p t e r 2 the s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of s e c t i o n s f o r b a s i c l o a d i n g s
are d i s c u s s e d . The s t r e n g t h c o n d i t i o n s given i n t h i s c h a p t e r can be
c o n s i d e r e d as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s f o r f a c t o r e d l o a d i n g d e s i g n .

2.4. Tension

T h i s i s the most s i m p l e l o a d i n g case f o r which the f o l l o w i n g design

s t a t e c o n d i t i o n has to be met:

N A.cr or A.a ( - )
2 5

e e,eq

2.5. Compression

Compared to open s e c t i o n s , hollow s e c t i o n s (CHS, RHS) behave w e l l un-

der c o m p r e s s i o n . The good s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s are mainly the r e s u l t of
t h e i r high r a d i i o f g y r a t i o n r e l a t e d t o mass. The high t o r s i o n a l rig-
i d i t y o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s a l s o helps to p r e v e n t l a t e r a l buckling,
g i v i n g improved b u c k l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s . Due to the end f i x i t y o f the
j o i n t s and the e x c e l l e n t t o r s i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e o f the members, the
b r a c i n g s i n l a t t i c e g i r d e r s o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s can be designed w i t h
an e f f e c t i v e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h which i s s m a l l e r than t h e s y s t e m - o r
member i n t e r s e c t i o n length.

25
 2-10

In t h i s s e c t i o n the requirements w i t h r e g a r d to member b u c k l i n g and

local buckling w i l l be b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d . A l t h o u g h a d i s c u s s i o n of
the e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h i s o u t s i d e the scope o f t h i s study , some i n f o r -
mation i s g i v e n w i t h r e g a r d to p u b l i c a t i o n s where i n f o r m a t i o n can be
found.

2.5.1. Member_buck]_in3
The b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r can be d e s c r i b e d by a b u c k l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t ca
and the s l e n d e r n e s s X o f the compression member.

N
(2.6)

X = -Ji (2-7)
l

in which:
N = squash l o a d of the member N = A . a
P P e
= critical buckling load
= effective length
i = r a d i u s of gyration.

Based on t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , KIBppel and Goder [29] proposed

i n 1959 more f a v o u r a b l e b u c k l i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s than
f o r open s e c t i o n s . At t h a t time not a l l the i n f l u e n c i n g parameters for
the b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r were known.

The r e a l b u c k l i n g behaviour of compression members depends not o n l y on

the shape of the s e c t i o n but i t i s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by, eccentricities,
s t r a i g h t n e s s and g e o m e t r i c a l t o l e r a n c e s , r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s , inhomoge-
n i t y of the s t e e l and the s t r e s s - s t r a i n b e h a v i o u r of the s t e e l . All
these i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s were taken i n t o account i n a v e r y extensive
theoretical and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h programme of the European Con-
vention for Constructional Steelwork [ 3 0 , 3 1 ] . The p a r t o f the pro-
gramme r e g a r d i n g h o l l o w s e c t i o n s was c a r r i e d out i n c o o p e r a t i o n with
C i d e c t . As a r e s u l t from t h i s study the b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r of the
s t e e l s e c t i o n s was r e l a t e d to t h r e e b a s i c curves i.e. curves a , b and
c as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 2 . 8 .

26
 2-11

These curves are presented non d i m e n s i o n a l l y i n f i g . 2 . 8 . w i t h the

f o l l o w i n g parameters on the a x i s :

(2.10)

Depending on the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the s e c t i o n s , the b u c k l i n g a x i s and

the shape of the s e c t i o n s , each curve can be r e l a t e d to f o u r different
d e s i g n y i e l d s t r e s s v a l u e s . T h i s means twelve curves f o r every s t e e l
grade. These curves are based on the mean t e s t r e s u l t s minus two times
the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , g i v i n g 97.5% c o n f i d e n c e . Table 2 . 9 . [31] shows
which curve has to be used f o r a c e r t a i n s e c t i o n . Based on a d d i t i o n a l
investigations [32] c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s have been adopted to the
original c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . At t h i s moment hot f i n i s h e d welded h o l l o w
s e c t i o n s are c l a s s i f i e d now i n the same group as the hot f i n i s h e d
seamless h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i . e . curve " a " .

The c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are c l a s s i f i e d under curve " c " but

a y i e l d s t r e s s based on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value of f i v e stub column

27
 2-12

Buckling stresses
for' c e n t r a l l y loaded columns S t e e l St 37 S t e e l St 52

Shape t<2omm 2o--ty,3o t>3omjn tw2o mm 2o<ts3o t>3omm

r o l l e d tube-shape M, jj:.

Welded tube-shape

1 t - t - In b u c k l i n g
Welded box-shape Bl-37 B2-37 Dl-52 B2-52
. direction
_ t
2

r o l l e d I-shape h/b >1,2

weak-axis
buckling
h/b^r1,2 Cl-52

h/b>l,2 Al-52
strong-axis
buckling
r n h/b< 1,2

welded I-shape flame-cut

, Li_. flange p l a t e
weak-axis
buckling
rolled
flange p l a t e

flame-cut
flangeplate
strong-axis
buckling
rolled
flange p l a t e

r o l l e d I-shape tj weak-axis
with buckling

1M
welded c o v e r - p l a t e s
strong-axis
buckling

box-shape "1 tt^ i n b u c k l i n g

annealed . direction

weak-axis
I-shape buckling

HT
annealed
strong-axis
buckling

U-shape Cl-37 C2-37 C3-37 Cl-52 C2-52 C3-52

A, B and C r e f e r s to curves a , b and c r e s p .

1 , 2 and 3 t o t h e d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s i n r e l a t i o n to
the w a l l t h i c k n e s s .
Table 2 . 9 . ECCS-buckling curves.

t e s t s can be used as d e s i g n v a l u e . The d e s c r i p t i o n w i t h regard to the

d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e y i e l d s t r e s s f o r c o l d f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n s i s not
practical t h e r e f o r e i t i s recommended here to use as a c o n s e r v a t i v e
approach a described i n section 2 . 2 . Internationally i t is still
v v
e,eq
 2-13

i n d i s c u s s i o n i f another c u r v e i . e . " a " or "b" w i l l be chosen for

c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s but then based on the d e s i g n v a l u e of
the y i e l d s t r e s s of the p a r e n t m a t e r i a l . Kato [33] comes to the c o n -
c l u s i o n t h a t the " a " c u r v e can be a c c e p t e d , but the r e s u l t s from
t e s t s i n Liege [34] show f o r X > 1 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s which are
lower than the " a , " c u r v e .
In the d r a f t RB'78 [ 1 8 , 3 5 , 36] no d i f f e r e n c e i s made between hot
f i n i s h e d and c o l d f i n i s h e d SHS as f a r as the d e s i g n value of the yield
s t r e s s of the p a r e n t m a t e r i a l i s u s e d . However, the curve used and
shown i n f i g . 2 . 1 0 . , i s i n the e l a s t i c f i e l d c o n s e r v a t i v e compared to
the ECCS " a " c u r v e .

TTmean of 10 buckling t e s t s
11 w i t h 2 times standard
TT deviation
i
OCHS
e RHS
E

1
1

i E)
200

150 RB'7Jj /
[
1
CCS)

100
rr 2

1.67 : ( e c :cs).
2

20 93 in

- A
Fig. 2.10. RB'78 b u c k l i n g c u r v e f o r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s compared w i t h
t e s t r e s u l t s of c o l d f i n i s h e d SHS.

A c c o r d i n g to Maquoi and Rondal [37] the European b u c k l i n g c u r ve s can

be d e s c r i b e d on the b a s i s of the P e r r y Robertson f o r m u l a t i o n w i t h :

X 0.2 : N = 1 (2.11)

X > 0.2 :

- N = 1 ( X - 0.2) + A 2
1 v / a ^ ^ - o . Z ) ^ 2
) 2
^ " (2.12)
2 X 2 T

29
 2-14

" a " c u r v e a = 0.206

"b" curve a = 0.339
" c " curve a = 0.489

For d e s i g n , the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h can be determined w i t h equations

( 2 . 1 1 ) and ( 2 . 1 2 ) as f u n c t i o n o f X.

2.5.2. L2?l_!?yckling
The e l a s t i c l o c a l b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r o f c i r c u l a r and r e c t a n g u l a r hol-
low s e c t i o n s i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . The l i m i t s f o r the d i a m e t e r - w a l l
t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s o f CHS up to which no l o c a l b u c k l i n g o c c u r s , are
h i g h e r than those f o r the w i d t h - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s o f RHS. Thin
w a l l e d c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s behave l i k e s h e l l s and have l e s s post
b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h whereas t h i n w a l l e d r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w sections
behave more l i k e p l a t e s w i t h a b e t t e r post b u c k l i n g behaviour.
W i t h i n the p r a c t i c a l range o f a p p l i c a t i o n most s e c t i o n s are not s e n s i -
tive f o r l o c a l b u c k l i n g . R e c e n t l y more t h i n w a l l e d r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
s e c t i o n s have come on t h e m a r k e t , t h e r e f o r e w i d t h w a l l t h i c k n e s s lim-
itations will be given t o a v o i d l o c a l b u c k l i n g . The l o c a l b u c k l i n g
b e h a v i o u r o f t h i n w a l l e d hollow s e c t i o n s i s more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s e d i n
the f o l l o w i n g sections.

2.5.2.1. C i r c u l a r hollow sections

Theoretically the e l a s t i c l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e s s o f an i d e a l s h e l l or
c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n can be expressed by:

a (2.13)

with:
k = 1.21.

In r e a l i t y f a c t o r s which a f f e c t member b u c k l i n g , such as e c c e n t r i c i -

t i e s , t o l e r a n c e s , inhomogenities in steel e t c . , i n f l u e n c e the l o c a l
buckling behaviour, r e s u l t i n g i n c o n s i d e r a b l y lower k f a c t o r s .
Plantema [39] c o l l e c t e d a l l a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s and proposed a
diagram d e s c r i b i n g t h e b u c k l i n g behaviour.
A c c o r d i n g t o Plantema b u c k l i n g need not be c o n s i d e r e d if:

(2.14)

30
 2-15

Many st an dards are based on c o n d i t i o n (2.14) g e n e r a l l y t a k i n g an e x t r a

reserve i n t o account of about 10%. L a t e r o n more r e f i n e d t h e o r i e s were
developed t a k i n g account of the i m p e r f e c t i o n s . As a r e s u l t o f a l l
these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s many b u c k l i n g curves e x i s t which are c o l l e c t e d i n
fig. 2.11. [40].

1 1 1 1 1- i i
jClassicd. elastic theory
i
1.2
| Plantema AWWA X
j Donnel J / *
'1.0
j u=aooo6\j ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ " ^

0.8
1 ^^<^ t e d CU Ve
"
0.6 l'rfyC/ ^-Marshall

1 1
/// ^^~~~\_Plaritema A\
Q.i. i |
S M e s t results
0.2 xj

i i i i
10 12 H 16
E.t
cfrd
Fig. 2.11. Local b u c k l i n g curves.

The main d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n the e l a s t i c and e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c range

whereas i n the p l a s t i c range the d i f f e r e n c e s are s m a l l . In general to
prevent l o c a l b u c k l i n g , the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n must be f u l f i l l e d :

(2.15)
k~o:

The v a l u e s of k given i n the v a r i o u s standards or quoted by the i n -

vestigators vary between 7.25 and 9 . 2 5 [ 3 6 ] .
As the t h i c k w a l l e d s e c t i o n s are l e s s s e n s i t i v e to imperfections,
RB'78 [18] uses a s i m i l a r approach t o t h a t given i n [17] which means
a r e s e r v e of about 10% compared w i t h the Plantema diagramme i.e.
k = 8 . 7 5 . A k - f a c t o r of 8.75 requires the f o l l o w i n g j ratio:

31
 2-16

Fe 360 j 100

Fe 430 j g 86

Fe 510 4 < 67

Very t h i n w a l l e d c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s which do not meet the re-

quirement ( 2 . 1 5 ) can be checked u s i n g one of the lower curves of
f i g . 2 . 1 1 . However, these very t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s are not v e r y common
in practice. For f a b r i c a t e d h o l l o w s t e e l s e c t i o n s some g u i d e l i n e s can
be found i n [13].

2.5.2.2. Rectangular hollow sections

Much r e s e a r c h was c a r r i e d out on t h i n w a l l e d c o l d formed s e c t i o n s by

Winter e t . a l . [ 1 7 ] . To c o v e r the problem o f l o c a l b u c k l i n g a s e c t i o n
was d i v i d e d i n t o f u l l y e f f e c t i v e and non e f f e c t i v e areas as i l l u s -
trated in f i g . 2.12.

f///A EV/2>
compression side

tension side
Otft tft>'A
compression bending

Fig. 2.12. E f f e c t i v e w i d t h a c c o r d i n g to W i n t e r .

The formulae o b t a i n e d by W i n t e r are w i d e l y used i n n a t i o n a l standards.

A method more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the ECCS recommendations [10] is devel-

oped by Braham and Rondal [ 4 1 ] . A c c o r d i n g to the Recommendations of
the European Convention f o r C o n s t r u c t i o n a l Steelwork a s e c t i o n must
be c o n s i d e r e d as t h i n w a l l e d i f one of the f a c e s has a s l e n d e r n e s s
ratio of:

(2.16)

32
 2-17

The s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o A i s given by e q u a t i o n (2.17).

(2.17)

A y = 0.8 if

b
eq
t

Fe 360 45
Fe430 42
Fe 510 37

In o r d e r to take account of the c o r n e r s ref. [41] recommends (based on

a s i m u l a t i o n s t u d y by f i n i t e strips):

b e g = b [1 - (2.45 | - 50)(^) ] 3

(2.18)

eq

E s p e c i a l l y f o r t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s the c o r n e r s have a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n -
f l u e n c e as they vary c o n s i d e r a b l y depending on the f a b r i c a t i o n method
b r
r
of the h o l l o w s e c t i o n . Checking e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 8 ) f o r v a r i o u s j and - ~
r a t i o s shows t h a t f o r r a t i o s - s 3 the e r r o r i s l e s s than 3% by s i m -
plification to:

b = b (2.19)
eq

(with

The b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h can be c a l c u l a t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g the f a c e s of

the h o l l o w s e c t i o n s as s i m p l y supported [ 4 2 ] . Assuming f o r the corners
a s t r e n g t h which i s the mean of the s t r e n g t h of both s i d e s of the RHS
s e c t i o n the l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h or stub column s t r e n g t h N y can be
gi ven a s :

N = a .t { 2 b - r ( 4 - ir)} + N ( 2 h - r ( 4 - TT)} (2.20)

v e vl
c v 2 c

33
 2-18

In which N j and r e p r e s e n t the r a t i o between the p l a t e b u c k l i n g

s t r e n g t h of the f a c e s 1 and 2 and the squash l o a d of t h e s e . A compar-
i s o n w i t h the experimental r e s u l t s i s given i n f i g . 2 . 1 3 .

*" N ,theor.
v

Fig. 2.13. Comparison of e q . ( 2 . 2 0 ) w i t h t e s t results.

For each s i d e of the h o l l o w s e c t i o n N y l and N y 2 can be c a l c u l a t e d

w i t h formulae ( 2 . 2 1 ) and ( 2 . 2 2 ) .

for A
v
i 0. N = 1.0
v
(2.21)

for A > 0.8

v

l + c(A -0.8)
v +A v

{l + c ( A - 0 . +A } - 4 A (2.22)
V V
v

2 A 2 A,

with:
c = 0 . 3 5 f o r hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w sections
c = 0.67 f o r c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w sections.
 2-19

The r e l a t i o n ( 2 . 2 2 ) i s based on the P e r r y - R o b e r t s o n e q u a t i o n whereas

the v a l u e s of 3 were based on the t e s t r e s u l t s of L i t t l e [ 4 3 ] . For the
c a l c u l a t i o n of A~ formula ( 2 . 1 7 ) can be used. Formula ( 2 . 2 2 )
v i s shown
graphically in f i g . 2.14.

0
10 2.0
X v

Fig. 2.14. Plate strength curves.

For a square h o l l o w s e c t i o n the c a l c u l a t i o n can be s i m p l i f i e d t o :

N v = A . V N v (2.23)

N can be d e r i v e d from f i g u r e 2 . 1 4 . o r e q u a t i o n ( 2 . 2 2 ) as a f u n c t i o n of

c
Section requirements

The l i m i t a t i o n s up to which l o c a l b u c k l i n g need not be checked a c c o r d -

i n g to [ 1 8 , 12] are summarized below:

CHS RHS These 1 i m i t a t i o n s are based on c e n t r i c a l l y

steel
loaded compression members. In rectangu-
grade d b h
or
t t t l a r s e c t i o n s the s i d e s w i t h the largest
w i d t h are somewhat r e s t r a i n t by the s i d e s
Fe 360 100 45
w i t h the s m a l l e r w i d t h s . T h i s e f f e c t how-
Fe 430 86 42
ever has been i g n o r e d f o r the l i m i t a t i o n s
Fe 510 67 37
gi ven.

For members which a r e loaded by a combination o f an a x i a l load and a

35
 2-20

bending moment l o c a l b u c k l i n g i s l e s s severe and the l i m i t s can be

somewhat h i g h e r . However, f o r CHS and the compressed f l a n g e o f RHS the
f a v o u r a b l e e f f e c t i s g e n e r a l l y n e g l e c t e d . For the s i d e s o f RHS loaded
by compression and bending the l i m i t s can be determined u s i n g the
b u c k l i n g formulae of s i m p l e supported p l a t e s .

For s e c t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r p l a s t i c d e s i g n , more s t r i n g e n t limitations

are given w i t h regard to the ^ and -| r a t i o s . These l i m i t a t i o n s f o r com-
pact s e c t i o n s are given i n s e c t i o n 2.6.2.1.

2.5.3. Interaction local-_and_member_buckling

Due to g e o m e t r i c a l i m p e r f e c t i o n s and r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i t i s not suf-

f i c i e n t to check t h i n w a l l e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s o n l y f o r l o c a l buckling
and member b u c k l i n g but a p o s s i b l e i n t e r a c t i o n have to be c o n s i d e r e d .
The phenomenon of i n t e r a c t i o n can l e a d to s t r e n g t h s considerably lower
than those c a l c u l a t e d f o r l o c a l b u c k l i n g or o v e r a l l buckling indepen-
dently. F i g . 2 . 1 5 . shows q u a l i t a t i v e l y the i n f l u e n c e o f imperfections.

strut buckling \
plate b u c k l i n g > w l t h o u t
^perfections

behaviour with imperfections

b.t = constant

Fig. 2.15. Influence of i m p e r f e c t i o n s on the b u c k l i n g behaviour.

Based on an e x t e n s i v e ECSC - C i d e c t r e s e a r c h programme c a r r i e d out a t

the U n i v e r s i t y of L i e g e [41] by Braham, Rondal and G r i m a u l t a d e s i g n
method can be given f o r r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s to cover the
phenomenon of interaction.
For c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i n s u f f i c i e n t evidence i s a v a i l a b l e but in

36
 2-21

p r i n c i p l e a s i m i l a r method can be used as d e s c r i b e d here f o r rectangu-

l a r hollow s e c t i o n s .
The i n t e r a c t i o n b e h a v i o u r i s r e l a t e d t o the b u c k l i n g and the local
b u c k l i n g b e h a v i o u r o f the s e c t i o n i n the f o l l o w i n g way: The European
b u c k l i n g curve use a diagram i n which N i s e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n
o f X. (see s e c t i o n 2.5.1.).

Ni
N = / (2.8)
P

X = - (2.9)
E A

X E = u/p (2.10)
P

The same p r i n c i p l e i s used f o r the a n a l y s i s o f the i n t e r a c t i o n behav-

i o u r o f t h i n w a l l e d r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s but the b u c k l i n g
loads a r e now r e l a t e d t o the l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h N y o f a stub
column i n s t e a d o f the squash l o a d of the s e c t i o n .

- N
k
N 1
(2.24)
v

X' = v r (2.25)
E A

X ^ - T T V ^ (2.26)

Comparison o f the m o d i f i e d b u c k l i n g curve and the t e s t r e s u l t s from

144 t h i n w a l l e d specimens show a good agreement ( f i g . 2.16.).
All checks f o r b u c k l i n g , l o c a l b u c k l i n g and i n t e r a c t i o n can now be
combined. The l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h N, can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h ex-
pression (2.20) o r d e r i v e d from f i g . 2 . 1 4 . o f s e c t i o n 2 . 5 . 2 . 2 . Further
the non d i m e n s i o n a l s l e n d e r n e s s X' can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h (2.25) as
the r a t i o between the s l e n d e r n e s s X f o r b u c k l i n g and the m o d i f i e d
E u l e r s l e n d e r n e s s X i . As a f u n c t i o n o f X' the non d i m e n s i o n a l strength
N' can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h ( 2 . 2 7 ) or d e r i v e d from f i g . 2 . 1 6 .

N' = 1 + o t
( * ' -0.2) +X' 2
l v V + a ( X ' - 0 . 2 ) + X ' 2
} 2
- 4 X ' 2
(2.27)
2 X 1
2 X'6

37
 2-22

0 05 10 15

Fig. 2.16. Comparison of the t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h e q u a t i o n (2.27).

The r e s u l t i n g s t r e n g t h N due to member b u c k l i n q , l o c a l b u c k l i n g and

i n t e r a c t i o n i s now given by:

N = N' . N v (2.28)

The method i s s i m p l e and covers the v a r i o u s criteria.

For c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n the same method c o u l d be u s e d . The deter-
m i n a t i o n of the l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h can be based on a lower bound
c u r v e of f i g . 2 . 1 1 of s e c t i o n 2 . 5 . 2 . 1 . The use of a lower bound c u r v e
i s a d v i s e d s i n c e the post b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h of c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n s is
low compared to t h a t f o r r e c t a n g u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s .

2.5.4. Buckjing.lengths

In l a t t i c e g i r d e r s of h o l l o w s e c t i o n s a l l members are welded at the

c o n n e c t i o n s . The member i t s e l f has a good r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t torsion
and bending whereas the j o i n t s give a c e r t a i n f i x i t y . Due to these
properties the s t a b i l i t y o f b r a c i n g s i n l a t t i c e g i r d e r s of SHS i s bet-
t e r than those i n g i r d e r s of open s e c t i o n s . In d e s i g n t h i s i s general-
l y d e s c r i b e d by a " b u c k l i n g l e n g t h " SL. . The " e f f e c t i v e buckling

38
 2-23

l e n g t h s " I. of b r a c i n g s i n l a t t i c e g i r d e r s are s m a l l e r than the

system l e n g t h s t : Q (0.5 i Q i, z
In p r i n c i p l e t h i s problem can be s o l v e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y i f the stiff-
nesses of the j o i n t s f o r the r e l e v a n t l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s are a v a i l a b l e .
However too l i t t l e data i s a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d i n g the j o i n t stiffness
under a combination of a x i a l loads and moments. A t h e o r e t i c a l experi-
mental programme r e g a r d i n g t h i s s u b j e c t i s i n i t i a t e d now by the Delft
U n i v e r s i t y of Technology and TNO-IBBC. T h i s may l e a d to a b e t t e r
d e s c r i p t i o n of the s t a b i l i t y o f l a t t i c e g i r d e r members i n r e l a t i o n to
member dimensions and t a k i n g account of the j o i n t stiffnesses.
Until now the codes a l r e a d y g i v e r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s based on t h e test
r e s u l t s a v a i l a b l e . For example i n the U.K. and Canada i t is
usual to assume the b u c k l i n g l e n g t h of the b r a c i n g s as 0 . 7 times the
system l e n g t h . In the API r u l e s [13] a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r of 0 . 8 . i s
given whereas the DNV r u l e s [16] g i v e 0 . 7 to 1.0 depending on the w a l l
t h i c k n e s s chord diameter r a t i o . The RB'78 g i v e s a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r of
0 . 7 under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s e . g . for overlap j o i n t s and gap j o i n t s
w i t h a high w i d t h r a t i o between b r a c i n g s and c h o r d . T e s t s recently
c a r r i e d out on g i r d e r s made of RHS show [44] t h a t f o r gap j o i n t s with
a low w i d t h r a t i o of 0 . 5 and a w i d t h - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o of the
chord of 2 5 , the r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r was even l e s s than 0 . 7 . In r e f . [45]
based on some g i r d e r t e s t s formulae are developed to determine t h e
b u c k l i n g l e n g t h however t h e r e are c e r t a i n r e s e r v a t i o n s against the
a n a l y s i s . The above argumentation i s of course o n l y v a l i d f o r members
which are connected a l o n g the f u l l perimeter without cropping or
f l a t t e n i n g of the members. Due to the t o r s i o n a l and bending stiff-
nesses of the SHS members, l a t e r a l l y unsupported chords have a b e t t e r
resistance against l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g than open s e c t i o n s . Information
r e g a r d i n g the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s t a b i l i t y of l a t e r a l l y unsupported
chords i n g i r d e r s of SHS can be found i n r e f s . [47, 48, 49].

2.6. Bending and shear

In p r i n c i p l e , the c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the l o a d i n g case " b e n d i n g " are

s i m i l a r to those f o r t r a d i t i o n a l open s t e e l s e c t i o n s . The main d i f -
f e r e n c e s are the l i m i t a t i o n s of the d i a m e t e r , o r w i d t h - w a l l thick-
ness r a t i o s up to which no r e d u c t i o n of the d e s i g n s t r e s s need be
taken i n t o a c c o u n t . These l i m i t a t i o n s depend on the c a l c u l a t i o n method;

39
 2-24

e.g. in p l a s t i c design, a c e r t a i n rotation capacity i s required for

redistribution of s t r e s s e s which r e s u l t s i n more compact s e c t i o n s
than those used i n e l a s t i c d e s i g n . F u r t h e r , due to the g e o m e t r i c a l
shape, the i n t e r a c t i o n formulae i n p l a s t i c d e s i g n d i f f e r from those
f o r open s e c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h I - s e c t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y more economical
f o r s i n g l e plane bending than h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , f o r long span beams
(which are not supported i n l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n ) , lateral instability
will reduce the economy.

Due to t h e i r high t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s , h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i n the common

dimensions are not a f f e c t e d by l a t e r a l buckling.
For bending on two a x i s , e . g . p u r l i n s on i n c l i n e d r o o f s , structural
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s can a l s o o f f e r an advantage due t o t h e i r s t i f f n e s s in
two directions.

Fig. 2.17. I-sections: lateral buckling

SHS s e c t i o n s : no l a t e r a l buckling.

2.6.1. Elastic_design

Beams loaded i n bending s h o u l d i n e l a s t i c d e s i g n meet the following

requi rements:

(2.28)

where:

Mi = bending moment
b
W = e l a s t i c modulus f o r the r e l e v a n t bending axis
e
a = d e s i g n value f o r the y i e l d stress.
e

40
 2-25

For bendinq i n two a x e s , the s t r e s s due to both moments M, and M,

bz by
should be combined.
Due to the p l a s t i c r e s e r v e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i s c a s e , the e l a s t i c design
method i s much more uneconomical than the p l a s t i c d e s i g n method - see
2.6.2.

In beams loaded i n b e n d i n g , not o n l y bending s t r e s s e s e x i s t but a l s o

shear s t r e s s e s .

Fig. 2.18. E l a s t i c shear s t r e s s distribution.

The maximum v a l u e of the shear s t r e s s , having r e g a r d to the distribu-

t i o n o f s t r e s s e s i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the e l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r of the mem-
ber i n f l e x u r e , s h a l l not exceed the design v a l u e ( y i e l d shear stress).

(2.29)
2I.t T
e n

where:
Q = the shear force
S = the s t a t i c moment about the n e u t r a l a x i s of the area between
the f r e e edge and the plane through the p o i n t under c o n s i d e r a -
tion
I = the moment of i n e r t i a of the whole section
2t = sum o f the two web t h i c k n e s s e s .

The maximum v a l u e s of the shear s t r e s s e s may f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s be s i m -

plified to:

41
 2-26

T = 2.x f o r c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s (2.30)

max A

T - o-ir-r f o r r e c t a n g u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s (2.31)

max 2.h.t 3

In those cases where high bending s t r e s s e s and h i g h shear s t r e s s e s

e x i s t i n the same c r o s s s e c t i o n , t h e s t r e s s e s s h o u l d be combined a c -
c o r d i n g t o the Huber Hencky - Von Mises c r i t e r i o n as d e s c r i b e d i n s e c -
t i o n 2 . 8 . 1 . Some codes a l l o w an i n c r e a s e d d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e e q u i v a -
l e n t s t r e s s , being 1.25 times the d e s i g n v a l u e of t h e y i e l d stress.

B e s i d e s the s t r e s s d e s i g n , a t t e n t i o n must be given to the d e f l e c t i o n .

The d e f l e c t i o n s can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m u l a e . The
r e s u l t i n g d e f l e c t i o n s h o u l d be s m a l l e r than the r e l e v a n t maximum value
a l l o w e d by the r e l e v a n t N a t i o n a l Code of P r a c t i c e .

2.6.1.1. Local buckling

For c a l c u l a t i o n s i n e l a s t i c d e s i g n , l i m i t a t i o n s are given f o r the dia-

meter w a l l t h i c k n e s s o r width - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o up to which the
design value f o r the bending s t r e s s need not be reduced. For very t h i n
w a l l e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , the d e s i g n value has to be reduced due to l o c a l
buckling.
As d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2 . 5 . 2 . , the l i m i t a t i o n s from which the design
s t r e n g t h need be reduced vary i n N a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d s . In some s t a n d a r d s ,
f o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , f o r bending o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the same
l i m i t a t i o n i s given as f o r c o m p r e s s i o n . Plantema [39] shows t h a t for
4 < -J even the p l a s t i c moment can be reached before l o c a l buckling
t 8a '
o c c u r s . T h i s l i m i t a t i o n i s the same as f o r compression l o a d i n g . In
g e n e r a l , t h e r e i s no problem w i t h regard to l o c a l b u c k l i n g i f the
r a t i o s a t i s f i e s the same requirement as f o r compression l o a d i n g ; see
2.5.2.1.

Fe 360 4 < 100

Fe 430 86

Fe 510 | 67

42
 2-27

2.5 8
E t
0" e

Fig. 2.19. Plantema diagram f o r bending of CHS.

C i r c u l a r hollow sections with diameter-wall thicknesses greater than

these l i m i t a t i o n s are not common f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s which belong to the
c o n t e x t of t h i s s t u d y . Therefore, in g e n e r a l , l o c a l b u c k l i n g w i l l not
be a c r i t e r i o n in e l a s t i c design.

For square and r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , the s i t u a t i o n i n bending

i s more f a v o u r a b l e than f o r a x i a l l y compressed members. One f l a n g e is
fully compressed but the webs are i n b e n d i n g , so t h a t the f l a n g e is
p a r t i a l l y r e s t r a i n e d by the webs. Although the s i t u a t i o n i s more f a -
v o u r a b l e than s i m p l e p l a t e b u c k l i n g i t i s very common to base the
local b u c k l i n q c r i t e r i a of the u n i f o r m l y s t r e s s e d f l a n g e , on the a s -
sumption o f a s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d p l a t e . S i m i l a r l y t h a t f o r the web i n
flexure i s a l s o d e r i v e d on the b a s i s of the same boundary assumptions.
The general formulae f o r f l a n g e b u c k l i n g are d i s c u s s e d i n section
2 . 5 . 2 . 2 . This r e s u l t s i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s g i v e n on the next page up t o
w h i c h the design s t r e n g t h need not be reduced. Bending o f the webs
will not be a c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e common s e c t i o n s used i n p r a c t i c e , here
t h e h/t r a t i o i s l i m i t e d by t h e f a b r i c a t i o n . Thus o n l y t h e compressed
f l a n g e may l e a d t o a r e d u c t i o n i n d e s i g n s t r e n g t h due t o l o c a l buckling.

43
 2-28

b h
RHS a
t * t
e
N/mm 2

240 45
flange 280 42
(compression) 360 37

240 60 1)
web 280 60 1)
(bending) 360 60 1)

1) f a b r i c a t i o n l i m i t .

2.6.2. Plastic^design

P l a s t i c d e s i g n takes advantage o f the d u c t i l e p r o p e r t y o f a m a t e r i a l

o f which a s t r u c t u r e i s made and the design i s based on the a c t u a l
l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f the s t r u c t u r e . E s p e c i a l l y f o r bending, this
method i s much more economical than the e l a s t i c d e s i g n .

In p l a s t i c d e s i g n t h e r e are however two n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s which

must be s a t i s f i e d :
- The moments can be r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the beam when the p l a s t i c mo-
ment i s reached a t the s e c t i o n o f the f i r s t and subsequent hinges
p r i o r to c o l l a p s e .
- The p l a s t i c moment Mp i n the c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n s must be m a i n t a i n e d
until s u f f i c i e n t a d d i t i o n a l s e c t i o n s have y i e l d e d to produce a
mechanism. The r o t a t i o n i n a hinge needed f o r meeting the c o n d i t i o n
t h a t s u f f i c i e n t a d d i t i o n a l s e c t i o n s have y i e l d e d to form a mechanism
i s c a l l e d "the r o t a t i o n capacity".
The r e q u i r e d r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y depends on the type o f s t r u c t u r e and
l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n . Compact s e c t i o n s show more r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y than
thin sections.
For p l a s t i c d e s i g n t h e r e f o r e , the l i m i t a t i o n s f o r the d i a m e t e r - w a l l
t h i c k n e s s r a t i o and the w i d t h - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o are much s t r o n g e r
than f o r e l a s t i c d e s i g n . The l i m i t a t i o n s depend on the r e q u i r e d r o t a -
t i o n c a p a c i t y . For example the l i m i t a t i o n s can be d i v i d e d i n t o those
f o r compact s e c t i o n s which should be a b l e to reach the f u l l plastic
moment and those which a l s o have s u f f i c i e n t r o t a t i o n capacity.

44
 2-29

With the general r u l e s of p l a s t i c d e s i g n , the moment and shear d i s t r i -

b u t i o n i n the beam can be c a l c u l a t e d . The c r o s s s e c t i o n s have to be
checked f o r bending and s h e a r . For the " b a s i c d e s i g n l o a d s " i n the
l i m i t s t a t e f o r the p l a s t i c moment, and the shear l o a d Q , f u l l
p l a s t i f i c a t i o n can be assumed.

CJ e G e T =C7 /V 3
e e
r

(for R H S s h e a r
only in w e b s )

Fig. 2.20. Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r basic l i m i t state design loads.

The formulae f o r these b a s i c d e s i g n c a p a c i t i e s are g i v e n i n t a b l e 2.21.:

Table 2 . 2 1 . Basic design c a p a c i t i e s ( l i m i t state)

full p l a s t i c moment and shear

S e c t i o n
squash l o a d yield load

)
M
p = # e (2-32) 0
Qp = 2
d mt ^
d = d - t N
p = A a
e = 11 d
m t a
e (2-33)
m (2.34)

M
p =
! b
m t a
e (2.35)
e
Q = 2b..t
bm = b -
m t N
p = Aa e = 4 b ta m e (2.36) P /3 m

(2.37)
b
M = b th a + ^ h t a 2
(2.38)
p m m e 2 m e v
'
h 0 n = 2 ht - 1
P
/3
, m = - t N = A a = 2 b t a +2h t a ( 2 . 3 9 )
p
b b
e m e m e '
Q
K

H f m

h
m = h
- *
(2.40)

45
 2-30

The r a t i o between the f u l l p l a s t i c moment and the e l a s t i c moment f o r

a c e r t a i n s e c t i o n i s c a l l e d the shape f a c t o r . T h i s shape f a c t o r gives
f o r a c r o s s s e c t i o n an i n d i c a t i o n o f the p l a s t i c reserve.

For t d or t b resp. h, the t a b l e 2 . 2 2 . g i v e s a lower bound

i n d i c a t i o n of t h i s shape f a c t o r a . The r e a l shape f a c t o r a f o r rec-
t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s can be
Table 2 . 2 2 . considerably larger.
The e x a c t v a l u e f o r square s e c -
Section Shape f a c t o r a
tions varies between 1.13 and 1 . 2 7 .
c i rcul ar 1,27

rectan- 6 b +3 h
m m
gul a r
6 b + 2 h'
m m

In g e n e r a l , not o n l y bending s t r e s s e s w i l l o c c u r i n the s e c t i o n , but

a l s o shear s t r e s s e s o r sometimes a x i a l s t r e s s e s . Based on the Huber -
Hencky Von Mises c r i t e r i o n , the s t r e s s e s are combined i n the most
f a v o u r a b l e way over the s e c t i o n . The r e s u l t i n g i n t e r a c t i o n formulae
are d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 8 . 2 .

2.6.2.1. Section requirements

As a l r e a d y mentioned i n 2 . 6 . 2 . , the s e c t i o n s s h o u l d have sufficient

r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y . The r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y i s d e f i n e d as the r a t i o be-
tween the i n e l a s t i c r o t a t i o n over a u n i t l e n g t h and the e l a s t i c rota-
t i o n over a u n i t l e n g t h between M = M and the p o i n t a t which M drops
below M ( f i g .
p 2.23.).
In t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s showing l o c a l b u c k l i n g as the f a i l u r e crite-
r i o n , the moment w i l l drop q u i c k l y a f t e r r e a c h i n g the maximum value
w i t h i n c r e a s e d r o t a t i o n . Thus no d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y e x i s t s and the
c a l c u l a t i o n has to be based on l o c a l b u c k l i n g (see e l a s t i c design).
S e c t i o n s i n which the f u l l p l a s t i c moment can be reached before buck-
l i n g o c c u r s can be used f o r p l a s t i c d e s i g n i f the r o t a t i o n capacity
will be s u f f i c i e n t . The more compact the s e c t i o n s a r e , the more defor-
mation c a p a c i t y e x i s t s as shown i n f i g . 2 . 2 4 .
In general the r e q u i r e d d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y can be c a l c u l a t e d but in
most s t a n d a r d s a s p e c i f i e d v a l u e i s quoted or taken i n t o account based
on more severe c o n d i t i o n s , and the r e s u l t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s are g i v e n for

46
2-31
 2-32

diameter - w a l l t h i c k n e s s or w i d t h - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s . In re-
ference [52], Korol proposes a d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y of 4 and checks
i t for various types of s t r u c t u r e s . In v a r i o u s s t a n d a r d s , the re-
quirements d e v i a t e l a r g e l y due to the d i f f e r e n t required rotation
capacities. Some requirements are summarized i n t a b l e 2.25.

T a b l e 2.25. requirements f o r compact CHS S e c t i o n s .

Draft
CHS Korol RB'78 API
and

BS**

c [52] [9] [18] [13]

i<
Ol
mpres sion, t

compact* 2.09 V
o
e

compact
ear

for E E
L 1 5 / I
o -c plastic a 17.5o 23a
e e

design e

* P l a s t i c moment can be s u s t a i n e d but no d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y i s r e q u i r e d .

** These l i m i t a t i o n s are i n d i s c u s s i o n .
Note: Not s u f f i c i e n t data are a v a i l a b l e to determine whether the l i m -
i t a t i o n s h o u l d be a f u n c t i o n of

Table 2.26. and f requi rements f o r compact RHS s e c t i o n s .

Draft
RHS Korol RB'78 ECCS
BS**
[52] [9] [18] [12]
t
c
A
o *
ci
i/i compact 1.22 \/X 1.11
cu a a
e
s_
c e
E
O compact
u for
pi a s t i c
0.87 V 0.97
e
\P^-
v
a
e
1.08
e
1.08 V
d e s i gn
a
a
e

* P l a s t i c moment can be s u s t a i n e d but no d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y i s re-

qui r e d .
** These l i m i t a t i o n s are i n d i s c u s s i o n .
 2-33

A CHS s e c t i o n loaded by a bending moment s h o u l d a l s o meet the re-

quirements g i v e n i n t a b l e 2 . 2 5 . The webs of a RHS s e c t i o n loaded by
b e n d i n g , shear and a x i a l l o a d can meet l e s s s t r i n g e n t requirements
[ 9 , 12, 1 8 ] . As i l l u s t r a t e d i n t a b l e s 2 . 2 5 . and 2 . 2 6 . the formulae
show c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . For small s e c t i o n s up to about 600 mm
diameter or w i d t h the d i s c u s s e d v a l u e s a c c o r d i n g to the d r a f t British
Standard seem to g i v e the most r e a s o n a b l e l i m i t a t i o n s .

2.7. Torsion

Hollow s e c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y CHS have the most e f f e c t i v e c r o s s section

f o r r e s i s t i n g t o r s i o n a l moments because the m a t e r i a l i s u n i f o r m d i s -
t r i b u t e d about the p o l a r axis.

2.7.1. Qircular_hoilgw_sections

C a l c u l a t i o n of the a n g u l a r d e f o r m a t i o n and the s t r e s s e s can be found

i n a l l b a s i c r e f e r e n c e s on s t r e n g t h of m a t e r i a l s . For convience they
will be recorded here.

S e c t i o n s loaded i n t o r s i o n should meet f o l l o w i n g requirement:

M .d
+ M.
* = t^ ( 2 .41)
rrr t w t e

The angle of t w i s t over a l e n g t h of s e c t i o n I can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h :

(2-42)

The formulae f o r the t o r s i o n a l section properties I t and W of CHS are

t

given i n s e c t i o n 2 . 1 .

2.7.2. Rctangu2ar_ho].!ow_ cti.ons

In r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the m a t e r i a l has a non uniform d i s t r i -

b u t i o n about the p o l a r a x i s . For many y e a r s a s i m p l e t h e o r y a c c o r d i n g
to Bredt was used. T h i s t h e o r y i s based on the assumption t h a t the w a l l
t h i c k n e s s t i s very small ( t << h o r b ) . For t h i s assumption the tor-
s i o n a l moment of i n e r t i a can be c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s :

49
 2-34

2 2 2
4.A . t 4 . h .b . t
I m
a
m m
(2 43)
* h 2
( m
h + b
m) (
'

K = K-^r- = 2 A .t (2.44)
t t 2 A m m v
'

= 2 . h .b . t
m m

with t h
m
;
t b
m
m

i n whi c h :
A = area e n c l o s e d by t h e mean contour a. o f t h e s e c t i o n
m A

= l e n g t h o f t h e mean c o n t o u r .

The exact formulae a r e

A
m = m- m- b h r
c ^ < - 2 4 5
)

A = < m 2 h + b
m " ) 2 r
c ( " 4 T T
) ( - 2 4 6
)
r- + r
r c - - L
s r - 2
< - > 2 47

Recently the torsional behaviour o f t h i c k w a l l e d r e c t a n g u l a r hollow

s e c t i o n s have been s t u d i e d more i n d e t a i l by M a r s h a l l and G i d d i n g s
[ 5 3 ] . The formulae r e s u l t i n g from t h i s study have been adopted by t h e
ISO:

M..S

<J> = Q V (2-48)

wi t h
3 2
t .1. 4A \ t
I. = + (2.49)
* 3 ^

M 2 A
T = - i ( t + ( 2 . 5 0 )

or
 2-35

T = (2.51)

with

(2.52)
2 A
m
t +

The d i f f e r e n c e between the e x p r e s s i o n s a c c o r d i n g to B r e d t , expressions

( 2 . 4 3 ) and ( 2 . 4 4 ) and the ISO formulae ( 2 . 4 9 ) and ( 2 . 5 2 ) are due t o
the f a c t t h a t B r e d t assumed a c o n s t a n t shear s t r e s s over the t h i c k n e s s
o f the s e c t i o n . The t h i n w a l l e d formulae a c c o r d i n g to B r e d t can o v e r -
p r e d i c t the t o r s i o n a l c o n s t a n t s . T h e r e f o r e the ISO formulae are r e -
commended a l t h o u g h the v a l u e s f o r the t o r s i o n a l c o n s t a n t s i n c e r t a i n
n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s and p r o s p e c t s o f tube s u p p l i e r s are s t i l l based on
the B r e d t f o r m u l a e .

Combined l o a d s

T h i s s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h the c h e c k i n g methods f o r the s t r e s s e s i n c r o s s

s e c t i o n s . The o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y o f the members i s not incorporated.

Ilstic_desig_n

In e l a s t i c d e s i g n the s t r e s s e s due to the v a r i o u s a c t i o n s such as

t e n s i o n , c o m p r e s s i o n , b e n d i n g , shear and t o r s i o n are combined i n the
w e l l - k n o w n Huber-Hencky-Von Mises c r i t e r i o n .
The maximum s t r e s s due to tension or compression and bending about one
o r two a x i s s h o u l d be s m a l l e r than the d e s i g n v a l u e .
The maximum shear s t r e s s due to shear and t o r s i o n should be s m a l l e r
than the d e s i g n v a l u e f o r shear.
C i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s :

(2.53)
e

51
 2-36

R e c t a n g u l a r and square hollow sections:

1 + W ^ + W ^ e (2-54)
e e
yy zz
General:

Q- S
+ _t s x = _e (2.55)
Z.I.t Wt e ^

F u r t h e r i n e v e r y p o i n t of the s e c t i o n the combination of the resulting

a x i a l s t r e s s e s , bending s t r e s s e s and shear s t r e s s e s should not exceed
the d e s i a n v a l u e .

Va 2
+ 3T 2
a. (2.56)

Due to the p l a s t i c r e s e r v e i n s t r e n g t h , some codes of p r a c t i c e allow

an e q u i v a l e n t design v a l u e , being 1.25 times the design v a l u e of the
yield stress. The p l a s t i c d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n g i v e s f o r compact s e c t i o n s
a much b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n of the r e a l c a p a c i t y of h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . For
t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s the e l a s t i c d e s i g n should be used. In these cases
the d e s i a n value may even have to be reduced due to l o c a l buckling.

2.8.2. Plastic_desirjn

In p l a s t i c d e s i g n t h e r e are c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s which must be f u l f i l l e d

as d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n s 2 . 5 . 2 . 3 . and 2 . 6 . 2 . The s t r e s s r e s u l t a n t s due
t o the v a r i o u s a c t i o n s are now d i s t r i b u t e d over the s e c t i o n i n the
most f a v o u r a b l e way t a k i n g account of the r e s i s t a n c e p o s s i b i l i t y e.g.
shear i s o n l y r e s i s t e d by the webs p a r a l l e l to the shear load.
The i n t e r a c t i o n formulae g i v e n here are d e r i v e d from the work of Roik
et. al. [54]. Further S h a k i r - K a l i l e t . a l . [55] did investigations re-
g a r d i n g the c o m b i n a t i o n o f s t r e s s e s . Sometimes the formulae are a p -
p r o x i m a t i o n s of the e x a c t f o r m u l a e . In Appendix II the e x a c t formulae
are worked out f o r the b a s i c l o a d i n g interactions.

2.8.2.1. B a s i c l i m i t state design strengths

- Axial load
N e N = A.a
P e

52
 2-37

Shear i n one plane

Q<Q p

Bending i n one plane

Table 2 . 2 1 . Basic design c a p a c i t i e s ( l i m i t state)

full p l a s t i c moment and shear

S e c t i o n
squash l o a d yield load

t
M
p = d
m t 0
e (2-32)
J Qn
p =
2
dm
t ^
d m = d - t N
p = A a
e = 11 d
m t a
e (2-33)
m (2.34)

M p = 1 b
m * a e (2.35)
b e
Q = 2b..t
b
m = b
- t N p = Aa e = 4 b t a m fi (2.36) P /3 m

m (2.37)

t
M
P " b
m t h
m e I m
a + h t a
e < - 2 3 8
)
h Q =2h t m
P m
/3
b = b - t
m m
N
P = A a
e = 2 b
m t
e + 2 h
m t a
e( -
2 3 9
)

"m m
h
- t
(2.40)

2 . 8 . 2 . 2 . Interaction bending moment and shear l o a d

The e x a c t i n t e r a c t i o n formula i s :

1
M P L V J 2A - AQ

T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n i s shown i n f i g . 2.27.

53
 A c c o r d i n g to RB'78 [ 1 8 ] , the i n f l u e n c e of the shear l o a d on the p l a s -
t i c moment can be n e g l e c t e d i f the shear l o a d s a t i s f i e s the following
requirements:

c i r c u l a r hollow sections : S - s 0.35 (2.58)

P

rectangular hollow sections : f- g 0 . 8 5 - 0 . 5 "V (2.59)

p mm
where h = h - t
m
b = b-t
m
(When the shear load Q s a t i s f i e s eq. ( 2 . 5 8 ) o r (2.59),
The i n f l u e n c e on M i s than l e s s than 5%).
P

2.8.2.3. I n t e r a c t i o n bending moment and a x i a l load

The i n t e r a c t i o n between the bending moment and the a x i a l load i s shown

in f i g . 2.28. for various types of sections.

54
 2-39

The i n t e r a c t i o n formulae a c c o r d i n g t o [54] are g i v e n i n ( 2 . 6 0 ) and

( 2 . 6 1 ) . These formulae are a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f the e x a c t f o r m u l a e . Roik
does not g i v e i n t e r a c t i o n formulae f o r r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s .
Based on the e x a c t s o l u t i o n s determined i n Appendix II the e x p r e s s i o n s
(2.62) to ( 2 . 6 4 ) have been f o r m u l a t e d .

Table 2 . 2 9 .
M - N i n t e r a c t i o n formulae

S e c t i o n F o r m u 1 a

1.7 M ,
<<40 (2.60)

< 40
L 5
(^) + =i (2.61)

,N , 1 . 7
> 2 (2.62)
M
P
0.5 s ~ & 2 (2.63)
b
P P

rb < -5 (2.64)
P P

55
 2-40

As shown i n f i g u r e 2 . 2 8 , f o r N < 0 .1 5 N p , t h e i n f l u e n c e on the

p l a s t i c moment i s small and can be n e g l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 8 ] .

2.8.2.4. Interaction bending moment, a x i a l l o a d and shear l o a d

C i r c u l a r hollow sections:

( " ) L 7 " . 1 . 0 + (2.65)

N
P,Q P , Q M

where:

A.a o / l - (i-) 2
(2.66)

V Q = d
S- t o
e V l
" i
( ) 2 ( 2
- 6 7 )

Q = 2 d t.-? (2.34)
p m ^

R e c t a n g u l a r hollow sections:

+ 1.0 (2.68)
N
P,Q M
p,Q

For x s e e t a b l e 2 . 2 9 .
where:

N = 2 b .t.o + 2 h .t.a V l - (^-) 2

(2.69)
p,Q m e m e ^0 p

M = b .h . t . a + 0 . 5 h . t . a V l - ( E - ) 2 2
(2.70)
p , Q m m e m e Qp' '
n
v v

a
0 = 2.h . t . (2.40)
p m
n
The i n t e r a c t i o n formulae f o r c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s are as an example
shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n f i g . 2 . 3 0 .

56
 2-41

0 0.2 O.i. 0.6 0.8 1.0

M
Mp

Fig. 2.30. M-N-Q i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c i r c u l a r hollow sections.

2.8.2.5. Bending i n two planes

A c c o r d i n g to [ 5 4 ] , the i n t e r a c t i o n between moments i n two p l a n e s can

be g i v e n by:

Table 2 . 3 1 .

Section Validity I n t e r a c t i o n formula

M n M
CHS ( Y
) + ( Z
) Z
= 1 (2.71)
p,y P,z

M , M , M
y < 2
(2.72)
M - 3 4 ^ ' M _ 1

py p.y p.z

RHS

- M , M
A . 2
3, z .2 y _ , (2.73)
M >
3
p,y P.z p,y

The i n t e r a c t i o n i s shown i n f i g . 2.32.

 2-42

0 0.2 0.4. 0.6 0.8 10

My

Fig. 2.32. M -M interaction [54].

2.8.2.6. - I n t e r a c t i o n bending i n two p l a n e s and shear

A good a p p r o x i m a t i o n can be d e r i v e d by r e p l a c i n g the p l a s t i c moments

M and M by the reduced moments due to shear M and M
p,z p,y p.Q.z p,0,y
n n n
J

as g i v e n under 2 . 8 . 2 . 4 . [ 5 4 ] .

2.9. References

1. ISO : Hot f i n i s h e d s t e e l s t r u c t u r a l hollow

s e c t i o n s - Dimensions and s e c t i o n a l
properties - ISO/DIS 657/XIV.

2. ISO : Cold f i n i s h e d s t e e l s t r u c t u r a l hollow

s e c t i o n s - Dimensions and s e c t i o n a l
properties - ISO/DIS 4019.

3 . DIN 2448 : Nahtlose F l u s z s t a h l r o h r e , L e i t u n g s - und

Konstruktionsrohre, bersicht.

4 . DIN 2458 : Schmelzgeschweiszte, S t a h l r o h r e , Leitungs-

und K o n s t r u k t i o n s r o h r e , bersicht.

58
 2-43

5 . DIN 1626 : S t a h l r o h r e , schmelzgeschweiszt, technische

Lieferbedingungen.

6 . DIN 1629 : Nahtlose F l u s z s t a h l r o h r e , technische

Lieferbedingungen.

7. DIN 59.410 : H o h l p r o f i l e f r den S t a h l b a u .

W a r m g e f e r t i g t e q u a d r a t i s c h e und r e c h t e c k i g e
Stahlrohre.

8 . DIN 59.411 : H o h l p r o f i l e f r den S t a h l b a u .

K a l t g e f e r t i g t e q u a d r a t i s c h e und r e c h t e c k i g e
Stahlrohre.

9. BS 449 : S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r the use of structural

steel in B u i l d i n g . B r i t i s h Standard.

10. Euronorm 25-72 : Constructional Steel f o r general use.

Quality requirements.

11. DIN 17100 : Allgemeine Bausthle, G t e v o r s c h r i f t e n .

12. ECCS : European Recommendations f o r S t e e l Con-

structions.
ECCS-EG-76-1E.

13. API : API Recommended p r a c t i c e f o r P l a n n i n g ,

D e s i g n i n g and C o n s t r u c t i n g F i x e d O f f s h o r e
P l a t f o r m s , American Petroleum I n s t i t u t e ,
A P I - R P - 2 A J a n . 1980.

14. AWS : S t r u c t u r a l Welding Code, Steel.

American Welding S o c i e t y , 1980.

15. AISC : S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r the D e s i g n , Fabrication

and E r e c t i o n o f S t r u c t u r a l Steel for
Bui 1 d i n g s .
American I n s t i t u t e o f S t e e l Construction.

59
 2-44

16. DNV : Rules f o r t h e D e s i g n , C o n s t r u c t i o n and

I n s p e c t i o n o f O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s , Det
Norske V e r i t a s , 1977.

17. AISI : L i g h t gauge c o l d formed s t e e l d e s i g n manual

American I r o n and s t e e l I n s t i t u t e , 1962.

18. SG-TC-18 : R e g u l a t i o n s f o r the d e s i g n and c a l c u l a t i o n

of t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s RB ' 7 8 .
D r a f t Dutch Code, Staalbouwkundig Genoot-
schap.

19. ISO 2394 : General p r i n c i p l e s f o r the v e r i f i c a t i o n o f

the s a f e t y o f s t r u c t u r e s .
ISO 2394-193 (E).

20. JCSS Common u n i f i e d r u l e s f o r d i f f e r e n t types

o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a t e r i a l .
CEB-CIB-ECCS-FIP-IABSE-RILEM.

2 1 . R a v i n d r a , M.K. Load and r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r d e s i g n f o r s t e e l .

Galambos, T . V . J o u r n a l o f the s t r u c t u r a l D i v i s i o n ST 9 ,
S e p t . 1978.

22. S t r a t i n g , J . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s f o r a
level I code.
IIW Doc X V - 4 6 2 - 8 0 .

23. V e i t , H . J . Schweissen im B e r e i c h K a l t v e r f o r m t e r
S t h l e m i t Wanddicken von 2 b i s 6 mm.
S c h w e i s z t e c h n i s c h e L e h r - und V e r s u c h s -
a n s t a l t D u i s b u r g , 1977.

24. V e i t , H.J. Das schweissen im Bereich Kaltverformter

B a u t e i l e . V o r t r a g s r e i h e H o h l p r o f i l e im
S t a h l b a u , Haus der T e c h n i k , E s s e n , 1979.
 2-45

25. L i n d , N.C. : U t i l i z a t i o n o f c o l d work i n l i g h t gauge

Schroff, D.K. steel.

26. Wardenier, J. : S t a t i c t e n s i l e t e s t s on T - j o i n t s in struc-

K o n i n g , C . H . M . de t u r a l h o l l o w s e c t i o n s - D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the
i n f l u e n c e o f weld method and type o f
m a t e r i a l . S t e v i n Report 6 - 7 4 - 7 .

27. W a r d e n i e r , J. : The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded l a t t i c e

Stark, J.W.B. girder joints in structural hollow s e c t i o n s .
ECSC r e p o r t EUR 6428e, M.F. 1980.

28. K o n i n g , C . H . M . de : S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n c o l d f i n i s h e d hollow
Wardenier, J. sections (internal TNO-TH r e p o r t ) .

29. K l p p e l , K. : D i e neuen u Z a h l e n f u r Rohrquerschnitte.

Der S t a h l b a u 2 9 , August 1959.

30. S f i n t e s c o , D. : Fondement e x p e r i m e n t a l des courbes

Europennes de flambement.
C o n s t r u c t i o n M t a l l i q u e no. 3-1970.

3 1 . B e e r , H. : B i e g e k n i c k e n gerader z e n t r i s c h gedruckter
S c h u l z , G. St'be aus B a u s t a h l . CECM B e r i c h t V I 1 1 - 7 3 - 1 .

: B u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h of hot f i n i s h e d SHS.BSC
Tubes D i v i s i o n , Report CE 73/54/A C i d e c t
32. Yeomans, N.
programme 2D.

: Column curve f o r c o l d formed and welded

steel t u b u l a r members, S t a b i l i t y o f S t e e l
3 3 . K a t o , B.
S t r u c t u r e s , L i e g e , A p r i l 1977.

: E s s a i s de flambement s u r p r o f i l s creux
formes a f r o i d , c a r r s e t c i r c u l a i r e s
34. G u i a u x , P.
L ' U n i v e r s i t de L i e g e . P r o g r . 2C C i d e c t
1973.
Supplement October 1974.

61
 2-46

35. W a r d e n i e r , J . : B u c k l i n g curves f o r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s .
( i n D u t c h ) , Bouwen met S t a a l N r . 3 0 , 1975.

36. W a l , J . van der : S t a b i l i t y C r i t e r i a i n the RB'78 ( i n Dutch)

Symposium T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s , D e l f t 1977.

37. M a r q u o i , R. : Mise en q u a t i o n des n o u v e l l e s courbes

Rondal, J . Europennes de flambement. C o n s t r u c t i o n
M t a l l i q u e no. 1 , Mars 1978.

38. Mouty, J . : P r o g r s r c e n t dans l ' t u d e du flambement

des p r o f i l s creux e t de son i n t e r a c t i o n
avec l e v o i l e m e n t v e n t u e l des p a r o i s .
Annales de l ' i n s t i t u t t e c h n i q u e du b t i m e n t
et des t r a v a u x p u b l i c s , No. 3 8 5 , 1980.

39. P l a n t e m a , J . : C o l l a p s i n g s t r e s s e s of c i r c u l a r cylinders
and round t u b e s . Report 5280 N a t . Lucht-
v a a r t l a b o r a t o r i u m , Amsterdam, 1946.

40. Johnston, B.G. : Guide to s t a b i l i t y d e s i g n c r i t e r i a for

et.at. metal s t r u c t u r e s , 3 r d
E d . 1977.

4 1 . Braham. M. : Flambement des p r o f i l s creux a p a r o i s minces

Grimault, J . P . cas des p r o f i l s r e c t a n g u l a i r e s charges
Rondal, J . axialement.
Rapport f i n a l ECSC Convention No. 6210
SA/3/301.

4 2 . Moxham, K . E . : B u c k l i n g t e s t s on i n d i v i d u a l welded s t e e l
p l a t e s i n c o m p r e s s i o n . Cambridge University.
Report CUED/C-Struct/TR 3 , 1971.

4 3 . L i t t l e , G.H. : The s t r e n g t h o f square s t e e l box columns -

d e s i g n curves and t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l basis.
The s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r . V o l . 57A, No. 2 ,
F e b r . 1979.
 2-47

44. K o n i n g , C H . M . de T e s t s on welded j o i n t s i n complete g i r d e r s ,

Wardenier, J. Stevin report 6-79-4.
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 9 - 1 9 / 0 0 6 3 . 4 . 3 . 4 7 1 .

4 5 . Mouty, J . E f f e c t i v e lengths of l a t t i c e girder

members. C i d e c t Monograph No. 4 . To be
p u b l i s h e d i n 1981.

46. Cran, J.A. Hollow S t r u c t u r a l S e c t i o n s . Design Manual

Gibson, E.B. f o r c o n n e c t i o n s . The S t e e l Company o f Canada
Stadnyckyj, S. L t d , 1971.

47. Baar, S. Etude t h o r i q u e et e x p r i m e n t a l e du

dversement des poutres membrures
t u b u l a i r e s . T h s e , U n i v e r i t y of L i g e ,
J u i n 1968.

4 8 . S p i r a , E. Behaviour o f welded t u b u l a r structures

Pollner, E. w i t h l i g h t w e i g h t c l a d d i n g under the a c t i o n
of u p l i f t i n g f o r c e s . F i n a l report Cidect
p r o g r . 3D, Dec. 1966.

4 9 . S p i r a , E. L a t e r a l b u c k l i n g of t u b u l a r l a t t i c e d g i r d e r s .
Pollner, E. Design M a n u a l . C i d e c t r e p o r t 832/E, 1968.

50. Douwen, A . A . van P l a s t i c design of buried s t e e l pipelines

Gresnigt, A.M. f o r t r a n s p o r t o f o i l , gas or water verified
Stark, J.W.B. by t e s t s on s c a l e m o d e l s - Report TNO-IBBC
no B I - 7 4 - 6 7 / 0 5 . 3 . 2 1 0 4 0 .

51. J i r s a , J.O. O v a l i n g o f P i p e l i n e s under pure b e n d i n g .

OTC 1569 o f the O f f s h o r e Technology
Conference 1972, D a l l a s , T e x a s .

52. K o r o l , R.M. The p l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r o f h o l l o w structural

sections with implications for design.
Canadian s t r u c t u r a l engineering conference,
1972.

63
 2-48

53. M a r s h a l l , J . Comparison o f t o r s i o n a l calculations for

Giddings, T.W. structural rectangular hollow sections.
To be p u b l i s h e d .

Traglastdiagramme z u r Bemessung von

54. R o i k , K.
Druckstben m i t doppelsymmetrischem
Wagenknecht, G. Querschnitt aus B a u s t a h l . I n s t i t u t fr
Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau - Ruhr
U n i v e r s i t t Bochum, H e f t 2 7 , January 1977.

P l a s t i c r e s i s t a n c e of mild steel rectangular

55. S h a k i r - K h a l i l , H.
s e c t i o n s , - The S t r u c t u r a l Engineer, Vol. 51,
Tadros, G.S.
J u l y 1973.

56. S t a r k , J.W.B. General a s p e c t s of the RB'78 ( i n Dutch)

Symposium T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s , Delft,
October, 1977.

57. Brockenbrough, R. S t r e n g t h of s q u a r e - t u b e c o n n e c t i o n s under

combined l o a d s . J o u r n a l of the Structural
Division, ASCE, ST 12 Dec. 1972.
 II - 1

Appendix II

11-1 Interaction bending moment and shear l o a d

II-l.l S o l i d beam

It
F i g u r e 11 -1.

For a s o l i d beam the i n t e r a c t i o n formula can d i r e c t l y be deduced

from t h e w e l l known Huber Hencky - Von Mises y i e l d criterion:

2
a = a 2 + .3 T2 (II-l)

a //3
e
;

1 = (^) 2
* (f) 2

e e

(^) 2
(f ) 2
= 1 (II-2)

11-1.2 Rectangul a r _ h o l l o w ^ s e c t i o n

/ 1
/1
/ I
L i

J
1 /
1 /
1 /

Figure II-2.

65
 II - 2

For the webs f o r m u l a ( 11-2 ) a p p l i e s :

Mwebs
u = Mp webs
. \/l - Q
{ -' ) v V
(II-3)
P
M .5.h . t ci
p webs m e
m

0.5.h . t . a + b .h .t o
m e m m e
m m 0

A Q + 2 (A - A ) Q

M
p webs Q A (II-4)
2 A - A
0

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f ( 11-4) i n ( 11-3 ) r e s u l t s i n :

W w e b s
- I. Q A
) v/l - (S-, (II-5)
-Tip- - < 7 T ^ ) V 1
\>

(II-6)
M
= webs M + M
p flanges

S flanges ^ t A ^ e CT

M
0 . 5 . h . t a + b .h .t a
m e m m e
m m m

2(A - A ) Q

Ag + 2(A - A f

p flanges _ . 0A

(II-7)
n - i - 2A - A r

Combination o f ( 1 1 - 5 ) and ( 1 1 - 7 ) g i v e s :

p
- 1 - 1 -\ A- ^ 2A - A Q
(II-8)
v
p

66
 II - 3

.3 C i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n

rdop

F i g u r e 11 - 3 .

For

t.dm e
Q = 4 (II-9)
x .dc)>.. coscf)
oJ 3"

2d . t . - - sind)

sin<j) (11-10)

t.dm m . .
M = M - 4 ~2 - d ^ . t T g . - ^ sm<j) (11-11)
P

M - c r . t . 0 (1 - cos<j
p m e x

Tjr- = cos<f> (11-12)

P

(11-13)

67
 II - 4

11-2 I n t e r a c t i o n bending moment and a x i a l load

11-2.1 Solid_beam

At f i r s t the i n t e r a c t i o n f o r a web w i l l be deduced.

1 1

Figure II-4.

M ^ th 2
- |.(2y) -t)2
ae

M
1
-
(H-14)

N = 2 t.y. o-

N _ 2y
C T = (11^15)

Substituting (11-15) i n (11-14) gives:

M
+ ( N
\ - 1 (11-16)
P P

68
 II - 5

B9angu]ar_hgllow_sections

Two c o n d i t i o n s have to be checked i . e . axial l o a d o n l y taken by the

webs and a x i a l l o a d taken by the webs and a p a r t of the flanges.

a . For <
c ^
N
w x

bm

F i g u r e 115.

N = 4.y.t. n

s
m e

= 1,

N
(11-17)
C.h
M = M - 1 N 1J5

1
N N A
h

1 ( h
P - T ^ *jV

M 1 - 1/J/ A ^p .
(11-18)

A.a.

69
 II

(11-19)
M p
\ ( i - ^ ) h (2
m

Expressions (11-18) and (11-19) give:

1 / N *' ; 11-20)
P
P
T?(2-Tf)

with l t

b. For r >

22 = b r

Figure Il-fi.

N = N p - 2.?.b .t.a m e

(11-21)

(11-22)
* m m e

Expressions (11-21) and (11-22) give:

 II - 7

with (11-19):

(2
M_
M

or

(11-23)

with i > ^

'0
The formulae are g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n f i g . 116 f o r -g v a l u e s of
0.5, 1.0 and 2 . 0 .
1.0

a c c o r d i n g to f o r -
0.8 mulae ( 1 1 - 2 0 ) and
(11-23)
2
L-=io formulae based on
0.6 R o i k ' s formulae
X -1.5-^ :0.5
(see 2 . 8 . 2 . 3 )
X

0.2

0.2 0. 0.6 0.8 1.0

M
Mp

Figure I.I7. Comparison between M-N i n t e r a c t i o n formulae.

The two f o r m u l a e f o r r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are s i m p l i f i e d to

one a p p r o x i m a t i v e formula by Roik e t a l . [54] f o r jj- = 1 . 0 .
As shown i n f i g . 11 7 the d i f f e r e n c e s are not s i g n i f i c a n t , therefore
the Roik f o r m u l a e are g i v e n i n c h a p t e r 2 . 8 .

71
 II - 8

11-2.3 C i r c u l a r hollow sections

tdu? r
M
I
"5N
I

Figure 11-8.

For tj>

, t.d ij
N = 4 -^S- deb = 2 . d . t . < b . a

N 2
V ^ ^ e afe
(11-24)
N
p ^ V ^ e ' 71

tj> d d r

M = M - 4 I t . - ^ . d*.
p . s i n <>
( . a e

s i n $ d<t>

M p + d m . t . a . cos e

M + d . t . a ( c o s cb - 1)
p m m
e ' v T

d \t.a
m e
= 1 - ^ (1 - cos 4)
p d \t.a
m e
m Q

M
cos (11-25)

72
 II - 9

expressions (11-24) and ( 1 1 - 2 5 ) give:

(11-26)

The e x p r e s s i o n g i v e n by Roik e t a l . [54] g i v e s n e a r l y the same

r e s u l t s as f o r m u l a 1 1 - 2 6 .

1.7
1.0 (11-27)
M
p \

Figure 11-8 shows a comparison between the f o r m u l a (11-21) and the

Roik e x p r e s s i o n .

1.0
1 1 1

0.8

0,6
n-

0.L s
\
\
\
0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

M
Mp

Figure II.9. Interaction formulae f o r CHS.

The d i f f e r e n c e between both formulae i s small

11-3 Interaction axial load and shear l o a d

11-3.1. S o l i d beam

It does not make any d i f f e r e n c e i n which way the a x i a l l o a d and shear

l o a d are d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r the s e c t i o n .

73
 II - 10

Q = T.A

(11-28)

_Q_ - _ L

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f ( 1 1 - 2 3 ) i n the Huber-Hencky-Von Mises c r i t e r i o n gives:

V y
(-) +(^) 2 2
= 1 (11-29)

or

i_ yl - (j-) 2

11-3.2 B 9yl5!T_t!2ll9 -l2G

c n w

flange web

(11-30)

11-3.3 Circ^ir_li2llow_sectiqn

For c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s e q u a t i o n 11-29 can be used which can

directly be d e r i v e d , i n a s i m i l a r way as d e s c r i b e d i n I I - 1 . 3 , from
the Huber-Hencky-Von Mises criterion.

74
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE DESIGN STRENGTH OF
PREDOMINANTLY STATICALLY LOADED JOINTS MADE OF HOLLOW SECTIONS

Contents

Symbols
3.1. Introduction
3.2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h - u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e -
3.2.1. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h as b a s i s
f o r the d e s i g n strength
3.2.2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the j o i n t factors
3.2.3. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h a c c o r d i n g to the
LRFD method
3.2.4. Comparison of ISO/ECCS and LRFD method
3.3. Serviceability l i m i t states
3.4. P r e s e n t a t i o n of formulae f o r the design o f t u b u l a r joints
3.5. References
 3-i1

Symbols used i n c h a p t e r 3

D : random v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g dead l o a d
: c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e o f t h e random v a r i a b l e D
D : mean value o f t h e random v a r i a b l e D
m
E[ ] : f u n c t i o n f o r the mean v a l u e o f a v a r i a b l e
F : random v a r i a b l e f o r t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s in fabrication
L : random v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g l i v e load
: c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e o f t h e random v a r i a b l e L
L : mean v a l u e o f t h e random v a r i a b l e L
m
M : random v a r i a b l e f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n m a t e r i a l strength
N : random v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e j o i n t s t r e n g t h i n terms of
axial load
N : design value f o r the j o i n t strength
Ny : y i e l d load c a p a c i t y of a j o i n t
: ultimate j o i n t strength (in terms o f a x i a l load)
N : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value of the j o i n t strength
u
k
N : mean v a l u e of t h e j o i n t strength
m
: j o i n t s t r e n g t h based on a n a l y t i c a l model (yield)
y
N w : d e s i g n v a l u e f o r t h e j o i n t s t r e n g t h at w o r k i n g l o a d
P : random v a r i a b l e f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l uncertainties i n t h e as-
sumptions used i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e from d e s i g n models
Q : random v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g the l o a d e f f e c t s
: c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e f o r t h e random v a r i a b l e Q
Q : mean value o f t h e random v a r i a b l e Q
m
v

R : random v a r i a b l e f o r t h e resistance
R : d e s i g n value f o r t h e r e s i s t a n c e R
R^ : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e f o r the r e s i s t a n c e R
R : mean v a l u e f o r t h e random v a r i a b l e R
m
R^ : nominal code s p e c i f i e d resistance
V : c o e f f i c i e n t of variation
VAR : v a r i a n c e o f a random v a r i a b l e

b : w i d t h o f RHS s e c t i o n
b : w i d t h o f the chord
o
c D : c o e f f i c i e n t t h a t t r a n s f o r m dead l o a d i n t e n s i t i e s i n l o a d e f f e c t s
c^ : c o e f f i c i e n t t h a t t r a n s f o r m 1 i ve 1 oad i n t e n s i t i e s i n l o a d e f f e c t s

76
 3-i i i

d : o u t e r d i a m e t e r o f a CHS s e c t i o n

f( ) : function of variabl e
h : depth o f a RHS s e c t i o n
k : c o e f f i c i e n t depending on p r o b a b i l i t y
m : mean v a l u e (general)

"x. 1
: mean v a l u e o f v a r i a b l e s (general)
V.J
J
: probability
P
P F
: p r o b a b i l i t y of failure
s : standard deviation t e s t results
t : w a l l thickness of a s e c t i o n
t : w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f t h e chord
variables (general)
x
i

numerical constant
numerical constant
safety index
w i d t h r a t i o between b r a c i n g s and chord
load f a c t o r covering the u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n s t r u c t u r a l analysis
l o a d f a c t o r f o r dead l o a d
load f a c t o r f o r l i v e load
material or j o i n t factors
Y
m'^c
load f a c t o r (general)
model factor
mean v a l u e o f model factor
correlation coefficient
resistance factor
resistance factor for connections
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n random v a r i a b l e
yield stress

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c design v a l u e f o r y i e l d stress

mean v a l u e o f the y i e l d stress

eo y i e l d s t r e s s o f t h e chord

SHS S t r u c t u r a l Hollow S e c t i o n
CHS C i r c u l a r Hollow S e c t i o n
RHS R e c t a n g u l a r Hollow S e c t i o n

77
 3-iv

78
 3-1

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE DESIGN STRENGTH OF

PREDOMINANTLY STATICALLY LOADED JOINTS MADE OF HOLLOW SECTIONS

3.1. Introduction

In s e c t i o n 2 . 3 the bases f o r d e s i g n are d e s c r i b e d . Using a p r o b a b i l i s -

t i c analysis for a structure requires a s t a t i s t i c a l distribution
f u n c t i o n of the l o a d i n g and a s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the strength
of the e l e m e n t s . As t h i s type of a n a l y s i s i s g e n e r a l l y too c o m p l i c a t e d
for practical calculations a level I method as d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 3 has
been adopted by ISO [1] and ECCS [ 2 ] . T h i s means t h a t the d e s i g n
s t r e n g t h i s d e f i n e d by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h and some m a t e r i a l
or j o i n t f a c t o r s . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h i s chosen as t h a t
s t r e n g t h below which t h e r e i s a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 5% of the results
falling. The m a t e r i a l and j o i n t f a c t o r s are determined by the s e r i o u s -
ness of a t t a i n i n g a l i m i t s t a t e . There are two l i m i t s t a t e s :
a . the u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e s (maximum l o a d c a r r y i n g capacity)
b. the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t state (eccessive cracks, eccessive
deformation)
1 : elastic limit
2 : f i r s t s i g n of c r a c k
3 : Load based on deformation
limit
A : load based on r e m a i n i n g
deformation
5 : u l t i m a t e load

deformation deformation

Fig. 3.1. Load d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r f o r a t u b u l a r joint.

The u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e s correspond w i t h p o i n t s 5 i n f i g . 3 . 1 . ,
whereas the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s correspond w i t h p o i n t s 2 , 3
and 4 i n f i g . 3.1. Internationally t h e r e i s no agreement regarding
the d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t because t h i s l i m i t depends on the t y o e of
structure. The procedure f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the d e s i g n strength
based on the u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e i s f i r s t discussed in section 3.2.
L a t e r o n i n s e c t i o n s 3 . 3 some g u i d e l i n e s are given to cover the
serviceability limit state.
Variations in risk level f o r each l i m i t s t a t e w i l l however s t i l l

79
 3-2

exist s i n c e the same procedure cannot be used t o e s t i m a t e the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value f o r a l l types of elements or j o i n t s . However the
variations in risk level w i l l g e n e r a l l y be much s m a l l e r than w i t h
deterministic analysis. In r e l a t i o n to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c strength,differ-
e n t i a t i o n must be made r e g a r d i n g the way the s t r e n g t h i s determined,
whether on an e x a c t t h e o r y , a s i m u l a t i o n model or an e x p e r i m e n t a l
evidence.
In the case of t u b u l a r j o i n t s no e x a c t t h e o r i e s are a v a i l a b l e at this
time t o determine the j o i n t s t r e n g t h . The s t r e n g t h is generally deter-
mined w i t h s i m u l a t i o n models and checked w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s but i s also
sometimes based on e x p e r i m e n t a l values.

3.2. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h - ultimate l i m i t state

As d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 2 . 3 the ISO [1] and ECCS [2] require the

f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n t o be f u l f i l l e d :

k R

effect (Y .Q )
s k < rr-f- (3.1)
m' c
y

The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h R i s given by:

R
k
R = 7-7- (-)
3 2

'm c
In t h i s method the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h and the j o i n t f a c t o r s have
to be determined as d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n s 3 . 2 . 1 and 3 . 2 . 2 . In the USA
another method proposed by R a v i n d r a and Galambos [7] i s used which
is summarized i n s e c t i o n 3.2.3.
3.2.1. Qtrmination_of_the_characte
9^l9 -treng.th
n

The f u n c t i o n f o r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h can be based on an

a n a l y t i c a l model which i s checked by t e s t s , or the f u n c t i o n i s deter-
mined i n a s e m i - e m p i r i c a l or e m p i r i c a l way i n which the t e s t results
are used f o r the e v a l u a t i o n of the model. In the l a t t e r case s t a t i s t i c a l
methods e . g . r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s i s used to determine the efficiency
o f the model. I f the model e s t a b l i s h e d g i v e s a r e a s o n a b l y accurate
p r e d i c t i o n o f the s t r e n g t h , the p o p u l a t i o n mean value of the tests
and the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n can e a s i l y be d e t e r m i n e d . F u r t h e r the
i n f l u e n c e of the number of the t e s t s can be taken i n t o account.

80
 3-3

For the j o i n t s t e s t e d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h R^ can be

determined,

R k = R m -k.s (3.3)

R m = a r i t h m i c mean of the t e s t results

s = standard deviation
k = c o e f f i c i e n t depending on the p r o b a b i l i t y , accepted a p r i o r i of
o b t a i n i n g a s p e c i f i e d p r o p o r t i o n o f the t e s t r e s u l t s less than

V
In p r e v i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s by the a u t h o r t h i s procedure was always
f o l l o w e d [ 3 , 4 , 8] . In t u b u l a r j o i n t s the s t r e n g t h generally is
r e l a t e d to the a x i a l l o a d i n the b r a c i n g s . The symbol R i s therefore
r e p l a c e d by N f o r a x i a l l o a d i n the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a e .
For the m o d i f i c a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h formulae to d e s i g n v a l u e s the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h to be used as b a s i s depend on the way i n which
the b a s i c v a r i a b l e s are quoted i n the code. In general the model i s
based on a c t u a l dimensions and a c t u a l mechanical p r o p e r t i e s whereas
the d e s i g n e r uses the nominal (mean) dimensions and the characteristic
( d e s i g n ) values f o r the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s . T h e r e f o r e the b e s t
approach i s not o n l y to take account of the s c a t t e r i n the test
r e s u l t s , the number o f t e s t s , but a l s o o f the v a r i a t i o n s i n dimensions
and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s . Trezos [5] used a p r o b a b i l i s t i c method
based on t h i s p r i n c i p l e f o r the a n a l y s i s of K - j o i n t s in circular
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , however the procedure i s r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d and not
e a s i l y a p p l i c a b l e . A s i m p l i f i e d method i s given by S t r a t i n g [6].
T h i s method i s based on the p r i n c i p l e t h a t the s t r e n g t h functions
c o n s i d e r e d are r e a s o n a b l y l i n e a r around the mean and the coefficients
of v a r i a t i o n of the b a s i c v a r i a b l e s are not too l a r g e . T h i s method
will be b r i e f l y discussed here. In g e n e r a l a s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n can be
d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s :

(3.4)
^u = l * l - f x
2'

Adopting a " f i r s t order, second moment" a p p r o x i m a t i o n the mean value

for N u can be d e f i n e d a s :

I n n 3 f 2

E[N ] = f(m .m ) + V[x. , x,] (3.5)

1 I .Z 3x .3x
U

V i 1 =l i j

81
 3-4

The second term i s small i f the f u n c t i o n ( 3 . 4 ) i s r e a s o n a b l y linear

around the mean and i f the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n o f the b a s i c
v a r i a b l e s a r e not t o o l a r g e . The v a r i a n c e o f ( 3 . 4 ) i s g i v e n by:

n n 3f
V[x,.x,] (3.6)
V A R
[N ] i =i j =i
s E
w: 3x.
u
m J m J

In the case where the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between the v a r i a b l e s i s

g i v e n by p = 1.0 t h e f u n c t i o n can be w r i t t e n a s :

v A R
t v = s
x / +
v 2+ +{
k' *f
s +

+ 2 l. af_ s s + 2 i l s . s ... +

3x 1 ' 3x 2
- s
x '
1 x 2 3x x ' 3x p x 1 x n

(3.7)

In t h i s f u n c t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f the v a r i a b l e
consi dered.
I f the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p = 0 , e g u a t i o n ( 3 . 6 ) reduces t o :

V A R
[V =^ - S
* / + (
^ - + (
^ ' S
x ) 2 ( 3
- 8 )

1 1 2 2 n n

The c o r r e l a t i o n between the b a s i c v a r i a b l e s can be determined by

statistical procedures o r by p l o t t i n g the v a r i a b l e s a g a i n s t each
other. In the s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n an a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e e . g . 6 has t o
be i n c l u d e d t o r e p r e s e n t the d e v i a t i o n of the t e s t r e s u l t s from the
s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n . The c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n V i s g i v e n b y :
0 5
VAR[N ] - u 3

For t u b u l a r j o i n t s the f o l l o w i n g values can g e n e r a l l y be adopted f o r

the mechanical and g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . These a r e based on measure-
ments and the maximum t o l e r a n c e s given:

82
 3-5

- y i e l d stress : = 0 075
e
- CHS diameter : = 0 005
V
d.
i
- RHS w i d t h = 0 005
V.
- RHS depth
\ = 0 005

- wall thickness
\ = 0 05

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e f o r N wi 11 be: y

N = N (1 - k . V N ) (3.10)
k m u

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h t a k i n g account of a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f the

v a r i a b l e s can be determined from e q u a t i o n (3.10).
In those cases i n which the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s i n the code are
d e f i n e d as the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s and the g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s as
the nominal (mean) v a l u e s , e q u a t i o n ( 3 . 1 0 ) cannot d i r e c t l y be used
but a c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r a must be i n t r o d u c e d . The only
mechanical p r o p e r t y i n c l u d e d i n the s t r e n g t h model i s the y i e l d
s t r e s s or sometimes the u l t i m a t e s t r e s s .
If the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e of the y i e l d s t r e s s i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
a (1 - 2V ) t h e n :
em m oe

a = a (1 - 2 x 0.075) = 0.85a (3.11)

e
k e
m e
m

If the c o r r e l a t i o n between the y i e l d s t r e s s a and the o t h e r v a r i a -

e
i
b l e s i s p = 0 e x p r e s s i o n ( 3 . 1 0 ) can be m u l t i p l i e d by ggj- and a g

has to be r e p l a c e d by a i n the f u n c t i o n o f N .
k m
e

I f more mechanical p r o p e r t i e s are i n c l u d e d as v a r i a b l e s i n the strength

f u n c t i o n s or the c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p f 0 the m o d i f i c a t i o n cannot
be c a r r i e d out i n t h i s s i m p l e way. However t h i s i s g e n e r a l l y not of
i n t e r e s t f o r the s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s f o r t u b u l a r joints.
Example: The above d e s c r i b e d method i s now a p p l i e d , f o r the case of
the 45 Warren gap j o i n t s formed from square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s w i t h zero
chord p r e - s t r e s s , and shown i n f i g . 3 . 2 . The mean v a l u e of the test
r e s u l t s i s g i v e n by [8]:

N = a . b -0 5
. t -
1 5
( 0 . 5 + 10.30)6 (3.12)
u eo o o v
'

83
 3-6

Nt

Fig. 3.2. Gap j o i n t i n RHS

The model f a c t o r 6 i s i n t r o d u c e d to account f o r the random d e v i a t i o n

between model and t e s t r e s u l t s . The v a r i a t i o n o f the v a r i a b l e 6 i s
very small and can be d i s r e g a r d e d which means t h a t the f o l l o w i n g
b a s i c v a r i a b l e s are l e f t : a g , b , Q t Q and 6. For the t e s t r e s u l t s the
mean v a l u e and the s t a n d a r d 8eviation s can be d e t e r m i n e d .
Comparison o f the model r e s u l t s and the t e s t r e s u l t s shows:

1.0

0.09

If the c o r r e l a t i o n f a c t o r between the v a r i a b l e s i s p = 0 the v a r i a n c e

of can be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g the e q u a t i o n s ( 3 . 8 ) and ( 3 . 1 2 ) .

3N 3N 3N 3N
VAR[N ] = ( g u
u ,2 , u ,2
3t t ' 36 " &'
u o
3b, O 0
l

eo eo o o
s.
= N . (^)
2
{
2
+ (0.5 ^ ) 2
+ (1.5 (3.13)
eo o o

The c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n can now be determined from e q u a t i o n s

(3.9), ( 3 . 1 2 ) and ( 3 . 1 3 ) :

V 2
= V + 0.25 V
2
+ 2.25 V + V 2 2 2

N o b t o
u eo o o

= (0.075) 2
+ 0.25.(0.005) 2
+ 2.25(0.05) 2
+ (0.09) 2

= 0.019 (3.14)

V M =0.14

T h e r e f o r e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h based on a 5% p r o b a b i l i t y of

84
 3-7
lower s t r e n g t h w i l l be:

N = N (1 - 1.64 x 0 . 1 4 ) = 0.77N (3.15)

k m u
m

If f o r the a
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e i s to be used i n d e s i g n and
eo 3

f o r the dimensions the nominal v a l u e s , e x p r e s s i o n ( 3 . 1 5 ) w i l l have to

be m o d i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o (3.11).

\ - t m \ = - \ 9 l
(- >
3 16

k m m

N = 0 . 9 a .-b - . 0 5
t - ( 0 . 5 + 10.3B)
1 5
(3.17)
u^ eo o k o v
' v
'

For the case where t h e r e i s no c o r r e l a t i o n between the variables

themselves the e x p r e s s i o n ( 3 . 1 7 ) can be used as the characteristic
value f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of the d e s i g n strength.

T h i s method can be used i f s u f f i c i e n t t e s t data are a v a i l a b l e . Some-

times the s t r e n g t h i s based on s i m p l i f i e d models u s i n g a n a l y t i c a l
assumptions and n e g l e c t i n g some p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e s f o r the strength
e . g . membrane a c t i o n . As the p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e of the neglected
parameters i s not c o n s t a n t over the whole v a l i d i t y range t h i s in-
f l u e n c e can o n l y be determined by e i t h e r using e x a c t t h e o r i e s or by
doing many t e s t s . If n e i t h e r e x a c t t h e o r i e s nor s u f f i c i e n t t e s t s are
a v a i l a b l e , but i t can be shown t h a t the a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n re-
p r e s e n t s a lower bound f u n c t i o n f o r the s t r e n g t h , t h i s f u n c t i o n can
f o r the time being be assumed as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c strength.

3.2.2. Determi nati^on_of _ t h e _ i g i n t _ f a c t o r s

The j o i n t f a c t o r takes account of the b e h a v i o u r of the j o i n t and a

p o s s i b l e d e v i a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h in a structure from the c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c v a l u e s . These f a c t o r s are s t i l l in discussion internationally.

a.l. If the l o a d b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y of a j o i n t i s determined w i t h an a n a l y t i -

c a l model based on y i e l d the r e a l s t r e n g t h of the j o i n t i s generally
much g r e a t e r due to s t r a i n hardening and/or membrane e f f e c t s . In this
case the s t r e n g t h determined w i t h the a n a l y t i c a l model can be assumed
as d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i f s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n and or rotation capaci-
ty exists.

V c = 1 0
( -
3 1 8
>

85
 3-8

T h i s means t h a t the u l t i m a t e j o i n t s t r e n g t h must be g r e a t e r than the

squash l o a d o r the p l a s t i c moment o f the connected member o r t h e j o i n t
must have s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n or r o t a t i o n capacity.

a . 2 . I f the j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s determined w i t h an a n a l y t i c a l model but the

j o i n t has l e s s d e f o r m a t i o n o r r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y a h i g h e r y Y m c factor
must be adopted e . g . i n t h e ECCS recommendations i s u s e d :

Y Y
m G = 1.25 (3.19)

Generally, these types o f j o i n t s s h o u l d be a v o i d e d .

b. l . The j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s based on the maximum b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y determined

i n a s e m i - e m p i r i c a l way. In t h i s case the parameters a r e based on
s i m p l i f i e d models i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . Due t o the
g r e a t e r u n c e r t a i n t i e s the Y YM C f a c t o r s h o u l d be g r e a t e r than 1 . 0 . The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h w i t h a 5% p r o b a b i l i t y of lower s t r e n g t h s can
now be based on a s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t . I f the j o i n t s are s t r o n g e r
than t h e connected members o r i f the j o i n t s have s u f f i c i e n t deforma-
tion capacity a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s e s can e x i s t , thus the Y Y M C

f a c t o r can be a l i t t l e l a r g e r than 1 . 0 . Based on p r a c t i c a l experience

following factor is in discussion

V e " L 1 ( 3
- 2 0 )

b. 2 . I f the j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s based on the maximum l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y and

determined i n a s e m i - e m p i r i c a l way as d e s c r i b e d under b . l . but the
j o i n t may have r e l a t i v e l y l e s s d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o r i f the j o i n t
s t r e n g t h formulae cover d i f f e r e n t modes o f f a i l u r e a h i g h e r y Y
m c

factor i s required. In accordance w i t h appendix 6 of the ECCS

recommendations [2] f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r i s p r o p o s e d .

V c = L 2 5 ( 3
- 2 1
>

c. The above mentioned f a c t o r s are proposed under the c o n d i t i o n t h a t the

welds a r e not the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n . In the recommendations i t i s
proposed t h a t the s t r e n g t h o f the weld i s a t l e a s t equal t o the
s t r e n g t h of the connected members. Due t o the small deformation
c a p a c i t y of the welds a r e d u c t i o n i n weld s i z e can g i v e a much l a r g e r
reduction i n s t r e n g t h , e s p e c i a l l y i n j o i n t s with high s t r e s s - or
strain concentration factors.

86
 3-9

3.2.3. Qetermination_of thedesi

The ASCE committee f o r Load and R e s i s t a n c e F a c t o r Design (LRFD) has

worked out a concept based upon l i m i t s t a t e s o f s t r e n g t h and s e r v i c e -
a b i l i t y combined w i t h a f i r s t o r d e r p r o b a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s [ 7 , 8 , 9 ] .
The l o a d and r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r d e s i g n c r i t e r i o n i s e x p r e s s e d -by the
following formula:

R
n k ^ s m
Q
< -
3 2 2
)

where:
R n = nominal r e s i s t a n c e
<>
f = resistance factor
Y S = load f a c t o r
Q m = mean l o a d e f f e c t

In p r i n c i p l e t h i s method l o o k s s i m i l a r to t h a t adopted by ISO and

ECCS as d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 3 . 2 . The values <j>, R , Y n s and Q m can be
determined u s i n g a " f i r s t o r d e r " p r o b a b i l i s t i c d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e . This
i s a s i m p l i f i e d method t h a t uses o n l y two s t a t i s t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s , i.e.
mean values and c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n of the r e l e v a n t variables
and a r e l a t i o n 3 between them, c a l l e d the " s a f e t y index".

The p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e Pp o f a s t r u c t u r a l element i l l u s t r a t e d i n
fig. 3 . 3 can be g i v e n b y :

P F = p [In ()] < 0 (3.23)

P-ln(f)

0
[<LL ~*< ]

1
- m
Fig. 3.3. D e f i n i t i o n o f s a f e t y index .

The e x p r e s s i o n f o r the s a f e t y i n d e x 3 i . e . e q . ( 3 . 2 4 ) can be s i m p l i -

87
 3-10

f i e d to eq. (3.25) by u s i n g a f i r s t - o r d e r p r o b a b i l i t y theory [7]:

S = j - ^ (3.24)
ln(Q)

R
m,
in (f)
(3.25)

V
T h i s f u n c t i o n f o r g i s now r e a r r a n g e d i n such a way t h a t the r e s i s t a n -
ce f a c t o r s f o r d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r a l elements can be determined i n d e -
p e n d e n t l y of the l o a d i n g u n c e r t a i n t i e s . The design c r i t e r i o n can be
written as:

exp (-B V ).R R m > exp (B . V ).Q Q m (3.26)

The a i s a numerical c o n s t a n t .
The r e s i s t a n c e i s assumed t o be a product of f o l l o w i n g variables:

R = R . M . F . P (3.27)

where:
R n : nominal s p e c i f i e d r e s i s t a n c e i n code
M : r e p r e s e n t s the v a r i a t i o n i n m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h or s t i f f n e s s
F : r e p r e s e n t s the u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n f a b r i c a t i o n i n c l u d i n g variation
in geometrical properties
P : r e f l e c t s the u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f the assumptions used i n d e t e r m i -
n i n g the r e s i s t a n c e from design models i . e . the p r o f e s s i o n a l
factor

It i s assumed t h a t the random v a r i a b l e s M, F and P are u n c o r r e l a t e d ;

the c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f the r e s i s t a n c e , V , i s w r i t t e n R

approximately a s :

V
R ~- V MV + V
F 2 + V
? < - >
3 28

i n which V , Vp and V
M p are the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n of M, F and
P respectively.
The Y s f a c t o r s a t the l o a d i n g s i d e o f e x p r e s s i o n ( 3 . 2 2 ) reflect
p o t e n t i a l o v e r l o a d s and the u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the
l o a d e f f e c t s . For the l o a d i n g e f f e c t s the mean and the c o e f f i c i e n t
o f v a r i a t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d i n a s i m i l a r as f o r the r e s i s t a n c e
 3-11

t a k i n g account of a l l i n f l u e n c i n g variables.
The value of B must be s p e c i f i e d t o g i v e the d e s i r e d degree of r e l i a b i -
lity. In the LRFD method the value of B i s chosen i n such a way that
the same degree of r e l i a b i l i t y i s a t t a i n e d as i n the e x i s t i n g AISC
design code. T h i s method c a l l e d " c a l i b r a t i o n " has the advantage of
p

u t i l i z i n g past experience. F u r t h e r the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i s not re-

q u i r e d . As bases f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of 8 a number o f s t a n d a r d cases
were used to c a l c u l a t e B w i t h e x p r e s s i o n (3.25). Based on s e v e r a l
c a l i b r a t i o n e x e r c i s e s a 6 = 3 . 0 was s e l e c t e d f o r members and a 6 = 4 . 5
f o r c o n n e c t o r s . The h i g h e r value of 6 f o r c on n e c tor s r e f l e c t s the fact
t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n n e c t i o n s are d e s i g n e d s t r o n g e r than the elements
t h a t are connected by them.
The LRFD c r i t e r i o n f o r the combination of dead l o a d , l i v e l o a d and
o t h e r l o a d s i s now expressed as f o l l o w s :

<M >Y (Y
n E D c D D m + y L . c L . L m + ) (3.29)

i n which dp i n the r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r ; c^ and c^ are i n f l u e n c e coeffi-

c i e n t s t r a n s f o r m i n g the l o a d i n t e n s i t y to member f o r c e ; the y^, Y Q
and Y[_ are the l o a d f a c t o r s on s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , dead l o a d and l i v e
load, respectively; R the nominal r e s i s t a n c e ; and D and L the mean m

r J
n ' m m
dead and l i v e l o a d e f f e c t s . The r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r f o l l o w s from eqs.
( 3 . 2 6 ) and ( 3 . 2 9 ) w i t h a = 0 . 5 5 based on a m i n i m i z a t i o n p r o c e s s :
R
dp = exp ( - 0 . 5 5 0 V ) J 2 R (3.30)
n

The use of d i f f e r e n t values of the s t r u c t u r a l s a f e t y index B i n t r o -

duces a t the same time d i f f e r e n t l o a d f a c t o r s . As the v a r i a t i o n s with
r e g a r d to the t o t a l l o a d are small the l o a d f a c t o r s are h e l d constant
but a c o r r e c t i o n i s g i v e n f o r the r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r dp. For example
f o r c o n n e c t i o n s the r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r , dp, i s m o d i f i e d to $ = 0 . 8 8 dp,
when B = 4 . 5 .
To reduce the number of v a l u e s to be used to a minimum i t i s recommen-
ded t h a t (ji = 0 . 8 0 be used f o r a l l cases i n v o l v i n g the s t r e n g t h limit
s t a t e of f i l l e t w e l d s , and high s t r e n g t h b o l t s i n t e n s i o n , shear or
combined t e n s i o n and s h e a r and t h a t dp = 1.15 be used f o r the service-
ability limit.
The t e n t a t i v e l y proposed LFRD c r i t e r i o n f o r a combination of dead
l o a d and l i v e time maximum l i v e l o a d i s :

89
 3-12

<0 . R n > 1.1 [ 1 . 1 c D . D m + 1.4 c L . LJ (3.31)

w i t h as examples:

. = 0.88
Y
t e n s i o n members
d>. =0.86
Y
beams
- 1 Columns
6 5
I " 0 8 5

i . =0.80
T
connectors
T h i s method i s d i f f e r e n t from t h a t used by ISO and ECCS a l t h o u g h it
looks s i m i l a r , t h e r e f o r e i n 3 . 2 . 4 . a q u a l i t a t i v e comparison i s g i v e n .

3.2.4. Comgarison_of_ISO/ECCS_and^

In the ISO/ECCS method the values are s p e c i f i e d as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

values whereas i n t h e LRFD method t h e mean v a l u e s are taken as a b a s i s .
This means t h a t the methods are not d i r e c t l y comparable. T h e r e f o r e a
comparison w i l l be made f o r dead l o a d and l i v e l o a d under normal use.

ISO/ECCS ( f o r a r i s k l e v e l 1 0 " ) 5

T n . c n . D k + V c L . L k (3.32)
Y .Y
'm ' c
> 1.3 c n . D k + 1.5 c L . L k

LRFD:

<M n > Y (Y E D C D . D m + y L . C L . LJ (3.33)

* . R > 1-1(1.1 c
n n . D m + 1.4 c L . LJ

For a t e n s i o n member e x p r e s s i o n s ( 3 . 3 2 ) and ( 3 . 3 3 ) can be s i m p l i f i e d

to:

A n . a > 1.3 c D . D k + 1.5 c L . L k (3.32a)

0.88 A n . a > 1.1(1.1 c D . D m + 1.4 . c L . LJ (3.33a)

The l o a d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the random v a r i a b l e s D and L r e p r e s e n -

t i n g the dead and l i v e l o a d i n t e n s i t i e s and f u r t h e r the random v a -
r i a b l e s r e f l e c t i n g the u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n from loads
i n t o load e f f e c t s . In [7] t h e dead l o a d e f f e c t s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
the c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n Vo.04 2
+ 0.04 2
= 0 . 0 6 . The l i v e load

90
 3-13

effects [7] are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the c o e f f i c i e n t of variation

Vo.13 2
+ 0.20 2
= 0.24
As a r e s u l t :

D k = D (l m + 1.64 . 0 . 0 6 ) = 1.09 D m (3.34)

L k = LJl + 1.64 . 0.24) = 1.39 L m (3.35)

S u b s t i t u t i n g these i n e x p r e s s i o n (3.33a) gives:

A p . a e > 1.26 . c D . D k + 1.26 c L . L k (3.33b)

T h i s e x p r e s s i o n d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y from ( 3 . 3 2 a ) .
Had t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f the random v a r i a b l e f o r t h e t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n from l i v e l o a d i n t o l i v e l o a d e f f e c t s been assumed t h e same
as f o r t h e dead l o a d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , thus 0 . 0 4 i n s t e a d of 0 . 2 0 and
L k = 1.22 L m then t h e e x p r e s s i o n ( 3 . 3 3 a ) would have become:

A n . o > 1.26 c D . D k + 1.44 c L . L k (3.33c)

T h i s comparison shows t h a t the method and the whole procedure i s very

s e n s i t i v e t o the assumed random v a r i a b l e s w i t h t h e i r distribution.
It f u r t h e r shows t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t to p r e s e n t the j o i n t strength
formulae i n a c o n s i s t e n t way so they can be used f o r a l l methods.

Serviceability l i m i t states

Under s e r v i c e l o a d c o n d i t i o n s the magnitude of the deformations or

permanent s e t (see f i g . 3 . 2 . ) s h o u l d be l i m i t e d , and crack initiation
i s not a c c e p t a b l e . Checking o f these c r i t e r i a i s very c o m p l i c a t e d .
Internationally t h e r e i s no agreement r e g a r d i n g the d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t .
T h i s l i m i t a l s o depends on the type of s t r u c t u r e . Further insufficient
d a t a e x i s t t o determine a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value i n a s i m i l a r way t o
that described in 3 . 2 . 1 . Therefore, f o r the time b e i n g i t seems to be
b e t t e r to l i m i t the range of v a l i d i t y of the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h formulae
which are based on the u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e s i n such a way t h a t this
serviceability l i m i t s t a t e i s not the d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r . When d e f o r -
mation c r i t e r i o n i s taken i n t o account:

Y .YM C = 1.0 (3.36)

For crack i n i t i a t i o n , o n l y a lower bound f u n c t i o n can be g i v e n . For

those j o i n t s w i t h a p o s s i b l e crack i n i t i a t i o n at r e l a t i v e l y low loads

91
 3-14

a f t e r which a l a r g e p l a s t i c r e g i o n e x i s t s a Y - Y M C = 1.0 can be a d o p t e d .

L i m i t a t i o n of the range o f v a l i d i t y o f the b a s i c formulae f o r the
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h can e x c l u d e t h i s c r i t e r i o n . T h i s i s qualitatively
shown i n f i g . 3 . 4 .

joint parameter

Fig. 3.4. Safety p r i n c i p l e s

3.4. P r e s e n t a t i o n o f formulae f o r the d e s i g n o f t u b u l a r joints

In 3 . 3 . i t i s shown t h a t the d e s i g n methods are s t i l l not u n i f o r m . In

some c o u n t r i e s the f u n c t i o n f o r the mean of the t e s t r e s u l t s i s taken
as the design formulae due to the f a c t t h a t the a n a l y s i s i s based on
the a c t u a l y i e l d s t r e s s , whereas n o r m a l l y the d e s i g n v a l u e , which i s
l o w e r , has to be taken i n t o a c c o u n t . F u r t h e r the Y - Y M C f a c t o r depends
on the commonly used l o a d f a c t o r s i n p a r t i c u l a r countries.

In p r e v i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s the author has always s p e c i f i e d the c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h of the t e s t s e r i e s based on a 5% p r o b a b i l i t y of
lower s t r e n g t h s being a t t a i n e d . F u r t h e r a Y - Y M C f a c t o r was p r o p o s e d .
The b e s t approach i s not o n l y t o take account o f the s c a t t e r i n test
r e s u l t s f o r a number o f t e s t s , but a l s o from the v a r i a t i o n s i n a c t u a l
d i m e n s i o n s , geometry and y i e l d s t r e s s e s as d e s c r i b e d i n 3 . 2 . 2 . Due t o
the disagreement i n a n a l y s i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , the formulae w i l l be
presented i n such a way t h a t the mean v a l u e , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e
as w e l l as a d e s i g n s t r e n g t h can be c a l c u l a t e d . In the b a s i c c h a p t e r s
the s t r e n g t h formulae w i l l be g i v e n t o g e t h e r w i t h the s c a t t e r i n test
r e s u l t s , to be taken i n t o account as f a r as a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s is
required or p o s s i b l e .

When the j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s based on a c o n s e r v a t i v e a n a l y t i c a l model

92
 3-15

no s t a t i s t i c a l t rea t ment w i l l be a p p l i e d .
In c h a p t e r 9 o f t h i s r e p o r t a l l s t r e n g t h formulae a r e presented as
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h s which i n c l u d e s a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s used t o a r r i v e from
e . g . mean o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s to t h e d e s i g n strength.
If t h e d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i s based on a n a l y t i c a l y i e l d c r i t e r i a confirmed
by t e s t r e s u l t s the c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l be u n i t y .

N = 1.0 N k (3.37)
y
Where the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h formulae are based on an e m p i r i c a l or s e m i -
empirical analysis:

N = c . N u (3.38)
m
i n which

N = design strength
N. = s t r e n g t h determined a n a l y t i c a l l y , based on y i e l d and c o n f i r m e d
V
J
by t e s t results
N u = s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n , based on the mean of the t e s t results
c m
= f a c t o r t a k i n g account of the s c a t t e r of the t e s t r e s u l t s and
the v a r i a t i o n o f the parameters (5% p r o b a b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g
lower r e s u l t s than N^) and an adopted Y - Y M C factor.

X i
c
- \ - ^ i ( 3
- 3 9

In c o u n t r i e s i n which the " p e r m i s s a b l e s t r e s s " method i s used the
a l l o w a b l e l o a d under w o r k i n g l o a d c o n d i t i o n N can be found by
d i v i d i n g the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h N by the a p p r o p r i a t e l o a d f a c t o r y .

\.i = T ( 3
- 4 0 )

93
 3-16

3.5. References

1. ISO 2394 : General p r i n c i p l e s f o r the verification

o f the s a f e t y o f s t r u c t u r e s . First Ed.
1973-02-15. ISO 2394 - 1973 ( E ) .

2 . ECCS : Recommendations f o r S t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n
E C C S - E G - 7 6 - 1 E . European Convention for
Constructional Steelwork.

3 . Wardem'er, J. : General p r i n c i p l e s f o r the determi n a t i o n o f

t h e s a f e t y of p r e d o m i n a n t l y statically
loaded t u b u l a r j o i n t s . S t e v i n r e p o r t 6 - 7 7 - 4 .

4. S t a r k , J.W.B. : General aspects o f t h e " D r a f t R e g u l a t i o n s

f o r the desi gn of Tubul a r S t r u c t u r e s " - RB '78.
( i n Dutch) Symposium on T u b u l a r Structures,
D e l f t , October 1977.

5 . T r e z o s , C. : Etude p r o b a b i l i s t e de l a r e s i s t a n c e u l t i m e
des assemblages soudes en K.
C o n s t r u c t i o n M e t a l l i q u e Nr. 1 , 1978.

6. S t r a t i n g , J. : The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s for a
level I code. IIW Doc. XV-462-80.

7. R a v i n d r a , M.K : Load and r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r desi gn o f S t e e l .

Galambos, T.V Journal of the S t r u c t u r a l D i v i s i o n , ST 9 ,
S e p t . 1978.

8. Wardenier, J. : The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded lattice

Stark, J.W.B. girder joints in structural hollow s e c t i o n s ,
p a r t . 8. Stevin report 6 - 7 8 - 4 .
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 8 - 2 0 . 0 0 6 3 . 4 3 . 4 7 0 .

9. F i s h e r , J.W. : Load and r e s i s t a n c e f a c t o r d e s i g n criteria

Galambos, T.V for connectors.
Kulak, G.L. Journal of the s t r u c t u r a l Division,
R a v i n d r a , M.K ST 9 , S e p t . 1978.

10. Galambos, T.V : Properties of steel f o r use i n LRFD.

R a v i n d r a , M.K Journal o f the s t r u c t u r a l division,
ST 9 , S e p t . 1978.

94
 4-i

4. JOINTS OF CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS

Contents

Symbols
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Axially loaded l a t t i c e g i r d e r joints
4 2 1. General
4 2 2. C r i t e r i a of failure
4 2 3. Modes of failure
4 2 4. Test evidence
4 2 5. Analytical models
4 2 6. J o i n t strength formulae
4 2 7. E v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n criteria
4 2 8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s
4.3. Joints loaded by bending moments
4 3 1. General
4 3 2. C r i t e r i a of failure
4 3 3. Modes of fai1ure
4 3 4. Test evidence
4 3 5. Analytical models
4. 3 6 . J o i n t strength formulae
4. 3 7. Evaluation to d e s i g n criteria
4. 3 8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s
4.4. Interaction between a x i a l l o a d i n g and moments
4.4.1. General
4.4.2. Analytical models
4.4.3. Test evidence
4.4.4. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n rules
4.5. S p e c i a l types of joints
4.5.1. Joints r e l a t e d to X-joints
4.5.2. Joints r e l a t e d to K-joints
4.5.3. J o i n t s w i t h gusset plates
4.5.4. Cropped- and f l a t t e n e d end joints
4.6. References
Appendix IV-1 X-joints loaded i n tension
IV-2 T - j o i n t s loaded i n tension
IV-3 Comparison o f the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae f o r a x i a l l y
loaded j o i n t s w i t h some e x i s t i n g recommendations.

95
 4-11

Symbols used i n c h a p t e r 4

cross-sectional area
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area o f the chord
effective ring length

r r r constants or spring constants

E modulus o f elasticity
L l e n g t h of t h e chord o f a T- o r X - j o i n t i n the t e s t s
M bendi ng moment
bending moment i n the c r o s s s e c t i o n at the gap
M
o
gap
p l a s t i c bending moment c a p a c i t y o f a c r o s s section
M
P
u l t i m a t e bending moment c a p a c i t y o f a j o i n t
M
u
u l t i m a t e bending moment c a p a c i t y on b r a c i n g 1
M
lu
bending moment on a b r a c i n g
M
b
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r t h e bending moment c a p a c i t y

% d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r t h e i n p l a n e bending moment c a p a c i t y
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r the out o f p l a n e bending moment c a p a c i t y .
N axial load

N
i l o a d i n member i (0 = c h o r d ; 1 , 2 , 3 i n bracings)
N. ultimate load in bracing i for j o i n t strength (1 = 1 , 2 or 3)
i u
maximum l o a d i n the chord
N. l o a d i n t h e c h o r d c r o s s s e c t i o n a t t h e gap
o
gap
M p r e s t r e s s i n g l o a d i n the chord
P design s t r e n g t h f o r the j o i n t i n member i
^i
design s t r e n g t h f o r t h e a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y o f a j o i n t (general )
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t strength for axial load
" y i e l d " load capacity of a j o i n t
p l a s t i c a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of a c r o s s section
ultimate axial l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the j o i n t
mean f o r the t e s t r e s u l t s (ultimate axial load capacity)

correlation coefficient
shear load
shear l o a d c a p a c i t y o f a c r o s s section
c o e f f i c i e n t of variation
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n o f the t e s t results
c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f the a x i a l load capacity

c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e i n p i a n e bendi ng moment c a p a c -
ity
96
 4-iii

c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e out o f p l a n e bending moment

capacity
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n o f the y i e l d stress

p l a t e - o r s e c t i o n width p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the chord

d o u t e r diameter
o u t e r diameter o f the chord
d
o
d. o u t e r diameter of a b r a c i n g i (i = 1 , 2 o r 3)
d - t
o o
gap between the t h e o r e t i c a l toes of the bracings
gap d i v i d e d by the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the chord
p l a t e - o r s e c t i o n h e i g h t p a r a l l e l t o the chord
f a c t o r w i t h which an e l l i p t i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area i s
r e l a t e d t o t h a t of a c i r c u l a r one
f a c t o r w i t h which the modulus of an e l l i p t i c a l c r o s s s e c -
t i o n i s r e l a t e d to t h a t of a c i r c u l a r one
p l a s t i c moment per u n i t length
N
o
A .a
o eo

op
A .a
o eo

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the chord

standard deviation i n t e s t results
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n the y i e l d s t r e s s of the chord
eo
w a l l t h i c k n e s s of member i (0 = c h o r d ; 1 , 2 , 3 b r a c i n g s )
*1
punching shear i n the chord

8 : d i a m e t e r r a t i o between b r a c i n g and chord

Y : diameter - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o o f the chord (^-)
Y -YM C
:
m a t e r i a l and j o i n t p a r t i a l safety factors 0

6 : a x i a l d e f o r m a t i o n of a j o i n t
6 H : d e f o r m a t i o n of a j o i n t p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the p l a n e .
0. : angle between a b r a c i n g member ( i = 1 , 2 or 3) and the chord
: angle

97
 4-iv

r o t a t i o n angle under moment l o a d i n g

stress

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c - o r d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d stress

y i e l d s t r e s s o f the chord

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c - o r d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s o f the
chord
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e f o r the e q u i v a l e n t y i e l d s t r e s s of
cold f i n i s h e d hollow sections
u l t i m a t e m a t e r i a l s t r e s s o f the chord

h
l
cT
 4-1

4. JOINTS OF CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS

4.1. Introduction

In c h a p t e r 2 i t i s a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out t h a t c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
have s e v e r a l advantages over o t h e r r o l l e d shapes as s t r u c t u r a l members.
On the o t h e r hand f o r an economical d e s i g n and f a b r i c a t i o n o f tubular
j o i n t s e x p e r i e n c e d d e s i g n e r s and f a b r i c a t o r s are r e q u i r e d . Nowadays
s t r u c t u r e s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are m a i n l y used f o r structures
exposed to wind o r wave a c t i o n and f u r t h e r f o r a e s t h e t i c a l reasons o r f o r
s t r u c t u r e s which must have a low dead w e i g h t .

In the f i f t i e s f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out i n the F e d e r a l

R e p u b l i c o f Germany [1] f o l l o w e d by i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n o t h e r European
countries [2] and i n Japan [3 to 6 ] . Due to the i n c r e a s e d use o f cir-
c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s f o r o f f s h o r e a p p l i c a t i o n s i n the G u l f o f Mexico
several i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out i n the s i x t i e s i n the USA,
e.g. [7, 8].
In the s e v e n t i e s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out i n European countries
[9 to 1 2 ] , Japan [ 1 3 , 14] and the U . S . A . [14, 16].
The communication i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l committees r e s u l t e d i n a b e t t e r
exchange o f knowledge. S e v e r a l r e a n a l y s e s o f a v a i l a b l e t e s t evidence
were c a r r i e d out to come to i n t e r n a l agreed d e s i g n recommendations
[12, 16, 17, 18].

The f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d out i n t o the

s t a t i c strength of t u b u l a r j o i n t s shows a l r e a d y the c o m p l e x i t y o f the
p r o b l e m . Due to the n o n - u n i f o r m s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t u b u l a r joints,
which depends on the type o f j o i n t and the many j o i n t geometry para-
meters, the j o i n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a cannot be determined i n an a n a l y t i -
c a l way. As a r e s u l t a s e m i - a n a l y t i c a l approach i s g e n e r a l l y used
based on s i m p l i f i e d models and e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence.

In t h i s c h a p t e r most a t t e n t i o n w i l l be g i v e n to a x i a l l y loaded s i m p l e
l a t t i c e g i r d e r j o i n t s but a l s o moment l o a d i n g and o t h e r types o f j o i n t s
are r e v i e w e d .

99
 4-2

4.2. A x i a l l y loaded l a t t i c e g i r d e r joints

4.2.1. General

The types o f j o i n t s covered i n t h i s s e c t i o n c o n s i s t o f c i r c u l a r hollow

s e c t i o n members which a r e d i r e c t l y welded t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t t h e use o f
gussets o r s t i f f e n e r s . The b a s i c types o f j o i n t s used i n plane l a t t i c e
girders are shown i n f i g . 4 . 1 .

T-joint Y- joint

5 ' *
Nil

X-joint K-joint with 9op~~[

\Ni
Ai-* 2

eiXA^y^

y Ni

N - j o i n t with overlap | KT-joint with gap |

Ni I V
d 2 >3 ^

2/ * d 2

A li I I^V / f i ^0 l 2

3l3
'HI L / 2
-r f
N ; 0 * ~

Fig. 4.1. Types o f j o i n t s .

These types o f j o i n t s are p r e d o m i n a n t l y loaded by a x i a l l o a d s i n t h e

b r a c i n g members.

4.2.2. C r i t e r i a _ o f _ f a i l^ure

In general t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e c r i t e r i a
shown i n f i g . 4 . 2 .

100
 4-3

- ultimate bearing capacity (5)

- deformation c r i t e r i a (2) o r (3)
- v i s u a l l y observed crack i n i t i a t i o n (4).

elastic limit

deformation limit
2
o remaining deformation
o limit

crack initiation
ultimate load

deformation

Fig. 4.2. C r i t e r i a of failure.

The u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y used as the criterion

o f f a i l u r e . The d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t depends on the type o f structure,
the l o a d i n g l e v e l and the N a t i o n a l Codes o f P r a c t i c e . For j o i n t s with
a n o n - l i n e a r l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n behaviour several approaches have been
proposed f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of a y i e l d l o a d but no i n t e r n a t i o n a l
agreement have been reached upon one o f these methods. Using a p h y s i c a l
and g e o m e t r i c a l n o n - l i n e a r f i n i t e elements programme shows t h a t the
ultimate bearing capacity for j o i n t s loaded i n compression can be c o n -
s i d e r e d as the y i e l d load.

In case of j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n the j o i n t s t r e n g t h is increased

due to s t r a i n hardening e f f e c t s . The s t r e n g t h at the kink i n the load-
d e f l e c t i o n diagramme agrees n e a r l y w i t h the u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g capacity
of j o i n t s loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n .

4.2.3. Modes o f failure

Depending on the type o f the j o i n t parameters and l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n ,

several types of f a i l u r e can o c c u r as shown i n f i g . 4 . 3 .
a. P l a s t i c f a i l u r e of the f a c e or c r o s s s e c t i o n o f the c h o r d .
b. Crack i n i t i a t i o n l e a d i n g to r u p t u r e o f the b r a c i n g s from the chord
(punching shear).

101
 4-4

c. Local b u c k l i n g i n compressive areas o f the members.

d. Shear f a i l u r e of the c h o r d .
e. Lamellar t e a r i n g .

A im c r a c k
m
l 11J initiation [jjl

a) chord face b) punching shear

failure

possible locations of

o
local buckLing

E S3
c) local buckling d) shear failure e) lamellar
tearing

Fig. 4.3. Modes o f failure.

Type a i s the most common mode of f a i l u r e whereas type b i n general

oc c u rs f o r the j o i n t s w i t h small diameter r a t i o s 3 between bracings
and chord o r i n K- and N - j o i n t s if the b r a c i n g s d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y in
d i a m e t e r . Type c may o c c u r i n j o i n t s made o f r e l a t i v e l y thin walled
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . Shear f a i l u r e o f the chord a t the gap l o c a t i o n ( t y p e d)
may be c r i t i c a l f o r K- and N-type gap j o i n t s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y great
d i a m e t e r r a t i o between b r a c i n g s and c h o r d . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f l a m e l l a r
t e a r i ng (more probabl e f o r very t h i c k w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s ) can be decreased
by choosing good m a t e r i a l q u a l i t i e s and s u i t a b l e w e l d i n g p r o c e s s e s .
For the types of f a i l u r e d i f f e r e n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a exist but i n some
cases i t i s p o s s i bl e to p r e d i c t t h e j o i n t s t r e n g t h by o n l y one o r two
decisive c r i t e r i a (e.g. by l i m i t a t i o n of t h e range o f validity).

4.2.4. T e s t evidence

Numerous t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out a l l o v e r the w o r l d . The t e s t re-

s u l t s w i t h main j o i n t parameters are summarized i n r e f s . [12, 13, 14,
18, 1 9 ] . The most up to date c o l l e c t i o n of t e s t data i s g i v e n i n [18].
The dimensions o f the chords o f the r e l e v a n t t e s t s vary from 60 t o 762
mm w i t h v a r y i n g j o i n t parameters and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f the s t e e l

102
 4-5

R e c e n t l y s u p p l i m e n t a r y t e s t evidence became a v a i l a b l e f o r j o i n t s with

low and high d i a m e t e r w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s o f the chord [20].
In t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l s o the i n f l u e n c e o f chord p r e s t r e s s i n g loads
was i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r a l a r g e r range of j o i n t p a r a m e t e r s .

4.2.5. A 5 l y t i a ^ jnodel s
n

A n a l y t i c a l models r e s u l t i n g i n j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae which are i n a

wide range i n good agreement w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s do not e x i s t at
t h i s moment. The models u s e d , g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the i n f l u e n c i n g
p a r a m e t e r s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , combined w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e , lead
to e x p r e s s i o n s f o r the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h : the semi e m p i r i c a l formulae.
For s i m p l e j o i n t s such as T- and X - j o i n t s t h i s a n a l y s i s can l e a d to a
good agreement w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s . In more c o m p l i c a t e d j o i n t s such
as K- and N-type j o i n t s a l l the i n f l u e n c i n g parameters cannot be taken
i n t o account i n the models. For these types o f j o i n t s the resulting
formulae are g e n e r a l l y more e m p i r i c a l l y .

The models used f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the i n f l u e n c i n g parameters

are as f o l l o w s .

4.2.5.1. Punching_shear_model

In t h i s model shown i n f i g . 4 . 4 . , the punching shear s t r e s s v^ i n the

punching shear area of the chord i s assumed to be uniform distributed
over the punching shear a r e a . For g r e a t e r d i a m e t e r r a t i o s 6 between
b r a c i n g and chord the r e a l
stress distribution w i l l devi-
ate more and more from the a s -
sumed d i s t r i b u t i o n .
For j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s under
90 the t h e o r e t i c a l uniform
d i s t r i b u t e d punching shear v p

can be c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s :

v (4.1)

Fig. 4.4. Punching shear m o d e l .

103
 4-6

J o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s i n t e r s e c t i n g w i t h angles s m a l l e r than 90 have an

i n c r e a s e d punching shear area k . u , d , t 1 i with:

1 + sinG-i

^ - F s T n e T <"> 4 2

or
2
N .sin0
i 1 N : 2sin0 1

v
p kg.-rr.d^^
=
TT.d^^ =
l + sin0 ' 4 - 3
^
which r e s u l t s i n 1

1 + s i n0
Ni,.
1H = Vv .. "i r. U. -d. .TLt ..
-
n !T
0
1
(4.4)
2 sin 0j
a
, eo
with v
'P ~ ~/3

In general t h i s c r i t e r i o n w i l l o n l y be c r i t i c a l f o r j o i n t s w i t h small

d
l o d

- r - r a t i o s depending on the ^ - r a t i o of the chord and the type of j o i n t ,

o o
Based on e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence lower d e s i g n v a l u e s f o r Vp i n r e l a t i o n
to the j o i n t parameters can be g i v e n f o r j o i n t s w i t h h i g h e r diameter
r a t i o s . The p r e s e n t a t i o n of d e s i g n r u l e s i n terms of punching shear i s
w i d e l y used i n o f f s h o r e recommendations [ 1 9 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 3 ] .

4.2.5.2. BiD9. del m

In t h i s model shown i n f i g . 4 . 5 . f o r a X - j o i n t the j o i n t i s schematized

to a r i n g w i t h an e f f e c t i v e length B and the same g e o m e t r i c a l and
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s as the c h o r d . For T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s the non
uniform s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n at the i n t e r s e c t i o n of b r a c i n g and c h o r d ,
shown i n f i g . 4 . 6 . f o r a X - j o i n t , i s schematized to two l i n e l o a d s
equal to the h a l f o f the b r a c i n g load.
N e c l e c t i n g the i n f l u e n c e of a x i a l - and shear s t r e s s e s on the p l a s t i c
moment the t h e o r e t i c a l y i e l d s t r e n g t h of the r i n g shown i n f i g . 4 . 5 .
f o r dj < d Q can be c a l c u l a t e d as

N,.sinG, d - t
2 m = p
1
2
1
. (l-simp) ( - 9 ^ ) (4.5)

104
 4-7

Ni
Ni s i n 8 i - ^ s i n 0!
di-t. 2B
sin6i lUUl^llllUUUllUl

tffttttfftttntffff
B ~3(d -to)
e 0

Fig. 4.5. Ring model f o r a c r o s s joint.

joint joint
+

Fig. 4.6. Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n in a cross joint.

B .t2

e o
m
p = 4~ e 0

s i nip B

d - t d
0T 0 0

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f these r e l a t i o n s i n e q . 4 . 5 . g i v e s :

, a . t
1 eo o
N, (4.6)
'lu - - 0 7 smO

The e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h B g f o r the d i f f e r e n t types o f j o i n t s are gener-

a l l y determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y [13, 24].

105
 4-8

For T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s r e a s o n a b l e agreement between t e s t r e s u l t s and

semi-analytical s o l u t i o n s based on t h i s model can be o b t a i n e d . For K-,
and N-type j o i n t s t h e r e are much more parameters i n f l u e n c i n g the j o i n t
strength. Because o f o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s e . g . the i n f l u e n c e o f a x i a l - and
bending s t r e s s e s i n the chord and membrane e f f e c t s f o l l o w i n g function
i s used i n general as b a s i s f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the j o i n t strength
formulae:

% = e o - o t 2
- l ^ ) -
f f
^ ) - 3 (
f 0
) - 4 ( f ) - 5 ^ ) - 6 ^ ) - 7 (
f f f f a
) < ' )
4 7

o o o eo to
2

The i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n s f^ to f y are then determined based on e x p e r i -

ments. If the f u n c t i o n s f^ to f^ are not independent from each other,
than m o d i f i c a t i o n s are made.

4.2.5.3. Finite_elments_grogramme

With f i n i t e element programmes the e l a s t i c s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n at the

i n t e r s e c t i o n area between b r a c i n g and chord can be d e t e r m i n e d . Based
on these programmes, parameter f u n c t i o n s were developed f o r the m a x i -
mum s t r e s s . Thus the l o a d can be c a l c u l a t e d a t which j u s t y i e l d occurs
a t the hot spot s t r e s s location.
With computer programmes a parameter study was c a r r i e d o u t . The r e s u l -
t i n g punching shear s t r e s s at which y i e l d occurs i s g i v e n i n f i g . 4 . 7 .
as f u n c t i o n of the b a s i c parameters [15].
From t h i s s t u d y the b a s i c parameters were c h o s e n . The r e s u l t i n g formula
was then m u l t i p l i e d by f a c t o r s which take account of the chord w a l l
p l a s t i f i c a t i o n , the r e s t r a i n t to p l a s t i c f l o w caused by t r i a x i a l stresses,
s t r a i n hardening and the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n [15]. However, f o r the v a r i o u s
types o f j o i n t s these f a c t o r s are not the same which r e s u l t s in devia-
t i o n s from the r e a l b e h a v i o u r . In the u l t i m a t e s t a t e the main i n f l u e n -
c i n g parameters are sometimes q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from those i n the e l a s t i c
state.
A b e t t e r approach would be to take the p l a s t i f i c a t i o n i n t o account in
the f i n i t e element programme and to base the parameter study on these
results. Due to the high c a l c u l a t i o n c o s t s , at t h i s stage o n l y a few
case s t u d i e s have been c a r r i e d out u s i n g p h y s i c a l and g e o m e t r i c a l non-
l i n e a r behaviour. These n o n - l i n e a r c a l c u l a t i o n procedures g i v e good
r e s u l t s but the c a l c u l a t i o n i s s t i l l very expensive.

106
 Reber [25] based the main parame-
10.0
t e r s on a parameter study o f an
e l a s t i c f i n i t e elements computer
8.0
z z programme. W i t h i n a l i m i t e d range
of parameters he assumed, based on
6.0
5.6 t e s t s , a c o n s t a n t r a t i o between the
load f o r ultimate j o i n t strength
.0
and the l o a d which causes j u s t y i e l d

2.0 a t the hot spot l o c a t i o n ( f i g . 4 . 8 . )

0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8
For K - j o i n t s the same procedure was
u s e d . The maximum hot spot stress
i n a K - j o i n t was lower than i n a Y-
d
Fig. 4.8. I P vs T - f o r T - j o i nts j o i n t as shown i n f i g . 4 . 9 . , but
y o
a l s o the r a t i o between u l t i m a t e l o a d
a c c o r d i ng to Reber [ 24]
and the l o a d which j u s t causes
y i e l d a t the hot spot l o c a t i o n i s
l o w e r . A s a r e s u l t Reber proposed a f o r m u l a v a l i d f o r T - , Y- and K - j o i n t s .
The advantage o f t h i s model i s i t s s i m p l i c i t y , but as disadvantage i t must
be mentioned t h a t the g r e a t i n f l u e n c e s o f the gap and the p r e s t r e s s i n g of the
chord are n e g l e c t e d .

107
 4-10

* 0.8

brace diam./chord diam. -A-

Fig. 4.9. R e l a t i o n s h i p between max. K - j o i n t s t r e s s and max. Y-joint

stress [25].

4.2.5.4. Shear model

In K- and N-type j o i n t s w i t h a gap the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n a t the gap

l o c a t i o n can f a i l due to shear o r a c o m b i n a t i o n of s h e a r , a x i a l load
and moment. When the chord s e c t i o n i s compact the formulae used i n
p l a s t i c d e s i g n can be a p p l i e d , see c h a p t e r 2.8.2.

A
I

o gap

Fig. 4.10. Model f o r shear of the c h o r d .

Based on the r e l a t i o n s 2 . 3 2 to 2.34 f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a have to be

satisfied:

(4.8)
Q < Q
P = 2
" f <V o t

with Q = N . s i n G i i

108
 4-11

N IT . d. (4.9)
Ogap P

(4.10)
gap

G e n e r a l l y the moments are small and o n l y the i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l

l o a d and shear l o a d have t o be c o n s i d e r e d c . f . e q . ( 2 . 6 6 ) = e q . (4.11)

(4.11)

In j o i n t s w i t h small gaps the cross s e c t i o n o f the chord i s stiffened

by the connected b r a c i n g s which i n c r e a s e s the shear l o a d c a p a c i t y Q p

considerably.

J o i n t strength formulae

As shown i n 4 . 2 . 5 . not one o f the models can be c o n s i d e r e d as b e i n g

perfect. In p r i n c i p l e a model s h o u l d o n l y be used f o r the f a i l u r e mode
i t i s s e t up f o r . That means the punching shear model o n l y f o r real
punching shear i . e . j o i n t s w i t h small 8 r a t i o s . When s t r e n g t h s are p r e -
sented i n terms o f punching shear than these s t r e n g t h s should be d e t e r -
mined u s i n g o t h e r models and e x p e r i m e n t s . In general the mode of fail-
ure c o n s i s t s of a p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord f a c e or the chord c r o s s s e c -
tion. In t h i s case the r i n g model seems to be the b e s t model.
The p a r a m e t r i c s t u d i e s based on f i n i t e element programmes have o n l y a
limited validity because the e x t r a r e s e r v e between f i r s t y i e l d i n g and
f a i l u r e of a j o i n t depends on the type of j o i n t and the j o i n t parame-
ters. The shear f a i l u r e has o n l y to be c o n s i d e r e d i n the gap area for
K- and N-type j o i n t s w i t h a l a r g e d i a m e t e r r a t i o . The r i n g model has
the l a r g e s t range o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y but s t i l l here e x p e r i m e n t a l func-
t i o n s have to be i n c l u d e d as shown i n 4 . 2 . 5 . 2 .
In r e f s . [ 1 2 , 2 6 , 27] t h i s author compared a l l a v a i l a b l e t e s t results
w i t h the e x i s t i n g formulae f o r T - , Y-, X-, K- and N - j o i n t s . Based on
t h i s comparison i t was concluded t h a t the formulae proposed by
Togo e t . a l . [ 5 , 28] and those proposed by Kurobane e t . a l . [14] gave
the b e s t e s t i m a t i o n o f the t e s t results.
S i n c e 1977 a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out e s p e c i a l l y in
Japan [29] and The N e t h e r l a n d s [ 2 0 ] . F u r t h e r i t was found t h a t the
y i e l d s t r e s s - u l t i m a t e s t r e s s r a t i o o f the s t e e l used,sometimes i n -
f l u e n c e d the j o i n t s t r e n g t h considerably.

109
 4-12

Taking account o f the r e s u l t s o f these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s Kurobane r e -

anal i zed the t e s t r e s u l t s and proposed improved s t r e n g t h functions
[ 1 8 ] . These f u n c t i o n s have been adopted by S u b c i e XVE o f the I n t e r -
national I n s t i t u t e o f Welding as b e i n g the b a s i s f o r the d e s i g n r e -
commendations.
These s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s are r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d but are s i m p l i f i e d
f o r the d e s i g n recommendations [ 3 0 , 3 1 ] .
In p r i n c i p l e the s t r e n g t h i s g i v e n i n a s i m i l a r form as e q . (4.7).
In t h i s c h a p t e r the e x i s t i n g formulae are b r i e f l y r e v i e w e d . For more
d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e f e r e n c e i s g i v e n to the r e l e v a n t publications.

4.2.6.1. X ioints
;

Although t h i s type o f j o i n t i s not very common i n t u b u l a r structures

many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out on t h i s type o f j o i n t because the
b e h a v i o u r i s s i m p l e r than t h a t o f o t h e r t u b u l a r joints.
S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s c o n s i d e r e d the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f c r o s s joints
loaded i n compression which i s about the same as the y i e l d s t r e n g t h of
joints loaded i n t e n s i o n (see the k i n k i n the l o a d d e f l e c t i o n diagramme
of f i g . 4.2.)

Sammet [2] presented h i s experimental r e s u l t s i n diagrammes which are

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the s t a n d a r d TGL 13.501 [32] o f the German Democratic
R e p u b l i c . The s t r e n g t h s o f o t h e r types o f j o i n t s such as T - , Y-, K- and
N - j o i n t s are r e l a t e d to the s t r e n g t h o f X - j o i n t s w i t h s i m i l a r j o i n t
parameters. In the Sammet t e s t s the a c t u a l y i e l d s t r e s s e s and s e c t i o n a l
dimensions were not measured which m a k e s i t d i f f i c u l t to compare themwith
2
o t h e r r e s u l t s . C o n s i d e r i n g a y i e l d s t r e s s o f 250 N/mm f o r the Sammet
t e s t s and t a k i n g i n t o account h i s own t e s t r e s u l t s Hlavaeck proposed
two p o s s i b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y determined formulae f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of
the u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f c r o s s j o i n t s [9].
One o f t h e s e formulae has a s c a l e e f f e c t and the o t h e r f i t s o n l y w e l l
the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r medium B r a t i o s .

In 1964 Naka, Kato and Kanatani [24] showed a l r e a d y t h a t a reasonable

agreement can be o b t a i n e d between the r i n g model conform f i g . 4 . 5 and
the e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t r e s u l t s as shown i n f i g . 4 . 1 1 .
Since t h a t time s e v e r a l investigators used the r i n g model f o r the a n a -
lysis.

110
 4-13

theoretical value
as a r i n g w i t h
c o n c e n t r a t e d loads

0 JT/6 xt/3 rt/2 0 Tt/6 n/3 JT/2

. f

Fig. 4.11. U l t i m a t e l o a d H^, y i e l d l o a d N y vs <p and d e f l e c t i o n vs ip

for cross j o i n t s (Naka, Kato and K a n a t a n i ) .

The most e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c a r r i e d out by Togo e t . a l . [5,

33]. In t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n the i n f l u e n c e of s e v e r a l parameters i n -
f l u e n c i n g the j o i n t s t r e n g t h , were i n v e s t i g a t e d . I t was shown t h a t
f(B) i n the r i n g model had to be c o r r e c t e d to p r e d i c t the s t r e n g t h of
j o i n t s w i t h a high 8 r a t i o c o r r e c t l y . I t was f u r t h e r shown t h a t com-
p r e s s i v e a x i a l s t r e s s e s i n the chord reduce the l o a d c a p a c i t y whereas
t e n s i o n s t r e s s e s have a minor e f f e c t as shown i n f i g . 4 . 1 2 .

12

\ 1.0 I
f(n)=1.0 Ni

0.8
%>' N(n) = 1 . 2 2 - 0 . 5 1 n|
l-o

0.6

0.5
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 '0.6 0.8 1.0
NOP

A
0 0"eo
Fig. 4.12. Influence p r e s t r e s s i n g chord on the s t r e n g t h of X-joints.

As a r e s u l t f o l l o w i n g s e m i - e m p e r i c a l f o r m u l a was developed f o r axially

loaded 90 c r o s s j o i n t s loaded i n compression:
111
 4-14

N
l u = 1 - 0;833g e o ' < > f n
< - >4 12

with:

f(n) = 1.22 - 0 . 5 ] n | for n < - 0.44

(4.13)
f(n) = 1.0 for n 5 - 0.44

T h i s f o r m u l a shows a good agreement w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s and many

d e s i g n recommendations are based on i t [21, 22, 23, 34, 35].
All investigations c a r r i e d out l a t e r o n can be c o n s i d e r e d more or l e s s
f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o r to check the Togo formula f o r a w i d e r range of
a p p l i c a t i o n [ 1 0 , 1 3 , 14, 1 8 ] . The Japanese S o c i e t y of S t e e l Construc-
t i o n d i d t e s t s on j o i n t s w i t h very t h i n w a l l e d t u b u l a r s e c t i o n s [13].
For j o i n t s w i t h a low 8 r a t i o a somewhat lower s t r e n g t h was found than
p r e d i c t e d by the Togo f o r m u l a . T h i s may be caused by t h e f a c t t h a t the
punching s h e a r c r i t e r i o n becomes then critical.
P a n , Plummer and Kuang [19] proposed a lower bound s o l u t i o n f o r the
t e s t r e s u l t s . A s t a t i s t i c a l t rea t men t of the t e s t r e s u l t s i s however
more p r e f e r a b l e .
Kurobane, Makino and M i t s u i [14] proposed f o r an extended range o f p a r a -
meters and based on many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a m o d i f i e d Togo f o r m u l a .

A thorough comparison of the a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s up to 1977 and the

e x i s t i n g formulae [ 1 2 , 26] showed t h a t the Togo formula and the m o d i f i e d
Togo f o r m u l a by Kurobane gave the best agreement w i t h t h e t e s t results.
R e c e n t l y a more r e f i n e d s t a t i s t i c a l treatment of the t e s t r e s u l t s was
c a r r i e d out by Kurobane e t . a l . [ 1 8 , 31] which l e d to the following
e q u a t i o n f o r the mean of the t e s t r e s u l t s (G = 9 0 , n = 0)

M 7.46 ,, ,-0.05 , eo,-0.173

C T
,2

N
lu =
1-0.8123 ( 2 y )
- (
^ }
^eo-S ( 4
" 1 4 )

with v 6 = 0.108
In f i g . 4 . 1 3 . a comparison between t h i s f o r m u l a and the t e s t results
i s g i v e n . As shown i n the f o r m u l a the s t r e n g t h is less sensitive for y
and somewhat to the y i e l d s t r e s s - u l t i m a t e s t r e s s r a t i o . For not right
angled c r o s s j o i n t s only l i t t l e evidence e x i s t s , however based on the
r i n g model and the a v a i l a b l e evidence [33] f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n can be u s e d :
 4-15

Fig. 4.13. Data f o r X - j o i n t s compared w i t h e q . (4.14).

f
W - ^ (4-15)

For j o i n t s which are p r e s t r e s s e d i n the chords the p r e s t r e s s i n g func-

t i o n (4.13) can be adopted. Eq. ( 4 . 1 4 ) g i v e s the s t r e n g t h f o r joints
which f a i l by p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n . E s p e c i a l l y f o r
j o i n t s w i t h small diameter r a t i o s 3 the t h e o r e t i c a l punching shear
strength according eq. (4.4) have to be c h e c k e d .
In s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 7 . the r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s are s i m p l i f i e d and e v a l u a t e d
to d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
Joints loaded i n t e n s i o n show a g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h but a l s o a l a r g e r d e -
flection. For s i m p l i c i t y i t i s proposed to use the same s t r e n g t h as
for joints i n c o m p r e s s i o n . More d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g this
additional s t r e n g t h i s g i v e n i n Appendix IV-1.

113
 4-16

4.2.6.2. Tr.and_Y-joints

In a s i m i l a r way as f o r X - j o i n t s the T- and Y - j o i n t s can a l s o be r e -

p l a c e d by a r i n g model w i t h an e f f e c t i v e r i n g l e n g t h B . g In t h i s model
however the l o a d i n the b r a c i n g which i s r e p l a c e d by two l i n e l o a d s i s
supported by shear s t r e s s e s a c t i n g i n the two c r o s s s e c t i o n s o f the
ring. It can be shown a n a l y t i c a l l y t h a t the p l a s t i c y i e l d c a p a c i t y of
the r i n g i s g i v e n by:

hy-^-Wh^f (4-16)

i n which f ( B ) i s a r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d f u n c t i o n depending on the shear

l o a d t r a n s f e r i n the r i n g and the l o c a t i o n o f the p l a s t i c hinges [5,
10, 1 4 ] . In general the f u n c t i o n f ( B ) and the e f f e c t i v e r i n g length
are determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . It
i s found t h a t the r i n g l e n g t h B i s
d 0
e

not o n l y a f u n c t i o n o f d but a l s o o f {-r) [ 3 , 5 ] .

o i-o
Togo [28] choose the f u n c t i o n s i n such a way t h a t they c o u l d not o n l y
be used f o r T- and Y - j o i n t s but a l s o f o r K- and N-type j o i n t s w i t h a
d n

l a r g e gap. W i t h i n a c e r t a i n range of ^ r a t i o s t h i s agrees f a i r l y w e l l

w i t h the t e s t results.
The s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n g i v e n by Togo (see s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 6 . 3 . ) was the
b a s i s f o r the formulae g i v e n i n the DNV [23] and the French [35] re-
commendations, although they appear i n a m o d i f i e d f o r m .

The formulae g i v e n i n the API [21] and AWS [22] are o r i g i n a l l y based
on the method d e s c r i b e d i n 4 . 2 . 5 . 3 . F u r t h e r the punching shear a p -
proach i s used which o v e r p r e d i c t s the i n f l u e n c e o f the angle G on the
j o i n t s t r e n g t h . T h i s i s compensated i n some areas by o t h e r factors
[15, 16].

In [ 1 7 , 27] a l l the i n 1977 a v a i l a b l e t e s t e v i d e n c e was compared w i t h

all e x i s t i n g formulae which showed t h a t the f o r m u l a proposed by
Kurobane [14] gave the b e s t agreement w i t h the a v a i l a b l e t e s t results.
S i n c e t h a t time a d d i t i o n a l t e s t evidence became a v a i l a b l e [29] whereas
i t was found t h a t a l s o the parameter ( - k ) has to be i n c l u d e d i n a n a -
o u

l y s i n g the t e s t results.
A r e a n a l y s i s c a r r i e d by Kurobane [18] showed t h a t the t e s t r e s u l t s are
f a i r l y well p r e d i c t e d by:

114
 4-17

(4.17)

0 I i i i i i i i 1 1 1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

P
Fig. 4.14. Data f o r T- and Y - j o i n t s compared w i t h eq. (4.17).

Eq. (4.17) i s used as b a s i s f o r the e v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n c r i t e r i a in

s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 7 . B e s i d e s t h i s c r i t e r i o n f o r chord p i a s t i f i c a t i o n the
theoretical punching shear s t r e n g t h c.f. eq. ( 4 . 4 . ) have to be checked
f o r j o i n t s w i t h small d i a m e t e r ratios.
Joints loaded i n t e n s i o n show a g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h but a l s o a l a r g e r de-
f l e c t i o n therefore it i s proposed to use the same s t r e n g t h as for
joints i n c o m p r e s s i o n . More d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h i s addi-
tional strength i s g i v e n i n Appendix IV-2.

4.2.6.3. K:_and_N joints:

Sammet [2] and Hlavacek [9] r e l a t e the s t r e n g t h of K- and N - j o i n t s to

that of X - j o i n t s w i t h s i m i l a r j o i n t parameters u s i n g experimentally
determined shape f a c t o r s . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s method i s limited.
In the API and AWS [ 2 1 , 22] recommendations the punching shear approach
i s used. For the a l l o w a b l e punching s h e a r , v a l u e s are given based on
the parameter s t u d y d e s c r i b e d i n 4 . 2 . 5 . 3 . and on e x p e r i m e n t s .

115
 4-18

All Japanese i n v e s t i g a t o r s use a f u n c t i o n l i k e e q . ( 4 . 7 . ) i n which a l l

o r l e s s parameters are i n c l u d e d .
The main i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c a r r i e d out by Togo e t . a l . [ 5 , 2 8 ] . In t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n many parameters i n f l u e n c i n g the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of K- and
N-type j o i n t s were i n v e s t i g a t e d .
The formula proposed f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h is
as f o l l o w s :

? n 5 d, 1 - 0 . 2 6 c o s ,
h u - ' e o W d+6.52^). _ _ ^ . f ( f - ) . f ( - ) (4.18)
o 1 o

wi t h :

f(|-) = 1.75 - 2.65 | - for 0 S f - 0.23 1

O 0 o
(4.19)

= 1.15 - 0.06 % - for > 0.23

o

(n )
1
= 1 + 0.23(n' - n' ) 2
for n' < 0
(4.20)
= 1.0 for n 1
5 0

This formula with f ( - i - ) = 1 i s a l s o proposed by Togo f o r T- and Y-

o
joints.
At the time t h i s f o r m u l a was proposed o n l y l i t t l e evidence was a v a i l -
a b l e f o r j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d c h o r d s . Tests c a r r i e d out l a t e r o n by
Akiyama e t . a l . [13] showed t h a t t h i s f o r m u l a was too o p t i m i s t i c f o r
j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d chords (y > 2 5 ) . T h i s was the reason t h a t
P a n , Plummer and Kuang [19] proposed to a p p l y a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r to
the Togo f o r m u l a .
In [14] Kurobane e t . a l . proposed a l t e r n a t i v e e q u a t i o n s a l s o c o v e r i n g
o v e r l a p j o i n t s and j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d c h o r d s .
In [12] a l l a v a i l a b l e t e s t evidence up to 1977 was compared w i t h the
e x i s t i n g formulae and f u r t h e r a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t . This
r e s u l t e d i n an e q u a t i o n which can be c o n s i d e r e d as a m o d i f i e d Togo
f o r m u l a . For the French Code even more m o d i f i c a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out
but the f o r m u l a g i v e n i s a l s o based on the Togo formula [ 2 8 ] . The
f o r m u l a given i n the DNV recommendations [23] d i f f e r s i n p r i n c i p l e
o n l y w i t h r e g a r d to the i n f l u e n c e of the gap.

116
 4-19

S i n c e 1978 a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s were c a r r i e d out [29] and i t was found that

the y i e l d s t r e s s - u l t i m a t e s t r e s s r a t i o was the main reason f o r the
different test results i n Japan and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . I t was further
found t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f the gap depends more on the 2 r a t i o than
a d o n
L

the r a t i o w h i l e the i n f l u e n c e a l s o depends on the -r^ r a t i o .

o Q
o z

The r e a n a l y s i s by Kurobane e t . a l . [31] gave f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :

Ni = a . t . f , . f . f , . f . . f , . f ,
2
(4.21)
l u e o 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 9
K
'

with V fi = 0.108

l d

f 1 = 2.57( 1 + 4 . 6 7 -j)
o
, , .0.184
f 2 = (2Y)
1 - 0.343cos G 2
1

f
3 sinGj

1 | 0.00613(2Y) L 4 1

f
4
exp(0.394 9 - 3 - 1 1 _ . 5 2 5 ) + 1' 0

f r = l + 0 . 3 0 5 n ' - 0.278 n' 2

eo -0.757 N

f
6 =
fe'
to

Fig. 4 . 1 5 shows a comparison between e q . ( 4 . 2 1 ) and the t e s t results.

Still l i t t l e e v i d e n c e was a v a i l a b l e f o r j o i n t s w i t h t h i c k w a l l e d chords
and t h i n w a l l e d chords i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a high diameter ratio,
t h e r e f o r e a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t . These have been recently
reported [20] and c o n f i r m e q . (4.21) f o r gap j o i n t s . For j o i n t s w i t h a
low y and a high 6 r a t i o a shear f a i l u r e was expected b u t , p r o v i d e d the
gap i s not too l a r g e , the c r o s s s e c t i o n o f the chord i s h e l d i n posi-
t i o n by the b r a c i n g s which i n c r e a s e s the shear c a p a c i t y i n such a way
t h a t t h i s mode o f f a i l u r e does not o c c u r . For o v e r l a p j o i n t s w i t h a
d 0

-i = 55 and a high 0 r a t i o the j o i n t s t r e n g t h was lower than p r e d i c t e d

l
o
by e q . (4.21) due to l o c a l b u c k l i n g .
Although e x p r e s s i o n (4.21) i s rather complicated it can be s i m p l i f i e d
f o r design p u r p o s e s , see 4 . 2 . 7 . F u r t h e r f o r j o i n t s w i t h small B r a t i o s
the punching shear c r i t e r i o n have to be c o n s i d e r e d .

117
 4-20

* N C Q l c (kN)

Fig. 4.15. Data f o r K- and N - j o i n t s compared w i t h e q . (4.21).

4.2.6.4. KJ:Joints

Only nine t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out on K T - j o i n t s [ 3 6 ] . These tests

showed t h a t the s t r e n g t h of K T - j o i n t s can c o n s e r v a t i v e l y be r e l a t e d
to t h a t of K- and N-type j o i n t s by c o n s i d e r i n g the sum o f the compres-
s i v e l o a d components i n the b r a c i n g s :

N
>w* '-w-Wt,-wN
'
(, 22)

F u r t h e r the punching shear c a p a c i t y have to be checked f o r j o i n t s with

small e r a t i o s .
C o n s i d e r i n g the r i n g model (see 4 . 2 . 5 . 2 . ) i t i s shown t h a t the rela-
t i o n (4.22) i s somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e because the l o a d i s transferred
over a l a r g e r length.

118
 4-21

The s t i f f n e s s e s o f a x i a l l y loaded t u b u l a r j o i n t s have not been e x p r e s -

sed i n formulae up to now. R e c e n t l y a programme s t a r t e d i n The N e t h e r l a n d s
i n which a l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g j o i n t stiffnesses will be
c o l l e c t e d and a n a l y s e d . In general the j o i n t stiffness will not be a
c r i t e r i o n f o r j o i n t s w i t h low y o r high 8 r a t i o s . However especially
for X-joints the d e f o r m a t i o n may be a c r i t e r i o n f o r j o i n t s w i t h higher
Y r a t i o s . Although every d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t i s a r b i t r a r y , generally a
d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t of 1% of the chord diameter i s accepted under working
l o a d c o n d i t i o n s which i s the same as the t o l e r a n c e i n c o n v e x i t y o f the
chord s e c t i o n .

For i n d i c a t i o n some l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes are given i n figs.

4.16 to 4 . 1 9 f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s and K - j o i n t s w i t h gap w i t h chord
d i a m e t e r w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s 2Y 5 4 0 . The l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes
for N-joints do not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r from those o f K-joints.

2y ~ 35 d = 165,2 m m
0

+6 = 0.01 do 2y- 71 d 0 :318,5mm

2 y =: 93 d 0 = 457,2 m m
150

4 ioo
tests
71-0.44
i ndi cated
9 3 - 0.36
wi t h :
71-0.19
93-0.20
2Y - 3
50

10 20 30 40
5 (mm)

Fig. 4.16. Some l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes f o r T-joints.

119
 4-22

In these diagrammes the l o a d a t w h i c h a d e f l e c t i o n o f 1% o f d Q appears, is

marked by a c r o s s . The diagrammes are d e r i v e d from [12] and the joints
had f o l l o w i n g chord s e c t i o n s :

j- - 35 chord d i a m e t e r 165.2 mm
t
o

11
= 71 318.2 mm

" = 93 4 5 7 . 2 mm

As shown i n f i g . 4 . 1 7 . and 4 . 1 9 . f o r Y - and K- j o i n t s the deformation

i s not c r i t i c a l . For X - j o i n t s however the d e f o r m a t i o n may have to be
c o n s i d e r e d f o r d e s i g n . The l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r f o r K-joints
a f t e r r e a c h i n g the maximum l o a d c a p a c i t y has not been recorded because i n
general the t e s t s are stopped due t o t h e t e s ^ s e t up.

2Y<=?35 d 0 =165,2 m m

200

tests
indicated
with:

2y- B

20 30
* - (mm)
Fig. 4.17. Some l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes f o r Y-joints.

120
 4-23

2y ~ 35 dj, = 165,2 m m
+0=0.01 do 2y^72 d = 318,5 m m
0

2 y ~ 95 do = 457,2 m m

A 150 tests
i ndi cated
wi t h :
2y - S

20 30 40
25 (mm )

Fig. 4.18. Some l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes f o r X-joints.

121
 4-24

2y - 35 d 0 = 165,2 m m
+5= 0.01 d 0 2Y^71 d 0 = 318,5mm
2Y^90 d 0 = 457,2mm
500
35-0.69

400
f

300

71-0.52
3 5-0.46
yield br. ^71-0.44
^ 9 1 -0.76

fT 3 5
; 0 2 5
yield br
+ji!71-019 90-0.20

10 15 20
+~ 5 ( m m )

Fig. 4.19. Some l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes f o r K - j o i n t s (e = 0)

(The l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n curves are i n d i c a t e d by 2 y - 6 , e . g . 35-0.69

122
 4-25

4.2.7. E v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n criteria

The formulae which have been adopted as the b a s i s f o r the e v a l u a t i o n

t o d e s i g n c r i t e r i a are summarized i n f i g . 4 . 2 0 .

^ = eo ^ l(T^) 2(r) 3( ) 4(f) 5(^) 6(7 f) 7( )

o t f f f 0 f f f f a
< - )
4 7

o o o eo to
J

parameter X - j o i nts T- and Y-joints K- and N-joints

eq. (4.14) eq. (4.17) eq. (4.21)

7.46
4.83(1 + 4.94B ) 2
2.57(1 + 4.678)
1-0.8123

,, ,-0.05 ,0 ,0.233 ,, ,0.181

(2Y) (2Y)

1 - 0.343cos e 2

1 1 1

f (9) sine
si ne s i nG ^
3

0.00613(2Y) 1 - 4 1

1.0 1.0
1 +

V 9 ' )
exp.(0.394 ^ 1 1
- 0.525) + l

a 1 . 2 2 - 0 . 5 |n|
1.0 l + 0.303n' - 0 . 2 7 8 n ' 2

1.0 f o r n > - 0.44

5 a
eo

, eo,-0.173
a
eo,-0.757
1.0
(

6 (
to )
to to

,-0.450
f (a)
7 1.0 (2a) l.o

R 2
0.93 0.96 0.93

V 0.108 0.104 0.108

6

Fig. 4.20. Parameter f u n c t i o n s i n b a s i c f o r m u l a e , see e q . (4.7)

As d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 3 a t f i r s t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h func-
t i o n s have to be determined a f t e r which the formulae can be s i m p l i f i e d
for design.

4.2.7.1. Determination_of_the_characteri_stic strength

In c h a p t e r 3 the procedure f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the characteristic

strength is described in general.
Here o n l y the main s t e p s i n the procedure and the assumptions w i l l be
described.
123
 4-26

The s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s f o r t u b u l a r j o i n t s can be g e n e r a l l y expressed

as:

a
eo
N
u = (eo t
f
, d , , 0 , g ^ , n , 6) (4.23)
0 Q s

to

If the v a r i a b l e s are not c o r r e l a t e d w i t h each o t h e r the c o e f f i c i e n t

o f v a r i a t i o n can be determined as f o l l o w s :

3f
3a
. s ) 2
+ (It- . s._J s ) 2

eo eo
(4.24)
2
{ f
(%m) }

I f many t e s t r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e :

1 1.64 V, (4.25)
N
k =
V N

B e s i d e s the b a s i c v a r i a b l e s a model f a c t o r 6 i s i n t r o d u c e d r e p r e s e n -
t i n g the v a r i a t i o n o f the t e s t r e s u l t s to the s t r e n g t h model.
The t e s t r e s u l t s are g e n e r a l l y analysed based on a c t u a l dimensions and
a c t u a l m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s whereas i n the codes the nominal dimensions
are used and a d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s . The d e s i g n v a l u e for
the y i e l d s t r e s s i s g e n e r a l l y a value which can be r e p r e s e n t e d by the
mean v a l u e mines two standard d e v i a t i o n s . If the y i e l d s t r e s s i s the
o n l y m a t e r i a l parameter i n f l u e n c i n g the s t r e n g t h o f a t u b u l a r joint,
the f u n c t i o n f o r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h have to be c o r r e c t e d
by:

(4.26)
(1 - 2V J a

Based on measurements and maximum t o l e r a n c e s f o l l o w i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s of

v a r i a t i o n are adopted f o r the a n a l y s i s .

c o e f f . of
mean v a l u e
variation
- CHS diameter d 0.005 1.0 x nominal v a l u e
- wal 1 t h i c k n e s s t 0.05 1.0 x nominal v a l u e
- design y i e l d s t r e s s a 0.075 1.18 x a ^ e
ek
- y i e l d stress ratio 0.66
0.13
a
t
- gap-fabrication (g) 1.0 x nominal v a l u e
- test results 6
see f i g . 4 . 2 0 .
 4-27

Measurements have shown t h a t the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f the gap i s

g e n e r a l l y about 3 mm and l e s s r e l a t e d to the s i z e o f the gap. T h i s
i s taken i n t o account by i n c r e a s i n g the nominal gap w i t h 3 . 1 mm s i n c e
the e q u a t i o n takes then the s i m p l e s t f o r m . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the
t o l e r a n c e i n p r a c t i c e s h o u l d be c h e c k e d .
The o t h e r parameters 6 and 0 have a n e g l e c t i b l e i n f l u e n c e f o r the
c o e f f i c i e n t of variation.
With the procedure d e s c r i b e d f o l l o w i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n and
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s are d e t e r m i n e d :

Type o f joint VN
V
6 U N
k

X 0 108 0 168 0.86 N U m

T and Y 0 104 0 156 0 . 8 8 Ni.

m
u

K and N 0 108 0 195 0.80 N M

u
m

* S i n c e the s t r e n g t h o f K - j o i n t s i s very s e n s i t i v e f o r v a r i a t i o n s of
the gap g , has been checked u s i n g a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of 5 mm.
This resulted in N K = 0.74 N U M [31].

A f t e r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s the formulae can

be s i m p l i f i e d i n such a way t h a t they are easy a p p l i c a b l e . The formulae
will be s i m p l i f i e d based on the p r o p e r t i e s of hot f i n i s h e d hollow s e c -
t i o n s . The d i f f e r e n c e between hot and c o l d f i n i s h e d CHS j o i n t s should
be expressed i n the design v a l u e f o r the y i e l d stress.

Simplifications

X-joints
The i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n s f and f . show t h a t these types of j o i n t s are
^eo
l e s s s e n s i t i v e f o r v a r i a t i o n s o f Y and . The f u n c t i o n f ( v ) varies 0

to a 2

w i t h i n the p r a c t i c a l range 15 g 2Y 50 between 0 . 8 7 and 0 . 8 2 ;

2y = 40 and a = 0.66 are s u b s t i t u t e d i n e q . ( 4 . 1 4 ) .
to
a

T- and Y-joints
The i n f l u e n c e o f the bending s t r e s s e s i n the chord i s a l r e a d y indirect-
l y taken i n t o account by f u n c t i o n fj(a) f o r 3 4 2a 5.

125
 4-28

However the i n f l u e n c e o f an a x i a l l o a d i n the chord has not been i n -

v e s t i g a t e d . Therefore i t seems to be b e t t e r to adopt the same f u n c t i o n
f o r p r e s t r e s s i n g as f o r X - j o i n t s and compensate the covered i n f l u e n c e
o f the bending s t r e s s e s by s u b s t i t u t i n g 2a = 3 i n the b a s i c f u n c t i o n .
F u r t h e r the exponent o f the f u n c t i o n f o r y w i l l be rounded o f f t h a t it
will be the same as f o r K- and N-type j o i n t s . W i t h i n the p r a c t i c a l
range (15 ^ 2y 25) s u b s t i t u t i o n of

,0.233 . ,0.2 , ,0.033 , 0.2

(2y) = (2y) . (15) = 1.2%
1 [ ;

will o n l y g i v e minor d e v i a t i o n s w i t h the o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a .

K- and N-joints

The f u n c t i o n f^ f o r the i n f l u e n c e o f the angle 0 i s n e a r l y the same as

1 + sinG,
f
3< ) ' - T s T n e J
0
< - >
4 27

I t was found t h a t N-type j o i n t s w i t h a high y r a t i o g e n e r a l l y f a i l e d

a t lower loads than p r e d i c t e d by e q . (4.21).
A l t h o u g h the number o f t e s t s was small and d i d t h e r e f o r e not c o n s i d -
e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e the j o i n t s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n c . f . eq. (4.21) t h i s ef-
f e c t has t o be c o n s i d e r e d . A s i m i l a r e f f e c t was observed i n j o i n t s of
rectangular hollow sections (chapter 5 . 2 . 6 . 2 . ) . It i s thought t h a t the N-
type j o i n t s w i t h a high y r a t i o have l e s s r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y which
leads i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the high secundary bending moments i n N-type
j o i n t s to t h i s decrease i n s t r e n g t h , however an adequate e x p l a n a t i o n
has not been found up t i l l now.
For RR j o i n t s the formulae are c o r r e c t e d by changing the angle f u n c -
1 + s i n0,
t i o n f(0) = " A in . A similar correction w i l l a l s o be a p -
' v
2sin0 sinOj 1
K

p l i e d here.

For Q = 45:
l

1 - 0.343 c o s 0 2
1 Q g 3

sin0j sin0j

T h i s c o r r e c t i o n g i v e s a r e d u c t i o n f o r N-type j o i n t s whereas f o r K-
j o i n t s w i t h angles o f 45 the s t r e n g t h remains the same. For the K-
j o i n t s w i t h angles 0 < 45 i n general y i e l d i n g of the members i s c r i t i c a l

126
 4-29

The p r e s t r e s s i n g f u n c t i o n f g f o r K- and N-type j o i n t s i s based on a

s t r e s s due to an a d d i t i o n a l l o a d i n the chord ( f i g . 4 . 2 1 . )

I Hy sine^ + Nop_
2 2

N = i,2
0
N
sine 1/2 +N o p

Fig. 4 . 2 1 . P r e s t r e s s i n g load N p. Q

The d e s i g n e r g e n e r a l l y c a l c u l a t e s t h e maximum s t r e s s i n a chord s e c -

tion therefore i t would be more p r a c t i c a l t o r e l a t e t h i s f u n c t i o n to
the maximum s t r e s s i n the chord due to a x i a l l o a d and bending moment.
For the e q u i l i b r i u m of the h o r i z o n t a l components o f the b r a c i n g loads

a l o a d always e x i s t s i n the c h o r d . T h i s l o a d i s l a r g e r when the diame-

t e r r a t i o 6 i n c r e a s e s and the chord w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o 2y d e c r e a s e s .
T h e r e f o r e a f u n c t i o n based on maximum s t r e s s s h o u l d be r e l a t e d to these
parameters. A s a t i s f a c t o r y f u n c t i o n based on the maximum s t r e s s as e . g .
used f o r R R - j o i n t s has not y e t been o b t a i n e d , t h e r e f o r e f o r the time
being i t i s r e l a t e d to N . The f u n c t i o n f g can c o n s e r v a t i v e l y be
simplified to:

N ?

for n 1
= . p
< 0 : f (n)
c = 1 + 0.3n' - 0.3n'
o eo

(4.28)
f o r n' > 0 : f ( n ' ) = 1.0

a
eo
The f u n c t i o n fg can be s i m p l i f i e d by choosing - = 0 . 6 6 f o r hot r o l l e d
s e c t i o n s . For c o l d r o l l e d s e c t i o n s however the ^ y i e l d s t r e s s ratio
i s a f u n c t i o n o f the d i a m e t e r - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o o f the c h o r d . It
should t h e r e f o r e be c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r w i t h the y i e l d stress.
The f u n c t i o n f^ f o r the i n f l u e n c e o f the gap i s r a t h e r complicated
therefore f o r s i m p l e r design formulae t h i s f u n c t i o n i n combination w i t h
f u n c t i o n f2 can be presented g r a p h i c a l l y (see f i g . 4 . 2 2 . ) .
F u r t h e r the exponents are rounded o f f which i s compensated by c o r r e c -
t i o n f a c t o r s i n the f u n c t i o n e . g . f o r 15 2y < 3 0 :
(2 ) -
Y
1 4 1
,(2y) 1
- .(30 - -
5
)
0 0 0 9
^ 2
' 0 8
^ L 5

127
 4-30

u 0.012 y 1

+
exp(0.39g -0.53)+1
l

Fig. 4.22. I n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n f o r Y and g 1

(K- and N-type joints).

1.41 1.5
0.00613(2Y) 0.012Y
(1 + - 1 +
e x p ( 0 . 3 9 4 | ~ - 0.525) + 1 exp(0.39g' - 0.53) + 1

A s i m i l a r c a l c u l a t i o n procudure can be used f o r j o i n t s made o f cold

f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . The h i g h e r y i e l d s t r e s s r a t i o decreases the
j o i n t s t r e n g t h but the i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s t r e s s due to c o l d forming i n -
c r e a s e s the j o i n t s t r e n g t h . Kurobane [31] showed t h a t f o r c o l d f i n i s h e d
CHS o f STK 41 the mean v a l u e o f the y i e l d s t r e s s i s so high compared
w i t h the d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the p a r e n t m a t e r i a l t h a t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
j o i n t s t r e n g t h v a l u e s are the same o r h i g h e r than those o b t a i n e d for
hot f i n i s h e d c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f cold
f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n s vary depending on the p a r e n t m a t e r i a l t h e r e f o r e it
is conservatively proposed a t t h i s stage to adopt f o r c o l d f i n i s h e d
CHS an e q u i v a l e n t y i e l d s t r e s s as g i v e n i n c h a p t e r 2 . 2 . which can be
worked out a s :

a , , , 1.8,
e,eq k (i + ) oe k ( p a r e n t m a t erial) (4.29)

128
 4-31

4.2.7.3. Determination_of_the_design_strength

The j o i n t s c o n s i d e r e d a l l show a d u c t i l e b e h a v i o u r as i l l u s t r a t e d in
4.2.6.5. In c e r t a i n cases under t e n s i l e l o a d i n g the T- and X-joints
can show f o r high B r a t i o s a lower d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y but then an
e x t r a margin of about 1.5 e x i s t s between the s t r e n g t h s here determined
and the a c t u a l u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h , see Appendices I V - 1 and IV-2 which
means t h a t at o t h e r l o c a t i o n s y i e l d i n g w i l l o c c u r l e a d i n g to redistrib-
ution.

For the types o f j o i n t s c o n s i d e r e d w i t h a d u c t i l e b e h a v i o u r the y y

f a c t o r to be adopted can be assumed as 1.1 a c c o r d i n g t o c h a p t e r 3 .
Thus the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h N i s determined by:

N = j^j (4.30)

Using a l o a d f a c t o r of 1.5 g i v e s about a f a c t o r of 2 between the mean

u l t i m a t e j o i n t s t r e n g t h and the l o a d under working l o a d c o n d i t i o n s .

For the range of a p p l i c a t i o n i t has t o be c o n s i d e r e d i f the d e f o r m a t i o n

l i m i t s are satisfied.

For the t h e o r e t i c a l punching shear a y Y m c = 1.0 can be a d o p t e d .

4.2.7.4. Range of application

Checking the d e f o r m a t i o n a t working l o a d c o n d i t i o n s i . e . a t about 50%

o f the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h shows ( f i g s . 4 . 1 6 . to 4 . 1 9 . ) t h a t even for
2y = 100 and 0 = 0 . 2 the d e f o r m a t i o n does not exceed 1% o f d Q for T-,
Y-, K- and N-type j o i n t s . For X - j o i n t s however the t o t a l deformation
exceeds a l r e a d y t h i s l i m i t f o r 2y = 3 5 . However i t has to be c o n s i d -
ered t h a t the X - j o i n t s c o n s i s t s of two c o n n e c t i o n s . For one c o n n e c -
t i o n the d e f l e c t i o n i s 50% o f t h a t recorded i n f i g . 4 . 1 8 . These j u s t
s a t i s f y the l i m i t of 1% of d Q f o r 2y = 100 and low 8 r a t i o s . In par-
t i c u l a r d e t a i l s t h i s may be even too much t h e r e f o r e it will be com-
mented i n the recommendations. Should the t o t a l d e f l e c t i o n o f the X-
j o i n t be lower than 1% of d than the l o a d has to be r e d u c e d .

129
 4-32

Although T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s have been t e s t e d over a wide range

they have not s u f f i c i e n t l y been checked f o r j o i n t s w i t h high y and high
3 r a t i o s t h e r e f o r e f o r the time being a general l i m i t a t i o n o f 2y < 50
is proposed.
The same argument e x i s t s f o r K- and N-type j o i n t s t h e r e f o r e following
general l i m i t a t i o n s are proposed:

2y < 50 and 0 . 2 5 ^ 3 $ 1.0

Some t e s t s on j o i n t s made o f high s t r e n g t h s t e e l s w i t h a very high

y i e l d s t r e s s and a h i g h y i e l d s t r e s s - u l t i m a t e s t r e s s r a t i o showed a
b r i t t l e behaviour [ 1 9 ] , t h a t i s the reason t h a t the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f
the recommendations to be g i v e n i n 4 . 2 . 8 . are l i m i t e d t o j o i n t s made
2
o f m i l d s t e e l s w i t h d e s i g n v a l u e s f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s up to 360 N/mm .
For designs o u t s i d e the range o f v a l i d i t y the a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f the
f o r m u l a e , the d e f o r m a t i o n and the d e f o r m a t i o n and r o t a t i o n capacity
have to be c h e c k e d .

4.2.8. BQ2DQdation_ 0 ^ . c a l c u l a t | o n _ r u l e s

The recommended formulae f o r the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h determined a c c o r d i n g

4.2.7. are g i v e n i n f i g . 4 . 2 3 .
The d e s i g n o r c a l c u l a t i o n s t r e n g t h N f o r the e f f e c t s o f f a c t o r e d loads
i s given by:

'nT ' c

i n which y.y = 1.1.

'm ' c
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s used have a p r o b a b i l i t y of
f a i l u r e o f 5% and are based on the b a s i c f u n c t i o n s f o r the mean
strength i . e . eqs. ( 4 . 1 4 ) , ( 4 . 1 7 ) and ( 4 . 2 1 ) t a k i n g account o f the
v a r i a t i o n i n t e s t r e s u l t s , y i e l d s t r e s s , dimensions and m a t e r i a l p r o p -
erties. F u r t h e r some m o d i f i c a t i o n s and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s are i n c o r p o r a t e d .
The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h s are e x p r e s s e d i n the d e s i g n value o f the y i e l d
s t r e s s o r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e and the nominal d i m e n s i o n s . For c o l d
f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s an e q u i v a l e n t y i e l d s t r e s s a
, may be
e.eq.k
used t a k i n g account o f the i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s t r e s s due to c o l d f o r m i n g .

These recommendations are v a l i d f o r m i l d s t e e l s w i t h d e s i g n y i e l d

2
s t r e s s e s up to 360 N/mm .

130
 4-33

The t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s of the welds s h o u l d be equal to the w a l l thickness

o f the connected b r a c i n g s to a l l o w r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s . Smaller
welds may l e a d to a r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e n g t h much more than the reduction
i n weld s i z e s h o u l d s u s p e c t . W i t h i n the range of v a l i d i t y g i v e n the
joints show s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n and r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y whereas the
d e f o r m a t i o n under working l o a d c o n d i t i o n does not exceed IX o f d for
a p a r t i c u l a r connection. It has to be noted t h a t X - j o i n t s are c o n s i d e r e d
to c o n s i s t o f two connections.
In Appendix 1 1 - 3 t h e s e recommended formulae are compared w i t h some
w e l l known recommendations i n t h i s field.

131
 4-34

Fig. 4.23. Design s t r e n g t h f o r j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r hollow sections.

Type of joint Design strength

J
eo k f(t ) 0
f() f(e) f(Y)f(g') f(n)

0.2
Ni = 'eo k
(2.8 + U . 2 ) 2
sin 6 i -Y f(n)

J 1

9
5.2
f(n)
s 1-0.81 P sin 6 ,

Ni

K,N gap or o v e r l a p
2
e J
eok 2.1 + 9 . 8
1
4) sin 6 i % g ' ) f(n')

do

sin G T
Ni sin 82
Punching shear check for
T, Y , X and K, N, KT
j o i n t s w i t h gap ' \ 0
' 2sin e,
2

= 1.2 or 3

Functions f(n) 1.0 f o r n > - 0.4 Note:

f(n) 1.2 - 0 . 5 In! for n < - 0.4 n and n' are
negative for
f(n') = 1.0 . f o r n' s 0
compression
f(n') = 1 +0.3 n - 0 . 3 n' ,2 f o r n' < 0
1 u

1.5
0.2 0.012Y
f(Y. 9') = (Y) 1 +
exp. ( 0 . 3 9 g ' - 0.53) 77]
d. d,
Validity range 0.25 -g 1.0 2T"25 Y25 - 0 . 5 5 < | - < +0.25
o *~ i

132
 4-35

Joints loaded by bending moments

General

Moments to be taken by the j o i n t s s h o u l d be d i s t i n g u i s h e d in primary

bending moments needed f o r the e q u i l i b r i u m of l o a d i n g and "secundary"
bending moments due to deformations i n the s t r u c t u r a l system or due to
the j o i n t s t i f f n e s s e s but i n p r i n c i p l e not needed f o r the equilibrium
of loading. In l a t t i c e g i r d e r s , f o r example "secundary" bending moments
e x i s t i n the members due to the end f i x i t i e s of the members as shown
in f i g . 4.24.

a. actual load distribution moments b : a c t u a l deformation

due to joint s t i f f n e s s

c : required r o t a t i o n d: assumption for design

capacity $ pin ended members

Fig. 4.24. A c t u a l moments and assumed system i n d e s i g n f o r a l a t t i c e

girder.

These "secundary" bending moments can g e n e r a l l y be o m i t t e d i n static

d e s i g n and f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n of the members and the j o i n t s of the
l a t t i c e girders. P i n - e n d e d members can be assumed p r o v i d e d t h a t fol-
lowing c o n d i t i o n s are s a t i s f i e d :

133
 4-36

- The j o i n t s are s t r o n g e r than the connected members and the members

s a t i s f y c e r t a i n requirements w i t h regard to the d i a m e t e r - w a l l thick-
ness r a t i o to a l l o w r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s e s .
- The j o i n t s are weaker than the connected members but the j o i n t s have
s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n and r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y to a l l o w redistribution
o f s t r e s s e s i n the l i m i t s t a t e .
If one o f the above mentioned c o n d i t i o n s i s s a t i s f i e d the secondary
bending moments w i l l d i s a p p e a r i n the l i m i t s t a t e , thus the l a t t i c e
girders can be designed w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y a x i a l l y loaded members.

E c c e n t r i c i t i e s i n the system l i n e s cause moments which a r e , when t h e s e

are s m a l l , taken i n t o account i n the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae f o r a x i a l l y
loaded j o i n t s . These moments can t h e r e f o r e , w i t h i n a c e r t a i n r a n g e , be
n e g l e c t e d f o r the d e s i g n o f the j o i n t s . These e c c e n t r i c i t i e s can e f -
f e c t the s t r e n g t h o f the members o f l a t t i c e g i r d e r s t h e r e f o r e the re-
s u l t i n g moments s h o u l d be taken i n t o account f o r the d e s i g n o f the members.
I f one o f the p r e v i o u s mentioned two c o n d i t i o n s i s s a t i s f i e d these mo-
ments can be d i v i d e d over the members i n the most f a v o u r a b l e way.
However, i t i s very common to d i v i d e the moment due t o e c c e n t r i c i t y
o n l y over the chord members.

The recommended formulae f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s are l i m i t e d i n

there v a l i d i t y range i n such a way t h a t the c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d are
satisfied.

J o i n t s p r e d o m i n a n t l y loaded by moments i n p l a n e are g e n e r a l l y o f the

T - t y p e and c a l l e d V i e r e n d e e l j o i n t s . These j o i n t s can a l s o e x i s t in
framed s t r u c t u r e s . In V i e r e n d e e l g i r d e r s (fig. 4 . 2 5 . ) the moments are
always i n the plane o f the g i r d e r . In space framed s t r u c t u r e s the
l o a d i n g can be i n plane as w e l l as out of plane ( f i g . 4.26.).

Lfff

Fig. 4.25. Vierendeel joints.

 4-37

Fig. 4.26. Three d i m e n s i o n a l joints.

4.3.2. Criteria_of_failure

In the same way as f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s the characteristic

s t r e n g t h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e criterion
(ultimate bearing capacity) o r the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n (deforma-
t i o n or crack initiation).
S i m i l a r as f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s the u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g capacity
(see f i g . 4 . 2 . ) i s g e n e r a l l y chosen as b a s i s f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae.
The s t i f f n e s s of the moment c o n n e c t i o n can l a r g e l y e f f e c t the l o a d
d i s t r i b u t i o n t h e r e f o r e a guidance i s given lateron.
The s t i f f n e s s f o r j o i n t s loaded i n plane i s g e n e r a l l y greater than
that for j o i n t s loaded out o f p l a n e , e . g . shown i n f i g . 4 . 2 7 . f o r a
j o i n t w i t h a low s t i f f n e s s . In p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n the s t i f f n e s s can be
the l i m i t i n g f a c t o r .

135
 4-38

0 5 10 15 20
2
l^d-xlO"

Fig. 4.27. Comparison s t i f f n e s s f o r In Plane Bending and Out of Plane

Bending.

4.3.3. Modes_of _ f a i l^ure

When the members are not c r i t i c a l and the welds are s t r o n g enough in
p r i n c i p l e two main modes o f f a i l u r e e x i s t as shown i n f i g . 4 . 2 8 .
a. P l a s t i c f a i l u r e of the chord f a c e or chord c r o s s section.
b. C r a c k i n g l e a d i n g to r u p t u r e o f the b r a c i n g from the c h o r d .
In general f a i l u r e mode a . o ccu rs but f o r j o i n t s made o f high strength
s t e e l s or j o i n t s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r j o i n t parameters mode b. can o c c u r .
F o r moment c o n n e c t i o n s mode b. i s not l i k e l y to o c c u r w i t h o u t enough
rotation capacity therefore l i m i t a t i o n s are g i v e n l a t e r o n i n the re-
commendati o n s .
For very t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s l o c a l b u c k l i n g i n the members i n the re-
g i o n o f the j o i n t may o c c u r . T h i s can be a v o i d e d by a proper limita-
t i o n o f the d i a m e t e r - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s . For very t h i c k w a l l e d s e c -
tions (e.g. i n offshore) good m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and s u i t a b l e w e l d i n g
processes are i m p o r t a n t to a v o i d l a m e l l a r t e a r i n g .

136
 4-39

a : plastification chord

b: cracking leading to rupture

Fig. 4.28. Modes of failure.

4.3.4. Test_eyidence

Joints loaded by bending moments have not been t e s t e d so e x t e n s i v e l y as

a x i a l l y loaded joints.
With regard t o j o i n t s loaded by bending moments i n plane t e s t evidence
e x i s t s m a i n l y through the r e s e a r c h work of Akiyama [ 1 3 ] , G i b s t e i n [37],
Yura [38] and Sparrow [ 3 9 ] . These t e s t r e s u l t s are summarized i n t a b l e
4 . 1 . Based on t h e s e , d e s i g n formulae are worked o u t .
Joints loaded by moments out of plane are o n l y i n v e s t i g a t e d by Akiyama
[13] and Yura [38] and shown i n t a b l e 4 . 2 . , page 4 - 6 8 .

4.3.5. Analytical_models

The a n a l y t i c a l models which are u s e d , g i v e the i n f l u e n c i n g parameters

which l e a d combined w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s to semi e m p i r i c a l formulae
f o r the j o i n t strength.

4.3.5.1. Punching shear_model

In t h i s model shown i n f i g . 4 . 2 9 . a f u l l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the punching

shear area i s assumed.

137
 4-40

A M
P A M o p

plastic distribution

Fig. 4.29. Punching shear s t r e s s distribution.

S i m p l i f i c a t i o n of the i n t e r s e c t i o n between b r a c i n g and chord to the

p r o j e c t i o n of i t on a f l a t p l a t e w i l l be a l i t t l e c o n s e r v a t i v e al-
though more f o r i n c r e a s i n g diameter r a t i o s .
The punching shear area can then be s i m p l i f i e d to a c i r c u l a r cross
s e c t i o n f o r 0 = 90 and to an e l l i p t i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n f o r 0 < 90 .
For a j o i n t w i t h 0 = 90 the s t r e n g t h can be determined as f o l l o w s :

138
 4-41

Linear e l a s t i c stress d i s t r i b u t i o n (fig. 4.29a)

M b = 2 v
p-("4 s i n i
P)-dA

l d d
l
V .simp . * . sinip . t . -K . dip
nnax

7T . d. . t .V
4 1 o p,max

For V = 0.58a
p eo
maxp

M = 0.46 . df . t . a (4.32)
b 1 o eo

P l a s t i c stress d i s t r i b u t i o n ( f i g . 4.29b)

M, = 2 r V
V .(-J
d
i i
. sinip).^ . t
d

dipj
J p
max

di . t .V
l o p r
rr

or

M. = 0 . 5 8 . d , . t .a (4.32)
b 1 o eo

In r e a l i t y the diameter f o r the punching shear area w i l l be a l i t t l e

l a r g e r due to the weld d i m e n s i o n s . G e n e r a l l y expressed the j o i n t
s t r e n g t h w i l l be a f u n c t i o n of:

M, = C . d , . t . ;J (4.33)
b 1 o eo

which can a l s o expressed a s :

M. = 2C . a . t . d . . I.y (4.33a)
b eo o 1
Q

where C i s a c o n s t a n t .

139
 4-42

For j o i n t s w i t h e < 90 t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r s have t o be used f o r the

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n i n t o an e l l i p t i c a l one.
These f a c t o r s can be c a l c u l a t e d by numerical methods [ 4 0 ] . In [ 2 1 , 22]
f o l l o w i n g s i m p l e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s a r e g i v e n f o r the t h e o r e t i c a l influence
o f the angle 0 .
- Bending i n p l a n e :

i+Jsine ( 4 > 3 4 )

4sin^9

- Bending out o f p l a n e :

k b = ^ (4.35)
D
4snn G

For angles s m a l l e r than 60 the r e l a t i o n s (4.34) and (4.35) are conser-

vative.

4.3.5.2. Bl 9_ 2 !
n m d

The r i n g model shown i n f i g s . 4 . 5 . and 4 . 1 1 . i s g e n e r a l l y the b a s i c

model f o r a x i a l l y loaded T - , Y- and X-joints.
For i n p l a n e moment l o a d i n g t h i s model cannot be used i n a s i m p l e way.
A p o s s i b l e method w i l l be to devide the h o l e chord s e c t i o n at the i n -
t e r s e c t i o n w i t h the b r a c i n g i n t o r i n g s w i t h d i f f e r e n t l o a d i n g s as
shown i n f i g . 4 . 3 0 . C a l c u l a t i n g the p l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r o f a l l these
rings over a c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e width B and t a k i n g account o f the com-
patibility conditions can g i v e an a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f the j o i n t behaviour.

Fig. 4.30. Ring model

140
 4-43

However such a model becomes so c o m p l i c a t e t h a t i t w i l l be e a s i e r to

use a f i n i t e element programme which t a k e s account o f the p h y s i c a l and
geometrical non-linearity.

For moments out o f p l a n e the l o a d t r a n s f e r can be d i v i d e d i n a shear

d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g the i n t e r s e c t i o n and the l o a d t r a n s f e r by s t r e s s e s
as shown i n f i g . 4 . 3 1 .

a. ~ b. + c.

Fig. 4.31. Ring model f o r bending out of p l a n e .

The l o a d c a p a c i t y i s m a i n l y i n f l u e n c e d by the loads a c t i n g on the ring,

thus a c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n w i t h the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y can be e x p e c t e d .

4.3.6. Joint_strength formulae

4.3.6.1. General _suryey__of _ e x | s t i ng_formul ae

Toprac e t . al. [41] r e l a t e d the s t r e n g t h to the punching shear crite-

r i o n which leads to r e s u l t s a c c o r d i n g to e q . (4.32). However t h i s method
i s o n l y v a l i d f o r j o i n t s w i t h small diameter r a t i o s 6.

M a i n l y based on the work o f Toprac and M a r s h a l l [ 1 5 , 1 6 , 4 2 ] , t h e API

[21] and AWS [22] a l s o g i v e formulae based on the punching shear
s t r e n g t h but c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s are i n t r o d u c e d f o r the a l l o w a b l e
punching shear v a l u e s . These recommendations are r e v i s e d every y e a r .
For the new r e v i s i o n of the 1981 e d i t i o n the Yura formulae are i n dis-
c u s s i o n [ 3 8 , 43] .

Based on the r e s u l t s of t e s t specimens w i t h a low diameter r a t i o 6

Akiyama [13] proposed e q u a t i o n s f o r the " y i e l d " moment of the joints.

141
 4-44

T h i s y i e l d moment i s , depending on the type o f j o i n t , about 5 t o 25%

lower than the maximum l o a d c a p a c i t y .
The range o f v a l i d i t y o f the formulae i s l i m i t e d t o 0 . 2 < 6 0 . 5 .

G i b s t e i n [37] used f o r the a n a l y s i s a l s o the punching shear model as

b a s e s . The a n a l y s i s showed t h a t the chord d i a m e t e r - w a l l t h i c k n e s s
d
r a t i o 2y = - r - had an a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t and was t h e r e f o r e taken i n t o
o r

a c c o u n t . F o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a i s given f o r bending moments i n p l a n e :

, .2 . -0.5
(4.36)
M
M = 3 d. . t . Y c
u^ 1 o eo
1

validity range:

0.25 i 6 & 0.9

14 i 2Y e 60

E q u a t i o n ( 4 . 3 6 ) can be r e w r i t t e n as:

M
u = 6 a
eo i Y
'
5 8
l
d
( -
4 3 6 a
)
iP

Sparrow [39] proposed r e c e n t l y an e q u a t i o n f o r j o i n t s loaded by bending

moments i n p l a n e . He s t a t e d t h a t the u l t i m a t e moment c a p a c i t y i s about
75% of the l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the b r a c i n g , however f a i l u r e o f the j o i n t
i s m a i n l y governed by the chord p r o p e r t i e s and the d i a m e t e r r a t i o B,^
t h e r e f o r e the statement i s o n l y v a l i d f o r a f i x e d w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o
Checking the r e s u l t s shows t h a t t h e a c t u a l dimensions have not been
measured which can l e a d to c o n s i d e r a b l e e r r o r s i n the a n a l y s i s . Further
the f a i l u r e loads f o r the j o i n t s w i t h low y r a t i o s were so c l o s e to the
p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y o f the b r a c i n g s t h a t they may not be a c c u r a t e
f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of the j o i n t s t r e n g t h and thus f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n
of a r e l i a b l e s t r e n g t h equation.

The most r e c e n t a n a l y s i s has been c a r r i e d out by Yura [ 3 8 ] . With ex-

c e p t i o n o f the r e s u l t s of Sparrow [39] a l l o t h e r t e s t r e s u l t s are taken
i n t o account i n the a n a l y s i s . F o l l o w i n g lower bound f u n c t i o n s for the
t e s t r e s u l t s are g i v e n :
 4-45

- Bending i n p l a n e :
o .t 2

V =- 8 d
l ^TnGT < - 3 4 + 1 9
^ < -4 3 7
)
iP 1

- Bending out o f p l a n e :

a .t 2

\ p = - 8 d
l -sTne^^ - 3 4 +
( -
4 3 8
)

where Q = 1.0 f o r 8 0 . 6
g

n - 0-3
g
B 8(1 - 0.838) f o r
3 > 0.6

Although the s c a t t e r i n t e s t r e s u l t s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y they show a

s i m p l e r e l a t i o n w i t h the a x i a l l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y proposed by
Yura.

Further_analysis

A comparison o f the v a r i o u s f o r m u l a e shows t h a t the main d i f f e r e n c e

exists f o r the i n f l u e n c e o f the parameters 8 and y.
A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n i s observed i n the e x i s t i n g formulae f o r axially
loaded j o i n t s . The a n a l y s i s o f the t e s t r e s u l t s i s sometimes h i n d e r e d
by a l a c k o f e v i d e n c e . For example Sparrow [39] d i d not r e c o r d the
a c t u a l dimensions whereas sometimes the y i e l d s t r e s s u l t i m a t e s t r e s s
r a t i o o f the s t e e l i s not r e c o r d e d . The l a s t mentioned parameter can
be i m p o r t a n t f o r the Akiyama t e s t s [13] because o n l y here the s e c t i o n s
were c o l d f i n i s h e d . N e g l e c t i n g the y i e l d s t r e s s ratio generally gives
lower r e s u l t s f o r j o i n t s o f c o l d f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n s . F u r t h e r i n the K-
j o i n t t e s t s c a r r i e d out by Yura [38] no gap o r o v e r l a p i s r e c o r d e d
whereas t h i s i s an i m p o r t a n t parameter f o r the i n plane bending c a p a c -
ity. F a i l u r e o f the j o i n t i s g e n e r a l l y caused by bending and b u c k l i n g
of the chord w a l l on the compression s i d e comparable t o t h a t o f j o i n t s
loaded a x i a l l y i n c o m p r e s s i o n . T h i s would s u p p o r t an a n a l y s i s i n which
the bending moments are c o n v e r t e d i n t o an e q u i v a l e n t system o f a com-
p r e s s i o n l o a d and a t e n s i o n l o a d . These l o a d s can than be r e l a t e d t o
the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the j o i n t by a c o n s t a n t and the b r a c i n g
d i a m e t e r d ^ . Checking the r e s u l t s i n t h i s way shows t h a t f o r T-joints
loaded by i n p l a n e bending moments the i n f l u e n c e f o r 8 i s s m a l l e r than
f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s w h i l e the i n f l u e n c e o f the parameter y i s
stronger.

143
 4-46

T h i s i s c l e a r because the s t i f f n e s s a t the crown o f the chord i s here

much more i m p o r t a n t than t h a t at the saddle p o s i t i o n . As a r e s u l t the
r e l a t i o n w i t h the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y depends on more parameters than
d-, o n l y . The b e s t c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s i s o b t a i n e d w i t h e q .
(4.36a) which i s based on the punching shear model. F i g . 4 . 3 2 . shows
the comparison between the t e s t r e s u l t s and the c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s .

N30
N90
1.0
* x
-meonvalue
0.8 0 0 X
.
in
u
o
01 o 0.6
CL
+-> CL
-
b Gibstein
X 0.4 - x Sparrow ( o n l y Y 1 6 )
o Akiyama
0.2 * Y u r a (N - j o i n t s )

i i i i i i i i
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. 4.32. R e l a t i o n between the e x p e r i m e n t a l u l t i m a t e i n plane bending

moment c a p a c i t y and e q . (4.36a).

For 24 T - j o i n t s shown i n t a b l e 4 . 1 . f o l l o w i n g data were o b t a i n e d :

mean v a l u e : 0.975
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n : = 0.086
Yura [38] c a r r i e d out one t e s t on a K - j o i n t from which the j o i n t with
a b r a c i n g angle 0 = 90 gave a r e s u l t which agrees w i t h e q . (4.36a).
On the j o i n t w i t h a b r a c i n g angle 0 = 30 a 30% h i g h e r bending moment
c o u l d be a p p l i e d than t h a t p r e d i c t e d by e q . ( 4 . 3 6 a ) . T h i s t e s t only
g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n and forms not a r e a l b a s i s f o r using t h i s formula
f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h angles 0 / 90.
It can o n l y be concluded t h a t f o r j o i n t s w i t h an angle 0 < 90 the
s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s but f o r K - j o i n t s the i n c r e a s e i s considerable
s m a l l e r than p r e d i c t e d by e q . 4 . 3 4 . and even s m a l l e r than given by
sin O, which i s proposed by Yura as general influence function.
 4-47

For bending moments i n p l a n e i t i s already stated that a r e l a t i o n with

t h e r i n g model w i l l be p o s s i b l e . The s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n f o r axially
loaded X - j o i n t s i n compression i s a l s o based on the r i n g model t h e r e -
f o r e the t e s t r e s u l t s are r e l a t e d to the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n for
a x i a l l y loaded X - j o i n t s

M (4.39)
1 l(X-joint)
op

Here no i n f l u e n c e o f the gap o f K- and N - j o i n t s can be expected t h e r e -

fore a l l t e s t r e s u l t s f o r T-, Y- and N - j o i n t s are a n a l y s e d t o g e t h e r .
For the 18 t e s t s shown i n t a b l e 4 . 2 . , page 4 - 6 8 w i t h 0 . 2 3 ^ 0 . 9 and
20 < 2y < 50 f o l l o w i n g data are o b t a i n e d :

C = 0.68
mean

V,, = 0.098
o

33. shows a comparison w i t h e q . ( 4 . 3 9 ) .

1.0

Y 30
0.8
K90U*M30
z T3 m v o
0.6 x
0 *K30
*K90
0M o Akiyama
x Y u r a (T-joints)
0.2 T Yura (Y-joints)
* Yura (K-joints)
0 i i i i i i i i i i
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
*-
Fig. 4.33. R e l a t i o n between the u l t i m a t e out o f plane bending moment
c a p a c i t y and the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r a x i a l l y loaded X - j o i n t s .

The Y - j o i n t s w i t h 6 = 30 showed a 2 . 2 times h i g h e r s t r e n g t h than com-

p a r a b l e T - j o i n t s which n e a r l y agrees w i t h the angle f u n c t i o n s i n 0.,.
A l s o the K - j o i n t t e s t s agree r e a s o n a b l y w e l l w i t h those f o r T-joints.
In 4 . 3 . 7 . the e x p r e s s i o n s f o r the s t r e n g t h under bending moments are
f u r t h e r e v a l u a t e d to d e s i g n s t r e n g t h functions.

145
 4-48

4.3.6.3. Joint_stiffness

The moment d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a l a t t i c e system l a r g e l y depends on the

s t i f f n e s s of the j o i n t s . The i n i t i a l j o i n t s t i f f n e s s under bending can
be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h an e l a s t i c f i n i t e element computer programme. For-
mulae f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n of the j o i n t r o t a t i o n a l spring s t i f f n e s s un-
der bending i n plane and bending out of plane are given i n the DNV r e -
commendations [23]. These are as f o l l o w s :

Bending i n p l a n e :

C = 0.43 E ( - ^ ) . ( ^ - 0 . 0 1 ) -
3
2 3 5 - 1
- 5 3
(4.40)

Bending out of p l a n e :

3 2 , 4 5 - 1 , 6 5
C = 0.0016 E ( ^ ) . ( 2 1 5 - 1358)(-i - 0 . 0 2 ) (4.41)

General v a l i d i t y f o r eqs. (4.40) and (4.41):

0.33 ^ 6 e 0.8

10 i y z 30

These r e l a t i o n s f o r the j o i n t s t i f f n e s s are g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n figs.

4.34. and 4.35.
Checking these formulae w i t h the t e s t evidence from Akiyama [13] and
F e s s l e r [44] shows a r e a s o n a b l e good agreement e s p e c i a l l y f o r T-joints.
The a v a i l a b l e evidence r e g a r d i n g j o i n t s t i f f n e s s i s c o l l e c t e d and
f u r t h e r analysed i n a new Dutch MaTS-SG-Cidect ^ programme.

MaTS = Marien T e c h n o l o g i s c h Speurwerk.

SG = S t a a l bouwkundig Genootschap
C i d e c t = Comit I n t e r n a t i o n a l pour Ie Development e t 1'Etude de l a
Construction Tubulaire.

146
4-49
 4-50

4.3.7. Evaluation_to_design

In a s i m i l a r way as d e s c r i b e d i n 4 . 2 . 7 . the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values can

be c a l c u l a t e d . With the c o e f f i c i e n t s of v a r i a t i o n s f o r the d i m e n s i o n s ,
y i e l d s t r e s s and the t e s t r e s u l t s the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n for
the s t r e n g t h under bending moments are c a l c u l a t e d which g i v e f o l l o w i n g
results:
bending i n plane ^ = 0.14

bending out of plane V, M = 0.16

^ ip^
F u r t h e r f o r the e v a l u a t i o n to a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h the correction
f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g to e g . ( 4 . 2 6 ) has t o be taken i n t o a c -
count .
All joints show a very d u c t i l e behaviour t h e r e f o r e the d e s i g n strength
i s given by e q . ( 4 . 3 0 ) a d o p t i n g a Y Y m c = T h i s means t h a t f o r the
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r bending i n plane l o a d i n g e q . (4.36a) has to be
m u l t i p l i e d by:

mean v a l u e x ( l - 1.64 j). 1.18. y i y = 0.81 (4.42)

The r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n ( 4 . 4 3 ) f o r the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i s given in

fig. 4.36.

For the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r bending out o f p l a n e a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n

f a c t o r can be c a l c u l a t e d which r e s u l t s i n e q . ( 4 . 4 4 ) i n f i g . 4.36 o r :

M = 0.61.d,.N,, . (4.44a)
op 1 l(X-jomt) '
v
v

4.3.8. Bcommendation_and_cal c u l ^ t i _ o n _ r u l e s

The recommended formulae f o r the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h of j o i n t s loaded by

bending moments i n plane o r out of plane are g i v e n i n f i g . 4 . 3 6 .
In these formulae the same i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n f ( n ) for a prestressing
l o a d i n the chord i s adopted as f o r a x i a l l y loaded T - , Y- and X-joints.
Although no evidence e x i s t s f o r the i n f l u e n c e of the angle f o r Y- and
X-joints loaded by i n plane bending moments i t can be assumed t h a t
s i n " I w i l l be a c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n . For K - j o i n t s the gap o r
overlap w i l l c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e the l o a d b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y and a t
p r e s e n t no f u n c t i o n can be g i v e n .

148
 4-51

T y p e ot joint design strength | validity range

T,Y,X |
M. = 4 . 8 5 o .t .y- .B 2 5
.d,.-t(5j-
JSLdi ip eo o ' k
p
1 sm0 1

{-- eq. (4.43)

T.Y.X.K.N
M - a t
2
-3 2 f
(")
P 6
k O
'l-0.81B 2
' s i n 0
l

eq. (4.44)

Same range o f v a l i d i t y f ( n ) = 1 . 2 - 0 . 5 |n | f o r n < - 0 . 4

as f o r a x i a l l y loaded = 1.0 for n s - 0.4
j o i n t s ; see f i g . 4 . 2 3 .
N
o
o eo k

Fig. 4.36. Recommended formulae f o r j o i n t s loaded by bending moments.

Although the f u n c t i o n s have been checked f o r a w i d e r range i t is pro-

posed to use the same range of v a l i d i t y as f o r a x i a l l y loaded joints,
given i n f i g . 4 . 2 3 .

4.4. Interaction between a x i a l l o a d i n g and bending moments

4.4.1. Genera]

E s p e c i a l l y in three dimensional s t r u c t u r e s the j o i n t s are l o a d e d by

c o m b i n a t i o n s of bending moments, a x i a l loads and shear l o a d s . In those
cases i n which the j o i n t s are s t r o n g e r than the connected members the
members can be checked f o r the combined l o a d i n g s a c c o r d i n g section
2 . 8 . When the j o i n t s are the c r i t i c a l p a r t s i n the s t r u c t u r e they have
to be checked f o r the combined e f f e c t s of bending moments and l o a d s .
This i s d e a l t with in t h i s chapter.

4.4.2. Analytical_models

Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s use an approach based on the i n t e r a c t i o n f o r a CHS

cross section [40]. In t h i s case the punching shear area i s assumed as
an e q u i v a l e n t c r o s s s e c t i o n and the s t r e s s e s due to moments and loads
are d i s t r i b u t e d i n the most f a v o u r a b l e way e . g . as shown i n f i g . 4 . 3 7 .

149
 4-52

Fig. 4.37. Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r combinations of loads ( f u l l plas-

tic distribution).

However, due to the n o n - u n i f o r m s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n a t the inter-

s e c t i o n o f the two members i t i s d o u b t f u l l if a full piasticifacation
o f the punching shear area w i l l o c c u r f o r a l l types o f joints.
The r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e h a v i o u r can o n l y be determined w i t h an f i n i t e
element computer programme which takes account o f the g e o m e t r i c a l and
physical n o n - l i n e a r i t y or by t e s t s .

4.4.3. I-t_evidence

For the combination o f bending moments i n plane and a x i a l l o a d s infor-

mation e x i s t s [39] which shows f o r T - j o i n t s w i t h 18 2y 32 and
0 . 4 0 < 1.0 a l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n . Some r e s u l t s are summarized i n
figs. 4 . 3 8 . t o 4 . 4 0 . Although the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r the j o i n t s w i t h a
low y r a t i o are not f u l l y r e l i a b l e because the a p p l i e d moments were
n e a r l y equal to the bending c a p a c i t y o f the b r a c i n g s , the same t e n d e n -
cy i s shown f o r a l l y ratios.
150
 4-53

A further comment i s t h a t the a c t u a l dimensions o f the s e c t i o n s were

not measured.

0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

MT
1u
Fig. 4.38. Interaction diagram f o r a x i a l l o a d and bending i n plane
(T-joint, 6 = 0.42).
1.00
+ 2Y = 18
0
2Y = 21 fj , 0 . 6 7
x
2Y = 23
a 2Y = 32
0.80

0.60
N
V
0.40

0.20
x 0

0 0.20 0A0 0.60 0.80 1.00

^ _Mj

Fig. 4.39. Interaction diagram f o r a x i a l l o a d and bending i n plane

(T-joint, 6 = 0.67).

151
 4-54

For o t h e r combinations e . g . bending out o f plane and a x i a l l o a d or

bending i n - and out of plane no t e s t evidence i s a v a i l a b l e . These
l o a d i n g combinations are f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e d now i n a Dutch MaTS-SG
r e s e a r c h programme.

4.4.4. Recommendation and_cal_cul_ation_rules

The t e s t s by Sparrow [39] have shown t h a t a l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n exists

f o r moments i n plane and a x i a l l o a d s . Although no t e s t evidence exists
f o r o t h e r combinations the assumption of a l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n in
general may be c o n s i d e r e d to be a s a f e assumption f o r the time b e i n g :

N M. M
_ + _l i.o (4.45)
N M, Pi
ip op

Torsional moments on the members c o n s i d e r e d , c a n g e n e r a l l y be n e g l e c t e d

f o r the j o i n t s t r e n g t h because they o n l y s l i g h t l y i n f l u e n c e the p l a s -
t i c bending c a p a c i t y of the chord face or chord cross s e c t i o n a t the
connection.

152
 4-55

4.5. S p e c i a l types o f joints

Tubular-joints can have v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s which are not l i m i t e d

to the b a s i c types o f j o i n t s d e s c r i b e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s . In
many cases however, the s t r e n g t h o f these j o i n t s can be r e l a t e d to
t h a t o f the b a s i c types o f j o i n t s described.

4.5.1. J2iDts_rlated_to_X;joints

The s t r e n g t h o f X - j o i n t s i s based on the r i n g m o d e l . In p r i n c i p l e the

l o a d i n g component p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the chord w a l l and the d i a m e t e r
r a t i o 8 are i m p o r t a n t . The types of j o i n t s w i t h s p e c i f i e d l o a d i n g
shown i n f i g s . 4 . 4 1 . and 4 . 4 2 . show a s i m i l a r l o a d t r a n s f e r as X-
j o i n t s which i s c o n f i r m e d by some t e s t s c a r r i e d out by Akiyama [ 1 3 ] .

Type of joint Design s t r e n g t h

N| g H l fij from X-joint

mm general punching shear criterion

Fig. 4.41. YY-joint

Nj.sinSj + ^ . s i n G ^ ^ sin0^

(N. from X - j o i n t )

general punching shear criterion

Fig. 4.42. XX-joint

A l s o here the d e f o r m a t i o n may have to be c o n s i d e r e d s i m i l a r as f o r

X-joints. In case o f XX j o i n t s the l o a d c a p a c i t y o f both b r a c i n g s at
one s i d e has to be c o n s i d e r e d .

153
 4-56

4.5.2. J2D5_reXated_to_K-oints

The j o i n t shown i n f i g . 4 . 4 2 . can a l s o be l o a d e d i n another way as

shown i n f i g . 4 . 4 3 . Here the l o a d t r a n s f e r i s more comparable to that
in K-joints, c o n s e q u e n t l y the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i s related to that.

Ni * N, (K-joint)

+
general punching s h e a r check
+
check on shear c a p a c i t y o f cross
section 1-1.

Fig. 4.43. KK-joint

Due to the i n c r e a s e d shear i n the gap area ( c r o s s s e c t i o n 1 - 1 ) , addi-

t i o n a l l y t h i s c r o s s s e c t i o n has to be checked on the shear c a p a c i t y
(see t a b l e 2 . 2 1 ) .

4.5.3. J2G5_with_gusset_glates

Various c o n f i g u r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e f o r j o i n t s w i t h g u s s e t p l a t e s as
shown i n f i g s . 4 . 4 4 . to 4 . 5 2 . w h i l e the t e s t r e s u l t s are recorded in
t a b l e s 4 - 3 and 4 - 4 . The j o i n t s can be d i v i d e d i n t o two b a s i c groups,
those w i t h g u s s e t p l a t e s s y m m e t r i c a l l y welded a t the o p p o s i t e s i d e s of
the chord ( X P - j o i n t s ) and those w i t h g u s s e t p l a t e s o n l y welded a t one
s i d e of the chord (TP-joints).
The X P - j o i n t s show a b e h a v i o u r comparable to t h a t of X - j o i n t s whereas
the T P - j o i n t s can be r e l a t e d to T - j o i n t s . E s p e c i a l l y those joints
with a plate i n longitudinal d i r e c t i o n show very h i g h d e f o r m a t i o n s at
the maximum l o a d c a p a c i t y .
The l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes of these j o i n t s show a more pronounced
y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y than t u b u l a r j o i n t s . Although the d e f o r m a t i o n s at
t h i s " y i e l d load capacity" can s t i l l be c o n s i d e r a b l e t h e s e are used i n
the a n a l y s i s . When d e f o r m a t i o n s are i m p o r t a n t i t i s e s s e n t i a l to c o n -
s i d e r the l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r (e.g. by use of computer program-
mes o r a v a i l a b l e t e s t evidence
More d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r is
given in [ 13].

154
 4-57

Fig.4.44 X P 1 - joint

i Ni N
l = a
eo -Vn"-"0V8Te)
k f ( r > )

Jd |0

eq. (4.49)
Ni
Fig.4.45 XP2-joint

fi
l-eo 5-( -
t s 2 + Z r
(") f

h n
eq. (4.50)

Fig.4.46 XP3-joint

r St N
l 'eo - o-(l-0:8lp)k
t
f ( n )

r t 0

M
I 1 ~~
<l
eq. (4.49)

Fig.4.47 X P 4 - j o i n t
2 5.2(l+0.25n)
+ */ n N

1
N
l = a
e o - V (1-0.816)
k f ( n )

r*0
f
ii n 4 eq. (4.51)

Fig.4.48 X P 5 - joint

tft
hi '-
K

p i i

id
"do r,
1 i i if
eq. (4.52)
t Ni

Range o f v a l i d i t y as n = 1.2 - 0 . 5 | n | for n < - 0.4

for X-joints
see f i g . 4 . 2 3 . n = 1.0 for n > - 0.4
b
l h
l
d
0 d
0

Note: The j o i n t has a l s o t o be checked on punching shear y i e l d .

155
 4-58

Kurobane was the f i r s t who compared the s t r e n g t h o f these j o i n t s to

t h a t o f the b a s i c t u b u l a r T- and X - j o i n t s [14]. .
1
The j o i n t X P - 1 can be designed as a X - j o i n t w i t h 6 = - r - s i n c e the e f -
o
f e c t i v e r i n g l e n g t h o n l y r e f e r s to the d i a m e t e r - o r w i d t h d i a m e t e r r a t i o .
The j o i n t X P - 3 has a l s o a p l a t e i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n but the i n -
f l u e n c e i s n e g l e c t a b l e s i n c e i t has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on the e f f e c t i v e
r i n g l e n g t h p r o v i d e d the w i d t h h^ i s s m a l l e r o r i n the same o r d e r as b^.
In j o i n t X P - 2 o n l y a l o n g i t u d i n a l g u s s e t p l a t e i s c o n n e c t e d . Using the
unmodified X - j o i n t formula w i t h 6 = 0 r e f e r s t o a p o i n t l o a d i n g t h e r e -
f o r e the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h B g i n the r i n g model s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d by
h j to B g + h^. A c c o r d i n g to e q . ( 4 . 6 ) the s t r e n g t h w i l l be a f u n c t i o n
of:
2(B +h,) a .t 2

The s t r e n g t h tends to go to i n f i n i t y f o r i n c r e a s i n g g r a t i o s t h e r e f o r e the

f u n c t i o n f o r 6 has been m o d i f i e d based on the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s (see
4 . 2 . 6 . to 4 . 2 . 8 . ) . A s i m i l a r approach can be used f o r the type XP-5 i n which
the load i s a l s o d i s t r i b u t e d over the d i s t a n c e h, whereas the w i d t h ratio
b
l
8 = - T - . The s t r e n g t h o f the X P - 2 and XP-5 types are g i v e n as f o l l o w s :
o

h = a
eo,- - t2
0
5 - 2 + 2 n
(n) f
(4-47)
1
k 0
i . 0.816

b
l
where 6 = - r (6 = 0 f o r the X P - 2 j o i n t )
o
h
l

T h i s formula i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t g i v e n i n [31] but i t is

more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e formula f o r X - j o i n t s . J o i n t XP-4 can be c o n -
s i d e r e d to have the s t r e n g t h o f a X - j o i n t when ri becomes small and w i l l
have t w i c e the s t r e n g t h o f a X - j o i n t s whenn becomes l a r g e r then the e f -
f e c t i v e r i n g l e n g t h f o r the b a s i c X-joint.
T e s t have shown t h a t the s t r e n g t h o f the XP-4 j o i n t can be r e l a t e d
to t h a t f o r X - j o i n t s by a m u l t i p l i c a t i o n f a c t o r :

(1 + 0.25n) (4.48)
n < 4

156
 4-59

F i g i . 4 9 - . T P 1 - joint

J. $t *l"eo ^ o ^ - 2 + 2 L 3 p 2 )
f ( n )

eq. (4.53)
t t

F i g . A . 5 0 : T P 2 - joint

tft

I eq. (4.54)
i !
F i g . . 5 1 : TP 3 - j o i n t

fi
l = CT
eo 5 ' ( - t 4 2 + Z 1
- P )
3 2
- (n)
f

]
eq. (4.53)
1 t

Fig..52 : T P - j o i n t

N x = CT . t . ( 4 . 2 + 2 1 . 3 3 ) ( l + 0.25n) .
2 2
f( )
n

t n 4 eq. (4.55)

Range o f v a l i d i t y as f(n) = 1.2 - 0 . 5 1 n | for n < - 0.4

for T-joints
see f i g . 4 . 2 3 . f(n) = 1.0 for us - 0.4

a b
l h
l
=
^o n

Note: e q . ( 4 . 5 3 ) i s the same as the e q u a t i o n f o r t u b u l a r T-jomts

0 2
with s u b s t i t u t i o n of y ' = 1.5.
The j o i n t has a l s o to be checked on punching s h e a r .
A TP5 j o i n t has not been t e s t e d .

157
 4-60

The T P - j o i n t s can be r e l a t e d i n a s i m i l a r way t o T - j o i n t s as the XP-

joints to X - j o i n t s but due to the f a c t t h a t the loads quoted i n [14]
are not the u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c i t i e s the i n f l u e n c e of y i s different
from t h a t f o r T - j o i n t s o f t u b u l a r sections.
At p r e s e n t not s u f f i c i e n t d a t a are avai1 a b l e f o r an a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i s . It
o ?
i s proposed t h e r e f o r e , to s u b s t i t u t e here y ' i n the f o r m u l a f o r T-joints
in (7.5)^ - 2
which g i v e s a c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the strength.
F i g s . 4 . 5 3 . and 4 . 5 4 . show two j o i n t s loaded by bending moments i n
p l a n e . The s t r e n g t h of these j o i n t s can be r e l a t e d to t h a t f o r the
X P - 1 and T P - 1 j o i n t s respectively.

Fig.4.53

M
i P = h
r i(xp-i)
N

* b1

F i g . 4.54

M
i P = n
r (TP-i)
N

For j o i n t s w i t h a g u s s e t p l a t e i n l o n g i t u d i n a l direction (fig. 4.55.)

loaded by a bending moment formulae are proposed i n [ 1 3 , 3 1 ] . The for-
mulae g i v e n are based on the same t e s t s but the formulae are different
because the f a i l u r e moments adopted i n the a n a l y s i s are different.

The Akiyama f o r m u l a [13] i s based on l i m i t e d r o t a t i o n s whereas

Kurobane's formula [31] i s based on h i g h e r moment c a p a c i t i e s . Until
more i n f o r m a t i o n becomes a v a i l a b l e i t i s proposed to use the Akiyama
f o r m u l a w i t h an adopted Y Y =1.1:
mcr

M i p = 6 . 4 . hj (4.56)
 4-61

For a d d i t i o n a l a x i a l l o a d i n g o f the chord the f u n c t i o n f ( n ) f o r X- and

T-joints can be adopted.

Fig.4.55

nIn *1p i - ' a o ^- f ( n

l
i l l

1
~\) ! 1 1 Tf

eq. (4.56)

F u r t h e r v a r i o u s types of j o i n t s s t i f f e n e d by r i n g s are sometimes used

in practice. In general these j o i n t s can be c a l c u l a t e d by c o n s i d e r i n g
the r i n g w i t h an e f f e c t i v e p a r t of the chord w a l l . In case o f joints
s t i f f e n e d by i n t e r n a l r i n g s on s m a l l d i s t a n c e s an e q u i v a l e n t chord
w a l l t h i c k n e s s can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h the same s t r e n g t h . Information
can be found i n [ 1 3 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 4 5 ] .

For beam column c o n n e c t i o n s sometimes diaphragmes are used to which

the beams are connected ( F i g . 4 . 5 6 . ) . Here the c o n n e c t i o n panel o f the
column as w e l l as the r i n g c o n n e c t i o n has t o be checked. More d e t a i l e d
i n f o r m a t i o n i s given i n [ 1 3 , 3 1 , 4 6 ] .

Fig. 4.56. Beam-column c o n n e c t i o n s .

159
 4-62

4.5.4. Cropped- a n d _ f l ^ t t e n e d _ e n d _ j o i n t s

These j o i n t s are sometimes used to f a c i l i t a t e an e a s i e r end p r e -

p a r a t i o n o f the b r a c i n g s .
Although these types o f j o i n t s are not w i t h i n the scope o f t h i s study
some remarks w i l l be made. Sometimes f l a t t e n i n g o f the ends o f the
members i s c a r r i e d out over a too l o n g d i s t a n c e from the c o n n e c t i o n
which l e a d s to a b u c k l i n g f a i l u r e o f the f l a t t e n e d p a r t . It is there-
f o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t c r o p p i n g or f l a t t e n i n g i s done i n a p r o p e r way.
The b r a c i n g s a r e connected to the chord by a l i n e c o n n e c t i o n . For a
good l o a d t r a n s f e r i t i s i m p o r t a n t to have s u f f i c i e n t o v e r l a p o f the
members.
Very s m a l l gaps should be avoided because the s t i f f n e s s a t the gap
will then be too high i n r e l a t i o n to the o t h e r p a r t o f the i n t e r s e c -
tion. I n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the s t r e n g t h can be found i n [ 4 7 , 48]

4.6. References

1. Jamm, W. : Form s t r e n g t h o f welded t u b u l a r connec-

t i o n s and t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s under s t a t i c
loading, ( t r a n s l a t i o n from German),
Schweissen und Schneiden V o l . 3 , 1951.

2. Sammet, H. : The s t r e n g t h o f t u b u l a r j o i n t s without

gusset p l a t e s i n s t e e l constructions
( t r a n s l a t i o n from German).
S c h w e i s s t e c h n i k , V o l . 1 3 , No. 1 1 , 1963.

3. K a n a t a n i , H. : Experimental study on welded t u b u l a r

c o n n e c t i o n s . Memoirs o f the F a c . o f E n g i -
n e e r i n g . Kobe U n i v e r s i t y No. 1 2 , 1966.

4. Kurobane, Y. : Welded t r u s s j o i n t s o f t u b u l a r structural

members. Memoirs, F a c u l t y o f Engineering,
Kumamoto U n i v e r s i t y , Vol. XII, No. 2 ,
dec. 1964.

5. Togo, T. : Experimental study on mechanical behav-

i o u r of t u b u l a r j o i n t s . Osaka University,
Januari 1967, ( i n Japanese)

160
 4-63

6. N a t a r a j a n , M. S t u d i e s on t u b u l a r j o i n t s i n Japan.
Toprac, A.A. Review o f r e s e a r c h reports.
U n i v . o f T e x a s , June 1968.

7. Bouwkamp, J . G . Concept on t u b u l a r j o i n t design. Procee-

dings ASCE V o l . 9 0 , No St 2 , 1964.

8. N a t a r a j a n , M. S t u d i e s on t u b u l a r j o i n t s in U.S.A.
Toprac, A.A. Review o f r e s e a r c h reports.
U n i v . o f T e x a s , May 1969.

9. Hlavacek, V. S t r e n g t h o f welded t u b u l a r j o i n t s in
lattice girders. (Translation from
Italian)
C o n s t r u c t i o n i M e t a l l i c h e , n r . 6 - 1970.

10. G i b s t e i n , M.B. S t a t i c strength of tubular j o i n t s , Det

Norske V e r i t a s . Report No. 73-86-C,
May 1 5 , 1973.

11. S t a m e n k o v i c , A. E x i s t i n g methods f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the

Sparrow, K.D. s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded T, Y , N, K and
X-joints i n CHS p a r t 1 and 2 .
K i n g s t o n P o l y t e c h n i c , J u n i 1977.

12. Wardenier, J. The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded l a t t i c e

girder joints in structural hollow s e c -
tions. P a r t 3 : J o i n t s made o f circular
hollow s e c t i o n s .
ECSC r e p o r t - E U R 6428e, MF-1980
European Community o f S t e e l and Coal
also Stevin report 6-78-4.

13. Akiyama, N. Experimental study on s t r e n g t h o f joints

Y a j i m a , M. in steel tubular structures.

Akiyama, H. JSSC V o l . 1 0 , No. 1 0 2 , 1974 ( i n Japanese),

Otake, F.

14. Kurobane, K. U l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h formulae f o r s i m p l e

M a k i n o , Y. tubular j o i n t s . IIW Doc. X V - 3 8 5 - 7 6 . Dept.
Mitsui, Y. o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , Kumamoto U n i v . May 1976.

161
 4-64

15. M a r s h a l l , P.W. Basis f o r Tubular J o i n t Design,

Toprac, A.A. ASCE p r e p r i n t 2008, A p r i l 1973, a l s o
Welding J o u r n a l , May 1974.

16. M a r s h a l l , P.W. A review o f American C r i t e r i a f o r T u b u l a r

S t r u c t u r e s and proposed revisions.
IIW Doc. X V - 4 0 5 - ' 7 7 .

17. Wardenier, J. Design r u l e s f o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y

loaded welded j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r hollow
sections.
IIW Doc. X V - 4 3 6 - V 9 .

18. Kurobane, Y. R e - a n a l y s i s of u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h data f o r

M a k i n o , Y. t r u s s c o n n e c t i o n s i n c i r c u l a r hollow s e c -
Mitsui, Y. tions. IIW Doc. X V - 4 6 1 - ' 8 0 .

19. Pan, B.P. Ultimate strength design of tubular

Plummer, F.B. j o i n t s . OTC 2644 ( 1 9 7 6 ) .
Kuang, J . G .

20. K o n i n g , C . H . M . de The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded CHS

Wardenier, J. K-joints.
S t e v i n r e p o r t 6 - 8 1 - 1 3 , TNO-IBBC r e p o r t
BI-81-35/63.5.5470.

21. API API recommended p r a c t i c e f o r P l a n n i n g ,

D e s i g n i n g and C o n s t r u c t i n g f i x e d offshore
piatforms.
American Petroleum I n s t i t u t e ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

22. AWS American Welding S o c i e t y Structural

Welding Code. (1981).

23. Det Norske V e r i t a s Rules f o r the D e s i g n , C o n s t r u c t i o n and

Inspection of f i x e d offshore Structures
(1977).

162
 4-65

24. Naka, T. Experimental study on Welded T u b u l a r Con-

K a t o , B. n e c t i ons.
K a n a t a n i , H. Research I n s t i t u t e of Welding.
University o f Tokyo, 1964.

25. Reber, J.B. U l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h d e s i g n of tubular

joints. OTC 1664, 1972.

26. Wardenier, J. The u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f tubular

cross j o i n t s . Stevin report 6-77-22
Delft University of Technology.

27. Wardenier, J. The u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f tubular

T- and Y - j o i n t s . Stevin report 6-77-23
Delft University of Technology.

28. W a s h i o , K. E x p e r i m e n t a l study on l o c a l f a i l u r e of
Togo, T. chords i n t u b u l a r t r u s s joints.
Mitsui, N. P a r t s I and II
Technology Reports o f Osaka University
Vol. 18 No. 850 (1968) and V o l . 19 No.
874 ( 1 9 6 9 ) .

29. Kurobane, Y. Additional t e s t s on t u b u l a r K - j o i n t s with

M a k i n o , Y. CHS members under s t a t i c l o a d s .
Honda, T. IIW Doc. X V - 4 6 0 - 8 0
Mitsui, Y.

30. Wardenier, J. Design and c a l c u l a t i o n o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y

s t a t i c a l l y loaded t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s in
hollow s e c t i o n s .
Queensland D i v i s i o n T e c h n i c a l Papers
Vol. 2 2 , No. 1 1 , May 1981.

31. Kurobane, Y. New developments and p r a c t i c e s i n tubular

j o i n t d e s i g n . IIW Doc. X V - 4 8 8 - 8 1 +
Addendum.

163
 4-66

32. TGL 13.501 L i g h t gauge s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n , tubular

steel supporting structures.
Calculation, Structural design, Fabrica-
t i o n , Acceptance.
TGL 13.501 (1964) (Trans, from German).

33. Washio, K. Cross j o i n t s of t u b u l a r members. Report

Togo, T. K i n k i Branch o f A I J , May 1966 (In
M i t s u i , N. Japanese).

34. SG-TC-18 Dutch R e g u l a t i o n s f o r the d e s i g n o f

Tubular Structures - D r a f t , 1977.

35. NF-P 22-250 Assemblages souds de p r o f i l e s creux

c i r c u l a i r e s avec dcoupes d ' i n t e r s e c t i o n .
Conception e t v r i f i c a t i o n des assemblages.
A f n o r 1978.

36. Wardenier, J. Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c strength

K o n i n g , C H . M . de o f welded j o i n t s w i t h t h r e e bracings
made of RHS o r CHS
TNO r e p o r t B 1 - 7 7 - 3 7 / 3 5 . 3 . 5 1 2 1 0
Stevin report 6 - 7 7 - 6 .

37. G i b s t e i n , M.B. The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of T - j o i n t s subjec-

t e d to i n plane bending
Det Norske V e r i t a s r e p o r t 7 6 - 1 3 7 ,
A p r i l 1976.

38. Yura, J.A. Ultimate capacity equations f o r tubular

joints. OTC 3690, 1980.

39. Sparrow, K.D. U l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h s of welded j o i n t s in

tubular steel structures.

40. L e e , M.S. P l a s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n on punching shear

Cheng, A . P . s t r e n g t h of t u b u l a r joints.
OTC 2 6 4 1 , 1976.

41. Noel, J.S. S t r e s s e s near t u b u l a r T-joints

Beale, L.A. Welding i n the w o r l d . V o l . 7 , No. 3 , 1969.
Toprac, A.A.
164
 4-67

42. M a r s h a l l , P.W. A review o f American C r i t e r i a f o r Tubular

S t r u c t u r e s - and proposed R e v i s i o n s .
IIW Document X V - 4 0 5 - 7 7 .

43. Graff, W.J. Review o f d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s for

M a r s h a l l , P.W. t u b u l a r j o i n t s . ASCE. I n t . Conv.
Minas, A . N . and Exp. New Y o r k , May, 1981.

44. F e s s l e r , H. Experimental d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s t i f f n e s s
Spooner, H. of t u b u l a r joints.
Conf. " I n t e g r i t y of offshore structures"
Glasgow, J u l y 1981.

45. Roark, R . J . Formulae f o r s t r e s s and s t r a i n .

Mc. Graw H i l l , 1954.

46. Tanaka, H. L i m i t a n a l y s i s of beam-column connec-

Yamada, T. t i o n s . Trans. A I J . No. 185, 1971.

47. Ciwko, J . B . S t a t i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f cropped web j o i n t s

Morris, G.A. f o r t r u s s e s w i t h round t u b u l a r members.
Cidect report 5K-81/9
Dept. o f E n g . , U n i v e r s i t y of M a n i t o b a .

48. NG, C . F . I n f l u e n c e o f chord p r e l o a d on b e h a v i o u r

Morris, G.A. o f t u b u l a r t r u s s j o i n t s w i t h cropped webs.
C i d e c t r e p o r t 5 K - 8 0 / 1 2 , May 1980.
Dept. of E n g . , U n i v e r s i t y of Manitoba.

49. M a k i n o , Y. Design o f CHS X- and T - j o i n t s under t e n -

Kurobane, Y. s i l e brace l o a d i n g .
Minoda, Y. IIW Doc. X V - 4 8 7 - 8 1

50. DIN 18808 Tragwerke aus H o h l p r o f i l e n u n t e r vor-

wiegend ruhender B e l a s t u n g .
Entwurf September 1981. (German D r a f t
S t a n d a r d ' f o r hollow s e c t i o n joints).

51. AIJ Recommendation f o r the design and f a b r i -

c a t i o n of t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s i n s t e e l
AIJ, 1980 (In Japanese).

165
 4-68

Table 4.1. In plane bending

Mu
0 o "1 "I u
Ref. test Remarks
mm mm mm mm N/mm k.Nm 4.36a

4 219.1 6.3 71.6 18.5 90" 320 0.327 17.39 8.4 1,12 tests 1 to 3
5 219.1 8.9 71.6 18.5 430 0.327 12.31 18.1 1.08 f a i l e d in
6 298.5 7.2 101.6 16.0 300 0.340 20.73 14.6 1.00 member
7 219.1 5.5 311 19.92 11.9 1.00
3 8.4 374 13.04 26.3 0.98 t e s t s 7 t o 10
9 10.0 375 10.96 35.6 1.01 checked with
10 12.3 101.6 16.0 412 0.340 8.9 55.0 1.04 Gibstein.
37 11 6.0 139.7 17.5 320 0.638 18.26 26.3 1.00 a e onot
12 8.8 430 12.45 60.0 0.95 correctly
13 219.1 12.3 139.7 17.5 400 0.638 8.9 90.0 0.93 recorded in
14 298.5 7.3 193.7 7.1 302 0.649 20.44 54.5 0.99 reference.
15 10.0 300 14.93 80.0 1.00
16 298.5 10.0 193.7 7.1 300 0.649 14.93 87.3 1.00
17 219.1 5.9 177.8 16.0 320 0.812 18.57 41.3 1.02
8.6 430 12.74 100.0 1.03
18
219.1 12.5 177.8 16.0 90" 400 0.812 8.76 164.0
19

A2 114.3 3.6 48.3 4.0 90 u

347 0.42 15.9 2.24 1.03 tests with
E2 60.3 5.0 38R 0.53 3.87 1.01 y = 10 t o 15
39 H2 76.1 4.5 356 0.67 4.47 0.79 wi t h d r a w n
M2 88.9 5.0 347 0.78 7.02 0.94 ( b r a c i ng
Q2 114.3 3.6 114.3 5.0 90" 341 1.00 15.9 12.50 1.03 fai1 ure?)

70-0.2 316. 4.4 60.5 4.4 90 L!

450 0.19 36 3.4 0.95 due t o h i g h
70-0.4 316. 4.4 139.8 4.4 450 0.44 36 15.2 0.79 r a t i o low to
13 100-0.2 456 4.8 89.1 3.0 410 0.195 47.5 6.2 0.92 values
100-0.4 456 4.8 165.2 4.7 90" 410 0.36 47.5 18.4 0.79

A,K - 90" 507.2 11.4 326.4 90 350 0.644 22.2 272.3 1.01
38 N - j o i nt
K - 30 5 0 7 . 2 11.4 455.9 30 c
350 0.899 22.2 693.9 1.32

Table 4.2. Out o f plane bending

d
o t 0
d
l h e a
eo i Y M
u u H

Ref. test eq. Remarks

mm mm mm mm mm N/mnT kNm 4.39

40.03 164. 5 4. 7 42 7 3.3 90 480 0. 26 17 5 1 85 0 62

40.05 166. 5 4. 5 76 3 2.9 11 480 0 46 18 5 4 05 0 66
13 70.02 316. 8 4. 4 60 5 3.0 11 450 0 19 36 2 25 0 69
70.04 316. 8 4. 4 139 8 4.4 11 450 0 44 36 6 75 0 69
100.02 456 4. 8 89 1 3.0 11 410 0 195 47 5 3 6 0 69
100.04 456 4. 8 165 2 4.7 410 0 36 47 5 6 8 0 59

Gl 507 2 11 1 171 5 " 352 0 338 22 8 32 65 0 61

eo
G2 0 338 35 03 0 68 high ratio
HI 326 4 " 0 644 103 20 0 67 to
38 H2 326 4 " " 0 644 111 27 0 72
11 455 9 " 0 899 264 95 0 70
12 507 2 11 1 455 9 11 352 0 899 22 8 265 94 0 70

El 507 2 11 1 455 9 30 352 0 899 22 8 591 58 0 78

38 E2 507 2 11 1 455 9 30 352 0 899 22 8 589 22 0 78

c , - l - 9 0 507 2 11 1 326 4 90 352 0 644 22 8 82 53 0 54

2
30 455 9 30 1 0 899 486 80 0 65 N - j o i n t s are
38 c -2-90
? 326 4 90 0 644 117 78 0 77 di f f e r e n t l y
2
30 507 2 11 1 455 9 30 352 0 899 22 8 580 12 0 77 loaded

166
Table 4 . 3 . XP-joints [14] Table 4 . 4 . TP-joints [14]

t
d
o b
l h
l G
eo N
lu lu according d
o 0 b
l h
l a
eo N
lu Nj according
Specimen Specimen 2
. i 2

\
mm mm mm mm N/mm kN equation mm mm mm mm N/mm equation
1

XP-1-1 165.2 5.2 82.6 314 94.8 1.28 TP-1-1 165. 2 5 2 82 5 _ 314 124 1 54*'
0 115.6 126.3 1.24 (4.49) 2 115 5 174 5 1 08
3 148.7 191.0 1.17 3 148 5 11 256 9 1 36
4 139. 8 3 34 97 3 350 107 5 1 38 .

XP-2-1 101.6 3.04 101.6 372 34.0 1.37

5 125 1 11 188 2 07* ;

2 152.4 38.1 1.35

6 318. 5 4 43 82 4 438 60 6 1 26

3 203.2 42.0 1.33

7 1
159 3 " 107 1 31

4 4.11 101.6 447 67.4 1.24

8 225 2 154 1 21 (4.53)

5 152.4 77.4 1.25

9 457. 2 5 05 118 3 450 68 2 1 06

6 203.2 85.5 1.23 (4.50)

10 4 91 126 2 420 75 1 28

7 5.7 101.6 360 95.0 1.13

11 5 05 228 6 450 116 1 06

8 - 152.4 120.5 1.26

12 5 0 229 420 130 1 30

9 203.2 138.0 1.28

13 5 05 323 3 450 186 1 1 13

10 114.3 4.01 114.3 376 56.5 1.30

14 4 88 323 430 225 1 48

11 4.05 228.6 68.0 1.20

TP-2-1 165 2 5 2 165.2 314 111 5 1
82*',

XP-3-1 165.2 5.2 1 1 5 . 6 (247.8) 314 125.5 1.23

2 330.0 " 135 0 1
56 '

148.7 (
3 318 5 4 46 100.0 436 56 6 1
28
2 ") 190.5 1.17
4 4 48 200.0 433 67 1 1
28 (4.54)
3 114.3 4.16 9 9 . 1 (114.3) 376 113.5 1.00 (4.49)
4 3.91 99.1 (228.6) 104.0 1.04
5 4 43 300.0 418 80 1 1 40
6 457. 2 4 91 150.0 445 62 8 1 13
7 450.0 11 92 8 1 22
XP-4-1 165.2 5.2 115.6 247.8 314 182.5 1.30 8 250.0 72 1 15
2 148.7 270.0 1.21
3 132.2 165.2 215.5 1.38
TP-3-1 165 2 5 2 115 6 ( 3 3 0 . 4 ) 314 193 5 1 58
4 132.2 200.5 1.28 (4.51)
2 132 2 ( 1 6 5 . 2 ) 210 5 1 4 0
5 114.3 4.28 99.1 114.3 376 100.0 1.20
6 114.3 4.05 99.1 228.6 376 195.0 1.21
TP-4-1 165 2 5 2 115 6 3 3 0 . 4 314 265 5 1 4 3 (A RR ^
2 132 2 1 6 5 . 2 290 5 1 5 4 ^4.OD)
XP-5-1 114.3 4.39 91.4 85.7 384 151.5 1.08
2 171.5 200.5 1.16 (4.52)
3 342.9 306.0 1.30 Remarks: The mean v a l u e for T-ioints of tubular sections is
"1
N
lu
Remark: The mean v a l u e for X-joints of tubular sections is
N
(1 - 1.64.V )1.18
1
N u

T h e s e t e s t s show c o n s i d e r a b l e h i g h e r s t r e n g t h s than
(1-1.64 V )1.18 *
Nu
l l 2 8

c o m p a r a b l e s p e c i m e n s . No d e t a i l e d t e s t e v i d e n c e is
a v a i l a b l e f o r an a d e q u a t e e x p l a n a t i o n .
 4-70

168
 IV-1

Appendix IV

X-joints loaded i n tension

Joints loaded i n t e n s i o n g e n e r a l l y have a h i g h e r u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c -

i t y than those loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n . A f t e r p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the ef-
f e c t i v e chord r i n g cross s e c t i o n i t w i l l deform i n such a way t h a t the
l o a d can s t i l l i n c r e a s e due to membrane and s t r a i n hardening effects
(fig. IV-1).

compression (a) t e n s i o n (b)

Fig. IV-1. F a i l u r e modes o f X-joints.

T h i s e f f e c t i s more pronounced f o r j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d c h o r d s . For

j o i n t s with r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k chords the l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r is
more comparable t o t h a t o f j o i n t s loaded i n compression w h i l e for
j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d chords a kink o r even a pronounced yield
traject i s shown i n the l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagram shown i n f i g . IV-2

deformation 6

Fig. IV-2. Load-deformation diagrams.

169
 IV-2

The present recommendations f o r X - j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n d i f f e r con-

siderably. This i s m a i n l y due to the f a c t t h a t the adopted t e s t loads
f o r the a n a l y s i s are d i f f e r e n t (yield strength, ultimate strength, de-
f o r m a t i o n l i m i t ) . The i n c r e a s e i n j o i n t s t r e n g t h for tension loading
compared t o t h a t f o r compression l o a d i n g a c c o r d i n g to some recommenda-
t i o n s and p u b l i c a t i o n s i s given i n f i g . IV-3.

Fig. IV-3. Increased s t r e n g t h for X-joints loaded i n t e n s i o n compa-

red w i t h those loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n .

This f i g . IV-3. shows c l e a r l y the l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s . In general it

can be s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h but on
the o t h e r hand the deformation i n c r e a s e s or f o r o t h e r types of joints
the d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y d e c r e a s e s . When these c r i t e r i a are taken
i n t o account i n the recommendation the i n c r e a s e l a r g e l y depends on the
range o f v a l i d i t y given to the f o r m u l a e .

The a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s for X-joints made of c o l d f i n i s h e d hollow

s e c t i o n s and loaded i n t e n s i o n have r e c e n t l y been summarized by Makino
et. a l . [49]. Further t e s t s are bein g c a r r i e d out at the U n i v e r s i t y of
K a r l s r u h e but d e t a i l e d t e s t r e s u l t s are not y e t available.

170
 IV-3

T h i s appendix I V - 1 i s t h e r e f o r e based on the r e s u l t s and a n a l y s i s given

in [49] and the i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i ved by correspondence from Kurobane.
The t e s t s covered j o i n t s w i t h a wide range o f 8 and y ratios.
Makino a n a l y s e d these j o i n t s i n two ways; based on a d e f i n e d y i e l d load
and based on u l t i m a t e l o a d . The y i e l d l o a d i s d e f i n e d as the l o a d at
which a k i n k o c c u r s i n the l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagram when p l o t t e d on
l o g - l o g s c a l e . The u l t i m a t e l o a d i s d e f i n e d as the maximum l o a d c a p a c i t y
o r when a s i g n i f i c a n t y i e l d t r a j e c t o c c u r s , the l o a d b e l o n g i n g t o the
end o f t h i s t r a j e c t as shown i n f i g I V - 2 .
Here o n l y the a n a l y s i s based on u l t i m a t e l o a d w i l l be g i v e n because
t h i s a n a l y s i s i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h a t f o l l o w e d f o r the j o i n t s loaded i n
c o m p r e s s i o n . F o r the a n a l y s i s a s i m i l a r r e g r e s s i o n model i s used as
d e s c r i b e d f o r the X - j o i n t s loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n . T h i s r e s u l t e d i n the
f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r the u l t i m a t e l o a d capacity:

2 . 1 7 0.345 ,L>0.24
N (2Y) t .c (IV-1)
lu
2

1-0.812B o eo

w i t h v^ = 0.206.
The t e s t r e s u l t s are g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n f i g . I V - 4 .

1.6

1.4

1.2
1
> 1.0
cr
0.8

z~
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. IV-4. Test r e s u l t s versus c a l c u l a t e d u l t i m a t e l o a d s a c c o r d i n g

eq. (IV-1).

171
 IV-4

Although the ( 4 - ) i s an i n c o r r e c t parameter the t e s t specimens had

o
d i f f e r e n t chord l e n g t h s t h e r e f o r e i t appears i n the f u n c t i o n f o r the mean
strength o f the t e s t s . In p r a c t i c a l situations i t can be assumed that
4 - i s always g r e a t e r than 5 . A d o p t i n g the same c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a -
o a

t i o n f o r t h e dimensions and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s as g i v e n i n 4 . 2 . 7 .

results i n :

V N = 0.24 (IV-2)
lu

wi t h

N x = 0.72 N l u (mean) (IV-3)

As shown i n e q . ( I V - 2 ) t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n appears t o be r a t h e r
high. For the e v a l u a t i o n t o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h L = 5 d i s s u b - Q

s t i t u t e d and the exponents a r e rounded o f f .

For j o i n t s w i t h angles 9 f 90 based on the r i n g model the same angle
f u n c t i o n can be taken as f o r X - j o i n t s loaded i n compression w h i l e also
the same f u n c t i o n f o r the i n f l u e n c e o f the s t r e s s i n the chord i s
adopted.
These m o d i f i c a t i o n s r e s u l t i n f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r the c h a r a c t e r i s -
tic strength of X - j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n :

., .2 2.87 0.35 f(n) , T

% = a
eo k
0
" 1
- 0-813 Y
" iTnef- ( " )
I V 4

Comparison o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h w i t h t h a t f o r j o i n t s loaded
i n compression g i v e s f o l l o w i n g relation:

N
l = 0-5lY- 3 5
N. dV-51
Intension k(compression)

This r e l a t i o n i s g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n f i g . I V - 5 .
Comparison o f the d e s i g n l o a d e q u a t i o n s worked o u t by Makino [ 4 9 ] f o r
X-joints o f c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and those f o r t h e X - j o i n t s
l o a d e d i n compression by Kurobane [18] g i v e s :

Vension) = 0.55 - Y
3 4 2
, 0 .54 - Y
3 5
(IV-6

172
 IV-5

eq.(IV-5)

0 20 0 60 80 100

* 2 Y = f
1
0
Fig. IV-5. Comparison o f the design s t r e n g t h s i n t e n s i o n and i n com-
pression (X-joints).

Eq. ( I V - 6 ) d i f f e r s only s l i g h t l y from e q . ( I V - 5 ) a l t h o u g h f o r ( I V - 6 )

t h e i n f l u e n c e o f the y i e l d s t r e s s to u l t i m a t e s t r e s s r a t i o has not c o r -
r e c t l y been taken i n t o account i n the a n a l y s i s [ 4 9 ] .
When t h e y i e l d s t r e s s t o u l t i m a t e s t r e s s r a t i o appears i n t h e j o i n t
s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a t h e exponent should be n e g a t i v e . T h i s was not c o r r e c t
i n [49] t h e r e f o r e t h e e q u a t i o n s g i v e n here are not t h e same as those
given i n [ 4 9 ] .
The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i s given by d i v i d i n g the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c strength
by a Y ' Y C f a c t o r which depends on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e j o i n t .

- \
N, = (IV-7)
1 Y Y
'm ' c
In c h o o s i n g the Y - Y M C f a c t o r i t has t o be c o n s i d e r e d t h a t c r a c k initia-
t i o n appears b e f o r e f a i l u r e ; t h e d e f o r m a t i o n can be c o n s i d e r a b l e f o r
j o i n t s w i t h a low 3 and a high y r a t i o w h i l e on the o t h e r hand t h e d e -
f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y f o r j o i n t s w i t h (3 - 1.0 and high y r a t i o s can be
s m a l l . These f a c t s can be c o n s i d e r e d by d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a , a l i m i t e d
range o f v a l i d i t y o r by v a r y i n g Y - Y M C factors.

173
 IV-6

Independent c r i t e r i a f o r the d e f o r m a t i o n have not y e t been worked out

whereas i t becomes very c o m p l i c a t e t o d e s c r i b e e x a c t l y the parameter
range where deformation becomes not the c r i t i c a l f a c t o r o r where the
d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y becomes not c r i t i c a l . A d o p t i n g the same s t r e n g t h
as f o r j o i n t s loaded i n compression i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e approach but a t
l e a s t i t g i v e s such a h i g h e r margin o f s a f e t y f o r those j o i n t s which
do not have s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y t h a t these j o i n t s will
g e n e r a l l y not be the c r i t i c a l ones i n the s t r u c t u r a l system.
Only i n those cases i n which these arguments a r e not i m p o r t a n t f o r the
design h i g h e r s t r e n g t h s can be c o n s i d e r e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q . ( I V - 5 ) , how-
e v e r i t i s a d v i c e d t o c o n s i d e r the a v a i l a b l e l o a d deformation diagrammes
f o r the j o i n t s t o be used.

IV-2 T-joints loaded i n t e n s i o n

T - j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n show s i m i l a r e f f e c t s compared to those

loaded i n compression as d e s c r i b e d f o r X - j o i n t s i n Appendix I V - 1 .
The d i f f e r e n c e between t e n s i o n - and compression l o a d i n g quoted i n r e -
commendations and i n p u b l i c a t i o n s d i f f e r s from t h a t f o r X - j o i n t s . The
i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h f o r t e n s i o n l o a d i n g g i v e n i n some recommendations
and p u b l i c a t i o n s i s shown i n f i g . I V - 6 .
In j o i n t s w i t h a high B r a t i o and a low y r a t i o f a i l u r e o f the t e s t s i s
caused by shear of the chord which i s not a r e a l j o i n t f a i l u r e . However
these t e s t r e s u l t s are the reason t h a t i n some recommendations o n l y a
higher strength i s given f o r j o i n t s w i t h B r a t i o s lower than 1 . 0 . R e -
c e n t l y Makino e t . a l . [49] c o l l e c t e d and a n a l y s e d the a v a i l a b l e test
results f o r 6 s 0 . 8 . A s i m i l a r r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s i s used as f o r T-
joints loaded i n compression which r e s u l t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g expression
f o r the u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c i t y .

N 1 ( J = 1.61(1 + 4 . 9 4 e ) . ( 2 ) -
2
Y
7 6 5
.(^f -
0 4 5
.t 2
. a e o (IV-8)
o

w i t h V. = 0 . 1 9 1 .
o
The t e s t r e s u l t s are g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n f i g . I V - 7 .
With e x c e p t i o n o f the i n f l u e n c e o f y e q . ( I V - 8 ) i s s i m i l a r to that for
T-joints loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n . The s c a t t e r however, is considerably
larger. Using the same c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n f o r the dimensions and
the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s as given i n 4 . 2 . 7 . , results i n :

174
 IV-7

\
> AIJ[51]

, A P I 198C

IB 78 [34] ura [38]

Pa i et.(1. [19' : fa ctor 3.7

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

* P

Fig. IV-6. Increased s t r e n g t h for T-joints loaded i n t e n s i o n compared

w i t h those loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n .

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

'P

Fig. IV-7. T e s t r e s u l t s versus c a l c u l a t e d u l t i m a t e l o a d s a c c o r d i n g

e.g. IV-8.

175
 IV-8

V =0.21 (IV-9)
lu

wi th

\ = - 7 7 N
lu(mean) ( I V
" 1 0
)

The same m o d i f i c a t i o n s can be adopted as d e s c r i b e d i n 4 . 2 . 7 . 2 . i.e.

L = 3d i s s u b s t i t u t e d but an a d d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n f ( n ) is introduced
o ' v

t a k i n g account o f the i n f l u e n c e o f the s t r e s s e s i n the c h o r d . For

j o i n t s w i t h angles 0 t 90 the a n g l e f u n c t i o n based on the r i n g model
i s i n c l u d e d which i s the same as f o r T - j o i n t s loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n .
These m o d i f i c a t i o n s l e a d to f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r the characteristic
strength of T - j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n :

\ = 1
- 2
% - t
o ( 1 + 4
- 9 4 3 2 )
- Y
' 7 6 5
- i l ^ ( I V
' U )

Comparison o f t h i s e q u a t i o n w i t h the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h of
T-joints loaded i n compression g i v e s following relation:

N
l, . > = 0.42 Y - 0 5 2 4
N, (IV-12)
pension) ^(compression)

- 0.44 Y ' 5
(IV-12a)

T h i s r e l a t i o n i s g r a p h i c a l l y shown i n f i g . IV-8.
Makino worked out such a r e l a t i o n f o r T - j o i n t s made o f c o l d f i n i s h e d
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and came to n e a r l y the same r e l a t i o n s h i p as g i v e n i n
eq. (IV-12).
Due to the l a r g e r i n f l u e n c e o f membrane a c t i o n the parameter y i s more
i m p o r t a n t than f o r T - j o i n t s l o a d e d i n c o m p r e s s i o n . In [49] i t is stated
t h a t the design s t r e n g t h o b t a i n e d a c c o r d i n g e q . (IV-12) f a l l s in
general on a p o i n t between the " y i e l d l o a d " and the l o a d a t c r a c k ini-
tiation.
C o n s i d e r i n g the f a c t t h a t f o r j o i n t s w i t h a low 6 r a t i o the deforma-
tion increases rapidly with increasing y r a t i o while for j o i n t s with a
high 3 r a t i o (B - 1.0) the d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y d e c r e a s e s , n e c e s s i t a t e s
a greater reserve i n s t r e n g t h o r a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a . Based on t h e s e
arguments i t i s a l s o here proposed to use b a s i c a l l y f o r j o i n t s loaded
i n t e n s i o n the same s t r e n g t h as f o r j o i n t s loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n .
 IV-9

Only i n those cases i n which these arguments are not i m p o r t a n t or the

c r i t e r i a are s a t i s f i e d h i g h e r s t r e n g t h may be c o n s i d e r e d a c c o r d i n g to
eg. (IV-12). It i s a d v i c e d however, to c o n s i d e r the a v a i l a b l e l o a d de-
f o r m a t i o n diagrammes f o r the j o i n t s to be used and to adopt a l a r g e r
Y Y f a c t o r f o r the j o i n t s w i t h a high y ratio,
m c

IV-3 Comparison of the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae f o r a x i a l l y loaded joints

w i t h some e x i s t i n g recommendations

IV-3.1. Comgarison_with_the_DNV_r

In the DNV recommendations [23] formulae are g i v e n f o r the c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h t h e r e f o r e these w i l l be compared w i t h the
proposed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h formulae i . e . (Y Y
m c = 1.1) times the
formulae f o r the design strength.
Due to d i f f e r e n c e s i n l o a d f a c t o r s and p a r t i a l safety coefficients
there s t i l l exists a difference e.g.:
2
DNV : load f a c t o r x p a r t i a l safety c o e f f i c i e n t s - 1.3x1.15 =1.72

177
 IV-10

Proposed: l o a d f a c t o r x p a r t i a l s a f e t y coefficient
- ( 1 . 3 to 1.5) x 1.1 1.65

Thus the product o f t h e l o a d f a c t o r s and p a r t i a l s a f e t y coefficients

a c c o r d i n g to the DNV recommendations i s g e n e r a l l y about 5 t o 10% h i g h e r
than t h a t proposed h e r e . T h i s means t h a t the j o i n t s t r e n g t h s given by
t h e DNV recommendations should be about 5 to 10% h i g h e r i f t h e f i n a l
result w i l l be the same.

T- and Y - j o i n t s i n compression

0.3
6.85.6 . y
DNV
(IV-13)
proposed ( 2 . 8 + 14.26

X-joints i n compression

DNV 1.29(1-0.816) (IV-14)

proposed 1.2-6)

K- and N-joints

0.5
1.63(1+6.16) Y l+sin0 2.4+1.8 g / d
DNV
1 Q

(IV-15)
proposed (2.1+9.! f(Y.g') 2 ' 2.4+7g/d

These e q u a t i o n s are worked out f o r some parameters i n the following

tables.

DNV
proposed f o r m u l a

Type of joint (all 0)

T Y X

parameter Y = 7.5 Y = 25 all Y

6 = 0.4 0.99 1.42 1.09

6 = 0.6 0.95 1.36 1.11
6 = 0.85 0.82 1.17 1.15

178
 IV-11

DNV
proposed f o r m u l a

K- and N - j o i n t s (Gj = 45)

parameter Y = 7.5 Y = 25

g = o 1.26 1.07
S = 0.4
g = 0.3d Q 0.90 1.21

g = 0 1.29 1.10
3 = 0.6
g = 0.3d Q 0.92 1.24

g = 0 1.31 1.11
3 = 0.85
g = 0.3d o 0.93 1.26

B e a r i n g i n mind the d i f f e r e n t l o a d - and p a r t i a l safety coefficients the

formulae f o r X - j o i n t s g i v e about the same v a l u e s f o r the s t r e n g t h . In
the DNV f o r m u l a e , the i n f l u e n c e of the parameter y i s too s t r o n g for
T-joints. At the time of d r a f t i n g the DNV recommendations o n l y little
t e s t evidence was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i n w a l l e d j o i n t s therefore the for-
mulae are not a c c u r a t e f o r j o i n t s w i t h a high y r a t i o . For K - a n d N-type
joints the DNV formulae may be a c c u r a t e f o r the t e s t r e s u l t s however
the s t r e n g t h i s very s e n s i t i v e to t o l e r a n c e s i n the gap which i s only
taken i n t o account i n the proposed f o r m u l a . I t is further shown p r e -
viously t h a t the i n f l u e n c e of the gap depends more on the g/t ratio
then the g / d Q ratio.

IV-3.2. Comgarison_with_the_API_form

The formulae i n the API [21] e d i t i o n 1980 g i v e punching shear s t r e s s e s

f o r working l o a d c o n d i t i o n . These formulae w i l l be r e v i s e d i n the 1982
e d i t i o n based on the work of Yura [ 4 3 ] , t h e r e f o r e no comparison w i l l
be g i v e n w i t h the e x i s t i n g API recommendations. An i n d i c a t i o n can be
found i n [39] i n which a comparison i s g i v e n w i t h formulae which only
slightly d i f f e r from those i n f i g . 4 . 3 2 . As an a l t e r n a t i v e the proposed
f o r m u l a e are compared w i t h the Yura formulae [38].

179
 IV-12

I V - 3 . 2 . 1 . Cgmgarison_with_the_Yura

Yura [ 3 8 ] g i v e s u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s f o r which a f a c t o r 1 . 8
is proposed f o r working l o a d c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s means t h a t f o r c o m p a r i -
son w i t h t h e proposed e q u a t i o n s f o r d e s i g n s t r e n g t h t h e Yura formulae
1 5
have t o be m u l t i p l i e d by = 0.833. Suppose i n the comparison
f(n) = 1.0.

T- and Y - j o i n t s i n compression

Y | I , 0 . 8 3 3 ( 3 . 4 + 1 9 6)

T - 0 7 2 < I V
" 1 6
)
proposed ( 2 . 8+ 14.26 ) Y

X-joints i n compression

6 0 . 6

(3.4 + 198 ) ( 1 - 0 . 8 1 8 )
Yura
(IV-17)
proposed 6 . 2 4

6 > 0 . 6

(3.4 + 196 ) ( 1 - 0 . 8 1 B )
Yura
(IV-18)
proposed 2 0 . 8 6 ( 1 - 0.8333

K- and N - j o i n t s

Y U R A 0 . 8 3 3 ( 3 . 4 + 1 9 6) . ( 1 . 8 - 0 . 8 g/dj)
(IV-19)
proposed ( 2 . 1 + 9 . 8 6 ).f(v.g')

These e q u a t i o n s a r e worked o u t f o r some parameters i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

tables:

180
 IV-13

Yura
proposed formula

Type of joint (all 6)

T , Y X

parameter Y = 7.5 Y = 25 all Y

e = 0.4 1.20 0.95 1.19

6 = 0.6 1.04 0.82 1.22
6 = 1.0 0.73 0.58 1.22

Yura
proposed f o r m u l a

K- and N - j o i n t s (all G)

parameter Y = 7.5 Y = 25

g = 0 1.58 0.74
1 = 0.4
9 = d. 0.98 0.81

g = o 1.60 0.76
6 = 0.6
g = x
1.02 0.81

g = o 1.63 0.76
8 = 1.0
g = dj

The main d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t f o r T - j o i n t s w i t h 8 = 1.0 and f o r K- and

N-type j o i n t s . The d i f f e r e n c e f o r T - j o i n t s w i t h 8 = 1.0 appears due
to the f a c t t h a t Yura o m i t t e d a l l t e s t s w i t h a diameter s m a l l e r than
140 mm which i n c l u d e d a l l t e s t s w i t h 8 = 1.0. The d i f f e r e n c e f o r the
K- and N - j o i n t s i s m a i n l y caused by the i n f l u e n c e of the gap which is
not r e l a t e d to the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the c h o r d . Yura o m i t t e d a l l test
r e s u l t s of small specimens and as a consequence the t e s t results
covered i n h i s a n a l y s i s d i d not cover the whole f i e l d of parameters.

181
 IV-14

IV-3.3. P^he^_recomme^d^tions

A comparison w i t h the French Recommendations [ 3 5 ] , the d r a f t German

Recommendations [50] and the Dutch Recommendations [34] i s not given
because these are i n d r a f t o r w i l l be r e v i s e d shortly.

182
JOINTS WITH A RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION CHORD AND RECTANGULAR OR
CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACINGS

Contents

Symbols
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Axially loaded l a t t i c e g i r d e r joints
5 2 1. General
5 2 2. C r i t e r i a of failure
5 2 3. Modes of failure
5 2 4. T e s t evidence
5 2 5. Analytical models
5 2 6. J o i n t strength formulae
5 2 7. E v a l u a t i o n t o design criteria
5 2 8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s
J o i n t loaded by bending moments
5 3 1. General
5 3 2. C r i t e r i a of failure
5 3 3. Modes of failure
5 3 4. T e s t evidence
5 3 5. Analytical models
5 3 6. Design s t r e n g t h formulae
5 3 7. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s
5.4. Interaction between a x i a l l o a d i n g and moments
5.4.1. General
5.4.2. Analytical models
5.4.3. Test evidence
5.4.4. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n rules
5.5. S p e c i a l types of joints
5.5.1. Joints r e l a t e d to X-joints
5.5.2. Joints r e l a t e d to K-joints
5.5.3. J o i n t s w i t h gusset plates
5.5.4. Beam to RHS column connections
5.5.5. Joints in t r i a n g u l a r girders
5.5.6. Double chord joints
5.5.7. J o i n t s with s t i f f e n i n g plates
5.5.8. Knee joints
 5-ii

5.6. References

Appendix V - l . Y i e l d l i n e models
V-2. I n f l u e n c e membrane a c t i o n
V-3. E f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r p l a t e to RHS chord
connections
V-4. S i m p l i f i e d design rules f o r axially
loaded j o i n t s of square h o l l o w sections

184
 5-iii

Symbols used i n c h a p t e r 5

A : cross-sectional area of a member

A.j : cross-sectional area of a b r a c i n g member i ( 1 , 2 , 3 are
bracings)
cross-sectional area of the chord
cross-sectional area e f f e c t i v e for shear
modulus of elasticity
energy p a r t i c i p a t e d i n y i e l d lines
moment of enertia
moment

p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y of a member
i n plane bending moment on a member

d e s i g n v a l u e f o r an i n plane bending moment l o a d i n g

out of plane bending moment on a member

d e s i g n value f o r an out of plane bending moment l o a d i n g

reduced p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y of a member by a shear l o a d

axial l o a d or membrane f o r c e
design strength
l o a d i n b r a c i n g member i ( 1 , 2 , 3 are bracings)
load i n bracing i f o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t strength
l o a d i n b r a c i n g i f o r y i e l d s t r e n g t h of the joint
ultimate load i n bracing i f o r j o i n t strength

m o d i f i e d u l t i m a t e l o a d N^ u f o r small weld s i z e s ( {
N
u
=
^ i )
N
u

l o a d i n the chord
l o a d i n the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n a t the gap

prestressing l o a d i n the chord

l o a d i n the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n a t the gap

critical buckling load capacity

load in point C
plastic axial l o a d c a p a c i t y of a member (squash load)
mean v a l u e f o r the u l t i m a t e j o i n t strength
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t strength for axial load (general)
reduced squash l o a d c a p a c i t y by shear
shear l o a d

185
 5-i V

shear l o a d c a p a c i t y of a c r o s s section
c o e f f i c i e n t of variation
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of the t e s t results
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of the a x i a l load capacity
Nu
modulus o f b r a c i n g 1 ( g e n e r a l )
e l a s t i c modulus of b r a c i n g 1
el
p l a s t i c modulus of b r a c i n g 1
Vi

t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s o f a weld
width
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h of a c r o s s w a l l (bracing)
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r punching shear

e f f e c t i v e w i d t h of a weld

D
e(ov) e f f e c t i v e w i d t h of a b r a c i n g c r o s s w a l l connected to an o v e r -
lapped b r a c i n g
e f f e c t i v e b e a r i n g w i d t h of the chord s i d e w a l l
e x t e r n a l w i d t h of member i (0 = c h o r d , 1 , 2 , 3)
e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f the chord

c coefficient
c o e f f i c i e n t used f o r e f f e c t i v e width
c
t
o u t e r diameter of b r a c i n g member i ( 1 , 2 , 3 are bracings)
d
i
e e c c e n t r i c i t y between system l i n e s
f function

g gap
9i. g 2
gaps i n a K T - j o i n t
g' gap d i v i d e d by chord w a l l thickness
h depth
h. external depth of member i ( 1 , 2 , 3 are bracings)
i
external depth of the chord
h
o
i r a d i u s of gyration
k spring stiffness
1 length
\ ,1 , 2

l e n g t h of a y i e l d line
h
e f f e c t i v e p e r i m e t e r l e n g t h f o r the b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e width
criterion

186
 5-v

: e f f e c t i v e p e r i m e t e r l e n g t h f o r the chord punching shear

'eff.
criterion
: p l a s t i c moment per u n i t length
: p l a s t i c moment per u n i t l e n g t h i n y i e l d l i n e i
pi
N
A .a
o eo

op
T.a
o eo

ov i n t e g e r f o r o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g member
o u t e r c o r n e r r a d i u s of the chord
r
o
s standard deviation

S
6 standard d e v i a t i o n of the t e s t results
standard d e v i a t i o n o f the y i e l d s t r e s s of the chord
eo
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of the chord w i d t h

s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of the chord w a l l thickness

t t h i ckness
plate thickness
w a l l t h i c k n e s s of b r a c i n g member i ( 1 , 2 , 3 are bracings)
t
i
w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the chord

a f a c t o r g i v i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the f l a n g e f o r shear

a angle between two y i e l d lines

a reduction factor for a . i n Knee j o i n t s

mean b r a c i n g to chord wi ith ratio .

o
Y .Y
w i d t h - w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o of the chord ( y r - )
'm ' c
m a t e r i a l and j o i n t p a r t i a l s a f e t y f a c t o r s
5
6
model f a c t o r
deflection in a j o i n t
6 B , 6 C

d e f l e c t i o n s i n p o i n t B and C r e s p e c t i v e l y
e
angle between two members
e
i angle between b r a c i n g i ( i = 1 , 2 or 3) and the chord
yield function
r o t a t i o n of a y i e l d l i n e i
b r a c i n g depth d i v i d e d by the chord width
exponent

187
 5-vi

X : slenderness
A : s c a l e parameter
g : e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the b r a c i n g based on the j o i n t
strength

C 1 to : e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r the b r a c i n g based on v a r i o u s fail-

t,g ure c r i t e r i a of the joint
v : Poisson r a t i o
a : stress
a e : yield stress
a : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value of the y i e l d stress
e
k
0 : mean v a l u e o f the y i e l d stress
m e

a . : y i e l d stress in bracing i (i = 1 , 2 o r 3)
a : y i e l d s t r e s s of the chord
eo
a : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c - or d e s i g n value f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s of
k
bracing i (i = 1 , 2 o r 3)
a
eo ' c n a r a c
'teristic- o r d e s i g n value f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s of
* the chord
: c r i t i c a l l o c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e s s i n the s i d e w a l l s of the chord
a k n : c r i t i c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g to the ECCS b u c k l i n g curve
"a".

188
 5-1

5. JOINTS WITH A RECTANGULAR HOLLOW SECTION CHORD AND RECTANGULAR OR

CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACINGS

5.1. Introduction

R e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s combine e x c e l l e n t s t r e n g t h properties
w i t h easy j o i n t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s . These s e c t i o n s are w i d e l y used f o r
the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a t t i c e frameworks i n b u i l d i n g d e s i g n , b r i d g e s ,
jibs, c r a n e s , t o w e r s , masts e t c . The f i r s t p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s were
c a r r i e d but by Stewarts and L l o y d s (now B r i t i s h S t e e l C o r p o r a t i o n ) [1].
These t e s t s were f o l l o w e d i n the s i x t i e s by more i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n the
U.K. [2] and Germany [3].
A t the b e g i n n i n g o f the s e v e n t i e s the f i r s t e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n e q u a t i o n s
f o r K- and N - j o i n t s were p u b l i s h e d by Eastwood and Wood [ 4 ] . Based on
a r e a n a l y s i s o f the t e s t r e s u l t s these e q u a t i o n s were improved by
Davie and G i d d i n g s [ 5 ] . A l l these e q u a t i o n s were based on t e s t results
from t e s t s i n which the a c t u a l dimensions and the a c t u a l p r o p e r t i e s of
the s e c t i o n s were not measured. F u r t h e r these e q u a t i o n s showed a s c a l e
e f f e c t which i s not l i k e l y f o r the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h . T h i s was the r e a -
son t h a t i n 1973 an e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h programme was prepared by the
studygroup SG-TC-18 of the Dutch S t e e l A s s o c i a t i o n (Staalbouwkundig
Genootschap). In t h i s programme a l l parameters were s t u d i e d which i n -
f l u e n c e the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h . The programme covered i s o l a t e d T - , X - , K-
N- and KT- j o i n t s w h i l e l a t e r o n a d d i t i o n a l g i r d e r t e s t s were carried
o u t . T h i s programme was c a r r i e d out at the I n s t i t u t e f o r B u i l d i n g
M a t e r i a l s and B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e s IBBC-TNO i n R i j s w i j k and the
S t e v i n L a b o r a t o r y o f the D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y . A l l the r e -
s u l t s o f t h i s programme were r e p o r t e d i n many i n t e r i m r e p o r t s which
have been summarized i n [ 7 , 8 ] .
In the s e v e n t i e s a l s o o t h e r programmes were c a r r i e d out e . g . girder
t e s t s i n P i s a w i t h i d e n t i c a l i s o l a t e d j o i n t t e s t s i n Corby U.K. [9].
F u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s based on the y i e l d l i n e method of
Johansen [10] and the work o f Redwood [11] were c a r r i e d out by P a t e l
[ 1 2 ] , Davies and Roper [ 1 3 ] , Mouty [ 1 4 ] , and Packer [ 1 5 ] . Mang e t . a l .
[16] developed a method based on a s p r i n g model whereas a p l a s t i c
f i n i t e elements method was used by Korol e t . al. [17].
Research work i s now a l s o going on i n Poland by Brodka e t . al. [18].
Not o n l y a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s i n plane g i r d e r s are s t u d i e d but a l s o
moment c o n n e c t i o n s [19. 2 0 , 2 1 ] .

189
 5-2

Further j o i n t s in triangular girders [22] and j o i n t s in trusses with

double chords [23] are s t u d i e d .

Most of the r e s e a r c h works c a r r i e d out have been c o o r d i n a t e d by the

Comit I n t e r n a t i o n a l pour l e Dveloppement e t l ' E t u d e de l a C o n s t r u c -
tion Tubulaire (Cidect).

The many c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f j o i n t s i n hollow s e c t i o n s and the various

modes i n which the j o i n t s can f a i l , l e a d to many j o i n t s t r e n g t h crite-
ria. The a n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a , however, become i n general so c o m p l i c a t e
t h a t f o r the d e s i g n recommendations s i m p l i f i e d c r i t e r i a are used which
have been checked w i t h the more c o m p l i c a t e d c r i t e r i a .

In t h i s c h a p t e r most a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n to a x i a l l y loaded s i m p l e l a t -
tice girder joints but a l s o moment l o a d i n g and o t h e r types o f joints
are r e v i e w e d .

5.2. A x i a l l y loaded l a t t i c e g i r d e r joints

5.2.1. General

The types o f j o i n t s covered i n t h i s s e c t i o n c o n s i s t o f s q u a r e - or

r e c t a n g u l a r chord members and s q u a r e , r e c t a n g u l a r o r c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s .
The members are welded t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t the use o f g u s s e t s o r stiff-
e n e r s . The b a s i c types o f j o i n t s used i n plane l a t t i c e g i r d e r s are
shown i n f i g . 5 . 1 .
These types o f j o i n t s are p r e d o m i n a n t l y loaded by a x i a l l o a d s i n the
b r a c i ngs.

5.2.2. Qriteria_of_failyre

S i m i l a r to j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the j o i n t s t r e n g t h can
be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the c r i t e r i a shown i n f i g . 5 . 2 .
- ultimate load capacity (5)
- d e f o r m a t i o n c r i t e r i a (2) o r (3)
- v i s u a l l y observed crack i n i t i a t i o n (4).
The u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c i t y i s a l s o here used as the c r i t e r i o n o f fail-
u r e . The range o f v a l i d i t y o f the d e s i g n f o r m u l a e i s g e n e r a l l y limited
i n such a way t h a t the d e f o r m a t i o n c r i t e r i a do not become d e c i s i v e u n -
der s e r v i c e l o a d c o n d i t i o n . In j o i n t s w i t h l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n s i . e . T-,

190
 5-3

Fig. 5.1. Types of joints.

1 = elastic limit

tension
2 s deformation limit
compression
3 = remaining deformation

limit

A = crdck initiation

5 - ultimate load

deformation

Fig. 5.2. C r i t e r i a of failure.

 5-4

Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h low width r a t i o s 6 the s t r e n g t h can be based on

the u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c i t y but then a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a have t o be
g i v e n f o r the d e f o r m a t i o n . These types of j o i n t s are i n p r a c t i c a l ap-
p l i c a t i o n s of secundary importance t h e r e f o r e simplified theoretical
s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a are given which i n d i r e c t l y take account of the d e -
f o r m a t i o n c r i t e r i a . Although e v e r y d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t i s a r b i t r a r y , be-
cause i t depends on the type of s t r u c t u r e , a d e f o r m a t i o n of 1% of the
chord w i d t h i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d under s e r v i c e load c o n d i t i o n s . This
l i m i t i s the same as the maximum t o l e r a n c e i n w i d t h and depth of RHS
sections.

In case of j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n the j o i n t strength is increased

e s p e c i a l l y f o r T- Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h low B r a t i o s . T h i s greater
strength however, is g e n e r a l l y not r e l e v a n t due to the l a r g e deflec-
tions.

5.2.3. Modes_of failure

Depending on the type of j o i n t , the j o i n t parameters and the l o a d i n g

conditions several types of f a i 1 u r e can occur as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 5 . 3 .
a. P l a s t i c f a i l u r e of the chord face or the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n .
b. Crack i n i t i a t i o n l e a d i n g to r u p t u r e of the b r a c i n g s from the chord
(punching shear).
c. C r a c k i n g i n the welds or i n the b r a c i n g s (effective width).
d. Chord w a l l b e a r i n g or l o c a l b u c k l i n g under the compression b r a c i n g .
e. Local b u c k l i n g i n the compressive areas of the members ( e l , e2).
f. Shear f a i l u r e of the c h o r d .
Depending on the type of j o i n t and j o i n t parameters even i n these b a s i c
types of f a i l u r e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s can o c c u r .
For example a K - j o i n t which f a i l s by p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord face
may have a y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n around both b r a c i n g s (equal bracings) or
o n l y around one b r a c i n g w i t h d i s t o r s i o n of the c r o s s s e c t i o n of the
chord (unequal bracings).
Many times f a i l u r e has been observed to occur by combinations of the
basic types. L a m e l l a r t e a r i n g which i s more probable f o r very t h i c k
w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s has not been observed i n the t e s t s . The p o s s i b i l i t y of
l a m e l l a r t e a r i n g can be decreased by choosing s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l quali-
t i e s and s u i t a b l e w e l d i n g processes.

192
 5-5

Fig. 5.3. Modes o f f a i l u r e .

In general the f a i l u r e mode a o c c u r s f o r j o i n t s w i t h small t o medium

w i d t h r a t i o s . For medium w i d t h r a t i o s 6 - 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 t h i s mode gener-
a l l y o c c u r s t o g e t h e r w i t h c r a c k i n g i n the chord (type b) o r b r a c i n g
( t y p e c ) . C r a c k i n g i n t h e b r a c i n g (type c) o n l y o c c u r s i n j o i n t s with
r e l a t i v e l y thin walled bracings.
L o c a l b u c k l i n g (types d , e) o c c u r e s p e c i a l l y i n j o i n t s w i t h high chord
width wall thickness r a t i o s .

193
 5-6

In T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h 8 - 1.0 however, i t can a l s o o c c u r i n the

s i d e w a l l s of the chord at lower chord h e i g h t - w a l l thickness ratios.
Shear f a i l u r e of the chord (type f ) i s observed i n T - , K- and N-joints
w i t h a high s r a t i o .
For a l l modes o f f a i l u r e d i f f e r e n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a e x i s t but i n some
cases i t i s p o s s i b l e to p r e d i c t the j o i n t s t r e n g t h by o n l y one o r two
decisive criteria.

5.2.4. Test_evjdence

E s p e c i a l l y i n the l a s t decade numerous t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out and

r e p o r t e d on i s o l a t e d j o i n t s and on g i r d e r s . The t e s t s have been c a r r i e d
out i n s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s throughout the w o r l d as i l l u s t r a t e d
in f i g . 5.4.

Country T- and Y-joints X-joints K-N-joints

Canada Mc Master U n i v . *

U n i v . of K a r l s r u h e
Germany Uni v. of K a r l s r u h e Mannesmann Res.
Inst.

Italy U n i v . of P i s a

U n i v . of Tokyo
Japan Kobe U n i v e r s i t y *
D e l f t Univ. of D e l f t Univ. of D e l f t Univ. of
N e t h e r l ands Technology Technology Technology
TNO-IBBC TNO-IBBC TNO-IBBC

Poland Mostostal

Univ. of U n i v . of S h e f f i e l d
U.K. Nottingham
B r i t i s h Steel Corp. B r i t i s h S t e e l Corp.

U.S.A. U n i v . of Houston Drexel I n s t i t u t e

Philadelphia*

Bending i n p l a n e .

Fig. 5.4. T e s t i n g c e n t r e s at which t e s t s have been undertaken on

joints i n rectangular hollow sections.

In the N e t h e r l a n d s most o f these t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out as p a r t

of a programme sponsored by the European Coal and S t e e l Community (ECSC),

194
 5-7

C i d e c t and the Staalbouwkundig Genootschap. A survey of the t e s t i n g

programme and the r e s u l t s i s given i n [ 5 , 7 ] . A o v e r a l l survey o f a l l
test results w i l l be g i v e n i n [24].
The dimensions of the chords o f the r e l e v a n t t e s t s v a r y from 50 t o 305 mm
w i d t h a l t h o u g h the b u l k o f the t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out on j o i n t s
w i t h chord w i d t h s of 100 mm. In the t e s t s the j o i n t parameters and
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s have been v a r i e d i n a wide range. R e c e n t l y an
ECSC r e s e a r c h programme s t a r t e d i n which the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h , the i n -
f l u e n c e of p u r l i n l o a d s , l o c a l b u c k l i n g and the i n t e r a c t i o n between
axial l o a d and bending moments i s s t u d i e d i n more d e t a i l . These t e s t s
are c a r r i e d out t o i n v e s t i g a t e to which extend the range of validity
of the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae can be ex t e n d e d .

5.2.5. A n a l y t i c a l models

The a n a l y t i c a l models are h e l p f u l to d e s c r i b e the j o i n t b e h a v i o u r and

g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the i n f l u e n c i n g p a r a m e t e r s . T h i s i n f o r m a -
t i o n combined w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence l e a d s t o the e x p r e s s i o n s for
the j o i n t s t r e n g t h . The pure a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s are u s u a l l y far
too c o m p l i c a t e d to use i n p r a c t i c e . Sometimes s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y t i c a l ap-
proaches are used as a lower bound f u n c t i o n .

5.2.5.1. Yield_line_model

For j o i n t s w i t h a low b r a c i n g to chord w i d t h r a t i o the j o i n t strength

can be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y e s t i m a t e d on the b a s i s of the s i m p l e y i e l d line
a n a l y s i s . The y i e l d l i n e method g i v e s an upper bound s o l u t i o n of the
y i e l d load therefore i n p r i n c i p l e a wide range of mechanisms s h o u l d be
examined i n o r d e r to f i n d the l o w e s t value a c c e p t a b l e as f a i l u r e load.
In many s t u d i e s however, i t i s shown t h a t a s i m p ] i f i e d y i e l d l i n e pattern
as shown i n f i g . 5 . 5 a . g i v e s o n l y 1 to 1% h i g h e r s t r e n g t h s than the
more c o m p l i c a t e d p a t t e r n w i t h y i e l d f a n s , shown i n f i g . 5 . 5 b . The
y i e l d load capacity i s f u r t h e r only s l i g h t l y i n f l u e n c e d by a y i e l d
l i n e p a t t e r n i n the s i d e w a l l s o f the c h o r d . In the s i m p l i f i e d model
the e f f e c t s of membrane a c t i o n and s t r a i n hardening are i g n o r e d . The
c a l c u l a t i o n method c o n s i s t s i n e q u a t i n g the work of the e x t e r n a l force
and the work by the p l a s t i c hinge system e . g . f o r the T- and Y - j o i n t
shown i n f i g . 5 . 5 . T h i s i s m o r e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i b e d i n Appendix V-l.

195
 5-8

hi

46

bi
bo
in
bo

Fig. 5.5. Yield l i n e pattern for a T - j o i n t .

NpSinQj. = I (5.1)
Pi
with

t .a
2

o eo
m .
Pi
2a .t
N .sin0
1 1 = gg 0
{ JJ -
i 5 + ( l - B ) c o t g a + tga} (5.2)

In r e a l l i t y the y i e l d l i n e s o c c u r b e s i d e the chord s i d e w a l l s on a

distance b Q - 2t but f o r s i m p l i c i t y they are assumed here to be i n
the corners.
A minimum f o r the l o a d can be a r c h i e v e d by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n which
gi v e s :

tga = / " P f (5.3)

S u b s t i t u t i o n in eq. (5.2) l e a d s t o f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r the yield

l o a d c a p a c i t y of T - , Y - and X - j o i n t s with small bracing widths:
 5-9

(5.4)

A K - j o i n t can be s i m p l i f i e d t o a p u s h - p u l l j o i n t as shown i n f i g . 5 . 6 .

sin 9, sin 02

Symmetrical Warren type

joint with gap simplified
to push -pull joint.

Fig. 5.6. Y i e l d l i n e model f o r chord c o n n e c t i n g f a c e (K-joint).

Here o n l y the y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y f o r a symmetrical K - j o i n t i s g i v e n :

(5.5)

When t h e gap i s small shear y i e l d w i l l o c c u r i n t h e y i e l d l i n e s i n the

gap between t h e b r a c i n g s . In t h e s e models t h e h o r i z o n t a l l o a d component
i s not taken i n t o a c c o u n t . Further a t h e o r e t i c a l analysis of fully
r e s t r a i n e d beams and p l a t e s show t h a t a t d e f l e c t i o n s o f 0 . 5 t t h e o load
t r a n s f e r may o n l y be by membrane a c t i o n [ 2 6 ] .
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e membrane a c t i o n l a r g e l y depends on t h e s p r i n g
s t i f f n e s s i n t h e p l a n e o f the p l a t e . T h i s i s q u a l i t a t i v e l y illus-
t r a t e d i n f i g . 5 . 7 . and more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix V - 2 .
T a k i n g t h i s e f f e c t i n t o account l e a d s f o r t h e s e j o i n t s to extremely
c o m p l i c a t e d f u n c t i o n s which i s shown by P a c k e r [15] and Groeneveld
[ 2 6 ] . Another f a c t o r which i n f l u e n c e s the r e a l s t r e n g t h c a p a c i t y i s
t h e s t r a i n hardening which o ccu rs a f t e r a c e r t a i n e l o n g a t i o n o f the
material.

197
 5-10

combined
bending
N i membrane/
variable Longitudinal
spring stiffness
rigid plastic
collapse line
for s i m p l y s u p p o r t
beam

membrane only

Fig. 5.7. E f f e c t of membrane a c t i o n i n l o n g i t u d i n a l l y r e s t r a i n e d beam.

5.2.5.2. Punching shear model

When the b r a c i n g i s p u l l e d away from the chord c o n n e c t i n g f a c e , fail-

ure can be by c r a c k i n g and e v e n t u a l l y r u p t u r e of the chord f a c e as
i l l u s t r a t e d for a Y - j o i n t in f i g . 5.8.

/ N l u

a) longitudinal section b) cross section

Uff- 2 + 2b )
e

sin6i

^ sine,
c) plan

Fig. 5.8. Punching shear model,

198
 5-11

The a s s o c i a t e d punching shear s t r e n g t h can be e x p r e s s e d a s :

eo CT
1
N, = . t . I . -J^r- (5.6)
lu yj o eff.p sinQj 1
'
a
eo
w i t h an assumed y i e l d punching shear o f and

^o'^eff p =
^ sinG + 2 b
e ^ = e
^ e c t
'' v e
punching shear area o f the
* P chord w a i l f o r a T - , Y- o r X-joint.

Due to the non uniform s t i f f n e s s a l o n g the i n t e r s e c t i o n p e r i m e t e r the

full p e r i m e t e r cannot always be c o n s i d e r e d to be f u l l effective.
b n

When the -r^ r a t i o o f the chord i s low the p e r i m e t e r can be f u l l ef-

o b 0

f e c t i v e . For j o i n t s w i t h h i g h e r T - r a t i o s the e f f e c t i v e n e s s a l s o
o L

depends on the w i d t h r a t i o 8 . For example i f i n the top f a c e a y i e l d

l i n e p a t t e r n o c c u r s b e f o r e f a i l u r e i n punching s h e a r , the s t r e s s is
d i s t r i b u t e d more u n i f o r m and c o n s e q u e n t l y the e f f e c t i v e punching shear
area becomes l a r g e r . The v a l u e f o r b g has to be determined e x p e r i m e n -
tally. p

5.2.5.3. Effectiv_widthbracings

In j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s o f r e l a t i v e l y low t h i c k n e s s the b r a c i n g itself

can be c r i t i c a l compared to the c h o r d . The s t r e n g t h can be expressed i n
a s i m i l a r way to t h a t f o r punching s h e a r , but i s now r e l a t e d to the
b r a c i n g dimensions and b r a c i n g m a t e r i a l properties.

N
lu = e l H eff l
b (->
5 7

wi th

tj . & b = t j ( 2 h j - 4 t j + 2 b ) = e f f e c t i v e area b r a c i n g f o r a T - ,
g Y-
or X-joint
b
The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h becomes l a r g e r when - r - decreases or when a t the
s t i f f p a r t s o f the i n t e r s e c t i o n s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n can o c c u r by
yielding.

5.2.5.4. Chord_wal1_bearing_or_l^

In T - , Y - and X - j o i n t s w i t h a high b r a c i n g to chord w i d t h r a t i o the

j o i n t can f a i l by y i e l d (fig. 5.9) or i n s t a b i l i t y of the s i d e w a l l s
of the chord ( f i g . 5.11).

199
 5-12

sin 61

) elevation b ) cross-section

Fig. 5.9. Chord s i d e w a l l b e a r i n g model f o r f u l l w i d t h joint.

For equal w i d t h j o i n t s a s i m i l a r approach can be f o l l o w e d as f o r beam

to column c o n n e c t i o n s :
h,
1
+ 5t (5.8)
N
ly = ^eo-V l 0' ' sinQ

For s l e n d e r s i d e w a l l s the chord s i d e w a l l can b u c k l e under c o m p r e s s i o n .

The b a s i c e l a s t i c p l a t e b u c k l i n g e q u a t i o n f o r an i n f i n i t e l o n g p l a t e
w i t h s i m p l e supported edges and s u b j e c t e d to opposing p o i n t loads
(fig. 5.10) i s given by Timoshenko [27]:
u3
E.t:
4'IT
N (5.9)
C r _ h
o ' 12(1 -v ) 2

By e q u a t i n g t h i s to the E u l e r b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h of a p i n ended s t r u t
of l e n g t h (h - 2 t ) and w i d t h b m an e f f e c t i v e width of p l a t e i s o b -
tained:
3
Et 2
N ^ ' 0
' v E A
(5.10)
C r
(h -2t )
0 Q " 12(1-v ) 2
~ "(h -2t ) (l-v )
o Q
2 2

wi th
b .t
0
3

m
~T2~

200
 5-13

hn-2t o

Fig. 5.10. Chord s i d e w a l l s t a b i l i t y model

b = - . (Ir - 2 t ) (5.11)
m o o '
m
v
IT

h - 2t h - 2t
Using a slenderness r a t i o X = - ^ - g - 3.46(r
Q -)t the b u c k l i n g
o o
s t r e n g t h can be determined by:

N c r = 2b .t .a
m Q k (5.12)

In which can be d e r i v e d from the ECCS b u c k l i n g c u r v e s . Another a p -

proach i s to use a m o d i f i e d P e r r y Robertson f o r m u l a t i o n t a k i n g account
of the p l a t e s t i f f n e s s [ 2 8 ] . A l s o models are worked out on frame i n -
s t a b i l i t y shown i n f i g . 5 . 1 1 . [ 2 9 , 3 0 ] .

The l a s t two methods may g i v e a b e t t e r a n a l y t i c a l b a s i s but they

l e a d to very comprehensive f o r m u l a e .

L o c a l b u c k l i n g can a l s o o c c u r i n the chord j u s t b e f o r e the j o i n t . This

mode o f f a i l u r e e s p e c i a l l y occurs i n o v e r l a p j o i n t s w i t h high chord
loads where the b r a c i n g l o a d components are m a i n l y t r a n s f e r r e d through
the top face o f the c h o r d . T h i s l o a d t r a n s f e r may l e a d to considerable
moments i n the chord and thus to f a i l u r e due to a x i a l loads and mo-
ments. For chord s e c t i o n s which f u l f i l the requirements f o r plastic
d e s i g n (see 2.32) the g e n e r a l i n t e r a c t i o n formulae g i v e n i n 2.8.2.3.
can be used. When chord s e c t i o n s do not f u l f i l these requirements the
moment s h o u l d be e l a s t i c a l l y taken i n t o account.

201
 5-14

N y - -

___ / x
eg ui v a l e nt
w i d t h of
frame

Fig. 5.11. Frame i n s t a b i l i t y m o d e l .

In j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d b r a c i n g s l o c a l b u c k l i n g can occur i n the

compression b r a c i n g due to the moments i n t r o d u c e d due to the non
uniform s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n area or the d e -
f l e c t i o n of the top f a c e of the c h o r d . T h i s can be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h
computer programmes which take account of the l o c a l j o i n t deforma-
tions. Packer [15] o b t a i n e d i n t h i s way a r e a s o n a b l e agreement w i t h
the t e s t r e s u l t s . The recommendations which w i l l be g i v e n l a t e r o n in
t h i s c h a p t e r are l i m i t e d i n v a l i d i t y i n such a way t h a t i t i s thought
t h a t t h i s type of l o c a l b u c k l i n g w i l l not be c r i t i c a l .

5.2.5.5. Shear y i e l d model

J o i n t s w i t h a high b r a c i n g to chord w i d t h or j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r
chord s e c t i o n h < b can a l s o f a i l by chord s i d e w a l l shear,
o o J

For T- and Y - j o i n t s this will o c c u r on e i t h e r s i d e of the b r a c i n g s , or

f o r gap j o i n t s between the b r a c i n g s (fig. 5.12.).
The s t r e n g t h can be a n a l y t i c a l l y p r e d i c t e d u s i n g the b a s i c interaction
formulae f o r p l a s t i c d e s i g n .

202
 5-15

-Is

^eo

Fig. 5.12. Shear y i e l d model

The b a s i c y i e l d shear l o a d i n a c r o s s s e c t i o n i s g i v e n b y :

0 - A (5.13)

with

A = 2t .(h - t ) (5.14)
Q o o
n
o' v

A l t h o u g h e q . ( 5 . 1 4 ) i s g e n e r a l l y used f o r Q i n the i n t e r a c t i o n for-

mulae the p l a s t i c shear l o a d c a p a c i t y i s h i g h e r because the c o r n e r s
o f the s e c t i o n can be e f f e c t i v e f o r shear.
In v a r i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s the a u t h o r proposed to use e q . ( 5 . 1 5 ) which
has been c o n f i r m e d by s e v e r a l test results.

A = 2 t (h + 2t ) (5.15)
Q o o o
n
l y

The a x i a l l o a d which can be t r a n s m i t t e d by t h i s c r o s s s e c t i o n can be

c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g the Huber Hencky - Von Mises c r i t e r i o n :

(5.16)
p,Q v
o Q' eo Q eo v
Q p

If a moment, shear l o a d and a x i a l l o a d i n a c r o s s s e c t i o n have to be

t r a n s m i t t e d the i n t e r a c t i o n f o r m u l a a c c o r d i n g 2 . 8 . 2 . 4 . i s g i v e n by:

(TrM - 1 5
(/-) = 1.0 (5.17)
P,Q P,Q

wi th :

203
 5-16

M = (A - A ) . ( h - t j a + 0.5(h - t ) . A . c r . / 1 - (5-) 2
(5.18)
p,Q o n
0/ o o ' eo ^ o n
o ' Q eo
v
n n
v
'

N p ) Q acc. eq. (5.15).

These e q u a t i o n s a r e a n a l y t i c a l l y c o r r e c t f o r A n according eq. (5.14)

but can a l s o be used w i t h e q . ( 5 . 1 5 ) because the d i f f e r e n c e i s small.
Eq. (5.15) was g i v e n f o r s i m p l i c i t y although i n j o i n t s w i t h square o r
r e c t a n g u l a r b r a c i n g s and a high 6 r a t i o and a narrow gap the top face
o f the chord can r e s i s t more s h e a r .
In a s i m i l a r way as d e s c r i b e d i n 6 . 5 . 1 . f o r j o i n t s w i t h I s e c t i o n chords the
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the top chord f l a n g e can be c a l c u l a t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o
the gap w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o g ' = . The e f f e c t i v e p a r t o f the f l a n g e
f o r shear i n j o i n t s o f r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s becomes than a . b . t Q 0 with:

a = y z i = r ( 5 . 1 9 )

3 t
o

From the bottom f l a n g e a t l e a s t the c o r n e r s can be assumed t o be e f -

f e c t i v e . This gives f o l l o w i n g equation f o r A : n

An = 2 t ( h - t ) + a . b . t + 2 t ^
Q O 0 o' v
0 0 0

An = A - ( 2 - a) b . t + 2tl
Q o ' o o v
o

A = 2.h.t + a b .t (5.20)
Q o o o o '
n
K

T h i s e q . ( 5 . 2 0 ) i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the formulae g i v e n f o r shear fail-

ure i n RI and RU j o i n t s . The i n t e r a c t i o n formulae (5.16) and ( 5 . 1 7 )
are now a n a l y t i c a l l y not c o r r e c t when e q . ( 5 . 2 0 ) i s used f o r the shear
area however, f o r these j o i n t s the d e v i a t i o n s a r e small f o r the i n t e r -
a c t i o n w i t h a x i a l l o a d whereas the e c c e n t r i c i t i e s and thus the moments
i n gap j o i n t s are h e l d s m a l l . F o r j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g members
the top f l a n g e i s l e s s s t i f f e n e d and a = 0 i s assumed.

5.2.6. J2iG_strength_formulae

As shown i n 5 . 2 . 5 . the s t r e n g t h f o r v a r i o u s f a i l u r e modes have t o be

c o n s i d e r e d . A f t e r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f these s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a i t has
t o be c o n s i d e r e d t o which extend s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e .
This s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 6 . i s m a i n l y based on [ 7 , 2 5 ] .

204
 5-17

5.2.6.1. I;i_Y-_and_X-igints

With e x c e p t i o n o f the shear f a i l u r e mode and the s i d e w a l l buckling

these j o i n t s behave v e r y s i m i l a r t h e r e f o r e they w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
together. The s t r e n g t h can be covered by:
- a b a s i c s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i o n which c o v e r s f a i l u r e o f the top face or
the s i d e w a l l s o f the c h o r d .
- a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a f o r chord punching shear or b r a c i n g effective
width.
The j o i n t s loaded i n compression w i t h a w i d t h r a t i o 6 0 . 8 5 g e n e r a l l y
fail by a y i e l d f a i l u r e o f the chord top f a c e or a c o m b i n a t i o n o f the
top f a c e and the s i d e w a l l s . For j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n t h i s mode o f
f a i l u r e occurs up to a lower 6 r a t i o but the s t r e n g t h is for a l l B
r a t i o s h i g h e r than f o r j o i n t s loaded i n c o m p r e s s i o n . Although the
s t r e n g t h f o r j o i n t s w i t h a low B r a t i o i s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r than
p r e d i c t e d by the s i m p l e y i e l d l i n e m o d e l , the s t r e n g t h i s based on
t h i s model to l i m i t the d e f o r m a t i o n s . The s t r e n g t h based on the s i m -
p l i f i e d y i e l d l i n e model i s g i v e n by:

2 t 2
a
N
ly - (l-B).sin Q l {
T T W I
+ 2 /
^ }
< - )
5 4

A comparison o f the t e s t r e s u l t s o f T- and X - j o i n t s loaded i n compres-

s i o n with eq. (5.4) i s shown i n f i g . 5 . 1 3 . [ 2 5 ] .
It i s shown t h a t the c a l c u l a t e d s t r e n g t h is generally lower than the
actual s t r e n g t h due to membrane a c t i o n which w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y
b 0

s t r o n g f o r j o i n t s w i t h a high -r and a low B r a t i o . Comparison o f the

o
c a l c u l a t e d s t r e n g t h and the T - j o m t t e s t r e s u l t s at a d e f l e c t i o n o f 1%
o f the chord w i d t h (fig. 5 . 1 4 . ) shows a r e a s o n a b l e good agreement.
T h i s was a l s o shown by Mouty [14].
For X - j o i n t s the d e f o r m a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y l a r g e r than f o r T - j o i n t s but
does not exceed 1% b Q at s e r v i c e l o a d c o n d i t i o n s when e q . ( 5 . 4 ) i s used
as d e s i g n strength.
Theoretically i t can be shown t h a t the chord l o a d i n g has e s p e c i a l l y
for X-joints an i n f l u e n c e on the l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the j o i n t because i n
T-joints bending s t r e s s e s are a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n the c h o r d . The tests
a l s o show a c e r t a i n i n f l u e n c e o f the c h o r d l o a d i n g , however the re-
s u l t i n g strength i s then s t i l l equal o r g r e a t e r than p r e d i c t e d by e q .
(5.4). T h i s i s the reason t h a t no i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n i s taken i n t o a c -
count.
205
 5-18

Fig. 5.13. Test r e s u l t s v. y i e l d l i n e model e g . ( 5 . 4 ) (failure).

* - c a l c u la ted

Fig. 5.14. D e l f t t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 1% b Q d e f l e c t i o n v. y i e l d line

model e q . (5.4).

206
 5-19

The s t r e n g t h of the j o i n t s w i t h a w i d t h r a t i o B = 1.0 i s determined

by the s t r e n g t h of the chord s i d e w a l l s . The general f u n c t i o n f o r the
b e a r i n g l o a d c a p a c i t y i s g i v e n by [ 7 ]:

' l
h

(5.8)
ly eo o 'sine + 5
V-Tn
1

In the case of compression the s t a b i l i t y o f the s i d e w a l l s has a l s o

to be c h e c k e d . S e v e r a l approaches t o t h i s problem e x i s t as d e s c r i b e d
in 5.2.5.4. It i s shown by t e s t s t h a t i n s t a b i l i t y o f the s i d e w a l l s
becomes c r i t i c a l f o r ^ v a l u e s between 20 and 2 5 . Thus the s i d e w a l l s
^o
have t o be checked f o r w a l l b e a r i n g and w a l l b u c k l i n g . The c h e c k i n g
procedure would be s i m p l i f i e d i f the two c o u l d be combined together
thus e q s . ( 5 . 1 2 ) and ( 5 . 8 ) . T h i s means t h a t the e f f e c t i v e s i d e w a l l
w i d t h b s h o u l d be the same:
m
'1
+ 5t (5.21)
N
ly = 2
V V sin0 sm8

T h i s e q u a t i o n i s checked i n f i g . 5 . 1 5 . w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s which are

o n l y a v a i l a b l e f o r orthogonal cross j o i n t s (0^ 90).

0.

0.4
X-joints Poland 1.8 V
^pC75 mm
0.2 based on lesser of hi
x T -joints Holland
and 75mm"

10 20 30 AO
Hfl.
to

Fig. 5.15. Test r e s u l t s f o r w a l l b e a r i n g and w a l l buckling.

207
 5-20

This f i g u r e shows t h a t the t e s t r e s u l t s l i e between the ECCS

b u c k l i n g curve " a " and the E u l e r b u c k l i n g c u r v e , the ECCS curve giving
a good lower bound. U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s gives already values of bearing
s t r e s s l e s s than y i e l d s t r e s s f o r -f^- > 10. An a l t e r n a t i v e formulation
To

which a v o i d s t h i s problem i s t o assume t h a t the b u c k l i n g s t r e s s can be

c a l c u l a t e d by y - g Euler s t r e s s . This provides a conservative estimate
of b u c k l i n g s t r e s s f o r -J^- > 2 5 . For orthogonal j o i n t s t h e r e f o r e both
o I

b e a r i n g and s i d e w a l l b u c k l i n g can be s a t i s f i e d by e q . ( 5 . 2 1 ) where

CT^ i s based on the ECCS b u c k l i n g curve " a " o r the m o d i f i e d E u l e r v a l u e ,
a
k CT
eo '
The form of the e q . ( 5 . 2 1 ) takes account of the i n c r e a s e d contact
l e n g t h o f the b r a c i n g and the normal component c a p a c i t y , w i t h decrease
of G , . Theoretical predictions for e l a s t i c side wall buckling however
i n d i c a t e t h a t the normal component of b u c k l i n g c a p a c i t y remains s u b -
s t a n t i a l l y constant with decreasing 0 ^ .
T h i s i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y can be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y taken i n t o account for
0^ < 90 by assuming t h a t

h
X = 3.46 ( ^ - 2) _ (5.22)
o / s i n0 j

in estimating in

N
l y = Z-VViTSq V i T ^ + 5
^ > 21

s i n c e f o r e l a s t i c b u c k l i n g the c r i t i c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e s s i s a f u n c t i o n
of * Tests i n d i c a t e t h a t e q s . ( 5 . 2 1 ) or ( 5 . 2 2 ) are c o n s e r v a t i v e for
A h
l
the case o f j o i n t s w i t h g ^ n Q < h Q or f o r r e c t a n g u l a r c h o r d s , however

f o r s i m p l i c i t y no a d d i t i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s are given h e r e . Due to the

h
f a c t t h a t the d e f o r m a t i o n and r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y depends on the
r a t i o some m o d i f i c a t i o n s are l a t e r o n adopted f o r the d e s i g n strengths
(see s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 7 . ) .
In case o f c r o s s j o i n t s it i s necessary to ensure t h a t sufficient
restraint i s p r o v i d e d to prevent lateral i n s t a b i l i t y of the s i d e w a l l s .

^ European Convention f o r C o n s t r u c t i o n a l Steelwork.

 5-21

J o i n t s w i t h 3 > 0 . 8 5 and o n l y m a r g i n a l l y s m a l l e r than 1.0 a r e not com-

mon because o f t h e a v a i l a b l e s e c t i o n s . Although t h e r e i s very little
t e s t evidence a v a i l a b l e f o r these types o f j o i n t s , these i n d i c a t e that
a l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n between t h e s t r e n g t h f o r 3 = 0 . 8 5 and 3 = 1.0 i s
a c c e p t a b l e f o r t h e range of v a l i d i t y given l a t e r o n . These types of
joints fail by a k i n d o f frame p i a s t i f i c a t i o n o r instability.
B e s i d e s the above mentioned b a s i c c r i t e r i a t h e e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g w i d t h
and chord punching shear have t o be c o v e r e d . T e s t s on p l a t e to RHS
chord c o n n e c t i o n s showed t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e w i d t h b for a cross wall
e
can be given by [31]:

. f ^ ) . b r f ( 8 ) (5.23)
^ e r V

c = 1 3 . 5 f o r Fe 360 and Fe 430

c = 1 1 . 5 f o r Fe 510

It appeared t h a t v a r i a t i o n s i n grades o f s t e e l t o g e t h e r w i t h different

t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s between p l a t e and chord s e c t i o n can be accomodated by:

a .t a . t

er l t a z
eV l

It seems however not be l o g i c a l to use t h i s f u n c t i o n w i t h o u t l i m i t a t i o n s

t h e r e f o r e the v a l u e s adopted s h o u l d f o r the time b e i n g be l i m i t e d to
the range t e s t e d :

cr .t

1 < i 2 (5.25)

The p l a t e e f f i c i e n c y ^ i s s m a l l e s t when the s i d e w e l d s of the p l a t e are

j u s t l o c a t e d i n s i d e the c o r n e r r a d i i of the c h o r d . In t h i s case the l o a d
t r a n s f e r i s most c r i t i c a l . In [31] a lower bound f o r f ( 8 ) i s assumed
bei ng:
f ( 6 ) = 1.0 (5.26)
b
T h i s assumption i s c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r 8 < 0 . 6 and high j- ratios. More
d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n i n Appendix V - 3 .
For punching shear the v a r i a t i o n s i n y i e l d s t r e s s and t h i c k n e s s have not a
s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e because y i e l d i n g i n the p l a t e i s l e s s pronounced.
209
 5-22

The i n f l u e n c e o f 8 was shown to be s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r the b r a c i n g

e f f e c t i v e width i.e.

(5.27)
b^t" b
l
o o

with c acc. eq. (5.23).

In f i g . 5 . 1 6 . i t i s shown t h a t e q . ( 5 . 2 3 ) can be c o n s i d e r e d as a lower
bound f o r the t e s t r e s u l t s .

Fig. 5.16. T e s t r e s u l t s f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h

f o r p l a t e to RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s .

The e q s . ( 5 . 2 3 ) and ( 5 . 2 7 ) are now a l s o adopted f o r T- and X - j o i n t s

which r e s u l t s i n f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s f o r the e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g w i d t h
( e q . 5 . 7 a ) and the chord punching s h e a r ( e q . 5.6a)

N =o t .[2h - 4t + 2b ] (5.7a)
lu
e r 1 1 x e

2h
1 1
N, = - * . t . ifr~ + 2b (5.6a)
lu o
e
e
n sine-, p sine,
l

with b g and b 6 p a c c o r d i n g e q s . ( 5 . 2 3 ) and ( 5 . 2 7 )

 5-23

A l t h o u g h the t e s t were c a r r i e d out on j o i n t s w i t h 0 = 90 , based on

theoretical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s the angle f u n c t i o n i s i n c l u d e d f o r punching
s h e a r . Punching shear i s o n l y e f f e c t e d by the v e r t i c a l bracing load
component. For the b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h no angle f u n c t i o n i s in-
c l u d e d because the i n f l u e n c e f o r the f u l l bracing section i s expected
to be s m a l l e r . The r e a l i n f l u e n c e i s b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d as p a r t of a
current ECSC r e s e a r c h programme.
Figs. ( 5 . 1 7 ) and ( 5 . 1 8 ) show a comparison between the a v a i l a b l e test
r e s u l t s f o r T- and X - j o i n t s loaded i n t e n s i o n and the d e c i s i v e equa-
t i o n s f o r e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g w i d t h , chord punching shear and chord w a l l
bearing [32].
It i s shown t h a t t h e r e i s a good agreement between the t e s t results
and the p r e d i c t i o n s . For the l i m i t a t i o n of the chord f a c e d e f l e c t i o n s
the chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n e q . ( 5 . 4 ) was a d o p t e d . Comparison o f
the t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h t h i s c r i t e r i o n e . g . in f i g . 5.19. for X-joints,
shows t h a t up to B = 0 . 8 5 the chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n i s always
decisive.

600

theoretical
x bracing failure
punching shear failure
+ chord bearing

100 200 300 400 500 600

N l u theory (kN)

Fig. 5.17. Comparison o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l strength of T - j o i n t s loaded

i n tension with eqs. ( 5 . 6 a ) , (5.7a) and (5.8).

211
 5-24

* N l u theory ( k N )

Fig. 5.18. Comparison of the e x p e r i m e n t a l strength of X - j o i n t s loaded

i n tension with eqs. (5.6a), (5.7a) and (5.8).

punching shear
3 80 x bracing failure
O
<u
f t f failure
B-1
70 first cracking

60

50
B-4
0

30

20

10 V
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 08 0.9 1.0

Fig. 5.19. Comparison of the e x p e r i m e n t a l s t r e n g t h of X - j o i n t s loaded

i n t e n s i o n w i t h the chord face y i e l d c r i t e r i o n e q . (5.4).

212
 5-25

T h i s a l s o f o l l o w s from a d i r e c t comparison between e q s . ( 5 . 4 ) , (5.6a)

and (5.7a).
Thus the e f f e c t i v e branch width and chord punching shear have o n l y to
be checked f o r 8 > 0.85 w h i l e punching shear can o n l y occur i f a shear
area can be formed between the s i d e welds o f the b r a c i n g s and the inner
s i d e s of the c h o r d . T h i s means t h a t the punching shear has seldom to
be checked. F i g . 5 . 2 0 . shows the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 3 > 0 . 8 5 .
Thus summarized f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a have to be checked
- f a i l u r e o f the chord f a c e , eq. (5.4) for 8 0.85
- chord w a l l b e a r i n g o r b u c k l i n g , e q . (5.21) for 8 = 1.0

- i n t e r p o l a t i o n between, eqs. ( 5 . 4 ) and (5.21) for 0.85 < 6 < 1 0

- chord punching shear, eq. (5.6a) for 0.85 < 8 < 1 0
- bracing e f f e c t i v e width, eq. (5.7a) for 0.85 < 8 1 0

500 1000 1500

N, theory (kN)
u

Fig. 5.20. Comparison of the e x p e r i m e n t a l s t r e n g t h of T- and X-joints

i n tension f o r 8 > 0.85 with eqs. (5.6a), (5.7a) and (5.8).

T h i s means t h a t f o r 0 . 8 5 < 8 < 1.0 many c r i t e r i a have to be checked

depending on the dimensions of the s e c t i o n s . In 5 . 2 . 7 . these criteria
are e v a l u a t e d to design c r i t e r i a w h i l e i n Appendix V-4 a s i m p l i f i e d
approach i s worked out i n r e l a t i o n to the j o i n t parameters.

213
 5-26

5.2.6.2. K : _ a n d _ N ; j o i n t s _ w i th_gap_

The e a r l i e s t general f o r m u l a t i o n f o r the j o i n t s t r e n g t h was g i v e n by

Eastwood and Wood [ 4 ] . L a t e r these formulae were m o d i f i e d by Davie
and G i d d i n g s [5]. As these p r e v i o u s t e s t s were based on a l i m i t e d
number o f t e s t s not a l l r e l e v a n t parameters were taken i n t o a c c o u n t .
F u r t h e r these formulae i n c o r p o r a t e d a s c a l e e f f e c t which was not cor-
r e c t . A n a l y s i n g the j o i n t s based on the y i e l d l i n e model d i s c u s s e d i n
5 . 2 . 5 . 1 . , showed t h a t due to membrane e f f e c t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e
b n

o f the parameter -r^ e x i s t s [ 6 ]. T a k i n g t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n t o a c -

z
o
count l e a d s to v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d f u n c t i o n s t h e r e f o r e a s e m i - e m p e r i c a l
approach i s f o l l o w e d .
When chord f a i l u r e s are c o n s i d e r e d i t i s shown [ 6 , 7] t h a t membrane a c -
t i o n becomes more pronounced f o r j o i n t s w i t h a h i g h -r~- r a t i o and c o n -
o x

s e q u e n t l y the s t r e n g t h i s a f u n c t i o n o f :

hu-^eo-i-^/-^ -
(5 28)

As shown i n f i g . 5 . 2 1 . t h i s e x p r e s s i o n w i t h X = 0 . 5 even covers the

t e s t r e s u l t s o f j o i n t s w i t h a high 6 r a t i o .

214
 5-27

T h i s can be e x p l a i n e d as f o l l o w s . J o i n t s w i t h a h i g h 6 r a t i o f a i l by
shear y i e l d o f the chord which i s a f u n c t i o n o f a .h . t . For joints
eo o o
w i t h t h i c k w a l l e d chords the s t r e n g t h i s i n c r e a s e d by s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g
w h i l e f o r t h i n w a l l e d chords the shear s t r e n g t h o f the chord w a l l s is
reduced by i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h l o c a l b u c k l i n g . As a r e s u l t a f u n c t i o n
o -v
h

a .n . t .(-) g i v e s w i t h i n a c e r t a i n range a r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x i m a -
A

o
t i o n and t h i s f u n c t i o n i s f o r square chords the same as e q . (5.28).
The i n f l u e n c e o f 6 i s g i v e n by a s t r a i g h t l i n e w h i l e a c c o r d i n g t o the
y i e l d l i n e model i t i s a c u r v e . T h i s i s e f f e c t e d by the membrane a c -
t i o n which i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l a r g e r d e f l e c t i o n s . T h i s membrane a c t i o n
becomes more i m p o r t a n t w i t h d e c r e a s i n g & r a t i o s . For j o i n t s w i t h large
6 r a t i o s the t h e o r e t i c a l curve f o r chord f a c e f a i l u r e i s c u t o f f by
the chord shear c r i t e r i o n w h i l e f o r v e r y small 8 r a t i o s i t is cutt off
by the punching shear c r i t e r i o n [ 7 ] which r e s u l t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n a
l i n e a r f u n c t i o n f o r B between 0 . 4 6 S 1 . 0 . In j o i n t s o f rectangular
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s v a r i o u s j o i n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s are p o s s i b l e as shown i n
f i g . 5.22.

Fig. 5.22. Test r e s u l t s f o r d i f f e r e n t bracing o r i e n t a t i o n s [6, 7].

215
 5-28

It can be shown w i t h the y i e l d l i n e model t h a t the width r a t i o 8 be-

tween b r a c i n g s and chord has a l a r g e r i n f l u e n c e than the n r a t i o
( b r a c i n g h e i g h t to chord w i d t h ) . T h i s i s the reason t h a t f o r s i m p l i c -
i t y o n l y the i n f l u e n c e o f 6 i s taken i n t o account i n [ 6 ].

In the a n a l y s i s [ 6 , 7 ] the y i e l d s t r e n g t h determined w i t h stub columns

was used which g i v e s a mean v a l u e f o r the t o t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n . Adop-
t i o n of t h i s y i e l d s t r e s s w i t h a maximum of 0.8o^. showed no d i f f e r e n c e s
between j o i n t s o f h o t - and c o l d - f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n s [33].
S i m i l a r to j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i t was found t h a t for
chord f a c e f a i l u r e s the s t r e n g t h was m a i n l y e f f e c t e d by the angle Oj
between compression b r a c i n g and c h o r d . The angle 0g between tension
b r a c i n g and chord has a minor e f f e c t . T h i s i s caused by the larger
p l a s t i f i c a t i o n s around the compression b r a c i n g . The i n f l u e n c e function
f o r the angle 0^ i s g i v e n by [ 6 , 7]:

1 + sin,
f
( )
0
= -Ts-The^ < -
5 2 9
>

In [ 6 , 7] a l s o the chord d e p t h - w i d t h r a t i o , the gap s i z e and the i n -

f l u e n c e o f p r e s t r e s s i n g o f the chord were investigated.

A smaller depth-width r a t i o of the chord r e s u l t s i n lower strengths

due to a shear f a i l u r e . A h i g h e r d e j D t h - w i d t h r a t i o l e a d s f o r high 8
r a t i o s o n l y to h i g h e r r e s u l t s when i s low o t h e r w i s e interaction
w i t h l o c a l s i d e w a l l b u c k l i n g l i m i t s the s t r e n g t h . The i n f l u e n c e of
the chord d e p t h - w i d t h r a t i o can be taken i n t o account by a chord
shear c r i t e r i o n o r w i t h i n a l i m i t e d range by an e m p e r i c a l influence
function [ 7 ] :

f > = 0 - 5
(5-30)
o o
w i t h as maximum 1 . 0 .
For chord f a c e f a i l u r e s the i n f l u e n c e of the gap i s small due to i n -
t e r a c t i v e e f f e c t s of the f a i l u r e modes. Based on the y i e l d l i n e model
the s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s w i t h d e c r e a s i n g gap however t h i s i s l i m i t e d by
the punching shear c r i t e r i o n . In j o i n t s w i t h l a r g e r gaps the influence
o f membrane a c t i o n i s s t r o n g e r . In [ 7 ] i t i s shown t h a t assuming
f(g) = 1.0 g i v e s a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n which was, based on an a n a l y t i -
c a l l y study, also concluded by P a c k e r [ 1 5 ] .

216
 5-29

The i n f l u e n c e o f a compression f o r c e i n the chord depends on the failure

mode. The mean o f the t e s t r e s u l t s i s f a i r l y w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by [ 6 , 7].
? (5.31)
f ( n ' ) = 1 - (n')

wi th
N
11 n op
A .a
o eo

Eq. (5.31) i s the same as the r e d u c t i o n o f a p l a s t i c moment i n a y i e l d

l i n e by an a x i a l force. From a p r a c t i c a l point of view, i t i s sensible
to c o n s i d e r the maximum chord f o r c e as t h i s i s the f o r c e the designer
i s used to w o r k i n g w i t h . T h e r e f o r e following empirical equation is
g i v e n f o r j o i n t s w i t h chords loaded i n compression [ 7 ]:

f(n) = 1.3 - M | |
n (5.32)

f(n) 1.0

with
N
o
n
= TTTo
o eo

For chords loaded i n t e n s i o n the j o i n t s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s due t o

membrane a c t i o n o r the s t r e n g t h remained c o n s t a n t . T h i s i s a l s o c o n -
firmed with g i r d e r tests [8]. F i g . 5 . 2 3 . shows a comparison o f the
t e s t r e s u l t s for B = 0.4 with eq. (5.30).

1.4

12
hN oN
N m
1.0
1 { + oN
0.8 o LN/+ o
2y ~
2y ~
o o 20
"+N
0.6 25
/ + i-au + 2 y - 33
P 'Oeo'
0.4
f (n ) 3-0.4
N= N - t y p e
0.2
others
K-type
0
1.0-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 + 0.2 +0.4 +0.6 +0.8 +1.0

A
oOe o

Fig. 5.23. Comparison o f the t e s t r e s u l t s for 0.4 with eq. (5.32).

217
 5-30

As a r e s u l t from e q s . (5.28), (5.29), ( 5 . 3 0 ) and ( 5 . 3 2 ) f o l l o w i n g b a s i c

j o i n t s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n i s proposed i n [7]:

,2,Vo.5 ,
1+ S i n 0

' V W U
-
,. ,
. ( 0 . 4 + 8 . C n5 6 ) . - ^ ^ .
l c l \ o,
f(n).f(^)
h

(5.33)
N
lu
o 1 o

with

f(n) = 1.0 f o r n 5 - 0.75B

(5.32)

f(n) = 1.3 - ~ InI f o r n < - 0.75B

P

h h
For 0 . 5 t < 1.5 and 15 -j c 35 the chord shear can be covered
0 0
4-U
with:

ffep) = (^)' 5
(5-30)
o o

f(^) < 1.0

0
T h i s e q u a t i o n has the p r o f i t t h a t both chord f a c e f a i l u r e and chord
shear f a i l u r e are covered i n one e q u a t i o n . As a consequence however
b n

the range o f a p p l i c a t i o n i s l i m i t e d to 15 < 35.

z
o
Equation ( 5 . 2 3 ) shows a very good agreement w i t h the D e l f t t e s t s for
j o i n t s w i t h square c h o r d s , a gap g = 0 . 2 b Q and no p r e s t r e s s i n g o f the
chord [ 6 , 7].
For these types o f j o i n t s the c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f the t e s t re-
s u l t s was 9.5% [ 7 ] . The o t h e r t e s t r e s u l t s are not i n c o r p o r a t e d in
c a l c u l a t i n g the c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n because the adopted f u n c t i o n s
for g , and n are lower bound f u n c t i o n s . In e q . ( 5 . 3 3 ) the f o l l o w -
9
ing s i m p l i f i c a t i o n [ 7 ] can be made f o r the range o f validity
0.4 * 6 < 1.0:

( 0 . 4 + 8 . 5 g ) a 9B (5.34)

Based on the a n a l y s i s and the t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n the U.K. [ 2 , 5] and

in Pisa [ 9] on N - j o i n t s P a c k e r and Haleem suggested a f u n c t i o n which
d e v i a t e s from e q . ( 5 . 3 1 ) i n so f a r t h a t the f u n c t i o n f o r b Q , t Q and
O i s changed to [34]:

t
2
. Jo)- . _ J _
(
3
(5.35)
o H sine. ; v
'
o 1

218
 5-31

T h i s f u n c t i o n g i v e s a s l i g h t l y b e t t e r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the t e s t re-
s u l t s on N-type j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d chords d e r i v e d i n the U.K. and
P i s a but l a r g e l y u n d e r p r e d i c t s the t h i n w a l l e d K - j o i n t s t e s t e d by
Mang [ 3 5 ] . A f t e r a thorough d i s c u s s i o n i n C i d e c t and IIW w o r k i n g groups
i t was decided to adopt e q . ( 5 . 3 3 ) f o r chord f a c e f a i l u r e s w i t h a m o d i -
f i c a t i o n f o r the angle f u n c t i o n to accomodate the lower r e s u l t s for
N-type j o i n t s t e s t e d i n the U.K. and P i s a .

1 +
l
S i n 6
0.86 ,,
ZiThG^ * sTnGj" ( 5
- 3 6 )

As a r e s u l t f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r chord f a c e f a i l u r e s i s a d o p t e d :

o l

with f(n) according eq. (5.32).

Fig. 5 . 2 4 . shows a comparison o f e q . ( 5 . 3 7 ) w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s [25].

Fig. 5.24. K- and N-gap j o i n t t e s t r e s u l t s v s . e q . 5 . 3 7 .

219
 5-32

o o b b

The range o f v a l i d i t y i s l i m i t e d to -r- 3 5 . For h i g h e r -r- r a t i o s

^0 TQ

the f u n c t i o n can be used f o r K - j o i n t s but may o v e r p r e d i c t the strength

o f N-type j o i n t s . T h i s can be e x p l a i n e d by the h i g h e r secundary bending
moments i n N-type j o i n t s which n e c e s s i t a t e s a good r o t a t i o n capacity
o f the j o i n t . In the t e s t e d N-type j o i n t s w i t h t h i n w a l l e d chords this
c o n d i t i o n was not s a t i s f i e d because the gap was r e l a t i v e l y small com-
pared to the d i s t a n c e between the s i d e w a l l s o f the b r a c i n g s and the
s i d e w a l l o f the c h o r d . For t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s w i t h l i t t l e ability
f o r p l a s t i c r e d i s t r i b u t i o n t h i s r e s u l t s i n a very non-uniform stiff-
ness d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the j o i n t and an e a r l y crack i n i t i a t i o n . As a
r e s u l t the secundary bending moments cannot be r e d i s t r i b u t e d and a
lower j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s f o u n d . T h i s i s f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n the d i s -
c u s s i o n o f the punching shear c r i t e r i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n and i n s e c t i o n
5 . 4 r e g a r d i n g i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l l o a d and bending moment.
To cover a l s o j o i n t s w i t h very s t o c k y chords the shear f a i l u r e s are
covered i n d e p e n d e n t l y by t h e a n a l y t i c a l shear c r i t e r i a ( 5 . 1 3 a ) and ( 5 . 1 6 ) :

N . = (5.13a)
y / ~ 3 . s i nG.

N
ogap = (A v
o
- AJa + A .a V I
0/ eo
x
Q eo
n - i
Q
p
n
v
(5.16)
'

wi th

A
Q < o 2 h +
*V*0 ( 5
- 1 5 )

Q =A .^ n

P /3Q

Q = N .sinQi i (i = 1 or 2)

Fig. 5 . 2 5 . shows a comparison o f the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r shear f a i l u r e

with eq. (5.13a).

All t e s t s i n which a shear f a i l u r e was observed c o n s i s t of j o i n t s with a

gap g = 0 . 2 b for|vhich e q . (5.15) g i v e s a good e s t i m a t i o n of the shear area
Q

f o r j o i n t s w i t h - = 3 5 . For lower-r^- values i t u n d e r p r e d i c t s the s t r e n g t h .

T

o o L L

Although e q . ( 5 . 1 5 ) i s adopted i n the recommendations of Subcie XVE o f the

IIW, f o r c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h the j o i n t s w i t h I - s e c t i o n or channel section
chords i t i s proposed here to use e q . 5.20 (see s e c t i o n 5.2.5.5. and 6.5.1. ).
h 0

T h i s f u n c t i o n a i v e s e s p e c i a l l y f o r low values and small gaps a b e t t e r

to
agreement w i t h the r e a l s t r e n g t h c a p a c i t y .
 5-33

500

0 100 200 300 400 500

> calculated failure load (kN)

Fig. 5.25. K- and N-type g a p - j o i n t t e s t r e s u l t s f o r shear f a i l u r e

vs. eq. (5.13a).

(5.20)

(5.19)

For the t e s t r e s u l t s a v a i l a b l e w i t h g = 0 . 2 b Q e q . ( 5 . 1 9 ) gives n e a r l y the

same r e s u l ts as e q . ( 5 . 1 5 ) e . g . the di f f e r e n c e i s l e s s than 1%. For joints
w i t h s m a l l e r gaps however, e q . ( 5 . 2 0 ) takes account o f the i n c r e a s e d
shear s t r e n g t h .
The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and punching shear are s t i l l in investigation in
the c u r r e n t E C S C - C i d e c t programme, however, based on the r e s u l t s of
p l a t e to RHS c o n n e c t i o n s and RHS c r o s s j o i n t s , a p r e l i m i n a r y recom-
mendation can be g i v e n . For j o i n t s where the s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n is
r a t h e r good ( f i g . 5.26a) t h r e e s i d e s o f the b r a c i n g s can be assumed as
f u l l y e f f e c t i v e whereas f o r the o t h e r c r o s s w a l l a s i m i l a r approach
can be f o l l o w e d as f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s (eq. 5.7a) and 5 . 6 a ) ) .

221
 5-34

N- = ^
n e r t .(2h
1 i -4t. + b . + b ) e (5.38)
(i = 1 o r 2)
In case o f punching s h e a r :

2"i 1

N, . t (5.39)
1
/3~ ' S i n G
i +
^ + b e
p ) s i n 0
i ( 1 - 1 o r 2)

with b and b according eqs. ( 5 . 2 3 ) and ( 5 . 2 7 )

P

1
J" ^ rl
TT^
oil ^J JA |

Fig. 5.26. S t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a gap j o i n t .

The s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a gap j o i n t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r the

assumed e f f e c t i v e a r e a . For example i n the j o i n t o f f i g . 5.26b the ef-
f e c t i v e b r a c i n g area w i l l o n l y be m a r g i n a l l y g r e a t e r than b^.t^
w h i l e the j o i n t a c c o r d i n g f i g . 5.26c has an e f f e c t i v e w i d t h comparable
w i t h t h a t o f a T- o r Y - j o i n t . Based on t e s t s c a r r i e d out f o r the i n -
v e s t i g a t i o n o f the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r i t can be assumed t h a t e q s . (5.38)
and ( 5 . 3 9 ) can be used i f the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n i s f u l f i l l e d :

0.5(1 - B) g 1.5(1 (5.40)

 5-35

5.2.6.3. KT-joints_with_gap

The o n l y K T - j o i n t s which have been t e s t e d are those g i v e n i n [ 7 ].

These t e s t s show t h a t the s t r e n g t h o f these j o i n t s can be r e l a t e d to
those o f K - j o i n t s by t a k i n g account o f the v e r t i c a l components o f a l l
l o a d s i n the compression b r a c i n g s . Then f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n has to be
satisfied:

Nj.sin! + N .sine 3 3 * N l u .sinG 1 ( K _ j o i n t ) (5.41)

Nj u acc. eq. (5.37).

T h i s r e l a t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r j o i n t s of c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c -
t i o n s . B e s i d e s e q . ( 5 . 4 1 ) the punching s h e a r - and b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e
w i d t h have to be s a t i s f i e d .

5.2.6.4. K:_ d_N-joints_wHh_oveHag

n

The 100% o v e r l a p j o i n t s can be a n a l y s e d on the b a s i s o f the e f f e c t i v e

w i d t h . T h i s was f i r s t proposed by G i d d i n g s [ 19], although he worked it
out i n a d i f f e r e n t way to t h a t g i v e n h e r e . The b r a c i n g member welded
to the o t h e r b r a c i n g has t h r e e f u l l e f f e c t i v e s i d e s f o r l o a d t r a n s f e r .
The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f the o t h e r s i d e can be t r e a t e d i n a s i m i l a r way
as f o r g a p - j o i n t s , however, it i s now r e l a t e d to the w i d t h - w a l l
t h i c k n e s s r a t i o o f the o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g member. The o v e r l a p p e d
b r a c i n g member has o n l y t o t r a n s f e r the shear component to the c h o r d .
Here a l s o t h r e e e f f e c t i v e s i d e s and one l e s s e f f e c t i v e s i d e can be a s -
sumed. The t e s t r e s u l t s show as expected o n l y a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the
w a l l - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o o f the o v e r l a p p e d member because the chord w a l l
t h i c k n e s s r a t i o has o n l y an i n f l u e n c e i n the case o f chord l o c a l buck-
ling. In t h i s case the chord member s t r e n g t h has to be c h e c k e d , and
member f o r c e s reduced to a l l o w f o r bending moments due to j o i n t e c c e n -
tricity. T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t where non-compact s e c t i o n s are
used where moment r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n i s not p e r m i t t e d .

J o i n t s which meet c e r t a i n w i d t h - w a l l thickness l i m i t a t i o n s given in

fig. 5 . 3 4 . can be designed on b a s i s o f the s t r e n g t h o f the b r a c i n g
member connected to the o t h e r b r a c i n g :

N = a - . t . ( 2 h . - 4 t - + b. + b , J (5.42)
IU ei v l l n e(ovV v
'
(i=lor2)
with:

223
 5-36

(a . . t , )
b c i i l ^ H . b (5.43)
e(ov) (b./t.) o v o ..t.
e i

) means o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g member; c = 13.5 f o r Fe 360 and Fe 430

c = 11.5 f o r Fe 510
Fig. 5 . 2 7 . shows a comparison of e q . ( 5 . 4 2 ) w i t h the t e s t results.

140

120

100'

80

60

40

x yield in ten si o n bracing

20 o l o c a l b u c k l i n g compr.
bracing
a comp. b r a c i n g b u c k l i n g

10 20 30 40
b 2

Fig. 5.27. T e s t r e s u l t s f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h 100% o v e r l a p

vs. eq. (5.42).

P a r t i a l l y overlapped j o i n t s have been a n a l y t i c a l l y s t u d i e d by Davies

[ 3 7 ] . The t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s shows t h a t the s t r e n g t h i s mainly i n -
b n

f l u e n c e d by the w i d t h w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o o f the c h o r d . The tests

i n d i c a t e a r e a s o n a b l e degree o f c o n f i d e n c e i n the t h e o r y however the
e q u a t i o n s become too c o m p l i c a t e d f o r d e s i g n recommendations. T h e r e f o r e
a s i m i l a r approach i s f o l l o w e d as f o r the 100% o v e r l a p joints.

224
 5-37

In p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p p e d j o i n t s one o f the c r o s s w a l l s i s connected t o

the o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g whereas the o t h e r one i s connected t o the c h o r d .
Assuming an e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r the c r o s s w a l l s based on e q s . ( 5 . 2 3 )
and ( 5 . 4 3 ) r e s u l t s i n :

N
iy = ei- 2 h
i " 4 t
i + b
e(ov) + b
e) (5-44)
J
(I = 1 o r 2)

b
e(ov) a c c
- e q
- ^ -
5 4 3 )

b g a c c . e q . (5.23)

The s i d e s are assumed t o be f u l l y e f f e c t i v e which i s o n l y t r u e i f the

o v e r l a p i s not too small ( a t l e a s t 30%) and the chord w i d t h - w a l l thick-
ness r a t i o i s not too l a r g e (-r^ < 3 5 ) .
o r

A comparison o f t h i s e q u a t i o n w i t h the few t e s t r e s u l t s a v a i l a b l e gener-

a l l y shows good agreement except f o r j o i n t s w i t h l a r g e chord slenderness
and small o v e r l a p . F u r t h e r i t i s shown t h a t the w i d t h - w a l l thickness
r a t i o ' s o f the b r a c i n g s should be such as t o p r e v e n t l o c a l b u c k l i n g . In
view o f t h i s , more r e s t r i c t i v e l i m i t a t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n the d e s i g n r e -
commendations.
All t e s t s on o v e r l a p j o i n t s confirmed t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h i s not i n -
f l u e n c e d by the chord l o a d i n g [8].

Joints_with_circu^ar_bracing_members

Extensive experimental r e s e a r c h as w e l l as a n a l y t i c a l investigations

[ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7] have shown t h a t these types o f j o i n t can e a s i l y be r e l a t e d
to the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae by s u b s t i t u t i n g 5 d^ ( i = 1 o r 2) f o r
b. and h^ i n t h e s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s . T h i s means t h a t the c i r c u l a r
b r a c i n g i s t r a n s p o s e d i n t o an e q u i v a l e n t square b r a c i n g w i t h the same
t h i c k n e s s and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a . Consequently the same j o i n t e f -
ficiency exists.
Fig. 5 . 2 9 . shows a comparison o f the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r K- and N - j o i n t s
w i t h -J x e q . ( 5 . 3 3 ) . F o r s m a l l e r B r a t i o s t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s some-
what c o n s e r v a t i v e but compensates the e f f e c t s t h a t these j o i n t s are
more s e n s i t i v e f o r an e a r l i e r crack i n i t i a t i o n and the l a r g e r deforma-
t i o n s i n the j o i n t .
With regard t o e f f e c t i v e w i d t h , punching shear and chord w a l l local
b u c k l i n g the l o a d t r a n s f e r i s more s e v e r e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t e n s i l e
loading.

225
 5-38

To o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t p l a s t i f i c a t i o n i t i s a d v i c e d to l i m i t the w i d t h
r a t i o i n such a way t h a t these c r i t e r i a do not become c r i t i c a l com-
pared to the b a s i c c r i t e r i a f o r chord face p l a s t i f i c a t i o n and chord
shear or t h a t the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n can deform s u f f i c i e n t l y i n combi-
i
d

n a t i o n w i t h l o c a l y i e l d i n g i n the b r a c i n g i . e . T < 0 . 8 .
o
D

Fig. 5.28. Test r e s u l t s f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r bracings

and a square or r e c t a n g u l a r chord.

Overlap j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s and a square or rectangular

chord are not common i n p r a c t i c e because i n these j o i n t s the bracings
have to be p a r t i a l l y profiled.
More d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n about j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s and a
s q u a r e - or r e c t a n g u l a r chord i s given i n [ 6 , 7],

5.2.6.6. Joint_stiffness

The j o i n t s t i f f n e s s have not been expressed i n formalae up to now. Re-

c e n t l y a programme s t a r t e d i n The Netherlands i n which a l l information
r e g a r d i n g the j o i n t s t i f f n e s s w i l l be c o l l e c t e d and a n a l y s e d . The de-
s i g n formulae given i n 5 . 2 . 8 . are l i m i t e d i n the range of validity

226
 5-39

16-1X

400

300

}
;1.0/ bo
to
/'
1
1
1

1
1 35-1.0 16-0.4 - +
1. -25-0.7
100
b = 10C) mm
4' 0

h =16 to 35
35-0.7
i 3 =1.0
75-OA p =0.7

35 MIA p = 0.4

0 1 5 10 15 20 25
6 in % b 0

Fig. 5.29. Some l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n diagrammes f o r T-joints

i n compression.

1
'/oNi u | % N 2 u
Nu 100%
y

p r
T = 1 100%

I / M .
90. P0.6
\- /- (3alQ_
N
. p= 0.6 I P=1.0
/ S
/ 80 P0_6 /
/ \

i
l i
;/
i /
70
\
\

\ i 1/
VI 60
\\
\
/
1
\ I
l

1
40
^4
l \
o 6 i
i
30

1
4 3 - i 20 . 4- \ 43-1
g = 0.2 b 0
i g =02 b 0

l _bo_
-^~25 10 r33
to 1 to

I I J L
0 1

f
5 m % b 0 in % b 0

Figs. 5 . 3 0 . and 5 . 3 1 . Some l o a d dformation diagrammes f o r K-joints.

 5-41

o r t a k e i n d i r e c t l y account o f a d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t . For example the

b a s i c c r i t e r i o n f o r chord f a c e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s
t a k e s d i r e c t l y account o f a d e f o r m a t i o n l i m i t . When the o t h e r criteria
f o r these j o i n t s are c r i t i c a l than the d e f o r m a t i o n a t s e r v i c e load
is small. The b a s i c c r i t e r i o n f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h gap i s based
on the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h . To l i m i t the d e f o r m a t i o n s to 0 . 0 1 b o at
s e r v i c e l o a d c o n d i t i o n the f o l l o w i n g l i m i t a t i o n s are g i v e n :

^ S 35
r
o

b. d.
ci and gJ- s 0 . 4
o o

In r e f . [38] a l l l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes are recorded f o r the

t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n D e l f t . For i n d i c a t i o n i n f i g s . 5.29 t o 5 . 3 1 some
l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n diagrammes are recorded f o r T- and K - j o i n t s with
square b r a c i n g s and c h o r d .

5.2.7. Eval^uation_to_design_cri t e r i a

As d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 3 at f i r s t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h func-
t i o n have t o be determined a f t e r which the formulae are e v a l u a t e d t o
d e s i g n c r i t e r i a . Here o n l y the main s t e p s i n the procedure w i l l be
recalled.

5.2.7.1. Determination_of_the_char

In general the s t r e n g t h o f j o i n t s can be given as a f u n c t i o n o f the

j o i n t parameters:

N
u = ' eof a
' ol
' b
o ' 6
' 0
' 6 ) ( 5
- 4 5 )

If the v a r i a b l e s are not c o r r e l a t e d w i t h each o t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o [39]

the c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n can be determined as f o l l o w s :

, f \2 3f .2 ^ ,9f ,2c

3 a ~ -
{ S
o J + (
3 V to) S +
<36 6>
S

V ,,2
= 5 2 _ (5.46)
u {f(N )}

N u (1 - 1.64 V ) N (5.47)
m u
229
 5-42

B e s i d e s the b a s i c v a r i a b l e s a model f a c t o r 6 i s i n t r o d u c e d representing

the v a r i a t i o n o f the t e s t r e s u l t s to the s t r e n g t h model.
The t e s t r e s u l t s are g e n e r a l l y a n a l y s e d based on a c t u a l dimensions and
a c t u a l m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s whereas i n the codes the nominal dimensions
are used and a d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s . The d e s i g n v a l u e for
the y i e l d s t r e s s i s g e n e r a l l y a v a l u e which can be r e p r e s e n t e d by the
mean v a l u e mines two s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s . If the y i e l d s t r e s s i s the
o n l y m a t e r i a l parameter i n f l u e n c i n g the s t r e n g t h o f a j o i n t , the
f u n c t i o n f o r the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h should be c o r r e c t e d by:

e
(5.48)
k

(1 " 2V

Based on measurements and maximum t o l e r a n c e s f o l l o w i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s

o f v a r i a t i o n are adopted f o r the a n a l y s i s :

coeff. of mean v a l u e
variation

RHS w i d t h o r depth 0.005 1.0 x nominal value

w a l l t h i c k n e s s t^ 0.05 1.0 x nominal v a l u e
design y i e l d s t r e s s a^ 0.075 1.18 x ov
'e
e
k

test results 6 depends on type o f j o i n t

The o t h e r parameters have a n e g l e c t i b l e i n f l u e n c e f o r the c o e f f i c i e n t

of v a r i a t i o n .
When the s t r e n g t h i s based on c o n s e r v a t i v e a n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a based
on y i e l d which are j u s t i f i e d by t e s t s then these c r i t e r i a are assumed
to g i v e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s and no s t a t i s t i c a l treatment i s a p -
plied.

5.2.7.2. Determination_of_the_design_strength

The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r the e f f e c t s o f f a c t o r e d l o a d i n g i s g i v e n by:

r, N
k (5.49)
Y Y
'm' c
The f a c t o r Y Y M C depends on the mode o f f a i l u r e and the way i n which
the s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s are d e t e r m i n e d . I f t h i s i s based on a t h e o r e t i -
c a l model based on y i e l d and j u s t i f i e d by t e s t s which show s u f f i c i e n t
d u c t i l i t y a Y Y = 1 . 0 can be chosen.
J
mc

230
 5-43

If the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h i s d e r i v e d from the u l t i m a t e l o a d c a p a c i t y

based on e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e , then due to the g r e a t e r u n c e r t a i n t i e s
and no a d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v e a v Y S 1.0 s h o u l d be taken i n t o a c c o u n t .
'm' c
The v a l u e a l s o depends on the d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f the j o i n t . For
example f o r d u c t i l e j o i n t s a Y Y M C = 1 . 1 and f o r l e s s d u c t i l e j o i n t s a
Y Y
M C = 1-25 can be adopted.
For the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s a Y Y M C = 1.0 i s used.

T-, Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h a w i d t h r a t i o 6 0 . 8 5 can be d e s i g n e d on

b a s i s o f the chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n , e q . ( 5 . 4 ) w i t h an adopted
Y Y
M C = 1.0 because i t i s based on an a n a l y t i c a l model g i v i n g a lower
bound f o r the t e s t r e s u l t s . The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and punching shear
criteria are not c r i t i c a l w i t h i n the range o f v a l i d i t y g i v e n i n f i g .
5.35. even w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e y Y M C factor.

T-, Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h a B = 1.0 have to be d e s i g n e d on the strength

o f the chord s i d e w a l l s . Eq. ( 5 . 2 1 ) g i v e s a lower bound f o r the t e s t
'results. However, f o r d e s i g n i t i s n e c e s s a r y to accomodate the v a r i a b l e
s a f e t y f a c t o r to t a k e i n t o account b e a r i n g f a i l u r e w i t h i t s accom-
panying p l a s t i c i t y ( Y - Y M C = 1.0) and those l o c a l b u c k l i n g s i t u a t i o n s
which have l e s s p l a s t i c i t y ( Y - Y M C > 1.0. T-joints have a b e t t e r chord
side wall b u c k l i n g r e s i s t a n c e than X - j o i n t s . For s i m p l i c i t y and general
l a c k o f evidence t h e same assesment o f s t r e n g t h i s u s e d , however w i t h a
Y . Y = 1.0 f o r T - j o i n t s and Y - Y = 1-25 f o r X - j o i n t s . T h i s variation
'm ' c J
'm ' c d

i n Y - Y can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e c r i t i c a l b u c k l i n g s t r e s s
M C by
using = a^ n f o r T- and Y - j o i n t s and = 0.8a^ n for X-joints.

B e s i d e s the chord w a l l b e a r i n g c r i t e r i o n the e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g w i d t h

has to be checked based on e q . ( 5 . 7 a ) . T h i s lower bound f u n c t i o n can
be assumed as the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h . A l t h o u g h the j o i n t s which
f a i l e d by the e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g w i d t h c r i t e r i o n showed s u f f i c i e n t d u c -
tility 3Y -Y M = 1-25 i s adopted t o ' t h e s t r e n g t h o f the c r o s s w a l l s to
be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the punching shear approach f o r which i t i s n e c e s -
sary.

T-, Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h 0 . 8 5 < 0 < 1.0 are not common i n p r a c t i c e .

However, here i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t the punching shear becomes c r i t i c a l
i f t h e r e i s a space between the s i d e s of the b r a c i n g s i d e welds and

231
 5-44

the i n n e r s i d e o f the chord w a l l . In t h i s case the j o i n t have to be

checked on chord w a l l b e a r i n g (eq. (5.21)), e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g width
(eq. ( 5 . 7 a ) ) and chord punching shear (eq. (5.6a)). Due to the lower
ductility a Y Y m c = 1-25 i s adopted f o r b g and b 6 p o f the c r o s s w a l l s
(eqs. 5 . 2 3 and 5 . 2 7 ) .

K- and N - t y p e j o i n t s w i t h g a p have to be checked f o r chord f a c e failure

based on e q u a t i o n ( 5 . 3 7 ) . With the procedure d e s c r i b e d i n 5 . 2 . 7 . 1 . the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h i s d e t e r m i n e d . For these d u c t i l e types o f fail-
ure a Y Y m c = 1.1 i s adopted.
For j o i n t s w i t h a high 8 r a t i o o r i n case o f a r e c t a n g u l a r chord w i t h
h Q < b Q chord shear may be c r i t i c a l . The a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s (5.13a)
and ( 5 . 1 6 ) w i t h an adopted y Y m c = 1.0 can be used f o r the d e t e r m i n a -
t i o n o f the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h . B e s i d e s these c r i t e r i a b r a c i n g effective
w i d t h o r chord punching shear may be c r i t i c a l i n some c a s e s . For c o n -
formity with T-, Y - and X - j o i n t s a y Y m c = 1-25 i s adopted f o r the ef-
f e c t i v e w i d t h o f the c r o s s w a l l i.e. eqs. ( 5 . 2 3 ) and ( 5 . 2 7 ) .
F u r t h e r c e r t a i n s t i f f n e s s r e l a t i o n s have to be f u l f i l l e d t h e r e f o r e a
l i m i t a t i o n i s g i v e n f o r the gap s i z e .

The o v e r l a p j o i n t s are a l l based on a lower bound e f f e c t i v e width

c r i t e r i o n whereas w i t h i n the range o f v a l i d i t y g i v e n , s u f f i c i e n t re-
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n d u c t i l e f a i l u r e s . However, to be
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the approaches f o r the j o i n t s d i s c u s s e d b e f o r e a s i m -
i l a r approach i s f o l l o w e d f o r Y - Y - m c

All recommendations a p p l y t o j o i n t s made o f s t e e l s Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 4 3 0 ,

Fe 510 a c c o r d i n g t o Euronorm 25-72 o r e q u i v a l e n t . H i g h e r grades of
steel with l e s s d u c t i l i t y r e q u i r e o t h e r requirements f o r the w e l d s .
Due to the lower d u c t i l i t y the j o i n t s t r e n g t h may drop considerably
as shown by Mang [ 4 0 ] .

5.2.8. B2 ?!]dtion_and_cal c u l a t i o n _ r u l e s
mm

The recommended formulae f o r the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h w i t h the

range o f v a l i d i t y are summarized i n f i g s . 5 . 3 2 . t o 5 . 3 4 . These f o r m u -
l a e are based on e i t h e r a n a l y t i c a l models g i v i n g lower bound s o l u t i o n s
o r on a s e m i - e x p e r i m e n t a l a n a l y s i s . Depending on the a n a l y s i s and the
mode o f f a i l u r e a p p r o p r i a t e y Y m c f a c t o r s are used:

232
 5-45

Where the d e s i g n i s based on the " p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s method" the design

s t r e n g t h N has to be d i v i d e d by the a p p r o p r i a t e l o a d f a c t o r Y s commonly
used i n the r e l e v a n t country.
Although the c h e c k i n g procedure seems to be c o m p l i c a t e d i t can be d i -
rectly seen t h a t s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a need not always be checked e . g . :
If the e f f i c i e n c y of b r a c i n g members i n gap and 100% o v e r l a p j o i n t s is
s m a l l e r than t h a t based on three s i d e s o f the b r a c i n g i t i s never
critical. S i m i l a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s can be made f o r the o t h e r joints.
F u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d to the d u c t i l i t y o f s t e e l and the welds
s h o u l d have a t l e a s t a t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s equal to the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of
the connected b r a c i n g f o r Fc 360 or 1 . 2 t f o r Fe 510 t o quarantee re-
d i s t r i b u t i o n of stresses.

For p r a c t i c a l use the c r i t e r i a can be e a s i l y s i m p l i f i e d i n d e s i g n

c h a r t s or t a b l e s , see Appendix V-4.

233
 5-46

Fig. 5.32. Basic design strength equations for RR- and CR-joints.

T y p e of j o i n t Design strength

N f(to) f() f(e) f(v) f

(g
f(n)

For < 0 85
2h, 1 1
D, 'eo 4(1 -) } 5
1)
k
b 0 sinG, (1-B) s i n e ,
b,

ho For B = 1.0
2h, 1
IP* to + 10 t 0
sinG,
2)

K . N , qopl b,+b +h,+h2 2

N,= 8.9 f(n) 3)

J
eo k sin 6 i
t,

IN1
sirred

>0.4
'HE* Ni =
vTsine,
1 or 2
5)
2
N (a"o ,j ( A
0 0 - AQ ) e 0 k + A Q - e0k Vl-(-a- ) p

K N, overlap |
y

E f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i a only.
Effective width and See fig .5.33
punching shear criterion

Joints w i t h circu lar M u l t i p l y f o r m u l a e 1) a n d 3) w i t h -j- a n d

branch members. r e p l a c e b, a n d h, by d , 2 2 2

Functions 2) for tension in the b r a c i n g = o e 0 k

for compression =o k n (T-joints) o k = 0.8o| <n (X-joints)

en,- a c c o r d i ng t o t h e ECCS b u c k l i ng c u r v e " a " ^

1
for A=3 . 4 6 ^ - 2)
sinG

3) f(n) = 1.0 for tension chords

f(n) = 1.3 - I n I for compression chords f(n) <1.0

yek
5) A Q - 2.h .t0 o + a.b .t o 0

/3

wi t h a ^..sinO.)
4g? i v.max.
1 +
w2

Validity range See f i g . 5.34.

234
 5-47

Fig. 5.33. Effective width- and p u n c h i n g s h e a r c r i t e r i a for

RR- and CR-joints.

Type of j o i n t Design strength (i = 1 or 2)

T, Y, x No check
B < 0.85
a .t
T, V, X N. = o . . t . . p 2 h . - 4 t . + 2b I eo, o .
l ei^ l L l l eJ . c k . b.
0.85 < gi 1.0
"eo^o 2b,
N
i =
/TTsTRT L l f i W : + 2 b
e ]
l i p
K, N with gap (a . . t . )
fi
1 -"Y*iC 2 h
1 " 4 t
i f b
i + b
e] c
1
e i l'ov
k

b
e ( o v T (b./t.) "a . . t . - i
b

k' e o
r i t o 2 h
i
v
' v
l I'OV ei^ l
N
i =
737iTH:- LsTnGT + b
i + b
e J p

K, N with 100% N = a .t [2h - 4t, b, + b ]

i e i i i + e ( Q v )

overlap

K, N with c = 10.8 for Fe 360, Fe 430

30% < Ov 100 N
i " ".r't^l - 4 t
i + b
e + b
e(ov)l c 9.2 for Fe 510
overlap

In assessing the strength of a j o i n t the values and r should never be

ei.' i ei.' i
taken smaller than 1.0 or greater than 2.0

(ei i," *i ) o w and (~p~) nv

a r e
related to the properties of the overlapped bracing

Fig. 5.34. Range o f validity of design strength equations of

figs. 5 . 3 2 . and 5 . 3 3 .

Type of joint Joint parameters (i = 1 or 2)

b.
i . h.l O . 0
h.
i L
i
b.
b
' b t ' t gap
compression tension
b
i (ov)
0 0 O 0

T, Y, X S 0.25 --

K and N h.
i 0.4 <: 35 i o . g V ^ < 35 0.5 i ^ i 2 -- 0.5(1-6) < I - i 1.5(1-6)
with gap 1 0
K and N
5 0.25 >0.75 30% < 0 < 100%
V

with overlap

- 0.8

Note i = 1, 2 or 3

235
 5-48

5.3. J o i n t s loaded by bending moments

5.3.1. General

It i s a l r e a d y s t a t e d i n c h a p t e r 4 . 3 f o r j o i n t s of c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c -
t i o n s t h a t the moments which occur i n the members o f l a t t i c e girders
should be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n primary bending moments needed f o r the
e q u i l i b r i u m of l o a d i n g and "secundary bending moments due t o deforma-
t i o n s i n the s t r u c t u r a l system or due t o the j o i n t s t i f f n e s s e s . The
same i s v a l i d f o r l a t t i c e g i r d e r s o f r e c t a n g u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s . Also
here the "secundary" bending moments can g e n e r a l l y be omitted i n s t a t i c
design f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n of the members and the j o i n t s . The lattice
g i r d e r s can be d e s i g n e d , assuming pin ended j o i n t s provided t h a t suf-
f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n - and r o t a t i o n - capacity exists i n the critical
parts i . e . the j o i n t s or the members. F i g . 5 . 3 5 . i l l u s t r a t e s the mea-
sured "secundary" bending s t r e s s e s i n a b r a c i n g of a K - j o i n t i n rela-
t i o n t o the a p p l i e d a x i a l load. It i s shown t h a t at low l o a d s the
bending s t r e s s e s are r a t h e r high.

A f t e r l o c a l y i e l d i n g the bending s t r e s s e s decrease due to the reduced

s t i f f n e s s of the j o i n t . Depending on the l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n and the ro-
t a t i o n c a p a c i t y the bending s t r e s s e s are c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced or have
even been disa ppea red at f a i l u r e of the joint.
1.0

tension bracing (2)

070 x 0 x 3.2

0.5 compression bracing (1)

\ (p 90 x 50 x 3.2 !

Fig. 5.35. Bendinn s t r e s s e s in the b r a c i n g s of a K - j o i n t w i t h 100%

overlap (Delft test).

236
 5-49

In g i r d e r s i n which the j o i n t s a r e the c r i t i c a l p a r t s and where t h e s e

do not have s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y " s e c u n d a r y " moments can
have a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on the s t r e n g t h . A p p l i e d moments which
a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r the e q u i l i b r i u m o r moments which cannot be r e d i s t r i -
buted s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o account i n the a n a l y s i s .
Eccentricities i n the system l i n e s of the members of l a t t i c e girders
can e f f e c t the s t r e n g t h o f the members and s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n into
account f o r the d e s i g n . When t h e s e are s m a l l t h e r e i n f l u e n c e i s in-
d i r e c t l y taken i n t o account i n the j o i n t s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a e f o r axially
loaded j o i n t s . The j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae f o r a x i a l l y loaded joints
a r e l i m i t e d i n the range o f v a l i d i t y i n such a way t h a t i t can be a s -
sumed t h a t s u f f i c i e n t d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y e x i s t s f o r the redistribu-
t i o n of "secundary" bending moments. F u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s are g i v e n up
t o which the i n f l u e n c e o f small e c c e n t r i c i t i e s on the j o i n t strength
can be n e g l e c t e d .

Joints p r e d o m i n a n t l y loaded by bending moments are g e n e r a l l y used i n

Vierendeel girders or i n p o r t a l s o r f r a m e s . These j o i n t s are generally
loaded by i n p l a n e bending moments but i n space framed s t r u c t u r e s they
can a l s o be loaded by out o f plane bending moments.

2
- C r i t e r i a _ o f _ f a i l ure

S i m i l a r to a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s t h e s t r e n g t h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
the u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o r by a d e f o r m a t i o n or r o t a t i o n limit.
E s p e c i a l l y f o r j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r chord and loaded by bending
moments the s t i f f n e s s may be d e c i s i v e i n many c a s e s . Only j o i n t s w i t h
b 0

3 = 1 . 0 and j o i n t s w i t h @ < 1.0 and a l o w - r - r a t i o can be assumed as r i g i d .

z
o
A l l other j o i n t s should be c o n s i d e r e d as s e m i - r i g i d . The moment c a p a c -
i t y o f j o i n t s w i t h a low 3 r a t i o w i l l be based on l i m i t e d r o t a t i o n s by
c o n s i d e r i n g the a n a l y t i c a l chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n and n e g l e c t i n g
the i n f l u e n c e of membrane a c t i o n and s t r a i n hardening.

3. M o d e s _ o f _ f a i l ure

In j o i n t s loaded by i n plane bending moments where the members itself

are not c r i t i c a l and the welds are s t r o n g enough f o l l o w i n g modes o f
f a i l u r e may t h e o r e t i c a l l y occur:
a. chord f a c e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n

237
 5-50

b. chord punching shear

c. c r a c k i n g i n the b r a c i n g ( b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h )
d. c r i p p l i n g o f the chord s i d e w a l l s
e. shear f a i l u r e o f t h e chord c r o s s section.
These modes o f f a i l u r e a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 5 . 3 6 .

i =p-b

a. chord face b,c. c r a c k i n g in chord

plastification or bracing

d. crippling of the e. chord shear failure

chord walls

Fig. 5.36. Modes o f f a i l u r e f o r j o i n t s loaded by i n p l a n e bending

moments.

In t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s a l s o 1 o c a l b u c k l i n g o f t h e b r a c i n g can o c c u r . T h i s
bi

can be avoided by l i m i t i n g t h e r a t i o o f t h e b r a c i n g . Chord punching

shear has not been observed i n the t e s t s because i t may o n l y appear i n
p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h a shear area can be formed between the
b r a c i n g s i d e welds and the chord w a l l s . In t h i s case however, the j o i n t
will g e n e r a l l y f a i l a t the compression s i d e by a chord f a c e / w a l l plastici-
cation.
 5-51

A s h e a r f a i l u r e o f the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n i s i n r e a l i t y a member

fai1ure.

5.3.4. It_evidence

Joints o f s q u a r e - and r e c t a n g u l a r hollow sections loaded by i n plane

bending moments have been t e s t e d by Redwood [ 1 1 ] , M e h r o t r a [45, 4 8 ] ,
S t a p l e s and H a r r i s o n [49], Rumpf e t . al. [ 5 0 ] , Brockenbrough [51],
Korol [20], Giddings [19], Kanatani e t . al. [21] and by the a u t h o r in
1970. F u r t h e r t e s t s are being c a r r i e d out by Mang i n K a r l s r u h e and
Szlendak i n Warzawa.
Up t o now t h e s e t e s t results have not been s y s t e m a t i c a l l y summarized
and a n a l y s e d w i t h a c t u a l dimensions and a c t u a l mechanical properties.
T h i s however, i s p a r t of a c u r r e n t ECSC r e s e a r c h programme i n which
a l s o the i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l l o a d s and bending moments i s s t u d i e d .

5.3.5. Analytical_models

The a n a l y t i c a l models used are i n p r i n c i p l e the same as used for

axially loaded joints.

5.3.5.1. Y i e l d l i n e model
When the b r a c i n g w i d t h t o chord w i d t h r a t i o i s not t o o high the
s t r e n g t h can be based on the s i m p l i f i e d y i e l d l i n e model shown in
fig. 5.37.
N e g l e c t i n g the i n f l u e n c e o f membrane e f f e c t s and s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g the
moment c a p a c i t y i s g i v e n by:

M
io "
K
^ e c r ^ o +
%&&!!+
sinej
}
( 1 - 3 ) . s i n Gj
(5<50)

T h i s f o r m u l a i s developed i n a s i m i l a r way as f o r a x i a l l y loaded

joints (see Appendix V-1.5).

239
 5-52

Fig. 5.37. Chord f a c e f a i l u r e .

5.3.5.2. E f f e c t i v e width bracing

Although the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r the t e n s i o n s i d e i s d i f f e r e n t from
t h a t f o r the compression s i d e the same e f f e c t i v e w i d t h b is adopted
f o r the b r a c i n g c r o s s w a l l s . There i s no reason why the effective
w i d t h s h o u l d be d i f f e r e n t from t h a t f o r a x i a l loading therefore the
same e f f e c t i v e w i d t h b g a c c o r d i n g t o e q . 5.23 i s a d o p t e d . The effec-
t i v e width c r i t e r i o n i s then given by:

M
ip = e r { W
l - ^ - B7) b t .(h
r 1 1 - t l ) (5.51)

or

M . ^a
1 p e l .{W -(l-^)b .h .t )
1 1 1 1 (5.51a)

When the b r a c i n g s are compact a f u l l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the s i d e s can be

assumed r e s u l t i n g i n the p l a s t i c modulus W . i n e q . ( 5 . 5 1 ) ; i n other
cases the e l a s t i c modulus W j should be u s e d . fi

240
 5-53

5.3.5.3. C r i p p l i n g of the chord s i d e w a l l s

Especially in T-joints t h i s pheotnenon of l o c a l b u c k l i n g o f the s i d e
w a l l s i s l e s s c r i t i c a l than f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s due t o the more
l o c a l i z e d a c t i o n s . When the c r i t i c a l side wall buckling stress is
lower than the y i e l d s t r e s s the n e u t r a l a x i s w i l l change which com-
p l i c a t e s a general approach. For a c o n s i s t e n t approach w i t h the
a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s the same c r i t i c a l s t r e s s i s adopted. The real
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the s i d e w a l l s depends on the s i d e w a l l s l e n -
hn
derness ^ and can vary c o n s i d e r a b l y . The s t r e n g t h formulae to be given
w i l l be l i m i t e d to -r~ s 35 which e x c l u d e s v e r y t h i n w a l l e d c h o r d s ,
o I

therefore a f u l l p l a s t i c s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s assumed, as shown i n

fig. 5.38.

"1
251 0
sin 9i
2.5t 0

;h, i
Jf-

hi + 5t
sin 9 .

Fig. 5.38. Chord s i d e w a l l b e a r i n g or b u c k l i n g .

The chord s i d e w a l l b e a r i n g - o r b u c k l i n g c a p a c i t y i s then given by:

M
ip " - 5
- V V s - T n \ + 5
V 2
< - >
5 52

w i t h a. , assumed to be the same as f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s according

to the ECCS b u c k l i n g curve a .

5.3.5.4. Chord shear

T h i s i s not a j o i n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i o n because the chord member has to
be checked a c c o r d i n g t o eqs. ( 5 . 1 3 ) and ( 5 . 1 7 ) where the shear area i s
given by e q . ( 5 . 1 5 ) . If i t i s assumed t h a t a l l the shear i s put into
the chord a t the b r a c i n g c r o s s f a c e s then the shear f o r c e i n the chord

241
 5-54

under the c o n n e c t i o n i s g i v e n by:

where SL i s the chord l e n g t h between the r e a c t i o n p o i n t s or to the

points of contra flexure.

5.3.6. Des icjn_s t r e n g t h_f ormu 1 ae

Several s t u d i e s have been c a r r i e d out on j o i n t s loaded by bending mo-

ments but the t e s t r e s u l t s have not y e t been analysed t a k i n g a l l test
r e s u l t s i n t o account i n a c o n s i s t e n t manner and c o n s i d e r i n g a l l fail-
ure modes, a l s o o u t s i d e the range of specimens t e s t e d . C e r t a i n c o n c l u -
s i o n s however, can be drawn. In [ 2 0 , 52] the r e q u i r e d j o i n t s t i f f n e s s
i s worked out f o r a p a r t i c u l a r V i e r e n d e e l girder. Although a c o n s t a n t
value i s g i v e n , i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t the r e q u i r e d s t i f f n e s s depends
on the g i r d e r d i m e n s i o n s . Some i n d i c a t i o n s f o r the r o t a t i o n a l joint
s t i f f n e s s e s can be found i n [ 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 4 8 ] . In [17] i t i s shown
t h a t the y i e l d l i n e approach g i v e s a good e s t i m a t i o n o f the joint
s t r e n g t h at small d e f l e c t i o n s . The u l t i m a t e moment c a p a c i t y i s c o n -
siderable higher. Giddings [19] a n a l y s e d f u l l w i d t h j o i n t s only on
b a s i s o f an e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n d e r i v e d from [ 4 4 ] .

Here the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s are e v a l u a t e d i n a s i m i l a r way as

f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s based on the models d i s c u s s e d i n 5.3.5.
The chord f a c e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n c r i t e r i o n i s based on the a n a l y t i c a l
y i e l d l i n e model g i v i n g s t r e n g t h s f o r small d e f l e c t i o n s , thus a
Y Y
m c = 1-0 can be used. For the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n o n l y a
Y Y = 1-25 i s adopted f o r b of the c r o s s w a l l s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h
m c e
the s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s . The chord web c r i p -
p l i n g s t r e n g t h depends on the c r i t i c a l s t r e s s determined from the
ECCS b u c k l i n g c u r v e . The c r i t i c a l s t r e s s observed i n t e s t s i s higher
than f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s , however f o r c o n s i s t e n c y the same is
used. W i t h i n the range of v a l i d i t y given l a t e r o n i . e . -r^- i, 3 5 , the
T - j o i n t s show s u f f i c i e n t r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y w h i l e f o r X - j o i n t s no e v i -
dence has been a v a i l a b l e . I t i s proposed t h e r e f o r e to use Y Y m c = 1-0
for T-joints loaded by i n plane bending moments and Y Y m c = 1-25 f o r
X-joints because of the more severe l o a d t r a n s f e r i n X-joints.

242
 5-55

Vierendeel j o i n t s are seldom used w i t h angles 0 / 9 0 . T h i s s i m p l i f i e s

the a n a l y s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y and r e s u l t s i n f o l l o w i n g d e s i g n strengths
equations :

Chord f a c e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n , 9 = 90:

^ n = -tn-hi ^ ~ + ^ ~ + > (5.50a)

E f f e c t i v e bracing width:

% ei - k
{ w
i " < " l
^ > - b
i - h
r i
t 1
( -
5 5 1 b
)

^1 =
^pi f o r c o m
P a c t
s e c t i o n s and = W ^ f o r semi compact s e c t i o n s .
g

Web c r i p p l i n g , 8 = 90 : $ * 1.0

M i p = 0.5a .t (h k Q 1 + 5t ) Q
2
(5.52a)

wi th
b a c c o r d i n g f i g . 5 . 3 3 . page 5-47
a
k = CT
kn ^ "J
o r T
|< kn i
'"-J "' s w i t h
n t s a
. n d = 0 - 8 a f o r 0 nt

a k n a c c o r d i n g to the ECCS b u c k l i n g curve f o r A = 3 . 4 6 ( ~ - 2)

Equations ( 5 . 5 0 a ) and ( 5 . 5 2 a ) are now compared i n f i g . 5.39 w h i l e the

bp
term-^H. o f e q . ( 5 . 5 1 b ) i s g r a p h i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 5 . 4 0 . As
shown i n f i g . 5 . 3 9 . t h e s t r e n g t h a c c o r d i n g t o e q . ( 5 . 5 0 a ) tends to go
to i n f i n i t y f o r high 6 r a t i o s , however i t i s l i m i t e d by the web c r i p -
p l i n g c r i t e r i o n , e q . ( 5 . 5 2 a ) . The r a t i o between the s t r e n g t h o f joints
w i t h | = 1.0 and t h a t w i t h 8 = 0 . 8 5 i s c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r f o r axially
loaded j o i n t s than f o r those loaded by i n p l a n e bending moments.
T h i s can d i r e c t l y be seen by comparison of e q . ( 5 . 5 0 a ) w i t h the chord
face f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s i.e. eq. ( 5 . 4 ) , page
5.17 and comparison of e q . ( 5 . 5 2 a ) w i t h the l o c a l b u c k l i n g criterion
i.e. e q . ( 5 . 2 1 ) , page 5 . 1 9 . From these comparisons follows:
For chord f a c e f a i l u r e ; 8 0 . 8 5 :

M. = O ^ h . - N , + a .t . 2
Jb (5.54)
lp 1 1 eo, o dr)

243
 5-57

For the chord w a l l s t r e n g t h ; S - 1.0:

M i p = 0.25(h 1 + 5^).^ (5.55)

The u n d e r l i n e d terms i n e q s . ( 5 . 5 4 ) and ( 5 . 5 5 ) are l e s s significant.

It can be e a s i l y shown t h a t f u l l w i d t h j o i n t s (8 1.0) can be s t r o n g e r
than the connected b r a c i n g s . For example f o r j o i n t s w i t h
h n

h
o o=
lb
l = h
T: * = b
g t h a c c o r d i n g to the chord web
a n d 2 5 t h e s t r e n

c r i p p l i n g c r i t e r i o n (see f i g . 5 . 3 9 ) i s r o u g h l y given by:

% a 1 2
-eo - o- l k
t h
< - 5 5 6
)

The p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y of a square b r a c i n g i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y given

by:

M p l -l'5b2. t l .a e l (5.57)

thus

a _ .t.

^ - - ^ r - ^ r s ( 5
- 5 8 )

pi o el^ l o
o k' b a e o t o

Thus f o r -7^- = 16 and z = 2 the moment c a p a c i t y i s equal to the

o l, -h t 0

k
e

p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y o f the b r a c i n g . In t h i s case the b r a c i n g c r o s s

s e c t i o n i s f u l l e f f e c t i v e as shown i n f i g . 5 . 4 0 .

Joints loaded by out of plane bending moments have not y e t been d i s -

cussed but the s t r e n g t h of these j o i n t s can be based on s i m i l a r c r i -
teria i.e. chord f a c e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n , chord web b u c k l i n g and b e a r i n g
effective width. In general these j o i n t s w i l l be f u l l w i d t h T-joints
i.e. Q = 90 and 8 = 1 . 0 . The s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a can be s i m p l y d e r i v e c
from the p r e v i o u s c r i t e r i a f o r a x i a l l o a d i n g and bending i n p l a n e :

Chord web l o c a l b u c k l i n g , 8 - 1 . 0 :

h + 5 t h ( 5 5 9 )
% -<vV< i o ) - ( i - H> -

- a .t .(h k Q 1 + 5t ).h Q 1 (5.59a)

245
 5-58

or

M Q p = 0.5h .N 1 1 (5.59b)

w i t h a. s i m i l a r as f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s ; see f i g . 5 . 3 2 .

Bracing e f f e c t i v e width:

f o r compact s e c t i o n s :

(5.60a)
% - el - k
{ W
pl " ' ( l -
5 b b
e) ' l
2 t }

f o r semi compact s e c t i o n s :

"op e l k
{ W
e l " - 3 3
< l -
b b
e) -V
2
( '
5 6 0 b
>

Bcommendation_and_calculation_ryles

The recommended formulae f o r the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h of T - , X- or V i e r e n -

deel j o i n t s w i t h angles 0^ = 90 are summarized i n f i g . 5 . 4 1 . These
formulae are based on l i m i t e d r o t a t i o n s by u s i n g the y i e l d l i n e model
f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h f o r a chord f a c e f a i l u r e . The
formulae f o r chord web c r i p p l i n g and b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h have been
directly r e l a t e d to those f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s . These formulae
a p p l y to j o i n t s made of s t e e l s Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 430 or Fe 510 a c c o r d i n g
Euronorm 25-72 or e q u i v a l e n t . The welds should have a t l e a s t a t h r o a t
t h i c k n e s s equal t o the b r a c i n g w a l l t h i c k n e s s f o r Fe 360 and 1.2 times
the b r a c i n g w a l l t h i c k n e s s f o r Fe 510 to quarantee r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
s t r e s s e s and s u f f i c i e n t r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y . For j o i n t s w i t h angles
0 f- 90 a p p r o p r i a t e angle f u n c t i o n s should be i n c o r p o r a t e d as d e s c r i b e d
i n chapter 5.3.5.

The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i a are g i v e n f o r compact b r a c i n g s . For semi

compact b r a c i n g s the p l a s t i c modulus should be r e p l a c e d by the
e l a s t i c modulus W ^ .

J o i n t s w i t h B = 1.0 can be assumed as being r i g i d w h i l e f o r joints

w i t h B < 1.0 r e l e v a n t m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n diagrammes should be c o n s i d e r e d
o b t a i n e d from t e s t s or f i n i t e element computer programmes.

246
 5-59

Fig. 5.41. B a s i c d e s i g n s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s f o r T- and X - j o i n t s with

0-, = 90 under i n p l a n e - and out o f plane moment l o a d i n g .

Type of joint Design strength

For ^ 0 . 8 5 f
0!
'M;,

eq.(5.50)

M i p = 0.5o .t .(hi+5t )'

k o o

eq.(5.52 ) a

M i p ^ O e ^ . j W p T - d - ^ b r h r t ! !

eq.(5.51 ) b

'Mi,

M op
M p = k . t . ( h i + 5 t ) . b i
0 0 0

eq.(5.59 ) a

3l.O
M p ^ e1 .|w i -0.5(1- ^
0 k p )h-t
2
J-

eq. ( 5 . 6 0 )a

Functions for T-joints

a
k kn
= a

=0.8a| <n for X-joints

J k n = a c c o r d i n g ECCS b u c k l i n g curve " a " for
A = 3.46( -2) T

o L

J
eok c = 1 0 . 8 f o r Fe 360
7 b
l c = 9.2 f o r Fe 510

1.0 s: ..." g 2 . 0
"elk'*!
bo
35 and ~ ^ 0 . 9 U - i -
x ^ 35 ti ti V elk
Validity range a

0 ! = 90 " 1

247
 5-60

J o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g members should not be used f o r moment c o n -

n e c t i o n s because of the s m a l l e r s t i f f n e s s and the i n f e r i o r l o a d t r a n s -
fer.

5.4. Interaction between a x i a l l o a d i n g and bending moments

5.4.1. Genera]

In those s t r u c t u r e s i n which the j o i n t s are loaded by a x i a l loads and

bending moments and where the moments are e s s e n t i a l f o r the e q u i l i b r i -
um the a x i a l l o a d s and moments have to be combined i n a proper way.
When the j o i n t s are s t r o n g e r than the connected members the members
should be checked a c c o r d i n g to s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . T h i s s e c t i o n 5 . 4 . d e a l s
w i t h the c h e c k i n g procedure when the j o i n t s are the c r i t i c a l p a r t s in
the structure.

5.4.2. Analytica]_mode2s

Due t o the f a c t t h a t v a r i o u s f a i l u r e modes o c c u r , v a r i o u s strength

criteria exist. The c r i t i c a l f a i l u r e mode a l s o determines the inter-
a c t i o n between a x i a l l o a d and bending moments. T h i s means t h a t several
i n t e r a c t i o n formulae e x i s t which w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d by some examples.

- B r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and chord punching shear

When the s t r e n g t h of T- and X - j o i n t s i s determined by the b r a c i n g ef-
f e c t i v e w i d t h - or the chord punching shear c r i t e r i o n then two e f f e c -
t i v e channel shaped c r o s s s e c t i o n s e x i s t . For the i n t e r a c t i o n between
a x i a l l o a d and an i n plane bending moment these two channel cross
s e c t i o n s can be combined to a r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n w i t h s i d e s
h, and b . For t h i s e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n the i n t e r a c t i o n formulae
1 e
c.f. s e c t i o n 2 . 8 . can be used. For out of p l a n e bending moments how-
e v e r , no s i m p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p can be given and the s t r e s s e s have t o
be d i v i d e d over the e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n i n the most favourable
way.

- Chord web s t r e n g t h
When the chord web s t r e n g t h i s c r i t i c a l the e f f e c t i v e c r o s s section
c o n s i s t s of two p l a t e s f o r which i n p r i n c i p l e f o r a x i a l l o a d and
bending i n plane the i n t e r a c t i o n formulae c . f . Appendix I I - 2 . 1 . can
be used.

248
 5-61

These formulae have t o be m o d i f i e d i n such a way t h a t the c r i t i c a l

buckling stress i s taken i n t o account.
For a c o m b i n a t i o n of an a x i a l l o a d and an out o f p l a n e bending mo-
ment i t i s c l e a r t h a t a l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n r e l a t i o n exists.

- Chord f a c e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n
Depending on the type of j o i n t and the l o a d i n g combination a d e c i -
sive y i e l d l i n e pattern w i l l occur which may r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t in-
teraction relations.

These examples show t h a t the i n t e r a c t i o n formula depends on the type

of j o i n t and the l o a d i n g c o m b i n a t i o n .

5.4.3. !t_evidence

For the c o m b i n a t i o n of a x i a l loads and bending moments o n l y limited

t e s t evidence e x i s t s f o r X - j o i n t s w i t h compact s e c t i o n s [51].

5.4.4. Recommendation_and_calculati^

In 5.4.2. i t i s i l l u s t r a t e d t h a t the i n t e r a c t i o n r e l a t i o n depends on

the type of j o i n t and the l o a d i n g c o m b i n a t i o n . As general function a
lower bound s o l u t i o n being a l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n r e l a t i o n i s proposed.

N. M. M
_L + _i + JiEL i.o (5.61)
N. M. M.
i IP IP

5.5. S p e c i a l types of joints

Besides the b a s i c types of j o i n t s d i s c u s s e d , a l s o o t h e r types are used

in p r a c t i c e . In many cases the s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a t o be a p p l i e d can be
r e l a t e d to those d i s c u s s e d .

5.5.1. Joints_re]ated_to_X3joints

In a s i m i l a r way as f o r j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s the joints

in f i g s . 5.42. and 5.43. can be designed as X-joints.
For the Y Y - j o i n t i n f i g . 5.42. the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae f o r X-joints
can d i r e c t l y be used.

249
 5-62

Fig. 5.42. YY-joint. Fig. 5.43. XX-joint.

For the X X - j o i n t given i n f i g . 5 . 4 3 . however c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s in

the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formulae have t o be a p p l i e d . The s i m p l e s t way i s to
model the X X - j o i n t to an e q u i v a l e n t X - j o i n t
with G = 90, load
bi + b2 hj h2
Nj.sinG^ + N .sinQ 2 2 and b r a c i n g dimensions ^ > ^si'hG" sihD +

5.5.2. Joints _related_to_l<:ioints

The j o i n t g i v e n i n f i g . 5 . 4 4 . i s loaded i n a s i m i l a r way as a K-joint,

c o n s e q u e n t l y the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i s r e l a t e d to t h a t . Depending on the
gap s i z e s a p a r t of both chord f a c e s may be a c t i v e f o r t h e shear a r e a
i n c r o s s s e c t i o n 1 - 1 . On the o t h e r hand the shear i n c r o s s s e c t i o n 1-1
is l a r g e r than i n a K-joint.

Fig. 5.44. KK-joint.

5.5.3. JoiQts_wi th_gusset_pjates

In Appendix V - 3 p l a t e t o RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d f o r ten-

sion loading. It i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t these j o i n t s can be designed on
b a s i s of the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n , the chord punching shear cri-
t e r i o n and the chord w a l l b e a r i n g criterion.

250
 5-63

When these j o i n t s are loaded i n compression a

critical s t r e s s f o r chord s i d e w a l l b u c k l i n g
should be taken i n t o a c c o u n t . T h i s s t r e s s how-
e v e r , i s due to the l o c a l i z e d a c t i o n s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y h i g h e r than f o r T - j o i n t s w i t h bracings
of rectangular hollow sections. Some p i l o t
t e s t s showed t h a t up t o = 30 the y i e l d
o t

s t r e s s can be used. For X - j o i n t s i t i s a d -

K
v i c e d to l i m i t the to about 20. Comparison
t
o
Fig. 5.45. P l a t e to o f the punching shear c r i t e r i o n and the e f f e c -
RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n . t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n shows t h a t punching shear
becomes not c r i t i c a l when a .t s 0.9 a ,.t..
eo o el 1
For p l a t e s w i t h b^ << b Q the chord f a c e y i e l d
c r i t e r i o n g i v e s the s t r e n g t h f o r l i m i t e d d e f l e c t i o n s . T h i s s t r e n g t h can
be o b t a i n e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g h^ = t^ i n the chord f a c e y i e l d criterion
f o r T - j o i n t s o f RHS. For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f the design r u l e s the chord
f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n w i l l be more d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r e d .
9 0 (see f i g . 5 . 3 2 , page 5 - 4 6 ) .
u

Expressed i n the p l a t e e f f i c i e n c y t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s as f o l l o w s for

0
, a
eo. - t
o 2t,
}, o
1 k 4 L
(5.62)
^ v 1
! b.(i-) rr-

(5.62a)
A
r el
a
k ./TT.b /t o 0

For v a l u e s 0 . 4 @ g 0 . 8 5 f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s for are o b t a i n e d :

3 = 0 4 12 9
3 = 0 5 11 3
e = 0 6 10 5
= 0 7 10 4
e = 0 8 11 2

T h i s means t h a t the f u n c t i o n f o r 8 can a p p r o x i m a t e l y be given by a

constant. Now t h i s f u n c t i o n i s d i r e c t l y comparable w i t h the p l a t e ef-
f e c t i v e width c r i t e r i o n which has a s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n w i t h a c o n s t a n t
1 0 . 8 f o r Fe 360 and 9.2 f o r Fe 510. As a consequence f o r these connec-
t i o n s the chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n can be r e p l a c e d by the effective

251
 5-64

width c r i t e r i o n . Summarized, p l a t e to RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s loaded i n

t e n s i o n o r i n compression can be designed on b a s i s of:

the chord w a l l b e a r i n g c r i t e r i o n ; o n l y f o r b^ s b -2t :

0 Q

. t . ( 2 t , + lOt,
- (5.63)
eo^ o v
1

- the p l a t e e f f e c t i v e w i d t h (general check):

a . .t.. b (5.64)
el, 1 e
k
- the chord punching shear c r i t e r i o n ( o n l y f o r b^ < b Q 2t Q and

2b, (5.65)
*1 = - 5 8 C T
eo,-V 2 t
l +

with b and b according to f i g . 5 . 3 3 . , page 5 - 4 7 ;

h n h
f- i 30 f o r T - j o i n t s and 20 f o r X-joints.

5.5.4. Beam t o RHS column c o n n e c t i o n s

The s t r e n g t h o f beam t o column

P - 1 c o n n e c t i o n s can d i r e c t l y be

I
*1
r e l a t e d to t h a t f o r p l a t e to
RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s by m u l -
t i p l y i n g the d e s i g n strength
0
f o r the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of
lUjd the p l a t e ( f l a n g e ) w i t h the
beam depth h^.
Fig. 5.46. Beam to RHS column
connection.

5.5.5. JoiO^.iQ-QQgyllC.gllL'ders

Square or r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are o f t e n used i n triangular

girders with j o i n t s as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 5 . 4 7 .
Some g i r d e r t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out by Redwood [22],however most
o f the t e s t s f a i l e d by member b u c k l i n g . Those which f a i l e d i n the
joints showed a j o i n t s t r e n g t h comparable to t h a t f o r j o i n t s i n plane
lattice girders.

252
 5-65

\ N 1 N 2

Fig. 5.47. K - j o i n t in a t r i a n g u l a r girder.

Regarding punching shear and e f f e c t i v e width n e a r l y the same c o n d i -

t i o n s occur as i n plane l a t t i c e g i r d e r j o i n t s . For a chord f a c e fail-
ure the two w a l l s are loaded i n a s i m i l a r way which g i v e s up t o the
f o r m a t i o n of the y i e l d l i n e s a c e r t a i n s t i f f e n i n g , however the s t r e n g t h
will be n e a r l y the same. The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e may be caused when a
shear f a i l u r e of the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n i n the gap o c c u r s . Here the
shear and a x i a l l o a d have t o be d i v i d e d over the c r o s s s e c t i o n i n the
most e f f e c t i v e way, f o r example by c o n s i d e r i n g the shear and a x i a l
loads from one h a l f of the g i r d e r w i t h a chord which has two s i d e w a l l s
only. The i n t e r a c t i o n e q u a t i o n i s then given by t h a t f o r a p l a t e ,
i.e.:

N
oMp_v2 ,Q
1.0 (5.66)
P

with:
= maximum a x i a l l o a d i n the chord at the gap l o c a t i o n
V
gap
A .a
o eo k

2N .sin0
1 1

A . -
P 0
71

Double chord_joints

For long span g i r d e r s f o r which no s i n g l e RHS chord s e c t i o n s are

a v a i l a b l e or to i n c r e a s e the lateral b u c k l i n g behaviour of the gird-
er double chords may be u s e d .
When the chord s e c t i o n s are compact these j o i n t s can be designed on
b a s i s of the combined s h e a r - a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of both chords i n the

253
 5-66

Fig. 5.48. K - j o i n t w i t h double c h o r d s .

gap l o c a t i o n . The b r a c i n g s should be connected i n such away t h a t the welds
or the connected w a l l s are not c r i t i c a l . In [53] Korol r e p o r t e d t e s t r e s u l ts
o f K - j o i n t s w i t h heavy b r a c i n g s which f a i l e d by a shear f a i l u r e o f the
c h o r d s . For t h e dimensions used f o r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e chord
shear f a i l u r e s t r e n g t h w i l l g e n e r a l l y not be c r i t i c a l . The t e s t r e s u l s
have been a n a l y s e d u s i n g t h e Brockenbough e q u a t i o n s [51] f o r the i n -
t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l l o a d and shear l o a d . F u r t h e r the e f f e c t of
s t r a i n hardening i s taken i n t o a c c o u n t . For c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h the o t h e r
formulae the i n t e r a c t i o n formulae given i n c h a p t e r 2 are proposed h e r e .
A l s o t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out by Korol [23] on j o i n t s w i t h two chords

welded t o g e t h e r as shown i n f i g . 5 . 4 9 .
Il ii
l These j o i n t s may be s t r o n g e r than
I | j o i n t s w i t h a s i n g l e chord but seem
Li_l from a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t of view not
a t t r a c t i v e compared w i t h s i n g l e chord
* * ' j o i n t s or j o i n t s w i t h double chords
Fig. 5 . 4 9 . Double chord j o i n t . a c c o r d i n g to f i g . 5 . 4 8 .

5.5.7. Joints with_stiffening_glates

Sometimes i n p r a c t i c e the s e c t i o n s have been ordened and l a t e r o n i t is

shown t h a t the j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s not s u f f i c i e n t . In t h i s situation
s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the j o i n t may be n e c e s s a r y . When f o r example gap
j o i n t s are used i t may be c o n s i d e r e d t o change the design t o joints
w i t h a 100% o v e r l a p . If t h i s i s not p o s s i b l e the j o i n t can be
strengthened by p l a t e s e . g . shown i n f i g s . 5 . 5 0 . and 5 . 5 1 .
The r e q u i r e d t h i c k n e s s can be c a l c u l a t e d from the j o i n t strength for-
mulae by c o n s i d e r i n g t as the chord w a l l t h i c k n e s s and n e g l e c t i n g t .
Q

For the r e q u i r e d s t r e n g t h o f t h e s t i f f e n i n g p l a t e t h e squash l o a d i n

the b r a c i n g s s h o u l d be t a k e n .

254
 5-67

Fig. 5.51. K - j o i n t w i t h p a r t i a l o v e r l a p and two s t i f f e n i n g p l a t e s .

5.5.8. Knee_iolnts

In [54] Mang e t . a l . g i v e recommendations f o r Knee j o i n t s in frames,

shown i n f i g . 5 . 5 2 .
The design r u l e s which are a l s o i n c l u d e d i n the d r a f t DIN 18.808 [55]
are as f o l l o w s :

Unstiffened joints:

N M
^ + w l. .aa (5.67)
i ei k
(i = 1 o r 2)

255
 5-68

Fig. 5.52. Knee-joints.

i n which a i s a s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r depending on the s e c t i o n a l

hi bi
parameters and -^y , shown i n f i g s . 5.53a and 5 . 5 3 b .
The shear f o r c e Q should meet the requirement:

f4 (5.68)
P
For l a r g e r shear f o r c e s the c o m b i n a t i o n of a l l s t r e s s e s should be
checked a c c o r d i n g to the Huber Hencky-Von Mises c r i t e r i o n , t a k i n g a c -
count of times the a x i a l - and bending stresses.
a

Stiffened joints:

For s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s a c c o r d i n g to f i g . 5.52b the s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n fac-

t o r can be taken a = 1 . 0 , p r o v i d e d f o l l o w i n g requirements are met;

t s 1.5t- (i = 1 o r 2)
p l v
'

General

A c c o r d i n g to [54, 55] the welds have not to be checked when the t h r o a t

t h i c k n e s s i s equal t o the connected w a l l t h i c k n e s s and a 0.84 f o r Fe 360
and a < 0 . 7 1 f o r Fe 510 which i s based on the common German s ta n d a r d s for
welded structures.

256
 5-69

Fig. 5.23. S t r e s s r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s a f o r Knee j o i n t s .

 5-70

From these Knee j o i n t s no t e s t r e s u l t s and moment r o t a t i o n diagrammes

are a v a i l a b l e t o the a u t h o r . It i s expected t h a t the r o t a t i o n capacity
of the u n s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s w i l l g e n e r a l l y be s m a l l . T h i s means t h a t in
those s t r u c t u r e s i n which r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y i s r e q u i r e d a s t i f f e n e d
Knee j o i n t should be used w i t h compact RHS s e c t i o n s which s a t i s f y the
requirements f o r p l a s t i c d e s i g n .

References

1. S t e w a r t s and L l o y d s The l o c a l c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h o f RHS Con-

junctions. Report C / E . 6 4 / 6 5 . 1
August 1965, S t e w a r t s and L l o y d s .

2. Mee, B . L . The s t r u c t u r a l behaviour o f j o i n t s in

rectangular hollow s e c t i o n s .
Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of S h e f f i e l d ,
1969.

3. B e t t z i e c h e , P. K o n s t r u k t i e v e G e s t a l t u n g von
Knotenpunkten aus V i e r k a n t h o h l p r o f i 1 en.
S t u d i e n h e f t e zum F e r t i g b a u , 1969, Nr. 12.
Vulkan V e r l a g , E s s e n .

4. Eastwood, W. The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded j o i n t s in

Wood, A . A . s t r u c t u r a l hollow s e c t i o n s .
Constructional S t e e l w o r k , January 1971.

5. Davie, J. Research i n t o the s t r e n g t h of welded

Giddings, T.W. l a t t i c e girder joints in s t r u c t u r a l hol-
low s e c t i o n s . C i d e c t r e p o r t 5EC/71/7/E
A p r i l 1971.

6. Wardenier, J. Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c strength

K o n i n g , C . H . M . de
o f welded l a t t i c e g i r d e r j o i n t s in struc-
tural hollow s e c t i o n s .
P a r t 1: R e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s .
Part 2: J o i n t s with c i r c u l a r sections
and a r e c t a n g u l a r boom.
S t e v i n r e p o r t s 6 - 7 6 - 4 and 6 - 7 6 - 6 .
 5-71

7. Wardenier, J. The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f l a t t i c e girder

Stark, J.W.B. joints. Stevin report 6-78-4.
A l s o ECSC r e p o r t EUR 6428e, MF-1980
European Community o f S t e e l and C o a l .

i. K o n i n g , C H . M . de T e s t s onwelded j o i n t s i n complete g i r d -
Wardenier, J. ers made of square hollow s e c t i o n s .
S t e v i n r e p o r t 6 - 7 9 - 4 , TNO-IBBC report
Nr. 79-19/0063.4.3471.

9. B.S.C. The behaviour of welded j o i n t s i n com-

p l e t e l a t t i c e g i r d e r s w i t h RHS c h o r d s .
Cidect report 5FC-77/31

10. J o h a n s e n , K.W. Y i e l d l i n e theory. Cement and C o n c r e t e

A s s o c i a t i o n , London 1962.

11. Redwood, R.G. The behaviour o f j o i n t s between r e c t a n -

gular hollow s t r u c t u r a l members. C i v i l
E n g i n e e r i n g and P u b l i c works Review,
O c t . 1965.

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13. D a v i e s , G. Gap j o i n t s w i t h tubes - A yield line

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14. Mouty, J. C a l c u l des charges u l t i m e s des assem-

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 5-72

16. Mang, F. Models f o r t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n of

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17. K o r o l , R.M. E l a s t i c - p l a s t i c f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s

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19. Giddings, T.W. The d e s i g n i n RHS V i e r e n d e e l girders

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21. K a n a t a n i , H. Bending t e s t s on T - j o i n t s o f RHS chord

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22. Radwood, R.G. Welded j o i n t s for triangular trusses.

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23. C h i d i a c , M. R e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n double chord

K o r o l , R.M. T-joints.
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260
 5-73

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25. Wardenier, J. The s t r e n g t h o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y

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26. G r o e n e v e l d , H. R i g i d p l a s t i c 2nd o r d e r c a l c u l a t i o n o f
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27. Timoshenko, S . P . Theory o f e l a s t i c stability.

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28. Barpntse, J . Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c strength

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Masters s t u d y , D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h -
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29. Brodka, J . , Strength of cross j o i n t s in rectangular

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30. K a t o , B. The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of R R - j o i n t s with

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31. Wardenier, J. The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h of branch p l a t e t o

D a v i e s , G. RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s i n c r o s s joints.
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261
 5-74

32. D a v i e s , G. The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f branch c r o s s w a l l s

Wardenier, J. f o r RR C r o s s - J o i n t s in tension.
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33. Wardenier, J. Comparison o f the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of

K o n i n g , C H . M . de welded j o i n t s made of RHS w i t h different
Douwen, A . A . van steel grades.
IIW Doc. X V - 4 1 8 - 7 8 .

34. Haleem, R. Determination of ultimate j o i n t strength

f o r s t a t i c a l l y loaded SHS welded lattice
g i r d e r j o i n t s w i t h RHS c h o r d s . Cidect
r e p o r t No. 77/37, O c t . '77 and Addendum
March 1978.

35. Mang, F. The load c a r r y i n g behaviour o f unstiff-

Bucak, 0 . ened K - j o i n t s of l a r g e s i z e d thin-walled
St r i e b e l , A. r e c t a n g u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s o f s t e e l
grade S t . 4 2 and S t . 5 2 .
IIW Doc. XV-417-78.

36. C o u t i e , M.G. The s t r e n g t h of welded gap j o i n t s with

D a v i e s , G. RHS members. Proceedings International
Conference on J o i n t s in Structural
Steelwork Teeside, England.
A p r i l , 6 t h - 9 t h , 1981.

37. D a v i e s , G. E s t i m a t i n g the s t r e n g t h o f some welded

lap j o i n t s formed from RHS members. P r o -
ceedings I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on
Joints in Structural Steelwork. Teeside,
England. A p r i l 6 t h - 9 t h , 1981.

38. K o n i n g , C H . M . de Supplement on r e f . 7. T e s t r e s u l t s of
Wardenier, J. welded j o i n t s in structural hollow sec-
t i o n s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r boom.
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 6 122/35.3.51210.

39. Strating, J. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t e s t r e s u l t s for

a level I code. IIW Doc. XV-462-80.

262
 5-75

40. Mang, F. Investigations i n t o the behaviour of

Bucak, 0 . h i g h t e n s i l e s t e e l j o i n t s of rectangu-
l a r hollow s e c t i o n s . IIW Doc. XV-416-78.

41.. Hlavacek, V. U l t i m a t e l o a d of T - j o i n t s o f rectangu-

l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n . IIW Doc. XV-445-79.

42. Szendak, J. U l t i m a t e l o a d o f X- and T - j o i n t s i n rec-

Brodka, J. t a n g u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s voor 3 = 1.0
I n s t i t u t e of Welding, G l i w i c e , Poland,
J a n . 1980.

43. Vrouwenvelder, Geometrically n o n - l i n e a r p l a s t i c ana-

W i t t eve e n , l y s i s o f p l a t e s . Comments on t h e a p -
proaches by P a c k e r , Davies e t . al.
Internal r e p o r t TNO-IBBC, 1979.

44. R o l l o s , A. The e f f e c t i v e weld l e n g t h of beam to

column c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o u t stiffening
plates. Stevin report 6-69-7-HL
IIW Doc. XV-276-69.

45. Mehrotra, L. Load t r a n s f e r through c o n n e c t i o n s be-

Redwood, R.G. tween box s e c t i o n s . Canadian Eng. Inst.
C-70-BR and S t r . 1 0 , A u g - S e p t . 1970.

46. Gabar, M.A. S t r e s s a n a l y s i s of c r o s s and T - s t e e l

joints i n square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . R e -
p o r t U n i v e r s i t y o f Nottingham (To be
published).

47. Soetens, F. Welded c o n n e c t i o n s i n c o l d formed s e c -

tions. TNO-IBBC r e p o r t
B I - 8 0 - 3 8 / 6 3 . 1 . 0 4 5 0 , J u l y 1980.

48. Mehrotra, B.L. Shear l a g a n a l y s i s of r e c t a n g u l a r full-

Govil, A.K. w i d t h tube c o n n e c t i o n s .
P r o c . ASCE J o u r n a l o f the S t r u c t . Div.
S T - 1 , J a n u a r i 1972.

263
 5-76

49. Staples, C.J.L. Test r e s u l t s o f 24 r i g h t angled branches

Harrison, C.C. f a b r i c a t e d from r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c -
tions. Univ. of Manchester, I n s t , of
S c i e n c e and Techn. undated.

50. Rumpf, J...L. Welded c o n n e c t i o n s f o r square and r e c -

C u t e , D. t a n g u l a r s t e e l t u b i n g . Dept. o f C i v . Eng.
Camo, S . and M e c h a n i c s , Drexel Institute o f Techn.
Nov. 1968.

51. Broc ken bough, R.L. S t r e n g t h of s q u a r e - t u b e c o n n e c t i o n s u n -

der combined l o a d s .
P r o c . ASCE, J o u r n a l o f the S t r u c t . Div.
S T . 1 2 , Dec. 1972.

52. Loo, Y.K. Moment c o n n e c t i o n s f o r Vierendeel

t r u s s e s of square h o l l o w s t r u c t u r a l sec-
tions. P r o j e c t T h e s i s . Mc.Master U n i v . ,
1973.

53. K o r o l , R.M. Double chord HSS t r u s s e s , Phase I.

Chidiac, M.A. T e s t s on i s o l a t e d K - j o i n t s , CSCC U n i v . ,
Toronto
Cidect report 5V1-80/7.

54. Mang, F. Design of welded l a t t i c e j o i n t s and mo-

Steidl, G. ment r e s i s t i n g Knee j o i n t s made o f hol-
Bucak, 0 . low s e c t i o n s .
IIW Doc. X V - 4 6 3 - 8 0 .

55. DIN 18808 Tragwerke aus Hohl p r o f i l en unter

vorwiegend ruhender Beanspruchung.
Entwurf September 1981.
( D r a f t German s t a n d a r d f o r predominantly
s t a t i c a l l y loaded t u b u l a r structures).

264
 V-l

Appendix V

V-l Y i e l d l i n e models

In t h i s appendix V - l some s i m p l e y i e l d l i n e models are d e s c r i b e d f o r a

r i g i d prefectly p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l , i l l u s t r a t e d in f i g . V-l.
The y i e l d l i n e method g i v e s an
upper bound s o l u t i o n o f the
y i e l d l o a d t h e r e f o r e the p o s -
0-4
s i b l e mechanisms have to be
examined i n o r d e r to f i n d the
lowest v a l u e f o r the y i e l d
load c a p a c i t y .
Membrane a c t i o n and s t r a i n
hardening e f f e c t s are ignored
which means t h a t these models

Fig. V-l. Rigid perfectly plastic are based on small deflections

material behaviour. as shown i n appendix V - 2 .

V - l . 1. Yield_line_model^_for_a_chord^

In the y i e l d l i n e models f o r a chord f a c e f a i l u r e the j o i n t i s s c h e -

m a t i z e d to a j o i n t w i t h v e r t i c a l loading only. In f i g . V - 2 . various
y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n s are shown f o r which t h a t w i t h y i e l d l i n e fans
(fig. V - 2 b . ) g i v e s the l o w e s t y i e l d l o a d . The d i f f e r e n c e i n l o a d c a -
p a c i t y w i t h the p a t t e r n g i v e n i n f i g . V - l a . i s not more than \% to It.
For s i m p l i c i t y t h e r e f o r e the p a t t e r n o f f i g . V - 2 a i s g e n e r a l l y used
[6, 12, 13, 15].

The y i e l d l i n e s 3 g e n e r a l l y occur j u s t b e s i d e the c o r n e r s due t o the

somewhat l a r g e r w a l l t h i c k n e s s i n the c o r n e r s , thus on a d i s t a n c e
b - 2t , w h i l e the y i e l d l i n e s 4 are j u s t b e s i d e the weld on a d i s -
hi
tance b, + 2 a / 2 . The y i e l d l i n e s 2 are on a d i s t a n c e _ + 2a/2.
1 sm9^
For convenience and general v a l i d i t y f o r b u t t and f i l l e t welds the i n -
f l u e n c e o f the welds i s n e g l e c t e d and b Q - 2t Q i s s i m p l i f i e d to b .
Q

The energy p a r t i c i p a t e d In the y i e l d l i n e s i s g i v e n by

(V-l)

265
 V-2

Fig. V-2. Y i e l d l i n e model f o r a T - , Y- and X-joint.

(chord f a c e failure).

Fig. V-3. Y i e l d l i n e s 2 and 5.

266
 V-3

The t o t a l energy p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the y i e l d l i n e s 1 to 5 i s as f o l l o w s :

y i e l d l i n e s 1: 2b.,, , ? . .m 2
= tga.6.
4
m
J
o (b - b ^ c o t g a p 1-6 p

" " 9 - 9h 26 _ 4(3.tga . m

" 2
^r^-b^cotga - p m
p

il II
3 : 2
( s i ^ + 2
- ^ c o t
9 a
) b ^ - m
p = {
(l-B)sin e i
+ 4 c o t
g a } A m
p

2^L.l h

- 4:
sTFi^ . '"p
m "= ( l - 6 ) s i nn0 . '-"'p
6.m
1

" " 5 :
^ 5 - ( l ^ +
I-^tg?i)- p m
= 4(tga + cotga)6.n, p

a .t 2

with m p = ^

8.m

The energy by the e x t e r n a l l o a d N..sinS,.<S i s equal to the p a r t i c i p a t e d

energy i n the y i e l d l i n e s which g i v e s :

2a t 2

N 1 . S i n e = - ^ { t g a
1 + - ^ + i J _ } (V-3)

T h i s i s a minimum f o r :

dN

tgct = (V-5)

S u b s t i t u t i o n of eq. (V-5) i n e q . (V-3) g i v e s the y i e l d load:

\ E
T ? r ^ + 4 m i
l ( v
" 6 )

T h i s e q . (V-6) i s the same as e q . ( 5 . 4 ) given i n 5 . 2 . 5 . 1 . As s t a t e d

before due to the p o s i t i o n of the y i e l d l i n e s i n these formulae f o r B

267
 V-4

b + 2a/ 2 h, + 2 a / 2

c o u l d be used r and f o r n c o u l d be used r instead of

, , 0 0 0 0
b
l n
l
g and - g - r e s p e c t i v e l y .
0 0
V-1.2. Yield llne_model_for_a_chord_face_fail^

In a s i m i l a r way the y i e l d l o a d can be c a l c u l a t e d f o r a K- o r N - j o i n t

w i t h gap by s i m p l i f y i n g i t to an p u s h - p u l l mechanism, shown i n f i g .
V - 4 [13] . JM_ H;
sinS! sin 62

+ fgH" f

rh Ni sin 6

lii
03:
- V
a
Symmetrical Warren type

11 11 joint w i t h gap simplified

to p u s h - p u l l joint.
v x h a

Fig. V-4. Y i e l d l i n e model f o r a K- and N - j o i n t w i t h gap.

The r e s u l t i n g y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y f o r a symmetrical K - j o i n t i s g i v e n
by:

N
l = Tqr 1
^ +
M + 2
^ }
I T n e - <>

V-1.3. Y i e l d line_model for_a_K-_and_N-joint_with_qyerlap_

The f i r s t attempt t o g i v e y i e l d l i n e models f o r j o i n t s w i t h an o v e r l a p

was c a r r i e d out by Mouty [ 1 4 ] . The model g i v e n however, leads to i n -
f i n i t e s t r e n g t h f o r j o i n t s w i t h 100% o v e r l a p whereas i t i s not c o r r e c t
f o r small o v e r l a p s because the i n t e r s e c t i o n between b r a c i n g s and chord
remains not i n plane but deforms. Due to the s t i f f n e s s a t the o v e r l a p
t h i s p a r t has to y i e l d before the p a r t connected to the chord f a c e
can cause a y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n i n the chord f a c e .

268
 V-5

In [37] Davies has given an y i e l d l i n e approach based on t h i s i d e a . The

model used i s shown i n f i g . V-5.

Fig. V-5. Model f o r an o v e r l a p j o i n t [37].

b
l
Depending on the r a t i o the whole or an e f f e c t i v e p a r t o f the cross
w a l l o f the compression b r a c i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h a p a r t of the s i d e w a l l s
i s assumed to y i e l d . Due to the d e f o r m a t i o n f u r t h e r a y i e l d l i n e pattern
i s assumed i n the chord face under the compression b r a c i n g . In [37]
some t e s t r e s u l t s have been compared w i t h the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from
t h i s model which show a f a i r l y good agreement, however i t has not y e t
been checked over the whole p r a c t i c a l range.
It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e energy used f o r the deformation o f the b r a c i n g s
will be c o n s i d e r a b l y more than t h a t used f o r the y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n in
the c h o r d . The design r u l e s given i n f i g . 5 . 3 2 . are t h e r e f o r e only
based on the e f f e c t i v e b r a c i n g w i d t h .

269
 V-6

V-1.4. Yiel^d_l i n e _ m o d e l _ f o r _ c h g r d _ f ^

Based on the same p r i n c i p l e s as f o r a x i a l l y loading, joints loaded by

a bending moment i n plane can be s i m p l i f i e d to the model g i v e n i n f i g .
V-6.:

Fig. V-6. Y i e l d l i n e model f o r i n plane bending moment.

The t o t a l energy p a r t i c i p a t e d i n the y i e l d l i n e s i s as follows:

y i e l d l i n e s 1 and 1' : .5.m

2 a n d 2' : % ^ - 6 . m p

3 a n d 3
' : {
(l-3)sin6 1 + 4 c o t
9 a } 6
- p
m

. 4(1-6)sin,
4 a n d 4
' : {
(1-B)sin9 1
+
n } 6
' m
p

5 and 5' : 4 ( t g a + cotga) 6 . m p

The energy of the e x t e r n a l moment M i D is:

M. M sinG,
ip h 1 1

270
 V-7

Thus:

a t h 2
(1-6).sine
M '_ ' rtga , 1 , n , 1
(V-8)
G E O 1

ip snnG 1
l
T 0r
tgct ( l - S ) s i n G'1
- ~27T

T h i s i s a minimum f o r :

tga = /F6 (V-9)

S u b s t i t u t i o n of e q . (V-9) i n (V-8) gives:

(l-B)sinS,
2 2
(V-10)
M
ip = a
eo- o- l ^= (l-6)sin0
t h { +
1 2n sinG.

or
2 (1-6). sine,
M. =a . t . b {-2TJ + 2

2 - sinG, (V-10a)
Tp eo o o 1

/TT6 (1-B)sin0 1

Comparison of e q . (V-10) w i t h e q . (V-6) f o r the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y

shows that:

(v-ii)
M. > 0.5h..N,

V-l.5. Y i e l d _ l i n e _ m o d e l _ f o r _ c h o r d _ s i d e _ w a l ] _ f a i l ure

The s t a b i l i t y of the chord s i d e w a l l s can be s t u d i e d w i t h the y i e l d

l i n e method. A p o s s i b l e y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n f o r a T - j o i n t under moment
l o a d i n g i s shown i n f i g . V-7.
M i p

/
/
/

X
1 /I /
r

Fig. V-7. Y i e l d l i n e model f o r chord s i d e w a l l buckling.

271
 V-8

In some p u b l i c a t i o n s such models have been used [ 4 1 , 42] however i n

all these p u b l i c a t i o n s the i n f l u e n c e of the a x i a l f o r c e on the bending
moment i s n e g l e c t e d . F u r t h e r the p l a s t i c s t r a i n due to the a x i a l load
i s not taken i n t o a c c o u n t . T h i s l e a d s to i n c o r r e c t f o r m u l a e . Taking
these e f f e c t s i n t o account makes i t not a s i m p l e model anymore. A
method which takes account of the a x i a l - and shear s t r e s s e s i n the
y i e l d l i n e s i s given i n [43].

V-1.6. Remarks

The models given here have a l i m i t e d v a l i d i t y range e . g . f o r a chord

f a c e f a i l u r e the j o i n t parameter 3 should not be too high otherwise
the y i e l d l i n e s between the s i d e s of the b r a c i n g and the chord cannot
be developed and w i l l change i n one shear y i e l d l i n e at each s i d e
(punching shear). The same w i l l happen f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h a
small gap. F u r t h e r the models are based on a p l a s t i c moment i n the
y i e l d l i n e s whereas a t small d e f l e c t i o n s the membrane a c t i o n w i l l al-
ready be c o n s i d e r a b l e as d i s c u s s e d i n Appendix V - 2 . A l s o s t r a i n hard-
ening e f f e c t s occur w h i c h lead to a f u r t h e r i ncrease i n j o i n t strength.

V-2 I n f l u e n c e membrane a c t i o n

As a l r e a d y mentioned i n Appendix V - l the s i m p l i f i e d y i e l d l i n e models

w i t h o n l y moment y i e l d l i n e s g i v e o n l y an i n d i c a t i o n f o r small de-
f l e c t i o n s and do not d e s c r i b e the r e a l b e h a v i o u r due to the ignoring
o f the membrane a c t i o n . In j o i n t s of h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the chord f a c e
i s loaded p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the p l a n e . A f t e r the development of the
p l a s t i c moments i n the y i e l d hinges the p l a t e w i l l deform which re-
s u l t s i n membrane a c t i o n due to the r e s t r a i n i n g a t the supports.
In r e a l i t y the p l a t e c o n s i d e r e d has a v a r i a b l e r e s t r a i n i n g i n t r a n s l a -
t i o n and r o t a t i o n as q u a l i t a t i v e l y i l l u s t r a t e d in f i g . V-8.
The r e s t r a i n i n g i n r o t a t i o n and t r a n s l a t i o n i n c r o s s s e c t i o n A i s
relatively small and i s determined by the frame s t i f f n e s s . In cross
s e c t i o n B the p l a t e i s f u l l restrained for translation. In the longi-
t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n the r e s t r a i n i n g f o r r o t a t i o n and t r a n s l a t i o n i s also
variable. These v a r i a b l e p l a t e end c o n d i t i o n s combined w i t h the various
p o s s i b l e y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n s show the c o m p l e x i t y of the problem. In
truss joints such as K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h gap the b e h a v i o u r becomes
even more c o m p l i c a t e d .

272
 V-9

^ L 1 A
_ L -

Fig. V-8. Model f o r a T - j o i n t .

For an b e t t e r understanding of the i n f l u e n c e of the membrane a c t i o n

some b a s i c s t u d i e s were c a r r i e d out by Groeneveld [26] by c o n s i d e r i n g
p a r t i a l l y r e s t r a i n e d beams and p l a t e s loaded by a c o n c e n t r a t e d load
or a l i n e load.

V-2.1. Prl5lly_Ltrained_beam

Fig. V - 9 a . shows a beam w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r s o l i d c r o s s s e c t i o n which

i s p a r t i a l l y r e s t r a i n e d a t the supports f o r h o r i z o n t a l deformations
and loaded by a c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d at midspan. A r i g i d p e r f e c t l y plas-
t i c m a t e r i a l i s assumed (see f i g . V-9c).
When the l o a d N i s i n c r e a s e d , the d e f l e c t i o n S w i l l remain z e r o u n -
c c
till the p l a s t i c moment i s reached a t :
4.m
N c = - J (V-12)

A f u r t h e r increase in load w i l l g i v e a d e f l e c t i o n 6 - Due to the

C

r e s t r a i n i n g at the end a membrane f o r c e N w i l l appear i n the beam and

a force N g = k.6g i n the s p r i n g . The e q u a t i o n s which d e s c r i b e the
behaviour are as f o l l o w s [26]:

273
 V-10

A
C B
4
I

d(A</>). M p

d(AL).Np

Fig. V-9. Beam w i t h a p a r t i a l l y r e s t r a i n e d e n d .

Equil ibrium:

4M 4 N
" c S

N = + (V-13)
c I I

Y i e l d c o n d i t i o n (see Appendix 11-2}

,N ^2
r - 1 =0 (V-14)

Flow r u l e

1
d(A<(>) = l ^ . d A =
"o -dX (V-15a)
P

2N
d(A) = ||.d>. = -dX (V-15b)

Ki nemati cs
46
(V-16a)

6 R = - ( { , + A,)COSc)>

which can be worked out f o r small $ t o :

274
 V-ll

26 2

M =
~r ' 6
B (V-16b)

The f l o w r u l e o r a l s o c a l l e d n o r m a l i t y r u l e s t a t e s t h a t the v e c t o r of
p l a s t i c s t r a i n increments (d(A<(>), d ( A ) } must be p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the
y i e l d s u r f a c e as shown i n f i g . V-9d.
The s c a l e parameter A i n the f l o w r u l e can be e l i m i n a t e d :

2
N N

mi p = i \ (v-i5)
In [26] these c o n d i t i o n s are worked out to an d i f f e r e n t i a l equation
which i s s o l v e d and worked out f o r v a r i o u s s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s e s . In this
appendix V-2 o n l y the beam w i t h f i x e d end s u p p o r t s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d ,
thus f
o r 6g = 0 and s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s k = > .
From e q s . (V-16a) and (V-16b) follows:

d(6J
4 ~
d A*)
j - (V-16)
d A)
46 .d(6 )
c c

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f e q . (V-16) i n e q . (V-15) gives:

l = 2
4r (v-)
P

Combined w i t h the y i e l d c r i t e r i o n e q . (V-14) g i v e s the e x p r e s s i o n for

M:

l - 1 - - f (V-18)
P h

Thus the l o a d N c i s g i v e n by s u b s t i t u t i o n of (V-17) and (V-18) in eq.

(V-13):

4M 46 2

N c = (1 + | ) (V-19)
h

Eq. (V-18) shows t h a t at 6 = 0.5h the moment becomes zero and o n l y a

normal f o r c e , b e i n g N p a c t s i n the beam. Thus e q . (V-19) i s only valid
up to 6 C = 0.5h.

275
 V-12

For 6 c > 0.5h:

4N .6
N c = SjS (V-20)

or with Np = ^ Mp the e q u a t i o n can be d i r e c t l y compared w i t h e q .

(V-19):
4M 46
N =E . -J- (V-21)

Eqs. (V-19) and (V-21) are p l o t t e d i n f i g . V - 1 0 . F u r t h e r some s o l u t i o n s

are g i v e n f o r v a r i o u s s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s e s d e r i v e d from [ 2 6 ] .

- 7 /

7/
k l = oo
k l = 200 N p

/ k l = 50 N D

h_
/ L 30

/ a) bending+membrane action
b) membrane action only
/

Fig. V-10. Load d e f l e c t i o n b e h a v i o u r f o r a beam w i t h ^ = 30 which

is partially horizontally restraint [26].

For p l a t e s i n p r i n c i p l e the same procedure has to be f o l l o w e d o n l y

the e q u a t i o n s become more c o m p l i c a t e d . In [26] some examples have been
worked out f o r p l a t e s which are f r e e l y s u p p o r t e d i n one d i r e c t i o n and
 V-13

p a r t i a l l y r e s t r a i n e d i n the o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . These p l a t e s have been

s t u d i e d f o r v a r i o u s l e n g t h to width r a t i o s under a c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d
and a l i n e l o a d . For the s o l u t i o n v a r i o u s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s had a l r e a d y
to be made w i t h r e g a r d to y i e l d c o n d i t i o n and the s o l u t i o n o f the dif-
f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n . F u r t h e r the y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n may change w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g d e f l e c t i o n which means t h a t the p a r t s between the y i e l d
l i n e s do not remain f l a t which i s assumed.
Fig. V - l l . shows as an example the i n f l u e n c e o f the membrane a c t i o n
for various spring s t i f f n e s s e s .

Fig. V-ll. Load d e f l e c t i o n b e h a v i o u r f o r a p l a t e w i t h -~- = 3 which

2
is p a r t i a l l y horizontally restraint [26].

P a c k e r , Davies and C o u t i e [ 1 3 , 15] d i d s t u d i e s on K- and N - j o i n t s

f o r which no r e s t r a i n t i s assumed around the j o i n t but o n l y i n the
gap a r e a . Thus, a membrane f o r c e can o n l y be developed i n the panel
between the two b r a c i n g s a t the c r o t c h .

277
 V-14

The p l a s t i c moment i n the y i e l d l i n e s i s reduced by the a x i a l load

c a p a c i t y . The membrane f o r c e i n the c r o t c h i s c a l c u l a t e d from the
change i n d i s t a n c e between the y i e l d l i n e s and based upon the a s -
sumed e f f e c t i v e c r o t c h w i d t h and an assumed s t r a i n hardening modulus.
T h i s means t h a t v a r i o u s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s have been made to the r e a l
s i t u a t i o n . Although the r e s u l t s show a f a i r l y good agreement w i t h the
t e s t r e s u l t s t h e r e are c e r t a i n o b j e c t i o n s a g a i n s t the method used.
For example when a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a p l a t e i s y i e l d i n g due to the
combined a c t i o n o f bending moment and normal f o r c e a p l a s t i c rotation
and e l o n g a t i o n w i l l o c c u r . The r a t i o between p l a s t i c s t r a i n increments
f o r r o t a t i o n and e l o n g a t i o n i s governed by the f l o w rule.
Vrouwenvelder and W i t t e v e e n [43] s t a t e d t h a t the s o l u t i o n used by
Packer e t . a l . which does not i n c l u d e t h i s f l o w r u l e i s i n p r i n c i p l e
i n c o r r e c t and must t h e o r e t i c a l l y l e a d to i n c o r r e c t answers. In how f a r
the j o i n t s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t e d i n t h i s way d i f f e r s from the r e a l theo-
retical s o l u t i o n has not been c l a r i f i e d .
Summarized i t can be s a i d t h a t a l l s t u d i e s c a r r i e d out show t h a t mem-
brane a c t i o n can c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e the l o a d c a p a c i t y . The r e s u l -
t i n g e q u a t i o n s however, become to c o m p l i c a t e f o r p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n and
can o n l y be used f o r computer programmes. They a r e , however i m p o r t a n t
f o r c h e c k i n g the more s i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n r u l e s and the range o f v a l i d -
ity. F u r t h e r they g i v e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the complex behav-
i o u r o f these types o f j o i n t s . It i s shown t h a t the membrane a c t i o n
becomes more i m p o r t a n t w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e f l e c t i o n s thus f o r joints
w i t h t h i n w a l l e d chords which i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . V - 1 2 . i n which
the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r K - j o i n t s are compared w i t h the s i m p l e y i e l d line
model which i g n o r e s membrane a c t i o n [ 7 ].
B e s i d e s membrane a c t i o n a l s o s t r a i n hardening o c c u r s e s p e c i a l l y i n
t h o s e j o i n t s which f i n a l l y f a i l by c r a c k i n g .

278
 V-15

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. V-12. Increase i n s t r e n g t h due to membrane a c t i o n (K-joints

with 1 = 0 2 = 45, b l = h 1 = b 2 = h 2 and g = 0 . 2 b )
o

V-3 E f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r p l a t e to RHS chord connections

When a f u l l w i d t h p l a t e or a RHS b r a c i n g w i t h l a r g e a x i a l stiffness

i s connected by w e l d i n g to the r e l a t i v e l y f l e x i b l e w a l l of a RHS chord
member, a s i g n i f i c a n t n o n - l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n of a x i a l s t r e s s e s occurs
i n the c r o s s w a l l s of the b r a c i n g member. T h i s e f f e c t was s t u d i e d by
R o l l o o s [44] f o r f u l l w i d t h p l a t e to I- and box s e c t i o n s , particularly
i n o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h the e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h of the c o n n e c t i n g fillet
w e l d s . Mehrotra e t . a l . [45] examined the e l a s t i c s t r e s s distribution
i n f u l l w i d t h RHS j o i n t s s u b j e c t to b e n d i n g . Gabar has c a r r i e d out a
s e r i e s of e l a s t i c f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s of X - j o i n t s under a x i a l load
w i t h w i d t h r a t i o s l e s s than one. As shown i n f i g . V - 1 3 the e l a s t i c stress
d i s t r i b u t i o n becomes l e s s uniform f o r j o i n t s w i t h low width ratios.

279
 V-16

Fig. V-13. V a r i a t i o n of e l a s t i c s t r e s s i n b r a c i n g around the corner

f o r v a r i o u s width r a t i o s 8 .

Where the c o n n e c t i o n possess s u f f i c i e n t d u c t i l i t y the e f f i c i e n c y of

the w a l l s can be expected to improve as y i e l d i n g takes p l a c e locally
at p o i n t s o f high s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . In t u b u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n it
i s normal p r a c t i c e to design the welds i n such a way t h a t f a i l u r e oc-
curs i n the parent m a t e r i a l r a t h e r than i n the w e l d . In [ 3 1 , 32]
Wardenier e t . a l . i n v e s t i g a t e d p l a t e to RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s (fig.
V - 1 4 ) , and X - j o i n t s f o r v a r i o u s width r a t i o s and v a r i o u s chord
b
s l e n d e r n e s s j 2 i n o r d e r to o b t a i n evidence f o r the e f f e c t i v e width
of b r a c i n g c r o s s w a l l s i n RHS j o i n t s and f o r I-beam to RHS column con-
nections.

ti
1+

bo

3xh( h = 180mm
180x180 RHS
0
0 *
X IK

bi

Fig. V-14. P l a t e to RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n .

280
 V-17

V-3.1. Weld f a i l u r e

Based on the approach of R o l l o o s [ 4 4 ] the IIw adopted f o l l o w i n g e f f e c -

t i v e width f o r welds of f u l l w i d t h box s e c t i o n joints:

b = 2t + ct
e, , o o
Q

(w)

where c = 5 or 4 f o r Fe 360 or Fe 510 s t e e l f o r j o i n t s in tension.

These values are based on a s a f e t y f a c t o r of 2 . 3 between working l o a d
and f a i l u r e . T h i s means t h a t the u l t i m a t e l o a d i s g i v e n by 2 . 3 times
the a l l o w a b l e working s t r e s s and the weld e f f e c t i v e w i d t h . Hence for
a r a t i o 1.5 between 2 . 3 x working s t r e s s and y i e l d stress:

N
lu = L 5 b
e, V e l ( -
V 2 2
)
w
r

For hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s the c o r n e r s g i v e a c e r t a i n s t i f f e n i n g ef-

f e c t which f o r average v a l u e s r - t r e s u l t s f o r Fe 360 i n :
o o J

N l u = 1.5 { 2 ( t Q + r ) 0 + 5t ).2a.a
0 e l (V-23)

= c .t .2a.0t Q e l (V-23a)

w i t h c^ = 1 3 . 5 .

When the weld s t r e n g t h i s equal to the p l a t e s t r e n g t h i.e. 2a = t^

eq. (V-23a) becomes:

N l u = b .t a e r e l (V-24)

wi th

b e = c .t t Q (V-25)

C. = 13.5 f o r Fe 360.

V-3.2. Plate failure

For the a n a l y s i s i n p r i n c i p l e the r e s u l t s of p l a t e f a i l u r e s are used.

In those cases i n which the welds had i n s u f f i c i e n t t h r o a t thickness
the loads which caused a weld f a i l u r e have been a d j u s t e d to

N
, = ~
h . N, .
lu 2a lu
281
 V-18

It has been checked t h a t these f a i l u r e loads agree w i t h those of s p e c i -

mens which had s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k f i l l e t welds or b u t t w e l d s . The func-
t i o n f o r the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h i s given now i n such a way t h a t for
B = 1.0 the same value i s o b t a i n e d as w i t h e q . (V-25)

b e = c .t ..f<B)
t 0 (V-26)
o

with

f(B) = 1.0 f o r B = 1.0

Where m a t e r i a l s of v a r i o u s t h i c k n e s s e s (t^ f t ) and s t r e n g t h s

(a , t a ) are used t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e [19] to show t h a t these v a r i a -
v
el eo'
t i o n s can be accomodated by i n c l u d i n g the term
3 .t
e o
, . This i s f u r t h e r c o n f i r m e d by the D e l f t t e s t s [31] and those
a l
eV l
of Soetens [ 4 7 ] . Thus:

l o o el 1

a .t
A l i n e a r i n f l u e n c e of 6 0
i seems not to be j u s t i f i e d w i t h o u t limita-
a
el l - t

tions therefore f o r the time b e i n g u n t i l l more e v i d e n c e i s available

f o l l o w i n g l i m i t a t i o n s are p r o p o s e d :
a .t
1 * _eoo ^ 2 ( v . 2 8 )

Cel^l
In [31] as a c o n s e r v a t i v e lower bound i t i s proposed to u s e :

f(6) = 1.0 (V-29)

Eq. ( V - 2 9 ) i s proposed i n [31] because a t t h a t time o n l y limited

e v i d e n c e was a v a i l a b l e f o r w i d t h r a t i o s B < 0 . 5 . These t e s t s showed
that f(B) s h o u l d be l a r g e r than 1.0 f o r small w i d t h r a t i o s , however
then the d e f o r m a t i o n may become c r i t i c a l f o r p l a t e to RHS chord c o n -
nections.
Thus the e q u a t i o n f o r e f f e c t i v e p l a t e w i d t h becomes:

(V-24)
N
lu = e ' V e lb
 V-19

C. O . t
t eo o
o o el l

with c t = 13.5 f o r Fe 360

and the l i m i t a t i o n a c c o r d i n g e q . (V-28).
The t e s t r e s u l t s a n a l y s e d i n t h i s way are shown i n f i g . V - 1 5 .

D D

<

Fig. V-15. E f f i c i e n c y versus - r - curves a l l o w i n g f o r v a r i a t i o n s in

o
t h i c k n e s s and y i e l d s t r e n g t h .

V-3.3. P c h i n g _ s h e a r _ f a i l_ure
u n

Besides w e l d - and p l a t e f a i l u r e punching shear of the chord f a c e can

o c c u r . The s t r e n g t h can be expressed a s :

= 2(t + b ).-52 .t (V-31)

lu e
P /3 c

The t e s t s showed [31] t h a t the punching shear c o u l d be e x p r e s s e d i n a

s i m i l a r way as the e f f e c t i v e p l a t e w i d t h , but the i n f l u e n c e of

283
 V-20

r - i s l e s s pronounced because y i e l d i n g i n the p l a t e i s l e s s pro-

a
el l - t

nounced i n case o f punching s h e a r , t h u s :

b e .b f(B)
r (V-32)
p o o
A l s o here f ( B ) = 1.0 i s assumed i n [31] b e i n g a lower bound.

V-3.4. Other_criteria

Another c r i t e r i o n which can be d e c i s i v e f o r p l a t e to RHS chord connec-

t i o n s i s the chord w a l l b e a r i n g b e i n g :

N
ly = ^eo^l + 5 t
o) ( "
V 3 3
>

Further crack i n i t i a t i o n and d e f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d not be critical.

In [31] it i s shown t h a t f o r an adopted y Y m c = 1-25 and f ( 0 ) = 1.0
crack i n i t i a t i o n i s not c r i t i c a l compared to the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h .
b n

When -IT- S 30 and B S 0 . 5 the d e f o r m a t i o n at w o r k i n g l o a d w i l l be l e s s

z
o
than 1% b Q if a Y -Y -Y m c s = 1-25 x 1.5 i s assumed.
Although the t e s t s c a r r i e d out show s u f f i c i e n t d u c t i l i t y see e . g .
figs. V - 1 6 . and V - 1 7 . a y Y m c = 1-25 i s proposed f o r b g and b 6 p because
of the s e n s i v i t y o f the w e l d s . E s p e c i a l l y a t the c o r n e r s i t is dif-
f i c u l t to o b t a i n proper welds.

V-3.5. Remarks

Some p i l o t t e s t s f o r j o i n t s w i t h small B r a t i o s were c a r r i e d out

l a t e r o n at D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y to study the i n f l u e n c e o f 8 i n more d e t a i l .
For B = 1.0 the s t r e s s e s can f l o w through a c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e width.
For p l a t e w i d t h s b^ - b Q - 2t - 2 a / ^ the s t r e s s e s can f l o w through a
relatively small area whereas f o r j o i n t s w i t h small w i d t h s a yield
l i n e p a t t e r n can be developed i n the chord top f a c e which makes a more
uniform s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n p o s s i b l e . This i s q u a l i t a t i v e l y shown i n
fig. V-18.
The t e s t s c a r r i e d out c o n f i r m e d the expected i n f l u e n c e o f B f o r ef-
f e c t i v e w i d t h and punching s h e a r . It i s a d v i c e d however, for these
p l a t e to RHS c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h s m a l l B r a t i o s not to take account of
t h i s h i g h e r e f f e c t i v e width because then the i n i t i a t i o n o f c r a c k s or
the d e f o r m a t i o n can become critical.

284
 V-21

bw= butt welded

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Overall def I e c t i o n ( m m )

Fig. V-16. L o a d - d e f l e c t i o n curves f o r p l a t e t o RHS chord connec-

t i o n s w i t h ~r~ = 2 0 .
t
o

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Overall d e f l e c t i o n (mm)

Fig. V-17. Load d e f l e c t i o n curves f o r p l a t e to RHS chord connec-

t i o n s with = 29.5.
to

285
 V-22

= 13.5
= 20
X = 30
= 35
punching
shear

Fig. V-18. S t r e s s f l o w f o r p l a t e to RHS chord connections.

V-3.6. Design_eguations

P l a t e to RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s loaded i n t e n s i o n can be designed on

bases of the f o l l o w i n g criteria:

E f f e c t i v e width bracing:

(V-34)
1 e 1 el,

Chord punching shear ( o n l y f o r b^ b Q - 2t )

N =1.15(t
1 1 + b ).t .a
0 e (V-35)
P k

Chord w a l l b e a r i n g ( o n l y f o r b j > b Q - 2t )Q

(V-36)
h - ^ 1 +
"o-V^ao.

286
 V-23

wi th
a .t

b A _ ^1 b
(V-30)

(V-32)

1 =-r-< 2.0 (V-28)

a l -tl
6 k

= _13J> f F e 3 6 Q

t y'm . Y' c
(V-37)

c + = - i i ^ for Fe 510
t Y .Y
'm ' c

Y -Y m c = 1-25 i s proposed.

V-4 S i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n r u l e s f o r a x i a l l y loaded j o i n t s o f square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s

The main reason t h a t s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a are g i v e n , i s caused by the

various p o s s i b l e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f the r e c t a n g u l a r b r a c i n g s to the chord
s e c t i o n . A c o n s i d e r a b l e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d f o r j o i n t s with
square members o n l y , which i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s Appendix V-4.

1 I r _ y ^ _ 9 ^ _ ^ ; J 2 i t s _ o f _ s g u a r e _ h o l low_sections
n n

In j o i n t s o f square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s w i t h $ i 0 . 8 5 the j o i n t strength

is g i v e n by the chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n , i l l u s t r a t e d in f i g . 5.32.
These types o f j o i n t s are seldom used w i t h 0 j- 90 t h e r e f o r e simplified
criteria will be developed f o r j o i n t s w i t h 0 = 9 0 . For 0 = 90 and
square b r a c i n g s the chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n can be e x p r e s s e d i n the
bracing efficiency:

. "l - V ' 0
{ 2B + 4(l-3)- 5
} t , V 3 8 .

j ^ - - i < Z e |i-BJ ) ToTTT > 5 ^ (V-3B.J

287
 V-24

a .t
e 0
k 0
(V-38b)
A
r ei,
a
'1 * a e l .t 1

In which i s g i v e n i n f i g . V-19 as a f u n c t i o n o f 6 and

Fiq. V-19. E f f i c i e n c y 5-, f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s f o r g e 0 . 8 5

o eo - k
t
0

( 0 , = 90 , square b r a c i n g s and r- = 1.0).

1
H
Based on the punching shear c r i t e r i o n the v a l u e i s l i m i t e d to 0 . 5 8 .
For j o i n t s w i t h 6 = 1.0 the chord w a l l s t r e n g t h and the b r a c i n g e f -
f e c t i v e w i d t h have to be c o n s i d e r e d a c c o r d i n g to the formulae given in
figs. 5 . 3 2 . and 5 . 3 3 . r e s p e c t i v e l y . In terms of e f f i c i e n c y the chord
w a l l s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i o n can be w r i t t e n as (0 = 90 , square RHS):

0| t 2h, + l O t
k o 1 o
(V-39)
rei
a . . t, 2 h + 2b
x x
A
el k1

or with h b, = b = In
l o o
 V-25

N
i 2 s k e o
k' 0

- ((0.5 + ). ^ J L } . ( v _ 3 g a )

1 el k o' o eo k el k 1

The term i s a function of , thus:

eo k

r, a .t

7 r ^ - = ? 2 . ^ 7 4 - (V-39b)
1 el.
el.' 1
a

k h

The e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t o n
ly depends on and i s given in
fig. V-20. 0

Fig. V-20. Efficiency ? 2

f o r T _
> Y
" a n d
X-joints f o r 6 = 1.0 a c c . to
the chord w a l l s t r e n g t h (Q, = 9 0 , square RHS and
a .t 1

eo, o
k
, = 1.0).
e l
k 1

The b r a c i n g e f f i c i e n c y a c c o r d i n g to the formulae i n f i g . 5 . 3 3 . i s

given by:

289
 V-26

\ h
i + b
e
(V-40)
A
r e Lk " h
l + b
l

For = b| :

N, r eo, o

"
a - t
n

T^^-S+FTT-
1 el o' o -TTV
el^tj k
(V 4 A)

For Fe 360 and Fe 510 d i f f e r e n t c v a l u e s a r e g i v e n , 1 0 . 8 and 9 . 2 r e s -

p e c t i v e l y but f o r square s e c t i o n s the d i f f e r e n c e i s small on the t o t a l
efficiency, t h e r e f o r e c = 10 i s u s e d :

"i n , Arh 4 10 , k' e o t o

A,.a : ~ a {
7t~ b It ' g ..t,
1 el^ eo o o o el 1

S e o
k' t o

V ei a
k
B ? 3
' ^1^1 ( V
" 4 0 b )

The e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t 1 S
given i n f i g . V - 2 1 as a f u n c t i o n o f
h b eo. o - t

o o i k
-7- = rr- and - r - .
t t a , . t.
0 o el 1 k

2t
For j o i n t s w i t h 0 . 8 5 < 3 < 1 . 0 r f o r which a s h e a r area can be
o D

formed t h e punching s h e a r s t r e n g t h have t o be checked ( s e e f i g . 5 . 3 3 . ) .

In terms o f e f f i c i e n c y :
r, 0.58.a .t 2 h , + 2b
Nj eo k o 1 e p

A,.a . =
~ a I . t , 2h. + 2b n
( V
~ 4 1
)
1 el k el 1 1 1k

o r w i t h the same assumption f o r c as f o r the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h :

N, , eo CT
^o
a 0 . 5 8 { o.5 + F V } ^ - V - (V-41a)
A
rel, V o e r l a x

N a
eo ^ o

1 el k el 1

with C 4 0.58.

290
 V-27

0.2

0 10 20 30 40
bo ho

Fig. V-21. Efficiency coefficient 5 3 for T-, Y- and X - j o i n t s based

on the b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n f o r square RHS.

0.8

a a1
c in
en
0.2 a
o o CD o
VI VI VI VI
m

0 10 20 30 40
bo
*U

Fig. \I-Z2. Efficiency coefficient for T-, Y- and X - j o i n t s based

on the punching shear c r i t e r i o n (0^ = 9 0 , square RHS).

291
 V-28

0 10 20 30 0
bp _ hp
to =
to

Fig. V-23. Comparison o f S , t o Z. for T-, Y - and X - j o i n t s .

T h i s e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t c i s g i v e n i n f i g . V-22 as a f u n c t i o n o f j-
4

In f i g . V - 2 3 f o r comparison a l l <; v a l u e s f o r Fe 510 are i l l u s t r a t e d ?

It i s shown t h a t f o r 6 0 . 8 5 r,, i s d e c i s i v e . For j o i n t s w i t h 8 = 1.0
loaded i n compression t h e l o w e s t s t r e n g t h i s g i v e n by t h e chord w a l l
2

b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h c-
2 Joints with 8 1 - ^ ^ may f a i l by punching
s h e a r . The punching s h e a r s t r e n g t h however, i s g r e a t e r than the s t r e n g t h
2
for 8 = 1 - k c a l c u l a t e d by l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n between the d e c i s i v e
s t r e n g t h f o r 6 = 1.0 and t h a t f o r 8 = 0 . 8 5 ( ^ J .
For j o i n t s l o a d e d i n t e n s i o n t h e b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n (c,^)
eo -t
a
k 0

may become c r i t i c a l compared t o chord w a l l b e a r i n g ff r - be-

comes l a r g e . The punching shear s t r e n g t h (L.) f o r g = 1 - .. may be

4
DQ/LQ

about 10% lower than t h e s t r e n g t h o b t a i n e d by l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n be-

tween 8 = 0 . 8 5 ( 5 . ) and 8 = 1 . 0 , however the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c h o r d
c o r n e r r a d i u s and t h e weld dimensions have been n e g l e c t e d . T h i s means
t h a t punching shear occurs i n r e a l i t y at somewhat lower 8 v a l u e s and
b n

the l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n covers the s t r e n g t h f o r j r 3 5 .

 V-29

Taking o n l y a lower bound f o r @ = 1.0 can l e a d t o a very c o n s e r v a t i v e

a .t
eo. o
design f o r j o i n t s with 1 - < 2 because the d e c i s i v e v a l u e i s given
e l , -l a
z

k
by the ? 3 curves c u t o f f by the curve f o r C 2 f o r tension loading.
T h i s can be compensated to a c e r t a i n extend by an a d d i t i o n a l statement
t h a t the e f f i c i e n c y f o r j o i n t s w i t h 8 = 1.0 loaded i n t e n s i o n have not
to be taken s m a l l e r than 0 . 6 .
Summarized the e f f i c i e n c y f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h 0^ = 90 and
square members can be g i v e n by:

N CT
eo ^o

v i r =
C
V T T ( V
~ 4 2 )

1 el k el -tk l

but not s m a l l e r than 0 . 6 f o r t e n s i o n l o a d i n g i n which t i s given b y :

compression l o a d i n g : 3 0.85 (Ci)

8 = 1.0 (? )
2

0.85 < 6 < 1.0 ( l i n e a r interpolation between

6 = 0 . 8 5 and 8 = 1.0)

tension loading : 8 0.85 (K^)

6 = 1.0 (minimum o f ? 2 and ? ) 3

0 . 8 5 < 6 < 1.0 ( l i n e a r interpolation between

B = 0 . 8 5 and B = 1.0)

The r e s u l t i n g cu rv es f o r C a r e g i v e n i n f i g . V - 2 4 .
a .t
eo,
o
For v a l u e s , > 2.0 the v a l u e s s h o u l d be l i m i t e d a c c o r d i n g t o
a , .t, 3 3

k
o h

the formulae i n f i g . 5 . 3 3 . T h i s may become d e c i s i v e f o r ^ > 20 and

to

8 = 1.0 and t e n s i o n l o a d i n g . Although f o r b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h the

eo - o k
t

T- i s l i m i t e d t o 2 the r e l a t i o n (V-40a) has been checked w i t h

k e l 1

t e s t r e s u l t s up t o 2 . 2 w h i l e fo>- high 8 r a t i o s the r e l a t i o n i s some-

what c o n s e r v a t i v e (see Appendix V - 3 ) .
For s i m p l i c i t y and because i t i s covered by t e s t r e s u l t s t h i s a d d i -
tional l i m i t a t i o n i s not g i v e n .
293
 V-30

F i g . V-24. E f f i c i e n c y curves f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s w i t h 9 = 90

and square RHS.

V-4.2. K:_ d_N;joints_wijh_gap

n

The chord f a c e and w a l l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n (see f i g . 5 . 3 2 . , page 5 . 4 6 )

e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f e f f i c i e n c y i s g i v e n by:
bj + b 2

h ~ e
v t o 8 - 9
(
b
V 5
m. (V43)

^ ~ VL^T ' 4 b
i (
( v
" 4 3 )

Ni
1 i ci
b
i1 + D
o
2
b
n c
/ Ox-U.b f(n)
0
e o . k^ o ,., , , x

7 ^ " - S T ^ ^ (V^a)

T h i s e x p r e s s i o n f o r the e f f i c i e n c y can be g i v e n i n a graph ( f i g . V-25)

i n which the e f f i c i e n c y can be read d i r e c t l y as a f u n c t i o n o f the

b 0
eo. - t
o ' l
3 +
^2
angle 9 , , and K
f (only . and f ( n ) are not included).

294
 V-31

elk'tl

Fig. V-25. E f f i c i e n c y graph f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h gap w i t h square

bracings.

er . t .
ciency f a c t o r = 1.0. This r e s u l t s i n0 k n
e 0 0 b
:
For example f o r a j o i n t w i t h 9 , = 45 , r - = 2 and ^ = 2 0 t h e e f f i -
a
el,, 1 o z

N b + b
1.0 V 1
. f(n) (V-44)
A
l' el
0
2b

Eq. (V-43a) can a l s o be w r i t t e n a s :

u a .t
(V-43b)
A
rel k
5
' s i n 0
l ' CT
el - l
k
t

The chord shear c r i t e r i o n g i v e n i n f i g . 5 . 3 2 . can a l s o be e x p r e s s e d i n

an e f f i c i e n c y :

Ni eo, " o 2h + ab (-
1 o o 0.58
n
K
(V-45)
A, . a . a , .t. 4b, ' sine,
1 el k el k1 1 1

295
 V-32

2 + 0.145 H ' 1 0

(V-45a)
' sine, a , .t,
1 el 1
k k

For j o i n t s w i t h square hollow s e c t i o n s the gap becomes g e n e r a l l y small

f o r high 0 r a t i o s . For the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a i t i s assumed t h a t
g = (1 - B ) b Q (see f i g . 5.34.).
This r e s u l t s i n f o l l o w i n g value f o r a :

1 + J
3t
o
J L

with (V-46)

g
tn = ( 1
" B )
<
o o
Eq. (V-45a) i s now w r i t t e n a s :

eo o k

= C, (V-45b)
A, .a , ^6 ' s i n Q , ' a , . t ,
1 el k 1 el 1 k b

The e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t g b e i n g a f u n c t i o n of - ~ and g i s illus-

t r a t e d i n f i g . V - 2 6 . For comparison a l s o the R values are p l o t t e d .
b h
It i s shown t h a t , o n l y becomes d e c i s i v e f o r = values smaller
*-o t0

than 14. 0

The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n a c c o r d i n g to f i g . 5 . 3 3 . can be expressed

as f o l l o w s .

N, 2 h . + b. + b
l l i e (V-47)
A, .a I 2 h + 2"LY
1 el, 1

With the same assumptions as f o r e q . (V-40b) i.e.

S o t
(V-47a)
b /t a , .t,
A
rei o o el k 1

296
 V-33

0.7

ho /to
0.6 10
15
2
2S,
35
0.5
\ \ ^5 f r
=
1

V \
v s

f o r f a =15

J52.20
0.4
5

I for =
to

0.3

0 La
10.
0.7 0.9

F i g . V-26. E f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t g f o r chord shear (K- and N-joints

w i t h square b r a c i n g s : g - b - b^).

The e f f i c i e n c y o f eg. (V-47a) can a l s o be expressed a s :

a .t
Ni eo o
1
k

(V-47b)
7 " ! -
TtT
A
r ei,
a
e l
k 1

wi th
a . . t.
k 10
e l 1

= 0 . 2 5 (3 + -K^V- (V-48)
7 . t b/t
7
a
eo^ o o o

The punching shear c r i t e r i o n f o r 0 . 5 ( 1 1.5( 1-3) expressed i n

the e f f i c i e n c y of the b r a c i n g i s g i v e n by:

2 h
l
'eo^o iTTiT + b
l + b
e 1
= 0.58 (V-49)
A, .a , Zb + 2b s i nQ 1
1 el, el, -l
z
1
1

297
 V-34

For square bracings:

0.58 y - 0 . 2 5 ^ -0 )
(? + +T
O
sine.
(V-49a)

or

a .t
eo o
'1
N, k
1 (V-49b)
A
r ei 0
k " ? 8
" s i n 0
l ' "el^ 1

The e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t g i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . V - 2 7 . as a f u n c -
t i o n of b /t and 0 , .
o o i

1.0

3.8
: 30

0.6 = 5

\ e = 90
I
0.4
- - A ,IT - -
Cc minimum for P =0.9
\
\
L.

- for b, = b .f(n) =1.0

5 2

0.2

20 30 40
bo

Fig. V-27. Efficiency coefficient g f o r punching shear (K- and

N - j o i n t s w i t h square bracings).

For a d i r e c t comparison a l s o the e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t s Cg and ? g for

chord f a i l u r e are i n d i c a t e d . T h i s comparison shows t h a t p r o v i d e d the
gap s a t i s f i e s the requirements given b e f o r e and the b r a c i n g s are
square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s ? g will not be d e c i s i v e compared w i t h S g and

S fi provided that b ?
does not exceed 1.3 f o r 0 = 90 and 1.6 for

0 = 45. 1

298
 V-35

In the p r e v i o u s comparisons i t i s shown t h a t f o r :

h b
= > 15
0 0

The t e s t s (see f i g . 5 . 2 1 . ) showed t h a t t h i s i s a l s o v a l i d f o r

somewhat l a r g e r gaps (g = 0 . 2 b ) , o thus the l i m i t a t i o n

0 . 5 ( 1 - 6) i -jL i 1.5(1 - S)
o
holds because shear f a i l u r e o c c u r s o n l y f o r h i g h B r a t i o s .
a
eO| -to <

For small a n g l e s G. and/or high r v a l u e s the e f f e c t i v e width

e
Y 1

c r i t e r i o n can be c r i t i c a l compared to as shown i n f i g . V - 2 8 , but i t

i s known t h a t the b r a c i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n i s somewhat c o n -
v e to

servative f o r r- v a l u e s g r e a t e r than 2 .
ke l 1

1.0

\ eo^ l
o
\
0.8
\
\
I
N \
\
0.6 \ S

\
\ X
\ "S
s 6 = 30
\
\
X f(n) =1.0
OA
N ^ ' bl = b 2

= 1.0
~~ ~ J
e1k 'tl
0.2

20 30
bo

Fig. V-28. Comparison o f the e f f i c i e n c y based on the b r a c i n g e f f e c -

t i v e w i d t h w i t h the e f f i c i e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t s S g .

299
 V-36

Further i n K- and N - j o i n t s a l a c k of e f f e c t i v e width i n one s i d e of a

b r a c i n g can be compensated by s t r a i n hardening e f f e c t s i n the three
o t h e r s i d e s which i s not taken i n t o a c c o u n t . These e f f e c t s are greater
than lOt which means t h a t f o r j o i n t s w i t h square b r a c i n g members where
c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s are s a t i s f i e d the j o i n t s t r e n g t h can be determined
by c o n s i d e r i n g o n l y C^:

N, b, + b c, , eo, - t
o
1 _ r L 2 f
.(") k
fV-43b)
1 el k 1 1 el k 1

wi th
f(n) = 1.0 f o r a t e n s i o n f o r c e i n the chord

f(n) = 1.3 - - |n| f o r a compression f o r c e i n the chord

f(n) ( 1.0

b
l + b
2 o
2 b
z
,< 1.3 f o r 0 j = 90

b. + b ?

2 b s 1.6 f o r 0 = 45

The v a l u e s f o r S g are shown i n f i g . V-28 but a l s o the diagramme V-25

can be used d i r e c t l y f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the efficiency:

N, b, + b

r 41r e Lk =
e f f
- - T B
^ 7l
D
1
f ( n ) ( V
" 4 4 a )

V-4.3. Joints_with_circular_bracings_and_a_

The s t r e n g t h o f j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s and a square chord i s

directly r e l a t e d by a f a c t o r ^ to t h a t f o r j o i n t s w i t h square members,

as shown i n f i g s . 5 . 3 2 . and 5 . 3 3 . T h i s means t h a t the e f f i c i e n c y is

the same as f o r j o i n t s w i t h square b r a c i n g s , thus the same formulae
can be used a l t h o u g h the v a l i d i t y range i s l i m i t e d to

d
l 2
- ^ 0 . 8 .
o

300
 6-i

6. JOINTS WITH HOLLOW SECTION BRACINGS AND AN I - OR H-SECTION AS CHORD

Contents

Symbols

6.1. Introduction
6.2. C r i t e r i a of failure
6.3. Modes of failure
6.4. Test evidence
6.5. A n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a and beam column c o n n e c t i o n criteria
6.5.1. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the chord c r o s s section
6.5.2. Chord web f a i l u r e
6.5.3. F a i l u r e by c r a c k i n g of the bracings
6.5.4. Restrictions
6.6. Joints loaded by moments
6.7. E v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n criteria
6.8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n rules
6.9. References

301
 6-ii

Symbols used i n chapter 6

c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area o f the chord

c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area of t h e compression b r a c i n g
c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area of t h e t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area f o r shear l o a d (chord)
shear area (web o n l y )
web
modul us o f el a s t i c i ty
moment i n the f l a n g e due t o a shear f a i l u r e i n t h e gap
p l a s t i c moment of a c r o s s section
p l a s t i c moment of t h e chord flange
reduced p l a s t i c moment by shear
maximum a x i a l load i n a considered cross section
maximum a x i a l l o a d i n the chord
load i n bracing i (i = 1 o r 2)
ultimate load i n bracing i for j o i n t strength
c a l c u l a t e d load capacity
calc.
l o a d c a p a c i t y o f t h e t e s t specimen
test
axial squash l o a d i n a c r o s s section
reduced a x i a l squash l o a d i n a c r o s s s e c t i o n due to shear
P.Q
M
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i n terms of load i n b r a c i n g i (i = 1 or 2)
1
shear l o a d
shear l o a d i n the chord flange
shear y i e l d l o a d of the chord
shear y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y o f t h e chord flange
W
shear y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the chord web
^p.web

a t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s of the welds
b w i d t h of a s e c t i o n (general)
b. w i d t h of b r a c i n g i t r a n s v e r s e to the chord (i = 1 o r 2)
l
w i d t h of t h e c h o r d flange
e f f e c t i v e width for e f f e c t i v e width criterion
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f a b r a c i n g cross w a l l connected to an o v e r -
u
e(ov)
1apped member

m e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r chord web c r i t e r i o n
c, c
constant
]

Co

302
 6-i i i

d\ : diameter of b r a c i n g i (i = 1 o r 2)
e : eccentricity between system l i n e s
g : gap between b r a c i n g (measured between t h e toes of the bracings)
g 1
: gap between b r a c i ngs di vi ded by the chord f l ange t h i c k n e s s (JL)
h.j : depth o f b r a c i n g i ( i = 1 o r 2)
h Q : depth o f the chord
h : depth o f t h e web (h - 2t - 2r )
W r v
0 O 0'
h : h e i g h t between e f f e c t i v e areas
i : i n t e g e r used to denote member o f j o i n t , i = 0 designates chord
and i = 1-3 t h e b r a c i n g members. Normally i = 1 r e f e r s to the
compression b r a c i n g and i = 2 to the t e n s i o n bracing.
k : constant
ov : i n t e g e r f o r o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g member
r Q : r a d i u s between web and f l a n g e o f the chord
t- : wall thickness of bracing i (i = 1 or 2)
t : t h i c k n e s s of the f l a n g e o f t h e c h o r d
t, : w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f the web o f the chord
w
x : f a c t o r a c c o r d i n g w e l d i n g recommendation

f a c t o r g i v i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the flange f o r shear

b. d. b, + b i
d
? + d

_ o r ^ resp. or
0 0 0 0

b
0
2 t
o
m a t e r i a l and j o i n t p a r t i a l safety factors
angle between compression b r a c i n g and c h o r d
a n g l e between t e n s i o n b r a c i n g and chord
y i e l d stress (actual)
design value f o r the y i e l d stress
y i e l d s t r e s s of b r a c i n g i (i = 1 or 2)
y i e l d stress chord
design v a l u e f o r t h e y i e l d s t r e s s o f b r a c i n g i (i = 1 o r 2)
d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s o f the chord
shear y i e l d s t r e s s chord

c i r c u l a r hollow section
r e c t a n g u l a r hollow section
structural hollow section

303
 6-i V

304
 6-1

JOINTS WITH HOLLOW SECTION BRACINGS AND AN I- OR H-SECTION AS CHORD

Introduction

G i r d e r s w i t h I- o r H - s e c t i o n s as chords and b r a c i n g s o f hoi 1ow s e c t i o n s

have proved to be very e c o n o m i c a l l y . E s p e c i a l l y i n cases where the chord
s h o u l d have a g r e a t bending r e s i s t a n c e i n one d i r e c t i o n and b u c k l i n g i n
the o t h e r d i r e c t i o n w i l l not be a determinant c r i t e r i o n . F u r t h e r these
g i r d e r s have the same advantage as g i r d e r s w i t h RHS chords ( f i g . 6.1.)

hi

h
-l b 1

T- joint Y-joint

K-joint with gap N -joint with gap

Fig. 6.1. Types of j o i n t s .

305
 6-2

namely s t r a i g h t c u t s of the b r a c i n g s , whereas I- or H-chords g i v e the

p o s s i b i l i t y f o r s i m p l e b o l t e d c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h p u r l i n s or o t h e r sections
In the past these j o i n t s many times were s t i f f e n e d by p l a t e s , as shown
i n f i g . 6 . 2 . , which can be a v o i d e d by choosing the r i g h t j o i n t geome-
try. S i n c e 1972 t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out i n the Netherlands and i n
F r a n c e . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n the Netherlands were p a r t of an ECSC -
C i d e c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n c a r r i e d out a t the S t e v i n L a b o r a t o r y of the D e l f t
U n i v e r s i t y o f Technology and the I n s t i t u t e TNO f o r B u i l d i n g M a t e r i a l s
and B u i l d i n g S t r u c t u r e s [3, 4, 7].

Fig. 6.2. S t i f f e n e d types o f joints.

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n France were c a r r i e d out under s p o n s o r s h i p of

C i d e c t and Cometube a t the L a b o r a t o i r e N a t i o n a l d ' E s s a i s [1, 2, 5].
Based on the r e s u l t s o f these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i t i s p o s s i b l e to p r e s e n t
d e s i g n recommendations f o r u n s t i f f e n e d j o i n t s [ 7 , 9 ] . The types of
joints c o n s i d e r e d are shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 .

C r i t e r i a of failure

For the j o i n t s w i t h a c i r c u l a r or r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n as chord

the u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y was chosen as f a i l u r e l o a d due to the f a c t
t h a t i t was d i f f i c u l t to determine a general a c c e p t e d method f o r the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the y i e l d l o a d . F u r t h e r much t e s t e v i d e n c e e x i s t s f o r
these j o i n t s which made i t p o s s i b l e to i n v e s t i g a t e a l l parameters.
Many formulae e x i s t f o r the d e s i g n of beam column c o n n e c t i o n s of I - a n d
H-sections p a r t l y based on a n a l y t i c a l y i e l d c r i t e r i a and some based on
experiments.
J o i n t s w i t h h o l l o w s e c t i o n b r a c i n g s and an I - o r H - s e c t i o n as chord
show more c o n f o r m i t y w i t h beam column c o n n e c t i o n s than w i t h tubular

ECSC = European Community of S t e e l and C o a l .

 6-3

joints because the behaviour l a r g e l y depends on the behaviour of the

web of the c h o r d . Due t o t h i s reason the same procedure i s f o l l o w e d as
f o r beam column c o n n e c t i o n s o f I- and H - s e c t i o n s which means t h a t as
f a r as p o s s i b l e y i e l d c r i t e r i a are determined and the t e s t s w i l l just
be used f o r verification.
These j o i n t s are g e n e r a l l y s t i f f e r than j o i n t s w i t h a h o l l o w section
chord and the d e f o r m a t i o n c r i t e r i a w i l l not be c r i t i c a l .
A v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t f o r these types o f j o i n t s i s the r o t a t i o n and
d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y because the p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
s t r e s s e s i n the j o i n t i t s e l f can be s e v e r e .

6.3. Modes of failure

Depending on the type o f j o i n t , j o i n t parameters and l o a d i n g condition

several types o f f a i l u r e can t h e o r e t i c a l l y o c c u r as shown i n f i g . 6 . 3 .
a. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n by shear and a x i a l load.
b. Chord web f a i l u r e by y i e l d i n g o r web c r i p l i n g .
c. F a i l u r e by c r a c k i n g of the bracings.
d. Lamellar t e a r i n g .

L a m e l l a r t e a r i n g was not observed i n t h e t e s t s w i t h chord s e c t i o n s up

to HE 200A w i t h a m a t e r i a l grade Fe 360A. For j o i n t s w i t h t h i c k chord
f l a n g e s l a m e l l a r t e a r i n g i s more probable t h e r e f o r e s p e c i a l attention
has to be p a i d to t h e m a t e r i a l q u a l i t y and the w e l d i n g procedures.

a . p l a s t i f i c a t i o n chord cross section

b.chord w e b f a i l u r e

Fig. 6.3. Modes of failure.

307
 6-4

6.4. Test evidence

The French programme c o n s i s t e d o f the t e s t i n g of:

8 welded X - j o i n t s w i t h HEA 100 c h o r d s ,
- 18 i s o l a t e d 45 K - j o i n t s w i t h and w i t h o u t gap w i t h HEA 100 o r
HEA 200 chords and
3 full scale girder tests with K-joints and HEA 200 c h o r d s .

The Dutch programme c o n s i s t e d o f the t e s t i n g of:

2 welded c r o s s j o i n t s w i t h HEA 100 chords and r e c t a n g u l a r b r a c i n g s ,
8 i s o l a t e d 45 K - j o i n t s w i t h gap and IPe 120 o r IPe 160 c h o r d s ,
4 isolated N-joints w i t h gap and IPe 120 o r IPe 160 c h o r d s ,
- 10 i s o l a t e d 45 K - j o i n t s w i t h gap and HEA 120 o r HEA 200 c h o r d s ,
4 isolated N-joints w i t h gap and HEA 120 o r HEA 200 c h o r d s .

The b r a c i n g s were made o f hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s s t e e l grade

Fe 430-C or Fe 360-B a c c o r d i n g Euronorm 2 5 - 7 2 , whereas the chords were
made of S t e e l grade Fe 360-A.
A l l specimens had welds w i t h a t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s equal to the t h i c k n e s s
o f the connected b r a c i n g as shown i n f i g . 6 . 4 . , thus these were gene-
r a l l y not the d e t e r m i n i n g c r i t e r i o n f o r the j o i n t strength.

Fig. 6.4. Weld shape tor the d i f f e r e n t t e s t specimens.

308
 6-5

In both programmes j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n b r a c i n g s as wel1

as r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n b r a c i n g s were i n c l u d e d . The r a t i o of the
b r a c i n g diameter (or w i d t h ) to the chord f l a n g e w i d t h was v a r i e d be-
tween 0 . 4 and 1 . 0 . The main t e s t r e s u l t s are r e c o r d e d i n Tables 6 - 1
a n d 6 - l a . T h e t e s t r e s u l t s are d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n r e f s . [2 to 5] and
summarized i n [ 7 , 8 ] .

6.5. A n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a and beam-column c o n n e c t i o n criteria

6.5.1. P J a s t i f ication_of_the_chord_cross_sec

For K- and N-type j o i n t s w i t h gap the chord s e c t i o n between the b r a c i n g s

s h o u l d be checked f o r shear and a combination o f shear and a x i a l load.
A c c o r d i n g to the r u l e s o f p l a s t i c d e s i g n the shear l o a d Q = N p S i n 0 1

will be t r a n s m i t t e d by those p a r t s of the chord which are s t i f f a g a i n s t

shear, i . e . the web and a p a r t of the f l a n g e s as shown i n f i g . 6 . 5 .

P ,ob

1 /p- -
L- ,

i
N c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area A Q

W w for s h e a r load.
Q 1
Wreduced cross sectional
a r e a for a x i a l load
Fig. 6.5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the shear y i e l d l o a d of the c h o r d .

The maximum shear l o a d which can be t r a n s m i t t e d i s

(6.1)
Q
p = V eo T

The area e f f e c t i v e f o r shear A^ depends on the gap s i z e e . g . for

small gaps a p a r t of the f l a n g e s becomes e f f e c t i v e . T h i s can be shown
a n a l y t i c a l l y by s i m p l i f y i n g the j o i n t to a p u s h - p u l l model. Assume
t h a t the web i s f u l l y p l a s t i f i e d due to shear over the gap l e n g t h g :

309
 6-6

eo (6.2)
Vweb = ( A
o " 2 b
o-V /3

After full p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the web w i t h i n c r e a s e d shear l o a d the

f l a n g e s are s u b j e c t e d to shear and bending. In the f l a n g e s plastic
hinges w i l l occur a t the ends of the p l a s t i c r e g i o n of the web as shown
in f i g . 6.6.

bo

k
- (web)

Fig. 6.6. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n chord c r o s s s e c t i o n .

For a f l a n g e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n i s valid:

Q -9 f

(6.3)

The general i n t e r a c t i o n formula f o r a s o l i d r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s section

i.e. the chord f l a n g e can be w r i t t e n a s :

M 2 Q f 2

(6.4)
p,f l
'p,f

a .b .tr
eo o o
(6.5)
'P,f

b .t > (6.6)
o o ^

Combination of e q u a t i o n s (6.3), (6.5) and ( 6 . 6 ) results in:

f _ v
f 2g (6.7)

310
 6-7

S u b s t i t u t i o n of equation (6.7) in (6.4) g i v e s the r e s u l t i n g shear 1c

c a p a c i t y as a f u n c t i o n o f the gap to f l a n g e t h i c k n e s s r a t i o .

Q
f ./ 1
TT^ =
V~ t
2"
W 1 + 4gf
3t

For a s p e c i f i e d s e c t i o n the a c t i v e p a r t o f the f l a n g e f o r shear can b

e x p r e s s e d as a.b .t with:

-o (6.8a

When y i e l d i n g over the chord web i s u n i f o r m p a r t s of both f l a n g e s car

be a c t i v e thus an upper bound s o l u t i o n f o r the e f f e c t i v e shear area
wi 11 be:

A g = A Q -2(1 - a ) b . t o o (6.9)

For high s e c t i o n s the y i e l d i n g cannot be expected to be u n i f o r m over

the chord web c r o s s s e c t i o n and the i n c r e a s e d e f f e c t i v e a r e a f o r shear
can o n l y be expected i n the top f l a n g e o f the chord when the f l a n g e
i s f o r c e d to deform i . e . i n case o f j o i n t s w i t h square o r rectangular
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . On the o t h e r hand a c o n s e r v a t i v e assumption w i l l be
t h a t f o r the o t h e r f l a n g e a t l e a s t the p a r t o f the f l a n g e a t the web
and c o r n e r l o c a t i o n w i l l be e f f e c t i v e f o r shear which r e s u l t s i n fol-
l o w i n g e q u a t i o n f o r the e f f e c t i v e shear area o f j o i n t s w i t h RHS b r a c i n g s :

A = (A - 2b t ) + a . b . t + (t + 2r )t
Q o oo o o w o'o
n
v ; v

= A - (2 - a)b . t + (t + 2r ) t (6.10)
0 v
' 0 0 v
W 0' 0 \ i
A comparison o f the a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h e q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 9 ) and
( 6 . 1 0 ) f o r gap j o i n t s w i t h square b r a c i n g s and IPe 160 and HE 200 A
chords i s shown i n f i g s . 6 . 7 . and 6 . 8 .
As i l l u s t r a t e d the t e s t r e s u l t s are g e n e r a l l y somewhat h i g h e r than
p r e d i c t e d by e q . ( 6 . 1 0 ) . The t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h an e r r o r r e p r e s e n t tests
i n which the squash 1 oad of one o f the members was critical.

311
 6-8

Fig. . 6.7
7.. Compari son o f e q . 6 . 1 0 . w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s f o r R I - j o i n t s (chord
IPe 1 6 0 ) .

1. 0

0.9
RI-joints
0.8 eq. (S.9) . chord : H E 2 0 0 A
i y i e l d member
o 0.7
< e c .(6.10 )
I
0.6

0.5

0.A
f

0. 3 Mi.fK.Ml f n r CI = D

0. 2
Feq.6.2
r
0.1

0
0 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Fig. 6.8. Comparison o f e q . 6 . 1 0 . w i t h r e s u l t s f o r RI-joints

(chord HEA 2 0 0 ) .

312
 6-9

For j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n b r a c i n g s the e f f e c t i v e shear

area w i l l be lower because the top f l a n g e i s l e s s s t i f f e n e d by the
b r a c i n g s and c o n s e q u e n t l y the shear area i s l o w e r . Comparison o f the
t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h e q . ( 6 . 1 0 ) shows a r e a s o n a b l e agreement f o r a v a l u e
a = 0 . This may be somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e as a l l CI specimens t e s t e d
reached a t the same time about 90-100% o f the squash l o a d o f the b r a c i n g s .

Summarized the shear f a i l u r e can be covered by the shear area e . g . a c c o r -

d i n g t o e x p r e s s i o n (6.10) w i t h a a c c o r d i n g e q . ( 6 . 8 a ) f o r Rl-gap
j o i n t s and a = 0 f o r C l - g a p j o i n t s . F i g . 6 . 9 . shows a comparison b e -
tween the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s and the c a l c u l a t e d s t r e n g t h .

A
RI - j o i n t s

500

*i 400

300
c

/
200 | yield member

6? x
+
IPe
IPe
120
160
100 o HE 100A
HE 120A
a HE 200A

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

. Ni sin 9 i ( c a l c u l a t e d )

t yield member
x IPe 120
t IPe 160
o HE 100 A
o HE 120A
HE 200 A

100 200 300 400 500 600

-Nisin ^calculated )

Fig. 6.9. Test r e s u l t s f o r g a p - j o i n t s compared w i t h e q . ( 6 . 1 0 ) .

313
 6-10

For s i m p l i c i t y sake the i n f l u e n c e of the gap was not taken i n t o a c -

count i n p r e v i o u s publications [ 3 , 4 , 7, 9 ] , but an e f f e c t i v e shear
area equal to ( t + 2r )t 0 Q was assumed i n each f l a n g e . T h i s s i m p l e r
equation underpredicts the s t r e n g t h o f R l - j o i n t s w i t h small gaps
whereas i n general the s t r e n g t h of the C l - j o i n t s was somewhat o v e r -
p r e d i c t e d . There are c l e a r econominal advantages i n u s i n g small gaps
by d e v e l o p i n g the i n c r e a s e d e f f e c t i v e shear area a l l o w e d by e q . (6.10).

F a i l u r e of the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n i n the gap a r e a w i l l not always be

e f f e c t e d by o n l y the shear l o a d but can a l s o be caused by a combina-
t i o n o f shear and the a x i a l l o a d i n t h i s c r o s s s e c t i o n . The interac-
t i o n can c o n s e r v a t i v e l y be based on the general interaction formula
for axial loads and shear l o a d s a c c o r d i n g to the Huber Hencky-Von Mises
y i e l d c r i t e r i o n which i s g i v e n by:

(6.11)

with

Rl-joints : A Q according eqs. ( 6 . 1 0 ) and (6.8a)

Cl-joints : A Q according eq. (6.10) with a = 0.

Tests on g i r d e r s showed t h a t the r e a l i n f l u e n c e of a t e n s i o n l o a d i n

the chord on the c r o s s s e c t i o n a l s t r e n g t h i s s m a l l e r t h a t t h a t of a
compression l o a d . For s i m p l i c i t y here the a n a l y t i c a l i n f l u e n c e func-
t i o n i s given f o r both l o a d i n g c a s e s , because the number of t e s t s are
l e s s compared w i t h the l a r g e number of t e s t s c a r r i e d out on j o i n t s
w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r or c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n c h o r d , which a l l o w e d a
semi e m p i r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n method.

6.5.1.1. E f f e c t s of moments

Moments due to e c c e n t r i c i t i e s o f the system l i n e s o f the j o i n t members

s h o u l d be taken i n t o a c c o u n t . When s u f f i c i e n t r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y e x i s t s
secondary bending moments can be n e g l e c t e d due to r e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
P r i m a r y moments can be d i v i d e d over the chord or chord and b r a c i n g members
i n the most f a v o u r a b l y way. The moment can be assumed to be r e s i s t e d

314
 6-11

by the end f i b r e s of the s e c t i o n c o n s i d e r e d as shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 0 .

Fig. 6.10. E f f e c t of moment.

For a combination of moment, shear and a x i a l l o a d the reduced c r o s s

s e c t i o n due t o shear should be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g the a x i a l
l o a d and bending moment. These moments g e n e r a l l y w i l l be small there-
f o r e t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n method can be used. For g r e a t e r moments f o l l o w -
i n g more a c c u r a t e i n t e r a c t i o n formula f o r I- and H - s e c t i o n s i s given
[10] (see a l s o Appendix II):

( 1 T ^ ) 1
- 2
+ / - = 1 . 0 (6.12)
P,Q P,Q

i n which

N
p,Q = (A
o " V eo +
A
Q eo ^ " (J-)* (6-13}
'P

2
M
p,Q= <^T^> o - V - e o
h +
i- Q- o-eo
A h
^ j ^ ' <- >
6 14

Due to the f a c t t h a t f o r A Q a p a r t o f the f l a n g e s i s i n c o r p o r a t e d the

e q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 1 3 ) and ( 6 . 1 4 ) are a l i t t l e c o n s e r v a t i v e as f a r as
Q < Q . For Q = Qp these f u n c t i o n s become very s i m p l e .

K- and N - j o i n t s _ w i t h oyeHapj

In j o i n t s w i t h an o v e r l a p the l a r g e s t p a r t of the shear i s t r a n s m i t t e d

d i r e c t l y from one b r a c i n g t o t h e o t h e r . The r e m a i n i n g shear has to be
t r a n s m i t t e d by the c h o r d . S i m i l a r to j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r chord
no t e s t showed a shear f a i l u r e due to the f a c t t h a t the whole o v e r -
l a p p i n g area has to y i e l d before the chord becomes a c t i v e . In confor-
m i t y w i t h o v e r l a p j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r c h o r d , the s t r e n g t h of
these types o f j o i n t s can be covered by the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n .
The moment due to e c c e n t r i c i t y s h o u l d be taken i n t o account f o r member

315
 6-12

design. It i s g e n e r a l l y devided over the chord member.

hi

Fig. 6.11. Joint with overlap.

6.5.2. Chord web f a i l u r e

The l o a d i n the b r a c i n g must be t r a n s f e r r e d by an e f f e c t i v e area i n the

web o f the c h o r d . Two c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t as shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 2 .

1:2.5 i l; 2.5

ft
"ffrnTyrrrffrH
| t , + 5 ( t o + fo) I

Fig. 6.12. Y i e l d c r i t e r i o n f o r chord web.

Based on y i e l d , f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a are used i n beam column c o n n e c t i o n s

[12, 13]:

N,.sinG, = b . t .a (6.15)
1 1 m w eo

316
 6-13

with

2
- 1 h + 5
(t 0 + r ) Q (6.16)

b
m*?nr0: + 5
(t 0 + r o )
(6.17)

Compared w i t h the shear y i e l d c r i t e r i o n of the chord c r i t e r i o n (6.15)

was not d e c i s i v e f o r the K- and N-type specimens t e s t e d [ 4 , 7 ] . For
b r a c i n g s loaded i n t e n s i o n the l o a d c a p a c i t y can be more f a v o u r a b l e
because a f t e r y i e l d i n g o f the chord web a p a r t o f the l o a d i s taken
by the f l a n g e s i n which a y i e l d p a t t e r n can be d e v e l o p e d . T h i s yield
l i n e p a t t e r n can o n l y be developed i f the web has enough d e f o r m a t i o n
c a p a c i t y . T h i s w i l l e s p e c i a l l y be the case when the c r i t e r i o n given
by e q . ( 6 . 1 7 ) i s c r i t i c a l r a t h e r than t h a t g i v e n by e q . ( 6 . 1 6 ) be-
cause the d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f the web w i l l then be h i g h e r which
a l l o w s the y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n i n the f l a n g e .

Comparison o f trie t e s t r e s u l t s f o r K- and N-type j o i n t s showed t h a t

web y i e l d i n g was not c r i t i c a l . The X - j o i n t tests in tension generally
f a i l e d due to y i e l d i n g o f the b r a c i n g s i n d i c a t e d by "Y" i n f i g . 6 . 1 3 .
o r due to y i e l d i n g o f the chord web.
As shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 3 . the agreement between t e s t r e s u l t s and c r i t e r i a
( 6 . 1 5 ) to ( 6 . 1 7 ) i s r a t h e r good.

Note:
1
v These X- and T - j o i n t s
have o n l y been i n v e s t i -
gated f o r 3 s 0 . 6

Fig. 6.13. Comparison t e s t r e s u l t s o f X- and T - j o i n t s w i t h e q . 6 . 1 5 .

317
 6-14

J o i n t s w i t h t h i n chord webs s h o u l d be checked f o r web c r i p p l i n g . Up to

now no t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out i n which t h i s type of f a i l u r e o c -
c u r e d . However s u f f i c i e n t t e s t data i s a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n c e n t r a t e d loads
on beams. S e v e r a l formulae e x i s t f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the web
c r i p p l i n g s t r e n g t h under c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s [14 t o 1 9 ] . In the e l a s t i c
field however.they show l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s . For the g i r d e r s considered
s l e n d e r chord members are not usual t h e r e f o r e the l i m i t s w i l l be given
up to which web c r i p p l i n g w i l l not be c r i t i c a l .
Based on the evidence g i v e n i n r e f s . [14 to 18] i t i s shown by Mouty
[20] t h a t f o r l a t e r a l supported beams loaded w i t h two o p p o s i t e loads
web c r i p p l i n g w i l l not o c c u r if:

(6.18)

For beams loaded by o n l y one c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d f o l l o w i n g limitation

have to be f u l f i l l e d to prevent web c r i p p l i n g :

(6.19)

In c r o s s j o i n t s the chord i s loaded by two o p p o s i t e l o a d s therefore

the chord should meet the requirement given i n e q . ( 6 . 1 8 ) . Tee, K-
and N-type j o i n t s show more c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the case i n which the
chord i s loaded by one c o n c e n t r a t e d compression l o a d , thus e q . (6.19)
appl i e s .
For j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g angles s m a l l e r than 90 these l i m i t a t i o n s are
conservative. S i n c e very s l e n d e r chord s e c t i o n s are not usual in
p r a c t i c e f o r these types of j o i n t s therefore the more a c c u r a t e ex-
p r e s s i o n s are not given here.

6.5.3. F a i l u r e by c r a c k i n g of the bracings

Due to the v a r y i n g s t i f f n e s s of the chord f l a n g e a t the intersection

an e f f e c t i v e width c r i t e r i o n has to be c o n s i d e r e d . In r e f . [11] for
beam column c o n n e c t i o n s of I- and H - s e c t i o n s i n the m a t e r i a l Grade
Fe 360 f o l l o w i n g e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n i s given f o r the welds of
the f l a n g e s loaded i n t e n s i o n :

N a . . t . (2t + 7t ) (6.20)
ei 2 w o'
v

318
 6-15

Adopted to these types of j o i n t s two assumptions can be made as shown

in f i g . 6.14.:
a. The area w i t h i n a c e r t a i n w i d t h i s effective.
T h i s i s not a c c e p t a b l e f o r r e c t a n g u l a r b r a c i n g s because o f its
discontinuity.
b. The e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h i s measured a l o n g the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f the
b r a c i n g w i t h the chord f l a n g e . T h i s c r i t e r i o n i s b e t t e r but may be
c o n s e r v a t i v e when not c o r r e c t e d f o r the f l a n g e s p a r a l l e l to the
chord a x i s .

a b
Fig. 6.14. E f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n f o r the b r a c i n g s .

Equation ( 6 . 2 0 ) was determined i n an e x p e r i m e n t a l way based on t e s t s

o f s i n g l e p l a t e s connected to the f l a n g e s o f I- and H - s e c t i o n s [21].
In c o n n e c t i o n s o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i t i s common to connect the members
w i t h welds which have a t l e a s t the same s t r e n g t h as the connected mem-
b e r . T h i s means t h a t due to y i e l d i n g o f the b r a c i n g w a l l s a b e t t e r
r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s o c c u r s l e a d i n g to a l a r g e r e f f e c t i v e w i d t h .
A f t e r y i e l d i n g o f a p a r t of the w a l l s o f the connected b r a c i n g a y i e l d
l i n e p a t t e r n can occur i n the f l a n g e o f the chord (see Appendix VI-1).
As p a r t of an E C S C - C i d e c t programme f u r t h e r t e s t s are being c a r r i e d
out i n France and the Netherlands to study t h i s phenomenon.
The t e s t s c a r r i e d out on j o i n t s in rectangular hollow sections [22,
23] showed a l r e a d y l a r g e r e f f e c t i v e widths than recommended i n [11].
Therefore c r i t e r i o n ( 6 . 2 0 ) i s m o d i f i e d f o r the types o f j o i n t s dis-
cussed h e r e . T h i s type of f a i l u r e i s not a y i e l d but an u l t i m a t e
f a i l u r e t h e r e f o r e the e f f e c t i v e width should be a n a l y s e d on the b a s i s
of the u l t i m a t e m a t e r i a l s t r e s s , o r based on y i e l d but then t a k i n g a c -
count of a Y . Y = 1.25 f a c t o r as d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 3 .
1
m 1
f 1

319
 6-16

The K- and N-type j o i n t s t e s t e d up to now [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 8] are not r e p r e s e n t a -

t i v e f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n because
o n l y a few specimens showed c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n a t , or j u s t b e f o r e , fail-
ure. In these t e s t s the maximum l o a d s were much g r e a t e r than the d e -
cisive yield criterion.
Based on these t e s t r e s u l t s i t may not be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s will
always be t r u e f o r such types o f j o i n t s . More t e s t evidence i s needed
to s p e c i f y the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n f o r a l l types o f joints.
Based on these t e s t s , parameter l i m i t a t i o n s w i l l be g i v e n f o r the types
o f j o i n t f o r which t h i s c r i t e r i o n w i l l not be d e c i s i v e .

The X - j o i n t t e s t s o f r e f . [2] and those c a r r i e d out i n D e l f t give

some more i n f o r m a t i o n . Based on these t e s t s e q . ( 6 . 2 0 ) can be p r e l i m i -
n a r i l y m o d i f i e d as f o l l o w s :

N. = 2 . a . . t . ( 2 t + 1-5 x . t ) (6.21)
l ei i * w o'

In which the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h ( 2 t + 1-5 x . t ) s h o u l d be measured

v
w o'
a l o n g the p e r i m e t e r o f the b r a c i n g as shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 4 . In accordance
with [11] the v a l u e o f x i s :

X Fe 360 Fe 430 Fe 510

Tension 7 6 5

Compression 10 9 7

The t e s t s d e s c r i b e d i n r e f . [2] f a i l e d due to f u l l y i e l d i n g o f the

b r a c i n g s i n d i c a t e d by "Y" i n f i g . 6 . 1 5 . , y i e l d i n g o f the chord web o r
c r a c k i n g i n the specimens w i t h square b r a c i n g s and a l a r g e r w i d t h ratio.
Using t h i s c r i t e r i o n t h e r e i s an e x t r a f a c t o r o f about 1.25 between the
t e s t loads and c r i t e r i o n ( 6 . 2 1 ) which i s i n accordance w i t h c h a p t e r 3 .
As most j o i n t s f a i l e d by f u l l y i e l d i n g o f the b r a c i n g s o r the chord
web t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s too c o n s e r v a t i v e , but a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s are needed
to s p e c i f y t h i s more i n detail.
For example the two specimens t e s t e d i n D e l f t had r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
s e c t i o n b r a c i n g s r e s p . 0 100 x 50 x 3 and r/) 150 x 100 x 5 w i t h the d i -
mension o f 100 mm t r a n s v e r s e to the chord f l a n g e .
In the t e s t w i t h the oi 100 x 50 x 3 b r a c i n g , the f u l l squash l o a d o f
 6-17

y
1.4

1.2 1
1
1

y
1
K
1.0

0.8
CHS
0.6 R H S h=b
R H S h^fcb
yielc brae ngs
0.4 P
,i HE 100A chord
de c i s i v e
y=yield b r a c i n g s
0.2

-4

Fig. 6.15. Comparison t e s t r e s u l t s o f X - and T - j o i n t s w i t h e q . 6 . 2 1 .

the b r a c i n g was o b t a i n e d due t o f u l l y i e l d i n g o f the web which made a

good r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s e s i n the b r a c i n g p o s s i b l e ; e q . ( 6 . 1 7 )
was c r i t i c a l r a t h e r than e q . ( 6 . 1 6 ) . As a r e s u l t the t e s t l o a d was
1.52 times the l o a d a l l o w e d a c c o r d i n g to c r i t e r i o n (6.20). In the
o t h e r t e s t w i t h the b r a c i n g ( 150 x 100 x 5 o n l y p a r t i a l y i e l d i n g i n
the web occured which g i v e s a more severe s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the
b r a c i n g and c r a c k i n g was d e c i s i v e a t a t e s t l o a d o f 1.36 times t h a t
according to c r i t e r i o n ( 6 . 2 1 ) . These t e s t s a l s o showed t h a t the s t r e s s
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the chord l a r g e l y e f f e c t s the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h crite-
r i o n , t h e r e f o r e some b a s i c t e s t s w i l l be c a r r i e d out i n future to
optimize t h i s criterion.

In those cases i n which much d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f the j o i n t i s r e -

q u i r e d f o r T - , Y- or X - j o i n t s the j o i n t s s h o u l d be designed i n such a
way t h a t t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s not c r i t i c a l compared w i t h y i e l d i n g o f the
b r a c i n g , the chord web o r t h e web c r o s s s e c t i o n .
Criterion ( 6 . 2 1 ) can a l s o be g i v e n a s :

R
i - ^ e r * ! < w2t + k
- 7 T 7 \) (6-22)

321
 6-18

with:
k = 0.017 f o r compression
k = 0.012 for tension.

Based on the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r K- and N-type gap j o i n t s w i t h square or

c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s parameter l i m i t a t i o n s can be g i v e n when t h i s e f f e c -
t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n i s not c r i t i c a l [7, 9].
These are as f o l l o w s :

1 - 0.015 -r^
o
(2t, + k . ~ . t )
b. d.
( 25 o r x - 30 respectively b
i *

(i = 1 o r 2)
or

f- * 20 - 28
d, i (2t, + k . ~ . t )
l TT w a . o'
ei

b d
0 . 7 5 ^ T-- ^ 1.33 or 0 . 7 5 g -A $ 1.33
t>2 &2

The value o f k a c c o r d i n g to ( 6 . 2 2 ) . J o i n t s which do not s a t i s f y these

parameter l i m i t a t i o n s are i n s t u d y . Joints with rectangular hollow
s e c t i o n s (h / b) as b r a c i n g s as w e l l as o v e r l a p j o i n t s w i l l be i n v e s -
t i g a t e d as p a r t of a c u r r e n t E C S C - C i d e c t programme [ 2 4 ] .

Overlap j o i n t s have not been t h o r o u g h l y i n v e s t i g a t e d . The t e s t s showed

f a i l u r e s due to f u l l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the members o r partially
p l a s t i f i c a t i o n i n the o v e r l a p area i n case of small overlaps.

The j o i n t s w i t h 100% o v e r l a p can be assumed to a c t i n the same way as

those w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r chord which are d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 5 and
the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h can be given by:

(6.23)
N ff
i - ei"*1 2 h
i " 4 t
i + b
i + b
e(ov)

[i = 1 or 2)

322
 6-19

with

'1 ov
b .b. (6.24)
e(ov) - JF7]t~) l
ov

13.5
1
for Fe 360 (y Y m c = 1.25)
Y -Y
m
m
1
c

11.5 f o r Fe 510 (y y = 1.25)

1 Y -Y m'c '
m c
m

(a . . t . )
1.0 i JISI
e l
< 2.0

In case o f j o i n t s w i t h p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g s a l s o a s i m i l a r
approach can be f o l l o w e d as f o r j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r chord o n l y
the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f t h e b r a c i n g c r o s s w a l l connected t o t h e chord
have now t o be based on e q . ( 6 . 2 1 ) .

N. = a . . t . 2h. - 4 t , + b + b , , (6.25)
i en i l l e e(ov)

b
e(ov) a c c o r d
"i 9
n e
q- ( -
6 2 4
)

2t, + c . t (6.26)
w 2 o
9

c 2 = 10.5 f o r Fe 360
c 2 = 7 . 5 f o r Fe 510

A f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t ECSC programme more t e s t evidence

e x i s t s t o g i v e a more a c c u r a t e a p p r o a c h .

As a c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o l l o w i n g s i m p l i f i e d e f f e c t i v e
w i d t h can be used:

b , , = c .t., ,
e(ov) i(ov)
(6.27)
b = c.t
e o

c = 1 0 . 5 f o r Fe 360
c = 8 . 5 f o r Fe 510

For a good s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n o v e r l a p j o i n t s the w i d t h ratio

between the b r a c i n g s s h o u l d not be l e s s than 0 . 7 5 .

323
 6-20

6.5.4. 8Eii2DI
- The welds should have a s u f f i c i e n t t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s to guarantee
redistribution of s t r e s s e s i n accordance w i t h [11].
In t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s it i s normal to choose the t h r o a t thickness
a t l e a s t equal to the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the connected b r a c i n g for
Fe 360 and 1 . 2 t f o r Fe 510.
- To prevent e a r l y c r a c k s i n the b r a c i n g s near the weld the s t e e l ma-
terial s h o u l d have a s u f f i c i e n t ductility.
- To prevent f a i l u r e of the chord f l a n g e due to i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n the
f l a n g e o f t h e I - s e c t i o n or l a m e l l a r t e a r i n g the c h o i c e o f the mate-
rial grade and q u a l i t y needs more c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
chord f l a n g e t h i c k n e s s .
In the t e s t s c a r r i e d out these f a i l u r e s d i d not o c c u r whereas the
m a t e r i a l grade of the chords was Fe 360 - A a c c o r d i n g to Euronorm
25 - 72 [ 2 , 3] but the chord f l a n g e t h i c k n e s s was l i m i t e d to 10 mm.
For t h i c k w a l l e d chords i t i s p r e f e r a b l e to choose o v e r l a p joints
i n which case the f l a n g e s have a s m a l l e r l o a d i n t h i c k n e s s d i r e c t i o n .
- For recommendations s t r i c t l i m i t a t i o n s f o r the range of validity
have to be d e f i n e d , see formula (6.23).

6.6. Joints predominantly loaded by moments

Joints predominantly loaded by moments belong to beam column connec-

t i o n s and the e x i s t i n g r u l e s can be used a l t h o u g h these were d e v e l -
oped f o r c o n n e c t i o n s i n which the beam and column are I - o r H-sections.
- In the same way as d e s c r i b e d under 6 . 5 . 1 . i n t h i s case the c r o s s
s e c t i o n s b e s i d e s the j o i n t have t o be checked f o r s h e a r , a x i a l load
and bending moment assuming a = 0 i n e q u a t i o n (6.10).

IorH
SHS

Fig. 6.16. Chord web f a i l u r e f o r moment l o a d i n g .

324
 6-21

As shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 6 . the column web has to be checked i n a s i m i l a r

way as mentioned under 6 . 5 . 2 . which means

M = b . t, . a . h (6.28)
m w eo 1
n

wi th

b = t. + 5 ft + r )
m l v
o o'
(6.29)
h
g ^ + 2.5 ( t . o + r )
Q

T h i s means i n r e a l i t y t h a t the moment i s assumed as two o p p o s i t e loads

working a t the f l a n g e s o f the h o l l o w s e c t i o n beam.
- For the e f f e c t i v e width o f the beam f l a n g e the r u l e s given under
6 . 5 . 3 . can be a p p l i e d .

M
= e
b
h el z h
(6.30)

with

b = 2 t + k. (6.31)
e w a e l

k according to (6.22)
h z = d i s t a n c e between e f f e c t i v e areas as shown i n f i g . 6 . 1 7 .

~y

m
iii
I
Fig. 6.17. E f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r moment l o a d i n g .

When much d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y i s needed e . g . i n s t a t i c a l I y i n d e t e r m i n a t e

s t r u c t u r e s the j o i n t s s h o u l d be designed i n such a way t h a t the ef-
f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n w i l l not be c r i t i c a l compared w i t h the p r e -
v i o u s l y mentioned c r i t e r i a .

325
 6-22

6.7. E v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n criteria

The y i e l d c r i t e r i a f o r the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n and the chord web can

d i r e c t l y be used as d e s i g n c r i t e r i a conform c h a p t e r 3 . T h i s means
Y Y = 1.0.
'm 'c
For the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f the b r a c i n g s the formulae have been r e l a t e d
to those used f o r beam column c o n n e c t i o n s . A f a c t o r Y . y =1.25
m s
has been i n c o r p o r a t e d thus the formulae g i v e n can a l l be used d i r e c t l y
as d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r f a c t o r e d l o a d i n g d e s i g n .

6.8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s

Based on a n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a , beam column c o n n e c t i o n c r i t e r i a and the

a v a i l a b l e t e s t e v i d e n c e i t can be c o n c l u d e d t h a t f o l l o w i n g d e s i g n
c r i t e r i a have to be c h e c k e d .

1. P l a s t i c f a i l u r e o f the c r o s s s e c t i o n o f the chord due to shear l o a d ,

and a x i a l load.
2 . Web y i e l d o r web c r i p l i n g o f the c h o r d .
3. E f f e c t i v e width c r i t e r i o n bracing.

These d e s i g n c r i t e r i a are summarized i n f i g . 6 . 1 8 .

F u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d to the d u c t i l i t y o f the s t e e l and the
welds s h o u l d have a t l e a s t a t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s equal to the w a l l
t h i c k n e s s o f the connected b r a c i n g to guarantee r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
stresses.
For the f i r s t and second mentioned c r i t e r i a formulae are d e f i n e d i n
accordance w i t h the general rules in p l a s t i c design.
Based on the t e s t r e s u l t s parameter l i m i t a t i o n s are g i v e n f o r which
the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n i s not d e c i s i v e f o r gap j o i n t s w i t h cir-
c u l a r o r square b r a c i n g s . For T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s a preliminary ef-
f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n i s g i v e n i n r e l a t i o n to t h a t d e f i n e d i n 11W
doc. XV-358-74 and the t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t . The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h crite-
r i o n has s t i l l to be d e f i n e d out of the range o f v a l i d i t y given e.g.
K- and N-type j o i n t s w i t h gap o r o v e r l a p , a s f a r as the b r a c i n g s a r e
r e c t a n g u l a r o r the j o i n t parameters do not s a t i s f y the parameter l i m -
i t a t i o n s given. This i s a subject of f u r t h e r experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
The l i m i t a t i o n s given f o r the w i d t h w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o of compressed
b r a c i n g members are based on t h e requirements given f o r j o i n t s w i t h a
r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n as chord (see c h a p t e r 5 . 2 . 8 . ) .

326
 6-23

Fig. 6.18 S t r e n g t h formulae f o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y a x i a l l y loaded RI and C I - j o i n t s .

Type of joint Design strength

bo N
1 = m- w-Oeo -b t
k ^

N
K N gap j i 2
Ni D
m- x
w Oeo - k s i n 0 1

Ni = eok Q A

V T . s i n 0j

Nogap=( 0 A
-A )Oao +A .a \/H^]
Q k Q e0k
2

K, N overlap
7
Only effective width check
see f i g . 6 . 1 9 ; page 6 - 2 4

General check for

see f i g . 6 . 1 9 ; page 6 - 2 4
effective width.
h.
Functions
b =- - i - + 5 (t + r )
m sin0. v
o o'
RI-joints

b .<2ti I 10 ( t r )
C I - j o i nts
m o Q

m YTne7 b = + 5 + r
o)
(N^sinG^max

A
Q- eo
J
k

/3
A A - ( 2 - a ) b . t + ( t + 2 r )t
o ' o o
v
w o' o v

a = 0 f o r CHS branches
1
^ f o r RHS branches

3tf

Validity range see f i g . 6 . 2 0 ; page 6 - 2 4

327
 6-24

Fig. 6.19. General check f o r e f f e c t i v e w i d t h

Type of j o i n t Design s t r e n g t h
b = 2 t + 1 0 . 5 t f o r Fe 360
T, Y, X e w o
"l = 2 a
e V b
e
b = 2 t + 7 . 5 t f o r Fe 510
V

e w o
Kand N w i t h No check r e q u i r e d i f w i t h i n Be l-0.03y
d
l
gap parameter l i m i t a t i o n s , o t h e r -
g ' s 20 - 286 0.75(-A( 1.33
wise l i k e T, Y and X - j o i n t s

b
l

with: 0.75<T-U 1.33

Kand N w i t h
N. = a .t 2h.-4t.+b.+b , , b (as f o r T , Y , X j o i n t s )
100X o v e r l a p e i k i
i n i e(ov)_ g

(a . . t . )
ke ( o ^ (h/t,)./ aei . v o v " i
b b
c 1 e i t i
k

Kand N w i t h wi th :
305U 0vl00% 2 h . - 4 t . + b +b , , c = 10.8 f o r Fe 360, Fe 430
<%i- -t. k
i l e e(ov)
o v e r l ap c = 9 . 2 f o r Fe 510

1.0< e l
J o v
2.0
a . .t.
ei i

Fig. 6.20. Range o f validity

Type of j o i nt J o i n t parameters ( i = 1 o r 2)

b. y t .
i h
i ty'l h
i
FT w
b
l
V ) compression tension w
h
b
i
T, Y, X A "
x * 0.9
1
r c

h '\ i \
l

Kand N w i t h
gap
-- 1.0
d. with:
d
i
1.2 c = 1.2 f o r X j o i n t s
K and N w i t h
0 . TT* 5 0
C 1.5 f o r T, Y, K and
50.75 e l
k
overlap N joints

328
 6-25

6.9. References

1. T o u r n a y , M. : Les assemblages des p r o f i l s creux sur

profils ouverts
VDI-Beratungsstelle fur Stahlverwendung,
Cidect, Gipec.
Conference on Hollow S e c t i o n s , D u s s e l d o r f ,
30.9.1975.

2. Anonymus : t t u d e d'assemblages de p r o f i l e s creux sur

profils ouverts.
E s s a i No. 212 1 8 7 , L a b o r a t o i r e N a t i o n a l
d ' E s s a i s , C i d e c t programme 5N.
Compte rendu No. 1 .
Compte rendu No. 2 .
Compte rendu No. 3 .

3. Wardenier, J. : Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of

K o n i n g , C H . M . de
welded j o i n t s w i t h SHS b r a c i n g s and an I
p r o f i l e as c h o r d .
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t n r . BI-76-89/35.3.51210.
Stevin report nr. 6-76-19.
September 1976.

4. Wardenier, J. : B e h a v i o u r o f a x i a l l y loaded K - a n d N-type

K o n i n g , C H . M . de gap j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s o f structural
Douwen, A . A . van h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and an I - p r o f i l e as c h o r d .
IIW doc. XV-401-72.

5. B a i l l y , R. : Etude des Assemblages Souds - Profiles

Creux s u r P r o f i l s Ouverts (I e t H) -
C i d e c t p r o g r . 5N
Cidect report 77/15/5N. J u i n 1977.

6. Mouty, J. : C a l c u l a t i o n s f o r welded j o i n t s o f hollow

Tournay, M. s e c t i o n s w i t h open s e c t i o n s , Delft
Symposium on T u b u l a r Structures.
25 October 1977.

7. Wardenier, J. : The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded l a t t i c e

Stark, J.W.B. girder joints in structural hollow s e c -
t i o n s , part 6,
S t e v i n r e p o r t 6 - 7 8 - 4 , March 1978.

329
 6-26

8. Baily, R. : Experimental r e s e a r c h on K- and N welded

Mouty, J. joints composed o f web members of hollow
s e c t i o n s and of chords of HE and IPE s e c -
tions (IIW Doc. X V - 4 2 5 - ' 7 8 ) .

9. Wardenier, J. : Design r u l e s f o r predominant statically

Mouty, J. loaded welded j o i n t s w i t h h o l l o w section
b r a c i n g s and an I- or H - s e c t i o n as c h o r d .
IIW Doc. XV-421-'78.

10. R o i k , K. : Traglastdiagramme z u r Bemessung von

Wagenknecht, G. Druckstben m i t doppelsymmetrischem
Querschnitt aus B a u s t a h l . K o n s t r u k t i v e r
Ingenieurbau. H e f t 2 7 . Januar 1977.

11. IIWTXV : Design Rules f o r A r c - w e l d e d connections

in Steel submitted to s t a t i c loads
(doc. XV-358-74 r e v i s e d ) .

12. W.R.C. : Commentary on p l a s t i c d e s i g n i n Steel.

A.S.C.E. Progress report 6: Connections, Journ.
Eng. Mech. D i v . P r o c . ASCE 8 6 , EM2,
A p r i l 1960.

13. Bakker, C.Th.J. : Welded beam column c o n n e c t i o n s i n framed

Voorn, W . J . M . S t r u c t u r e s , Agon E l s e v i e r , Amsterdam and
B r u s s e l s , 1974 ( i n Dutch).

14. Timoshenko, S . P . : Theory o f E l a s t i c Stability.

Gere J . M . 2nd E d i t i o n . M c G r a w - H i l l . New York. 1961.

15. Graham. J.D. : Welded i n t e r i o r beam to column connec-

Sherbourne, A.N. t i o n s . AISC P u b l i c a t i o n - F r i t z Engineer-
Khabbaz, R.N. ing Laboratory
Jensen, CD.. Report no. 2 3 3 - 1 5 . 1959.
Welding Research C o u n c i l - B u l l e t i n no.
33 - New York. 1960.

16. Chen, W.F. : Web b u c k l i n g s t r e n g t h of beam to column

Oppenheim I.J. connection.
Fritz engineering Laboratory Report no.
3 3 3 - 1 0 . Lehigh University.
September 1970.

330
 6-27

17. B e r g f e i t A. S t u d i e s and t e s t s on s l e n d e r p l a t e
g i r d e r s w i t h o u t s t i f f e n e r s . Shear s t r e n g t h
and l o c a l web c r i p p l i n g .
C o l l o g i u m AIPC "Design o f p l a t e and box
girders for ultimate strength".
E d i t o r s : Massonnet, Rockey and B e e d l e .
London, 1971.

18. Aribert, J.M. Etude l a s t o - p l a s t i q u e par a n a l y s e des

L c h a i , A. c o n t r a i n t e s de la compression l o c a l a s u r
1'me d'un profil.
CTICM - C o n s t r u c t i o n M t a l l i q u e n o . 4.
Dcembre 1977.

19. K o l s t e i n , M.H. Check o f the c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r the

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the l o c a l b u c k l i n g l o a d
o f a web o f a r o l l e d H - s e c t i o n (in Dutch).
Stevin report 6 - 8 0 - 1 4 , Delft University
of Technology.

20. Cidect The s t r e n g t h and b e h a v i o u r o f statically

loaded welded c o n n e c t i o n s i n structural
hollow s e c t i o n s .
C i d e c t Monograph Nr. 6 . To be p u b l i s h e d .

21. R o l l o o s , A. The e f f e c t i v e weld l e n g t h o f beam to

column c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h o u t stiffening
plates. IIW Doc. XV-276-69.

22. Wardenier, J. The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f branch p l a t e t o

D a v i e s , G. RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s i n c r o s s joints.
Stolle, P. Stevin report 6 - 8 1 - 6 . Delft University
o f Technology and TNO-IBBC.

23. D a v i e s , G. The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f branch c r o s s w a l l s

Wardenier, J. f o r RR c r o s s j o i n t s in tension.
Stolle, P. Stevin report 6-81-7.
Delft University o f Technology and
TNO-IBBC.

331
6-28

The development o f recommendations f o r

the d e s i g n o f welded j o i n t s between
steel structural h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and H-
sections. E C S C - C i d e c t r e s e a r c h programme
1980-1983.
Table 6-1 TEST R E S U L T S OF DELFT R E S E A R C H PROGRAMME [ 3 , 4 , 7 ]

chord bracings

Test Type M e a s u r e d dimensions (mm) A A .o GAP eccen- Measured Al(2) ei

2 o eo V e i N
lu N
2u N
o
No. 0
e
2
0
dimensions
(mni ) (N/mm*) (WQ g tricity (mm2) (N/mnT) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Section h b t
0 r
o
0 0 w (mm) e(mm) (mm)

200 W-RI I P E - 1 2 0 119.3 64 2 6.2 4.4 7 1310 273 357.6 66.3 0 7J37.8-3.89 531 335 178 151 153 215
II II I
201 W-RI " H " " 48.4 0 V" 5 6 - 3 . 8 2 711 311 221 167 169 238
202 W-RI " " " " " " " 30.5 0 064.2-3.24 801 352 282 173 180 252
II tl I
203 N-RI M " 6.4 +14.3 ^56 - 3 . 8 2 711 311 221 161 221 167
II li
204 W-CI " " " " 48.1 0 051.3-3.13 430 365 157 136 140 196
I li
205 N-CI 6.4 + 8.6 051.3-3.13 430 365 157 106 149 109

206 W-RI IPE-160 159.8 82. 8 7.3 5.2 9 2025 316 639.9 88.4 0 050.4-4.69 877 324 284 261 272 370
li I II
207 W-RI " " " 11 " 70.5 0 0 6 3 . 4 - 4 . 7 5 1116 344 384 283 284 403
I I
208 W-RI " " " 11 " " 52.6 0 0 7 6 - 4 . 8 1 1382 296 409 314 305 442
tl li II
209 N-RI " 8.2 + 4.6 0 6 3 . 4 - 4 . 7 5 1116 344 384 263 368 283
it
210 W-CI " " " " 70.5 0 063.5-4.25 759 295 224 205 208 290
II
211 N-CI " " " 8.2 + 4.6 $ 63.5-4.25 759 295 224 155 216 161

212 W-RI H E - 1 2 0 A 116.6 119. 9 8.2 5 12 2 5 9 2 278 720.6 42.4 0 050.4-4.69 877 324 284 269.5 280 382
II II II II
213 W-RI " " II II
24.5 0 063.4-4.75 1116 344 384 337 343 476
II li li II
214 W-RI " 12 + 1 076 - 4 . 8 1 1382 296 409 364.5 374.5 510
II
215 W-RI " " " 11 " 12 + 3.68 088.2-5.02 1668 295 492 385 380 543
II II II II
216 N-RI 11 12 +29.9 063.4-4.75 1116 344 384 249 354 269
II II tl li II
217 W-CI
II II " 24.5 0 063.5-4.25 759 295 224 216 219 303
" " " "
218 N-CI 11
12 +29.9 063.5-4.25 759 295 224 135.5 198 144

219 W-RI H E - 2 0 0 A 188.8 201. 3 9 . 8 6 . 7 20 5 4 2 7 261 1416 82.6 0 076.2-5.87 1650 342 564 478 486 700
II II I II It
220 W-RI 11 11 64.7 0 088.4-6.04 2029 347 704 557 537 810
II II
221 W-RI
" " 11
it
11 "
I
"
II
46.8 0 01OL3-6.18 2349 298 700 603 573 870
222 W-RI "
II
" li
20 +40.6 0127.6-6.31 2996 285 854 654 619 948
223 N-RI " 20 +67.1 088.4-6.04 2029 347 704 473 670 523
224 W-CI
II
" I
it II
64.7 0 089.7-6.9 1692 279 472 437 441 640
II it
225 N-CI " " 11 " 20 +68.7 089.7-6.9 1692 279 472 315 446 345
Table 6-la TEST RESULTS OF FRENCH RESEARCH PROGRAMME [2]

chord bracings

Test Type Dimensions ' (mm) GAP eccen- Dirnen A..a . N , N,

o
n
eo . V e o
a A
l(2) ei 2 i ei lu 2u N

No. (mm )
(mm )
2
(N/irni ) ( k N ) g tricity sions*^ 2
(N/mrn ) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Section t
h
o b
o *o w
r
o
(mm) e(mm) (mm)

3101 W-CI HE-100 A 96 100 8 5 12 2 1 2 0 275 583 10 -1.82 0 60.3-4.5 789 310 244.6 204.8 290.5
3102 W-CI 256 543 -11 +2.44 0 76.1-4.5 1010 240 242.4 218.8 310.4
3103 W-CI " 243 515 -29 +0.78 0 88.9-5.4 1410 277 390.6 385 546.1
3104 W-RI 244 517 11 -3.48 0 60 -5.0 1080 316 341.3 332.5 471.6
3105 W-RI 247 524 - 3 -5.25 0 70 -5.0 1280 315 403.2 367.5 521.3
3107 W-RI " 240 509 -31 -3.05 0 90 -6.0 1996 263 524.9 402.5 570.9

3201 W-CI HE-ZOO A 190 200 10 6.5 18 5380 240 1291 82 -4.85 0 76.1-4.5 1010 260 262.6 274.8 389.7
3202 W-CI " 266 1431 64 +0.71 0 88.9-5.4 1410 266 375.1 402.5 570.9
3203 W-CI " 358 1926 46 +2.53 0101.6-7.1 2110 291 614 570.5 809.2
3205 W-CI " 347 1867 0 +4.05 0139.7-7.1 2960 250 740 700 992.9
3206 W-CI " 308 1657 -43 -0.84 0168.3-7.1 3600 278 1000.8 840 1191.5
3207 W-RI " 250 1345 77 -1.88 0 80 - 6 . 0 1760 263 462.8 402.5 570.9
3208 W-RI 278 1496 63 + 1.04 0 90 - 6 . 0 1996 239 477 472.5 670.2
3209 W-RI 326 1754 49 +2.07 0100 -7.0 2580 254 655.3 665 943.3
3210 W-RI 310 1668 0 +2.31 0135 -7.0 3560 257 914.9 892.5 1265.9

*) Nominal dimensions
Table 6-2 TEST RESULTS

b
l+
2 b

TET N s i n Q Shear Shear yield reduced area

lu- l
Test lu "2u N
lu- S i n 0
l
Type JL Area A load A .T A -A, for axial (A -AJ.o
No. d d 1 + 2 t A. a , A .o
?
r Q e o
A i r
o Q
K
o Q' eo
1 el 2 o eo Q. e o
(kN)
2

(mm ) l o a d (rim 1 (kN)

'l

200 W-RI 0.59 9.7 10.7 0.85 0.86 0.60 107.2 660 104.1 650 177.5
201 W-RI 0.87 14.7 7.8 0.76 0.76 0.67 118.6 672 105.9 638 174.2
202 W-RI 1.00 19.8 4.9 0.61 0.64 0.70 122.8 697 109.8 1.12 613 167.4
203 N-RI 0.87 14.7 1.03| 0.73 1.0 0.47 161 884 139.3 >1.16 426 116.3
204 W-CI 0.80 16.4 7.8 0.87 0.89 0.55 96.6 628 99.0 0.98 682 186.2
205 N-CI 0.80 16.4 1.031 0.68 0.95 0.30 106 628 99.0 >1.07 682 186.2
206 W-RI 0.61 10.8 12.1 0.92 0.58 185.3 1037 189.2 >0.98 312.2
207 W-RI 0.77 13.4 9.7 0.74 0.63 200.9 1048 191.1 1.05 977 308.7
208 W-RI 0.92 15.8 7.2 0.77 0.69 222.9 1066 194.4 1.15 959 303.0
209 N-RI 0.77 13.4 1.12| 0.68 0.44 263 1361 248.3 >1.06 664 209.8
210 W-CI 0.77 14.9 9.7 0.92 0.45 145.6 994 181.4 0.80 1031 325.8
211 N-CI 0.77 14.9 1.121 0.69 0.25 155 994 181.4 0.85 1031 325.8
212 W-RI 0.42 10.8 5.2 0.95 0.53 191.3 1026 164.6 1566 430.7
213 W-RI 0.53 13.4 3.0 0.88 0.66 239.3 1137 182.5 1455 400.1
214 W-RI 0.63 15.8 1.46 0.89 0.71 258.8 1364 218.9 1228 337.7
215 W-RI 0.74 17.6 1.46 0.78 0.75 273.4 1364 218.9 1228 337.7
216 N-RI 0.53 13.4 1.46 0.65 0.37 249 1364 218.9 1228 337.7
217 W-CI 0.53 14.9 3.0 0.96 0.42 153.4 863 138.6 1729 475.5
218 N-CI 0.53 14.9 1.46 0.60 0.20 135.5 863 138.6 1729 475.5

219 W-RI 0.38 13.0 8.4 0.85 0.49 339.4 2140 322.5 3287 857.9
220 W-RI 0.44 14.6 6.6 0.79 0.57 395.5 2196 330.9 3231 843.3
221 W-RI 0.50 16.4 4.8 0.86 0.61 428.1 2292 345.3 1.24 3135 818.2
222 W-RI 0.63 20.2 2.1 0.77 0.67 464.3 2711 408.4 1.14 2716 708.9
223 N-RI 0.44 14.6 2.1 0.67 0.37 473 2711 408.4 >1.16 2716 708.9
224 W-CI 0.45 13.0 6.6 0.93 0.45 310.3 1939 292.2 1.06 3488 910.4
225 N-CI 0.45 13.0 2.041 0.67 0.24 315 1939 292.2 1.08 3488 910.4

(2-ct)b . t + (t + 2r )t
v
' o o W v
0' 0
CO
to
CD

Table 6-2a TEST RESULTS

N l u .sin 0j
b
l + b
2 b
l

Test
\ TT
n
O R

N
lu N
2u
N
0
N l u .cos 6j
Shear Shear yield
N l u .sin 0j
reduced area
N .cos
l u e 1

Type A r e a AQ l o a d A .T A -A for axial (A - A . ) o -

^ o 0/ e o (A -AJcr
Q e 0

No.
V d
2 d
2 \ A
rei Ve2 V a
e o
(kN) (mm^) (kN)
V eo T o Q 2
l o a d (mm ) (kN)
' o Q' e o

h
3101 W-CI 0.6 13.4 1.25 0.84 0.84 0.50 144.8 752 119.4 1.21 1368 376.2 0.39
3102 W-CI 0.76 16.9 o v e r l ap 0.90 0.90 0.57 154.7
3103 W-CI 0.89 16.5 overlap 0.99 0,99 1.06 272.2
3104 W-RI 0.6 12 1.37 0.97 0.97 0.91 235.1 1178 166.0 >1.42 942 229.9 1.02
3105 W-RI 0.7 14 overlap 0.91 0.91 0.99 259.8
3107 W-RI 0.9 15 o v e r l ap 0.77 0.77 1.12 284.6
3201 W-CI 0.38 16.9 8.2 ^1.0 %1.0 0.30 194.3 1805 250.1 >0.78 3575 858,0 0.23
3202 W-CI 0.45 16.5 6.4 vl.O vl.O 0.40 284.6 1805 277.2 >1.03 3575 951.0 0.30
3203 W-CI 0.51 14.3 4.6 0.93 0.93 0.42 403.3 1805 373.1 1.08 3575 1279.9 0.32
3205 W-CI 0.7 19.7 0 0.95 0.95 0.53 494.9 1805 361.6 1.37 3575 1240.5 0.40
3206 W-CI 0.84 13.7 overlap 0.84 0.84 0.72 593.9
3207 W-RI 0.4 13.3 7.7 0.87 0.87 0.42 284.6 2029 292.9 0.97 3351 837.8 0.34
3208 W-RI 0.45 15 6.3 0.99 0.99 0.45 334.1 2077 333.4 >1.01 3303 918.2 0.36
3209 W-RI 0.5 14.3 4.9 era vl.O 0.54 470.2 2153 405.2 >1.16 3227 1052.2 0.45
3310 W-RI 0.68 19.3 0 0.98 0.98 0.76 631 3791 678.5 >0.93 1589 492.6 1.28

A. = A -(2-a)b .t + (t +2r )t
Q o K
' o o w o' o v
 7-i

JOINTS WITH HOLLOW SECTION BRACINGS AND A CHANNEL SECTION AS CHORD

Contents

Symbol s

7.1. Introduction
7.2. C r i t e r i a of failure
7 . 3 . Modes o f failure
7.4. T e s t evidence
7.5. Analytical criteria
7.5.1. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the chord c r o s s section
7.5.2. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord f a c e
7.5.3. E f f e c t i v e width criterion
7.5.4. Punching shear o f the chord face
7.5.5. E f f e c t s o f moments
7.5.6. Experimental verification
7.6. J o i n t s with overlap
7.7. E v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n criteria
7.8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s
7.9. References

337
 7-ii

Symbols used i n c h a p t e r 7

c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area of the chord

c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area o f the compression b r a c i n g
c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area of the t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area of the chord f o r shear
modulus of elasticity
M. moment i n a member i
p l a s t i c moment of a member i
Pi
reduced p l a s t i c moment of a member i by shear

d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i n t e r m s o f l o a d i n b r a c i n g memberi ( i = 1 o r 2)
load n the chord
1 oad n the chord a t the gap l o c a t i o n
o gap
l o a d i n the compression b r a c i n g
N 2
l o a d i n the t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
l o a d i n member i
N
i
N- l o a d i n b r a c i n g member i a t f a i l u r e o f the j o i n t
i u
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h of a j o i n t i n terms of 1 oad i n member i
%
squash l o a d i n a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f member i
N
pi
reduced squash l o a d of member i by shear

Q shear l o a d i n the chord a t the gap

shear y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y of the c h o r d .

a t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s of the welds
b. w i d t h o f a member i
I
b
o w i d t h o f the chord flange
b* b - 2(t + r )
o v
w o'
o
b, width o f the compression b r a c i n g t r a n s v e r s e to the chord
w i d t h of t e n s i o n b r a c i n g t r a n s v e r s e t o the chord
effective width

e ov e f f e c t i v e w i d t h i n an o v e r l a p joint

e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r punching shear
constant

338
 7-i i i

e c c e n t r i c i t y between system l i n e s
gap between b r a c i n g s (measured between the toes o f the
bracings)
depth o f a member i
depth o f the chord
depth o f the compression b r a c i n g
depth o f the t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
i n t e g e r used to denote member of j o i n t , i = 0 designates
chord and n o r m a l l y i = 1 the compression b r a c i n g and i = 2
the t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
ov i n t e g e r f o r o v e r l a p p e d b r a c i n g member
i n n e r r a d i u s between web and f l a n g e of the channel section
w a l l t h i c k n e s s of a member i
t h i c k n e s s of the chord flange
w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f the compression b r a c i n g
w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f the t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
mean f l a n g e t h i c k n e s s of the UNP s e c t i o n (webs of chord)

f a c t o r g i v i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the chord face f o r shear

b
l + b
2

b
l + b
2
2b*

exponent i n i n t e r a c t i o n formula
a n g l e between a member i and the chord
Q
i
angle between compression b r a c i n g and the chord
angle between t e n s i o n b r a c i n g and the chord
y i e l d s t r e s s o f a member i
"ei
design value f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s o f member i
en i
y i e l d s t r e s s of the chord
"eo
y i e l d s t r e s s of the compression b r a c i n g
J
el
y i e l d s t r e s s o f the t e n s i o n b r a c i n g
u l t i m a t e m a t e r i a l s t r e s s of a member i
J
ti
shear y i e l d s t r e s s chord
eo

CHS : c i r c u l a r hollow section

RHS : rectangular hollow section
SHS : structural hollow s e c t i o n .

339
 7-iv

340
 7-1

7. JOINTS WITH HOLLOW SECTION BRACINGS AND A CHANNEL SECTION AS CHORD

7.1. Introduction

G i r d e r s w i t h channel s e c t i o n s as chord may be e c o n o m i c a l l y i f the

lateral b u c k l i n g r e s i s t a n c e i n plane can be low due to a small e f f e c -
t i v e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h o r i f the chords are o n l y i n t e n s i o n , f o r example
the bottom chord o f g i r d e r s . In t h i s case a l s o r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c -
t i o n chords can be u s e d , but channel s e c t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y cheaper.
Compared to g i r d e r s w i t h I- o r H - s e c t i o n chords t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r
c h o i s e i n c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area f o r small s e c t i o n s and the g i r d e r s have
greater l a t e r a l stability.
These j o i n t s have o n l y been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n the N e t h e r l a n d s as p a r t o f
an E C S C - C i d e c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n c a r r i e d out a t the S t e v i n L a b o r a t o r y of
the D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y and the I n s t i t u t e TNO f o r B u i l d i n g M a t e r i a l s and
Buildina Structures [1 to 3 ] .

W a r r e n - t y p e joint w i t h P r a t t - t y p e joint w i t h
RHSbrocmgs (K-type) R H S bracings (N-type)

Fig. 7.1. D i f f e r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f RU gap j o i n t s .

These types o f j o i n t s shown i n f i g . 7 . 1 . are o n l y i n t e r e s t i n g as f a r

as they are o f the K- o r N-type c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h e r e f o r e the i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n has been l i m i t e d to these types.

7.2. C r i t e r i a of failure

In the same way as f o r j o i n t s between h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and I- or H-sec-

t i o n s these j o i n t s are a n a l y z e d on b a s i s o f y i e l d c r i t e r i a . The t e s t s
are used f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f these c r i t e r i a .
Due to the f a c t t h a t the UNP chord s e c t i o n s are r e l a t i v e l y thick
w a l l e d compared w i t h hollow s e c t i o n chords the deformations are rela-
tively small and the t e s t r e s u l t s sometimes i n c l u d e e f f e c t s o f strain
hardeni ng.
As the d e f o r m a t i o n s are very small these w i l l not be c r i t i c a l f o r d e s i g n .

341
 7-2

7.3. Modes of failure

Depending on the j o i n t parameters d i f f e r e n t types of f a i l u r e can

t h e o r e t i c a l l y occur as shown i n f i g . 7 . 2 .

a. shear failure of the chord c . f a i l u r e by c r a c k i n g bracings

b. plastification chord face d . punching shear (cracking chord

Fig. 7.2. D i f f e r e n t modes of failure

a. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n by s h e a r , a x i a l l o a d and

moment.
b. P l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the chord f a c e . F o r v e r y t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s
t h i s type of f a i l u r e can be combined w i t h a chord web f a i l u r e .
c. F a i l u r e by c r a c k i n g of the b r a c i n g s .
d. Punching shear o f the chord f a c e .
F o r v e r y t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s a l s o l o c a l b u c k l i n g i n the compression
b r a c i n g o r the chord face are p o s s i b l e .
In the t e s t s c a r r i e d out o n l y f a i l u r e mode " a " was o b s e r v e d . In all
o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s the s e c t i o n s were s t r e s s e s even more than y i e l d by
the combined e f f e c t s of a x i a l l o a d and moment. In these gap j o i n t s
the e c c e n t r i c i t y i s r a t h e r high which l e a d s to very high moments.

7.4. Test evidence

The programme c o n s i s t e d of the t e s t i n g of:

- 9 i s o l a t e d 45 K-type j o i n t s w i t h chords o f UNP 5 0 , UNP 100 and UNP 140
- 9 i s o l a t e d 90/45 N-type j o i n t s , a l s o w i t h chords o f UNP 5 0 , UNP 100

and UNP 140.

342
 7-3

The b r a c i n g s were made o f h o t f i n i s h e d square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s steel

grade Fe 430-C whereas t h e chords had a s t e e l grade Fe 3 6 0 - A .

All specimens had welds w i t h a t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s equal t o the t h i c k n e s s

o f t h e connected b r a c i n g as shown i n f i g . 7 . 3 .

n i
11
1

i! i

4# i4t it'

- !
i
chord y/i///// rz^ chord
J 3
-t, |

w i d t h chord > w i d t h bracing width chord = width bracing

Fig. 7.3. Weld shape f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t t e s t specimens.

The b r a c i n g w i d t h - c h o r d w i d t h r a t i o was v a r i e d between 0 . 4 and 1.0

whereas t h e gap between t h e b r a c i n g s was c o n s t a n t 0 . 1 b .
The t e s t s a r e d e s c r i b e d more i n d e t a i l in refs. [1 t o 3 ] . As these
chord s e c t i o n s a r e not common i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y the main dimensions a r e
summarized i n t a b l e 7 . 1 .

7.5. Analytical criteria

The a n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a w i l l be d e s c r i b e d a t f i r s t f o r j o i n t s w i t h no
eccentricity. L a t e r o n t h e e f f e c t o f bending moments due t o e c c e n t r i c -
ity will be d i s c u s s e d .

7.5.1. Blsti^ication_of _ t h e _ ^

In t h e same way as f o r R I - and C l - j o i n t s t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f the

chord between t h e b r a c i n g s have t o be checked f o r shear and t h e com-
b i n e d e f f e c t s o f shear l o a d and a x i a l load.

343
 7-4

For the shear l o a d Q the s i d e s of the chord and a small p a r t of the

chord f a c e can be assumed to be always e f f e c t i v e as i l l u s t r a t e d in
fig. 7.4.

h 0

r.-.:.. * cross sectional a r e a for shear Load

esza reduced cross-sectional a r e a for
a x i a l load

Fig. 7.4. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the shear y i e l d l o a d of the c h o r d .

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the chord f a c e depends on the gap and the b r a c i n g

to chord width r a t i o . The maximum l o a d which can be t r a n s m i t t e d is

A.T (7.1)
Q eo
In a s i m i l a r way as d e s c r i b e d f o r j o i n t s w i t h I o r H-chords the ef-
x
f e c t i v e n e s s o f the chord face can be given by a . b . t Q o (see chapter
6.5.1.) where:
1
a = (7.2)

3 t
o

The value f o r b depends on the s t i f f n e s s of the s i d e s of the chord

face f o r s h e a r . In UNP s e c t i o n s the s i d e s are r a t h e r s t i f f therefore
f o l l o w i n g value i s assumed:

b* = b - 2(t + r )
O 0 v
W 0'

With these e x p r e s s i o n s the e f f e c t i v e shear area can be c a l c u l a t e d a s :

A A - (1 - a) b*.t (7.3)
0 0 v
' 0 0

In p r e v i o u s publications [ 1 , 2 , 3] f o r s i m p l i c i t y reasons the e f f e c -

t i v e p a r t o f the top f a c e of the chord was n e g l e c t e d (a = 0 ) .

344
 7-5

However f o r these types o f j o i n t s the gap i s g e n e r a l l y small to l i m i t

the e c c e n t r i c i t y which i n c r e a s e s the e f f e c t i v e shear a r e a .
The h o r i z o n t a l b r a c i n g l o a d component and a p o s s i b l e a d d i t i o n a l axial
l o a d i n the chord must than be t r a n s m i t t e d by the remaining p a r t of
the chord c r o s s section.

N * (A - - S - ) . a (7.4)
o o T eo \ !
gap eo l

The UNP s e c t i o n s do not have a bottem chord and most o f the shear
area i s l o c a t e d at the top o f the s i d e w a l l s t h e r e f o r e another inter-
a c t i o n f o r m u l a must be used compared to j o i n t s w i t h I o r RHS chord
sections.

If t h e r e are no a d d i t i o n a l loads i n the chord than o n l y the horizontal

b r a c i n g l o a d component appears and the e g . (7.4) can be w r i t t e n as:

N-,.sin6, N,.cos0,

o eo o eo
A more general p r e s e n t a t i o n is:

5 - * 1.0 (7.1a)

N
(f . Jfi) + 1.0 (7.4a)
P
Q
o
A N
P Q

With Ag a c c o r d i n g to e g . (7.3) and f o r RHS b r a c i n g s a a c c o r d i n g e q .

(7.2). F o r j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g members no t e s t e v i d e n c e is
a v a i l a b l e to check the e q u a t i o n s . In t h i s case the top f a c e i s less
s t i f f e n e d by the b r a c i n g s , t h e r e f o r e i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h RI and
CR j o i n t s a = 0 is proposed.

7.5.2. PI as t i f i c a t i o n of the chqrd_face failure

For small to medium width r a t i o s a chord f a c e f a i l u r e may be critical.

I g n o r i n g the e f f e c t s of s t r a i n hardening and membrane e f f e c t s based on
the s i m p l i f i e d y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n shown i n f i g . 7 . 5 . an e q u a t i o n can
be d e r i v e d f o r the y i e l d load.
For i n d i c a t i o n o n l y the f u n c t i o n f o r a symmetrical K - t y p e j o i n t is
given here. This f u n c t i o n i s s i m i l a r to that described i n chapter 5 . 2 . 5 . 1 .
for j o i n t s with a rectangular chord.

345
 7-6

a : yield line pattern with fans

1
t +r w 0

b -2(t +rj
0 w

b 2 b : s i m p l i f i e d yield line pattern

sin 9-| s i n 0 2

Fig. 7.5. Y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n f o r a chord f a c e f a i l u r e .

2h.
1
+ -SL
N.. , s i n 0 . b*.sine.
o 1 o . _o + _ 2 (7.6)

77" 1 - 4
b*
2g
(1-
bi , 0 . 5

o eo o

i n which:

1 or 2
b - 2(t + r
w 0'

b
l = b
2
= h 1 = h 2

=0, =0.
i 1 " "2

The o t h e r symbols are d e f i n e d i n the l i s t o f symbols.

F o r symmetrical Warren type j o i n t s w i t h square b r a c i n g s e q . ( 7 . 6 ) can

be w r i t t e n a s :

2-e + JL
N..sin . 0
s i n 0
i b* b* , . 0 5

o + o + 2(1 - 8*) (7.6a)

* 2g
1 - 3

o eo

with:

3 * = V 2 = V 2 =
b
l + b
2
b* b* 2b*

346
 7-7

For N-type j o i n t s and f o r j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s o f d i f f e r e n t sections

s i m i l a r but more c o m p l i c a t e d f u n c t i o n s can be determined as d e s c r i b e d
i n c h a p t e r 5 f o r R R - j o i n t s . The i n f l u e n c e of y i e l d fans shown i n
fig. 7 . 5 . i s i g n o r e d because the i n f l u e n c e on the l o a d c a p a c i t y is
s m a l l . The y i e l d l i n e s i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n of the chord are a s -
sumed to be on a d i s t a n c e ( t + r ) from the chord s i d e . Due to the
w o
g r e a t e r s i d e w a l l t h i c k n e s s the y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n w i l l o n l y be d e v e l -
oped i n the chord f l a n g e . For t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s e . g . c o l d f i n i s h e d
channel s e c t i o n s i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n w i l l be
developed i n the chord f l a n g e combined w i t h a y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n in
the s i d e w a l l s o f the chord as shown by the d o t t e d l i n e s i n f i g . 7.2b.
T h i s can reduce the l o a d c a p a c i t y considerably.

Due to s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g and/or membrane e f f e c t s the r e a l s t r e n g t h is

g r e a t e r than determined w i t h the y i e l d l i n e model. For j o i n t s of rec-
t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s a semi e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a i s used f o r the d e -
t e r m i n a t i o n o f the j o i n t s t r e n g t h (see c h a p t e r 5 ) . For chord f a c e
f a i l u r e s the R U - j o i n t s behave i n a s i m i l a r way as R R - j o i n t s . The s i d e
w a l l t h i c k n e s s of UNP s e c t i o n s i s compared w i t h the top f a c e t h i c k n e s s
relatively l a r g e r than i n RHS s e c t i o n s which makes a c o r r e c t i o n o f the
j o i n t strength formula f o r R R - j o i n t s necessary when used f o r RU-joints.
T h i s can be done by r e l a t i n g the s t r e n g t h to the reduced chord w i d t h
b. Q The r e s u l t i n g f o r m u l a f o r j o i n t s i n which the chords are not p r e s -
t r e s s e d becomes t h e n :
i r ,0.5 , 1 + sine,
N
lu = - o
b
- 9 e
2sine| - )
7 7

T h i s f o r m u l a r e p r e s e n t s the mean o f the t e s t r e s u l t s . For j o i n t s with

6 < 0.4 i t i s conservative. In j o i n t s w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d chords the
i n f l u e n c e on the j o i n t s t r e n g t h have to be c o n s i d e r e d (see c h a p t e r 5 ) .

7.5.3. E f f e c t i v e width ratio

With regard t o the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h ( f i g . 7.6.) these types o f joints

can a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d i n a s i m i l a r way as j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r
c h o r d , d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 5 (see page 5 . 3 4 . ) .

347
 7-8

Fig. 7.6. E f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n f o r j o i n t s w i t h b. = b .

T h i s means t h a t i f the s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the j o i n t i s rather

uniform ( i . e . gap i n r e l a t i o n to the d i s t a n c e between the s i d e w a l l s
of the b r a c i n g s and the s i d e w a l l s o f the chord) the e f f e c t i v e width
c r i t e r i o n i s given by:

[2h i - 4t. + b (7.8)

where :
i = 1 or 2
c a .t
eo o
h (7.9)
a -.t. i D

ei
b
o 7 t
o
and
a .t
1.0 _ <: 2 . 0 (7.10)

c = 13.5 for Fe 360

(7.11)
c = 11.5 for Fe 510

b
In R R - j o i n t s the e f f e c t i v e o .... . ...
a l s o be done f o r RU-joints
r e c t e d due to the r e l a t i v e t h i c k chord s i d e w a l l s . Using the c^ values
d e r i v e d f o r R R - j o i n t s and r e l a t i n g the e f f e c t i v e width to the
b*
-rP- r a t i o g i v e s f o r l a r g e UNP chord s e c t i o n s s i m i l a r r e s u l t s as a c o r -
0
o b

r e c t e d c. v a l u e f o r UNP chords r e l a t e d to the j- ratio.

1
o
 7-9

For j o i n t s w i t h small UNP s e c t i o n s the proposed method g i v e s higher

b*
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h s . A f u r t h e r argument f o r a r e l a t i o n to i s conformity
l
o
i n use o f parameters w i t h e q . ( 7 . 7 ) whereas the values are the same
as f o r RR-joints.

7.5.4. Punching shear chord

Another p o s s i b l e type o f f a i l u r e f o r j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s b. < b*

will be punching out o f the chord f a c e . T h i s phenomenon i s s i m i l a r to
that described for RR-joints i n c h a p t e r 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 . f o r w h i c h the f o l l o w i n g
formula i s given:

a 2h. ,
\--f- 'a ( i T n i : + b
i + b
e > ( - 7 1 2
)
k /3 l p i

wi t h :
i = 1 or 2

V ^ - b
< ( 7
- 1 3 )

F
o o
c according (7.11)

In an i n v e s t i g a t i o n on p l a t e to RHS chord c o n n e c t i o n s i t was shown

t h a t the y i e l d s t r e s s - and w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o d i d o n l y s l i g h t l y ef-
f e c t the e f f e c t i v e width f o r punching s h e a r . With e x c l u s i o n of these
parameters the same formula can be used as f o r the e f f e c t i v e width
eq. (7.9).

7.5.5. Effects_of_moments

Due to e c c e n t r i c i t i e s moments e x i s t . In e l a s t i c d e s i g n the moments due

to e c c e n t r i c i t y should be d i v i d e d over the connected members i n ratio
o f the s t i f f n e s s of these members. In p l a s t i c d e s i g n i t does not only
depend on the s t i f f n e s s but i t a l s o depends on the p o s s i b i l i t y of
l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n . F o r example i f the b r a c i n g s are r e l a t i v e l y heavy
and the chord i s loaded to y i e l d by a x i a l - and shear f o r c e s or by
shear f o r c e s o n l y , the moment of e c c e n t r i c i t y w i l l be taken o n l y by
the b r a c i n g s as shown i n f i g . 7 . 7 .

349
 7-10

axial stress
changed
s y s t e m Line

-'co-
VT
axial stress bending stress shear s t r e s s

cross section A - A c r o s s section B - B

Fig. 7.7. Moments o f e c c e n t r i c i t y fully taken by the bracings.

y
eo
tTfttTTTtfaxiaL stress
J
eo Oeo I H Oeo
* TFT
1
11 11
i li V3 Oeo

changed
system
a
eo l i n e

-"eo shear stress

axial stress bending s t r e s s bending s t r e s s

cross section A - A cross s e c t i o n B-B

Fig. 7.8. Moments o f e c c e n t r i c i t y d i v i d e d o v e r a l l connected members.

If the b r a c i n g s are not a b l e to take the f u l l moment the moment have

to be d i v i d e d over a l l connected members. A c c o r d i n g to P r a g e r and K i s t
the l o a d s and moments may be d i s t r i b u t e d over the c r o s s s e c t i o n in
the most f a v o u r a b l e way as shown i n f i g . 7 . 8 .
Thus the s e c t i o n s have g e n e r a l l y to be checked on a x i a l l o a d and moment.
In c h a p t e r 2 , App. 11-2 i t i s shown t h a t a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s g i v e n
by the i n t e r a c t i o n f o r m u l a g i v e n by Roik [7]:

N
i X M
i (7.14)
p< Pi

350
 7-11

in which:
i = 1 or 2

X = 1.5 f o r 0 . 5 e ~ a 2

X = 1.2 f o r < 0.5

The e f f e c t s o f the small shear l o a d s i n the s e c t i o n s due to the mo-

ments o f e c c e n t r i c i t y can be n e g l e c t e d .

The moments i n the s e c t i o n s have to be t r a n s m i t t e d by the j o i n t . For

example the moment i n a p a r t i c u l a r b r a c i n g has to be t r a n s m i t t e d by
the c o n n e c t i o n between b r a c i n g and UNP s e c t i o n thus these have to be
taken i n t o account f o r the p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the chord f a c e , for
punching shear and f o r the e f f e c t i v e width criteria.
Due to moments the y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n f o r p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the chord
face w i l l be as shown i n f i g . 7.9.
The r e s u l t i n g y i e l d l i n e pat-
t e r n f o r a combination of a x i a l
l o a d and bending moment depends
on the r a t i o between these a c -
tions .
When the f u l l intersection will
be e f f e c t i v e the effective
Fig. 7 . 9 . Y i e l d l i n e p a t t e r n f o r a chord width c r i t e r i o n i s s i m i l a r to
face f a i l u r e by moment. the b r a c i n g member check. The
punching shear c r i t e r i o n can
a l s o be checked i n a s i m i l a r way a c c o r d i n g to e q . ( 7 . 1 4 ) , however
based on the i n t e r s e c t i o n area f o r punching s h e a r , thus w i d t h b^, depth

h
i
and w a l l t h i c k n e s s t _ . This r e s u l t s in:
s i nO.

N. . s i n e .
1.0 (7.15)
b.h. .t
+ b.)t . T 1 1 o
v o eo
L2sin 0
Z +
t.T
sin0. 0 e

1 or 2

351
 7-12

X = 1.2 f o r _^-<0.5

As these gap j o i n t s generally have e c c e n t r i c i t i e s and thus moments i n

the members the c a l c u l a t i o n becomes r a t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d f o r design
puV-poses. E s p e c i a l l y when the chord width - w a l l thickness r a t i o be-
comes l a r g e r and the f u l l i n t e r s e c t i o n a r e a cannot be assumed as e f -
fective.

F o r an economical d e s i g n i t i s e s s e n c i a l to l i m i t the c r i t e r i a or to
s i m p l i f y them.

7.5.6. Experimental . v e r i f i c a t i o n

At f i r s t the measured a x i a l loads i n the members are checked i f they

do not exceed the squash y i e l d load:

N.
i
<. 1.0 (7.16)
A..a .
i ei

i = 0 , 1 or 2
F u r t h e r the members are checked on the combined e f f e c t s of a x i a l load
and moment u s i n g e q . (7.14):
N. M.
+ (jf-) 1.0 (7.14)
Pi Pi
where:
i = 0 , 1 or 2
X = 2.0 f o r s o l i d square sections
h.
1.5 f o r 0 . 5 * 7- * 2
b
i
h.
i (7.15)
1.2 f o r < 0.5
F
i

1.0 f o r channel sections

352
 7-13

For channel s e c t i o n s no a c c u r a t e i n t e r a c t i o n f o r m u l a i s available

t h e r e f o r e x = 1-0 i s assumed. The shear f o r c e s due t o the moments are
i n general small t h e r e f o r e the i n f l u e n c e i s ignored.
The moment due to e c c e n t r i c i t y i s f i r s t d i v i d e d o v e r the member i n re-
l a t i o n to the member s t i f f n e s s e s . The moments i n the members are cal-
c u l a t e d at the i n t e r s e c t i o n area and the r e s u l t i n g bending stresses
are c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g the p l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus. As soon as one of
the members f u l l y i e l d s a c c o r d i n g t o e q . ( 7 . 1 4 ) the moments are redis-
t r i b u t e d over the members i n the most f a v o u r a b l e way.
B e s i d e s the p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the members the c r o s s s e c t i o n o f the
chord between the b r a c i n g s i s checked f o r shear y i e l d f a i l u r e a c c .
eq. (7.1a) a n d - a combined f a i l u r e due to shear and a x i a l l o a d e q . ( 7 . 4 a ) ,
It i s shown i n t a b l e 7 - 3 t h a t i n general the specimens f a i l e d by
p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the member s e c t i o n s . Two specimens w i t h small dia-
gonals f a i l e d by b u c k l i n g of the compression b r a c i n g . The specimens
w i t h a high w i d t h r a t i o B which f a i l e d by shear of the chord c r o s s
s e c t i o n (eq. 7.1a) o r a c o m b i n a t i o n of shear and a x i a l load (eq. (7.4a)
showed g e n e r a l l y a l s o p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the members. The j o i n t s with
a low width r a t i o 3 = 0 . 4 g e n e r a l l y showed f a i l u r e of the members. No
t e s t specimen f a i l e d by c r a c k i n g or s e p a r a t i o n of members. As a r e -
s u l t i t can be concluded t h a t the p e r i m e t e r o f the b r a c i n g members was
full effective f o r the specimens t e s t e d .

With e x c e p t i o n o f the e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n , a l l o t h e r criteria

can directly be r e l a t e d to the chord p r o p e r t i e s . For reasons o f com-
p a r i s o n the c r i t e r i a are r e l a t e d to the squash a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of
the c h o r d . The a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the compression d i a g o n a l or
vertical i s l i m i t e d by:

1. The squash l o a d i n the chord i.e.:

N..COS0, N.cos0

o eo o eo

2. The shear y i e l d l o a d c a p a c i t y i n the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n a t the

gap, see e q . (7.la):

Ni.sinG. A
4 - ^ . 0 . 5 8 / (7.18)
o eo o

353
 7-14

The combined shear and a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y i n the chord c r o s s s e c -

t i o n a t the gap, see e q . (7.5):

/~3".N,.sin0, N,.cos0,
vi L f l . Q (7.19)
A .a A .a v
'
o eo o eo
P I a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord f a c e , e q . ( 7 . 6 a ) or e q . ( 7 . 7 ) . The
s e c t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d are r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k w a l l e d which r e s u l t s in
small d e f l e c t i o n s . T h i s means no l i m i t of B or 3* i s necessary
w i t h regard to d e f l e c t i o n s i n the j o i n t . F u r t h e r the o t h e r crite-
r i a g i v e n are y i e l d c r i t e r i a . It seems to be b e t t e r t h e r e f o r e to
base the p i a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord f a c e f o r the s e c t i o n s c o n -
s i d e r e d on the y i e l d l i n e m o d e l , which g i v e s f o r a symmetrical
K-joint:
* -. J.
t
N
l
1 1 23* + J L ) + ^ + 2 ( 1 _ B * -
r
5
5 (7.20)
*c^o~ (1-3*) sine i b* 2g sine.

For comparison a l s o the s e m i - e m p i r i c a l e q u a t i o n ( 7 . 7 ) w i l l be c o n -

sidered:
,0.5 1.5
N. b* .t * 1 + sine,
, = . . 93 .
0 0
* (7.21)
A .a 2sin0, '
0 eo 0
v

It s h o u l d be kept i n mind t h a t e q . ( 7 . 2 1 ) i s based on the u l t i m a t e

s t r e n g t h . The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h which i s comparable to the y i e l d
c r i t e r i a i s about 18% lower (see s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 7 ) . F u r t h e r i n the
0 85
d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a the angle f u n c t i o n i s m o d i f i e d to - ' . g i n e

The punching shear o f the chord face e q . ( 7 . 1 2 ) . For j o i n t s with

square b r a c i n g s (h. = b^.) and a f u l l e f f e c t i v e punching shear area
b*
(b = b. because ^ S 13.5), (7.12) can be m o d i f i e d t o :
6
P 1
0
N 0 . 5 8 . 4 . t .b 1 + sine. b.
1 _ 0 0 1
_L 11 2?)
Veo A
o l%\x\Q x
D
o
x
T h i s c r i t e r i o n can o n l y be c r i t i c a l i f b^ * b. Q

354
 7-15

The l i m i t s f o r - ^ ^ based on the c r i t e r i a (7.17) to 7.22) can be

o eo
worked o u t f o r t h e K- and N - j o i n t s t e s t e d t o :

case 1 2 3 4a x
) 5

e q . 7.17 e q . 7.18 e q . 7.19 eq. 7.21 eq. 7.22

b .t - 1 5
b. b - t b.
45 A
o , O O 1
0.71 0.52 in o 0 0 1
3.96
p f i
. , _
K-joints
E

0.82
O 0
V o b

b .t I- 5
b. b .t b.
90/45 0 A

1.0 0.58 0 O 1 o O O 1
N-joints 0.58^
o v
* 0
- 5
' b
n
2
- 3 2
A "IT
O O
0 O

' Criterion (7.20) i s d i r e c t l y worked out i n f i g . 7.10 as (4).

T a k i n g account of the a c t u a l s e c t i o n dimensions the values A , b , t

and b can be i n c l u d e d , then f o l l o w i n g l i m i t s for
O' O' "0
T T" l 1
ex i
s t*:
A
o-eo
1 2 3 4a 5

b.
UNP 50 0.71 0.77 0.52 1 62
1 1 33
b
l
b
o
to
b.
4J- b
l
o UNP 100 0.71 0.69 0.52 1 64 1 91
0
b. b
l
UNP 140 0.71 0.64 0.52 1 88 i 2 34
b~ TT
0 0
b. b
l
UNP 50 1.0 0.55 0.58 1 34 i 0 78
b
\ 0
C/l b.
-p l b
l
c: UNP 100 1.0 0.48 0.58 1 35 1 12
o tr b
o
( 0
b. b
l
UNP 140 1.0 0.45 0.58 1 55 i
1 37 1
tr TT
0 0

355
Fig. 7.1Q Comparison o f the t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h various a n a l y t i c a l j o i n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a .
 7-17

F i g u r e 7 . 1 0 . shows the t e s t r e s u l t s compared w i t h c r i t e r i a 1 to 5 . It

i s shown t h a t i t depends on the type o f j o i n t and the chord s e c t i o n
which c r i t e r i o n w i l l be d e c i s i v e .

F o r the specimens w i t h the s l e n d e r chords (UNP 140) the agreement b e -

tween the t e s t r e s u l t s and the c r i t e r i a (J) and (~3) i s good when the
members themselves do not f a i l . The specimens w i t h small UNP s e c t i o n
chords showed due to g r e a t e r s t r a i n hardening e f f e c t s t e s t results
g r e a t e r than given by the c r i t e r i a (J) and ( 3 ) and the specimens
f a i l e d by member p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o r shear of the chord s e c t i o n rather
than by the combined a c t i o n of shear and a x i a l l o a d i n the chord
cross s e c t i o n .
As shown the c r i t e r i a f o r p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the top f a c e of the chord
and punching shear are o n l y c r i t i c a l f o r B < 0 . 4 , thus o u t s i d e the
range t e s t e d . The s e m i - e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e q . ( 7 . 2 1 ) ( g i v e n as criterion
(4a) i n f i g . 7.10) i s c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r small 8 r a t i o s w h i l e for
g r e a t e r 8 r a t i o s p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n i s critical,
thus i t i s b e t t e r here to c o n s i d e r the y i e l d c r i t e r i o n (7.20).

W i t h i n the range t e s t e d the moments due to e c c e n t r i c i t y d i d not re-

duce the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of the j o i n t s below the theoretical
criteria. In gap j o i n t s w i t h l a r g e UNP chord s e c t i o n s the moments due
to e c c e n t r i c i t y i n c r e a s e because these UNP s e c t i o n s are not s c a l e
s i z e d i n d i m e n s i o n s . For an economical d e s i g n gap j o i n t s s h o u l d than
be avoided and o v e r l a p j o i n t s s h o u l d be used because the moments reduce
the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y considerably.
Based on the comparison between the t e s t r e s u l t s and the j o i n t criteria
g i v e n , f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn:
a. The members should be designed on a x i a l l o a d and moment due to e c -
c e n t r i c i t y o f n o d i n g . The moments may be d i v i d e d over the members
i n the most f a v o u r a b l e way. For the i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l load
and moment the i n t e r a c t i o n e q u a t i o n ( 7 . 1 4 ) can be used.
b. The a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the gap j o i n t s w i t h chord s e c t i o n s up
to UNP 140 can be determined by the f o l l o w i n g criteria:
bl. The shear l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the chord cross s e c t i o n i n the gap
and the f u l l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of t h i s c r o s s s e c t i o n due to shear
and a x i a l l o a d a c c o r d i n g to e q s . (7.1a) and ( 7 . 4 a ) .

b2. For j o i n t s w i t h g < 0 . 4 a l s o the p l a s t i f i c a t i o n of the chord c r o s s

s e c t i o n and the punching shear c r i t e r i o n have to be checked.

357
 7-18

c. For j o i n t s w i t h l a r g e chord s e c t i o n s the p e r i m e t e r f o r e f f e c t i v e

width and punching s h e a r w i l l not be f u l l e f f e c t i v e and the e q s .
(7.9) and (7.13) have to be c o n s i d e r e d . F u r t h e r the moments due to
e c c e n t r i c i t y o f noding become l a r g e r and have to be c o n s i d e r e d i n
j o i n t d e s i g n as d e s c r i b e d i n 7 . 5 . 5 . which makes these types of
j o i n t s l e s s a t t r a c t i v e because the d e s i g n procedure becomes more
c o m p l i c a t e d and the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y o f the members reduces
considerably. In t h i s case o v e r l a p j o i n t s are p r e f e r r e d .

Joints with overlap

Although no j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p have been t e s t e d these j o i n t s are com-

p a r a b l e to those w i t h a sguare o r r e c t a n g u l a r c h o r d . For these types
o f j o i n t s i t was shown i n c h a p t e r 5 . 2 . 6 . 4 t h a t the s t r e n g t h can be
covered by an e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n .

i
0

Fig. 7.11. J o i n t s w i t h a 100% o v e r l a p .

For j o i n t s w i t h a 100% o v e r l a p , shown i n f i g . 7 . 1 1 , the s t r e n g t h is

g i v e n by:

N. = a . . t . [2h, 4t + b. + b (7.23)
4
e(ov)

where
i = 1 or 2

b i 'ov b. (7.24)

c t = 1 3 . 5 f o r Fe 360

c t = 1 1 . 5 f o r Fe 510
 7-19

The i n t e g e r (ov) r e f e r s to the p r o p e r t i e s o f the o v e r l a p p e d member.

J o i n t s w i t h a p a r t i a l o v e r l a p can be designed by u s i n g e q . (7.25):

\ = 0
e1-*1 [ 2 h
i ' 4 t
i + b
e + b
e(ov)l ( -
7 2 5
)

where:

b g a c c . e q . ( 7 . 9 ) w i t h c^ v a l u e s a c c o r d i n g to e q . (7.11).

b
e(ov) a c c
- ( - ? 2 4
)"
The j o i n t s have to be checked i f the o v e r l a p i s s u f f i c i e n t which i s
always the case if these j o i n t s do not have a p o s s i t i v e eccentricity
o f n o d i n g . S i m i l a r to j o i n t s w i t h h o l l o w s e c t i o n chords the moment due
to e c c e n t r i c i t y of noding can be n e g l e c t e d f o r j o i n t d e s i g n but have
to be taken i n t o account f o r member d e s i g n . In general the e c c e n t r i c i -
t i e s are small i n j o i n t s w i t h overlap.

7.7. E v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n c r i t e r i a

The c r i t e r i a given f o r the p i a s t i f i c a t i o n o f the chord cross section

by shear or a combination o f shear and a x i a l l o a d e q s . (7.1a) and
( 7 . 4 a ) are a n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a v e r i f i e d by t e s t s . A c c o r d i n g to chapter
3 these can be c o n s i d e r e d as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h functions.
Due to the p l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r a f a c t o r Y - Y m c = 1.0 can be adopted for
the e v a l u a t i o n to d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .

The s t r e n g t h determined w i t h a y i e l d l i n e model can a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d

to be equal to the design s t r e n g t h (Y -Y
m c = 1.0).

For the e f f e c t i v e width c r i t e r i a e q s . ( 7 . 8 ) , (7.23) and (7.25) and

the punching shear c r i t e r i o n e q . (7.12) a v .Y = 1-25 i s to be adopted
m c
to b , and b , . a s described in chapter 5.
e e(pv)

In p r i n c i p l e the same l i m i t a t i o n s f o r the width w a l l t h i c k n e s s ratio

o f the b r a c i n g s can be used as f o r j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r chord
s e c t i o n (see c h a p t e r 5 . 2 . 8 . ). The o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s are d i f f e r e n t . The
s m a l l e r UNP s e c t i o n s up to UNP 140 are very compact t h e r e f o r e the de-
f o r m a t i o n s are small which does not make a l i m i t a t i o n f o r 6 or 6
necessary.

359
 7-20

However as a consequence more j o i n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a have to be c o n -

s i d e r e d which makes the designs l e s s a t t r a c t i v e . L i m i t i n g the range
o f a p p l i c a t i o n of gap j o i n t s to 0 . 4 a & 4 1.0 and chords up to UNP 140
leads to s i m p l e r d e s i g n r u l e s and more economical designs because
overlap j o i n t s have a c o n s i d e r a b l e g r e a t e r a x i a l load c a p a c i t y .

7.8. Recommendation and c a l c u l a t i o n rules

Based on a n a l y t i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n , the t e s t re-

s u l t s and the a v a i l a b l e evidence f o r comparable types of j o i n t s e.g.
R R - j o i n t s i t can be concluded t h a t f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a have to be
checked:

Gap j o i n t s :
1. P l a s t i c f a i l u r e o f the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n due t o shear l o a d and
axial load.
2. Chord f a c e p i a s t i f i c a t i o n .
3. E f f e c t i v e width bracings.
4. Punching s h e a r .
By l i m i t i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n to gap j o i n t s w i t h chord s e c t i o n s of
UNP 140 o r s m a l l e r and B >, 0 . 4 o n l y the f i r s t two c r i t e r i a have to be
c o n s i d e r e d . The use of l a r g e r chord s e c t i o n s i n gap j o i n t s gives un-
economical designs and c o m p l i c a t e s the d e s i g n procedure considerably.

Overlap joints
Overlap j o i n t s can be designed i n a s i m i l a r way as j o i n t s w i t h a r e c -
tangular hollow s e c t i o n chord.

The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s are summarised on page 7 . 2 1 . W i t h i n the

a p p l i c a t i o n range g i v e n on page 7 . 2 2 . the moments due to eccentricity
o f noding can be n e g l e c t e d f o r j o i n t d e s i g n but they have to be taken
i n t o account f o r the member d e s i g n .

360
 7-21

Fig. 7.12. Design s t r e n g t h formulae f o r predominantly axially

loaded RU-joints.

Type of joint Design strength formulae (i =1 or2)

K,N gap Ni=a i .t ^2hi-/ t +bi+be|
e k i l i

2
x r 2
iti
Ni =
a
eoi< A Q

b> 3 & \/3sin 6j

N
o g a p =(Ao eo
BT
J
eok k

K,N overlap 100% overlap 2)

Ni=a i -tj |2hj -Atj +bj +b (ov)j

e k e

30% <: O V 1 0 0 % 3)

Nj=a i-tj J2hj -At\ + b + b ( ) |

e e e ov

Joints with circular Multiply the formulae 1),2)and 3

branch members with-^-and replace b\ and bj
by dj (i =1 o r 2 ) .
Functions eo -t k 0
a
eoi.-^n
. b. with U ^ - ( 2
b*/t ' e i
k" i '
t 1 o e i k"
r - t"1-
o o
( o e i k - t - j ) ov ov
r . b. w i t h 1( S 2
e(ov) (^/t.)^ ae 1 k .t. i a e i k .t.
c = 1 0 . 8 f o r Fe 360 and Fe 430
c = 9 . 2 f o r Fe 510

A =A -(l-o0.b*.t
Q 0 0 Q =
v
(N..sin0.)
i l'max
V e o k

/3
1

1 +19 f o r RHS branches

3t
o J L

0 f o r CHS branches

Validity
see f i g . 7 . 1 3 ; page 7-22
range

361
 7-22

Fig. 7.13. Range o f validity.

J o i n t parameters ( i = 1 o r 2)
Type o f j o i n t
b.
i max. chord
6 gap/overlap
dimension
b
i(ov)

K, N w i t h gap > 0.4 0.5(1-6*)^ L5(l-B*) UNP 140

K, N w i t h
50.25 > 0.75 30 < 0 * 100% UNP 400
overlap
y

b./t. h./t.
h. r l V*1
l
b
i compression t e n s i o n compression t e n s i o n

h.
general 0.5 4 < 2 i 35 < 50

362
 7-23

. 9. References

1. Wardenier, J. : Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of

K o n i n g , C . H . M . de welded j o i n t s w i t h RHS b r a c i n g s and a
channel p r o f i l e as c h o r d .
Stevin report 6-77-1.
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t 6-77-9.

2. Wardenier, J. : B e h a v i o u r o f a x i a l l y loaded K- and N-type

K o n i n g , C . H . M . de gap j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s of rectangular
Back, J . de h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and a channel p r o f i l e as
chord.
IIW Doc.-402-77.
( s i m i l a r to r e f s . 3).

3. Wardenier, J. : The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f welded l a t t i c e

Stark, J.W.B. girder joints in structural hollow sec-
t i o n s , p a r t 7.
Stevin report BI-78-20.0063.43.470.

363
Table 7 . 1 .

UNP sections

cross sectional area

shear area

mass
moment o f i n e r t i a
e l a s t i c s e c t i o n modulus
radius of giration

Dimensions

UNP b h t t =r A A m e I W i I W i
0 0 0 w 0 0 q z ez z y ey y

2 4 4 3 3
no. mm mm mm mm mm^ kg/m mm 10 rnnT mm 10 mm
4 4
10 mm
3 3
mm
mm l o - W

30 30 33 5.0 7.0 540 530 4.27 13 1 6.4 4.3 10.8 5.3 2.68 9.9
40 40 35 5.0 7.0 620 560 4.87 13 3 14.1 7.1 15.0 6.7 3.08 10.4
50 50 38 5.0 7.0 710 600 5.59 13 7 26.4 10.6 19.2 9.1 3.75 11.3

65 65 42 5.5 7.5 900 708 7.09 14 2 57.5 17.7 25.2 14.1 5.07 12.5
80 80 45 6.0 8.0 1100 812 8.64 14 5 106.0 26.5 31.0 19.4 6,36 13.3
100 100 50 6.0 8.5 1350 954 10.6 15 5 206.0 41.2 39.1 29.3 8.49 14.7

120 120 55 7.0 9.0 1700 1112 13.4 16 0 364.0 60.7 46.2 43.2 11.10 15,9
140 140 60 7.0 10.0 2040 1240 16.0 17 5 605.0 86.4 54.5 62.7 14.80 17.5
160 160 65 7.5 10.5 2400 1515 18.80 18 4 925.0 116.0 62.1 85.3 18.30 18.9
180 180 70 8.0 11.0 2800 1712 22.00 19 2 1350.0 150.0 69.5 114.0 22.40 20.2
200 200 75 8.5 11.5 3220 1911 25.3 20 1 1910.0 191.0 77.0 148.0 27.00 21.4

220 220 80 9.0 12.5 3740 2210 29.4 21 4 2690.0 245.0 84.8 197.0 33.60 23.0
240 240 85 9.5 13.0 4230 2444 32.2 22 3 3600.0 300.0 92.2 248.0 39.60 24.2
260 260 90 10.0 14.0 4830 2790 37.9 23 6 4820.0 371.0 99.9 317.0 47.70 25.6
280 280 95 10.0 15.0 5330 3130 41.8 25 .3 6280.0 448.0 109.0 399.0 57.20 27.4
300 300 100 10.0 16.0 5880 3520 46.2 27 .0 8030.0 535.0 117.0 495.0 67.80 29.0

320 320 100 14.0 17.5 7580 4080 59.5 26 .0 10870.0 679.0 121.0 597.0 80.60 28.1
350 350 100 14.0 16.0 7730 3726 60.6 24 .0 12840.0 734.0 129.0 570.0 75.00 27.2
380 380 102 13.5 16,0 8040 3704 63.1 23 .8 15760.0 829.0 140.0 615.0 78.70 27.7
110 14.0 18.0 9150 4558 71.8 26 .5 20350.0 1020.0 149.0 846.0 102.00 30.4
400 400
 Table 7 . 2 . Dimensions of the t e s t specimens.
Chore compression bracing tension bracing
Test spec. Type Chord Meas red imenslons (mm) Measured Measured
No. section .A
o "eo
dimensions (mm) A A n dimensions (mm) A A ~ Ecc
b
l + 2 b

h t r 0 eo A
1 a
el "1 " e l b - tj "2 e2 2 e2 A
K 8, , e 2 o
b
o 0l
l - 1 2
Z b

(mm ) (N/mm ) kN (nr. ) (N/mm )

b
0 2 2 2
2
kN (mm ) (N/mm)
2
kN
2 (mm)
240 U-RU 51 37 1.1 7.3 7.0 663 250 16.C $ 50.1-4.09 726 381 276 6 V 50-29.7-3.89 562 398 223.7 0.1 16.9 45 1.0
241 51 37 4.4 7.3 7.0 (p 38.4-4.0 544 350 190 4 it 38.4-4.0 544 350 190.4 0.1 15.9 45 0.76
24? UNP-50 51 37 4.4 7.3 7.0 $ 20 400 320 128 0 * 20 400 320 128.0 0.1 2.9 45 0.40
243 N-RU 51 37 4.4 7.3 7.0 50.1-4.09 726 381 276 6 50.1-4.09 726 381 276.6 0.1 51.8 90. 45 0.98
244 51 37 4.4 7.3 7.0 Ip 38.4-4.0 544 350 190 4 [)> 38.4-4.0 544 350 190.4 0.1 37.7 90. 45 0.75
245 51 37 4.4 7.3 7.0 663 250 16.6 It 20 400 320 128 0 Q 20 400 320 128.0 0.1 15.5 90. 45 0.39
246 U-RU 99.5 50.1 6.4 8.6 8.5 1320 262 345.8 If 100.4-3.56 1436 344 494 0 It 99.8-49.6-3.56 960 381 365 .8 0.1 59.9 45 1.01
247 99.5 50.1 6.4 8.6 8.5 63.4-3.88 910 342 311 2 $ 63.4-3.88 910 342 311.2 0.1 34.? 45 0.63
248 99.5 50.1 6.4 8.6 8.5 (p 38.4-4.0 544 350 190 4 0 38.4-4.0 544 350 190.4 0.1 166 45 0.39
249 UNP-100
N-RU 99.5 50.1 6.4 8.6 8.5 $ 100.4-3.93 1436 344 494 0 It 100.4-5.03 1830 383 700.9 0.1 115.4 90. 45 1.01
250 99.5 50.1 6.4 8.6 8.5 $ 63.4-4.75 1116 344 383 9 K 63.4-4.75 1116 344 383.9 0.1 70.9 90. 45 0.64
251 99.5 50.1 6.4 8.6 8.5 1320 162 345.8 It 38.4-4.0 544 350 190 4 Dj 38.4-4.0 544 350 190.4 0.1 40.7 90. 45 0.39
252 W-RU 140.8 60.5 8.6 10.4 10.4 2057 300 617.1 <t 139.7-70-4.94 881 348 655 3 It 139.7-70-4.94 1883 348 655.3 0.1 37.5 45 0.99
253 140'. 8 60.5 3.6 10.4 10.0 m 88.3-3.53 1222 322 393 5 It 88.3-3.53 1222 322 393.5 0.1 51.8 45 0.63
254 " 140.8 60.5 8.6 10.4 10.0 $ 63.4-4.75 1116 344 383 9 It 63.4-4.75 1116 344 383.9 0.1 34.2 45 0.45
255 N-RU UNP-140 140.8 60.5 8.6 10.4 10.0 139.7-70-4.94 1883 348 655 3 It 139.7-70-4.94 1883 348 655.3 0.1 79.5 90. 45 0.99
256 140.8 60.5 8.6 10.4 10.0 It 88.4-6.04 2026 347 703 0 It 88.4-6.04 2026 347 703.0 0.1 103. 1 90. 45 0.63
257 140.8 60.5 8.6 10.4 10.0 2057 300 617.1 63.4-4.75 1116 344 383 9 It 63.4-4.75 1116 344 383.9 0.1 72.9 90. 45 0.45

co
01
CO
CD
en

Table 7 . 3 . Combined s t r e s s results.

chord compression bracing tension bracing fai1ure mode

Test- chord cross section at the gap plastic plastic plastic

full shear shear +
speci- location redi stributed redistributed redistributed
Ac Nj.cosO N N plastification fai1ure axial load
men o o 0
N
l *2 M
f 0 tM TT
x
+ tr
+ 5- members
No. \ Q
P
o p P
N
P P P p N
P
V "p"
240 0 9/ 0 97 . 0 94 + 0.53 = 1 46 1 10 1.10 0 45 0.7 0 56 0 61 X X X
241 0 9 7 0 97 . + 0.53 = 1 44 1 05 1.05 0 65 1.03 0 64 1 03 X X X
242 0 79 0 79 . + 0.43 1 17 - 0 85 1.00 0 79 0.74 0 77 0 68 buckling br. X
243 1 16 1 16 . 1 09 0 75 1.00 0 40 0.84 0 58 0 87 X X
244 1 01 1 01 . 0 95 0 62 1.00 0 48 1.01 0 69 iil X X X
245 0 89 0 89 . 0 94 0 84 0 49 0.98 0 63 0.69 0 34 0 93 buckling br. X
246 0 96 0 96 . 0 84 + 0.46 1 27 0 93 1.04 0 46 1.04 0 62 _04 X X X IX)

247 0 85 0 85 + 0.41 1 15 0 86 1.10 0 65 1.10 0 65 1__10 X X X

248 0 59 0 59 + 0.29 0 79 0 59 0.97 0 74 0.93 0 78 0 _96 nearly

249 1 29 1 29 = 1 08 0 71 0.91 0 44 0.83 0 45 0 66 X X

250 1 1 1 1 = 0 92 0 59 1.03 0 48 1.03 0 71 1 _03 X X
251 0 73 0 73 - 0 84 0 61 0 39 1.08 0 64 1.08 0 94 i__08 X
252 0 86 0 86 0 77 + 0.38 1 04 0 79 1.00 0 51 0.83 0 51 0 80 X X
253 0 64 0 64 + 0.29 0 78 0 59 0.92 0 63 1.00 0 62 1__01 nearly
254 0 65 0 65 + 0.29 = 0 79 0 61 1.02 0 66 1.02 0 71 1_ 02 X
255 1 07 ] 07 0 82 0 54 0.90 0 45 0.93 0 64 0_ 98 X
256 ! 1 :1 0 85 0 56 0.91 0 43 0.91 0 66 1_ 00 X
257 0 79 0 79 0 77 a 0 61 n 42 1.14 0 57 1.14 p_J6 1 14 X X
 8-i

THE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF HOLLOW SECTION JOINTS

Contents

Symbols
8.1. Introduction
8.1.1. Loading
8.1.2. The j o i n t d e t a i l
8.1.3. M a t e r i a l grade
8.1.4. Environment
8.2. Methods o f a n a l y s i s
8.2.1. Hot spot s t r e s s method
8.2.2. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n method
8.2.3. F a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method
8 . 2 . 4 . Punching shear method
8.2.5. Relation to s t a t i c strength
8 . 2 . 6 . F r a c t u r e mechanics
8.3. C i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n l a t t i c e g i r d e r joints
8.3.1. Hot spot s t r e s s method
8.3.2. F a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method
8.3.3. Punching shear method
8.4. Square h o l l o w s e c t i o n l a t t i c e g i r d e r joints
8.4.1. Hot spot s t r e s s method
8.4.2. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n method
8.5. End to end c o n n e c t i o n s
8.6. Other types o f joints
8.7. Cumulative f a t i g u e design
8.8. Comparison w i t h s t a t i c strength
8.9. P r e l i m i n a r y recommended design methods
8.10. References

Appendix V I I I - 1 Recent developments i n f a t i g u e d e s i g n .

367
 8-i i

Symbols used i n c h a p t e r 8

cross sectional area

nett cross s e c t i o n a l area
c o n s t a n t used i n p a r a m e t r i c f o r m u l a
constant
number o f cycles
design strength for s t a t i c load capacity
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c value f o r s t a t i c load capacity
ultimate j o i n t strength (static)
a l l o w a b l e j o i n t s t r e n g t h under w o r k i n g l o a d c o n d i t i o n s ( s t a t i c )
vi. SL
stress ratio
stress
stress range
s t r e s s range o f the S^-N c u r v e f o r specimens w i t h 22 mm w a l l
22 thickness

s t r e s s range due t o a x i a l load

ax
s t r e s s range due t o an i n p l a n e bending moment
r
ip
s t r e s s range due to an out o f p l a n e bending moment
op
S maximum (hot s p o t ) s t r e s s range
<- max r nominal s t r e s s range
r
nom standard d e v i a t i o n for fatigue results
S
y
nominal punching shear s t r e s s range
'res
S
r stress concentration factor
vp nominal s t r e s s range i n the b r a c i n g due t o a x i a l load
SCF
ax
S C F

nom. nominal s t r e s s range i n the b r a c i n g due to an i n p l a n e bending

ip
S C F

moment
SCF, nominal s t r e s s range i n the b r a c i n g due to an out o f p l a n e
op
nom. bending moment
SNCF s t r a i n concentration factor
c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n f o r the s t a t i c j o i n t strength
V
Nu

CHS : c i r c u l a r hollow section

RHS : r e c t a n g u l a r hollow section

368
 b : width
: w i d t h o f the chord
b
o
: w i d t h of one o f b r a c i n g s (i = 1 or 2)
i b

d : diameter
diameter o f the chord
d
o
diameter o f one of the b r a c i n g s (i = 1 or 2)
d
i
d.j - t- ( b r a c i n g s i = 1 or 2)
d
im
d d - t
om 0 0
f frequency

9 gap
h depth o f a s e c t i o n
depth of the chord
h
o
depth o f one o f the b r a c i n g s (i = 1 or 2)
h
i
\ l e n g t h o f chord between two j o i n t s o r the p o i n t s o f contra
flexure
m slope
exponents (i = 1 to 5)
n
i
r correlation coefficient
o u t s i d e r a d i u s o f the chord
r
o
o u t s i d e r a d i u s of a b r a c i n g 1
r
l
s : s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n number o f cycles
t : wall thickness
wall t h i c k n e s s of the chord
t. : w a l l t h i c k n e s s of one o f the b r a c i n g s (i = 1 or 2)
punching shear s t r e s s i n the chord

: load range ( i = 1,2 ..)

: f a c t o r used i n the AWS i n the formula f o r the punching shear
s t r e s s range
21 r 2lr
g s i m p l i f i e d to - j
om o

d
im i d b
i
g s i m p l i f i e d to -j a l s o used for
om o
d d
om . i , o
TJY" s i m p l i f i e d to jr~ a l s o used for
o o
m a t e r i a l and j o i n t p a r t i a l s a f e t y factors
load factor

369
 8-i v

l i m i t i n g value f o r f ( x ) in parametric equation

T
limit
9 i n t e r s e c t i o n angle between b r a c i n g and chord
a stress
maximum s t r e s s
a
max
minimum s t r e s s
min
hot spot s t r a i n range
E
r

370
 8-1

THE FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF HOLLOW SECTION JOINTS

Introduction

F a t i g u e can be d e s c r i b e d as the process o f p r o g r e s s i v e l o c a l i z e d per-

manent s t r u c t u r a l changes o c c u r r i n g i n a m a t e r i a l s u b j e c t e d to l o a d i n g
c o n d i t i o n s , which produce f l u c t u a t i n g s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s a t some
p o i n t or p o i n t s which may c u l m i n a t e i n c r a c k s o r complete f a i l u r e a f t e r
a s u f f i c i e n t number of f l u c t u a t i o n s . The f a t i g u e l i f e i s generally
s p e c i f i e d as the number o f c y c l e s of s t r e s s or s t r a i n o f a s p e c i f i e d
c h a r a c t e r , t h a t a given specimen s u s t a i n s , b e f o r e f a i l u r e of a s p e -
c i f i e d nature occurs.
The r e l a t i o n between the s t r e s s - o r s t r a i n and the number of c y c l e s is
g e n e r a l l y g i v e n i n Wb'hler or S-N diagrammes i n which the s t r e s s - or
s t r a i n range i s given on the v e r t i c a l a x i s and the number of c y c l e s on
the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , both on l o g a r i t h m i c s c a l e as i l l u s t r a t e d in
fig c 8.1.

i i i
8 7 1
2.10 10 2.10
* log n u m b e r of c y c l e s N

Fig. 8.1. WShler or S^-N l i n e .

For parent m a t e r i a l the f a t i g u e behaviour i s i n f l u e n c e d by many f a c -

tors. In s t r u c t u r e s the members have to be j o i n e d t o g e t h e r . The f a c -
t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j o i n t i n g are much more i m p o r t a n t and are
usually c r i t i c a l f o r the f a t i g u e behaviour.
In t h i s c h a p t e r o n l y the main i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s f o r the fatigue
b e h a v i o u r of t u b u l a r j o i n t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d .

371
 8-2

The main i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s are as f o l l o w s :

- the l o a d i n g
- the j o i n t detail
- material
- environment.
In the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s the f a t i g u e behaviour of t u b u l a r joints
will be b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d as w e l l as the methods which are used f o r
a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n .

8.1.1. Loading

The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the f a t i g u e behaviour i s u s u a l l y based on c o n -

s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g t e s t s , c a l l e d Wohler t e s t s . These t e s t s can
cTmi p
be d e s c r i b e d by two parameters e . g . the s t r e s s r a t i o R = and the
max a

s t r e s s ranqe S = a - a . . With i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s range the number

3
r max mm 3

of c y c l e s to f a i l u r e decreases as shown i n f i g . 8 . 1 .
From the parameters d e s c r i b e d the s t r e s s range i s the most i m p o r t a n t
one. This i s due to the f a c t s t h a t i n s t r u c t u r a l details suchaswelded
j o i n t s , w e l d i n g s t r e s s e s e x i s t and notches which cause s t r e s s concen-
trations. Due to these f a c t s the f i r s t l o a d c y c l e can a l r e a d y result
i n y i e l d i n g and a f t e r r e l o a d i n g a new system of s t r e s s e s o c c u r s . From
now on the r e a l s t r e s s r a t i o i s d i f f e r e n t from the l o a d i n g r a t i o and
the a p p l i e d s t r e s s range i s thought to determine more the r e a l varia-
t i o n i n s t r e s s e s . The i n f l u e n c e of the mean s t r e s s and the maximum a p -
p l i e d nominal s t r e s s depend on the e f f e c t i v e c r a c k o p e n i n g . Especially
i n j o i n t s w i t h low r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s the c r a c k opening oc c u r s not
d u r i n g the whole s t r e s s range and at low R r a t i o s the crack i s closed
d u r i n g a p a r t of the s t r e s s c y c l e . T h i s makes t h a t the i n f 1 uence of the
R-ratio depends on the r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n the j o i n t s . J o i n t s of small
sections generally have lower r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s than those o f b i g s e c -
t i o n s t h e r e f o r e a g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e o f the R r a t i o i s found f o r the
smaller j o i n t s . There are i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t a l s o the g e o m e t r i c a l stress
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r has an i n f l u e n c e however, more r e s e a r c h i s needed
to s p e c i f i y the i n f l u e n c e of the s t r e s s r a t i o R more p r e c i s e l y in re-
l a t i o n t o r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s , w a l l t h i c k n e s s and g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s or
s t r a i n concentration factors.

In p r a c t i c e the l o a d i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s are not always c o n s t a n t and then

the l o a d i n g - o r s t r e s s spectrum have to be c o n s i d e r e d (see f i g . 8.2.).

372
 8-3

The shape o f the

spectrum has a r e a l
i n f l u e n c e on the
endurance. For
example f i g . 8 . 3 .
shows the influence
o f the loadspectrum
on the f a t i g u e behav-
iour for a certain
welded j o i n t .
In p r a c t i c a l design
c u m u l a t i v e damage
r u l e s are generally
used to d e s c r i b e the
fatigue behaviour
under spectrum
l o a d i n g as a f u n c t i o n
o f the individual
load cycles which
will be d e s c r i b e d in
greater detail in
section 8 . 7 .

10 3
tog N I n t h e
9 cu-
e x i s t i n

m u l a t i v e damage
Fig. 8.3. I n f l u e n c e l o a d spectrum on r u l e s the l o a d i n g s e -
fatigue l i f e . quence i s not taken
i n t o account [ 2 , 3 , 4].
T e s t s have shown [5] t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f the l o a d i n g sequence can
be c o n s i d e r a b l e .
In notched specimens e . g . joints it i s assumed t h a t f a v o u r a b l e and un-
f a v o u r a b l e e f f e c t s due to t h e passed on l o a d c y c l e w i l l a l t e r n a t e un-
der random l o a d i n g .

Jh_iiDt_detai1

In p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y loaded j o i n t s l o c a l s t r e s s or s t r a i n con-
centrations are o f minor importance due t o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of stresses
by l o c a l y i e l d i n g o f a d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l , however, under f a t i gue l o a d i n g
the s t r e s s - or s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s the dominant factor.

373
 8-4

The l o c a l i z e d h i g h s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are i n general caused by the

change over from b a s i c m a t e r i a l t o weld m a t e r i a l a t t h e weld toe (the
shape o f t h e weld t o e , t h e weld angle and the weld d e f e c t s ) . In t u b u -
lar joints they o c c u r a d d i t i o n a l l y due to the v a r i a t i o n i n stiffness
along the i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e connected members. The v a r i a t i o n in
s t i f f n e s s depends on t h e g e o m e t r i c a l j o i n t parameters.
There are v a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t a k i n g account o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l
influences. For example f o r a c e r t a i n type o f j o i n t w i t h particular
w e l d i n g d e t a i l s and p a r t i c u l a r l o a d i n g t h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r can be
d e s c r i b e d , but t h i s means t h a t f o r every type o f j o i n t and every l o a d i n g
case i n p r i n c i p l e a d i f f e r e n t f a t i g u e behaviour e x i s t s . Therefore the
most common approach i s to determine the r e l a t i o n between s t r e s s - or
s t r a i n range and the number o f c y c l e s to f a i l u r e f o r a s p e c i f i c weld
detail, independent on the geometry of the j o i n t . For a more c o m p l i -
cated j o i n t t h i s w i l l then be used as the r e l a t i o n between t h e geomet-
rical peak s t r e s s - o r s t r a i n range i n t h e j o i n t , in tubular joints
a l s o c a l l e d hot s p o t s t r e s s - o r s t r a i n r a n g e , and the number o f c y c l e s
to failure.

A s i m p l e example i . e . two b u t t welded j o i n t s are shown i n f i g . 8 . 4 .

one o f which has a h o l e .

L
l
tF-\ f AF 2
1 X AF 2

Fig. 8.4. Geometrical s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a s t r i p w i t h a h o l e .

The maximum g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s ranges w i l l be:

AF.
f i g . 8.4a. w i t h SCF s 3 (8.1)
S
r = S C F
'TT
max. n
A n = (b-d)t

AF 2

fig. 8.4b. w i t h SCF = 1 (8.2)

max. A = b.t
 8-5

Based on the maximum g e o m e t r i c a l peak s t r e s s range (hot s p o t s t r e s s

range) the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r w i l l be comparable but t h i s means f o r
the same f a t i g u e l i f e the a l t e r n a t i n g l o a d range f o r the specimen i n
fig. 8.4a. w i l l be much s m a l l e r than t h a t f o r the specimen of f i g . 8 . 4 b .
e . g . an i n d i c a t i o n i s given by:

The same procedure can be f o l l o w e d f o r o t h e r d e t a i l s as l o n g as b a s i c

weld d e t a i l and weld d e t a i l i n the j o i n t a r e comparable. T h i s seems a
logical approach but t h e r e are some c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n u s i n g t h i s method.
For example t h e f a t i g u e behaviour i s not o n l y i n f l uenced by the geomet-
rical s t r e s s - o r s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r but a l s o by the strain
g r a d i e n t i n the j o i n t and the w a l l t h i c k n e s s of the element c o n s i d e r e d .
F u r t h e r i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e f o r the d e s i g n e r to determine the s t r e s s -
or s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r i n a s i m p l e way.

8.1.3. !^teria]__grade

B a s i c m a t e r i a l of high s t r e n g t h m i l d s t e e l s have a b e t t e r fatigue

b e h a v i o u r than lower grade m i l d s t e e l s , e s p e c i a l l y i n the low cycle
range. These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s m a l l e r o r even d i s a p p e a r f o r notched
specimens, e . g . welded j o i n t s , due to the g r e a t e r notch s e n s i v i t y of
h i g h e r grade s t e e l s . For low c y c l e f a t i g u e there e x i s t s a d i f f e r e n c e .
The new standards g e n e r a l l y i g n o r e the d i f f e r e n c e between the fatigue
b e h a v i o u r of s t e e l s Fe 360, Fe 430 and Fe 510 ( a c c o r d i n g to Euronorm
25-72) f o r N > 1 0 . 5

8.1.4. Environment

In a c o r r o s i v e environment, e.g. sea w a t e r , the f a t i g u e performance

of a s t e e l s t r u c t u r e i s worse than t h a t of a s t e e l s t r u c t u r e i n a l e s s
a g g r e s s i v e atmosphere. C o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e i s a c o m p l i c a t e d phenomenon,
so t h a t the i n f l u e n c e of the environment cannot s i m p l y be superposed
on the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r due to t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h each o t h e r .
The f a c t t h a t c o r r o s i o n i s time dependent means t h a t t e s t r e s u l t s de-
pend on the frequency u s e d , as shown i n f i g . 8 . 5 . [6] for material
t e s t specimens.

375
 8-6

600

Fig. 8.5. Influence frequency on c o r r o s i o n fatigue.

The i n f l u e n c e o f c o r r o s i o n depends on the notch e f f e c t s i . e . the influ-

ence decreases w i t h s h a r p e r n o t c h e s . For example f o r t u b u l a r joints
the f a t i g u e l i v e i n seewater (20C) can be a f a c t o r 2 to 3 s m a l l e r
than t h a t i n a i r o r even more f o r N > 1 0 . 7

Another c o m p l i c a t i o n i s , t h a t t h e r e seems t o be no endurance strength

l i m i t , and t h a t even very small l o a d i n g c y c l e s have an i n f l u e n c e on
t h e t o t a l c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e performance. T h i s e f f e c t of the e n v i r o n -
ment i s a main p a r t o f an ECSC o f f s h o r e s t e e l i n v e s t i g a t i o n [7].
To a v o i d c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e a good p r o t e c t i o n by c o a t i n g s or c a t h o d i c
protection is necessary.

8.2. Methods o f a n a l y s i s

S e v e r a l methods o f a n a l y s i s are used to d e s c r i b e the f a t i g u e behaviour

of t u b u l a r j o i n t s . In p r i n c i p l e they can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d by methods
based on the hot spot s t r e s s - or hot spot s t r a i n r a n g e , and methods
based on nominal s t r e s s i n a member. In the l a s t mentioned methods
the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n has been i n d i r e c t l y c o n s i d e r e d by t a k i n g into
account the most i n f l u e n t i a l g e o m e t r i c a l p a r a m e t e r s , o r by u s i n g d i a -
grams which g i v e the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i n terms o f the s t r e s s range for
a c e r t a i n number o f c y c l e s , r e l a t e d to the g e o m e t r i c a l p a r a m e t e r s . For
p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y loaded j o i n t s and a l s o f o r j o i n t s i n square

376
 8-7

h o l l o w s e c t i o n s loaded i n f a t i g u e [ 3 1 , 32] a l l a v a i l a b l e t e s t e v i d e n c e
has been c o l l e c t e d and a n a l y z e d i n a c o n s i s t e n t way. Due to the fact
t h a t f o r many o f the f a t i g u e t e s t s c a r r i e d out on j o i n t s o f circular
hollow s e c t i o n i n s u f f i c i e n t measurements were taken the t e s t results
cannot d i r e c t l y be used f o r a l l methods o f a n a l y s i s . An urgent c o l -
l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i s now r e -
q u i r e d i n the same way as p r e v i o u s l y c a r r i e d out f o r j o i n t s i n square
hollow sections [31, 32].

8.2.1. Hot_sp_ot_stress

As s t a t e d i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n the g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s concentrations

i n t u b u l a r j o i n t s are v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r . For
the a n a l y s i s o f t e s t r e s u l t s the number o f c y c l e s are p l o t t e d a g a i n s t
the measured hot spot s t r a i n o r hot spot s t r e s s ranges.
The measured hot spot s t r a i n ranges are determined i n such a way t h a t
t h e l o c a l weld e f f e c t s are not i n c l u d e d . T h i s means t h a t o n l y the geo-
m e t r i c a l e f f e c t s are i n c l u d e d and the s c a t t e r i n t e s t r e s u l t s exists
due to t h e r e m a i n i n g i n f l u e n c e s not taken i n t o a c c o u n t . In t h i s way
t h e b a s i c S^-N curves f o r s p e c i f i c weld d e t a i l s can be d e t e r m i n e d .
For p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n these b a s i c curves can be g e n e r a l l y used
Only the g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s - or s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r has to be
known.

In c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h the d e f i n i t i o n o f the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n fac-

t o r s f o r s i m p l e d e t a i l s , the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r tubular
joints i n d e f i n e d i n a d i f f e r e n t way. In s i m p l e d e t a i l s e . g . a s t r i p
w i t h a h o l e as shown i n f i g . 8 . 4 . , the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s defined
as the r a t i o between the maximum s t r e s s o c c u r i n g a t the notch and the
mean nominal s t r e s s i n the same c r o s s s e c t i o n .

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n would be too c o m p l i c a t e d f o r t u b u l a r j o i n t s because

several s t r e s s - or s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s occur
which would l e a d to a c o m p l i c a t e d c a l c u l a t i o n method. For p r a c t i c a l
d e s i g n o n l y the maximum hot spot s t r e s s range a t a weld toe i s i m -
p o r t a n t . T h i s i s the reason t h a t f o r j o i n t s made o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r i s d e f i n e d a s :
SCF = m
l'
a x m
P t s t r e s s somewhere i n t h e j o i nt a t the wel d toe
u m n o t s

nominal s t r e s s i n the b r a c i ng at t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n ' ~~

For j o i n t s w i t h more than one b r a c i n g member both b r a c i n g s have to be

consi d e r e d .

377
 8-8

The nominal s t r e s s i n the b r a c i n g i s the maximum s t r e s s due to member

axial l o a d and member bending moment a t the c r o s s s e c t i o n of the
b r a c i n g through the meeting p o i n t o f the s y s t e m l i n e o f the b r a c i n g w i t h
the top f a c e o f the c h o r d .
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n s h o u l d be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d , o t h e r w i s e i t can l e a d to
misunderstanding. In o r d e r to d e f i n e the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n factor
o f j o i n t s o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i t i s i m p o r t a n t to d e s c r i b e the g e o m e t r i -
cal r e l a t i o n p r e c i s e l y . The f o l l o w i n g example shows how the geometry
of a j o i n t e f f e c t s the value o f the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n factor.
Compare two s i m i l a r j o i n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t b r a c i n g t h i c k n e s s e s and s u p -
pose t h a t the hot spot s t r e s s i n both cases i s l o c a t e d i n the c h o r d .
The s t r e s s e s i n the chord depend more on the l o a d i n the b r a c i n g than
on the s t r e s s e s i n the b r a c i n g s , which means t h a t f o r the same hot
spot s t r e s s , the nominal s t r e s s i n the t h i n n e r b r a c i n g i s h i g h e r and
c o n s e q u e n t l y a lower s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d than t h a t for
the s i m i l a r j o i n t w i t h the t h i c k e r bracing.
In r e a l i t y both j o i n t s have the same f a t i g u e performance i n terms o f
l o a d s . T h i s i s not l o g i c a l but i s the consequence o f the definition
o f the SCF and c o u l d not be avoided as a b e t t e r p r a c t i c a l definition
has not been developed up t o now.
In j o i n t s w i t h high s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s l o c a l y i e l d i n g occurs
a l r e a d y w i t h small l o a d s a t the hot spot s t r e s s l o c a t i o n s . I t i s t h e r e -
f o r e more r e a l i s t i c t o speak about s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . Due to
r e s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s and s t r a i n c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s do not have the same v a l u e .
A c o m p l i c a t i o n i n u s i n g the s t r e s s - or s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n factor
method i s t h a t the SCF o r SNCF may vary w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e x t e r n a l load.
T h i s i s due to the f a c t t h a t i n t u b u l a r j o i n t s the hot spot s t r e s s or
s t r a i n u s u a l l y depends on l o c a l w a l l bending effects.
Due to l o c a l p l a s t i f i c a t i o n s they are not always p r o p o r t i o n a l to the
l o a d , w h i l e the r e a l s t r e s s r a t i o s a t the weld toe may a l s o differ.
Using t h i s method, the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the s t r a i n - or s t r e s s concen-
t r a t i o n f a c t o r s by the d e s i g n e r s should be i n agreement w i t h those
used i n the a n a l y s i s .
A f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t the same c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s are used
f o r both primary and secondary moments. A f t e r c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n "sec-
ondary" bending moments may decrease and so i n c r e a s e the crack p r o p a -
g a t i o n p e r i o d between c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n and complete f a i l u r e .

378
 8-9

T h i s means t h a t e s p e c i a l l y f o r redundant s t r u c t u r e s the r e a l endurance

will be b e t t e r than t h a t c a l c u l a t e d .
As a l r e a d y mentioned i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n b e s i d e s the s t r a i n o r s t r e s s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r the s t r a i n - o r s t r e s s g r a d i e n t a l s o seems t o p l a y
a r o l e , and up to now t h i s f a c t o r c o u l d not be taken i n t o a c c o u n t .
The hot spot s t r e s s method i s g e n e r a l l y used i n o f f s h o r e d e s i g n for
which l a r g e tubes are used.

8.2.2. CI a s s i f i _ cation_method

In t h i s method the t e s t r e s u l t s o f s i m i l a r j o i n t s are a n a l y s e d s e p a -

rately. If the t e s t r e s u l t s are p l o t t e d a g a i n s t the nominal s t r e s s
ranges i n t h e t e n s i o n b r a c i n g s , then the r e s u l t i n g S-N curves include
a l r e a d y t h e e f f e c t o f the g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r . As
a r e s u l t d i f f e r e n t S^-N curves w i l l e x i s t f o r d i f f e r e n t types o f j o i n t s .
If the d i f f e r e n c e s are small a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n can be g i v e n based on
the type o f j o i n t , j o i n t parameters and l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n . T h i s method
i s used f o r the a n a l y s i s o f j o i n t s made o f square hollow s e c t i o n s
where i n s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g s t r a i n - o r s t r e s s concentra-
tion factors exists [ 3 2 ] . Thus t h i s method takes the s t r e s s concentra-
t i o n f a c t o r s i n d i r e c t l y i n t o account. It should not be used f o r com-
p l i c a t e d s t r u c t u r e s as f o r example o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s , but t h i s method
will be more a p p l i c a b l e f o r s i n g l e p l a n e g i r d e r s .

8.2.3. Eilyr.9Li5Ci2G_ thod m

T h i s method i s being developed a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f K a r l s r u h e for

c i r c u l a r as w e l l as f o r square h o l l o w s e c t i o n j o i n t s [23, 24].
Here the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s are a l s o i n d i r e c t l y taken i n t o
account by g i v i n g an a l l o w a b l e nominal s t r e s s o r s t r e s s range at a
f i x e d number o f c y c l e s e . g . 2 . 1 0 ^ . T h i s s t r e s s i s g i v e n i n diagrams
f o r R = - 1 as a f u n c t i o n o f the j o i n t p a r a m e t e r s .
The S-N curve i s then d e s c r i b e d by the s t r e s s f o r N = 2 . 1 0 ^ c y c l e s , a
s l o p e f o r the S-N curve and an i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n f o r the R r a t i o . For
c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n j o i n t s enough i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e to
e s t a b l i s h these d i a g r a m s , f o r r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n j o i n t s at the
moment i n s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e exists.
Up t o now the i n f l u e n c e o f secundary bending s t r e s s e s has not been taken
i n t o a c c o u n t , t h e r e f o r e the r e s u l t i n g diagrams depend on the t e s t s e t up.

379
 8-10

8.2.4. Py 9hin2_shear_method
n

In t h i s method the c a l c u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a check o f t h e nominal

punching shear s t r e s s range i n the chord and the nominal s t r e s s range
i n the b r a c i n g s . By c h e c k i n g the punching shear range i n the chord
s e p a r a t e l y from t h e s t r e s s range i n t h e b r a c i n g s t h e i m p o r t a n t influ-
ence o f t h e w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o between chord and b r a c i n g s i s taken
i n t o a c c o u n t . The punching shear s t r e s s range i s c a l c u l a t e d i n a some
what d i f f e r e n t way as used f o r s t a t i c l o a d i n g . This i s more d e t a i l e d
d e s c r i b e d i n 8 . 3 . 3 . The curves to be used are lower bound S-N curves
f o r a c e r t a i n range o f v a l i d i t y . T h i s method i s used i n the AWS [9]
f o r simpl e d e t a i l s .

8.2.5. Bltign_to_static_strength

In many Japanese p u b l i c a t i o n s [ 1 8 , 19] the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f c i r c u -

l a r hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s i s g i v e n i n r e l a t i o n t o the s t a t i c strength
As f a t i g u e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from s t a t i c behaviour one c o u l d expect
poor i n t e r - r e l a t i o n . However t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t e s t r e s u l t s and
the f i t t e d S^-N curves i s no worse than f o r some o t h e r methods. T h i s
may be e x p l a i n e d by the f a c t t h a t t h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h depends on t h e
g e o m e t r i c a l parameters which i n f l u e n c e the hot spot s t r e s s and on the
i n c r e m e n t a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of the j o i n t between i n i t i a l y i e l d i n g and
f a i l u r e and t h i s may have some r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t r a i n gradient.
So the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h i s r e l a t e d to the g e o m e t r i c a l concentration
f a c t o r and to some extend to the s t r a i n g r a d i e n t which both a l s o i n -
f l u e n c e the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . That t h i s can o n l y be p a r t l y t r u e can
be seen from the f a c t t h a t i n s t a t i c d e s i g n secundary bending moments
can be n e g l e c t e d whereas these s h o u l d be taken i n t o account for
fatigue. Further, some parameters i n f l u e n c e t h e s t a t i c and f a t i g u e
s t r e n g t h i n a d i f f e r e n t way e . g . t e n s i o n l o a d i n g i n t h e chord i n -
creases the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h but decreases t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h . Up t o
now t h i s method i s o n l y used to g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n of the behaviour
under low c y c l e fatigue.

380
 8-11

8.2.6. F r a c t u r e mechanics

During the l a s t few y e a r s s e v e r a l s t u d i e s were c a r r i e d out u s i n g frac-

t u r e mechanics. One o f the main problems o f u s i n g t h i s approach for
the d e s i g n o f t u b u l a r j o i n t s i s t h a t the c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n i s c o m p l i -
c a t e d . Sometimes small c r a c k s develop at s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s a l o n g the
p e r i m e t e r which then j o i n t o g e t h e r , whereas i n o t h e r types o f joints
the crack s t a r t s from one p o i n t and grows a l o n g the p e r i m e t e r ex-
t e n d i n g i n t o the member. In some p u b l i c a t i o n s i t i s s a i d t h a t good r e -
s u l t s were o b t a i n e d , but then the b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n needed f o r the
f r a c t u r e mechanics c a l c u l a t i o n was based on the r e s u l t s o f s i m i l a r
specimen t e s t e d b e f o r e hand. I t i s t h e r e f o r e expected t h a t a general
f r a c t u r e mechanics approach w i l l not be p o s s i b l e i n the near future.

8.3. C i r c u l a r hollow section joints

In c h a p t e r 8 . 2 . the v a r i o u s methods o f a n a l y s i s have been summarized.

Three methods are used t o d e s c r i b e the f a t i g u e performance of circular
hollow section j o i n t s . The hot spot s t r e s s method and the punching
shear method are based on the s t r e s s r a n g e , n e g l e c t i n g the influence
o f the R - r a t i o whereas the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method i s based on the
maximum s t r e s s t a k i n g account of the i n f l u e n c e of the s t r e s s ratio.
The methods are not c o n s i s t e n t w i t h each o t h e r and not d i r e c t l y com-
p a r a b l e . A s y s t e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d i n near f u t u r e to
e s t a b l i s h c o n s i s t e n t d e s i g n r u l e s over the whole range of s e c t i o n s .
T h i s can be done by g i v i n g a hot spot s t r e s s - or s t r a i n method f o r
complicated structures and one o t h e r method f o r s i m p l e s i n g l e plane
girders. T h i s method f o r s i m p l e g i r d e r s can be based on one o f the
methods d e s c r i b e d i n 8 . 2 . 2 . to 8 . 2 . 4 . However a t l e a s t both methods
s h o u l d g i v e about the same answer f o r a t y p i c a l d e t a i l T h e r e f o r e the
i n f l u e n c e o f the s c a l e and R - r a t i o s h o u l d be given i n d e p e n d e n t l y in
the method used.

8.3.1. Hot_sgot_stress_method

Many t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out i n the past w i t h o u t measuring the

hot spot s t r a i n s . In such cases the hot spot s t r a i n - or stress
ranges were l a t e r on c a l c u l a t e d w i t h a f i n i t e element programme. In
l a t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s more d i r e c t measurements were c a r r i e d out on the
a c t u a l t e s t specimens to determine the hot spot s t r a i n s and s t r e s s e s .

381
 8-12

The A P I - X X [45] and the A W S - X X curve [9] shown i n f i g . 8 . 6 . is

w i d e l y used i n o f f s h o r e d e s i g n as the b a s i c c u r v e f o r the hot s p o t
strain- and s t r e s s range.
o
S

c y c l e s of l o a d N

Fig. 8.6. A l l o w a b l e f a t i g u e s t r e s s and s t r a i n ranges f o r stress

c a t e g o r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o AWS ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

The X-X c u r v e has not been based on a r i g o r o u s s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s

but was o r i g i n a l l y g i v e n as a S ~N and E ^ - N l i n e which m a i n t a i n e d a
r

c o n s i s t e n t degree of c o n s e r v a t i s m w i t h r e s p e c t t o the s c a t t e r band of

data. I t was i n t e n d e d f o r l a r g e t u b u l a r j o i n t s as used i n offshore
installations. A n a l y s i s c a r r i e d out l a t e r [ 1 2 , 13] showed t h a t the
curve can be c o n s i d e r e d as a curve w i t h 95% s u r v i v a l w i t h 95% c o n -
fidence. F i g . 8 . 7 . shows a comparison o f the X-X curve w i t h relevant
test data.

Recent i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n the European o f f s h o r e programme [ 1 4 , 1 5 , 17]

show t h a t one curve i s not s u f f i c i e n t to d e s c r i b e the b a s i c fatigue
behaviour. For example i n f i g s . 8 . 8 . and 8 . 9 . some t e s t r e s u l t s are
shown from the European o f f s h o r e programme.
 8-13

Id
ii AWS-

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 e

cycles
hot spot strain adjacent to w e l d

Fig. 8,7. Curve X-X compared w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s [12],

3000

2000

! 1000

500

300
number of cycles (end of test)

Fig. 8. Dutch t e s t r e s u l t s on T- and X - j o i n t s of c i r c u l a r hollow

sections [14].

It i s c l e a r l y shown t h a t a s c a l e e f f e c t e x i s t s . At t h i s stage i t is
not p o s s i b l e to determine whether t h i s s c a l e e f f e c t i s due to an
overall i n c r e a s e o f the dimensions o f the j o i n t s or p u r e l y to an i n -
crease i n chord w a l l t h i c k n e s s although f o r l a r g e r j o i n t s the w a l l -
t h i c k n e s s seems to be the main i n f l u e n c i n g parameter.

383
 8-14

These t e s t s show t h a t t h e AWS-XX curve i s c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r relatively

small s e c t i o n s . At t h e moment o f w r i t i n g t h i s c h a p t e r the l o c a l i n -
f l u e n c e s a t t h e weld toe and the s c a l e e f f e c t are under s t u d y .
Based on the t e s t s c a r r i e d out up t o now S - N curves w i t h 95% s u r v i v a l
and 95% c o n f i d e n c e can be determined f o r the t h r e e chord dimensions
c o n s i d e r e d . These S - N curves are shown i n f i g . 8 . 1 0 . and s h o u l d be con
do
s i d e r e d f o r p r e l i m i n a r y guidance (+~ 2 5 ) .
To
(Very r e c e n t l y d e s i g n curves have been worked out which are d i s c u s s e d
i n Appendix VI11 1 ) .

Fig. 8.10. S-N curves w i t h 95% s u r v i v a l .

384
 8-15

Unfortunately the p r e v i o u s l y used methods f o r o b t a i n i n g the values of

the hot spot s t r a i n o r s t r e s s d i f f e r from t h a t used i n the ECSC p r o -
gramme. I t i s t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t to i n c l u d e a l l e x i s t i n g t e s t evi-
dence. However the curve given f o r small s e c t i o n s i n f i g . 8 . 9 . can be
c o n s i d e r e d as s a f e because a l l t e s t s c a r r i e d out by Z i r n [22] showed
much h i g h e r r e s u l t s i f the hot spot s t r e s s i s c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g the
e x i s t i n g p a r a m e t r i c formulae f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the s t r e s s c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r . A f u r t h e r aspect which has to be s t u d i e d i s the
l a r g e s c a t t e r i n the small s c a l e ECSC t e s t s . E s p e c i a l l y i n j o i n t s with
small members t h e weld i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e and has a g r e a t e r influence
on t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n . Due to t h e weld geometry the e f f e c t may be
different f o r a x i a l l o a d and bending moments.

In p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n t h e hot spot s t r e s s o r s t r a i n has to be determined

and i t i s time and money consuming to c a r r y out f i n i t e element c a l c u -
l a t i o n s f o r every j o i n t . T h e r e f o r e s e m i - e m p i r i c a l parameter formule
have been developed t o e s t i m a t e the g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s concentration
f a c t o r SCF a t the weld toe f o r the most common s i m p l e types o f joints.
All these formulae have f o l l o w i n g functions:

n. n ? n ? n. n

SCF = K.a . 8 . y . T *(sine) 5

(8.4)

in which:

K = constant n^ = exponents

2 l
o
om

d
lm
om

d
om

The formulae a v a i l a b l e are shown i n t a b l e 8 . 1 . (see pages 8.49 to

8.52).

385
 8-16

Comparison o f the e x i s t i n g p a r a m e t r i c formulae f o r s i m i l a r j o i n t s [26]

sometimes shows c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . T h i s i s due t o the f a c t that
i n the p a s t t h e s e formulae have been based on d i f f e r e n t definitions
o f hot spot s t r e s s . T h i s a l s o may g i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s be-
tween t h e experiments and the c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s . R e c e n t l y W.G. I l l of
the European ECSC o f f s h o r e programme has agreed about an u n i f o r m e x t r a -
p o l a t i o n method, which makes a b e t t e r comparison between e x p e r i m e n t a l
and c a l c u l a t e d values p o s s i b l e i n f u t u r e (see Appendix VIII-1).
Comparison of the e x i s t i n g formulae and measured or c a l c u l a t e d values
shows t h a t the formulae of DNV, Lloyds and the r e v i s e d EPR [47] can be
c o n s i d e r e d as the best ones f o r t h e p r e s e n t . These are recorded in
Tables 8 . 2 . to 8 . 4 . F o l l o w i n g formulae are recommended.
T- and Y - j o i n t s : DNV [27] o r L l o y d s formulae [28]

X-joints : L l o y d s formulae [28]

K- , N- and K T - j o i n t s : EPR [ 2 5 , 47] or Lloyds formulae [29]

Marshall [12] and G i b s t e i n [27] showed t h a t the EPR formulae given in

[25] do not d e s c r i b e t h e i n f l u e n c e of the parameter 6 c o r r e c t l y and
propose c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s . The Lloyds formulae seem to correlate
w e l l w i t h t h e experimental d a t a [ 1 2 ] . These formulae a l s o i n c l u d e t h e
e f f e c t o f weld s i z e . A f u r t h e r advantage i s t h a t i n [28] and [29]
g u i d e l i n e s are g i v e n f o r j o i n t s w i t h b r a c i n g s out of p l a n e . At t h e
time o f w r i t i n g t h i s c h a p t e r the p a r a m e t r i c formulae are b e i n g s t u d i e d
further.
The f o r m u l a e sometimes g i v e the i m p r e s s i o n of an accuracy which does
not e x i s t in r e a l i t y . As these p a r a m e t r i c formulae do not always give
the d e s i g n e r a d i r e c t i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a p a r a m e t e r , they
are a l s o p r e s e n t e d i n g r a p h i c a l form i n f i g s . 8 . 1 1 . and 8 . 1 2 . f o r the
types o f j o i n t most commonly used i n p r a c t i c e i . e . the T - , Y-, K- and
N-joints.
For combinations o f a x i a l l o a d and bending moment the SCF's f o r these
loadings have to be determined as w e l l f o r the c h o r d as f o r the
b r a c i n g s a f t e r which the r e s u l t i n g hot spot s t r e s s range can be c a l c u -
l a t e d as follows:

= SCF .S + SCF + SCF. (8.5)

ax r iP op
hot spot axi al r
ip op
nom. nom. nom.
 8-17

J L 1 A X I A L LOAD B R A C I N G

1
A X I A L LOAD CHORD
B.I.P. C H O R D
1 * * * B.I.P. B R A C I N G

1 B L P . : h o r d = br
EJBj'-
1 B . I . P . = b e n d i n g in p l a n e

i X >
y =15
t =0.5
e = 90
Q2 0.3 OA 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
j. P
i n f l u e n c e B = -r - L

1
0.9
0.8 f f
0.7 1 rf

0.6 1 If //
Li.
0.5 1
1
o
CO 0.4 I >;
"J 0.3 1
0.2
0.1

10 15
25 20 30 30 45 60 90
-*Y influence 0 e
influence Y =n
10
L,i rhor'd= b r a c i n g
r r - l . . 1
1
/ B.I.F . cho- rd = b r a c i n g
K, 0.9 :/.

i 0.8
LO
H
;' *^***^ o
"D 0.7
jt> bra _J
0.6
u
LO 0.5
7f
'J
o
- 0.4
0.3
u
LO
0.2
0.1

0.3 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

F* x . .. L/do
influence x = influence

Fig. 8.11. Diagrammes f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the SCF i n T- and Y-joints

a c c o r d i n g to G i b s t e i n - T e y l e r (DNV).

387
 8-18

AXIAL LOAD BRACING

AXIAL LOAD CHORD
1 x x
B.I.P. CHORD
B.I.P. BRACING
i
i

/// B.I.R = bending in plane

-- +
f f e
r
,ax.l.chor

W
y =15
x =0.5
.
i b' i . p c ///
/// e =45

1 VA

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2.0

a *3
1.8
influence $ =
1.6 1.6
II
1.4 t 1.4
, >t // bracing
U. 1.2 1.2 - x

m y.
1

U
CD
1.0 4c
b.i
giias!g
p. b r e c i n g CJ
1.0
1
i-**

0.8 ///{ in 0.8

U
en 0.6
m u? 0.6 1
u
0. in 0.4

0.3 0.2

10 20 30 30 45 60 e
90 e

influence y =
influence 9

o
II 1.2 r
, a x .1 b r a e i n .
o I X . l . :hor<
13
1.0
"Si
IL.
A "c b i. p . c l a r d = bra< i n g

u 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
en
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Q9 1.0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 8 0.9 1.0
7* t iL
influence x = to influence -- d

do
Fig. 8.12. Diagrammes f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e SCF i n K- and N-type
j o i n t s a c c o r d i n g t o Kuang, P o t v i n and L e i c k (EPR) [ 4 7 ] .

388
 8-19

Generally the hot s p o t s t r e s s due to a x i a l l o a d o n l y appears at another

l o c a t i o n than the hot spot s t r e s s f o r an i n p l a n e bending moment.
Fig. 8 . 1 3 . shows the r e a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n due to a x i a l l o a d and
due t o bending i n p l a n e f o r two d i f f e r e n t T-joints.

axial branch load in p l a n e bending

a x i a l branch load in plane bending

Fig. 8.13. Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r two t y p i c a l T - j o i n t s due to

axial l o a d and due t o bending moment.

For the T - j o i n t w i t h 8 = 0 . 9 and - r r - = 20 s u p e r p o s i n g of the maximum

hot spot s t r e s s e s due to a x i a l l o a d and due to bending o n l y g i v e s a
small o v e r e s t i m a t i o n of the r e a l hot spot stress.

389
 8-20

For the T - j o i n t with 0.65 and = 40 such a s u p e r p o s i n g ( e q . 8 . 5 )

o
leads to a c o n s i d e r a b l e overestimation.
The p a r a m e t r i c formulae are most s u i t a b l e f o r i n plane g i r d e r s . For
j o i n t s w i t h out o f plane members they must be used very c a r e f u l l y as
shown i n f i g . 8 . 1 4 . [ 1 4 ] . At best the m o d i f i c a t i o n s given by Smedley
and Wordsworth can then be f o l l o w e d [28, 2 9 ] .

4_ F

Fig. 8.14. D i f f e r e n c e i n SNCF depending on way o f l o a d i n g .

A c a l c u l a t i o n procedure w i t h a f i n i t e element programme w i l l give

more r e a l i s t i c information.

Summarized i t can be concluded t h a t the design method based on hot

spot s t r a i n or s t r e s s e s i s i n p r i n c i p l e a good approach f o r c o m p l i -
cated j o i n t s i n which the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are determined w i t h
f i n i t e element c a l c u l a t i o n s o r model t e s t s .
As the p a r a m e t r i c formulae are s t i l l not o p t i m a l they have to be
carefully used.
The advantage is:

- A q u i c k i n d i c a t i o n of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r s i m p l e j o i n t s .

The disadvantages are:

- They are o n l y a v a i l a b l e f o r s i m p l e not r e i n f o r c e d j o i n t s without

o v e r l a p p i n g b r a c i n g s . Out o f plane members which are loaded can i n -
f l u e n c e the c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s considerably.
390
 8-21

- For combined l o a d i n g s e . g . a x i a l l o a d and bending i n plane the r e a l

maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r cannot be d e t e r m i n e d .
E s p e c i a l l y f o r random l o a d i n g of combined l o a d i n g s the value and
the l o c a t i o n of the SCF w i l l change, which may l e a d t o a c o n s e r v a t i v e
approach u s i n g p a r a m e t r i c formulae f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the SCF.
- The i n f l u e n c e of the s t r e s s i n the chord i s not i n c l u d e d i n the p a r a -
m e t r i c f o r m u l a e . T h e r e f o r e c a r e must be taken f o r j o i n t s i n which
the b r a c i n g s are very low s t r e s s e d and the chord r e l a t i v e l y high.

Regarding the b a s i c S^-N curves the t e s t s of the ECSC o f f s h o r e pro-

gramme [ 8 , 14, 1 5 , 1 6 , 17] have shown t h a t a s c a l e f a c t o r has to be
i n c l u d e d to come to a r e a l i s t i c S-N r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r j o i n t s made of
small s e c t i o n s . A f t e r f i n i s h i n g t h a t programme t h i s problem has to be
s o l v e d ^see Appendix VIII-1).

Up to now the i n f l u e n c e of the s t r e s s r a t i o R has been n e g l e c t e d ,

s i n c e the r e a l s t r e s s range a t a l o c a l i z e d p o i n t i s not known due t o
r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s . T h i s i n f l u e n c e has to be determined more i n
r e l a t i o n to the d i m e n s i o n s , w e l d i n g s t r e s s e s and s t r e s s - or strain
concentration f a c t o r . In t h i s way a c o n s i s t e n t method can be given
f o r j o i n t s w i t h small and l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s .

^2. trilyir_2rii!rl2D_[!??i!22 J c

In t h e f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method b r i e f l y described i n 8 . 2 . 2 . the maxi-

mum a x i a l s t r e s s i n the members i s taken as a b a s i s i n s t e a d o f the
s t r e s s range. F u r t h e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s t e e l grade and R - r a t i o i s taken
i n t o a c c o u n t . This method i s t h e r e f o r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the o t h e r
methods given i n t h i s c h a p t e r which a r e based on t h e s t r e s s r a n g e . As
example i n f i g . 8 . 1 5 . one o f t h e diagrams f o r K - j o i n t s with 3 = 0.75
and 9 = 45 i s g i v e n . For a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s method r e f -
erence i s given t o [ 2 3 , 2 4 ] . The k i n k i n t h e c u r ve s appears at
g/d = - 0 . 5 . For t h i s v a l u e the h i g h e s t s t r e n g t h i s o b t a i n e d . For a
s m a l l e r o v e r l a p o r a gap t h e s t r e n g t h decreases due to t h e more unequal
stiffness distribution. For l a r g e r n e g a t i v e gaps the s t r e n g t h decreases
a l s o due to t h e l a r g e r e c c e n t r i c i t y which causes g r e a t e r secundary
bending moments. These bending moments have not been taken i n the
a n a l y s i s which makes the method very s e n s i t i v e to t h e method o f t e s t i n g .

391
 8-22

Fig. 8.15. Maximum s t r e s s e s f o r K - j o i n t s (8 = 0 . 7 5 , 0 = 45 ,

d = 170 mm, R = - 1 , Fe 3 6 0 ) .

.3.3. Punching shear_method

For a l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d d e s i g n approach t h e AWS g i v e s t h e possibility

of a f a t i g u e c a l c u l a t i o n based on the nominal punching shear stress,
and a check of the s t r e s s i n the b r a c i n g s . The c a l c u l a t i o n of the
punching shear s t r e s s range d i f f e r s from t h a t used f o r s t a t i c d e s i g n :

S = T sine
ax.
Ml (-5 V
ip
) +
<I S
r
op
)
(8.6)
r
vp

The s t r e s s ranges S , S and S a r e the nominal s t r e s s ranges

ax.
r
ip r
op
due t o a x i a l l o a d and bending moments i n t h e b r a c i n g c o n s i d e r e d . The
punching shear curves f o r K- and T - j o i n t s are a f a c t o r 7 f o r K-joints
and a f a c t o r 14 f o r T - j o i n t s lower than the AWS c u r v e f o r hot spot
stress. In t h i s approach the main i n f l u e n c i n g parameters t and 9 are
indirectly taken i n t o account whereas the o t h e r s are ignored.
The n e g l e c t e d i n f l u e n c e s such as the d i a m e t e r - w a l l t h i c k n e s s ratio
of the c h o r d , and t h e diameter r a t i o 3, are f a i r l y s t r o n g so t h a t
these curves r e p r e s e n t lower bound c u r v e s . The bending moments are
taken i n t o account i n such a way t h a t a c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h the
method based on hot spot s t r a i n i s obtained.

392
 8-23

A comparison o f e x p e r i m e n t a l data w i t h the c u r v e s [12] i s g i v e n in

figs. 8 . 1 6 . and 8 . 1 7 .
The curves are based
on data assembled by
Toprac and M a r s h a l l
[11] from t e s t s in
which the chord
thickness r a t i o y
was l i m i t e d to the
range o f 18 to 2 4 .
For chords h a v i n g y
g r e a t e r than 24 the
allowable c y c l i c
punching shear s h o u l d
10^* 10 5
be reduced i n p r o -
cycles
,24,0.7.
Fig. 8.16. Punching s h e a r f a t i g u e strength portion to
Y
of T-connections [10]. B e s i d e s the punching
shear check the nom-
i n a l s t r e s s range i n

1 / the b r a c i n g has to be
~ 100
C L c h e c k e d . For these
>
y=18 TO 2Ui the curves 0 ' and E 1

shown i n f i g s . 8 . 6 .

O
are g i v e n . The D 1

11
10
curve f o r u n r e i n -
en
c
f o r c e d j o i n t s and
u
c
gap j o i n t s w i t h f u l 1
penetration welds;
_L the curve E' f o r fil-
10 2
10 3
10^ 105 10 6
10 7
108 l e t welded j o i n t s or
cycles
complex j o i n t s such
Fig. 8.17. Punching shear f a t i g u e strength as j o i n t s w i t h stiff-
of K-connections [10]. e n i n g r i n g s , but a l s o
o v e r l a p j o i n t s are i n
this category.
The curves D' and E' comply w i t h a s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r o f 2 . 5
and 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y to the X-X c u r v e .

393
 8-24

In the 1981 e d i t i o n s o f the AWS and the API t h e c u r v e T i s not given

but o n l y curves Kj and K^. The use o f Kj o r 1^ depends on the weld
p r o f i l e i n which c u r v e agrees w i t h the p r e v i o u s K curve ( f i g . 8.6.
The punching shear check has to be c a r r i e d out as f o l l o w s :

S = x.sinG a.S + V( S r ) 2
+ (| S ) 2 (8.7)
vp ax. ip op

with
T =
t 0

a =1.0 f o r K- and N-joints

a =2.0 f o r T- and Y-joints

Thus a h i g h e r s t r e s s range i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r T - j o i n t s but the corre-

sponding curves K, and k^ are a l s o a f a c t o r 2 h i g h e r i n S r than the
original T-curve. This c o r r e c t i o n has been made to p r o v i d e a b e t t e r
c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f bending moments i n T-joints.
For j o i n t s i n which the b r a c i n g s have a very low s t r e s s and the chords
a relatively high s t r e s s , t h e s t r e s s range i n t h e chord has to be l i m -
ited e.g. u s i n g curve D o f f i g . 8 . 6 . which i s used f o r members w i t h
attached p l a t e s . In t h i s method no s c a l e e f f e c t has been i n c o r p o r a t e d
but the S-N curves g i v e n , are lower bounds f o r the e x i s t i n g t e s t re-
s u l t s and t h e r e f o r e i n general g i v e c o n s e r v a t i v e results for joints
w i t h small s e c t i o n s up to d Q = 200 mm.
A f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h regard to d i a m e t e r - w a l l thickness
r a t i o and diameter r a t i o i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s c a l e e f f e c t and R - r a t i o
would g r e a t l y improve t h i s method.

8.4. Square h o l l o w s e c t i o n joints

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on j o i n t s made of r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w sections

s t a r t e d much l a t e r than on c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s . Most of the
investigations up to now have c o n s i d e r e d the s t a t i c b e h a v i o u r . The
s t r e s s measurements c a r r i e d out on these j o i n t s o n l y gave an i n d i c a t i o n
of the s t r e s s p a t t e r n . At f i r s t some y e a r s a g o , these j o i n t s were
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d as p a r t of an E C S C - C i d e c t - S t u d i e n g e s e l l -
s c h a f t r e s e a r c h programme.
Due to the many v a r y i n g parameters and the l i m i t e d budget t h i s pro-
gramme was l a r g e l y e x p e r i m e n t a l , s i n c e l i t t l e t e s t evidence existed
up to t h a t t i m e . From t h i s programme o n l y some i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b -
t a i n e d f o r a design method based on hot spot s t r a i n range.

394
 8-25

For the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method i n s u f f i c i e n t evidence i s a v a i l a b l e

t o g i v e a l l the d i a g r a m s . T h e r e f o r e the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n method i s re-
commended.

8.4.1. Hot_sgot_stress_method

An o r i e n t a t i o n a l investigation [30] was c a r r i e d out on N-type joints

made o f p e r s p e x . Two types of models one w i t h a gap and one w i t h an
o v e r l a p were s u b j e c t e d t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w i t h s t r a i n gauge measure-
m e n t s , the Moire method and f i n i t e element c a l c u l a t i o n s .
In a l a t e r phase of the programme c h a i n s of s t r a i n gauges were p l a c e d
a t the l o c a t i o n s of the hot spot s t r a i n s to determine the s t r a i n c o n -
centration factor. A l l r e s u l t s are summarized i n f i g . 8 . 1 8 .
With these SNCF f a c t o r s o n l y a l i m i t e d number o f t e s t r e s u l t s could
be a n a l y z e d based on hot spot s t r a i n . F i g . 8 . 1 9 . i l l u s t r a t e s some
t e s t r e s u l t s which are i n r e a s o n a b l e agreement w i t h those d e r i v e d for
small T - j o i n t specimens i n c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s .

(|i mm/mm)
100oo-
hot spot strains -
R H S - N - t y p e joints
+ R=-1gap
7B0
* R=-1 lap
*R=0.1 lap
oR = 01gap
5000
5 0 % survival Line for CHS-joints R = 0.1 lap
0158mm from ECSC Offshore chord b =100 mm
research programme = 0.6
T = 1.0 to 2.0
3000 Y= 12.5 to 25

2000

1500
95% survival line for RN-joints /

10001 _ii i i i 111

iVfcyclesj
10 10* 10' 10'

Fig. 8.19. Test r e s u l t s r e l a t e d to hot spot s t r a i n of square

hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s with B = 0 . 6 .

395
Fig. 8.18. Survey of joints for which SNCF values are measured [30].

S :S
gap determined
Type of
e ,e chord
bracings r
ax. r
bending
overlap
by
location SNCF Ref.
joint V 2 members ^ members 2
k
0 mm mm

\ 1' finite el. in

-
2
90 10UxlU0x4 60x60x4 1 : 1.9 0.4
+ chord at
~6.0
\ l . 45 60x60x4 1 : 1.4 s t r a i n gaug. toe of
(perspex diag.
model)

< 1' 90 100x100x4 60x60x4 1 : 2.5 48 finite el.

+
in
chord at ~2.65
45 60x60x4 1 : 1.0
N . s t r a i n gaug. toe
(perspex
model)

!N
90 100x100x6,3 60x60x3,2 1 : 0.5 100% c h a i n s of in diag.
s t r a i n gaug. at the ~ 2 . 0 *
45 b0x60x3,2 1 : 0,1
(steel weld toe
model) with vert.

11 in vertical
- 1.95
at the weld

90 100x100x6,3 60x60x3,2 1 : 0,9 0.4 c h a i n s of in diag.

s t r a i n gaug. at the ~ 3.75
45 60x60x5 1 : 0.6
(steel weld toe
model)

in vertical
11
at the weld ~3.0
toe

*At t h e s e locations the crack dit not start due to t h e more severe change o v e r f r o m weld toe t o vertical. The concentration

factors at the location of the crack initiation are underlined.

 8-27

At t h i s moment, not enough evidence i s a v a i l a b l e to determine parame-

t r i c formulae f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of SCF v a l u e s i n g e n e r a l . Conse-
quently, i n p r a c t i c e these have to be determined w i t h a f i n i t e element
c a l c u l a t i o n which i s r a t h e r e x p e n s i v e . For the j o i n t s i n v e s t i g a t e d an i n -
d i c a t i o n o f the S N C F o r S C F f a c t o r s can be o b t a i n e d from the r a t i o between
the hot spot s t r a i n c u r v e and the S-N c u r ve s f o r nominal s t r e s s e s .

8.4.2. C]^!ification_method

S i n c e i n s u f f i c i e n t data are a v a i l a b l e f o r a design method based on hot

spot s t r a i n o r s t r e s s , the j o i n t s were p r e l i m i n a r y c l a s s i f i e d i n
groups w i t h n e a r l y the same f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e . The p h i l o s o p h y of t h i s
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n method s t a r t s from the same p o i n t as the SNCF or SCF
method namely t h a t the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r depends m a i n l y on the geomet-
rical and l o a d i n g p a r a m e t e r s . The i n f l u e n c e of the g e o m e t r i c a l para-
meters i s given by the s t r e s s or s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r . For
axial l o a d i n g as w e l l as f o r bending i n p l a n e , these w i l l be a f u n c -
t i o n of f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s .

b
1 b
n fc
n n

S C F = f
(r r r f > 9
<-)
88

o z
o 1 D
l
J o i n t s w i t h unequal dimensions f o r the b r a c i n g s o r w i t h rectangular
b r a c i n g s show an even more c o m p l i c a t e d f u n c t i o n .

The j o i n t s t e s t e d up t o now have been 1 i m i t e d t o those w i t h square hollow

s e c t i o n b r a c i n g s of equal d i m e n s i o n s , w i t h a f i x e d angle of intersec-
t i o n o f the d i a g o n a l and chord a x i s , a d e f i n e d r a t i o o f gap to the
w i d t h b j or a f i x e d o v e r l a p . The a n a l y s i s must t h e r e f o r e be r e s t r i c t e d
to these types.
For a l l gap j o i n t s , the gap w i d t h r a t i o was chosen i n such a way t h a t
the s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s of the chord f a c e a t three s i d e s of the bracings
was about the same as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 8 . 2 0 .
Under these c o n d i t i o n s the s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s o p t i m a l . Within
the range i n v e s t i g a t e d the i n f l u e n c e of the w i d t h r a t i o and the w i d t h /
w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o of the chord can be expected to be relatively
s m a l l . As the s t r e s s e s i n the chord f a c e depend more on the l o a d i n
the b r a c i n g s than on the s t r e s s i n them, a l a r g e i n f l u e n c e of the w a l l
thickness ratio can be expected when chord f a i l u r e predominates.
t
i

397
 8-28

Fig. 8.20. Ideal stiffness distribution.

For b r a c i n g f a i l u r e the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r w i l l depend more on the

s t r e s s i n the b r a c i n g ; c o n s e q u e n t l y the w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o w i l l have
a small i n f l u e n c e v i z . o n l y w a l l bending e f f e c t s . For o v e r l a p j o i n t s a
s i m i l a r p h i l o s o p h y i s v a l i d , except t h a t the change o v e r from chord
f a i l u r e to b r a c i n g f a i l u r e may appear a t d i f f e r e n t w a l l thickness
ratios.

The t e s t r e s u l t s were a n a l y s e d i n the f o l l o w i n g way: At f i r s t the

s t e e l g r a d e , f a b r i c a t i o n method and l o a d i n g parameters were a n a l y s e d .
If the i n f l u e n c e of some parameters i s l o w , these parameters were ig-
nored d u r i n g f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s . In the case where a s i g n i f i c a n t in-
f l u e n c e e x i s t s , the g e o m e t r i c a l parameters were a n a l y s e d keeping these
i n f l u e n c i n g l o a d parameters constant.

8.4.2.1. I n f l u e n c e o f s t e e l g r a d e and f a b r i c a t i o n methods

Comparison of the t e s t r e s u l t s showed t h a t f o r both chord f a c e and

b r a c i n g f a i l u r e no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d between the fatigue
s t r e n g t h f o r specimens made o f Fe 360 and Fe 510 e . g . shown i n f i g . 8 . 2 1 .
As shown the s c a t t e r i n t e s t r e s u l t s i s r e l a t i v e l y small f o r these
types o f joints.
The specimens of c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s showed somewhat higher
f a t i g u e r e s u l t s than the o t h e r ones but the d i f f e r e n c e i s s m a l l . Con-
sequently, the r e s u l t s of the hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n specimens
are used as the b a s i s f o r the a n a l y s i s .

398
 8-29

Sr ( N/mm )2

Fig. 8.21. Influence steel grade.

8.4.2.2. I n f l u e n c e of l o a d i n g parameters

In the t e s t s c a m i e d out the bending moments were not a c o n s t a n t ratio

of the a x i a l l o a d s , t h i s i n f l u e n c e was then a n a l y s e d f i r s t . Comparison
of the t e s t r e s u l t s of s i m i l a r specimens w i t h a d i f f e r e n t ratio of
S to S showed l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e i n the number of cycles
bending
r
axial
to f a i l u r e when the t o t a l nominal s t r e s s range i n the b r a c i n g due to
axial l o a d and bending moment was taken f o r the s t r e s s range.
For f a i l u r e i n the chord a lower f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f the j o i n t occured
when the chord was loaded i n t e n s i o n r a t h e r than c o m p r e s s i o n , p a r t i c u -
larly f o r the h i g h c y c l e range as shown i n f i g . 8 . 2 2 .
In the low c y c l e r a n g e , the i n f l u e n c e i s not s i g n i f i c a n t due to alter-
n a t i n g y i e l d i n g a t the hot spot l o c a t i o n s due t o the h i g h SCF f a c t o r s .
Wher b r a c i n g f a i l u r e o c c u r s , no t e s t r e s u l t s are a v a i l a b l e but no
pronounced i n f l u e n c e i s expected.

The i n f l u e n c e of the R - r a t i o o n t h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r was i n v e s t i g a t e d in

t h i s programme because the smal 1 specimens i n c i r c u l a r hoi low s e c t i o n s
t e s t e d by Z i r n [22] showed a c e r t a i n i n f l uence i n t h i s r e s p e c t . When chord
f a i 1 ures were a n a l y s e d , a c o n s i derabl e i nf 1 uence o f the R - r a t i o was found
as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 8 . 2 3 . In those cases i n which b r a c i n g f a i l u r e s oc-
c u r e d , the i n f l u e n c e i s l e s s pronounced and a t p r e s e n t no f i n a l c o n c l u s i o n s
can be drawn.

399
 8-30

T S ( N/mm') r

axial + bending
300
tension -

1 I I 111111
_ in chord
RHS N - joints M compression
200 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J in chord

100

\! \ ^
- compression
tension X t ~~^.,/jn chord
in chord
o\

Wlcycles)
1 1 1 M i l l 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
10 4
10 s

Fig. 8.22. I n f l u e n c e chord l o a d i n g .

S (N/mm )
r
2

300
. R = -1 Fe 360

E \/ + R = 0.1 Fe 360
o R = 0.7 Fe 360
RHS K-joints
200
b,
06
bo "
- Js- 1.0
ti
gap = 0.42bi

100 chord:
100 x 100 4
^^-<R =- 1

bracings:
60 x 60 4
+ ^ - - ^

50
- ^ . R r 0.7 ^ \
S .

N (cycles)
' 1 ' 1 ! 1 1 1 1 I 1 i i r~v. i i 11
10 4
10 5
10 6
10 7

Fig. 8.23. Influence R-ratio (chord failure).

.4.2.3. Influence geometrical parameters

A n a l y s i s o f the g e o m e t r i c a l parameters shows t h a t the w a l l thickness

r a t i o was the most i m p o r t a n t parameter. As f a r as chord f a i l u r e i s

400
 8-31

c o n c e r n e d , the i n f l u e n c e o f i s n e a r l y l i n e a r as i l l u s t r a t e d f o r gap
b, i r

j o i n t s w i t h j j i = 0 . 6 i n f i g . 8, 24.
o
2
S (N/mm )
r

axigt + bending

= 1.0 X = 1.0

1
= 2.17 x=
2.17

1
*L r2.76 x-
*i 2.76

b,
= 0.6
bo
gap r 0.42 b,

Fe 360
R = 0.1
RK : test series
RK m o d are the lines
forRK.modified by
m u l t i p l y i n g S by X .
r

N (cycles)

t b.
Fig. 8.24. Influence f o r a gap j o i n t w i t h = 0 . 6 .
i t b
o

For b r a c i n g f a i l u r e s the i n f l u e n c e i s small and decrease w i t h i n -

t
c r e a s i n g -r~ r a t i o s . Due to a l i m i t e d number o f t e s t r e s u l t s t h e i n -
1 t
o
fluence of i s o n l y taken i n t o account when t h e r e e x i s t s a l i n e a r
1 l
o
r e l a t i o n s h i p . Forr a t i o s h i g h e r than a c e r t a i n l i m i t i n g v a l u e , up
l z

to which a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s , the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s assumed

t
t o be independent on -r~ . T h i s i s however a c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n .
1
l b

As expected the i n f l u e n c e o f the w i d t h r a t i o T and the w i d t h / w a l l

b o b

thickness r a t i o was small w i t h i n the i n v e s t i g a t e d range.

The j o i n t d e t a i l s f o r K- and N-type j o i n t s w i t h a gap a r e very s i m i l a r

and l e a d t o s i m i l a r f a t i g u e r e s u l t s . For the o v e r l a p j o i n t s a small
d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s t o the advantage o f the K - j o i n t s .
In the case o f chord f a i l u r e s , i . e . i n j o i n t s w i t h low w a l l t h i c k n e s s
t
r a t i o s j- , the o v e r l a p j o i n t s have a b e t t e r f a t i g u e behaviour than
i
the gap j o i n t s as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 8 . 2 5 .

401
 8-32

SrlN/mrr? )
300
* J gap = 0.42 bi
\ /
RHS K-joints
J 100% overlap
200
\. A
\. O bo
:06
A X .

in =1.0
ti
is. o
+ Fe 360, Fe 510
R = -1
a
ovirlop chord :
100 100 4

bracings :
60x60x4

50

/V( c y c l e s )
i i i i iii i i i i i iii i ! 1 1 1 1 1 I 1
1
W- 10' 10" 10'

t
Fig. 8.25. I n f l u e n c e gap v . s . o v e r l a p f o r = 1 . 0 , Fe 360 and Fe 51tt
i

Moreover i n g i r d e r s w i t h o v e r l a p j o i n t s the secondary bending moments

are lower than i n g i r d e r s w i t h gap j o i n t s which r e s u l t s i n a more
economical design u s i n g o v e r l a p j o i n t s .

8.4.2.4. Influence of scale

In t h i s r e s e a r c h programme, the chord s e c t i o n s v a r i e d between 100 mm

and 200 mm width w i t h a maximum w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f 8 mm. W i t h i n t h i s
range no obvious s c a l e e f f e c t was o b s e r v e d . The range i s however t o o
small t o draw general c o n c l u s i o n s .
In the ECSC o f f s h o r e r e s e a r c h programme a c o n s i d e r a b l e s c a l e e f f e c t
was found as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g s . 8 . 8 . and 8 . 9 . Based on these ECSC
t e s t r e s u l t s i t i s proposed t o reduce the design S^ v a l u e s f o r j o i n t s
w i t h dimensions g r e a t e r than 200 mm u s i n g a s c a l e f u n c t i o n ( s e e f i g .
8.29. and Appendix VI11-1).

8.4.2.5. E v a l u a t i o n from t e s t r e s u l t s t o design c r i t e r i a

From the a n a l y s i s i t can be concluded t h a t the s t e e l grade and f a b r i c a -

t i o n method need not be c o n s i d e r e d f o r the e v a l u a t i o n of d e s i g n r u l e s .
Basing the a n a l y s i s on R = +0.1 and assuming t h a t the f i n a l results
can be used f o r - 1 J R $ + 0 . 2 , i s an a c c e p t a b l e approach.

402
 8-33

For h i g h e r R - v a l u e s , the s t r e s s r a t i o has to be reduced as illustrated

in f i g . 8.23.

The f i n a l recommendations are based on chord l o a d i n g i n t e n s i o n , which

i s a s a f e approach.
With regard t o bending moments; the s t r e s s range i s based on the t o t a l
nominal s t r e s s range i n a member due to a x i a l l o a d and bending moment.
t "
Among the g e o m e t r i c a l parameters the w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o - r - and the
l
i
gap or o v e r l a p are the main i n f l u e n c i n g p a r a m e t e r s . The others have
l e s s i n f l u e n c e w i t h i n i n the range investigated.
A comparison of a l l 50% s u r v i v a l S-N curves f o r K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h
gap and R = + 0 . 1 , w i t h t e n s i o n l o a d i n g i n the chord and m o d i f i e d by
t-
m u l t i p l y i n g -r- , shows t h a t a l l S - N curves are i n a r e l a t i v e l y narrow
o
s c a t t e r band as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 8 . 2 6 .
T S (N/mm)
r

axial + bending
300
R = 0.1
RHS K - a n d N-type
joints with gap 0.6 ^ ^ - 1 . 0
bo ^
Ml

200 50% survival

S -Nr curves
plotted against
x S r with

^^^.^ compression
l o a d i n g in t h e
chord:
modified by ^
^Sj^ ,50% s u r v i tal l i n e s
\ rious series

x ^ \ ^ * > K X

50% lower bound^/l. ^ ^ X ^ ^

9 5 % survival line / * "-..

Ss

W(cycLes)
i i i i i i ii i i i i i i i i

Fig. 8.26. Summary of a l l S^-N curves f o r gap j o i n t s ,

The r e s u l t s of j o i n t s w i t h compression l o a d i n g i n the c h o r d , where

t e s t s showed a chord f a i l u r e , are i n c l u d e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n of 15% i n
S r (as i n d i c a t e d i n f i g . 8 . 2 2 . ) .
The same was done s e p a r a t e l y f o r K - a n d N-type j o i n t s w i t h 100% o v e r l a p .
For these c o l l e c t i o n s of S -N curves w i t h 50% s u r v i v a l , lower bound
r '
S^-N curves can be determined which are used f o r the f u r t h e r evalua-
t i o n to design rules.
403
 8-34

For those s e r i e s w i t h s u f f i c i e n t t e s t r e s u l t s the s t a n d a r d deviations

are d e t e r m i n e d .

s
yres = s V / _ 1
- r 2
< - )
8 9

where:
s = s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n number o f c y c l e s
r = correlation coefficient.

Now these s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s a r e adopted t o the r e l e v a n t lower bound

S - N curves o f a group. The S ^ - N l i n e s f o r 95% s u r v i v a l
r a r e now a s -
sumed t o have the v a l u e s o f the 50% lower bound S-N l i n e s o f each
qroup minus two times the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n S . Fig. 8.27. i l l u s -
trates f o r gap j o i n t s a comparison between the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r
R = +0.1 and the 95% s u r v i v a l S ~N curve.
r

T* S ( N / m m )
r
2

axiaL+ bending
R = 0.1
RHS K-and N-type
joints with gap 0.6 < ^ - 1 . 0
bo
( failure)
200 -
test results
- plotted against
- X S With
r

o N -joints
K -joints
O O

;- .
0

% o o
B 8
50
\
-

95% survival line /

>
N(cycles)
i 1 i'-^J 1 1 1 1 1

Fig. 8.27. Summarized t e s t r e s u l t s f o r gap j o i n t s (failure).

As f a r as i n i t i a t i o n o f c r a c k s was observed and recorded the r e s u l t s

are i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g . 8 . 2 8 . f o r gap j o i n t s . I t i s shown t h a t a l l
t e s t r e s u l t s f o r c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n a r e above the l i n e r e p r e s e n t i n g the
951 s u r v i v a l l i n e f o r f a i l u r e d i v i d e d by an assumed l o a d f a c t o r o f 1 . 2 .
The S-N curves d i s c u s s e d 1 i m i t the s t r e s s i n the b r a c i n g s . For j o i n t s w i t h
a high chord l o a d i n g and low s t r e s s e d b r a c i n g s , the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f

404
 8-35

I Sr(N/mm ) 2

xigl+ bending
300
R = 0.1
RHS K - a n d - N -type
joints with gap 0.6 L < 1.0
bo
( crack initiation)
200
test results
plotted against
x-S with
r

to
100

95% survival line divided by 12

N (cycles
_1 I I i i i i i J I 1 i i i M _] I i i i i i

Fig. 8.28. Summarized t e s t r e s u l t s f o r gap j o i n t s ( I n i t i a t i o n of

cracks).

the chord w i l l be d e c i s i v e . For the time being i t i s proposed t o use

c u r v e D o f t h e A W S ( f i g . 8 . 6 . ) , which a p p l i e s to s i m i l a r l o a d i n g c a s e s .
In new i n t e r n a t i o n a l recommendations, f a t i g u e l i m i t s between 2.10^ and
g
2.10 c y c l e s a r e i n d i s c u s s i o n . As no t e s t evidence i s a v a i l a b l e f o r
N > 1 0 i t i s p r e l i m i n a r y proposed to use 1 0 c y c l e s f o r t h e f a t i g u e
7 7

g
l i m i t f o r c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g and 2 . 1 0 f o r spectrum l o a d i n g .

8.4.2.6. Recommended S - N curves f o r K- and N-type joints

The recommended 95% s u r v i v a l S - N curves a r e shown i n f i g . 8 . 2 9 . T h i s

f i g u r e a l s o shows the c h e c k i n g procedure based on nominal s t r e s s e s .
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s t e e l g r a d e or the f a b r i c a t i o n method o f t h e h o l -
low s e c t i o n s need n o t be c o n s i d e r e d .
These recommended S - N curves a r e v a l i d w i t h i n t h e v a l i d i t y range i n
the t a b l e on page 8 . 3 7 .
For h i g h e r v a l u e s o f R, i t may be n e c e s s a r y t e reduce t h e S^ v a l u e s
a c c o r d i n g t o f i g . 8 . 2 3 . However, more i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d t o g i v e
final recommendations f o r R > +0.2 ( s e e Appendix VI11 1 ) .
To prevent v i s u a l c r a c k s under s e r v i c e a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n , a load f a c -
tor of 1 . 2 . i s advised.

405
 J
S r (N/mm

Recommended 9 5 % survival S - N r

curves for K-and N-type joints

made of square hollow sections

for -1 < R 5 + 0.2

bracing checklcurves A . B . C ) :

f ) - <
l
i
1 i mi t

500 < i.o

f (S) = + 3

CO
I
b i n mm)
o

Values f o r t /t-
Q limit

gap joints 2.0

K-type o v e r l a p joints 1.2
N-type o v e r l a p joints 1.4

chord check (curveD)

Sr l o t S Sr .f(S)
x

Note:

S = s
tot (axial + bending)
>. nominal

5 6 7 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 6
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A/ (cycles)

Fig. 8.29. Recommended 95% s u r v i v a l S - N curves

r for K- and N - t y p e j o i n t s made o f square h o l l o w sections.
 8-37

parameter gap j o i n t s overlap joints

40 - 90
0
1
0 2 40 - 90

b
i i
h b
i = h
i

b * 450 mm
b
o 0

b
o
^ 25
z
o

bj , b 2 D
l * 2 b

0 . 5 & * 1.0
0

gap/overl ap 0.5(b -b )*g*l.l(b -b )

o i o i 50&overlap*100%

Fe Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 5 1 0 , St E 4 7 , S t E 70

Further: - 1 * R * +0.2.

Some a d d i t i o n a l remarks
t
- For 6 = 0 . 6 , the l i m i t i n g v a l u e s f o r f(j~) may be h i g h e r f o r the gap
i
as w e l l as o v e r l a p j o i n t s but more t e s t s are needed to j u s t i f y a
h i g h e r l i m i t . F u r t h e r these S^-N curves are c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r joints
w i t h a 50% o v e r l a p .
- Due to the nonuniform s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n K- and N-type j o i n t s
made o f square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the bending s t r e s s e s i n the d i a g o n a l s
s h o u l d be assumed as f o l l o w s :

gap j o i n t s : S^ b e n d i n g - 40 T 60% o f the nominal s t r e s s range

due to a x i a l load.

overlap j o i n t s : S r b e n d i n g - 25 v 40% o f the nominal s t r e s s range

due to a x i a l load.

In the v e r t i c a l s o f N-type j o i n t s they may be h i g h e r due to the r e -

l a t i v e g r e a t e r s t i f f n e s s o f t h i s member.

407
 8-38

Fig. 8.30. C a l c u l a t i o n model f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the bending

moments i n square h o l l o w s e c t i o n j o i n t s .

A b e t t e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n may be o b t a i n e d by the assumption t h a t i n gap j o i n t s

t h r e e s i d e s o f the b r a c i n g s are e f f e c t i v e which has the same r e s u l t as a
c e r t a i n s h i f t i n g o f the system l i n e s . As a r e s u l t an e c c e n t r i c i t y has to
be taken i n t o account which can e a s i l y be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the e x i s t i n g
computerprogrammes f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the a x i a l loads and moments.
For j o i n t s w i t h 100% o v e r l a p the top f a c e o f the chord t r a n s f e r s
m o s t l y shear l o a d s . Assuming an e c c e n t r i c i t y o f the b r a c i n g s o f two
times the w a l l t h i c k n e s s t o f the chord g i v e s moments which are i n
o 3

r e a s o n a b l e agreement w i t h the measurements i n a c t u a l t e s t s and g i r d e r s .

As a r e s u l t the d i a g o n a l s have an e c c e n t r i c i t y o f 2t to a hinge point
i n the c a l c u l a t i o n model and the chord 0 . 5 h - 2 t .
o o
These p r e l i m i n a r y g u i d e l i n e s f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n model are i l l u s t r a t e d
i n f i g . 8 . 3 0 . but are s t i l l a f u r t h e r p o i n t o f study.
8.5. End to end c o n n e c t i o n s

The chord members i n l a t t i c e g i r d e r s have to be j o i n e d t o g e t h e r as the

commonly a v a i l a b l e l e n g t h s are not u s u a l l y l o n g enough. The connection
can be made by b u t t welds o r by means o f f i l l e t welds to a c o n n e c t i o n
plate ( f i g . 8.31.).

Fillet weld connection Buttweld connection

Fig. 8.31. End-to-end connections.

The b u t t welded j o i n t i s p r e f e r a b l e as i t has a g e o m e t r i c a l stress

c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r being u n i t y whereas a j o i n t w i t h a c o n n e c t i o n

408
 8-39

p l a t e has a s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r o f about 1.6 due

t o the r e s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t o f the p l a t e . A d d i t i o n a l l y i n j o i n t s with
low g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s the welds are usually
critical f o r f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r , and b u t t welds behave b e t t e r than
fillet welds.

B u t t welded end to end c o n n e c t i o n s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s can

g e n e r a l l y be designed u s i n g the AWS c u r v e C f o r nominal s t r e s s which
corresponds w i t h curve X shown i n f i g . 8 . 6 .
For small w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s e . g . t 8 mm t h e r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n may i n -
f l u e n c e the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h considerably.
T e s t s on end to end c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h f o r example 2 . 4 mm w a l l t h i c k n e s s ,
show a r e d u c t i o n o f about 40% i n s t r e s s range below t h a t g i v e n by the
AWS c u r v e X f o r the low c y c l e range. T h e r e f o r e f o r w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s
l e s s than 8 mm i t i s recommended t h a t the s t r e s s range i s reduced by
10% per mm.
B u t t welded end to end c o n n e c t i o n s o f r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s behave
worse than those o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s due t o the welds a t the
corners. In the case of f i l l e t welded c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h a p l a t e , w a l l
bending l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e s the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h [24, 32, 33],
The recommended 95% s u r v i v a l S ~ N curves are shown i n f i g . 8 . 3 2 .
r

For w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s between 4 and 8 mm, the v a l u e s can be determined

by i n t e r p o l a t i o n .
For l a r g e r w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s up to the a v a i l a b l e w a l l t h i c k n e s s of 16 mm,
it i s proposed to use the curves f o r 8 mm f o r the time b e i n g .
These curves can be used independent o f the s t e e l g r a d e and the f a b r i -
c a t i o n method. No i n f l u e n c e o f the R - r a t i o has to be c o n s i d e r e d .

Sometimes the h o l l o w s e c t i o n s are connected through end gusset p l a t e s .

I n f o r m a t i o n on these can be found i n [ 1 9 , 2 2 ] ,
Some r e s u l t s are summarized i n f i g . 8 . 3 3 [ 1 9 ] .

Other types o f joints

B e s i d e s the j o i n t s d i s c u s s e d many o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s exist

For example the j o i n t s can be s t i f f e n e d by p l a t e s o r r i n g s . Regarding
s t i f f e n e d c i r c u l a r hollow section j o i n t s i n f o r m a t i o n can be found i n
[34 to 3 6 ] .
S t i f f e n e d j o i n t s o f r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s a r e t e s t e d a t the
U n i v e r s i t y of Karlsruhe [24, 3 7 ] ,
 8-40

* S (N/mm )
r

300
Sr ;

V-
J

\ ,
butt welded
-
X V
s
s,
v s Y
s >
\
v 1
MI = t Tt
N V fillet welded
\
S
N
S >>
s.
s

s s butt weld o mm
butt weld i mm
k
s 1 Sk / / fillet weld S mm -
VS X / / f i l l e t weld 4mm
s. {-
Vs
\
} s
N,
Ns s
Ns
>

)
s
KT 2 3 * 5 6 7 8910* 2 3 * 5 6 7 910* 2 3 * 5 6 7 S 910'
N (cyclts)

Fig. 8.32. Recommended 95% s u r v i v a l S - N curves f o r end t o end con-

r

n e c t i o n s o f square h o l l o w sections.

d < U R
76.3X2.7 -1 o e]
114.3X4.0 0 c!
X4.5 A .)
A b)

1000 139.8X4.0 1 b
0 n b

88.9X5.0 0.1

X
b)
b)

Fig. 8.33. Connections between p l a t e s and SHS [ 1 9 , 2 2 ] .

 8-41

Very r e c e n t l y r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d out on c a s t s t e e l nodes for

o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s . The advantage o f these j o i n t s i s t h a t the welds
can be l o c a t e d o u t s i d e the r e g i o n s where high s t r e s s concentrations
o c c u r . The s t e e l c a s t nodes can be designed i n such a way t h a t they
have a g r e a t l y improved s t a t i c and f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e compared to
j o i n t s w i t h " c a n s " . I n f o r m a t i o n can be found i n r e f s . [20 and 39 to
41].

The annul us between p i l e and l e g member o f a j a c k e t s t r u c t u r e is

g e n e r a l l y f i l l e d w i t h cement g r o u t . T h i s improves the s t i f f n e s s and
the s t r e n g t h o f the c o n n e c t i o n s to the l e g member. D e t a i l e d i n f o r m a -
t i o n can be found i n [42 to 4 4 ] .
More i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e but has not been p u b l i s h e d as i t still
i s being t r e a t e d as c o n f i d e n t i a l .

P r o p e r l y designed H . S . F . G . b o l t e d c o n n e c t i o n s g e n e r a l l y have a b e t t e r
f a t i g u e behaviour than welded c o n n e c t i o n s between h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and
plates. For a b o l t e d c o n n e c t i o n , p l a t e s or p a r t s o f open s e c t i o n s are
always used which are welded to the h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . In H . S . F . G . b o l t e d
c o n n e c t i o n s the c o n t a c t f a c e should be l o c a t e d as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e to
the components i n which the t e n s i l e f o r c e i s a c t i n g [ 4 6 ] . In t h i s case
variations in external t e n s i l e f o r c e has l i t t l e o r no i n f l u e n c e on the
b o l t l o a d i n g but o n l y produces a r e d u c t i o n i n c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e .

8.7. Cumulative f a t i g u e design

In p r a c t i c e the l o a d i n g w i l l not be c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g but

will vary w i t h t i m e . The s i m p l e s t approach f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
the f a t i g u e damage i s u s i n g a c u m u l a t i v e damage r u l e . The c u m u l a t i v e
damage r u l e d e s c r i b e s the f a t i g u e behaviour as a f u n c t i o n o f the i n -
dividual l o a d c y c l e s . The most w i d e l y known and used i s t h a t o f Miner
[ 2 , 4 ] , ( a l s o known as the P a l m g r e n - M i n e r r u l e ) . It supposes that
f a t i g u e damage accumulates l i n e a r i l y w i t h the number o f c y c l e s applied
at a p a r t i c u l a r l o a d l e v e l . The f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n i s w r i t t e n a s :

Z J- * 1.0 (8.10)

41 1
 8-42

where ru i s the number of c y c l e s a p p l i e d a t l e v e l i and N. i s the

number o f c y c l e s to f a i l u r e a t t h a t l e v e l . T h i s r u l e i s very s i m p l e
because i t does not c o n s i d e r i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s between the damage
s u s t a i n e d a t d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s l e v e l s and d i s r e g a r d s sequence e f f e c t s
between the c y c l e s .
Due to the shortcomings of t h i s r u l e e . g . d i s r e g a r d i n g of l o a d c y c l e s
below the f a t i g u e l i m i t and d i s r e g a r d i n g sequence e f f e c t s , v a r i o u s in-
vestigators have suggested m o d i f i c a t i o n s . S c h i j v e [5] comes to the
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a t h e o r y which i s d i s t i n c t l y s u p e r i o r to the P a l m g r e n -
Miner r u l e does not e x i s t . Due t o i t s s i m p l i c i t y i t is preferred above
o t h e r c u m u l a t i v e damage r u l e s .
For the a p p l i c a t i o n of a damage r u l e the l o a d spectrum must be known.
The l o a d spectrum g i v e s the c u m u l a t i v e f u n c t i o n of the l o a d i n g i n a
s p e c i f i e d t i m e . For example i n f i g . 8 . 2 . i t i s given as a f u n c t i o n of
the maximum s t r e s s range f o r a c e r t a i n number of cycles.
It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to i n c l u d e the l o a d spectrum a l r e a d y i n the S-N
l i n e s as shown i n f i g . 8 . 3 .
The S - N curves p r e s e n t e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s are based on c o n -
stand a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g and thus the c u m u l a t i v e damage r u l e has to be
applied. In j o i n t s i n which the hot spot s t r e s s e s always e x i s t a t the
same l o c a t i o n the c a l c u l a t i o n i s r a t h e r s i m p l e . For example i n r e c t a n -
gular hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s the hot spot s t r e s s e s due to a x i a l load
and bending i n p l a n e o c c u r a t the same l o c a t i o n . In j o i n t s of circular
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the l o c a t i o n s can d i f f e r . For spectrum l o a d i n g several
l o c a t i o n s have t o be c h e c k e d . A c o n s e r v a t i v e approach i s o b t a i n e d by
assuming t h a t the hot spot s t r e s s e s o c c u r t o g e t h e r a t one p o i n t .

Comparison w i t h s t a t i c strength

For the c a l c u l a t i o n of the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h the secondary bending mo-

ments due to the j o i n t s t i f f n e s s and small e c c e n t r i c i t i e s can be n e -
g l e c t e d . The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s are based on s e m i - e m p i r i c a l
f o r m u l a e . These formulae are e s t a b l i s h e d as f o l l o w s :

- mean of t e s t r e s u l t s : N u

- c h a r a c t e r i s t i c strength : = N (1-1.64
u V^ )
u

(95% s u r v i v a l )
- design strength N = 1.0 < y m-Y c 1 - 2 5

N e.g. 1.3< Y s 1.5

w.
 8-43

For the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h the secondary bending mo-

ments have to be i n c l u d e d because they can i n f l u e n c e the f a t i g u e behav-
i o u r c o n s i d e r a b l y . A f t e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the 50% s u r v i v a l S-N l i n e a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c 95% s u r v i v a l S-N l i n e w i t h 95% c o n f i d e n c e i s d e t e r m i n e d .
T h i s S-N l i n e i s adopted as d e s i g n c u r v e . Further a load f a c t o r e . g .
Y = 1.2 i s a d o p t e d . The v a l u e o f the l o a d f a c t o r depends on the s t a t i s t -
s

ical d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the l o a d and the r i s k l e v e l a d o p t e d . In offshore

d e s i g n a l o a d f a c t o r o f u n i t y i s usual [ 4 6 ] . Comparison o f the f a t i g u e
and the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h shows t h a t the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h i s generally
d e c i s i v e f o r those j o i n t s i n which the R - r a t i o i s h i g h and the number
of c y c l e s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . If the secondary bending moments are high
the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h w i l l soon become d e c i s i v e i n comparison w i t h the
static strength.

P r e l i m i n a r y recommended d e s i g n methods

In p r i n c i p l e the s t r a i n - o r s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n method i s the best

a v a i l a b l e approach f o r f a t i g u e d e s i g n o f t u b u l a r s t r u c t u r e s especially
for complicated j o i n t s . Using t h i s method t h e b a s i c curves f o r hot spot
s t r a i n o r s t r e s s s h o u l d be known and t h e hot s p o t s t r a i n - o r s t r e s s
range has t o be determined i n a p r o p e r way.
For l a r g e s c a l e j o i n t s as used i n o f f s h o r e the m o d i f i e d AWS-X-X c u r v e
s h o u l d be s h i f t e d as shown i n f i g . 8 . 9 . Very r e c e n t l y an approach has
been worked out which i s g i v e n i n Appendix VI11 - 1 .
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the hot spot s t r a i n range by f i n i t e element p r o -
grammes o r models i s time consuming and e x p e n s i v e , t h e r e f o r e t h i s will
g e n e r a l l y be r e s t r i c t e d to l a r g e e x p e n s i v e c o m p l i c a t e d j o i n t s .
For l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d j o i n t s e . g . T - , Y-, X- and K- o r N - j o i n t s with
gap and made o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n can
be c a l c u l a t e d w i t h the p a r a m e t r i c formulae g i v e n i n t a b l e s 8 . 2 . . to 8.4...
However f o r o v e r l a p j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s o r j o i n t s made
o f square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s no p a r a m e t r i c formulae are a v a i l a b l e up to now.
Due to these e x i s t i n g gaps i n knowledge r e g a r d i n g the s t r e s s c o n c e n -
t r a t i o n s and the b a s i c S-N curves f o r hot spot s t r e s s o r s t r a i n other
methods have been developed o r are i n study e . g . the punching shear
method, the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method and the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n method.
These methods t a k e i n d i r e c t l y account o f the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n by
g i v i n g the r e l a t i o n between the nominal s t r e s s range which can be a p -
p l i e d on the j o i n t and the number o f cycles.

413
 8-44

As the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n method i s s t i l l under development and the

punching shear method i s c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r j o i n t s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y thick
w a l l e d c h o r d s , i t i s proposed f o r the time b e i n g to use the following
methods f o r s i m p l e j o i n t d e t a i l s w i t h i n the range of v a l i d i t y given.

- C i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s : SCF method w i t h p a r a m e t r i c formulae

(see 8 . 3 . 1 . ) .
- Square h o l l o w s e c t i o n j o i n t s : c l a s s i f i c a t i o n method (see 8 . 4 . 2 . ) .

A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g d e f i n i t e b a s i c S^-N c u r ve s f o r the hot spot s t r a i n -

or s t r e s s range and a f t e r having o b t a i n e d more r e l e v a n t information
r e g a r d i n g the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s f o r square h o l l o w section
joints, it will be p o s s i b l e to b r i n g these methods t o g e t h e r i n t o one
d e s i g n a p p r o a c h . For example the S-N curves o f the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
method can then d i r e c t l y be r e l a t e d to the b a s i c S-N c u r v e s . The re-
l a t i n g f a c t o r s are then i n p r i n c i p l e the s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n factors.
(Very r e c e n t l y such an approach has been worked o u t ; see Appendix VIII-1).

,10. References

1. Gurney, T.R. : A r e - a n a l y s i s of f a t i g u e data f o r welded

Maddox, S . J . joints i n s t e e l . Welding I n s t i t u t e Report
E/44/72/1972.

2. M i n e r , M.A. : Cumulative damage i n f a t i g u e , J o u r n a l of

A p p l i e d M e c h . , Vol 1 2 , 1945.

3. Hai b a c h , E. : M o d i f i z i e r t e L i n e a i r e Sehartensakkumulation
Hypothese z u r B e r c k s i c h t i g u n g des
D a u e r f e s t i g k e i t s a b f a l l s mit F o r t s c h r e i t e n -
der S c h d i g u n g .
L.&F. Technische M i t t e i l u n g e n T.M. Nr; 50/70.

Strating, J. : F a t i g u e and s t o c h a s t i c l o a d i n g s , Thesis,

Delft University, 1973.

Schijve, J. : The a c c u m u l a t i o n of f a t i g u e damage i n

a i r c r a f t m a t e r i a l s and s t r u c t u r e s ,
AGARDograph no. 157, NATO 1972.

Back, J . de : F r a c t u r e M e c h a n i c s , F a t i g u e and B r i t t l e
Fracture (PDOB c ou r s e i n Dutch) 1979.

ECSC : ECSC o f f s h o r e s t e e l s r e s e a r c h programme.

414
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B a c k , J . de T e s t i n g o f T u b u l a r j o i n t s , Report o f WG.
Ill o f the ECSC o f f s h o r e Programme,
Cambridge S e m i n a r , 1978.

A.W.S. AWS S t r u c t u r a l Welding Code, AWS D l . l

(American Welding S o c i e t y ) .

M a r s h a l l , P.W. Basic Considerations f o r Tubular J o i n t

Design i n O f f s h o r e C o n s t r u c t i o n , Int.
Conf. on Welding i n O f f s h o r e C o n s t r u c t i o n ,
N e w c a s t l e , F e b r . 1974.

Marshall, P.W. Basis f o r tubular j o i n t design codes,

Toprac, A.A. ASCE p r e p r i n t 2008 ( 1 9 7 3 ) .

Marshall, P.W. A review o f s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n factors

i n t u b u l a r c o n n e c t i o n s . Report C E - 3 2 ,
April 1978, S h e l l Houston.

Wirsching, P.H. P r o b a b i l i t y - b a s e d f a t i g u e design c r i t e r i a

Light, M.C. for offshore structures.
API-Prac. P r o j e c t 1 5 , Nov. 1979.

Dijkstra, O.D. F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f welded t u b u l a r T- and

Back, J . de X-joints. OTC 3696, 1980.

Wylde, J.G. The i n f l u e n c e o f j o i n t dimensions on the

McDonald, A. f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f welded t u b u l a r joints.
Paper 4 2 , Boss 1979.

Gurney, T.R. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h i c k n e s s on the fatigue

s t r e n g t h o f welded j o i n t s . Paper 4 1 ,
Boss 1979.

Wylde, J.G. F a t i g u e t e s t s on T u b u l a r K- and KT-joints

under a x i a l brace l o a d i n g s . OTC 3697, 1980,

Kurobane, Y. Some s i m p l e S-N r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n fatigue

Konomi, M. of tubular K - j o i n t s . Trans, of A.I.J.
No. 2 1 2 , O c t . 1973.

Japanese S o c i e t y f o r Recommendations f o r t h e design and f a b r i -

Steel Construction cation of tubular structures i n steel.
Japanese S o c i e t y f o r S t e e l Construction,
Febr. 1980 ( i n Japanese).

415
 8-46

20. Ohtake, F. S t a t i c and f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f high t e n -

Sakamoto, S . s i l e strength steel tubular j o i n t s for
et. a l . o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s , OTC 3254, 1978.

21. Iida, K. P r e d i c t i o n of f a t i g u e l i f e of tubular

Yoshida, K. connections in offshore structures.
P r o c . 5th I n t . Ocean Development C o n f . ,
Tokyo, S e p t . 1978.

22. Zirn, R. Schwingfestigkeitsverhalten geschweiss-

t e r Rohrknotenpunkte und R o h r l a s c h e n -
v e r b i n d u n g e n , H e f t 7 5 - 0 1 , Techn. W i s s .
B e r . M . P . A . S t u t t g a r t , 1975.

23. Mang, F. F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f welded CHS-joints,

S t r i e b e l , A. V e r s u c h s a n s t a l t f r S t a h l , Holz und
S t e i n e , U n i v e r s i t y of Karlsruhe, (un-
dated).

24. D u t t a , D. The f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n
Mang, F. joints. C i d e c t Monograph N r . 7. To be
Wardenier, J. p u b l i s h e d , 1981.

25. Kuang, J . G . Stress concentration in tubular joints,

Potvin, A.B. OTC 2205, 1975.
Leick, R.D.

26. D i j k s t r a , O.D. Study o f l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g the f a t i g u e

Hartog, J. behaviour of u n s t i f f e n e d t u b u l a r joints.
Wardenier, J. Part III: Stress concentration factors in
t u b u l a r j o i n t s , S t e v i n Report N r . 6 - 7 7 - 1 0 .
TNO-IBBC Report N r . BI77-58/05.3.31315.

27. G i b s t e i n , M.B. Parametrical s t r e s s a n a l y s i s of T-joints,

ECSC S e m i n a r , 1978, Cambridge.

28. Wordsworth, A . C . Stress concentrations at unstiffened

Smedley, G . P . t u b u l a r j o i n t s ECSC S e m i n a r , 1978,
Cambridge.

29. Wordsworth, A . C . S t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s a t K- and KT-

t u b u l a r j o i n t s . Conference on f a t i gue i n o f f -
shore s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l , London Febr. 1981.

416
 8-47

30. Wardenier, J . The f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r o f N-type j o i n t s in

K o n i n g , C H . M . de welded l a t t i c e g i r d e r s made o f RHS (2nd
and 3rd P h a s e ) , D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f
Technology and TNO-IBBC, Reports 6 - 7 8 - 1 1
and 6 - 8 0 - 3 .

31. Noordhoek, C. The f a t i g u e behaviour o f welded j o i n t s of

Wardenier, J. square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , P a r t I: Test r e -
D u t t a , D. s u l t s and S-N c u r v e s , S t e v i n report
6-79-11.

32. Noordhoek, C. The f a t i g u e behaviour o f welded j o i n t s of

Wardenier, J. square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , P a r t I I : Analysis
D u t t a , D. S t e v i n Report 6 - 8 0 - 4 .

33. Wardenier, J. The f a t i g u e behaviour o f l a t t i c e girder

D u t t a , D. joints i n square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s . Int.
Conf. " J o i n t s i n s t r u c t u r a l steelwork"
April 1981, T e e s i d e .

34. Maeda, T. Experimental study on the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h

Uchino, K. o f welded t u b u l a r T- and X - j o i n t s
S a k u r a i , H. IIW doc. XV-270-69.

35. Aki t a , Y. Experimental study on the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h

M a t s u i , A. o f welded tube to gusset joints.
Uchino, K. IIW doc. X I I 1 - 5 7 3 - 1 9 7 0 .
Kamiyama, T.

36. Teramoto, S . : F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f welded t u b u l a r j o i n t s

K a w a s a k i , T. in offshore structures,
Kaminokado, S . : M.T.B. 100, A p r i l 1975.
Matoba, M. a l s o p u b l i s h e d as 0TC 1820 and IIW doc.
XI11-687-73.

37. Mang, F. Untersuchungen an Knolenpunkten aus

Rechteckhohlprofilen mit r t l i c h e n
V e r s t r k u n g e n . C i d e c t programme 7C.
U n i v e r s i t t K a r l s r u h e , 1980.

417
 8-48

38. Akiyaraa, N, Study Report on T u b u l a r J o i n t s in

et. a l . Offshore Steel Construction.
S o c i e t y o f S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n i n Japan
March 1972 ( i n Japanese).

39. Walker, E.F. The a t t r a c t i o n o f c a s t s t e e l nodes for

et. a l .
o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s , OTC 3694, 1980.

40. Noda, T. Comparative a p p r a i s a l o f c a s t and welded

Kai, T. tubular joints i n high s t r e n g t h s t e e l s -
O k a b a y a s h i , N. F e a s i b i l i t y study f o r p r e - f a b r i c a t e d l e g
b l o c k s y s t e m . OTC 3695, 1980.

41. Hoesch Report on the stage o f Development of

cast steel nodes.
Hoesch, F e b r . 1980 ( c o n f i d e n t i a l ) .

42. Billington, C.J. The s t r e n g t h o f l a r g e diameter grouted

c o n n e c t i o n s . OTC 3083, 1978.

43. Billington, C.J. Research i n t o composite t u b u l a r construc-

tion for offshore jacket structures.
Journal of C o n s t r u c t i o n a l S t e e l r e s e a r c h :
Vol. 1 , S e p t . 1980.

44. Morgan, E . F . S o l i d f i n i t e elements and the rezone

t e c h n i q u e a p p l i e d t o the a n a l y s i s o f
grouted and ungrouted t u b u l a r j o i n t i n -
tersections.
Southwest r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e , A p r i l 1978.

45. API Recommended P r a c t i c e f o r P l a n n i n g

Designing and C o n s t r u c t i n g fixed
O f f s h o r e P l a t f o r m s . American Petroleum
I n s t i t u t e , 1980.

46. Bouwman, L . P . F a t i g u e of b o l t e d c o n n e c t i o n s and b o l t s

loaded i n t e n s i o n .
D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y of Technology, S t e v i n
Report 6-79-9.

418
 8-49

47. Potvin, A.B. Stress concentration i n tubular joints.

Kuang, J . G . SPE J o u r n a l , august 1977.
Leick, R.D.
Kahlich, J.L.

48. D e l f t , D. van A two dimensional a n a l y s i s o f the s t r e s s e s

a t the v i c i n i t y o f the weld toes o f welded
tubular joints.
Report 6 - 8 1 - 8 . S t e v i n L a b o r a t o r y o f the
D e l f t U n i v e r s i t y o f Technology.

49. Songa, T. Steel i n Marine S t r u c t u r e s .

May, M . J . S p e c i a l and p l e n a r y s e s s i o n s o f the
R a d e n k o v i c , D. International Conference " S t e e l i n Marine
Pozzolini, P.F. Structures"
Harrison, J.D. 5 - 8 October 1981, P a r i s , France,
Walker, E.F.
S c h u t z , W.
Haagensen, P.J.
Back, J . de

50. DOE Offshore Installations: Guidance on

Design and C o n s t r u c t i o n Department o f
Energy D r a f t , June 1981.

51. DoE Background to Proposed New F a t i g u e Design

Rules f o r S t e e l Welded J o i n t s i n Offshore
Structures. Department o f Energy, UK.
May 1981.

52. Gurney, T.R. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h i c k n e s s on the f a t i g u e

s t r e n g t h o f welded j o i n t s , Paper 4 1 , BOSS
c o n f e r e n c e , London, August 1979.

419
 !

8-50

420
 8-51

Table 8.1. Survey of a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g SCF i n t u b u l a r joints

A v a i l a b l e formulae or diagrams for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the SCF

loading condition

type axially moment moment out

of j o i n t loaded i n plane of plane

Toprac FRAMETTI FRAMETTI

FRAMETTI EPR EPR
Reber Lloyds Lloyds
T-joint Visser DNV DNV
EPR
Lloyds
DNV

Toprac FRAMETTI FRAMETTI

FRAMETTI EPR EPR
Y-joint Reber Lloyds Lloyds
EPR
Lloyds

Visser Lloyds Lloyds

X-joint
Lloyds

FRAMETTI EPR Lloyds*

Reber Zirn
K-joint Visser Lloyds*
EPR
Zirn
Lloyds*

N-joint EPR
Loyds

Toprac Lloyds* Lloyds*

KT-joint
EPR
Lloyds*

These formulae w i l l become a v a i l a b l e i n 1981.

421
Table 8 . 2 . SCF f o r m u l a e f o r T- and Y - j o i n t s according t o DNV [27]*

Load application SCF formulae validity range

chord: 0.225 < < 0.9

1 SCF = [1.5-3.88(-0.47) ].v- 2 8 7

.(T) - 1 3 7
.(|) - 0 0 6
.sin - 1 6 9
e
10

0.4
<

<
Y < 30

< 1.0
T T

3.5 <|<8.0

brace: 0.3 < B < 0.9

10 < Y < 30
SCF = [ 1 . 0 9 - 1 . 9 3 ( M . 5 ) ] . Y -
2
7 6
.(T) - 0 5 7
.(f) - 0 1 2
.5in - 1 9 4
B
0.47 < T < 1.0

3.5 < < 8 . 0

chord: 0.225 < < 0.9

10 < y < 30
SCF [ 1 . 6 5 - l . l ( - 0 . 4 2 ) ] . Y -
2
0 3 8
.(T) - 1 0 5
.sin- 5 7
e
0.4 < T < 1.0
\
3.5 < w < 8.0

V - ^ - r t - 0.3 < < 0.9

brace:

10 < Y < 30
SCF = [ 0 . 9 5 - 0 . 6 5 ( - 0 . 4 1 ) ] . Y - 2
0 3 9
.(T)- 2 9
.sin - 0 2 1
e
0.47 1 X 1 1.0

3.5 < f < 8 . 0

Table 8 . 2 . Continued.

chord: 0.225 < < 0 . 9

10 < Y 30
SCF = [ 1 . 0 1 - 3 . 3 6 ( - 0 . 6 4 ) ] . Y
2 0 - 9 5
.(x) -
1 1 8
.sin -
1 5 6
8
0.4 < T < 1.0

3.5 < | < 8.0

brace: 0.3 < 0.9

10 1 Y 1 30
SCF = [0.76-1.92(-0.72) ].y- .(T)- .sin - e
2 8 9 4 7 2 0 3

0.47 < T < 1.0

3.5 <f<8.0

The influence f o r the angle 6 i s taken from the EPR formulae for T- and Y - j o i n t s
ro
Table 8 . 3 . SCF f o r m u l a e f o r T - , Y- and X - j o i n t s a c c o r d i n g to L l o y d s [28],

general
Load application SCF formulae
validity range

chord: (two c h e c k s : s a d d l e and crown)

SCF = y.,. .(6.78-6.42B- ).sin( -

6
5 1 7 + 0
- 7 B
\

SCF = K'+K .K"

C C 0 c

V ' [0.7+1.37. ' .T.(1-B)J Y

5
.(2sin- e-sin 6) 5 3

m
T
(g-^)-(|-sTfie)- s i n f l

E B
K/'= 1.05+t 3 0
' 1
.(1.2-B).(cos e+0.15)] 4

o.i3 < e < I.O

brace: 12 < Y < 32

0 . 2 5 < T < 1.0

SCF = 1 + 0 . 6 3 SCF S

30 < e < 90
or
8 < a < 40
SCF = 1 + 0 . 6 3 SCF

chord:

it
SCF - 1.7y.T.6(2.42-2.288 2 - 2
)sin 6
( 1 5
- 1 4
- B)4
6

brace :

SCF = 1+0.63.SCF,
Table 8.3. Continued.

chord:
TT-S >
4
SCF =
C 0.75 Y
0
- .T - .(1.66-
6 0 8 2 5
-0.7g }s1n( - - - 2 1 5 1 6 B
)e

brace:

4 - - 4
1 i SCF = l+0.63.SCF c
1
\

chord:
2
SCF =
s Y .T.g.(1.6-1.156 ).sin 5 ( 1
- 3 5 + B
\
i see above
brace:
4 - - 4
i -
SCF = 1+0.63.SCF S

chord:

1 SCF =
S Y .x.B.(1.56-1.46B ).sin 5 B 2
-( 1 5
- 1 4
- 4 B
)e
r

-1-
4 - " i f brace:

1
SCF = 1+0.63.SCF S

4=
Note: R e c e n t l y a l s o SCF formulae f o r K- and N - j o i n t s have been
p u b l i s h e d by Wordsworth [29].
Table 8.4. EPR f o r m u l a e f o r e s t i m a t i n g SCF's i n simple non-reinforced tubular joints [47].

Load application SCF f o r m u l a e validity range

chord:

_ , q . 0.057 -1.2B 0.808 1.333 , 1 . 6 9 4 . 3

m SCF j y - l . y o l . a . e
S
.y .1 .sin 6 c

brace
, , 0.12 - 1 . 3 5 6 0.55 . 1.94
SCF = 3.751 .
r t : 7 M
. e .y .x.sin e c

T,Y
T v a
F

chord :

SCF . 1.506 S " '

K
0 0 5 9
.Y '
0 6 6 6
T - 1 1 0 4
. ( g /d )- 0
0 6 7
. sin "
1 5 2 1
*,

general:
brace
7 a S 40
5CF = 0.920 . S " -
K
0 4 4 1
.y ' " . "
0 1 0 5 6 0
. ( g / d o ) 0.058_ 1.448s1ne e 0.3 B S 0.8
8 < Y S 33

chord: (30 < e < 90) 0.2 x S 0.8

, , 0.12 0.54 1.068 . 0.01

SCF j = 1.83 . 6 Y . x .sin
c r c D
K

30 4 8 4 90

brace: (30 i 6 t 45)

r , .-0.36 0.1 0.68 , l 2 , 0 . 1 2 6
g
. 0.5
+ 9

SCF = 6.06 . 3 . y . ) .Sin

c r c n
T (;
o

brace: (45 s e s 90)

<- .-0.36 0.1 0.68 , V 2 , 0 . 1 2 6 . 2.8 9

SCF = 13.80 . 6 Y - x (-g ) .Sin

rF n
KT

vertical :
-0.396 0.123 0.672 ,V 2,0.159
9

SCF KT = 4.890 . Y T (-, )

 Table 8 . 4 . Continued.

chord:
err n 7n?
SCF-r y =0. AI* . - - 0 4 . Y0-6 . T0.86 . S.i n0.57
n

brace

SCF . 1.301 . " '

T
0 3 8
. Y
0
- 2 3
. x - 3 8
.sin - 0 2 1

T,Y
F

chord:
err
SLr^ 1 099 -
= 1.82? D
0 6
. Y
- 3 8
. T
- 9 4
. s<i n -
r
0 9

13 brace:
<;rF
S o o,-, .
U ^ = 2.827 O-0.35 . t 0.35 . s i, n0 . 5 8.

see above
chord: (0.3 s i 0.55)
0.787 1.014 0.
SCF = 1.024 .
T . Y T - s i n.1.557
-

r7&
chord: (0.55 < < 0.75)
err n AC9 " 0 . 6 1 9 1.014 O.F. '.sin ' 8
SCF-|- = 0.4o2. a
. Y T 1 5 5 7

brace: (0.3 < $ 0.55)

err i c 0.801 0.852 0.543 < 2.033
SCF = 1.552.
T . Y . T .sin c

brace: (0.55 i < 0.75)

erc n 7 <; -0.281 0.852 0.543 .,2.033
SCF = 0.796.
T
0
. Y . T .sin

-si
 8-58

428
 VIII-1
Appendix VIII

VI11 - 1 Recent developments i n f a t i g u e d e s i g n

Chapter 8 was w r i t t e n i n 1980 as a background document f o r some l e c -

t u r e s given f o r "The I n s t i t u t i o n of Engineers, A u s t r a l i a " . Since that
t i m e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e European O f f s h o r e Programme have been r e p o r t e d .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s programme have been summarized i n s p e c i a l and
p u b l i c s e s s i o n s a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e on " S t e e l i n Marine S t r u c t u r e s " in
P a r i s , October 1981 [ 4 9 ] . F u r t h e r t h e t e s t r e s u l t s have been e v a l u a t e d
by t h e Department o f E n e r g y , U . K . (DoE) to d e s i g n S - N curves for
j o i n t s w i t h chord w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s t s 22 mm [ 5 0 , 5 1 ] .
A l s o t h e S^-N curves i n t h e 1981 v e r s i o n s o f t h e codes AWS [9] and
API [45] have been updated.
Based on t h e a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s f o r small s e c t i o n s [22] and those
f o r l a r g e s e c t i o n s [ 4 9 , 5 1 ] design S ^ - N curves based on hot s p o t s t r e s s
can be d e v e l o p e d , which c o v e r t h e whole f i e l d o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c -
tion joints. F o r a c o n s i s t e n t approach a l s o t h e t e s t e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e
for joints i n square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s i s i n c o r p o r a t e d . In t h i s Appendix
V I I I - 1 b a s i c d e s i g n S ~ N curves based on hot spot s t r e s s a r e worked
r

out which can be used i n general f o r j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r and square h o l -

low s e c t i o n joints.

VIII-1.1 Determination_of_the_hot_sgot_stress

The r e a l hot s p o t s t r e s s a t t h e weld toe depends on t h e g e o m e t r i c a l

s t r e s s e s due t o t h e geometry o f the j o i n t and t h e notch s t r e s s e s due
to t h e geometry o f t h e weld ( s i z e ) and t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e w e l d toe
e.g. a n g l e and u n d e r c u t .
Only t h e geometric s t r e s s a r e r e p r o d u c i b l e because t h e notch s t r e s s e s
depend on t h e f a b r i c a t i o n . T h i s i s t h e reason t h a t o n l y t h e geometric
s t r e s s e s a r e taken i n t o account i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e s t results
and c o n s e q u e n t l y i n d e s i g n . The notch s t r e s s e s o n l y have a l o c a l i n -
f l u e n c e a t t h e weld t o e . Some d i s t a n c e from t h e weld t o e t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f t h e notch s t r e s s e s i s small and t h e geometric s t r e s s g r a d i e n t i s
often nearly l i n e a r . In t h i s r e g i o n t h e ECSC WG I I I has d e f i n e d t h e
measuring p o i n t s f o r t h e s t r a i n s and s t r e s s e s . The g e o m e t r i c a l hot
s p o t s t r e s s i s now d e f i n e d as t h e l i n e a r l y e x t r a p o l a t e d s t r e s s t o t h e
weld t o e through t h e measuring p o i n t s A and B i n d i c a t e d i n f i g . V I I I - 1 .

429
 VI11-2

Fig. VI11-2. Location o f the s t r a i n gauges f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f

t h e hot spot s t r e s s o r s t r a i n .

430
 VI11-3

If t h e maximum s t r e s s e s at the measuring p o i n t s are not perpendicular

to the weld toe then c o n s e r v a t i v e l y these maximum measured s t r e s s e s at
the p o i n t s A and B are used f o r the e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o the weld t o e . The
ECSC WG III has d e f i n e d the d i s t a n c e from A and B t o the weld toe as
indicated in f i g . VI11-2. r.
The d i s t a n c e " a " was o r i g i n a l l y defined
s m a l l e r than 4 mm. In [48] i t i s shown t h a t " a " = 0 . 4 ^ f o r the b r a c i ng
and " a " = 0 . 4 t Q f o r the chord p r o v i d e s a b e t t e r method. For j o i n t s w i t h
6 = 0 . 6 the r e s u l t i n g hot s p o t s t r e s s e s are n e a r l y t h e same f o r both
d e f i n e d values o f " a " but f o r j o i n t s w i t h pronounced t h r e e dimensional
e f f e c t s e . g . S = 1.0 the d i s t a n c e " a " = 0 . 4 t , o r 0 . 4 t agrees better
w i t h the l o c a l i z e d notch region.
For j o i n t s such as used i n o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s t h i s method f o r the de-
t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e hot spot s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s p r o v i d e s a good
agreement between t h e measured and c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s .

For j o i n t s w i t h s m a l l e r dimensions ( e . g . d Q g 200 mm) a l a r g e r scatter

band o f the t e s t r e s u l t s i s o b t a i n e d when a n a l y s e d based on hot spot
s t r e s s . A s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s l a r g e r s c a t t e r has not y e t
been found but i t i s thought t h a t t h i s may be caused by the weld s i z e s
which are i n small j o i n t s relatively larger, the s m a l l e r angle o f the
weld at the t o e and the s t r e s s - o r s t r a i n gradient.

VI11 - 1 . 2 Deterrni n a t i on _of _the_basi^_S - N _ u r y e s

At p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t S^-N curves f o r the hot spot s t r e s s are gi ven i n the

AWS, API and DoE c o d e s . For comparison t h e s e are i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g .
VI11-3.
For a r e a l i s t i c comparison t h e a d d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s i n t h e codes have
to be c o n s i d e r e d e . g . :
- AWS-code [9]:
The curves a r e v a l i d f o r redundant s t r u c t u r e s i n atmospheric service.
For c r i t i c a l members whose s o l e f a i l u r e mode would be c a t o s t r o p h i c
t h e Miners sum should be l i m i t e d to a f r a c t i o n a l v a l u e of 1/3.

- API-code [45]:
In general the d e s i g n f a t i g u e l i f e o f each j o i n t and member s h o u l d
be t w i c e t h e i n t e n d e d s e r v i c e l i f e o f the s t r u c t u r e . For the design
f a t i g u e l i f e t h e Miners sum s h o u l d not exceed unity.

431
 VI11-4

A S r ( N / m m 2
)

600
-
400

- . \ , D oE-T

200

100

AWS-X1

\
50
API - X ' > X AAWP SI ^- XX2.
nprotectec
D o E - T C j n seawate

20 1 1 1 1
10 ;
10- 10* 10 7
10 8
T0 !

N(cycles)

Fig. VI11-3. Hot spot s t r e s s S - N curves from v a r i o u s design codes.

r

For c r i t i c a l elements whose s o l e f a i l u r e c o u l d be c a t a s t r o p i c , use

of an a d d i t i o n a l margin o f s a f e t y should be c o n s i d e r e d . The S^-N
curves a r e based on an e f f e c t i v e c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n .

DoE-code [50]:
The design S - N curves are based on the mean minus two s t a n d a r d de-
v i a t i o n s curves of r e l e v a n t e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . For a c r i t i c a l member
whose s o l e f a i l u r e would be c a t a s t r o p h i c , an a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r on
l i v e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d . For u n p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s exposed to sea
water the b a s i c S^-N c u r v e i s reduced by a f a c t o r o f 2 on l i v e . The
b a s i c S^-N curve i s given f o r 32 mm w a l l t h i c k n e s s . For w a l l thick-
nesses from 22 to 100 mm a c o r r e c t i o n or s t r e s s range has to be
used, being:

,32,0.25
(VIII-1)
r
( 3 2 mm) o

with t i n ran.
o

432
 VI11-5

For j o i n t s w i t h t < 22 mm no m o d i f i c a t i o n f o r the f a t i g u e strength

is given.

In the AWS and API codes two c u r v e s are g i v e n i . e . i n the AWS code and
X2 and i n the API code X a n d X ' . The c u r v e s X-^ and X a r e f o r improved weld
p r o f i l e s which merges smoothly w i t h the a d j o i n i n g base m e t a l , o b t a i n e d
by g r i n d i n g , d r e s s i n g o f use o f s p e c i a l e l e c t r o d e s . The and X'
curves are g i v e n f o r j o i n t s w i t h o u t an improved weld p r o f i l e .

The S - N curves i n the DoE code have been based on a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a -

r
lysis f o r t u b u l a r j o i n t s w i t h the same w a l l t h i c k n e s s . For j o i n t s with
16 mm and 32 mm chord w a l l t h i c k n e s s the mean S ~ N c u r v e s w i t h
r the
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s , have been determined as shown i n f i g . VIII-4.

501 I I I I | _ | L J
io A
10 5
10 6
, .10 7
10 8

Endurance (cycles)

Fig. VI11-4. S^-N curves f o r j o i n t s w i t h 16 mm and 32 mm chord w a l l

thickness [51].

433
 VI11-6

The f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n has been taken as " c r a c k through the w a l l " which

will be roughly 80% of t h e t o t a l l i f e . The j o i n t s w i t h 16 mm have been
t e s t e d o v e r a w i d e r range. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r t h e j o i n t s with
16 mm was found to be l a r g e r than t h a t f o r j o i n t s w i t h 32 mm chord w a l l
t h i c k n e s s . The b a s i c d e s i g n S ~ N c u r v e f o r 32 mm w a l l t h i c k n e s s has
r

now been determined by r e d u c i n g the mean S ~ N c u r v e f o r 32 mm w a l l

r

t h i c k n e s s by two times the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r 16 mm w a l l t h i c k n e s s

specimens which i s a s a f e approach.
The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s i z e o f the j o i n t s i s o n l y r e l a t e d to the w a l l
t h i c k n e s s . The r e l a t i o n g i v e n i . e . e q . (VI11 - 1 ) has been based on a
study o f Gurney [ 5 2 ] , see f i g . VI11-5.

2.4

0.6 I ' l - J - 1
_i i i i

10
100
thickness, m m

VI11-5. I n f l u e n c e o f the w a l l t h i c k n e s s on t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h .

T h i s r e l a t i o n has been m a i n l y based on the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from f l a t

specimens and may not be c o r r e c t f o r small s i z e d t u b u l a r joints,
t h e r e f o r e t h i s r e l a t i o n i s g i v e n i n [50] f o r 22 s t i 100 mm.

434
 VI11-7

For o f f s h o r e d e s i g n more r e f i n e d S^-N curves f o r j o i n t s w i t h w a l l

t h i c k n e s s e s s m a l l e r than 22 mm are l e s s r e l e v a n t , f o r onshore a p p l i c a -
t i o n s however, they are very i m p o r t a n t . The t e s t r e s u l t s o f joints
w i t h a small w a l l t h i c k n e s s , show a l e s s steep s l o p e o f the S ~ N curve r

and an i n f l u e n c e of t h e R - r a t i o as d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 8 . The fatigue

4
s t r e n g t h f o r N = 10 does not i n c r e a s e but a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n
S^ i s o b t a i n e d i n t h e high c y c l e range.

Now a proposal i s worked out f o r Eurocode 3 (EC 3) which takes the

S ^ - N c u r v e f o r 22 mm w i t h a s l o p e m = 3 as t h e b a s i c c u r v e . T h i s b a s i c
curve i s based on t h e DoE recommendations. For t > 22 mm the S values
o r
are reduced a c c o r d i n g to e q . ( V H I - l a ) , thus f o r t = 32 mm the same
c u r v e i s o b t a i n e d as g i v e n i n the DoE code
2 2 0.25
Sr = VIII la
Vmm)"^ ( ")
4
For j o i n t s w i t h t < 22 mm the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h at N = 10 is held
c o n s t a n t but at N = 5 . 1 0 the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s m o d i f i e d by e q .
(VI11-la). The change i n s l o p e i s chosen a t N = 5 . 1 0 6
to be i n a g r e e -
ment w i t h the d r a f t EC 3 recommendations f o r f a t i g u e . The change i n
s l o p e i s i n t r o d u c e d to t a k e account o f the i n f l u e n c e o f small stress
ranges i n case o f s e r v i c e l o a d i n g and u s i n g P a l m g r e n - M i n e r ' s l i n e a r
c u m u l a t i v e damage r u l e . The p o i n t o f changing t h e s l o p e i . e . at
N = 5.10 must be seen as a compromise between t h e e x p e r t s o f the
v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s i n v o l v e d . For N > 5 . 1 0
t h e s l o p e o f the S - N c u r v e
u

r r
i s g e n e r a l l y g i v e n by m-2 i n which m i s the s l o p e f o r N < 5 . 1 0 . For
6 8
s i m p l i c i t y , f o r N > 5.10 up to a f a t i g u e l i m i t N = 2.10 a s l o p e o f
- 5 i s used f o r a l l w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s . As a r e s u l t the T - c u r v e s g i v e n i n
fig. VI11-6 are o b t a i n e d . These curves have been checked w i t h the
a v a i l a b l e t e s t r e s u l t s f o r j o i n t s w i t h small w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s t e s t e d
w i t h v a r i o u s R - v a l u e s o r t e s t e d under random l o a d i n g . I t i s shown i n
[ 2 2 , 2 4 , 33] t h a t f o r j o i n t s w i t h small s e c t i o n s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n -
f l u e n c e of the R - r a t i o exists.
For example the c u r v e K(R 0 . 2 ) w i t h a s l o p e o f - 5 n e a r l y agrees w i t h
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c hot s p o t S^-N curve f o r K- and N - j o i nts i n square hoi low
s e c t i o n s (see f i g . 8.29., page 8 - 3 6 ) . C h e c k i n g t h i s c u r v e w i t h t h e t e s t re-
s u l t s o f Zi rn [22] showed t h a t i t can be c o n s i dered as a lower bound f o r the
t e s t r e s u l t s o f c i r c u l a r hoi 1 ow s e c t i o n j o i n t s as i 11 u s t r a t e d i n f i g. VI11-7.

435
 VI11-8

500
1
1
400
1
V \ 1
I
300 \
- 1
- N X.
S 1
- \ S 1
i
- \
\
1I
200 - N i
- \ X is
1I
- \
S-.
X \
-
\ ! "x

100
-
\ s
\
-x
s
- l
- S\ \
- \
- x

D\ j
50 i i i i 1 I 1 i
4 5 6 7 8
10 2 4 6 810 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 810 2 4 6 810
N (cycles)

Fig. VI11-6. Proposed S^-N c u r v e s .

10 000
Zirn 1975,,, G A P - j o i n t s
measured 'hot spot strain
range
- chord failures
o bracing failures
' ) l o c a t i o n ^ E C S C WG HI

5000
E

E o"
3000

'.
2000

-
/ E

10 4
10 b
10 fc
10'
N (cycles)

Fig. VI11-7. T e s t r e s u l t s f o r small j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r hollow s e c -

t i o n s (d ~ 177 mm) based on the measured hot spot s t r e s s .
 VI11-9

The t e s t r e s u l t s o f Z i r n must be c o n s i d e r e d as b e i n g c o n s e r v a t i v e .
The s t r a i n gauges were l o c a t e d on a s m a l l d i s t a n c e from the weld t o e
but no e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o t h e weld t o e was c a r r i e d o u t . M u l t i p l y i n g the
nominal s t r e s s e s w i t h t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s a c c o r d i n g to
[25] shows a l s o t h a t the c u r v e K (R c 0 . 2 ) i s c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r K- and
N - j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s w i t h d 200 mm, t 10 mm and
o o
R 0 . 2 . For s t r e s s r a t i o s R > 0 . 2 f o r simpl i c i t y a 1 i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n
i s proposed between the K - c u r v e f o r R 0 . 2 and the T - c u r v e f o r t h e
r e l e v a n t w a l l t h i c k n e s s i n which i t i s assumed t h a t the T - c u r v e i s
g e n e r a l l y v a l i d f o r R 0 . 8 . The t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n D e l f t [32] showed
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g R r a t i o a change i n s l o p e which agrees w i t h t h e p r o -
posed S ^ - N c u r v e s .

The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e hot s p o t s t r e s s range may be u n d e r -

taken i n a v a r i e t y o f ways, e . g . by f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s , p h y s i c a l
model s t u d i e s o r by use o f the best a v a i l a b l e s e m i - e m p i r i c a l paramet-
r i c formulae f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the g e o m e t r i c a l concentration
factors. In case o f use o f s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s the r e l e v a n t
nominal s t r e s s range i n t h e b r a c i n g s h o u l d be m u l t i p l i e d w i t h t h e
b e l o n g i n g SCF:

S
r = S C F
ax- r S + S C F
ip ' S
r.
+ SCF . S (VIII-2)
max ax K
ip op r
op
nom. nom.
nom.
T t f
axial bending bending out
loading i n plane of plane

Parametric equations f o r s t r e s s concentration f a c t o r s i n c i r c u l a r

h o l l o w s e c t i o n j o i n t s can be found i n t a b l e s 8 . 2 . t o 8 . 4 .
With the l i m i t a t i o n s given on page 8 - 3 7 t h e f i c t i v e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n f a c t o r s f o r a x i a l l o a d i n g and bending i n p l a n e o f s i n g l e p l a n e
K- and N - j o i n t s o f square hollow s e c t i o n s can be o b t a i n e d from t h e
r a t i o between t h e hot s p o t s t r e s s c u r v e and t h e c u r v e s f o r nominal
s t r e s s e s i n f i g . 8 . 2 9 . (page 8 - 3 6 ) i . e . :

SCF = C . f ( x ) (VIII-3)

with f(x) = t > T l i m U

 VIII-10

Type C T
limit

K- and N - j o i n t s w i t h gap 6.0 0.50

K-joints with overlap 3.6 0.83

N-joints with overlap 4.3 0.70

When p a r a m e t r i c e q u a t i o n s are used f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the hot

s p o t s t r e s s an a d d i t i o n a l check f o r the chord i s needed, e s p e c i a l l y
i n case o f low s t r e s s e d b r a c i n g s and high s t r e s s e d c h o r d s . In these
cases t h e chord has t o be checked f o r the nominal s t r e s s range i n
t h e chord a c c o r d i n g to c u r v e D i n f i g . 8 - 2 9 . (page 8 - 3 6 ) . T h i s c u r v e
i s a l s o shown i n f i g . V I I 1 - 6 , however somewhat s h i f t e d to be i n a g r e e -
ment w i t h the o t h e r S^-N c u r v e s . For t h i s chord check t h e R - r a t i o have
not t o be c o n s i d e r e d because t h e r e a l g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s concentration
f a c t o r i n the chord i s low and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e R - r a t i o has a minor
e f f e c t (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . For w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s l a r g e r than 22 mm the
c u r v e has to be m o d i f i e d a c c o r d i n g to e q . (VHI-la).

E s p e c i a l l y i n j o i n t s o f square hollow s e c t i o n s the moments i n t r o d u c e d

i n the members due t o the s t i f f n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e j o i n t can be
c o n s i d e r a b l y . These have t o be t a k e n i n t o account f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a -
t i o n o f the hot s p o t s t r e s s range (see page 8 - 3 7 ) .

The l o a d f a c t o r s t o be used OF t h e margin o f s a f e t y between d e s i g n

l i f e and f a i l u r e are s t i l l a m a t t e r o f d i s c u s s i o n and depend on how
critical a f a i l u r e o f an element w i l l be f o r a c a t a s t r o p h i c f a i l u r e of
t h e whole s t r u c t u r e . For onshore s t r u c t u r e s a l o a d f a c t o r o f 1.2 i s
g e n e r a l l y used which n e a r l y agrees w i t h a f a c t o r 2 i n l i f e f o r the
smaller joints.
In those cases i n which c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e i s p o s s i b l e the S ~ N c u r v e s
r

have t o be f u r t h e r reduced by a f a c t o r 2 i n l i f e . In case o f corrosion

f a t i g u e no change i n s l o p e occurs a t N = 5 . 1 0 6
and no f a t i g u e l i m i t
i s adopted.

The method proposed i s u n i f o r m f o r a l l types o f j o i n t s and an a c c e p t -

a b l e compromise between t e s t e v i d e n c e , l a r g e and small joints,
s i m p l i c i t y and economy.
 VIII-11

Some remarks

T e s t s o f the ECSC o f f s h o r e programme showed t h a t the temperature may

have an i n f l u e n c e on c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e e . g . the t e s t s c a r r i e d out in
the U.K. i n seawater w i t h 5C showed n e a r l y the same r e s u l t s as the
t e s t s i n a i r w h i l e the t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n The Netherlands i n s e a -
w a t e r at 20C gave a r e d u c t i o n o f about 2 to 3 i n l i f e compared to
those i n ai r [49].

Weld f i n i s h i n g techniques have a b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on the f a t i g u e

l i f e o f p l a t e specimens e s p e c i a l l y i n a i r but the e f f e c t has not y e t
been checked f o r t u b u l a r j o i n t s . In an e x t e n s i o n o f the ECSC o f f s h o r e
programme a l s o the i n f l u e n c e o f improved weld p r o f i l e s f o r tubular
joints will be i n v e s t i g a t e d .

Post weld heat treatment has shown to have o n l y a minor i n f l u e n c e on

t u b u l a r j o i n t s which may be caused by the r e l a t i v e l y high s t r e s s c o n -
centration factors.

In f u t u r e the i n f l u e n c e o f t h e R - r a t i o i n r e l a t i o n to w a l l t h i c k n e s s
and s t r e s s - o r s t r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r has to be s t u d i e d more i n
d e t a i 1.

439
 VI11-12

440
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AXIALLY LOADED HOLLOW SECTION JOINTS

Contents

Symbols
9.0. Preface

9.1. General
9.1.1. Scope
9.1.2. Design procedure
9.1.3. Limit states
9.1.4. Material properties
9.1.5. Welds
9.1.6. Definition
9.1.7. F i e l d of a p p l i c a t i o n

9.2. Design and c a l c u l a t i o n o f welded j o i n t s o f hollow

s e c t i o n s i n plane l a t t i c e girders
9.2.1. General
9.2.2. Welded j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
9.2.3. Welded j o i n t s w i t h square or c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c -
t i o n branch members and a square h o l l o w s e c t i o n chord
9.2.4. Welded j o i n t s between r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s

9.3. Design and c a l c u l a t i o n o f welded j o i n t s w i t h h o l l o w s e c -

t i o n branch members and an open s e c t i o n as c h o r d .
9.3.1. Welded j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r o r r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
s e c t i o n branch members and chords i n H or I s e c t i o n s
9.3.2. Welded j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r or r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
s e c t i o n branch members and a channel (UNP) section
as chord

Appendix A Q u a l i t y requirements f o r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
Appendix B Mechanical and chemical p r o p e r t i e s o f s t e e l s
Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 430 and Fe 510 a c c o r d i n g Euronorm 25-72
Appendix C Recommended weld d e t a i l s
Appendix D Recommended d e s i g n r u l e s f o r j o i n t s loaded i n
fatigue
 9-i i

Symbols used jn t h i s chapter

c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area of member i
A
i
e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area o f the chord f o r shear
E e l a s t i c modulus of steel
L outer section perimeter
M. i n plane moment on a branch
JiP
M. j o i n t d e s i g n s t r e n g t h of a j o i n t f o r moments i n plane
ip
out of plane moment on a branch
.P
j o i n t d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r out of plane moments
op
M

a x i a l l o a d i n member i
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o i n t s t r e n g t h (95% c o n f i d e n c e ) f o r a x i a l load
p r e s t r e s s i n g l o a d i n the chord i . e . load i n the chord not
op
n e c e s s a r y f o r the e q u i l i b r i u m of the b r a c i n g l o a d components
axial l o a d i n the c r o s s s e c t i o n of the chord a t the gap
gap
mean value f o r the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h function
%m
N j o i n t design strength
j o i n t design strength based on l o a d i n member i (i = 1 o r 2)
*1
o v e r l ap
v
characteristic load
0 shear force
shear y i e l d c a p a c i t y of a s e c t i o n
Q
P
v N u
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of the j o i n t strength
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n o f the t e s t results
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n o f the y i e l d stress
e l a s t i c modulus of branch i.

t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s of weld
external w i d t h o f a square or r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w section
"i
(RHS) f o r member i
e f f e c t i v e width for bracing
e f f e c t i v e punching shear w i d t h

e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r an o v e r l a p joint
J
e(ov)
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h f o r the web of the chord

b - 2(t + r ) f o r UNP chord s e c t i o n

o w o'
c o e f f i c i ent
external diameter of a round hollow s e c t i o n (CHS) f o r mem-
ber i
442
 9-iii

e : e c c e n t r i c i t y of a j o i n t
g : gap between the b r a c i n g s o f a K - , N- or K T - j o i n t , a t the
c o n n e c t i o n f a c e o f the chord
g' : r e l a t i v e gap: gap g d i v i d e d by the w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f the
chord
h.j : external depth o f a square or r e c t a n g u l a r hollow section
(RHS) f o r member i
i : i n t e g e r used to denote member o f j o i n t , i = 0 designates
chord and i = 1-3 the branch members. Normally i = 1 r e f e r s
to the s t r u t and i = 2 to the t i e .

op

l o-eo l
A
k

O v : index used f o r o v e r l a p p e d branch

p : overlap
q : h. .sin0.j o f the branch connected t o the chord and the o v e r -
lapped branch
r : r a d i u s o f a I- or H-section
o
t : wall thickness
t.j : w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f member i
t : web t h i c k n e s s o f an I- or a H - s e c t i o n
w

a : f a c t o r g i v i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the chord f l a n g e f o r shear

8 : (average) branch to chord w i d t h r a t i o o r diameter r a t i o
Y : h a l f chord w i d t h , o r hal f chord d i ameter t o w a l l t h i c k n e s s r a t i o
Y -Y m c
:
joint coefficients
Y s : load f a c t o r
n : branch depth to chord diameter or chord w i d t h ratio
6 : model f a c t o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r the v a r i a t i o n i n t e s t results
Bi- : i n c l u d e d a n g l e between a branchmember (i = 1 , 2 or 3) and the
chord
X : chord w a l l s l e n d e r n e s s parameter
a- e : design v a l u e f o r the y i e l d s t r e s s i n member i

a : e q u i v a l e n t y i e l d s t r e s s f o r c o l d f i n i s h e d hollow s e c t i o n s
e,eq M J

443
 9-i v

a : d e s i g n v a l u e f o r the y i e l d stress
e
k
o g : a c t u a l mean value of the y i e l d s t r e s s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r steel
m
grade
: c r i t i c a l chord s i d e w a l l b u c k l i n g stress
0| <n : critical b u c k l i n g s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g to the ECCS b u c k l i n g
curve a
a t : t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of the m a t e r i a l
a Q : n o r m a l l y maximum a x i a l s t r e s s i n c h o r d , or maximum s t r e s s
due t o a x i a l f o r c e and bending moment where moment i s taken
into account

CHS : c i r c u l a r hollow section

RHS : rectangular hollow section

Remark : The dimensions i n the j o i n t s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a e r e p r e s e n t the

nominal values.

444
 9-1

9. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AXIALLY LOADED HOLLOW SECTION JOINTS

9.0. Preface

In 1981 the Subcie XV-E o f the I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Welding

(IIW) p r e s e n t e d recommendations f o r the design and c a l c u l a t i o n o f p r e -
dominantly s t a t i c a l l y a x i a l l y loaded l a t t i c e g i r d e r j o i n t s . At the
time o f d r a f t i n g of these recommendations the f o l l o w i n g persons were
member o f t h i s committee.
D. D u t t a , Mannesmannrohren Werke, D i i s s e l d o r f , Fed. Rep. o f
Germany
J. Hicks, Consultant, U.K.
B. K a t o , University o f Tokyo, Japan
Y. Kurobane, Kumamoto U n i v e r s i t y , Japan
F. Mang, University o f K a r l s r u h e , F e d . Rep. o f Germany
P.W. M a r s h a l l , S h e l l O i l Company, Houston, U . S . A .
J. Mouty, Cometube, P a r i s , France
J. Wardenier, Delft University o f Technology and C o n s u l t a n t
S t e e l s t r u c t u r e s , The N e t h e r l a n d s .
Chairman IIW Sc XV-E
B e s i d e s the above mentioned members o f Sc XV-E the f o l l o w i n g persons
o f the J o i n t Working Group o f the Comit I n t e r n a t i o n a l pour l e
Dveloppement et l ' E t u d e de l a C o n s t r u c t i o n T u b u l a i r e - C i d e c t were i n -
v o l v e d i n the d r a f t i n g :
G. D a v i e s , Nottingham U n i v e r s i t y , U.K.
T.W. G i d d i n g s , Chairman J o i n t Working Group, Cidect.

In September 1981 these recommendations were approved by the IIW-XV

commission "Fundamentals o f Design and F a b r i c a t i o n f o r W e l d i n g " . The
recommendations deal o n l y w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y a x i a l l y loaded T - , Y-,
X- K - , N- and K T - j o i n t s w i t h chords o f c i r c u l a r , r e c t a n g u l a r , I or
H sections.
In the IIW recommendations c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h s are given w i t h
proposed Y - Y m c factors. In the recommendations given here i n c h a p t e r 9 .
the Y - Ym c f a c t o r a r e a l r e a d y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the d e s i g n strengths
g i v e n . T h i s l e a d s to c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n the t e x t o f the recom-
mendations. The f o r m u l a e g i v e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r agree w i t h those g i v e n i n
t h e IIW recommendations, a l t h o u g h the p r e s e n t a t i o n sometimes d i f f e r s .

445
 9-2

For example f o r j o i n t s w i t h s q u a r e - or c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s and a square

chord s e p a r a t e recommendations are given whereas i n the IIW recommen-
d a t i o n s these are covered by the recommendations f o r j o i n t s of rec-
t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s . Separate d e s i g n r u l e s however, s i m p l i f y the recom-
mendations. F u r t h e r j o i n t s w i t h channel s e c t i o n s are i n c l u d e d .
J o i n t s of p l a t e s w i t h hollow s e c t i o n s and j o i n t s loaded by bending
moments are not i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r because i n some cases the
l o a d - d e f o r m a t i o n or moment r o t a t i o n diagrammes have t o be known f o r
design. Information r e g a r d i n g these types of j o i n t s can be found i n
the r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s 4 , 5 and 6 . In the IIW recommendations the b r a -
c i n g s are c a l l e d branches which i s a l s o done i n t h i s c h a p t e r 9 .
Due to the p r e s e n t a t i o n i n d e s i g n s t r e n g t h and the a d d i t i o n a l recom-
mendations g i v e n , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t the r e a d e r knows which p a r t s
are the same as the IIW recommendations and which p a r t s have been m o d i -
f i e d or added. A d d i t i o n a l p a r t s are i n d i c a t e d by a l i n e i n f r o n t of
t h e t e x t w h i l e t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s are i n d i c a t e d by a d o t t e d l i n e i n
f r o n t o f the t e x t .

The design r u l e s f o r j o i n t s loaded i n f a t i g u e are internationally

still i n d i s c u s s i o n , however f o r a design based on hot spot stress
a l a r g e degree o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x i s t s between the experts o f the West
European c o u n t r i e s . T h i s method may be somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e for lat-
t i c e g i r d e r j o i n t s of c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s w i t h dimensions s m a l l e r
than about 200 mm but i t g i v e s a general design method which can be
used f o r a l l types o f hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s . The recommendations pro-
posed by the author are given i n Appendix D.

446
 9-3

T i t l e s of standards and codes of p r a c t i c e r e f e r r e d t o and to be c o n -

sul ted

Euronorm 25-72 : Structural s t e e l f o r general use,

Quality requirements.
ISO 657/XIV-77 : Hot r o l l e d s t e e l s e c t i o n s , P a r t -XIV:
Hot-finished steel structural hollow
s e c t i o n s - Dimensions and s e c t i o n a l
properties -
ISO 657/14/DAM 1 : Amendment 1 on ISO 657/XIV-77
ISO/DIS 4019.2 : Cold f i n i s h e d steel structural hollow
s e c t i o n s - Dimensions and s e c t i o n a l
properties - 1979
API-RP 2A : Recommended P r a c t i c e f o r P l a n n i n g ,
D e s i g n i n g and C o n s t r u c t i n g fixed Off-
shore P l a t f o r m s . 12th Ed. 1981
American Petroleum I n s t i t u t e , 1981.
AWS-D1-1 : Structural Welding Code, 1981.
P a r t 10: Design of new Tubular S t r u c -
tures.
American Welding Society.
DNV : Rules f o r the D e s i g n , C o n s t r u c t i o n and
I n s p e c t i o n of O f f s h o r e Structures.
Appendix C: S t e e l s t r u c t u r e s
Det Norske V e r i t a s , 1977.

For Weld d e t a i l s i n o f f s h o r e structures.

447
 9-4 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 1 . 1 . 1 For the d e f i n i t i o n o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c l o a d i n g r e f e r e n c e i s made t o :

IIw Doc. X V - 4 0 6 - 7 7 : P e r m i s s i b l e weld d e f e c t s - s t a t i c l o a d i n g .
For s t r u c t u r e s which have t o s u s t a i n s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s e.g.
e a r t h quake o r s p e c i a l environmental c o n d i t i o n s e . g . o f f s h o r e structures
additional requirements may be n e c e s s a r y .

In o r d e r to a l l o w w e l d i n g i n the c o l d worked c o r n e r r e g i o n o f c o l d fin-

i s h e d square and r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s the s t e e l g r a d e , condition
and minimum c o r n e r r a d i u s given i n Appendix A must be s a t i s f i e d . In c o l d

f i n i s h e d welded hollow s e c t i o n s a requirement f o r the p o s i t i o n o f t h e

weld i s g i v e n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o r n e r - see Appendix IX-2.

9 . 1 . 1 . 2 In t h i s c o n t e x t , " e q u i v a l e n t s t e e l s " means s t e e l s which are e q u i v a l e n t i n

terms o f w e l d a b i l i t y to t h e grades o f s t e e l mentioned h e r e . The mechani-
cal and chemical p r o p e r t i e s o f the s t e e l s a c c o r d i n g to Euronorm 25-72 are
given i n Appendix B.
Due to the v a r y i n g l o c a l s t i f f n e s s i n j o i n t s made from hollow s e c t i o n s a
minimum e l o n g a t i o n (A5) o f 20% has been r e q u i r e d .

9.1.2 In some c o u n t r i e s i t i s common to desi'gn by the " p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s method",

where the s t r e s s e s o r l o a d s o c c u r r i n g under expected maximum working l o a d
c o n d i t i o n are compared w i t h some f r a c t i o n o f the r e s i s t a n c e .
In t h i s case the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h N has t o be d i v i d e d by t h e l o a d f a c t o r
Y S and so the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n has to be s a t i s f i e d :

e f f e c t Q, <

The l o a d f a c t o r s Y s are d i f f e r e n t i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y

t h e r e i s no general agreement about the Y - Y M C factor.

448
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-5

9.1 GENERAL

9.1.1 ?oge

9 . 1 . 1 . 1 These recommendations deal w i t h the d e s i g n and a n a l y s i s o f predominantly

s t a t i c a l l y loaded s i n g l e plane j o i n t s in l a t t i c e structures composed of
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s w i t h c i r c u l a r , square o r r e c t a n g u l a r shape or c o m b i n a t i o n s
of t h e s e w i t h open s e c t i o n s .
They are v a l i d for:
- seamless hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w sections
- welded hot f i n i s h e d hollow sections
- c o l d f i n i s h e d hollow sections
The manufactured h o l l o w s e c t i o n s should conform t o t h e t o l e r a n c e require-
ments g i v e n i n ISO 657/XIV-77 and ISO/DIS 4 0 1 9 . 2 and to the d e l i v e r y con-
d i t i o n s s t a t e d i n Appendix A. When s e c t i o n s f a b r i c a t e d from p l a t e s a r e
used w i t h o t h e r t o l e r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e s e t o l e r a n c e s should be c o n s i d -
ered i n e v a l u a t i n g the design s t r e n g t h s (see 9 . 2 . 1 . 4 . ) .

9 . 1 . 1 . 2 The recommendations a r e a p p l i c a b l e to s t r u c t u r e s using steel grades

Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 430 and Fe 510 i n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h Euronorm 25-72 o r equivalent
m i l d s t e e l s w i t h a s p e c i f i e d y i e l d s t r e s s not e x c e e d i n g 360 N/mm .The elong-
a t i o n s a t f a i l u r e (A5) s h o u l d be a t l e a s t 20% and be determined from
longitudinal specimens cut from the m i d d l e of the f a c e o p p o s i t e t o that
c o n t a i n i n g the w e l d . For j o i n t s w i t h h o l l o w s e c t i o n chords and w a l l
t h i c k n e s s e s over 25 mm s p e c i a l t h r o u g h - t h i c k n e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s may have
to be c o n s i d e r e d .

9.1.2. Qes!gn_P_rqcedure

In the d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d Q^ under a w o r k i n g

s t a t e c o n d i t i o n should be m u l t i p l i e d by the a s s o c i a t e d l o a d f a c t o r Y >
S

so t h a t the design l o a d i s o b t a i n e d .
A s t a t e i n which one o f the r e l e v a n t c o m b i n a t i o n s of the d e s i g n l o a d s is
a c t i n g on the s t r u c t u r e i s c a l l e d a design state.

In none of t h e s e design s t a t e s i s a l i m i t s t a t e a l l o w e d to be exceeded:

effect I (Y -Q ) < N
s k

449
 9-6 EXPLANATORY NOTES

The t o t a l Y - Y - Y
s m c f a c t o r adopted i n the v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s i n o r d e r to
modify the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h f o r working l o a d c o n d i t i o n s i s about
the same.

EFFECT
\ * TTTV 's
N
k

'm ' c
T h i s has been the reason t h a t i n t h e IIW recommendations the c h a r a c t e r i s -
tic j o i n t strength i s u s u a l l y quoted w i t h 95% c o n f i d e n c e , and gener-
a l l y not the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h N. The proposed Y - Y f a c t o r s however are
m c

l i s t e d i n t a b l e s with the j o i n t strength formulae. If the f a i l u r e crite-

r i o n i s based on y i e l d and the p l a s t i c d e s i g n s t r e n g t h i s a lower bound
to the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s , then these s t r e n g t h formulae are quoted w i t h
Y ..Y = 1.0.
'm ' c
W

In the recommendations given here the proposed Y - Y f a c t o r s are m c incorpo-

r a t e d and the r e s u l t i n g d e s i g n s t r e n g t h s are given.

9 . 1 . 3 . 1 The u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y based on t h e u l t i m a t e j o i n t
s t r e n g t h determined from t e s t s .

9 . 1 . 3 . 2 The s e r v i c e - a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s take account o f e c c e s s i v e l o c a l defor-

mation which may l e a d t o g r e a t e r o v e r a l l d e f l e c t i o n with respect to
normal use o f the s t r u c t u r e , or i n i t i a t i o n of c r a c k s .

9.1.4.1 For the d e s i g n y i e l d s t r e s s l i m i t of 0 . 8 a. r e f e r e n c e i s made t o :

IIW Doc. X V - 4 1 8 - 7 8 : Comparison of the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded joints
made of RHS w i t h d i f f e r e n t steel grades.

450
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-7

where

[k = character!stic load
Y s =1oad factor
N = j o i n t design strength
N^ =characteristic j o i n t s t r e n g t h (95% c o n f i d e n c e )
Y - Y = j o i n t and m a t e r i a l p a r t i a l
m c c o e f f i c i e n t s depending on the behaviour
of the t y p e o f j o i n t and a d d i t i o n a l reserve in strength.

9.1.3. Linilt_states

The l i m i t s t a t e s can be p l a c e d i n two c a t e g o r i e s :

9 . 1 . 3 . 1 The u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e , which i s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the maximum l o a d

carrying capacity:
For t h i s l i m i t s t a t e t h e y .y c o e f f i c i e n t s t o be adopted depend on the
d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y of the j o i n t and a d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v e in strength due
t o s t r a i n hardening and membrane e f f e c t s . If the f o r m u l a has been based
on y i e l d w i t h an a p p r o p r i a t e a n a l y t i c a l p l a s t i c c o l l a p s e model then a
Y . y = l may be t a k e n .
m c

9 . 1 . 3 . 2 The s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s , are r e l a t e d to t h e c r i t e r i a governing

normal use or d u r a b i l i t y . In t h e s e c a s e s the Y - Y m c c o e f f i c i e n t s can be
taken as u n i t y : Y - Y m c = 1-0.

9.1.4. Material__p_i"op_erties

9.1.4.1 In c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e d e s i g n v a l u e of the y i e l d s t r e s s , d e s i g n a t e d a ^,e should

be taken as t h e minimum y i e l d s t r e s s determined a c c o r d i n g to Euronorm 25-72 or
e q u i v a l e n t p r o c e d u r e s , and should not exceed 80% of t h e t e n s i l e strength.

451
 9-8 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 1 . 4 . 2 In those cases i n w h i c h a guaranteed v a l u e f o r the d e s i g n y i e l d s t r e s s i s used

g r e a t e r than t h a t given i n 9 . 1 . 4 . 2 the a p r o p r i a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n s h o u l d be
taken i n t o account i n a s s e s s i n g the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h formulae ( s e e 9 . 2 . 1 . 4 )
The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a has been based on the s i m p l i f i e d assumption
e , eq
t h a t over a l e n g t h 7t at each c o r n e r the y i e l d v a l u e has been r a i s e d to
er by c o l d w o r k i n g , w h i l e the f l a t p o r t i o n s i n between are assumed to
have a y i e l d value o f a . Reference should be made t o :
g

Recommendations f o r s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n s , E C C S - E 6 - 7 6 .
Appendix n r . 5 : Thin w a l l e d c o l d formed members,
(see c h a p t e r 2 . 2 . ) .

9.1.5. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t i n j o i n t s o f hollow s e c t i o n s a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n can

e x i s t . T h i s i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s , which are based on e x -
p e r i m e n t a l data and the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of f o l l o w i n g reference:

IIW Doc. XV-358-74 ( r e v i s e d ) :

Design r u l e s f o r arc welded c o n n e c t i o n s i n s t e e l submitted to s t a t i c
l o a d s . Welding i n the World V o l . 14 Nr. 5 / 6 , 1976.

Recommended weld d e t a i l s are given i n Appendix C.

9.1.6. J o i n t s i n l a t t i c e g i r d e r s can i n general be c o n s i d e r e d as p i n - e n d e d i n o r d e r

to determine the a x i a l l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a g i r d e r . The recommendations
are based on t e s t s in which the c e n t r e l i n e s o f a l l the members l i e i n the same
p l a n e , w i t h i n the normal t o l e r a n c e s o f f a b r i c a t i o n . Bending moments w i l l of
c o u r s e r e s u l t from the bending s t i f f n e s s o f the j o i n t s , these so c a l l e d s e c -
ondary moments can however b e n e g l e c t e d w i t h i n the a p p l i c a t i o n range envisaged
in sections 9 . 2 . 2 . , 9 . 2 . 3 . , 9 . 2 . 4 . , 9 . 3 . 1 . and 9 . 3 . 2 .

452
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-9

A t t e n t i o n i s r e q u i r e d to proper s e l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s and weld c o n d i t i o n s

such t h a t the j o i n t s are prevented from a premature f a i l u r e due to i n -
s u f f i c i e n t deformation c a p a c i t y .

9 . 1 . 4 . 2 For c o l d f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , i t i s p e r m i s s i b l e t o t a k e account o f
the e f f e c t i v e i n c r e a s e i n y i e l d value due t o c o l d work h a r d e n i n g . T h i s
i n c r e a s e may be based on t h e guaranteed v a l u e s or on an e q u i v a l e n t value
o f the s t r e s s a given by:
e , eq

L.ae k + 28t.(a t - a e|< )

a * 1.25a ,
e,eq k
e
e

where:
L = outer section perimeter
a ^,a^
e = d e s i g n y i e l d p o i n t and t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of the parent m a t e r i a l .

9.1.5. Welds

In welded j o i n t s , the c o n n e c t i o n should be e s t a b l i s h e d over the e n t i r e

p e r i m e t e r o f the h o l l o w s e c t i o n by means o f a b u t t w e l d , a f i l l e t w e l d , or
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f the two.
F i l l e t welds o r p a r t i a l p e n e t r a t i o n welds should s a t i s f y the following
conditions:

F e
} a > t
3 6 0

Fe 430 >

Fe 510 a > 1.2t

where:
a = t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s o f the f i l l e t weld
t = w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f the h o l l o w s e c t i o n to be c o n n e c t e d .

T h i s requirement may be waived where d e p a r t u r e from them can be j u s t i f i e d ,

i n r e g a r d to s t r e n g t h and to d e f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y - o r r o t a t i o n a l c a p a c i t y .

9.1.6. Definition

S i n g l e plane j o i n t s in l a t t i c e structures s i g n i f y , in t h i s context, con-

n e c t i o n s which p r i m a r i l y t r a n s m i t a x i a l l o a d s through the j o i n i n g togeth-
er o f members such t h a t the c e n t r e l i n e s always l i e i n a s i n g l e p l a n e .

453
 9-10 EXPLANATORY NOTES

Moments due t o t r a n s f e r l o a d i n g o f the members and the e c c e n t r i c i t i e s

o f the j o i n t should a l s o be taken i n t o a c c o u n t , except i n so f a r as
they are e x c l u d e d by the p r o v i s i o n o f s e c t i o n 9 . 1 . 7 . 2 .
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-11

The j o i n t s coverend i n t h e s e recommendations have a CHS, RHS, I, H or

channel s e c t i o n as c h o r d and CHS o r RHS b r a n c h e s .

9.1.6.1 T, Y, K, N and K T - j o i n t s
 9-12 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 1 . 7 . 1 The c o n d i t i o n i s given here to f a c i l i t a t e proper w e l d i n g and must i n

p r i n c i p l e always be s a t i s f i e d , u n l e s s i t can be shown, by means o f tests,
f o r example, t h a t a d e p a r t u r e from such c o n d i t i o n s can be a l l o w e d .
The general requirements l a i d down i n c l a u s e 9 . 1 . 5 . of c ou r s e apply.

9 . 1 . 7 . 2 Although the moment need not be taken i n t o account to assess t h e joint

s t r e n g t h f o r t h i s range o f e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , i t s h o u l d of c o u r s e be c o n -
s i d e r e d i n a s s e s s i n g member s t r e n g t h under a x i a l l o a d and bending moment.
See s e c t i o n 9 . 2 . 1 . 3 . (explanatory notes).
For j o i n t s w i t h a channel s e c t i o n chord the e c c e n t r i c i t y is indirectly
l i m i t e d by the l i m i t a t i o n s f o r the gap, o v e r l a p and the c h o r d s e c t i o n .

9 . 1 . 7 . 3 T h i s means i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t t h e d e s i g n r u l e s given here a r e not ap-

p l i c a b l e to j o i n t s where the ends o f t h e web members a r e f l a t t e n e d or
cropped.

456
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-13

9 . 1 . 6 . 2 D e f i n i t i o n o f gap and o v e r l a p
The gap g i s d e f i n e d as the
d i s t a n c e measured a l o n g the
length of the connecting
f a c e o f the chord between
the toes o f the a d j a c e n t
branch members. The overlap
definition gap 0 y i s expressed as ^ x 100%
definition overlap as shown i n t h e figure.

9.1.7. FJld_of .application

The c a l c u l a t i o n r u l e s g i v e n i n s e c t i o n s 9 . 2 . and 9 . 3 . can be a p p l i e d

p r o v i d e d the f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s are o b s e r v e d .

9 . 1 . 7 . 1 The a n g l e between chord and branch member o r between branch members must
be at l e a s t 30.

9 . 1 . 7 . 2 P r o v i d e d t h a t t h e l a t t i c e g i r d e r j o i n t s w i t h CHS, RHS, I or H-section

chords are so designed t h a t t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y e s a t i s f i e s the c o n d i t i o n
given bplow, i t w i l l not then be n e c e s s a r y to t a k e t h e r e s u l t i n g moment
i n t o account i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e j o i n t strength.

\ ?
+.
T ~ * " T

- 0 . 5 5 i f - 0.25
d
o

- 0 . 5 5 * j - i 0.25
o

9 . 1 . 7 . 3 The members t h a t meet at a j o i n t must have t h e i r ends prepared i n such

a way t h a t t h e i r c r o s s s e c t i o n a l shape i s not m o d i f i e d .

457
 9-14 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 2 . 1 . 1 The s t r e n g t h o f a c o n n e c t i o n i s u s u a l l y h i g h e r under t e n s i o n than com-

p r e s s i o n i f t h e welds a r e p r o p e r l y formed. U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t i s not always
p o s s i b l e to t a k e advantage o f t h i s due to t h e l a r g e l o c a l defections
which can o c c u r . However, where t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s are not c r i t i c a l , the
d e s i g n s may t a k e t h e s e advantages i n t o a c c o u n t .
R e f e r e n c e : IIW Doc. X V - 4 8 7 - 8 1 : Designs o f CHS X and T j o i nts under t e n s i l e
brace l o a d i n g .
(See c h a p t e r 4 , Appendices I V - 1 and I V - 2 ) .

9 . 2 . 1 . 2 A l t h o u g h v a r i o u s modes o f f a i l u r e are p o s s i b l e , t e s t s have shown t h a t

the s t r e n g t h o f K and N t y p e j o i n t s can best be r e l a t e d to the compres-
s i o n branch member l o a d . The c a s e , where t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e t e n -
s i l e branch member and t h e chord c o u l d become c r i t i c a l , has been covered
by a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a e . g . e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and/or punching s h e a r .

T e s t s have shown t h a t t h e d e s i g n s t r e n g t h o f K and N j o i n t s i n the p r e -

sence o f e x t e r n a l c r o s s - c h o r d l o a d i n g can be r e l ated t o t h e b a s i c strength
formulae f o r K, N and X j o i n t s . The same i s t r u e f o r KT j o i n t s .
The l a r g e s t sum o f t h e components o f t h e branch f o r c e s a c t i n g i n the
same sence have to be checked i . e . I sinG i < N^.sinO, (Nj a c c o r d i n g
9 . 2 . 2 . 3 or 9 . 2 . 4 . 2 ) .
K, N and KT j o i n t s w i t h a l l branch f o r c e s i n the same sence should be
checked as b e i n g X - j o i n t s . T h i s type o f l o a d t r a n s f e r occurs o n l y w i t h
high p u r l i n l o a d s . Both loaded s i d e s o f the chord have t o be c o n s i d e r e d
i.e. the p u r l i n s i d e and the s i d e t o which t h e branches are c o n n e c t e d .
For the dimensions bj and hj i n the j o i n t s t r e n g t h formula f o r X-joints
the d e c i s i v e dimensions have to be taken i . e . from the p u r l i n connec-
t i o n o r from the p e r i m e t e r o f a l l bracings.

458
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-15

9.2. DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS OF WELDED JOINTS OF HOLLOW SECTIONS IN PLANE

LATTICE GIRDERS

9.2.1. Genera^

The s t r e n g t h can be c a l c u l a t e d , i n t h e case o f j o i n t s w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y

axial l o a d s , according to sections 9 . 2 . 2 . to 9 . 2 . 4 .

9.2.1.1 In t h e case o f T, Y and X j o i n t s , the d e s i g n t e n s i l e o r compressive

loads i n the web members must be s m a l l e r than t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d by
means o f the f o r m u l a e given i n 9 . 2 . 2 . to 9 . 2 . 4 . (N^ N . j .

9.2.1.2 For K and N j o i n t s w i t h gap, t h e s t r e n g t h o f the j o i n t a c c o r d i n g t o s e c -

t i o n s 9 . 2 . 2 . to 9 . 2 . 4 . i s based i n p r i n c i p l e upon the f o r c e i n the compres-
s i v e branch member. I t s h o u l d be shown i n d e s i g n t h a t N^ s N . .

In t h e p r e s e n c e o f e x t e r n a l chord-cross l o a d i n g t h e same b a s i c c r i t e r i o n has

t o be s a t i s f i e d , but f o r the l a r g e r normal component o f branch f o r c e :
N .sinG^ I4j.si.n9j.
i

In t h e case o f KT j o i n t s w i t h gap, where a l l the branch f o r c e s do not act

i n t h e same s e n c e , t h i s l a r g e r component i s r e p l a c e d by the g r e a t e r of
t h e sum o f t h e components a c t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e chord i n compres-
s i o n o r t e n s i o n . The s t r e n g t h i s r e l a t e d to t h a t f o r K and N j o i n t s in
di
w h i c h i n j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s ^ i s r e p l a c e d by
dj + d + d ,
2
0 b
l +
2b +
l h + h
2
S = and i n j o i n t s o f r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s ^
b, + b + b_ + h, + hp + h ,
i s r e p l a c e d by ^ For t h e gap s h o u l d be t a k e n t h e
o
l a r g e s t one between two branches w i t h f o r c e s not a c t i n g i n the same s e n s e .

Type o f joint Check

Nj.sinGj+N .sin03 3 s Nj.sinGj Nj a c c o r d i n g

9.2.2.3 or
N^.sinOj, Nj.sinOj 9.2.4.2
t

459
 9-16 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 2 . 1 . 3 The bending moment e f f e c t has been taken i n t o account by assuming an

l i n e a r i n t e r a c t i o n which may be c o n s i d e r e d as a lower bound (see c h a p t e r s
4.4. and5.4.). For t h e bending moment c a p a c i t y r e f e r e n c e i s g i v e n t o chap-
t e r s 4 . 3 . and 5 . 3 . In the IIw recommendations no s t r e n g t h equations are
g i v e n f o r moment l o a d i n g t h e r e f o r e the s t r e s s e s produced by a x i a l l o a d and
bending moments a r e r e l a t e d t o the a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of the j o i n t being:

N. M. N.
7T +
W7

The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e summarises the c a s e s , when moments must o r need not

be taken i n t o account:

^ ~ \ m o m e n t s due imposed eccentricity transverse

^ ^ - ^ to deformations loading
part

joint i n general no i f 9 . 1 . 7 . 2 . yes

no. ( 9 . 1 . 6 ) is satisfied

member i n general n o . yes yes

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e bending moments depends on the d e s i g n philosophy,

the compactness o f t h e members and t h e r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f the joint.

9 . 2 . 1 . 4 The d e s i g n f o r m u l a e given i n s e c t i o n s 9 . 2 . 2 . t o 9 . 2 . 4 . have been based on

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h s which have, i n so f a r as they have been e x -
p e r i m e n t a l l y o r s e m i - e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , a c o n f i d e n c e o f 95%.
These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h s have f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the d e s i g n
s t r e n g t h been reduced by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Y~-Y coefficients to
a l l o w f o r t h e r e l e v a n t modes o f f a i l u r e (see 9 . 1 . 2 . ) .

B e s i d e s the b a s i c c r i t e r i a i t i s , i n a number o f c a s e s , n e c e s s a r y to
check a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a , such as t h e t h e o r e t i c a l punching shear c r i t e -
r i o n f o r t h e chord f a c e , t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r branch e f f e c t i v e w i d t h , and
s h e a r and b u c k l i n g o f chord s i d e w a l l s .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values on which the d e s i g n s t r e n g t h equations have

been based, t a k e i n t o account t h e s c a t t e r o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s , together

460
 RECOMMENDATIONS
9-17

Where a l l t h e branch f o r c e s i n K, N o r KT j o i n t s w i t h gap or o v e r l a p act

i n t h e same s e n c e , the design c r i t e r i a f o r the X - j o i n t i n s t e a d o f that
f o r the K and N j o i n t used above, should be s a t i s f i e d .

9 . 2 . 1 . 3 If bending moments must be t r a n s m i t t e d i n a d d i t i o n to a x i a l l o a d s , the

f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s must be s a t i s f i e d by t h e branch members ( i = 1 , 2 or 3):

N. M- M
^ 1 + .JLE + _P_E a 1.0
hp 'op

where:
= the a x i a l l o a d i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r branch member
= j o i n t design strength f o r a x i a l loading
= bending i n p l a n e moment being t r a n s m i t t e d by the branch member
= j o i n t d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r bending i n p l a n e
= bending out o f p l a n e moment t r a n s m i t t e d by the branch member
M = j o i n t d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r bending out of p l a n e .
op

9 . 2 . 1 . 4 The b a s i c formulae f o r the design s t r e n g t h are based on the d i m e n s i o n a l

parameters a , t and the non d i m e n s i o n a l parameters B, y, g ' and n.
These formulae are as f a r as p o s s i b l e p r e s e n t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g form
which enables the e f f e c t of the v a r i o u s parameters to be read di r e c t l y .

f(3] f(0) f(Y) f(g') f(n)

eo

TD cn TD
u TD c S-
nt

\~ , ,
O o u O
X:
o u 4-> 4-> o -o O
~~i JZ ft) O
-C .O o o
,T

r-
o 1/1 C c QJ U 4J
c O fc. QJ QJ X L. "2 l/l
S- QJ u " -*-> X) fO i/i -Z -r- i_
<U XT in JZ cu o JD O TD -*- QJ
J tn
4_> 4_, QJ U TD -C
ft) CD a ** Ol OTD
OJ fO *
>- o CD TD p T3 - r Q. (/I
JD *-> >> 3 "D k U 3 03 o 3 ra
U m

461
 9-18 EXPLANATORY NOTES

w i t h the v a r i a t i o n o f y i e l d s t r e s s and dimensions o b t a i n e d i n commercial

p r o d u c t i o n as d e s c r i b e d i n : IIW Doc. XV-462-80 "The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
test results for a level I-code". (see c h a p t e r 3.2.).
Based on measurements and maximum t o l e r a n c e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s
o f v a r i a t i o n and mean v a l u e s have been adopted f o r manufactored s e c t i o n s .
For s e c t i o n s f a b r i c a t e d from p l a t e s t h e v a l u e s may be d i f f e r e n t and s h o u l d
be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e requirements f o r delivery.

coefficient of Mean v a l u e
v a r i a t i on
d i a m e t e r o r w i d t h ( d , b and h) 0.005 1.0 x nomi nal val ue
wall thickness (t) 0.05 1.0 x nomi nal v a l u e
y i el d s t r e s s 0.075 t o O . l ( 1 . 1 8 to 1.25)
ek
y i e l d stress ratio (0^/0^, 0.13 0.66
gap f a b r i c a t i o n (g' ) see 2 . 2 . 3 . 1.0 x nominal v a l u e
test results (6) see e x p l a n a t o r y notes i n t h e r e l e v a n t
sections

The o t h e r parameters have a n e g l i g a b l e i n f l u e n c e . If sufficient tests

a r e c a r r i e d o u t , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h o f t h e j o i n t s based on the
v a r i a t i o n and mean v a l u e s o f t h e above parameters can be w r i t t e n :

N, Nu ( i -
m 1-64 v N u ;

However s i n c e the d e s i g n v a l u e (a . ) f o r y i e l d s t r e s s i s n o r m a l l y taken

as t h e mean v a l u e (a ) minus two times the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i.e.:
em
a e k = a e m ( l - 2.0 V ) a e

t h e a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e to be used f o r d e s i g n purposes has t o be

modi f i ed t o :
(1 1.64 V N)
k u
m 0 2.0 V )
e m
a e

so t h a t the quoted v a l u e s o f d e s i g n y i e l d s t r e s s and nominal dimensions

can be used di r e c t l y .
The method adopted i s based on a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n which i s o n l y a l -
lowed f o r low c o e f f i c i e n t s o f variation.
For high c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n i t i s recommended to use t h e l o g - n o r m a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n and l o g - n o r m a l s a f e t y format.
R e f e r e n c e : R a v i n d r a , M.K. and Galambos, T.V. : Load and R e s i s t a n c e F a c t o r
Desi gn o f S t e e l . J o u r n a l o f the S t r u c t u r a l Di vi s i o n , ST9, Sept. ' 78.
The s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n s g i v e n under w o r k i n g l o a d c o n d i t i o n s (N^ - 0 . 6 7 N ^ )
r e s u l t i n d e f l e c t i o n s i n the c o n n e c t i o n between one branch and a c h o r d ,
w h i c h do not ecceed 0 . 0 1 d Q or 0.01 b.
Q
 9-19
RECOMMENDATIONS

where:
d b b
j- o r
b~ o r
"FT f o r T, Y and X j o i n t s
0 0 0

b +b l
d d
d
l +
2 1 2
d +
2
~2~d o r
~~2~B" r
2b' f 0 r K a n d
^ J l n t s

o o o

d, + d + d b, + b + b , d,+d 9 + d,,
or . J
or 1 c
- ~ f o r KT j o i n t s
M
o o J D
o

d b
0 0
o r
2T 2T
0 0

<op

N= I N ,
0 2 sine, 2 +No p

The f o r m u l a e g i v e n are based on t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f the y i e l d s t r e s s as

d e f i n e d i n s e c t i o n 9 . 1 . 4 . and on t h e nominal v a l u e o f the d i m e n s i o n s .

463
 9-20
EXPLANATORY NOTES

9.2.2. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the punching s h e a r c r i t e r i o n a l l formulae have been

based on s e m i - e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r m u l a e , s e e :
IIW Doc. X V - 4 6 1 - 8 0 : R e a n a l y s i s o f u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h data f o r t r u s s connec-
t i o n s i n c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s .
IIW Doc. X V - 4 8 8 - 8 1 : New Developments and P r a c t i c e s i n T u b u l a r J o i n t D e s i g n .
(+ Addendum).
V a r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f mathematical e x p r e s s i o n s were made t o determine
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s i n a s i m p l e s t p o s s i b l e form from
the mean s t r e n g t h , (see c h a p t e r 4 . 2 . ) .

9 . 2 . 2 . 1 T and Y j o i n t s :
V 6 = 0.104 ; V N u = 0.156 ; N R = 0.88 N U m and N = 0 . 8 0 N U m

9.2.2.2 X joints:
V fi = 0.108 ; V N u = 0.168 ; N R = 0.86 N U m and N = 0 . 7 8 N U m

9 . 2 . 2 . 3 K and N j o i n t s :
V 6 = 0.108 ; V N u = 0.195 ; N R = 0.80 N U [ n and N = 0 . 7 3 N U m

The v a r i a t i o n o f the gap due to f a b r i c a t i o n i s taken i n t o account by i n -

c r e a s i n g t h e nominal gap i n the s t r e n g t h f u n c t i o n by 3 . 1 mm s i n c e t h i s
s i m p l i f i e d the
)+iJ strength equation.
A standard d e v i a t i o n
o f 5 mm i s a d o p t e d .
In p r a c t i c e the d i -
mensional tolerance
o f t h e gap g i s re-
q u i r e d to be w i t h i n
5 mm. The d e s i g n
c h a r t may be used

-30 - 1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 40 ''
g'=g/t

9.2.2.4 In general t h e punching shear w i l l o n l y be c r i t i c a l f o r j o i n t s w i t h small

6 and Y r a t i o s o r i f the diameters o f t h e b r a c i n g s d i f f e r from each o t h e r .

9.2.2.6 The l i m i t a t i o n y t, 25 i s t e n t a t i v e l y i n c l u d e d h e r e i n because the j o i n t s

i n t h i s range were c o n s i d e r e d t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y s t i f f t o be f r e e from
an o r d i n a r y s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e .

464
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-21

9.2.2. Welded_joi nts_of _ci ru]_ar_hg^ow_sect^orjs

T y p e of joint Design strength

N eo k
f(to) f ( ) f(e) f(Y) f(g') f(n)

T, Y
9.2.2.1

1 0.2
(2.8 + U . 2 ) 2
Y 1 f(n)
G
eo k sin 9 i

X
J i

5.2 1
Ni = to 1 l f(n)
1-0.81 sin 6 ,

If
K.N gap or overlap

1
N, = (2.1 + 9 . 8 ^ ) f(Y g' ) f (n)
sin 6 i
t ^
" w J /^>> +^H-

N 2 = Ni
1
s in2
Punching shear check for

T, Y, X and K, N, KT
Nj = e k
-t-Ttd, 1 + s
' n 6
'
joints with gap
1=1,2 or3

Functions f(n) = 1.0 for n i - 0.4 Note:

f(n) = 1 . 2 - 0 . 5 |n| for n< - 0 . 4 n and n ' are

negative for
f(n') = 1.0 for n 1
50
compression
f(n') = 1 +0.3 n' - 0 . 3 n ' 2
for n' < 0

f(Y. g').,= ( Y ) - 2
r i + - o i 2 y L 5
]
L exp. (0.39g' - 0.53) + l J

d. d,
Validity range 0 . 2 5 i-^- ( 1 . 0 y < 25 - 0 . 55 < | - i + 0 . 2 5
o i 0

465
 9-22 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9.2.3. The formulae g i v e n , are s i m i l a r t o those gi ven i n 9 . 2 . 4 . f o r j o i n t s with

r e c t a n g u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s . W i t h i n a s m a l l e r v a l i d i t y range the number
o f c r i t e r i a to be checked can be l i m i t e d f o r j o i n t s w i t h s q u a r e - o r
c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n branch members and a square hollow s e c t i o n c h o r d ,
(see c h a p t e r 5 , Appendix V-4).

9.2.3.1 The j o i n t s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a f o r T, Y and X j o i n t s f o r 6 < 0 . 8 5 i s based

on the a n a l y t i c a l chord f a c e y i e l d c r i t e r i o n . T h i s c r i t e r i o n can be c o n -
s i d e r e d as a s e r v i c e - a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n and a s a l o w e r bound s o l u t i o n for
t h e j o i n t s t r e n g t h even when t h e chords are p r e l o a d e d , thus N N^.

9.2.3.2 The j o i n t s t r e n g t h f o r m u l a f o r K- and N j o i n t s w i t h gap i s based on a

semi-experimental a n a l y s i s f o r chord f a c e f a i l u r e .
V fi = 0.095 ; V N u =0.14 ; N k = 0.9 N U m and N = 0 . 8 2 N U m

The c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t e s t s i s based on an a n a l y s i s i n
which t h e main parameters are taken i n t o a c c o u n t . For some parameters
lower bound f u n c t i o n s are taken i n t o account e . g . f ( g ' ) = 1.0 whereas
the f u n c t i o n f o r the parameter 6 , i s m o d i f i e d i n a c o n s e r v a t i v e way. The
u n r e a l i s t i c increase in V r due to t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s i s not taken i n t o
0
account.

9.2.3.3 The s t r e n g t h o f o v e r l a p j o i n t s can be covered by an e f f e c t i v e w i d t h cri-

terion only. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e branch w i t h t h e l a r g e s t dimensions
(b-, \ , t., J i s connected to t h e c h o r d .
11
i(ov) i(ov)

9.2.3.4 E x t e n s i v e experimental and a n a l y t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have shown t h a t

j o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r branch members can be r e l a t e d t o j o i n t s w i t h square
branches by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e j o i n t s t r e n g t h equations by j and s u b s t i t u -
t i n g d^ f o r b.. ( i ; 1 or 2).

9.2.3.5 T e s t s have shown t h a t the s t r e n g t h o f K and N j o i n t s w i t h gap i s only

reduced by a compression l o a d i n g i n t h e c h o r d .
The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h b o f the branch c r o s s w a l l s i s based on t e s t s of
e
p l a t e t o RHS c o n n e c t i o n s and v e r i f i e d f o r j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p .

9 . 2 . 3 . 6 See page 9 - 2 4 .

466
 RECOMMENDATIONS
9-23

9.2.3. Wglded_^oints_wi t h ^
E.I9y5!2.l!2llw.section_chord

T y p e of j o i n t Design strength ( r =1 o r 2 )
9.2.3.1

N
( 1 - p ) . s i n 9 . i, lsine 1
r
J

9.2.3.2
- = 8.9g e 0 k .to
p-Y -f(n) 5

sine 1

e,
7 G S I N 9
M '
No = N . . -rr-

9.2.3.3 K,N, overlap

2
1 sin 62
100 % overlap

N i = 0ei .t {3b -4t,+

k i i b e ( o v ) }

30 % < Ov< 100 % :

Ni = o - i . t | 2 b - A t j + b + b (
e k l i e e o v )}

9.2.3.4 Jointswith c i r c u l a r multiply the formulae with - 5 -

branch members a n d r e p l a c e bj by d j ( i = 1 o r 2 )

9.2.3.5 Functions f(n) = 1.0 f o r a t e n s i o n f o r c e i n t h e chord

0.4
f(n) = 1.3 |n| f o r a compression f o r c e i n the chord
^ 1.0
c eo.'^o a
eo,'^o
b = T-V- . *-rr- b. with 1 : 1 2
e b0'ft 0 a e r. . t .1
- l .i . . t1
ae

ov
K
. . b, Wi t h 1 ^r 2
J
e(ov) - (b./t.) o v
a_- .t.. i a_ .t
4

c = 1 0 . 8 f o r Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 430
c = 9 . 2 f o r Fe 510

9.2.3.6 Validity
range See 9 . 2 . 3 . 6 page 9 - 2 5

467
 EXPLANATORY NOTES
9-24

b
i
9 . 2 . 3 . 6 The l i m i t a t i o n s f o r -r- - are g i v e n to a v o i d e c c e s s i v e d e f o r m a t i o n s whereas
1

b
o
i n some cases upper l i m i t s are g i v e n to a v o i d l o c a l s i d e w a l l b u c k l i n g
o f t h e c h o r d , chord punching shear o r a f a i l u r e due to branch effective
w i d t h . The l i m i t a t i o n s f o r
are n e c e s s a r y to a v o i d l o c a l b u c k l i n g o f
i
t h e compression branch and to o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y .
b n

The upper l i m i t s f o r are g i v e n t o a v o i d a premature l o c a l b u c k l i n g i n

o t

the chord whereas i n some cases l o w e r l i m i t s are g i v e n t o e x c l u d e other

d e c i s i v e f a i l u r e modes than those covered by t h e s t r e n g t h e q u a t i o n s . For
K and N j o i n t s w i t h gap the w i d t h r a t i o between the branches i s l i m i t e d
to a v o i d t h a t punching shear becomes d e c i s i v e f o r one o f the b r a n c h e s .
The e f f e c t i v e area g i v e n f o r 100% o v e r l a p j o i n t s i s based on the assump-
t i o n t h a t t h r e e s i d e s n e a r l y have the same s t i f f n e s s which l e a d s to a
l i m i t a t i o n o f the branch w i d t h ratio.
For gap j o i n t s a l s o the gap i s l i m i t e d . O u t s i d e the range given,the
branch e f f e c t i v e area and the e f f e c t i v e chord punching s h e a r area may be
c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r . F u r t h e r f o r l a r g e r gaps combined w i t h low -r - r a t i o s
0

o f the chord shear f a i l u r e o f the chord c r o s s s e c t i o n a t the gap can b e -

come d e c i s i v e . The o v e r l a p i n p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p j o i n t s s h o u l d not be too
small f o r a good l o a d t r a n s f e r . The l i m i t s have been based on the avail-
a b l e t e s t e v i d e n c e . For j o i n t s w i t h about 80 t o 100% o v e r l a p the recom-
mendation may g i v e somewhat c o n s e r v a t i v e strengths.

468
 RECOMMENDATIONS

9 . 2 . 3 . 6 Range o f v a l i d i t y

Type of joint Joint parameters (i = 1 or 2)

b. b. d, b b 1+ 2 b 1

i t,. gap/overlap
r.
' i
b ,b
i(ov)
o
b

compression tension
b
b
*
T, Y, X 1 0 ^ 35
0.25 (-fr-i 0.85

K and N with b. b n * b. + b,
5 0.4 35 15s;-pi 35 0.5(1-6) 1.5(1-6)
gap i
0
L
i 0
K and N with 5 0.25 ^35
b
i
overlap and T- > 0.75
0 b
i(ov)
'ifovl^i
Joints with d. d. rT~ d.
circular 0.4 0.8 ^1.2//- 50 further limitations as above for ch =
bracings t 0 0

* O u t s i d e t h i s range o f v a l i d i t y but w i t h i n t h a t g i v e n i n 9 . 2 . 4 . 5 . the

j o i n t s have t o be checked a c c o r d i n g to 9 . 2 . 4 .

469
 9-26 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9.2.4. In r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s j o i n t s s e v e r a l modes of f a i l u r e are p o s -

s i b l e depending on the type of j o i n t , j o i n t parameters and member o r i e n -
t a t i o n . B e sides the b a s i c c r i t e r i a g i v e n , the branch e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and
chord punching shear have to be c h e c k e d .
For general i n f o r m a t i o n , r e f e r e n c e i s given i s to:
IIW Doc. X V - 4 9 2 - 8 1 : The s t r e n g t h of P r e d o m i n a n t l y S t a t i c a l l y Loaded J o i n t s
wi t h a Square o r R e c t a n g u l a r Hollow S e c t i o n Chord.
(see c h a p t e r 5 . 2 . ) .

9 . 2 . 4 . 1 The j o i n t s t r e n g t h formula f o r T, Y and X j o i n t s f o r B < 0 . 8 5 i s based

on t h e a n a l y t i c a l y i e l d l i n e c r i t e r i o n . T h i s c r i t e r i o n can be c o n s i d e r e d
as a lower bound s o l u t i o n f o r the j o i n t s t r e n g t h even when t h e chords
a r e p r e l o a d e d ; N = N^
For B = 1.0 t h e j o i n t s t r e n g t h i s determined by t h e w a l l b e a r i n g and the
w a l l s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s i d e w a l l s of the c h o r d . Due to t h e lower plasticity
a y , Y = 1.25 i s taken i n t o account i n a, f o r X - j o i n t s and Y _ . Y = 1.0
'm 'c k 'm 'c
f o r T- and Y - j o i n t s . For 0 . 8 5 B 1.0 the s t r e n g t h can be determined
by l i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n between the s t r e n g t h s f o r 3 = 0 . 8 5 and B = 1 . 0 .

9 . 2 . 4 . 2 The j o i n t s t r e n g t h formula f o r K and N type j o i n t s w i t h gap. i n d i c a t e d

w i t h 3) i s based on a s e m i - e x p e r i m e n t a l a n a l y s i s f o r chord f a c e f a i l u r e .
V = 0.095 ; V = 0.14 ; N. = 0 . 9 N and N = 0 . 8 2 N,,
6 ' u k m m
x N
u u

The c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of the t e s t s i s based on an a n a l y s i s , in

which the main parameters are taken i n t o a c c o u n t . For some parameters
lower bound f u n c t i o n s a r e taken i n t o account e . g . f(g') = 1.0 whereas the
f u n c t i o n f o r the parameter i s m o d i f i e d i n a c o n s e r v a t i v e way. The u n -
r e a l i s t i c increase in due to t h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s i s not taken i n t o a c -
c o u n t . The j o i n t s t r e n g t h formula c o v e r i n g a s h e a r f a i l u r e o f t h e c h o r d ,
i n d i c a t e d w i t h 5) has been based on an a n a l y t i c a l a n a l y s i s , which i s
checked w i t h t e s t s i . e . N = N^.

9 . 2 . 4 . 3 The s t r e n g t h o f o v e r l a p j o i n t s can be covered by an e f f e c t i v e w i d t h cri-

terion only.

470
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-27

9.2.4. Wl d_joints_with_between_
d
gns

Type of joint Design strength

N f(to) f() f(e) fly) f(g f(n)

9.2.4.1 T M For (3 < 0.85

2h, 1 1
1)
b sine.
0 B) sine,

ho For 3 = 1.0

N,= Ok to 2)
sin6,

9.2.4.2 b,+b +h,+h2

f(n)
2

>eo 8.9 3)
4b sinc 6 i

sin9i
sin 6 2 4)

OeOk A n
i = 1 or 2
vTsini 5)
>0.A
Wop) ( A - A Q ) - O , + A Q -OecVl-t-g-p}
0 E O

9.2.4.3 K,N, overlap|

E f f e c t i v e w i d t h criteria only.
9.2.4.4 Effective w i d t h and
See 9 . 2 . 4 . 4 ; page 9 - 2 9
punching shear criterion

9.2.4.5 Functions 2) f o r t e n s i o n i n t h e b r a c i n g = o ^e0

for compression o k =c k n (T-joints) o^^O.So^p (X-joints)

a k n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ECCS b u c k l i n g c u r v e " a " n

for X =3 . 4 6 ( ^ - 2)-
/ sine

3) f(n) =1.0 for tension chords

f(n) = 1 . 3 - - ^ j - |n| f o r c o m p r e s s i o n c h o r d s
4
f ( n ) <1.0

A .oeo
n k

5) A n = 2.h.t +a . b . t r> . Q
' Q o o o o p /3

with a
4g " < i- N s i n 0
i>.max.

3ti

9.2.4.6 Validity ranqe See 9 . 2 . 4 , 6 ; page 9 - 2 9

471
 9-28 EXPLANATARY NOTES

9 . 2 . 4 . 4 B e s i d e s the b a s i c c r i t e r i a gi ven i n 9 . 2 . 4 . 1 to 9 . 2 . 4 . 3 the j o i n t s have t o

be checked f o r branch e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and punching s h e a r .
The e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f t h e c r o s s w a l l s i s based on t e s t s o f p l a t e to RHS
sections. For a c o n s i s t e n t approach s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n s a r e used f o r
branch e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and punching s h e a r . These c r i t e r i a can be c o n s i d -
ered as lower bound s o l u t i o n s t a k i n g account o f a Y - Y m c = 1 - 2 5 . The e x -
pressions for b g and b 6 p are c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r j o i n t s i n which a y i e l d
l i n e p a t t e r n can be developed i n t h e top f a c e o f t h e chord
( i
b < b
o " o
2z
' 2 r
i " 2 a y / 2
) | r
r T
' Y a n d x
J o i n t s t h e punching shear can
o n l y be c r i t i c a l f o r 0 . 8 5 < B < 1.0 i f a shear f a i l u r e i s p o s s i b l e be-
tween t h e s i d e welds o f t h e branches and t h e i n n e r chord w a l l ) .

9.2.4.6 The l i m i t a t i o n s are based on t e s t e v i d e n c e and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . Out-

s i d e the v a l i d i t y range some f o r m u l a e are s t i l l v a l i d but then t h e d e -
f o r m a t i o n and r o t a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f t h e j o i n t have to be c h e c k e d . In
o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s t h e d e f o r m a t i o n can be too l a r g e f o r s e r v i c e ability.
The l i m i t a t i o n s have been f u r t h e r e x p l a i n e d i n 9 . 2 . 3 . 6 .

472
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-29

9.2.4.4 General check f o r e f f e c t i v e w i d t h and p u n c h i n g shear

Type of j o i n t Design strength (i 1 or 2)

T, Y, X No check
8 < 0.85

N. = o . . t . . f 2 h . - 4 t . + 2b I 3 TE
T, Y, X l (ij u l l eJ h c
k . b. e 0

0.85 < 8 s 1.0 e " F 7 t " -cTTTtT

eo o k
- t
,2h
/J.sinO LsinO
bT7t" i b

p o o
K, N with gap

b
e ovr T i r o ^ . t ,
( - i
b

k' e o
r i t o 2 h

N
i =
^.sinO.- LTIn: + b
i + b
e J

K. N with 100%
overlap
1 ei lL 1 1 1 e(ov)J
K, N with T2h.1- ,1 10.8 for Fe 360, Fe 430
30% < 0 < 100%
(.
i = 0
ei.. t .iL 4t. + b
1 e +b ,
e(ov)J 9.2 for Fe 510
overlap

In assessing the strength of a j o i n t the values and should never be

taken smaller than 1.0 or greater than 2.0

( e. i |. t' . i )
,0 - b

(
t
o v and (-j^) ov
a r
* related to the properties of the overlapped branch.

9.2.4.6 Range o f validity

Type of joint Joint parameters (i = 1 or 2)

b. h. b.
1 . 1 b
o . o h h
i 1
L
gap
0 0 'o ' l
0
compression tension * b
(ov)

1, Y, X > 0.25 --

K and N h.
) 0.4 < 35 < 35 0.5 < F 1 S 2 -- 0.5(1-8) < g - < 1.5(1-8)
with gap 1 0
K and N
a 0.25 >0.75 30t < 0 < 100%
y
with overlap

473
 9-30 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9.3.1. For general r e f e r e n c e , see c h a p t e r 6 .

9 . 3 . 1 . 1 The formula f o r T, Y and X j o i n t s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r t h e web i n beam

to column c o n n e c t i o n s . The c r i t e r i a given are v e r i f i e d by t e s t s .

9.3.1.2 The c r i t e r i a g i v e n f o r K and N j o i n t s w i t h gap are based on a n a l y t i c a l

y i e l d c r i t e r i a f o r t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e chord i n t h e gap; N = N^.
The c r i t e r i a are s i m i l a r to t h o s e f o r gap j o i n t s w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r hol-
low s e c t i o n chord which f a i l by s h e a r .

9.3.1.3 K and N type j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p have o n l y t o be checked on e f f e c t i v e

w i d t h and are r e l a t e d to t h o s e w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w chord s e c t i o n .

474
 RECOMMENDATIONS
9-31

9.3. DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS OF MELDED JOINTS WITH HOLLOW SECTION BRANCH MEM-
BERS AND AN OPEN SECTION AS CHORD

9.3.1 WeIded_joints_with^ s e c t i o n branch members

and chords i n H o r I s e c t i o n s

Type of joint Design strength

9.3.1.1 i m

bo N\ = m- w"eo -
b t
k sTrTTJ,

9.3.1.2 K N
g q
p l t
Ni = b . t . o,
t l 2 v v

m- ' w " e o - e
m w

k 5 i n 1

Ni = < W Q A

_Y_ V T . s i n 0,
h i

%p=( 0 A
- Q)0-eo +A .a
A
k Q e 0 k Vl-(^-) 2

9.3.1.3 K, N, overlap Only effective width check

c f . 2.4.4.

9.3.1.4 General check for See 9 . 3 . 1 . 4 ; page 9 . 3 3

effective width.
h.
9.3.1.5 Functions
-b = - + 5 ( t + r )
m sin0.
0 0

RI-joints
b
m* 2 t
i + 1 0
(*o + r
o )

C I - j o i nts
b
m IT7iG7 = + 5
^o + r
o^
(Ni . s i n G ^ m a x

A
Q-eo k

/3
A^ - ( 2 - a ) b . t + ( t + 2 r )t
o v
' o o w o' o 1

a = 0 f o r CHS branches
1
f o r RHS branches

J L
o

9.3.1.6 Validity range See 9 . 3 . 1 . 6 ; page 9 - 3 3

475
 9-32 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 3 . 1 . 4 The t e s t s c a r r i e d out v e r i f i e d t h e c r i t e r i a g i v e n f o r T, Y and X j o i n t s

w i t h an e x t r a margin o f s a f e t y o f 1 . 2 5 . However more b a s i c t e s t evidence
is r e q u i r e d to b r i n g t h e s e c r i t e r i a i n l i n e w i t h 9.2.4.4.
The o v e r l a p j o i n t s can be c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e same way as those w i t h a r e c -
t a n g u l a r chord s e c t i o n .
For gap j o i n t s a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e b e i n g c a r r i e d out t o d e t e r -
mine t h e e f f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i a . However w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s g i v e n
i t i s shown t o be not c r i t i c a l compared t o the o t h e r c r i t e r i a .

9 . 3 . 1 . 6 The range o f v a l i d i t y g i v e n , i s based on a n a l y t i c a l and experimental in-

v e s t i g a t i o n s . The t e s t s c a r r i e d out had a maximum chord s e c t i o n HE 200 A
with t = 10 mm. Beam-column c o n n e c t i o n s which are loaded i n a s i m i l a r
o
way have been t e s t e d up to HE 300 B w i t h t = 19 mm. For t h i c k e r w a l l e d
chords a d d i t i o n a l requirements f o r deformation c a p a c i t y may be n e c e s s a r y .
In t h i s case 100% o v e r l a p j o i n t s a r e p r e f e r r e d above gap j o i n t s .

476
 RECOMMENDATIONS g _ :

9 . 3 . 1 . 4 General check f o r e f f e c t i ve w i d t h

Type of j o i n t Design s t r e n g t h

T, Y, X N. = 2a , . t , . { 2 t + c . t ) w i t h : c = 10.5 f o r Fe 360
1 el 1 k w v
o' c = 7 . 5 f o r Fe 510

K and N w i t h No check r e q u i r e d i f w i t h i n & 1-0.03Y d

l
0 . 7 5 - r i - 1.33
gap parameter l i m i t a t i o n s , o t h e r - T
g.' 20 - 28B
t

wise l i k e T, Y and X - j o i n t s

K and N wi th b
l
See 9 . 2 . 4 . 4 0 5 30% 0 . 7 5 * T - i 1.33
o v e r ! ap
y
b 2

9 . 3 . 1 . 6 Range o f validity

Type o f j o i nt J o i nt parameters (i = 1 or 2)

b . h. b./t. d./t.
i l l h
l
b. b. w
V) i
compression tension w

b. h
T, Y, X --
l
l w

K and N w i t h
1.0
gap d. d. with:
c = 1.2 f o r X j o i n t s
a .
K and N wi th c - 1.5 f o r T, Y , K and
S0.75 k
e l

o v e r l ap N joints

477
 9-34 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9.3.2 The design r u l e s g i v e n , a p p l y to channel s e c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to t a b l e 7 . 1

(page 7-24) i n which t h e s i d e w a l l s are t h i c k e r than t h e top f a c e . The
s e c t i o n s are o n l y a v a i l a b l e as hot f i n i s h e d s e c t i o n s . Channel sections
with t = t can f a i l at c o n s i d e r a b l e lower l o a d s . The r e s u l t i n g e c c e n -
tricities have o n l y to be taken i n t o account f o r the member d e s i g n . For
general r e f e r e n c e s , see c h a p t e r 7.

9 . 3 . 2 . 1 The d e s i g n s t r e n g t h f o r K and N j o i n t s w i t h gap i s based on the effective

w i d t h c r i t e r i o n and t h e p l a s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c h o r d c r o s s s e c t i o n i n t h e
gap.

9 . 3 . 2 . 2 The design s t r e n g t h o f o v e r l a p j o i n t s can be covered by a branch e f -

f e c t i v e w i d t h c r i t e r i o n o n l y , s i m i l a r t o those o f r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
section j o i n t s . Because o f the i n f l u e n c e o f the t h i c k s i d e w a l l s the
parameter b Q i s r e p l a c e d by b Q = b Q - 2(t + r ).

9 . 3 . 2 . 3 J o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r branches are r e l a t e d to t h o s e w i t h rectangular

branches by ^ which means t h a t the same e f f i c i e n c y i s o b t a i n e d for

b* b*
o o

9 . 3 . 2 . 4 The e x p r e s s i o n s f o r b g and b ^ e Q V j a r e determined i n a s i m i l a r way as for

j o i n t s with a rectangular chord.

9 . 3 . 2 . 5 See page 9-36

478
 RECOMMENDATIONS
9-35

9.3.2. Welded_j_oints_wHh_ci>
and a channel _ ( U N P l _ s e t i o n _ a s _ c h o r d

Type of joint Design strength formu[ae(i=1 or2)

9.3.2.1 K.N gap Ni=a i .tj<[2hi-4tj+bi+beJ>
e k
1)

V ^
g

2
eo AQ k
Ni =
V S s i n 6j
1
X\s. s/s " . " y . ?
f
gap
=(A 0
;
)-o eo
57 eok k

9.3.2.2 K,N overlap 100% overlap 2)

hi, K t , h
2 2
Ni=Oei-tj J2hj -4tj +bj +b ( v)h
k e 0

^ ( o v ) ^ ft]
30% ov^100% 3)
1 ^2 lijto
-EZ
B

Ni=ei-tj J2hj -Atj +b +b ( )| e e ov

9.3.2.3 Joints with circular Multiply the formulae 1),2)and 3

branch members with-^-and replace hj and bj
by dj (i =1 or2).
9.3.2.4 Functions ^eok-to
eok- t

2
0
b = . b, with l
b*/t ' a
^ k - l
i eik- i t

O 0
^eik-Vov ( 0 e i . k' - t .i o v ;

. b. w i t h l 2
D
e{ov)-(VVpv" oe^-t, ' 1
D

c = 1 0 . 8 f o r Fe 360 and Fe 430

c = 9 . 2 f o r Fe 510

A = A -(l-a).b*.t
Q o 0 Q = (N..sine.)
y v
i vmax
_ Q- eo
A g
k

/3
a =
1
1 +59 f o r RHS branches
3 t
o

= 0 f o r CHS branches

9.3.2.5 Validity
range See 9 . 3 . 2 . 5 . ; page 9 - 3 7

479
 9-36 EXPLANATORY NOTES

9 . 3 . 2 . 5 The range o f v a l i d i t y i s s i m i l a r to t h a t f o r j o i n t s o f r e c t a n g u l a r s e c -
t i o n s w i t h e x c e p t i o n o f t h a t f o r the chord d i m e n s i o n .
The chord dimensions are l i m i t e d i n such a way t h a t the design e q u a t i o n s
c o u l d be l i m i t e d . For l a r g e r chord s e c t i o n s more j o i n t s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a
have to be c h e c k e d , see c h a p t e r 7.

480
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-37

9 . 3 . 2 . 5 Range o f validity

J o i n t parameters ( i = 1 o r 2)
Type o f j o i n t
b.
i max. chord
6 gap/overlap
b
i(ov) dimension

K, N w i t h gap t 0.4 0,5(1-6*) *JU 1.5(1-6*) UNP 140

o b

K, N w i t h
5 0 . 2 5 >, 0 . 7 5 30 i 0 100% UNP 400
o v e r l ap
v

b./t. h./t.
h. 1 l V 1
i
b.
i compression t e n s i o n compression t e n s i o n

h.
general 0.5 s - p i < 2 $ 35 L a / / " 50

481
 EXPLANATORY NOTES
9-38

A-l The toughness requirements have not y e t been i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y agreed upon.

A-2.2. These l i m i t a t i o n s are based o n :

P e c h , P . : Schweissen k a l t v e r f o r m t e r B a u s t h l e mit wanddicken von 2 b i s
6 mm, Schweissen und S c h n e i d e n , H e f t 1 1 , 1980.

Veit, H.J.: Probleme des Schweissens i n B e r e i c h k a l t v e r f o r m t e r Profile,

Schweissen und S c h n e i d e n , H e f t 3 , 1968.

482
 RECOMMENDATIONS g _ 3 g

APPENDIX A QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR HOLLOW SECTIONS

A-l. General

The grade and q u a l i t y o f s t e e l chosen,must meet t h e toughness require-

ments, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t , w e l d a b i l i t y , t h i c k n e s s , environmental condi-
t i o n s , r a t e o f l o a d i n g and the consequence o f failure.
For normal use i n b u i l d i n g s the s t e e l must at l e a s t meet t h e f o l l o w i n g
requirements a c c o r d i n g t o Euronorm 25-72 o r i t s equivalent
- Hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s - Fe 360 A
- Cold " " " - Fe 360 B

A-2. Requirements f o r co^d_fi_nished_holl^ow_sections

A-2.1. For s q u a r e - and r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s made by the c o l d forming of

welded c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n s the d i s t a n c e between the longitudinal
weld and the s i d e o f the i n n e r r a d i u s s h o u l d be at l e a s t two times t h e
wall thickness.

A-2.2. Welding i s p e r m i t t e d i n t h e zones o f c o l d forming i f t h e f o l l o w i n g m i n i -

mum c o n d i t i o n s o f c o r n e r r a d i u s are f u l f i l l e d .

Material t
r/t
qual i t y mm

at least 12 < t .< 16 s 3.0

'B'

Fe 360, Fe 430 8 < t i 12 > 2.0

at l e a s t ' B ' 6 < t ; 8 > 1.5
t,< 6 5 1.0

Fe 510 8 < t ^ 12 > 2.5

at l e a s t 'B' 6 < t 8 2.0
t < 6 > 1.5

The ' B ' q u a l i t y should be a k i l l e d s t e e l .

483
 9-40

APPENDIX B MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF STEELS Fe 3 6 0 , Fe 430

AND Fe 510 ACCORDING EURONORM 2 5 - 7 2 .

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o
o o o o o o o
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LO CTi cn cn CO cn LO CXJ rxi o
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484
 9-41

Mechanical properties guaranteed i n the supply condition

yield pointc
Steel Quality Desoxidizing Tensile elongation at rupture
grade method o r n . 2 i n N/mm^ strength in %
i n N/mm2 W a l l t h i c k n e s s e s
For wal1 t h i c k n e s s e s
3 < t - 40 mm
>16 mm
* 16 mm 1ongi t u d i n a l transverse
s 4 0 mm

A
B FU o r FN 235 225 350 * 4 4 0 26 24
Fe 3 6 0
C FN
D FN

A
B FN 275 265 430 * 510 22 20
Fe 430
C FN
D FN

B FN
C FN 355 345 510 T 610 22 20
Fe 5 1 0
D FN
DD FN

485
 9-42

APPENDIX C RECOMMENDED WELD DETAILS

F i l l e t welds a r e g e n e r a l l y used up t o t h r o a t t h i c k n e s s e s o f about 8 mm

p r o v i d e d t h e a n g l e a t t h e toe o f t h e branch does not ecceed 120 and the
p o s i t i o n o f t h e f i l l e t weld w i l l be p o s s i b l e e . g . at the s a d d l e o f t h e
c h o r d . When f i l l e t welds are o n l y p o s s i b l e a t t h e t o e and t h e c r o t c h of
a branch then b u t t welds are p r o v i d e d at t h e s a d d l e s . For t h e c o n n e c t i o n
o f branch members w i t h w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s l a r g e r then 8 mm b u t t welds are
recommended. Some recommended weld d e t a i l s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d .

For weld d e t a i l s i n o f f s h o r e
s t r u c t u r e s reference i s given
to the r e l e v a n t o f f s h o r e r e -
commendations; see page 9 - 3

Detail A Detail B

For f i l l e t welds a > t j f o r Fe 360, Fe 430 a 5 1.2^ f o r Fe 510

486
 9-43

APPENDIX D RECOMMENDED FATIGUE DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR HOLLOW SECTION

JOINTS

Contents

Symbols
D-0 Preface
D-l Scope
D-2 Definitions
D-3 S t r e s s e s to be c o n s i d e r e d
D-4 B a s i c design S^-N curves
D-5 Design procedure

487
 9-44
Symbols used i n Appendix D

C c o n s t a n t used i n p a r a m e t r i c formulae
N number o f c y c l e s to failure
number o f c y c l e s to f a i l u r e f o r a s t r e s s range S^
S stress 1

stress range
s t r e s s range o f the S^-N curve f o r j o i n t s w i t h 22 mm chord
22
wall thickness
hot s p o t s t r e s s range
hot spot
nominal s t r e s s range
nom.
nominal s t r e s s range i n the branch due to a x i a l load
ax nom.
S . r nominal s t r e s s range i n the branch due to an p l a n e bending
1
P
nom. moment
nominal s t r e s s range i n the branch due to an out o f p l a n e
op
nom. bending moment

SCF geometrical stress concentration factor

g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r due t o a x i a l load
S C F
ax
g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r due to an i n p l a n e
S C F
ip
bending moment
SCF g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r due to an out of
op
p l a n e bending moment
stress ratio

d i s t a n c e from weld toe to a measuring p o i n t f o r the s t r e s s

b
e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f the chord
b
o
e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f branch i (i = 1 o r 2)
b
i
e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f branch (1)
e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f branch (2)
o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r o f a branch
o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r o f t h e chord
e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f a branch i (i = 1 o r 2)
expected number o f c y c l e s at a s t r e s s range S r

w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f branch i (i = 1 o r 2)
w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f the branch 1
w a l l t h i c k n e s s o f t h e chord

488
 9-45

B : d i a m e t e r o r w i d t h r a t i o between branch and chord

: a n g l e between branch (1) and t h e chord (0)
0 ? : angle between branch (2) and the chord (0)
t i

x : wall thickness ratio T

T J T - t : l i m i t i n g value f o r f(r)

489
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-46

D-0 Preface

These recommendations f o r t h e f a t i g u e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r h o l l o w s e c -
tion joints s h o u l d not be c o n s i d e r e d as complete recommendations but more
as a d d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s which may be c o n s i d e r e d f o r the f a t i g u e d e s i g n of
hollow s e c t i o n joints.

D-l Scope

D-l.l. These recommendations deal w i t h the d e s i g n and a n a l y s i s o f j o i n t s in

l a t t i c e s t r u c t u r e s composed o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s w i t h c i r c u l a r , square o r
r e c t a n g u l a r shape. They are v a l i d for:
- seamless hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
- welded hot f i n i s h e d h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
- c o l d f i n i s h e d hollow s e c t i o n s .
The manufactored hollow s e c t i o n s s h o u l d c o n f i r m the t o l e r a n c e r e q u i r e -
ments given i n ISO/DIS 657 XIV and ISO/DIS 4019 and t o t h e d e l i v e r y con-
d i t i o n s s t a t e d i n Appendix A.

D-l.2. The recommendations are a p p l i c a b l e to as welded j o i n t s in structures c.f.

9 . 1 . 1 . 2 and 9.1.4.1 i n which the welds s a t i s f y t h e regui rements g i v e n for
p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y loaded s t r u c t u r e s c . f . 9 . 1 . 5 . For j o i n t s used i n
o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s o r j o i n t s w i t h member w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s g r e a t e r than
16 mm t h e welds s h o u l d c o n f i r m the requirements given i n t h e AWS p a r t 10
and the API (for r e f e r e n c e , see page 9 - 3 ) .

D-2 Definitions

D-2.1. Fatigue

F a t i g u e can be d e s c r i b e d as t h e process o f p r o g r e s s i v e l o c a l i z e d perma-

nent s t r u c t u r a l changes o c c u r i n g i n a m a t e r i a l s u b j e c t e d t o l o a d i n g c o n -
d i t i o n s , which produce f l u c t u a t i n g s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s a t some p o i n t or
p o i n t s which may c u l m i n a t e i n c r a c k s o r complete f a i l u r e a f t e r a s u f f i -
c i e n t number o f fluctuations.

490
 RECOMMENDATIONS y
" 4 /

D-2.2. Fatigue.life

The f a t i g u e l i f e i s g e n e r a l l y s p e c i f i e d as t h e number o f c y c l e s N o f
s t r e s s o r s t r a i n o f a s p e c i f i e d c h a r a c t e r , t h a t a g i v e n specimen s u s -
tains, before f a i l u r e of a s p e c i f i e d nature occurs.

D - 2 . 3 . S - N curve
r

The S - N c u r v e g i v e s the r e l a t i o n between s t r e s s and the number o f

r

c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e where the s t r e s s range i s given on t h e v e r t i c a l axis

and t h e number o f c y c l e s on t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , both on l o g a r i t h m i c
seale.

D-2.4. Nominal_stress

The nominal s t r e s s i s s p e c i f i e d as t h e s t r e s s at a p o i n t , c a l c u l a t e d on
t h e net c r o s s s e c t i o n by s i m p l e e l a s t i c theory w i t h o u t t a k i n g t h e effect
of g e o m e t r i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s on t h e s t r e s s i n t o a c c o u n t .

D-2.5. Hot_sgot_stress

The i d e a l i z e d e f f e c t i v e hot spot s t r e s s i s d e f i n e d as the s t r e s s o b -

t a i n e d by l i n e a r e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o t h e weld toe o f t h e p r i n c i p a l stresses
a t A and B i n f i g . D - l . T h i s hot spot s t r e s s takes o n l y account o f t h e
geometry of the j o i n t and excludes t h e n o t c h e f f e c t s due to weld geo-
metry and the c o n d i t i o n at t h e weld t o e .

491
 Fig. D-l. D e f i n i t i o n o f i d e a l i z e d hot spot s t r e s s .

D-2.6. Stress_range

The s t r e s s range S r i s d e f i n e d as t h e a l g e b r a i c d i f f e r e n c e between the

repeated maximum s t r e s s and the minimum s t r e s s . The nominal s t r e s s range
is based on t h e nominal s t r e s s e s w h i l e the hot spot s t r e s s range is
based on hot spot stresses.

492
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-49

D-2.7. Stress ratio R

The s t r e s s r a t i o R i s d e f i n e d as the r a t i o between t h e a b s o l u t e minimum

a p p l i e d l o a d and t h e a b s o l u t e maximum a p p l i e d l o a d f o r c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e
l o a d i n g t a k i n g account o f the s i g n o f t h e l o a d i n g . Tension i s taken as
p o s s i t i v e and compression as n e g a t i v e .

D-2.8. Stress_concentrati^on_factor

The s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r SCF i s d e f i n e d as t h e g e o m e t r i c a l hot

spot s t r e s s somewhere i n t h e j o i n t d i v i d e d by t h e nominal s t r e s s i n an
a t t a c h e d b r a n c h . In j o i n t s w i t h more than one branch a l l branches have
t o be c o n s i d e r e d . G e n e r a l l y s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s are c a l c u l a t e d
f o r t h e chord and b r a n c h .

D-3 S t r e s s e s t o be c o n s i d e r e d

D-3.1 Hot_snot_stress_range

For j o i n t s made o f hollow s e c t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f branches and c h o r d s ,

the s t r e s s t o be used f o r f a t i g u e d e s i g n i s t h e range o f i d e a l i z e d hot
spot s t r e s s a d j a c e n t to the weld toe as d e f i n e d i n D-2. The c a l c u l a t i o n
of the e f f e c t i v e hot spot s t r e s s range may be undertaken by f i n i t e ele-
ment a n a l y s i s , p h y s i c a l model s t u d i e s o r by use o f the best a v a i l a b l e
s e m i - e m p e r i c a l p a r a m e t r i c formulae f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e geomet-
rical stress concentration factor.

A l l a c t i o n s on t h e j o i n t i n c l u d i n g moments due t o t h e s t i f f n e s s o f the

j o i n t should be taken i n t o account f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e hot spot
s t r e s s range, (see page 8 - 3 7 ) .

D-3.2. Paramet ri c_fonrju]ae

If t h e p o s i t i o n o f the hot spot s t r e s s f o r the r e l e v a n t l o a d i n g c o n d i -

t i o n cannot be determined than t h e maximum SCF values generated must be
a p p l i e d t o a l l p o i n t s around the p e r i p h e r y according t o :

S = SCF .S + SCF. + SCF. (D-l)

ax r.
ax IP
i p r
op
nom. nom. nom.

493
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-50

where:
S = hot s p o t s t r e s s range
r
h o t spot
S = nominal s t r e s s range i n t h e branch due to a x i a l l o a d
r
ax
nom.
S r = nominal s t r e s s range i n t h e branch due to an i n p l a n e
bending moment
nom.
S r = nominal s t r e s s range i n t h e branch due to an out o f p l a n e
bending moment
SCF = g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r an a x i a l l o a d
ax
i n t h e branch
SCF.jp = g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r an i n p l a n e
bending moment
SCF p Q = g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r an out o f p l a n e
bending moment

P a r a m e t r i c equations s h o u l d be used w i t h c a u t i o n and o n l y w i t h i n their

range o f val i di t y .
Besides t h e check on hot s p o t s t r e s s range t h e c h o r d s h o u l d be checked
on t h e maximum nominal s t r e s s range to c o v e r j o i n t s w i t h h i g h chord
l o a d i n g and r e l a t i v e l y low branch l o a d s .

D-3.2.1. C^rcular_hollow_section_jo

Among t h e a v a i l a b l e s e m i - e m p i r i c a l p a r a m e t r i c formulae f o r s i n g l e
p l a n e c i r c u l a r hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s those g i v e n i n t a b l e s 8 - 2 to 8 - 4
may be used.

D - 3 . 2 . 2 . Sguare_hoi 1 o w _ s e c t i o n _ j o i n t s

For s i m p l e s i n g l e p l a n e K and N j o i n t s o f square hollow s e c t i o n s the

s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r f o r a x i a l l o a d i n g and bending i n p l a n e
w i t h i n the range o f v a l i d i t y g i v e n i n f i g . D-2 may be determined w i t h
SCF = C . f ( x )
withf(x) = T > T L I M I T (D-2)

Type C T
limit

K- and N - j o i n t w i t h gap 6.0 0.5

K- j o i n t s w i t h o v e r l a p 3.6 0.83
N-joints with overlap 4.3 0.7

494
RECOMMENDATIONS 9-51

Parameter Range o f validity

40 - 90
G
l > 2

b. = h. ( i = 1 o r 2)
b
i i
h

b
0 25
t
0
b
l ' b
2 b
l = b
2

b.
0 . 5 3 1.0

gap j o i n t s 0.5(b -b.) 0 e g * 1.1 ( b - b . )

0

o v e r l ap j o i nts 50% i o v e r l a p i 100%

Fig. D-2. Range o f v a l i d i t y f o r e q . (D-2).

495
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-52

D-4 B a s i c d e s i g n S^-N curves

The b a s i c d e s i g n S ~ N curves f o r hot s p o t s t r e s s i . e .

r curves T and K a r e
shown i n f i g . D - 3 . F u r t h e r a c u r v e D i s given f o r an a d d i t i o n a l check o f
the s t r e s s range i n the chord when t h e hot spot s t r e s s range i s deter-
mined u s i n g p a r a m e t r i c equations f o r the g e o m e t r i c a l s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n
factor.

500
!

400
I
1

V >
1
D'> S >
1
S A\ I
300 s S
- \ V s 1
N

- \ s
1
N r X
S 1
S i i
1
S
-
s\
- \ X S 1
200 s

- \ s ^\ N >
- \

\
\
- N. s
J
- \ 4 x
**
s
100 s s
- \ i
S \ / s
- \
\

D\
50 ! i i I 1 1 1 1
10 4
2 4 6 810 5
2 4 6 8 10 6
2 4 6 8 10 7
2 4 6 810 8

= + N (cycles)

F i q3 . D-3. S r - N curves f o r hollow s e c t i o n j o i n t s

0 * 4 . 1 For j o i n t s i n a n o n - c o r r o s i v e environment and t h o s e i n a c o r r o s i v e

environment which are a d e q u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d a f a t i g u e l i m i t may be adopted
ft 8
a t N = 5 . 1 0 f o r c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e l o a d i n g and N = 2.10 f o r spectrum
l o a d i n g when a l i n e a r c u m u l a t i v e damage c a l c u l a t i o n i s u s e d .

496
 RECOMMENDATIONS
9-53

D - 4 . 2 In case o f not a d e q u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d j o i n t s i n a c o r r o s i v e environment

t h e curves i n f i g . D-3 have t o be reduced by a f a c t o r 2 on l i f e w h i l e t h e
curves f o r N < 5 . 1 0 6
s h o u l d be extended a f t e r N = 5 . 1 0 w i t h o u t a change
6

i n s l o p e and w i t h o u t a f a t i g u e limit.

D - 4 . 3 Curves T can be used i n general f o r a l l types o f j o i n t s i n d e p e n t on the

s t r e s s r a t i o R. The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h i s given i n r e l a t i o n to t h e chord
wall thickness t .
For j o i n t s o f l a r g e r t h i c k n e s s than 22 mm f o l l o w i n g c o r r e c t i o n factor
on t h e hot spot s t r e s s range have to be a p p l i e d .

S = S .(|2) - 0 2 5
(D-3)
r r
22 z
o
where:
S r i s the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h (hot spot s t r e s s range) o f the j o i n t under
consideration
S i s the f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h (hot s p o t s t r e s s range) o f t h a t j o i n t with
22
a chord t h i c k n e s s o f 22 mm
t i s the chord t h i c k n e s s i n mm.
o

For j o i n t s w i t h w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s t < 22 mm t h e hot spot s t r e s s range at

N = 10^ c y c l e s remains c o n s t a n t whereas the hot spot s t r e s s range at
N = 5.10^ i s c a l c u l a t e d according eq. (D-3).
The curves given are v a l i d f o r t a 4 mm.
J
o
The S^-N curve f o r t = 22 mm has f o l l o w i n g form f o r N 5 . 1 0 :
6

l o g N = 12.271 - 3 l o g S r (D-4)

The curves K s h a l l o n l y be used f o r s i m p l e s i n g l e p l a n e K and N-type

j o i n t s w i t h gap or o v e r l a p c o n s i s t i n g o f c i r c u l a r o r r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
s e c t i o n s which s a t i s f y f o l l o w i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s :
- chord t h i c k n e s s t 10 mm
- chord diameter d o r chord w i d t h b i 200 mm.
o o
The c u r v e K to be used depends on the s t r e s s r a t i o R and has f o l l o w i n g
form f o r R < 0 . 2 and N g 5 . 1 0 : 6

l o g N = 17.785 - 5 l o g S r (D-5)

For R v a l u e s 0 . 2 g R^ 0 . 8 a 1 i n e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n may be used between the

c u r v e K f o r R 0 . 2 and the r e l evant curve T assumi ng a R = 0 . 8 f o r the c u r v e T.

497
 RECOMMENDATIONS 9-54

Curve D s h a l l o n l y be used f o r c h e c k i n g the nominal s t r e s s range i n the

chord due t o a x i a l load and bending moments when the hot spot s t r e s s e s
a r e determined u s i n g p a r a m e t r i c e q u a t i o n s . T h i s c u r v e can be used i n
general f o r a l l types o f j o i n t s w i t h t 22 mm independent on the s t r e s s
ratio.
For l a r g e r chord w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s t h e S^ values have to be reduced a c -
c o r d i n g to e q . (D-3).

The c u r v e D has f o l l o w i n g form f o r N g 5.10 :

l o g N = 11.810 - 3 l o g S (D-6)
nom

D-5 Design procedure

In general the f a t i g u e d e s i g n l i f e o f each j o i n t and member s h o u l d be

t w i c e the i n t e n d e d s e r v i c e l i f e o f the s t r u c t u r e . For c r i t i c a l joints
whose s o l e f a i l u r e would be c a t o s t r o p h i c , use o f an a d d i t i o n a l margin
o f s a f e t y s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d .
For each p o t e n t i a l c r a c k l o c a t i o n t h e l o n g term d i s t r i b u t i o n of relevant
s t r e s s ranges i s e s t a b l i s h e d and the p r o b a b l e f a t i g u e l i f e i s e s t i m a t e d
by t h e P a l m g r e n - M i n e r ' s l i n e a r c u m u l a t i v e damage r u l e :

l < 1 . 0 (D-7)

where:

n- are t h e expected numbers of c y c l e s o f the v a r i o u s s t r e s s ranges S r ,

i n the design l i f e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and 1

N. are the c o r r e s p o n d i n g numbers of c y c l e s to f a i l u r e under c o n s t a n t

amplitude l o a d i n g o b t a i n e d from the S -N curve.

498
 10-1

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10.2. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e on welded j o i n t s o f s t r u c t u r a l hollow

sections

1. Melded j o i n t s o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
1.0. General
1.1. Static behaviour
1.1. 0. General
1. T- and Y-joints
2. Cross joints
3. K- and N - j o i n t s
4. Three d i m e n s i o n a l joints
5. Connectors
6. Cropped end j o i n t s
7. Beam-column c o n n e c t i o n s
8. Stiffened joints
1.2. Fatigue behaviour
(same s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as 1.1.)
1.3. Stress distributions
(same s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as 1.1.)

Melded j o i n t s o f r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s
2.0. General
2.1. Static behaviour s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as 1.1.)
2.2. Fatigue behaviour
2.3. Stress distributions j

Connections between r e c t a n g u l a r and c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s

3.0. General
3.1. Static behaviour s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as 1.1.)
3.2. Fatigue behaviour
3.3. Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n s ;

4 . Connections between h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and open s e c t i o n s

4.0. General
4.1. Static behaviour
s u b - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as 1.1.)
4.2. Fatigue behaviour
4.3. Stress distributions

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en
O
en
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1.0 B a i l l y , R. , M o u t y , J .
2.0 "Amer i c a n Welding Society Structural Welding Code.. " E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h on K and N w e l d e d J o i n t s Composed
AWS 1 9 8 1 o f Web Members o f H o l l o w S e c t i o n s a n d C h o r d s o f HE
and i P e Sections"
B a b a , S . , A r i 2 u m i , Y . , N a r u i k a , M. IIW D o c . X V - 4 2 5 - 7 8 . 1978
" L o w - C y c l e F a t i g u e T e s t s of Welded Tubular Joints"
J o u r n a l of the S t r u c t u r a l Div.ST 3 March 1 9 8 1 . B a i n b r i d g e , C.A.
The A p p r o a c h of L l o y d 1
s R e g i s t e r to the Analysis of Fixed
Babiker , D.B. Offshore Structures". L l o y d s 1973
"The f a t i q u e Behaviour of Welded J o i n t s Between Structural
Hollow Sections" B a i n b r i d g e , C . A . and S m e d l e y , G . P .
Thesis at the U n i v e r s i t y of S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d England, D e s i g n Appraisal of O f f s h o r e P l a t f o r m s of Welded Tubular
CIDECT P r o g r . 5C, I s s u e 8 1 1 . 1967 Construction"
Paper 25. Conference Welding in Offshore Constructions.
B a c k , J . d e , D o r t l a n d , W. , w i l d s c h u t , H. , L e e u w e n , J.L. Newcastle. 1974
" F a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r of w e l d e d j o i n t s jn a i r a n d seawater".
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 1978. B a n , K. and M u k u d a i , J .
"On the Experimental R e s e a r c h of the Ring Action"
.1.2.1 Back, J . de T r a n s . A I J No. 6 0 . 1 9 5 8 .
1.2.2 "Testing tubular joints".
Rappor t e u r s r e p o r t at t h e November O f f s h o r e Steels B a n , K. and M u k u d a i , J .
Research Seminar held at Cambridge, Engl. 1978 " E x p e r i m e n t a l Research of the E f f e c t i v e Width of the
C o n n e c t i o n s of the t h i n S t e e l S e c t i o n s w h i c h were
Back, J . de. D i r e c t l y Welded w i t h E a c h O t h e r "
" C o r r o s i e v e r m o e i i n g van S t a a l c o n s t r u c t i e s in Zeewater" ( p a r t 2 - Tube t o S q u a r e Tubing)
Polytechnisch Tijdschrift/Werktuigbouw 35 nr. 12 - 709 T r a n s . AIJ,No. 76.1962
(in Dutch).1900
B a r d a l . E., Sondenfor, J . M . , Gartland P.O.
Back, J . de. "Slow corrosion f a t i g u e crack growth in a structural
"Strength of Tubular Joints". s t e e l in a r t i f i c i a l seawater at d i f f e r e n t potentials,
Rappor t e u r s repor t. c r a c k d e p t h s and l o a d i n g frequencies".
Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures S I N T E F Norway.
P l e n a r y S e s s i o n 7. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. C a m b r i d g e , Nov. 7 8 .

Back, J . de, Vaessen, G . , et al. Barentse, J.

" F a t i g u e and C o r r o s i o n F a t i g u e Behaviour o f Off- " I n v e s t i g a t i o n into the s t a t i c strength of
shore S t e e l Structures". w e l d e d T - j o i n t s made o f R e c t a n g u l a r hollow
E/C/SC Conv. Nr. 7210-KB/6/602 (Final report)(draft). sections" (2 r e p o r t s i n D u t c h ) ) TNO I B B C
1981. Reports BI-74-(48 + 49)-35.3.51210
Stevin reports 6 - 7 8 - 2 3 and 6 - 7 7 - 7 . 1977
1.1.0 B a d e r , W.
1.2.0 "Stahlrohrkonstruktion fur Statische und Dynamische B e a l e , L.A. Toprac, A . A . and N o e l , J . S .
Beanspruchung" "Stress investigation of welded tubular
connections (preliminary report)"
Schweisstechnik 12, Heft 12.1962 IIW DOC. X V - 1 7 4 - 6 4 .
1.2.0
2.2.0 Bader, W. B e a l e , L . A . T o p r a c , A . A . and N a t a r a j a n , M.
"Welded Tubular J o i n t s and Rectangular Hollow Sections "Experiments in tubular joints: elastic
under Dynamic Loading" stresses"
CIDECT I s s u e 7 0 / 9 / E IIW. D o c . XV 2 1 5 - 6 6 . 1966.

4.1.2 Translated from : Schweisstechnik 13 (1966) No. 11.1966 1.1.1 B e a l e , L . A . and T o p r a c , A . A .

4.1.3' 1.1.3 "Research in tubular connections:
Bailly, R. A n a l y s i s of T, Y and K w e l d e d tubular
"Etude des Assemblages Soudes; P r o f i l s Creux sur Profils Connections
Ouverts (I et H)" R e p o r t No. S . F . R . L . T e c h n . R p t . P 550-9
Progr. 5N. Cidect'Report No. 77/15/5N.1977. The U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s 1967.
 1.1.1 B e a l e , L.A. and T o p r a c , A.A. Benoist, J .
1.1.3 " A n a l y s i s of i n p l a n e T, Y, and K w e l d e d " S t e e l t u b e s in metal structures"
Tubular Connections" A c i e r , n o . 4 . 1957
B u l l e t i n No. 125. Welding Research C o u n c i l
New York.1967 B e n o i s t , J . V a l b e r t , G.
" C o n s t r u c t i o n en Tubes E s s a i s d'Assemblages
1.1.8 Bea, R.G. * Soudes, C T . I . C M . "
"Tabulated values for Circular Rings and S e r v i c e d e s R e c h e r c h e s . 1969
Arches", Construction-Design Group
memorandum , S h e l l O i l C o m p a n y . 1 9 6 5 B e n o i t , D . , L i e u r a d e . H . P . , T r u c h o n , M.
"Use of f r a c t u r e mechanics f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e fatigue
Bea, R.G. s t r e n g t h o f welded j o i n t s a p p l i c a t i o n to p r o g rammed
" R e l i a b i l i t y C o n s i d e r a t i o n s in O f f s h o r e Platform loading tests".
Cr i t e r i a " . IRSID F r a n c e .
J o u r n a l of the S t r u c t u r a l Division.Sept.1980 ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 78.

B e c k e r , J . M , W i l l i a m , w. and B o u w k a m p , J . G . 1.0 B e r a t u n g s s t e l l e fr Stahlverwendung. Merkblatt 224

F a t i g u e F a i l u r e of Melded Tubular Joints "Circular hollow sections for Steelstruetures".
OTC 1 2 2 8 . 1 9 7 0 Dsseldorf. 1971.

B e c k e r , J . M . , J a m e s , M., G e r b e r i c h , W.W., 2.0 B e r a t u n g s s t e l l e fr Stahlverwendung. Merkblatt 387.

W i l l i a m , W., Bouwkamp, J . G . "Rectangular hollow sections for Steelstruetures" .
" F a t i g u e F a i l u r e o f Welded T u b u l a r Joints" D s s e l d o r f .1971
J o u r n a l of t h e S t r u c t u r a l D i v i s i o n , ASCE.
Vol.98 No. S T I , P r o c . 8524. p p . 3 7 - 5 9 , J a n . 1 9 7 2 Berge, S.
"Constant amplitude fatigue strength of welds in sea-
B e c k e r , J . M . , G e r b e r i c h , W.W. a n d water drip".
Bouwkamp, J . G . NTH, Norway.
"Fatigue failure o f Welded T u b u l a r Joints".
J o u r n a l of the S t r u c t u r a l Division. ECSC Seminar Cambridge, Nov. 78.
(OTC 1 2 2 8 , 1 9 7 0 )
Berge, S . , Engesvik, K.
B e d f o r d , T. " E f f e c t o f P l a t e T h i c k n e s s i n F a t i g u e of Transverse
"Welded tubular structures" Fillet Welds."
Brit. Commonwealth Welding C o n f e r e n c e 1957 Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 2 . P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.
B e n n e t , C . J . , C o l q u h o u n , I., M a c C o r m i c k , B. 1.3.0 B e r g m a n , W.
" D e s i g n of welded j o i n t s in t u b u l a r lattice 2.3.0 " V e r f o r m u n g s m e c h a n i s m u s und Spannungsfelder
g i r d e r s - j o i n t s b e t w e e n C . H . S . b r a n c h members 4.3.0 in Geschweissten Anschlssen"
and R . H . S . c h o r d members ( S t a t i c loading)" S c h w e i s s e n u n d S c h n e i d e n , J a h r g . 3 H e f t 11 1956
CIDECT Report CE 6 8 / 2 8 . 1 9 6 9
B e r l i n g , J . T . and Conway, J . B .
2.1.3 Bennet, C . J . " A n e w A p p r o a c h t o t h e P r e d i c t i o n o f Low
3.1.3 "Research c a r r i e d out at S h e f f i e l d University Cycle F a t i g u e Data"
3.1.8 i n t o the f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g the s t a t i c and Metallurgical Trans.1, 805.April 1970
3.2.3 dynamic s t r e n g t h of tubular j o i n t s (Results)"
CIDECT Report 7 / 7 / E . 1970 2.1.0 Bettzieche, P.
" K o n s t r u k t i v e Gestaltung von Knotenpunkten aus
Benoist, J . Vierkant-Hohl-profielen"
" L e Tube d ' A c i e r d a n s la Construction (Mannesmann F o r s c h u n g s i n s t i t u t GmBH,Duisburg)
Mtallique"
Conference Institute de Recherches Appliques Bijlaard, P.P.
du Metal (undated) " S t r e s s e s f r o m R a d i a l Load's i n Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels"
The W e l d i n g J o u r n a l , 3 3 ( 1 2 ) , Research Suppl.
615s-623sl954
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Bijlaard, P.P. 1.3.0 B l a c k s t o n e , W . R . , D e H a r t R . C . and M a i s o n , J . R .
" S t r e s s e s from L o c a l L o a d i n g s in Cylindrical "Discontinuity s t r e s s decay in offshore plat-
Pressure Vessels" form joints"
T r a n s a c t i o n s American S o c i e t y of M e c h a n i c a l O T C 2 1 0 2 . 1974
E n g i n e e r s , V o l . 77, N o . 6, pp 805-814. A u g u s t l 9 5 5
3.1.3 Blockley, D.I.
Bijlaard, P.P. " J o i n t s between s t r u c t u r a l hollow s e c t i o n s in
" S t r e s s e s f r o m R a d i a l L o a d s and E x t e r n a l plane frameworks"
Moments in C y l i n d r i c a l P r e s s u r e V e s s e l s " PH.D. thesis Univ. of S h e f f i e l d , Engl.June 1967
The W e l d i n g J o u r n a l , 34, R e s e a r c h S u p p l .
608S-617S. 1955 2.1. B l o c k l e y , D.I., E a s t w o o d , W . , O s g e r b y , C , Wood A . A .
3.1.0 "An experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o the behaviour
Bijlaard, P.P. o f j o i n t s between s t r u c t u r a l hollow sections".
" C o m p u t a t i o n of the S t r e s s e s from L o c a l U n i v e r s i t y of S h e f f i e l d , E n g l a n d . N o v . 1 9 6 7
Loads in Spherical P r e s s u r e Vessels or
P r e s s u r e Vessel Heads" 3.1.3 B l o c k l e y , D.I., E a s t w o o d , W.
WRC B u l l e t i n , N o . 3 4 . M a r c h l 9 5 7 " E l a s t i c Behaviour of J o i n t s Between Structural
Hollow Sections"
Bijlaard, p.p. The E n g i n e e r . J u l y . 1 9 6 8
" A d d i t i o n a l Data on S t r e s s e s i n Cylindrical Shells
Under L o c a l Loading" 3.1.3 Blockley, D.I.
Welding Research C o u n c i l . B u l l . No. 50.pp. 10-50, . " J o i n t s between s t r u c t u r a l hollow sections"
May, 1959 C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g and P u b l i c Works R e v i e w . N o v . 1 9 7 3

B i j l a a r d , P . P . , Cranch, E.T. Bohnenkamp, K., S c h m e l z e r , F . , E s d o h r , J .

" I n t e r p r e t i v e Commentary on the A p p l i c a t i o n of " T e s t s i n N a t u r a l S e a w a t e r on a M e a s u r i n g Buoy
Theory to Experimental Results" to Investigate the C o r r o s i o n Fatigue Behaviour
of High Strength S t e e l s " / O
Welding Research C o u n c i l , Bull.No.60 pp. 1-2, .
May 1960. I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 7. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.
Billington, C.J.
"Research into Composite Tubular Construction for Bokalrud, T., K a r l s e n , A.
Offshore Jacket Structures", " F r a c t u r e toughness and s i g n i f i c a n c e of defects in
Wimpey L a b o r a t o r i e s Ltd. heavy offshore structures".
DNV Norway.
B i l l i n g t o n , C O . , Lewis, G.H.G.
"The S t r e n g t h of Large Diameter Grouted Connections" ECSC seminar Cambridge, Nov. 78.
Wimpey L a b . L t d . C J B - E a r l and W r i g h t .
OTC 3083.,1978. Booth, G.S,
"Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed on welded
B i r kemoe , P . C . , O l y n y k , P.W. s t e e l joints in air".
" B o l t e d truss connections of rectangular steel tubes" The Welding I n s t . U.K.
P r e p r i n t 8 0 - 0 53 C o n v e n t i o n & E x p o s i t i o n , Portland, ESCS Seminar C a m b r i d g e Nov.1978
Oregon, Apr i l , 1 9 8 0 Booth, G.S.
"Constant amplitude f a t i g u e tests performed on welded
B l a c k s t o n e , W.R. and K i r k s e y , R . E . s t e e l joints in seawater".
" F i n i t e Element A n a l y s i s of the Model B R i n g - The Welding I n s t . U.K.
S t i f f e n e d Tubular Joint" E C S C Seminar C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 1978
F i n a l Repor t, Southwest Research I n s t i t u t e .
P r o j e c t 03-3895 prepared for Chicago B r i d g e Booth, G.S.
and I r o n Company, P l a i n f i e l d Illinois.July.1974 "The Influence of Simulated North Sea Environmental
C o n d i t i o n s on t h e C o n s t a n t A m p l i t u d e F a t i g u e Strength
o f Welded J o i n t s " .
The Welding Institute.
OTC 3420.1979
 B o o t h , G . S . , H o l m e s , R. 1.1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G .
" C o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e of welded j o i n t s under narrow band " B e h a v i o u r of Tubular T r u s s J o i n t s under
load ing". S t a t i c L o a d s , S t r u c t u r e s and M a t e r i a l s R e s e a r c h "
Conf. Fatigue in Offshore S t r u c t u r a l Steel. Inst. of Repor t N o . SESM-6 5 - 4 , C o l l e g e of Engineering.
C i v i l Engrs. Westminster. London, Febr.1981 Univ. of California, Berkeley.July.1965

Booth, G.S., Vaessen, G.H.G., Wildschut, H. 1. 0 Bouwkamp, J . G .

"A Review of C o n s t a n t A m p l i t u d e F a t i g u e T e s t s on " R e c e n t T r e n d s i n R e s e a r c h on T u b u l a r Connections"
W e l d e d J o i n t s i n t h e ECSC a n d R e l a t e d Programmes". S y m p o s i u m on O f f s h o r e T e c h n o l o g y and O p e r a t i o n s ,
I n t e r n . C o n f e r e n c e S t e e l in M a r i n e Structures New O r l e a n s , L a . S o c i e t y o f P e t r o l e u m E n g i n e e r s ,
S e s s i o n 2. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. p a p e r SP 1 4 1 1 , ^ 1 4 p a g e s . M a y . 1 9 6 6

1.1.8 Bouwkamp, J . G . 1.1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G .

" T e s t on e x p e r i m e n t a l gusset p l a t e connection for large 1.2.0 "Tubular J o i n t s under S t a t i c and A l t e r n a t i n g L o a d s "
tubes" ( P h a s e I) , S t r u c t u r e s and M a t e r i a l s R e s e a r c h , Report
Report B-57-1075. TNO-IBBC, D e l f t , 1957. No. 6 6 - 1 5 , U n i v . of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley.Junel966

1.1.8 Bouwkamp, J . G . 1.2.3 Bouwkamp, J . G .

" T e s t on r e v i s e d g u s s e t p l a t e c o n n e c t i o n of large "Tubular J o i n t s under S l o w - C y c l e A l t e r n a t i n g L o a d s "
tubular members". Pr o c . I n t . S y m p . on t h e E f f e c t s o f R e p e a t e d L o a d i n g
Report B-57-1032. TNO-IBBC, D e l f t , 1957 on M a t e r i a l s and S t r u c t u r e s , RILEM, Mexico C i t y ,
Vol. VI. Sept.1966
1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G .
" R e s e a r c h on T u b u l a r Connections in Structural Work" 1.0 Bouwkamp,J.G.
I n s t , of E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h , U n i v . of California " R e c e n t Trends in Research on Tubular Connections"
USA - R e p o r t t o S t a n d a r d O i l C o m p a n y o f California Journal of Petroleum Technology.Nov.1966
and S h e l l D e v e l o p m e n t Co.1960
1. 0 Bouwkamp, J . G .
1.1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G . "Structural Behaviour of Tubular J o i n t s with W i n g -
"The Design of T u b u l a r Joints" plates"
Modern Designing w i t n S t e e l , V o l . 8 , No. 3 Report No. 67-32, Structures and M a t e r i a l s R e s e a r c h
Kaiser Steel C o r p o r a t i o n , A.I.A. F i l e Structural Engineering Laboratory, Univ. of Califor-
No. 13-A-l.Dec.1962 nia, Berkeley.1967

1.1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G . 1.1.8 Bouwkamp, J . G .

" B e h a v i o u r ot T u b u l a r Truss Joints Under Static "Design of tubular j o i n t s with gusset plates"
Loads" P r o c . ASCE Conf. C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g in the O c e a n s ,
U n i v . of C a l i f o r n i a . R e p o r t to A . I . S . I. J u l y , 1963 pp. 241-244.1967

1.1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G . 1.2.0 Bouwkamp, J . G .

1.3.3 " R e s e a r c h on T u b u l a r Connections in Structural "Tubular J o i n t s Under A l t e r n a t i n g L o a d s "
Work". P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e T h i r d C o n f e r e n c e on D i m e n s i o n i n g
WRC B u l l e t i n N o . 7 1 , 1961 (Proc.ASCE, ST 2.)Aprill964 H u n g a r i a n Academy of S c i e n c e s , B u d a p e s t , H u n g a r y 1968

1.1.1 Bouwkamp, J . G . 1.1.3 Bouwkamp, J . G .

1.1.3 " C o n c e p t on T u b u l a r Joints Design" 1.3.3 " B e h a v i o u r o f T u b u l a r T r u s s J o i n t s Under S t a t i c Loads
1.1.8 P r o c e e d i n g s A S C E , V o l . 90 n o . S t 2.1964 Phase II"
A r e p o r t t o the A m e r i c a n I r o n and S t e e l Institute,
1.1.3 Bouwkamp, J . G . Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley.Jan.1968
1.1.8 "Considerations i n the Design of Large-Size
Welded Tubular T r u s s Joints" B o u w k a m p , J . G . and S t e p h e n s , R . M .
Engineering J o u r n a l , AISC, vol 2, no. 3.July 1965 "Cement g r o u t f i l l e d j o i n t s under alternating
loads"
Univ. of C a l i f o r n i a . B e r k e l e y . Report 68-16.Nov.1968

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CD B o u w k a m p , J . G . and S t e p h e n s , R . M . 1.2.0 B r i s t o l l , P.
" T u b u l a r J o i n t s under A l t e r n a t i n g Loads" "A review of the f r a c t u r e mechanics a p p r o a c h to the problems
( P h a s e I I p a r t 1) U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a , nov.'67. of design quality a s s u r a n c e , m a i n t e n a n c e and repair of off-
( P h a s e II p a r t 2) U n i v . o f C a l i f o r n i a Structures, shore structures".
and M a t e r i a l s R e s e a r c h Report No. 7 0 - 4 . M a r c h 1970 S h e l l Research N e t h e r l a n d s .
ECSC Seminar C a m b r i d g e , Nov. 78.
Bouwkamp, J . G . , T e r a t a , H. et a l .
"A s t u d y of D i f f e r e n t F l a r e d J o i n t Configurations" 2.1.2 Brodka, J.Szlendak, J .
OTC p r e p r i n t 1 2 2 9 . A p r i l 1970 " S t r e n g t h of C r o s s J o i n t s in rectangular hollow sections"
P a p e r C o n f . of K l l i W PAN and KN P Z I T B , K r y n i c a
(in Polish).
1.1. i Bouwkamp, J . G .
" B e h a v i o u r of T u b u l a r Gusset Plate Joints"
OTC P r e p r i n t 1821 . A p r 1973 1.0 Brodka, J .
"Stahlrohrkonstruktionen"
1.1.0 Bouwkamp, J . G . Verlagsgesellschaft.
" B u c k l i n g and p o s t - b u c k l i n g strength of circular Rudolf Muller Koln Brannsfeld.1968
tubular sections"
{OTC 2204)1975 2.1.0 Brodka, J .
"Some Design and c a l c u l a t i o n p r o b l e m s of struc-
1.2.3 Bouwkamp, J . G . , t u r e s in rectangular hollow sections"
1.3.3 " C y c l i c loading of Full-size Tubular Joints" Konstrukcje Metalowe 1971. no. 4, p. 26-26.
(OTC 2 6 0 5 ) . 1 9 7 6 (in Polish).1971

1.1.0 B r a n d i , R. 2.1.0 Brodka, J . , C z e c h o w s k i , A.

1.2.0 " B e h a v i o u r of U n s t i f f e n e d and S t i f f e n e d Tubular 2.1.2 " I n t e r i m design and c a l c u l a t i o n recommendations
1.3.0 Joints". 2.1.3 of steel structures in rectangular hollow sections"
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures P r a c e COBPKM " M o s t o s t a l " 1 9 7 5 . n o . 5 p . 4 2 - 5 4 . ,_
S e s s i o n 6. P a r i s 5-8 O c t . 1981. (in Polish).1975 C
i
1.2.2 Brink, F . I . A . and v a n d e r K r o g t , A . H . 2.1.0 Brodka, J . , Buklowska, A., Czechowski, A., Jerka-,
1.3.2 " S t r e s s Analysis of a Tubular C r o s s - J o i n t without 2.1.2 Kulawinska,K.
Internal Stiffening for Offshore Structures" 2.1.3 " D e s i g n and c a l c u l a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e s in rectangu-
Paper 5. Conference Welding in O f f s h o r e Construc- l a r hollow sections"
tions. Newcastle.Febr.1974 Z e s z y t y Problemowe " M o s t o s t a l " . Warszawa.p.1-113
(in Polish).1977
1.2.0 B r i s t o l l , D.*
" F a t i g u e o f O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s I: A n Outline of 2.1.3 Brodka, J . , Czechowski, A., Zycinski, J .
S t u d i e s and L i f e t i m e Predictions" "Ultimate strength of K-type J o i n t s in Rectangular
K S LA r e p o r t AMGR. 0 1 5 7 . 7 2 . 1972 Hollow Section T r u s s e s " .
M e t a l S t r u c t u r e s R e s e a r c h and D e s i g n C e n t r e
1.2.0 B r i s t o l l , P. and Opdam H . * M o s t o s t a l . June 1 9 8 1 .
" F a t i g u e of O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s . F a t i g u e Results
R e l e v a n t to the C o n s t r u c t i o n of S-N C u r v e s " B r o w n , A . J . and S t a u b , J . A . and M a s a b u c h i , K.
Memorandum, KSLA, F a l l . 1972 "Fundamental study of Underwater Welding.
OTC 1621.1972
1.2.0 B r i s t o l l , P . and O p d a m , J.J.G.
" F a t i g u e of O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s . The prediction 1.1.1 Brown, R.C.
o f F a t i g u e C r a c k P r o p a g a t i o n under C o n d i t i o n s of "An Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n of T u b u l a r T-joints"
Random L o a d i n g " A thesis for the C i v i l Engineering Department. Univ
Oceanology I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference 1975. of Texas, A u s t i n . J a n . 1 9 6 6

1.2.0 B r i s t o l l . P., Roeleveld, J . Brown, R.C. and Topr ac , A. A .

" F a t i g u e of o f f s h o r e structures: effect of seawater on "An Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n of Tubular T-joints"
crack propagation in structural steel". Structures Fatigue Research Laboratory. Report No.
S h e l l Researcn N e t h e r l . P 5 5 0 - 8 . The U n i v . o f T e x a s , A u s t i n , Texas.1966
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 78.
 2.1.1 B r o z , P. 1.0 C a r t e r , R . M . , M a r s h a l l , P . W . , Swanson, T . M . , Thomas. P.D.
"Investigation into the Static Strength of T-Joints " M a t e r i a l Problems in Offshore Platforms"
made o f R H S " P r o c e e d i n g s of the F i r s t A n n u a l O f f s h o r e T e c h n .
RWPG R e p o r t 5 . 7 . 1 . 5 (in Russian). Conference.OTC 1043, Houston, Texas, pp. 443-470.May.1969

1.0 Bryant, J . E . 1.2.3 Caulkins, D.w.

"Circular Tubular Joint Design. "Parameter Study for FRAMETI E l a s t i c Stress in
T u l a n e U n i v . MS T h e s i s . 1 9 6 2 Tubular Joints".

2.1.0 Bucak, 0. Shell Oil Comp/ CDG R e p o r t , 15.Sept.1968

"Entwurf D I N 4 1 1 6 ( D I N 18 8 0 8 ) - Biegesteife
Verbindungen bei RHP". 2.1.3 Chandrakeerthy, S.
Vortragsveranstaltung im ' Haus der Technik', 2.3.3 "Structural B e h a v i o u r R e l a t e d to S t r e s s A n a l y s i s
E s s e n , Dezember 1979. 3.1.3 of J o i n t s in Cold-Formed Square Hollow S e c t i o n s "
T h e s i s U n i v . of Sheffield.
2.1.3 BSC T e s t i n g C e n t r e C o r b y C h a r b o n n i e r , J . C . , M a r g o t - M a r e t t e , H . , T r u c h o n , M.
3.1.3 "The b e h a v i o u r of welded j o i n t s i n c o m p l e t e lattice " S t r e s s C o r r o s i o n and C o r r o s i o n F a t i g u e o f Weldable
g i r d e r s w i t h RHS c h o r d s " S t e e l s in Marine Environments".
( T e s t s on i s o l a t e d j o i n t s ) C i d e c t report SFC-77/31.1977 I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 5 . P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.
2.1.3 BSC T e s t i n g C e n t r e C o r b y *
3.1.3 " T e s t s on c o m p l e t e girders. 1.3.1 Chaudhury, G.K., Dover, W.D., Holdbrook, S . J .
P a r t 1: G i r d e r s w i t h RHS b r a c i n g s " S t r e s s A n a l y s i s of T u b u l a r Welded T - J o i n t s " .
P a r t 2: G i r d e r s w i t h CHS b r a c i n g s " . I n s t , of Phys. Conference (Stress A n a l y s i s Group)
C i d e c t r e p o r t s programme 5FP. O c t . 1 9 7 7 P o r t s m o u t h , May 1 9 8 0 .

1.0 BS 449 1.3.1 Chen, J .

" B r i t i s h S t a n d a r d 449 A p p e n d i x C . Determination "Stresses in Steel Tubular Y-joints"
of the l e n g t h of the Curve of i n t e r s e c t i o n of a tube A t h e s i s for the C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g Depar t m e n t ,
with another tube or with a f l a t plate". U n i v . of Texas. A u s t i n , Texas.Jan.1966

1.1.5 B.S.C. 1.3.1 C l a y t o n , A . M . , Parkhouse, J . G . , Wordsworth, A . C .

2.1.5 "Nodus Space Frame G r i d s , D e s i g n , Analysis and "The s t r e s s a n a l y s i s of a large diameter brace
3.1.5 Construction". T-joint" .
British Steel Corporation. I n t e r i m T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t UKOSRP 2 / 0 1 . United
Kingdom Offshore S t e e l s Research Project.
B.S. 153.
"Specification for Steel Girder Bridges". 1.3.1 Clayton, A.M.
P a r t s 3B a n d 4 . 1 9 7 2 " E f f e c t of weld p r o f i l e on s t r e s s e s in Tubular
T-joints"
1.3.8 Callan, M.D., Wordsworth, A . C . , L i v e t t , I.G.. I n t e r i m T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t UKOSRP 2 / 0 3 . United
B o u d r e a u x , R . H . and H e u b s c h , F . J . Kingdom Offshore Steels Research Project.
" B . p . Magnus p l a t f o r m i n t e r n a l l y stiffened bracing
node s t u d i e s " . 1.3.0 Clayton, A.M., Irvine, N.M
OTC P a p e r 4 1 0 9 , Houston.1981 " S t r e s s a n a l y s i s methods for tubular connections".
UKAEA.
Camponuovo, G . F . , Mondina, A. ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 78.
" P h o t o - e l a s t i c A n a l v s i s of Welded Y - j o i n t s for
Offshore Structures" . Clayton, A.M.
Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures " P r e d i c t i o n of c r a c k g r o w t h i n t u b u l a r joints, alter-
S e s s i o n 4. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. native design approach".
Conf. Fatigue in Offshore Structural S t e e l , Inst, of
C i v i l E n g r s . , Westminster, London, Febr.1981

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1.1.0 Cooper, R.M. 2.1.2 Czechowski, A . , Brodka, J .
" C y l i n d r i c a l S h e l l s Under L i v e Load T r a n s a c t i o n s " " E t u d e de l a r s i s t a n c e statique des assemblages,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. s o u d e s en c r o i x d e pro files creux rectangulaires"
V o l . 24, No. 4 p.553-558.Dec.1957 Construction mtallique no. 3.1977

Cooper, G.w. 1.1.0 Daiwa Pipe E n g i n e e r i n g C o . , L t d .

"New S t u d y shows why fixed platforms f a i l during "Tubular Truss J o i n t s " .
storms" Daiwa T e c h n o l o g y R e p o r t , No. 1, March.1962

Oil and Gas J o u r n a l , Vol. 65, no. 42.Oct.1967 1.1.0 Daiwa Pipe E n g i n e e r i n g C o . , L t d .
" B u c k l i n g Tests o f F u l l S c a l e L a t t i c e d T u b u l a r Columns
Cooper, G.W. with Composite Chord Members".
" H u r r i c a n e damage to o f f s h o r e structures- Daiwa Technology Report No. 2, Sept.1961
m a t e r i a l s and environment"
Marine Structures Supervisor, Continental O i l C o . , 1.1.5 Daiwa Pipe E n g i n e e r i n g C o . , L t d .
Houston, Texas.1967 " J o i n t s for T u b u l a r Space Frame - P a r t 1".
C o r u m , J . M . , B o l t , S . E . , G r e e n s t r e e t , W . L . , and Daiwa Technology Report No. 3, J a n . 1 9 6 3
Gwaltney, R.C.
1.1.8 Daiwa Pipe E n g i n e e r i n g C o . , L t d .
" T h e o r e t i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l S t r e s s A n a l y s i s of
"Tube to G u s s e t P l a t e J o i n t s : G u s s e t P l a t e s fitted
ORNL T h i n - S h e l l C y l i n d e r - t o - C y l i n d e r M o d e l N o . 1"
i n t o S l o t s a t t h e Tube E n d s " .
Oak R i d g e N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y , O R N L - 4 5 5 3 . O c t . 1 9 7 2
Daiwa Technology Report No. 4, Jan.1964
Cotton, H.C.
"An Overview of P r a c t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s Regarding 1.1.8 Daiwa Pipe E n g i n e e r i n g C o . , L t d .
M a t e r i a l s S e l e c t i o n and Weld P r o c e d u r e s to A c h i v e " T e n s i o n T e s t s o f Tube to G u s s e t P l a t e J o i n t s with
Required Toughness" G u s s e t P l a t e s W e l d e d to the O u t e r S u r f a c e of T u b e s " .
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures Daiwa Technology Report No. 5, M a r c h . 1 9 6 5
S e s s i o n 3. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. o
1.2.1 Damilano, G . F . , C a m i s e t t i , C. , N e g r i , A.
C o u t i e , M . G . , D a v i e s , G . , B e t t i s o n , M. 1.2.8 " F a t i g u e B e h a v i o u r of U n s t i f f e n e d and Stiffened o
" T e s t i n g i n f a t i g u e o f two w e l d e d l a t t i c e frames Y Tubular J o i n t s (Test results)".
formed in R . H . S . " Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 10. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.
University of Nottingham Report.Dec.1976
1.0.6 D a n i e l s , H . a n d F a s t , w.
Cranch, E.T. "Effective length factors for end-cropped tubular
"An experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s t r e s s e s i n the members".
neighbourhood of a t t a c h m e n t s to a c y l i n d r i c a l shell" Thesis, c i v i l engineering dept.
W . R . C . B u l l e t i n , N o . 6 0 . M a y 1960 U n i v . of M a n i t o b a April.1975
1.0 Cran, J . A . , Gibson, E . B . , Stadnyckyj , S.
2.0 "Hollow structural s e c t i o n s - design manual for con- Dasgupta, A.
3.0 nections" . "The behaviour of j o i n t s in t u b u l a r trusses".
Thesis at U n i v . of Nottingham, England.
Stelco, Inc. Hamilton. 1971 2 2 2 p a g e s , 11 t e s t specimens.1970

Czechowski, A., Brodka, J . 1.1.2 Davarpanah, P.

" I n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded " T r a n s m i s s i o n d e s e f f o r t s d a n s un c r o i s e m e n t de
cross joints in rectangular hollow sections" tubes".
M e t a l S t r u c t u r e s R e s e a r c h and D e s i g n C e n t r e Construction m t a l l i q u e , no. 2.1972
" M o s t o s t a l " . W a r s z a w a . p. 1-42.1976
Czechowski, A. 2.1.3 D a v i e s G and G i d d i n g s , T.W.
"The u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of c r o s s j o i n t s i n rec- "Research i n t o the strength of welded lattice
tangular hollow sections" girder joints in structural, hollow sections",
Warsaw T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y . D e p a r t m e n t o f Civil u n i v . of S h e f f i e l d . S h e f f i e l d E n g l a n d . CIDECT
E n g i n e e r i n g . W a r s z a w a . p/ 1-127 (in Polish).1977 PROGRAMME 5 e c , c i d e c t i s s u e 7 1 / 7 / e , 9 5 p a g e s ,
31 t e s t specimens.1971
 2.1.3 Davies, G., Roper, C.G. 1.2.0 Dijkstra, O.D., Vaessen, G.H.G.
"Weld gap j o i n t s w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r tubes - 1.3.0 "The f a t i g u e behaviour of J o i n t s in Jacket Constructions"
A y i e l d l i n e m o d i f i e d by s h e a r approach". OTC p r e p r i n t 2852.1977
Report NUCE/GD/CR-2.1974
D i j k s t r a , O.D., Hartog, J . , Wardenier, J .
2.1.1 Davies, G . , Roper, C.G. " S t u d y of l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g the f a t i g u e behaviour
2.1.3 "Gap j o i n t s w i t h t u b u l a r members a y i e l d line of unstiffened tubular joints".
appr oach" . P a r t 2: S t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n factors.
Report NUCE/GDICR-1 (1974)(also b u i l d i n g science Stevin report 6-77-10.
vol. 10 o c t . 1975).1974 TNO-IBBC r e p o r t BI-77-05.3.31310.
C i d e c t r e p o r t 7 A - 7 7 . 1977
Davies, G . , Roper, C.G.
" G a p J o i n t s W i t h T u b e s - i Y i e l d L i n e Mod i f i e d by 1.2.1 Dijkstra, O.D., Hartog, J .
Shear A p p r o a c h " . 1.2.2 "Dutch p a r t of the l a r g e s c a l e t u b u l a r joint fatigue
B u i l d i n g and Environment, Vol. 12, pp. 31-38.1977 test programme".
THO-IBBC, Netherlands.
D a v i e s , G. ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 7 8 .
" E s t i m a t i n g t h e S t r e n g t h o f Some W e l d e d L a p J o i n t s F o r m e d
from R e c t a n g u l a r Hollow S e c t i o n s Members". 1.2.1 D i j k s t r a , O . D . , B a c k , J . de
Proceedings Int. Conference "Joints in S t r u c t u r a l Steel- 1.2.2 " F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h o f welded T u b u l a r T - and X-joints".
work". Teeside April.1981 OTC 3 6 9 6 , 1 2 t h A n n u a l OTC i n H o u s t o n , T e x a s . M a y . 1 9 8 0

D a v i e s , G . , W a r d e n i e r , J . , S t o l i e , P. D i j k s t r a , O . D . , V i s s e r , W., J a n s s e n , G.T.M.
" T h e E f f e c t i v e W i d t h o f B r a n c h C r o s s w a l l s f o r RHS "Compar i s o n of S t r a i n D i s t r i b u t i o n s in Three
Cross J o i n t s in Tension". X - j o i n t s . D e t e r m i n e d by S t r a i n Gauge
CECA C o n v . N r . 7 2 1 0 . S A . 6 0 6 . M e a s u r e m e n t s and F i n i t e E l e m e n t C a l c u l a t i o n s "
Stevin report Nr. 6-81-7 I n t e r n . Conference Steel in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 6 . P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. O
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t N r . B I - 8 1 - 1 8 / 0 6 3 . 4 . 3 4 7 0 , March 1981. I

Delesques, R., Valbert, G . , Sfintesco, D 1.2.1 D i j k s t r a , O.D., Back, J . de,

" R e s e a r c h on the b e h a v i o u r of j o i n t s i n T u b u l a r 1.2.2 " F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of T u b u l a r X - and T-joints"
lattice girders" 1.3.1 (Dutch tests)
c i d e c t p r o g r a m m e 5 B . C I D E C T I s s u e 7 0 2 / E , 74 p a g e s 1.3.2 I n t e r n . Conference Steel in Marine Structures
4 test specimens.1966 S e s s i o n 8. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981

Department of Energy Dolby, R . E . , Hart, P.H.M., Bailey, N. and F a r r a r , J . C M .

" F i n a l r e p o r t to ECSC". " M a t e r i a l A s p e c t s C o n t r o l l i n g Weld Defects in Offshore
Agreement N o . 7210 K B / 8 / 8 0 1 . structures.
Vol. 2 of 2 V o l . 1981. OTC 1908.1973

Det Norske V e r i t a s Donnell, L.H.

"Rules for the D e s i g n , C o n s t r u c t i o n and inspection of " S t a b i l i t y of T h i n - W a l l e d Tubes under T o r s i o n "
fixed offshore structures".1974 N a t i o n a l A d v i s o r y C o m m i t t e e on A e r o n a u t i c s ( N A S A ) ,
Report no. 479.1934
Det N o r s k e V e r i t a s
"Rules for the c o n s t r u c t i o n and c l a s s i f i a t i o n of 2.1.1 Douwen, A . A . van, Wardenier, J .
mobile offshore units (with supplement)..1975 2.1.3 "Investigation on t n e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f w e l d e d lattice
girder j o i n t s in structural hollow s e c t i o n s " .
Det N o r s k e V e r i t a s IIW d o c . X V - 3 7 1 - 7 5 .
" R u l e s for the d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n and inspection of CIDECT r e p o r t n r . 75-6-5Q
offshore structures".1977 Stevin report nr. 6-75-11
TNO-IBBC report nr. BI-75-37/05.3.11.270.1975

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o Douwen, A . A . v a n , W a r d e n i e r , J . D o v e r , W.D.
"Recent developments i n the Netherlands". " F a t i g u e of O f f s h o r e Structures: a review .
2nd I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on S p a c e Structure. Int. Journal of Fatigue, 3,2, p. 52. A p r i l 1981.
U n i v e r s i t y of S u r r e y , sept.1975
Dover, W.D., Chaudhury, G . K . , Dharmavasan, S.
Dover. W.D., Holdbrook, S . J . , Hibberd, R.D., "Ex per i m e n t a l and F i n i t e E l e m e n t Compar i s o n s
Charlesworth, F.D.w. i n L o c a l S t r e s s and C o m p l i a n c e i n ' u b u l a r Welded
" F a t i g u e Crack Growth in T - J o i n t s : Out of Plane Bending" T-joints".
OTC H o u s t o n , P a p e r O T C 3 2 5 2 , 1 9 7 8 . Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 4 . P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.
Dover, W.D., P e t r i e , J . R .
" I n - p l a n e b e n d i n g f a t i g u e of a t u b u l a r welded T-joint" Dundrova, V.
S . E . E . C o n f e r e n c e " F a t i g u e T e s t i n g and Design".1976 " R o z d e l e n i n a p e t i po proniku drov trubek"
(Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n in the p e n e t r a t i n g curve
Dover, W.D., Hibberd, R.D., Holdbrook, S. o f two tubes).
"Fatigue crack growth in tubular welded joints"
C o n f e r e n c e " A p p l i c a t i o n of F r a c t u r e M e c h a n i c s to Dundrova, V.
industrial Problems". " S t r e s s and s t r a i n investigations of general joints
Sheffield, sept.1976 in tubular structures".
Techn. Lab. report TL-A-03-67. J u l y .
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"Fatigue crack growth in offshore Structures" Dundrova, V.
J o u r n a l of the S.E.E., march.1976 "Stahlrohrkonstruktionen (Tubular steel structures)".
Acta Techniques, Acad. S e i . Hung. p. 555.1961
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" F a t i g u e crack growth in T - j o i n t s Seminar Corrosion Dundrova, V.
and F a t i g u e i n O f f s h o r e Installations". " S t r e n g t h of s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s and whole members
The I n s t , o f M e c h . , E n g l . s e p t . 1 9 7 7 made o f s t e e l s e a m l e s s t u b e s ( i n Czech)".
O
R e s e a r c h r e p o r t CSAV P r a h a . 1 9 6 1 I
Dover, W.D., Hioberd, R.D., Holdbrook, S . J .
" F a t i g u e Crack Growth During C y c l i c Bend T e s t s on Dundrova, V.
T-Joints". " S t r e s s and s t r a i n investigation of a cylindrical
I . E . S . S . C o n f . on ' I n t e g r i t y of S t e e l O f f s h o r e Struc- s h e l l loaded along a Curve".
tures', Glasgow, A p r i l 1978. S t r u c t u r e s f a t i g u e r e s e a r c h L a b . , "-epartment of C i v i l
E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v . of Texas. A u s t i n , . S F R L Techn. Report
Dover, W.D., Holdbrook, S . J . , Hibberd, R.D. pp. 550-4, July.1965
"Fatigue l i f e E s t i m a t e s for Tubular Welded T-Joints
using Fracture Mechanics". 1.3.1 Dundrova, V.
E u r o p e a n O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s . Sem. The W e l d i n g 1.3.2 " S t r e s s e s a t i n t e r s e c t i o n o f T u b e s C r o s s and T - j o i n t s
I n s t i t u t e , Nov. 1978. Structures Fatigue Research Lab. Techn.Report P 5 5 0 - 5 .
The U n i v . of T e x a s , A u s t i n . Texas.1965
D o v e r , W.D.
"Fatigue Crack Growth in Platform Structures". 1.1.4 D u n d r o v a , , V . , and Bynum, B .
J . Soc. E n v . E n g . p. 3-11. Sept.1978. "An e x p e r i m e n t a l investigation of three dimensional
tubular connections".
Dover, W.D., Cbaudhury, G.K. T e c h n . L a b . r e p o r t n o . R674 f o r Shell. July.1967
"Fatigue Crack Growtn in Tubular Welded T - J o i n t s "
P r e s e n t e d at ICF 5, Cannes 1981, Paper No. 461. Dundrova, V.
" S t r e s s and s t r a i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of K-connection in
Dover, W.D., Dharmavasan, S. tubular structures".
" S t r e s s A n a l y s i s of Y J o i n t s " . May.196 7
I . E . S . S . Conference Glasgow, June '981.
1.3.1 Dundrova , V.* 3.1.3 E a s t w o o d , W . , W a r d l e , S . , O s g e r b y , C . , Wood, A . A . ,
1.3.3 "Stress Concentrations in Joints Subjected to Axial Shinouda, M.R.
L o a d s , Bend ing Moments and Shear" . " A n a l y s i s o f D e f l e c t i o n s and Moments i n the F a c e
Techn. Lab. Report T L - A - 0 1 - 6 8 , March.196 8 of a Rectangular Hollow S e c t i o n Under Load".
The U n i v . of S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . Feb.1968
1.1.1 Outta, D.
1.1.2 " R e c o m m e n d a t i o n on t h e D e s i g n of w e l d e d s i m p l e Joints 2.1.3 E a s t w o o d , W., O s g e r b y , C , Wood, A . A . , Mee, B.
1.1.3 of c i r c u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s under s t a t i c load". "An E x p e r i m e n t a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f J o i n t s in Rectangu-
I I W d o c . XV 3 7 3 - 7 5 . J u n e . 1 9 7 5 lar Hollow S e c t i o n s " .

1.1.1 Dutta, D. The Univ. of Sheffield, Sheffield Engl.Febr. 1970

1.1.2 "Lattice girder joints in circular hollow sections".
1.1.3 Gemeinschaftstagung. Hohlprofile im S t a h l b a u 30-9-1975 2.1.3 Eastwood, W., Wood A.A.
Diisseldorf V D I - B e r a t u n g s s t e l l e fur Stahlverwendung, 3.1.3 "Welded J o i n t s i n Tubular S t r u c t u r e s Involving
CIDECT, Gipec.1975 Rectangular Sections".
U n i v . of S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . C o n f e r e n c e on
1.2.0 D u t t a , D . , Mang , F . , W a r d e n i e r , J . J o i n t s i n S t r u c t u r e s . J u l y . 24 p a g e s 54 t e s t s p e c . 1 9 7 0
2.2.0 "The f a t i g u e behaviour of hollow s e c t i o n joints", 3.1.3 Eastwood, w.. Wood, A . A . , S h i n o u d a , M.R.
C i d e c t M o n o g r a p h N r . 7 . To be p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 8 1 . 3.1.8 "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the S t r e n g t h o f O r d i n a r y and
stiffened j o i n t s in Tubular Plane Frameworks"
DIN 15018 U n i v . o f S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . S e p t . 1970

"Cranes, Specifications for calculation".(Trans).1975 3.2.3 Eastwood, W., Wood, A . A . O p i e , B . P .

"Further t e s t s on the f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r of welded
DIN 4115 j o i n t s between s t r u c t u r a l hollow sections".
" L i g h t gauge s t e e l structures and Tubular Structures". The U n i v . o f S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d , E n g l . N o v . 1 9 7 0
DIN 4 1 1 5 (Trans).
E a s t w o o d . W . , Wood A . A . , S h i n o u d a , M . R . 2.1.0 E a s t w o o d , W. W o o d , A . A .
"The A n a l y s i s of S t i f f e n i n g Plate Reinforcement of 3.1.0 "Recent r e s e a r c h on j o i n t s in t u b u l a r structures".
J o i n t s in Tubular T r u s s e s " . Proceedings Canadian Structural Engineering Confer-
U n i v . o f S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . s e p t . 18 p a g e s . ence, Toronto.Ont.1970

E a s t w o o d , W . , O s g e r b y , C , Wood, A . A . , B l o c k l e y , D.I. 2.2.3 Eastwood, W., Wood, A . A .

"A T h e o r e t i c a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n into the E l a s t i c Be- 3.2.3 "The f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of welded j o i n t s in structural
haviour of J o i n t s Between S t r u c t u r a l Hollow Section". hollow s e c t i o n s . Construction Steelwork".
U n i v . of S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . N o v . , 1967. April.1971

E a s t w o o d , W . , O s g e r b y , C . , Wood, A . A . , B l o c k l e y , D.I. 1.1.8 E b , v a n d e r H.J., and M a u s s a r t , C D .

"An E x p e r i m e n t a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o the B e h a v i o u r of " T e s t s on a g u s s e t p l a t e c o n n e c t i o n of large
J o i n t s Between S t r u c t u r a l Hollow S e c t i o n s " . tubular members".
U n i v . of S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . N o v . , 1967 I n s t . TNO I n s t i t u t e f o r B u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s and
building structure (IBBC).
2.2.3 E a s t w o o d , W . , O s g e r b y , C , Wood, A . A . , B a b i k e r , D . B . Report B-55-781, Delft.1955
3.2.3 " F a t i g u e Behaviour of Welded J o i n t s Between Structural
Hollow Sections" 2.1.3 E d w a r d s , M. and G i d d i n g s , T . W .
The U n i v . of S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . July.1968 3.1.3 "The b e h a v i o u r of welded j o i n t s in complete lattice
girders with rhs chords.
Eastwood, W., W a r d l e , S . , Osgerby, C. , Wood, A . A . C i d e c t Programme 5f
S h i n o u d a , M.R. Cidect Issue 74/3/e.l974
" A n a l y s i s o f T u b u l a r J o i n t s C o n s i s t i n g o f T w o Web
M e m b e r s a n d a Boom M e m b e r i n a P l a n e Framework" E d w a r d s , C D . , F e s s l e r , H.
The U n i v . o f S h e f f i e l d , S h e f f i e l d E n g l . F e b . 1 9 6 8 " D e s i g n and S t r e s s A n a l y s i s of a b i g h t Cast 90o-
45o K - j o i n t . "
Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 4. P a r i s 5-8 Oct. 1981.
 10-14

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 1.1.6 Ghosh, A. 1.1.0 Giddings, T.W.
" S t a t i c a l behaviour of tubular trusses with cropped-end 2.1.0 Welded J o i n t s in Tubular Construction".
connections". 3.1.0 Proceedings Int. Conference " J o i n t s in S t r u c t u r a l Steel-
a.Sc. Thesis. Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , University work". Teeside April.1981
of Manitoba.1979
Giroux Y . M . , P i c a r d , A.
1.0 Gibson, E.B., Pastor, R.M. " R i g i d Framing Connections for Tubular Columns".
2.0 "Hollow Structural Sections". C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l of Civil Engineering, Vol. 4 No.2,
3.0 Welded J o i n t s R e s e a r c h - Summaries. Steel Comp. June, p.134.1977
May.1974
Godfrey, G . B . , Scholl, S.E.
1.1.0 G i b s t e i n , M.B. "The D e v e l o p m e n t ot T u b u l a r Structures".
" S t a t i c Strength of Tubular Joints". 50th A n n i v . Conf. Inst, of S t r c . Engineers,
Det Norske V e r i t a s . Report no. 7 3 . 8 6 - C , May.1973 oct.1958

1.3.1 G i b s t e i n , M. Godfrey, G.B.

" P a r a m e t r i c a l s t r e s s a n a l y s i s of T-joints". "Joints in Tubular Structures".
DNV Norway. The S t r u c t u r a l Engineer, V o l . 37, No. 1
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , Nov. 78. pp. 126-135, April.1959

1.2.1 G i b s t e i n , M.B. Godfrey, G.B.

"Fatigue failure of T - j o i n t s - DNV f a t i g u e testing " D i s c u s s i o n on "Concept of t u b u l a r joint design"".
programme". J . S t r u c . D i v . A S C E , 90 ( S T 6 ) , p t . 1 dec.1964
DNV Norway.1978
ECSC Seminar C a m b r i d g e , Nov. 78. Goldberg, J . E . , Pathak, D . V . , Purdue, U., S e t l u r , A.V.
"Stability o f submerged C y l i n d r i c a l S h e l l s w i t h
1.2.1 G i b s t e i n , M.B., Aiming, A. Deformable Ring Stiffeners".1973
" C o r r o s i o n fatigue of tubular T-joints under cathodic OTC 1 8 4 2 .
protection".
V e r i t a s report 80-119.1980. Golhofer, F.R.
"Fracture Mechanics".,
1.3.0 G i b s t e i n , M.G. A Practical Application to Offshore Mobile Drilling
" S t r e s s Concentrt ion in Tubular Joints. U n i t s . OTC 2 1 1 8 . 1 9 7 4
Its Definition Determination and A p p l i c a t i o n s "
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures Gorpinchenko, V.A.
S e s s i o n 1. P a r i s 5 - 8 o c t . 1981 "The s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in welded tubular assemblies".
Automatic Welding, V o l . 26, 12, pp. 15-17
1.3.3 G i b s t e i n , M.B., Moe, E.T.
" N u m e r i c a l and E x p e r i m e n t a l S t r e s s Analysis of G o r p i n c h e n k o , V . A . and S a c h e l k a n o v , I.V.
Tubular Joints with Inclined Braces" "Experimental research into the stressed state in assem-
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures b l i e s of tube structures".
S e s s i o n 6. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. Int. symposium Engineering s t r u c t u r e , Issue 8.
TSNIISK.1968
1.2.0 G i b s t e i n , M.B.
" F a t i g u e Strength of Welded Tubular J o i n t s Tested 1.1.1 Graff, W.J.
at Det Norske V e r i t a s Laboratories" 1.1.2 " D e s i g n C o r r e l a t i o n of E l a s t i c B e h a v i o u r and Static
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures 1.1.3 Strength of Z e r o E c c e n t r i c i t y T , Y and K T u b u l a r Joints"
S e s s i o n 8. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. OTC 1310.1970

G i d d i n g s , T.W. 1.1.0 Graff, W.J.

"Welded l a t t i c e G i r d e r s with Rectangular Hollow 2.1.0 "Welded T u b u l a r C o n n e c t i o n s o f R e c t a n g u l a r and C i r c u l a r
Sections Chords". Hollow Sections.
S y m p o s i u m on H o l l o w S e c t i o n s . H o h l p r o f i l e im Paper f o r presentation to t h e T e x a s S e c t i o n A C S E ,
Stahlbau, 30-9-1975, Dusseldorf. VDI El Paso, o c t . 1970
Beratungsstelle fur Stahlverwendung, CIDECT G i p e c . 1 9 7 5

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 Guy, A.L. et a l
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1.2.1 Hans, D . , Brink, F.I.A.*
1.2.8 "Experimental Study of the Fatigue Strength o f Large
Scale Tubular T - j o i n t s f o r Offshore S t r u c t u r e s . "
KSLA Group Research. Report RKGR 0101.72 dec.1972
Hans, D . , Brink, F.I.A.*
"Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the S t a t i c S t r e n g t h of
a Large S c a l e Box-type T - j o i n t and a T r a n s i t i o n a l
S e c t i o n (Tube to Box)of an Offshore S t r u c t u r e " . .
KSEPL Group Research Report RKGR 0015.7.3, march. 1973
Hans, D . , v i s s e r , W., Zunderdorp, H . J .
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Proces 2nd An. European Meeting of SPE.april.1973
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C y l i n d r i c a l Pressure V e s s e l " .
A Report to the PVRC of the Welding Research C o u n c i l ,
Jan.1964
Harrison, J . D .
"The B a s i s f o r a Proposed Acceptance Standard f o r Weld
Defects" .
Welding I n s t i t u t e Misc. Report 27/3/72, march.1972
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offshore structures".
OTC 1909.1973
H a r r i s o n , J.D., P i s a r s k i , H.G.
"Fracture resistance of m a t e r i a l s used in o f f s h o r e
fabr i c a t i o n s " .
The Welding Inst. U.K.
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CD
1.1.0 Harrison, J.D, H i b b e r d , R.D., D o v e r , W.D.
1.2.0 " S e l e c t i o n and P r o p e r t i e s o f S t e e l s and W e l d "Random load F a t i g u e Crack Growth i n T-joints".
Metals for Tubular Joints". OTC H o u s t o n , P a p e r OTC 2 8 5 3 . 1 9 7 7 .
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I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures Hicks, J.G.
P l e n a r y s e s s i o n 3. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. " A s t u d y of M a t e r i a l and Structural Problems in Off-
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1.2.1 Hartog, J . , Wardenier, J .
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1.2.2 " S t u d y of l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g the f a t i g u e behaviour
of u n s t i f f e n e d tubular joints.
Hicks, J.G.
P a r t 1; T e s t r e s u l t s T - and X-joints"
Stevin report 6-77-3 " A s t u d y of M a t e r i a l and S t r u c t u r a l Problems in Off-
TNO-IBBC report BI-77-15-05.3.31310 shore Installations".
Cidect report 7A-77/2. 1977. Welding Institute E/55/74. 1974
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" E n d u r a n c e L i m i t Enhancement of S t r u c t u r a l Steel Installations".
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F l o r i d a A t l a n t i c U n i v . B r o w n and R o o t Inc. Intern.Conference, Febr. Newcastle, Engl. 1974
OTC 3 5 1 1 . 1 9 7 9
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3.0 S y m p o s i u m on t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n between the i r o n and ment for shear F o r c e i n the C o n n e c t i o n s ) .
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 1.1.1 H l a v a c e k , V. H o l m e s , R.
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" U l t i m a t e l o a d of T - j o i n t of r e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s " random l o a d c o n d i t i o n s " .
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"On the A c c u r a c y o f D i f f e r e n t F i n i t e Element T y p e s U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas S F R L , T e c h n . R p t . n o . P - 5 5 0 - 6 .
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" I n v e s t i g a t i o n of E l a s t i c S t r e s s e s i n Welded T u b u l a r
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" D e f o r m a t i o n s and S t r e s s e s i n C i r c u l a r C y l i n d r i c a L A t h e s i s f o r the C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g D e p a r t m e n t U n i v .
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C i r c u l a r C y l i n d r i c a l S h e l l s of F i n i t e L e n g t h " .
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Hohl. J l o f S o c i e t y o f N a v a l A r c h i t e c t s o f J a p a n , NO. 141
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Cidect Report No. 74/15 (5M)E, Mannesmann R e s e a r c h
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" P r e d i c t i o n of F a t i g u e L i f e Tubular C o n n e c t i o n s i n
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" F a i l u r e t e s t s on l a r g e s i z e RHS W a r r e n type j o i n t s " . P r o c . o f t h e 5 t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l Ocean D e v e l o p m e n t C o n f e r -
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H o l l i d a y , G . H . , G r a f f , W.J. I i d a , K . , A s a n o , K . , T o y o f u k u , M. and I s h i k a w a , K.
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"Joints f o r RHS C o l u m n s H a v i n g D i f f e r e n t Diameters - 2.1.0 " K o n s t r u i e r e n i n S t a h l r o h r bzw Stahlhohlprofil".
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F i r s t Texas U n i v e r s i t y and SPE o f AIME D r i l l i n g and
I w a s a k i , T . , K a w a h a r a , M. and A s a n o , K. Rock Mechanics C o n f e r e n c e , A u s t i n , T e x a s , J a n .
" F a t i g u e Crack Growth Behaviour in Welded Tubular Joints SPE R e p o r t n o . 484.1963
i n T . TY and K . "
OTC P a p e r N o . 3 4 2 3 . 1 9 7 9 J o h n s t o n , L. P. *
"A review of Welded Tubular J o i n t Design Methods".
I w a s a k i , T . , K a t o h , A . , A s a n o , K. a n d K a w a h a r a , M. EPR R e p o r t 7 3 8 , S h e l l D e v e l o p m e n t Company, May.1963
" A n A n a l y s i s on A p p l i c a b i l i t y of F a t i g u e D a t a f o r Design
of Offshore Tubular Joints". Johnston, L.P. Toprac, A . A . , Noel, J .
J . of the S o c i e t y o f Naval A r c h i t e c t s of J a p a n . , V o l . 1 4 7 , "Welded Tubular Connections.
June (in Japanese).1980 An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s t r e s s e s in T-joints".
Welding J o u r n a l , jan.1966
IRSID
"Comportement en F a t i g u e des C o n s t r u c t i o n s Marines Jubb, J . E . M . , Redwood, R.G.
Soudes" " D e s i g n o f j o i n t s t o box s e c t i o n s " .
Com. d e s Communauts E u r . R e c h . CECA N r . 7210/KB/3/301 Published proceedings. I n s t i t u t i o n of Structural
P r o j e t de R a p p o r t F i n a l . 1981. E n g i n e e r s U . K . , C o n f e r e n c e on I n d u s t r i a l i z e d Buildings
and the S t r u c t u r a l Engineer.May.1966
1.1.0 ISO 2394
2.1.0 " G e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s for the verification of the K a i h o , Y . , A k i m o t o , T . , Kamiya and Kawagoe, E.
3.1.0 s a f e t y of structures". " S t u d y on S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e r s e c t i o n o f Spherical
4.1.0 F i r s t Ed. 1973-02-05 1973 Tank Pipe B r a c i n g s " .
K a w a s a k i S t e e l T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t , N o . 64 (Aug.)
Kawasaki S t e e l C o . , L t d . , (in J a p a n e s e . ) 1 9 7 7
 Kallaby, J . , Price, J.B. K a t o , B . , A k i y a m a , H.
" E v a l u a t i o n of f a t i g u e C o n s i d e r a t i o n s in the Design "The S t r e n g t h of the S p h e r i c a l Joints in Tubular Con-
of Framed o f f s h o r e Structures". structions .
OTC 2 6 0 9 . 1 9 7 6
IIW, doc. no. XV-209-66. 1966
Kamath, M.S.
"Some P r e l i m i n a r y F i n d i n g s on t h e Significance Kato, B., Akiyama, H., Lu, S.G.
of P o p - i n s in F r a c t u r e Thoughness T e s t i n g " . " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on S t e e l T u b u l a r J o i n t with
Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures Gusset P l a t e " .
S e s s i o n 3. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. P r o c . 19th N a t i o n a l S y m p . . B r i d g e and Structural
Engineering.1972
K a n a t a n i , H. Kato, B., Nishiyama, I.
"Experimental Study on the Local Deformation of Tubular " B e h a v i o u r of r i g i d frame c o n n e c t i o n s s u b j e c t e d to
Saddle J o i n t s " . horizontal force".

Trans. AIJ. no. 89, sept.196 4 Cidect report - Program 5Z - University of Tokyo.1979

Kanatani, H. Kato, B,, Nishiyama, I,

"Exper i m e n t a l Study of Welded Tubular Connections (part 1) "The S t a t i c Strength of RR-joints with Large b/B
Trans. AIJ. no. 108. febr.1965 ratio".
K a n a t a n i , H.
"Exper i m e n t a l Study of Welded Tubular Connections (part 2} Cidect Progr. 5Y. IIW Doc. XV-459-80. 1980
Trans. A I J . o. 109, march.1965
Kato, T.
K a n a t a n i , H. "Design s t r e n g t h of tubular joints".
" E x p e r i m e n t a l Study of Welded Tubular Connections (part 3) Nippon Steel Techn. Rept. Overseas No. 6, d e c .
T r a n s . A I J . No. 110, april.1965 1.2.1 pp. 61-74.1974
K a w a h a r a , M. and I w a s a k i , T.
K a n a t a n i , H. " A n a l y s i s of F a t i g u e Crack Growth Behaviour in Welded
" E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on Welded Tubular Connections", T u b u l a r T. Joints".
Memoirs of the F a c u l t y of E n g i n e e r i n g . Kobe University OTC P a p e r N o . 3251.1978
No. 12.1966 Kellogg, M.W.
" D e s i g n of P i p i n g S y s t e m s " .
K a n a t a n i , H. e t a l . 2nd E d i t i o n , W i l e y , S . 85/86.1956
"The u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of e x t e r i o r d i a g r a p h s in box
column-to-beam connect i o n s " . Kempner, J . , Sheng, J , , Pohle, F.V.
Annual meeting of A r c h i t e c t u r a l I n s t i t u t e of Japan. " T a b l e s and C u r v e s f o r Deformat i o n s and S t r e s s e s
Paper No. 2360. Oct.1977 in C i r c u l a r C y l i n d r i c a l S h e l l s under L o c a l i z e d
Load i n g " ,
Kanatani, H., Futjiwara, K. T a b u c h i , M . , K a m b a , T. J o u r n a l of the A e r o n a u t i c a l S c i e n c e , v o l . 24, no,
" B e n d i n g T e s t s o n T - j o i n t s o f RHS C h o r d a n d R H S pp. 119-129, febr.1957
C h o r d a n d RHS o r H - s h a p e B r a n c h " .
Cidect report 5 AF-80/15. 1980. Kinra, R.K., Vlugts, J.H.
"Probabilistic Fatigue Analysis of Fixed Offshore
K a t o , B. , N a k a , T. , A b e , N. Structures".
" B u c k l i n g T e s t s on H i g h T e n s i l e Steel Stanchion of OTC 2 6 0 8 . 1 9 7 6
Tubular Column."
T r a n s . A I J , No. 63, oct.1959 Klein, B.
" E f f e c t s of L o c a l Loadings on Pressurized Circular
K a t o , B . , A k i y a m a , H. Cylindrical Shells".
" S t r e s s A n a l y s i s of the S p h e r i c a l S h e l l S u b j e c t e d to A i r c r a f t Engnr.Vol. 30.no. 358, pp 356-61 dec.1958
A x i a l l y Symmetric Loads and i t s Application."
Trans. A I J . , No. 92. nov.1963

Oi

CD
ro
o Knapp, A . E . , D i x o n , D.A.
"The Use o f X - b r a c i n g i n Fixed Offshore Platforms".
K o r o l , R - M - , C h i d i a c , M.A-
" D o u b l e c h o r d s q u a r e HSS j o i n t s " -
OTC 1 6 6 3 . 1 9 7 2 C i d e c t p r o j e c t 5V- M c M a s t e r U n i v e r s i t y , Hamilton
Ontario, May-1979
Kochera, J . W . , T r a i m e r , J . , M a r s h a l l , P.W,
"Fatigue of S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l for O f f s h o r e Platforms". K o r o l , R . N - , C h i d i a c , M-A.
Offshore T e c h n i c a l Conf. May.1876 " K - J o i n t s of double chord square hollow sections".
C i d e c t program 5V, McMaster U n i v e r s i t y , Hamilton
1.1.0 Koh, S . S . , H i l l - C a r r o l l , P.E.B, Ontario, May-1980
" E x p e r i m e n t a l study of bolted j o i n t s for round hollow
structural sections", Korol, R.M., Mirza, F.A., Elhifnawy, L-
B . S c . T h e s i s , Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , Univer- " E l a s t i c - P l a s t i c F i n i t e Element A n a l y s i s of Rectangular
s i t y of Manitoba.1980 hollow section T-joints"-
McMaster U n i v e r s i t y , H a m i l t o n , O n t a r i o , Canada,
Koning, C.h.M,, Wardenier, J , March 1981-
" S t a t i c t e n s i l e t e s t s on T - j o i n t s made o f S H S , Cidect 5JT-
Determination of the i n f l u e n c e of the weld method
and type of material", Kozu, S- et a l -
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t N r . BI-74-42/05.3.11.270 " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on S t e e l P i p e - c o n c r e t e C o n s t r u c -
Stevin report Nr, 6-74-7.1974 t i o n - On C o v e r i n g S t e e l P i p e U n d e r A x i a l L o a d s . "
Trans- AIJ, Extra, sept.1965
2.2.3 Koning, C.H.M,, de, Wardenier, J ,
" T h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r o f w e l d e d N - t y p e j o i n t s made K r g e l o h , E - , O s s w a l d , H-
of square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s , 1st Phase", " F e s t i g k e i t von H o h l z y l i n d e r n mit eingeschweissten
Stevin report Nr. 6-77-21, Sttzen"-
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 7 - 1 0 7 / 0 5 . 3 . 3 1 3 1 0 , D e 1 f t , Dec.1974
Schweissen und Schneiden 24 (1972) H-7-S 241/45-1972
Koning, C,H-M-, Wardenier, J .
Kuang, J - G - , von Rosenberg, E.L-
" T h e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h o f w e l d e d CHS K-joints"
Stevin report 6-81-13- " F r a c t u r e Thoughness of S t e e l s for Offshore Structures"
T N O - I B B C r e p o r t B I - 8 1 - 3 5 / 6 3 - 5- 5 4 7 0 , July 1981- OTC 1 9 5 3 .
Kuang, J . G - , Potvin, A . B . , L e i c k , R.D.
K o n i s h i , 1-, Okumura, T-, Uehara, T-, S h i g e t o , B- "Stress Concentration in Tubular Joints"-
" J o i n t s in Tubular Arch B r i d g e " . OTC 2 2 0 5 , H o u s t o n , T e x a s , m a y - 1 9 7 4 -
T r a n s . JSUE, V o l - 48, no- 6, april-1963
Kudoh, J -, Tanaka, M - , T a k i zawa,S-
K o r o l , R - M - , C h i d i a c , M. "Assessment of Defect T o l e r a n c e in Large Diameter
" D o u b l e chord T - j o i n t s of r e c t a n g u l a r hollow sections" Tubular Cross-Joints for Offshore Construct i o n " .
Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , McMaster University- The 3 r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m o f the J a p a n W e l d i n g
S o c i e t y . Sept- Tokyo.1978
1.1-0 K o r o l , R-M-
2-1-0 "The p l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r of h o l l o w structural sections -0 Kurobane, Y-
with implications for design"- "On the T r u s s J o i n t Efficiency-"
R e p o r t , Kyushu Branch,of A I J , no- 13, febr-1964
Canadian Structural Engineering C o n f e r e n c e -1972
K u r o b a n e , Y-
Korol, R-M. "Welded t r u s s j o i n t s of t u b u l a r structural members"
"Development of Design Rules for V i e r e n d e e l Connec- M e m o i r s o f the f a c u l t y o f E n g i n e e r i n g . Kumamoto
tions". University, 1 2 , n o . 1- dec-1964
Int. Symposium on Hollow S t r u c t u r a l Sections-
Toronto, may-1977 K u r o b a n e , Y- , Makino, Y-
K o r o l , R-M-, E l - Z a n a t y , M-, Brady, F . J - "Local Stresses in Tubular Joints".
"Unequal width connections of square h o l l o w sections R e p o r t , Kyushu Branch of A I J , no- 14, febr-1965
in Vierendeel trusses"-
C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l of C i v i l E n g n r - V o l - 4- no- 21977
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Kwan, C , G r a f f , W - J - 1-3-4 L i a w , C - Y - , R e i m e r , R - B - , L i t t o n , R-W-
" A n a l y s i s o f T u b u l a r T - c o n n e c t i o n s by t h e F i n i t e "Improved F i n i t e Elements f o r A n a l y s i s of Welded
e l e m e n t method c o m p a r i s o n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t s " - Tubular Joints"-
OTC 1 6 6 9 - 1 9 7 2 OTC 2 6 4 2 - 1 9 7 6

3.3-1 Kwan, C - T - 1.2.2 Lieurade, H-P-, Gerald, J -

" L i m i t a t i o n s on the a p p l i c a t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e breadth " E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s u l t s o f F a t i g u e T e s t s on Ten Full
c o n c e p t i n box g i r d e r d e s i g n " . Scale X-joints".
(OTC 2 1 1 6 ) 1 9 7 4 I n t e r n - Conference S t e e l i n Marine S t r u c t u r e s
S e s s i o n 6- P a r i s 5 - 8 o c t - 1 9 8 1 -
1-3-1 Lane, P-H-R-
" S t r e s s e s i n a welded b r a n c h c o n n e c t i o n , p a r t II-" 1-0 Lloyds
B r i t i s h Welding Research A s s o c i a t i o n , r e p o r t " R u l e s and R e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e C o n s t r u c t i o n and
no. FE16/21/54, march.1954 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of S t e e l S h i p s , L l o y d ' s R e g i s t e r o f
Shipping".1973
1.3-1 Lane, P-H-R-
" S t r e s s e s i n a Welded b r a n c h c o n n e c t i o n , p a r t IV." M a a h n , E.
B r i t i s h Welding Research A s s o c i a t i o n , r e p o r t "The i n f l u e n c e of C a t h o d i c P r o t e c t i o n on C r a c k
No- F E 1 6 / 3 5 / 5 7 s e p t - 1 9 5 7 G r o w t h Rate i n F a t i g u e o f S t e e l i n S e a w a t e r " -
I n t e r n - Conference S t e e l i n Marine S t r u c t u r e s
2.1-0 L a z a r , B - E - , Fang, P . J . S e s s i o n 5- P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1 9 8 1 -
"T t y p e moment c o n n e c t i o n s between r e c t a n g u l a r tubular
sect i o n s " . M a d d o x , N-R.
S i r George W i l l i a m s U n i v e r s i t y R e s e a r c h R e p o r t to "A f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s f o r deepwater fixed-bottom plat-
CSICC, M o n t r e a l , P . Q - 1 9 7 1 forms"

Leeuwen, J - L - v a n . , B a c k , J . d e - , V a e s s e n , G - H - G - Offshore Techn-Conf e r e n c e - OTC 2 0 5 1 , May 6 - 8 - 1 9 7 4

" C o n s t a n t A m p l i t u d e F a t i g u e Tes~s on Welded S t e e l
J o i n t s P e r f o r m e d i n A i r and S e a w a t e r " . Maddox, N.R., W i l d e n s t e i n , A.W.
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine S t r u c t u r e s "A S p e c t r a l F a t i g u e A n a l y s i s f o r O f f s h o r e S t r u c t u r e s " .
S e s s i o n 2- P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1981- O f f s h o r e Technology OTC 2261 , May 5 - 8 - 1975
1-2-2 M a e d a , T - , U c h i n o , K - , S a k u r a i , H-
Lee, G - C 1-2-8 " E x p e r i m e n t a l Study on t h e F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h o f Welded
"Review of o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m f a i l u r e s during T u b u l a r x - j o i n t s w i t h and w i t h o u t S t i f f e n i n g R i n g s " .
hurricane H i l d a " - R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , I s h i k a w a j i m a - h a r ima Heavy I n d u s -
Delta s e c t i o SPE, f e b r . 9-1965 t r i e s C o - , L t d . , 1 - 1 5 , 3 - c h o m e , Toyosu, K o t o - t u ,
Tokyo, Japan-
1-0 Lee, G - C
"Offshore S t r u c t u r e s " . 1-2-1 M a e d a , T - , U c h i n o , K - , S a k u r a i , H-
Past. P r e s e n t , Future, Design Considerations 1-2-2 " E x p e r i m e n t a l Study on t h e F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h o f Welded
P r o c e e d i n g s o f OECON, p p - 1 6 9 - 1 9 6 - 1 9 6 8 1.2-8 T u b u l a r T - and X - j o i n t s " .
IIW D o c - No. X V - 2 7 0 - 6 9 - 1 9 6 9
1-1-1 L e e , M - S - , Cheng, A - P - , Sun, C - T - , L a i , R-Y-
" P l a s t i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n on p u n c h i n g Shear S t r e n g t h 1-2-3 M a e d a , T . , U c h i n o , K - , S a k u r a i , H-
of T u b u l a r J o i n t s " . 1-2-8 " E x p e r i m e n t a l Study on t h e F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h o f Welded
OTC 2 6 4 1 - 1 9 7 6 Tubular K-Joints".
R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , I s h i k a w a j i m a - h a r i m a Heavy I n d u s -
L e i c k , R - D . , and P o t v i n , A - B - t r i e s C o - , L t d . , 1 - 1 5 , 3 - c h o m e , Toyosu, K o t o - t u ,
" A u t o m a t e d mesh g e n e r a t i o n f o r tubular joints stress T o k y o , J a p a n IIW D o c . X V - 2 6 9 - 6 9 - 1 9 6 9
analysis" -
Computers and S t r u c t u r e s , V o l - 7 pp. 73-91-1977 1.2-0 Maison, J - R - , Holliday, G-C-
" C o m p a r i s o n Between P r e d i c t e d and E x p e r i m e n t a l l y D e t e r -
m i n e d Low C y c l e F a t i g u e L i f e o f V l e l d e d T u b u l a r C o n n e c t i o n s "
OTC 2208m SPE, D a l l a s , T e x a s . 1975-
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523
en
ro
Mang, F . , Bremer, K-, K o t t e r , H. 1- 1 - 0 Mang, F-, Schundelmeier
"Das Rechteck-Hohlprofil a l s Biegetrger". 2.1.0 " U n t e r s u c h u n g e n an g e s c h r a u b t e n Stirnplatten-
Hoesch Rohrenwerke. Hohlprofil-Information- R e g e l an S c h l s s e n f r R e c h t e c k - und Rund-Hohlprofile".
Nr- 2, 1979- F o r s c h u n g s b e r i c h t P r o j e k t N r - 38 d e r Studiengesell-
s c h a f t f r A n w e n d u n g s t e c h n i k von E i s e n und S t a h l
2-1-0 M a n g , F- , Bucak, 0 - , W u r k e r , K- e . V . , Dsseldorf A p r i l 1981-
"Biegesteife, rechtwinklige Rahmenecken a u s
M S H - P r o f i l e n unter vorwiegend ruhender Belastung"- 2- 1-1 Mang , F - , Bucak, 0 - , Wolfmuller,
Mannesmann-Stahlbau-Hohlprofile. Techn. Infor- "Bemessungsverfahren f r T-Knoten aus R e c h t e c k -
m a t i o n e n 3 1979. Hohlprofilen" .
F o r s c h u n g s b e r i c h t P r o j e k t N r . 82 d e r Studiengesell-
2.1-0 M a n g , F . , B r e m e r , K- s c h a f t fr Anwendung s t e c h n i k von E i s e n und S t a h l
" S t a b i l i t a t s - und T r a g v e r h a l t e n d r u c k - u n d biege- e - V - Dsseldorf Mai 1981-
druckbeanspruchter MSH-Profile".
Mannesmann-Stahlbau-Hohlprofile-Techn-Infor- 1- 0 M a n g , F-
m a t i o n e n 4 1979- 2- 0 " L e p r o f i l creux dans l a construetion"-
3- 0 P a l a i s de c o n g r e s N a n c y - 1981-
2-1-0 M a n g , F . , S t e i d l , G - , B u c a k , 0-
"Investigations of Weld I m p e r f e c t i o n s in Butt 2-1-0 Mang, F . , Bucak, O - , K n o d e l ,
Welds of Structural Hollow Sections (SHS)". " E r m i t t l u n g des T r a g v e r h a l t e n s von biegesteifen
IIW D o c - X V - 4 4 4 - 7 9 , V - 6 8 5 - 8 0 , X I I I - 9 6 9 - 8 0 , May 1979- Rahmenecken aus R e c h t e c k - H o h l p r o f i l e n ( S t 3 7 , S t 52)
unter statischer Belastung".
1- 1-0 M a n g , F - , S t e i d l , G- F o r s c h u n g s b e r i c h t P r o j e k t N r - 70 d e r Studiengesell-
2- 1-0 " G e s c h w e i s s t e S t r u m p f s t o s s e von Rohren und M S H - s c h a f t f r A n w e n d u n g s t e c h n i k von E i s e n und S t a h l
P r o f i l e n im S t a h l b a u u n t e r v o r w i e g e n d ruhender e - V Dsseldorf J u n i 1981-
Beanspruchung".
Mannesmann-Stahlbau-Hohlprofile - Techn. Infor- 2-1-0 M a n g , F . , Bucak, O - , S t e i d l , G-
m a t i o n e n 3 1979- 4- 1-0 "Untersuchungen an V e r b i n d u n g e n von g e s c h l o s s e n e n
und offenen P r o f i l e n aus h o c h f e s t e n S t a h l e n " -
2-2-0 M a n g , F- F o r s c h u n g s b e r i c h t P r o j e k t N r . 71 d e r Studiengesell-
"Zum E i n f l u s s von E i g e n s p a n n u n g e n i n Hohlprofil- s c h a f t fr Anwendungstechnik von E i s e n und S t a h l
konstruktionen- " e . V . Dsseldorf J u n i 1981-
B e r i c h t e eines Symposiums i n Bad-Nauheim 1979-
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Metalkunde e.V. 1-0 M a r s h a l l , P-W.
" R i s k Factors for Offshore Structures"-
2-1-3 M a n g , F - , Hummel, T - , W u r k e r , K - G - ASCE Conference on C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g i n the Oceans-
"Bemessung vorwiegend ruhend beanspruchter Fach San Francisco, Sept-1967
werke aus MSH"-
T e c h n i s c h e Informationen 2 der Mannesmannrohr- 1-1-1 M a r s h a l l , P-W-*
werke AG, Februar 1980- 1-2-1 " D e s i g n of Simple T u b u l a r Joints".
CDG R e p o r t 12, S h e l l O i l C o . , J a n . 1 9 6 7
1-2-0 Mang, F - , Wardenier, J - , Bucak, 0-, Dutta, D-
" Z e i t - und Dauer f e s t i g k e i t v o n e i n f a c h e n ge- 1-2-8 M a r s h a l l . P.W.*
s c h w e i s s t e n F a c h w e r k k n o t e n aus Rundhohlprofilen" " M i d d l e Ground S h o a l P l a t f o r m C - S t r u c t u r a l Joint
F o r s c h u n g s b e r i c h t P r o j e k t N r . 6 der S t u d i e n g e s e l l - Model Test".
schaft f r Anwendungstechnik von E i s e n und Stahl S h e l l O i l C o m p a n y , CDG-
e . V . , Dsseldorf, Marz 1980- a. F i r s t Progress Report, jan. 1967
b- Second P r o g r e s s R e p o r t , November 196 7-
Mang, F . , S t e i d l , G - , Bucak, 0.
" D e s i g n o f Welded L a t t i c e J o i n t s and Moment 1-1-0 M a r s h a l l . P-W-
R e s i s t i n g Knee J o i n t s Made o f H o l l o w Sections". " C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r S e l e c t i o n of S t r u c t u r a l Steel
IIW D o c - XV-463-80 (1980)- f o r use i n T u b u l a r J o i n t s o f O f f s h o r e platforms"-
O C D R e p o r t 1 6 , 1 9 6 9 , G r o u p P r o d u c t i o n R&D C o n f e -
r e n c e Agenda I t e m 9 2 , jan-l'969
 M a r s h a l l . P.W- 1-2-0 M a r s h a l l . P.W.
"Risk Evaluations for Offshore Structures". "Problems i n long-1 ife f a t i g u e assessment for fixed
J n l . S t r u c t u r a l D i v i s i o n ASCE, dec-1969 offshore structures".
P r e s e n t e d t o WRC s / c o n T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s , M a y .
Marshall, p.w. {ASCE p r e p r i n t 2 6 3 8 , a p r i l 1976).1975
"Material problems in offshore platforms".
1st Annual O f f s h o r e Technology C o n f . Houston, M a r s h a l l - P-W-
p r e p r i n t OTC 1 0 4 3 , 1 8 - 2 1 M a y - 1 9 6 9 "Underwater Welding-Essential V a r i a b l e s "
R e p o r t t o AWS D 36 S u b c o m m i t t e e N o v - 1 9 7 5
M a r s h a l l . P.W.
"Design Criteria for Structural Steel Pipe- 1-1-0 Marshall. P-W-, Graff, W-J-
CRC p r e s e n t a t i o n . a p r i l . 1 9 7 1 1-2-0 " L i m i t S t a t e Design of T u b u l a r Connections"
4.1-0 BOSS 1 9 7 6 N o r w a y . 1976
1.2-0 M a r s h a l l , P.W.*
"General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s for tubular joint design in 1-2-0 M a r s h a l l . P.W.
offshore Structures". " F a i l u r e Modes for Offshore s t r u c t u r e s - p a r t II-
ODC R e p o r t 4 9 - S h e l l O i l C o m p a n y , A u g u s t . 1 9 7 3 Fatigue"-
P r e s e n t e d a t ASCE C o n f e r e n c e , M a d i s o n W - J - , August-
1-1-0 M a r s h a l l - P.W., T o p r a c , A.A. (also p u b l i s h e d in Boss 76, V o l - 2)-1976
1-2-0 " B a s i s for Tubular J o i n t Design C o d e s " -
Paper presented at San Francisco meeting of ASCE, 1-1.1 M a r s h a l l . P - W . , S h e r m a n , D - R-
a p r i l - ASCE p r e p r i n t 2008-1973 1-2-3 " R e p o r t o f t h e Committee on t u b u l a r structures".
1.2.4 Commentary on S t a t i c Design of Tubular Connect i o n s -
1.2.0 M a r s h a l l - P.W-* p r e s e n t e d a t ASCE C o n f e r e n c e , S a n D i e g o , april.1976
"Fatigue analysis of dynamically loaded offshore
structures". 1-2.0 M a r s h a l l - P-W-
CE- 4 Note. Sept.1974 " P r e l i m i n a r y dynamic and f a t i g u e a n a l y s i s using direc-
tional spectra"-
1-2.0 M a r s h a l l - P.W. O f f s h o r e T e c h . C o n f . May ( J o u r n a l o f
"General Considrt i o n s for Tubular Joint Design"- Petroleum Technology)-1976
Welding in Offshore Constructions-
W.R-C. Bulletin 193- April.1974 1.0 M a r s h a l l . P . W . , Gates, W-E-
" I n e l a s t i c dynamic analyses of tubular offshore
1-2-0 M a r s h a l l . P.W. structures" -
"General C o n s i d e r a t i o n s for Tubular J o i n t Design"- Offshore Technology Conference-1977
Welding in Offshore Construction, Welding Institute
C o n f e r e n c e , N e w c a s t l e , 27-28 febr-1974 M a r s h a l l - P-W - , K i n v a , R - K -
"Dynamic and f a t igue a n a l y s e s f o r deep water fixed
1-1-0 M a r s h a l l - P-W., T o p r a c , A-A. platforms" -
1- 2 - 0 " B a s i s for tubular joint design". P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 2nd a n n u a l ASCE A s s e m b l y ,
Welding J o u r n a l , may.1974 Specialty Conf- R a l e i g h N - C , May.1977

1.1-0 M a r s h a l l . P.W-, B e a , R-G- 1 - 1. M a r s h a l l , P-W-

" F a i l u r e modes f o r o f f s h o r e structures". 2- 1. "A r e v i e w o f A m e r i c a n C r i t e r i a for Tubular Structures
P r e s e n t e d at A S C E C o n f e r e n c e on p r o b a b i l i s t i c Methods and p r o p o s e d r e v i s i o n s "
i n Eng i n e e r i n g , S t a n f o r d , June - 1 9 7 4 IIW D o c . X V - 4 0 5 - 7 7 . 1 9 7 7
( a l s o V o l . 2 P r o c e e d i n g s BOSS ' 7 6 , T r o n d h e i m N o r w a y 1 9 7 6 ) .
M a r s h a l l , P-W-
2- 1-0 Marshall, J . "A r e v i e w o f s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s in
" S t i f f n e s s of U - f r a m e s c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h structural tubular connections"-
Rectangular Hollow Sections". Report CE-32. S h e l l Houston, April.1978
C o n s t r u c t i o n S t e e l w o r k , F e b r . / M a r c h . 1974-

Ch

en
en
1-2-1 M a r t i n , T-, McGregor, J - 1-3-1 Miller, C D . , T.amell, J.H-
1-3-1 "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n into the stress d i s t r i b u t i o n and 1.3-3 " A n A n a l y t i c a l and Ex p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f S t i f f ened
fatigue s t r e n g t h of a welded tubular T-joint". T u b u l a r J o i n t s w i t h M u l t i p l e B r a n c h e s - OTC 2 1 0 1 - 1 9 7 4
OTC p r e p r i n t 2856-1977
M i n n e r , H - H - , S e e g e r , T-
1-2-1 Martin, T- "Investigations on t h e F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of
"The f a t i g u e strength of welded tubular T-joints with W e l d a b l e High S t r e n g t h S t e e l s StE460 and StE690
a large diameter ratio". i n A s - W e l d e d and T I G D r e s s e d C o n d i t i o n s " .
N a t i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n g L a b . UK- I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Struc tures
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v - 78- S e s s i o n 9- P a r i s 5 - 8 O c t - 1981-

1-2-8 M a t o b a , M - , Teramoto, S - , K a w a s a k i , T - , K a m i n o k a d o , S- 1.0 M i t s u i , Y-

" F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of welded tubular joints with various " E x p e r i m e n t a l Study on L o c a l S t r e s s and Strength of
stiffeners in offshore structures"-1973 Tubular Joints in S t e e l "
D o c t o r i a l D i s s e r t a t i o n Osaka Univ. O c t . (in Jap.)1973
May, M-J-
" W o r k d o n e i n t h e F i e l d o f F r a c t u r e by C E C E x e c u t i v e 1-2-3 M i t s u i , Y-, K u r o b a n e , Y . , M a k i n o , Y- -
C o m m i t t e e " F a i l u r e P r o c e s s e s and D e s i g n " " - " F a t i g u e Behaviour of K - J o i n t s S u b j e c t e d to v a r i a b l e Load
I n t e r n . Confre.ce S t e e l in Marine Structures Range"
S p e c i a l S e s s i o n 2- P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981- R e s e a r c h Report, Kyushu Branch of A I J , No- 24, Febr.
( i n Japanese) -1978
1-2-0 McDonald, A-, Wylde, J - G -
"Experimental results of fatigue tests on tubular welded Morgan, H.G-, Thorpe, T-
joints" . "An introduction to crack growth t e s t i n g i n t h e UKOSRP
Conf- Fat igue in Offshore Structural S t e e l , Inst, of and i t s relevance to the design of o f f s h o r e structures"-
Civil Engrs., Westminster. London, Febr-1981 Conf- Fatigue in Offshore S t r u c t u r a l Steel, Inst, of
C i v i l Engrs., Westminster, London, Febr.1981
1.2-1 McDonald, A. , Brown, D-, K e r r , J .
" T h e I n f l u e n c e of G e o m e t r i c a l and L o a d i n g Para- Morgan, H-G-, Thorpe, T-W-, Ranee, A - , Silvester
meters on F a t i g u e L i f e of Tubular Joints" D-R.V-, Scott, P-M.
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures "An Investigation of the Corrosion F a t i g u e Crack
S e s s i o n 10. P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1981- Growth Behaviour of S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l s i n Seawater"
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures
Mc- D o n a l d , A - , T h o m s o n , J - F . S e s s i o n 5 . P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1981-
"The f a t i g u e strength of large s c a l e welded tubular
T-joints" - 1-0 M o r i , N.
N a t i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n g L a b - UK. "Elastic Lateral S t a b i l i t y of Plane Frame Works
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v - 78- C o n s i s t e d of S t e e l T u b e s " .
T r a n s . A I J , No. 89- sept-1963
Mee, B-L-
"The S t r u c t u r a l B e h a v i o u r of J o i n t s i n Rectangular 1.1-0 Morley, L-S-D-
Hollow Sections" . "Improvement on D o n n e l l ' s A p p r o x . f o r Thin-Walled
T h e s i s at the U n i v e r s i t y of S h e f f i e l d , Sheffield, Circular Cylinders"-
E n g l a n d , S e p t - 127 p a g e s , 61 t e s t specimens-1968 Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f M e c h a n i c s and A p p l i e d Mathematics,
Vol. 1 2 , P a r t I, Febr. 1958
M e h r o t r a and R e - w o o d .
"Load Transfer Through Connections Between Box Morris, G-A-, F r o v i c h , L - E - , T h i e n s i r p i a t , N.
Sections" - "An Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n of Flattened-End
Tubular Truss J o i n t s " .
Engnr-Journal,August. 5 pages, 4 test spec.1970 U n i v e r s i t y of M a n i t o b a , C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g Dept.
R e p o r t No- S T I - 7 4 , Febr.1974
Melworm, R - F - , Herman, I-
"Welded Attachments to Tubes-Experimentation,
A n a l y s i s and D e s i g n , "
W e l d i n g R e s e a r c h S u p p l e m e n t , pp- 4 5 4 s - 4 6 4 s .
Welding Research C o u n c i l , Oct- 1966
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527
co Natarajan H-, Toprac, A-A- Noda , T -, Kai , T. , Okabayashi , N. , S h i m a d a , M . ,
"Research n the F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of Tubular I k e d a , M-, O g u r a , Y .
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Structures Fatigue Research Laborator y The Univer- J o i n t s in High S t r e n g t h S t e e l s - F e a s i b i l i t y Study
s i t y of Texas, A u s t i n , Texas, Nov.1968 f o r P r e - F a b r i c a t e d Leg Block S y s t e m " -
Sumitomo Metal I n d u s t r i e s , Ltd-
1.1.0 N a t a r a j a n , M-, Toprac, A-A- OTC 3695.1980
1-2-0 " S t u d i e s on T u b u l a r J o i n t s i n U - S . A . R e v i e w of
1-3-0 Research Reports"- Noel, J - S - , Toprac, A-A-
Structures Fatigue, Research Laboratory, The Univer- "Tubular C o n n e c t i o n s - A Review of S t r e s s A n a l y s i s
s i t y of Texas, A u s t i n , May-1969 and D e s i g n . "
IIW Doc. XV, D o c . X V - 1 5 3 - 6 3 - The U n i v e r s i t y of
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r epor t"- N o e l , J . S . , T o p r a c , A . A . B e a l e , L- A-
"An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the S t r e s s e s in Welded Tubular
IIW Doc. XV-265-69-1969 Connections".
ASME P u b l i c a t i o n . 65-PET-39-1965
Nibbering, J.K-W.
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A p p l i e d in a D r i l l i n g Rig " - "An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of S t r e s s e s in Welded T-joints".
SFRL Techn- R e p o r t P 5 5 0 - 3 -
Ship Structures Laboratory Report 113, Del ft - Structures Fatigue Research Laboratory. University
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Nicholls, D.M.
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B r i t i s h Welding J o u r n a l . March.1968 " S t r e s s e s near T u b u l a r T-joints.
N i c o l u s s i . , F-, Gnone, E-, S e b a s t i a n i , G- Welding in the W o r l d . V o l - 7 no. 31969
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T e c n o m a r e Spa I t a l y - Noordhoek, C , W a r d e n i e r , J - , D u t t a -
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1.1-7 Nippon Steel hollow sections".
2-1.7 " D e s i g n C o n s i d e r a t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y on beam P a r t I. T e s t s r e s u l t s a n d S - N c u r v e s .
t o c o l u m n c o n n e c t i o n s o f RHS r i g i d frame". Stevin report 6-79-11.
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N i p p o n S t e e l M e t a l P r o d u c t s Co- L t d . 1 9 7 7
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N i s h i d a , Y - , S a k a m o t o , S - , O t a k e , F - , M i n o s h i m a , N. "The f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r of welded j o i n t s of square
"Method for R e i n f o r c i n g Tubular Truss J o i n t s (Investigation hollow sections".
i n t o Optimum A r e a o f C h o r d W a l l s w i t h P a r t i a l l y Increased P a r t II A n a l y s i s - R e p o r t 6 - 8 0 - 4 , S t e v i n Laboratory, Delft
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N i s h i o k a , K., H i r a k a w a , K-, Sakamoto, S- "ECSC-CIDECT F a t i g u e T e s t s on S q u a r e H o l l o w Section
" L i s t of Japanese l i t e r a t u r e in Tubular Structures". J o i n t s and t h e C o m p a r i s o n W i t h t h e ECSC-Offshore
Japanese publications in hollow sections. Tubular Joint Results"-
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C i d e c t B r u s s e l , May-1976 Automatic W e l d i n g - No- 2,-.pp/ 26-29-
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" D i r e c t J o i n i n g of Tubular S e c t i o n Components". " C o r r o s i o n Fatigue Behaviour of Offshore S t e e l S t r u c
Automatic W e l d i n g - Vol 9, p p . 61-68-1959 t u r e s under V a r i a b l e Amplitude Loading".
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures
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"Rational designs for c e r t a i n welded j o i n t s and
assemblies of tubular components". O l i v i e r , R-, R i t t e r , W.
Symposium - D e s i g n i n g Welded S t r u c t u r e s , Paton "Improvement of F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of Welded J o i n t s
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Literature Data-"
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"The s t r e n g t h of g i r d e r s used f o r o f f s h o r e oil Steel Tubular Joints for Offshore structures"-
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" I n f l u e n c e of c h o r d p r e l o a d on behaviour of tubular " S t r u t l o c a l b u c k l i n g in t r u s s e s of RHS-"
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Departm-of C i v i l Engineering, Univ-of Manitoba-1980 Budapest, Oct.1977

Oberparleiter, W-, Schutz, W- 2-1-3 Packer, J-A.

" F a t i g u e T e s t s o n Welded Y - j o i n t s under Random " T h e o r e t i c a l b e h a v i o u r and a n a l y s i s of w e l d e d s t e e l j o i n t s Q
Loading in Seawater". w i t h RHS c h o r d s e c t i o n s " . i
Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures I n t e r im r e p o r t 1 t o 5 and f i n a l r e p o r t - U n i v e r s i t y o f co
Nottingham. 1976-1978-
S e s s i o n 8- P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981-
1-1-0 Odaka, A . , Toyoda, T., S u z u k i , T.
" E f f e c t of C o n c r e t e Cover ing f o r Buckling of Steel 2-1-3 P a c k e r , J . A . , Davies, G - , Coutie, M.G.
Pipe". 3.1.3 " Y i e l d strength of gapped j o i n t s in r e c t a n g u l a r hoilow
T r a n s . A I J , N o - 76 S e p t - 1 9 6 2 section trusses".
P r o c - I n s t n . C i v . E n g r s . P a r t 2, 69,U-K- Dec- 995-1013-1980
1-0 Ohba, H-, S u s e i , S . , S a k a i , Y - , Atsuta, T., Ohkuma, Y-,
Ohminami, R-, T a m u r a , A- 1-2.0 P a n , R . B . , Maddox. N - R - , Plummer- F . B .
"The Development of C a s t i n g Leg Nodes for A Jack-up " F a t i g u e A n a l y s i s of O f f s h o r e Structures".
Rig" - Ocean E n g i n e e r i n g , Nov.1976
P r o c - OTC P a p e r 3 4 2 6 , M a y - 1 9 7 9
1-2-3 P a n , R . B - , Plummer, F - B .
1-1-0 O k u m u r a , T - , M a r u k a m i , E - , A k i y a m a , N- "A F r a c t u r e Mechanics Approach to Nonoverlapping
1.2.0 " E s t i m a t i o n f o r S t r e n g t h of p i p e joint". Tubular K-joints Fatigue Life Prediction"-
Journal of J S C E , V o l 58- No. 7. June-1973 OTC 2 6 4 5 - 1 9 7 6

1.1.0 O k u m u r a , T . , Ak i y a m a , N . . , M u r a k a m i , E - , A k i y a m a , H- 1.1.1 P a n , R . B . , Plummer, F . B . , Kuang, J - G -

1.2-0 " E s t i m a t i o n of S t r e n g t h of T u b u l a r Joints-" 1-1-2 "Ultimate strength of tubular joints"-
AIPC C o n f e r e n c e , Tokyo.1976 1-1-3 OTC 2 6 4 4 . 1976

O l i v i e r , R . , G r e i f , M - , O b e r p a r l e i t e r , W-, S c h u t z , W P a r i s , P - C - , Erdogan, F.
"Corrosion Fatigue Behaviour of Offshore Steel "A c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of crack propagation laws".
Structures under Constant Amplitude Loading". J . o f B a s i s E n g i n e e r i n g . T r a n s . ASME s e r i e s D , 85
Intern. Conference Steel in Marine Structures p- 528.1963
S e s s i o n 2. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.

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 S n e d d e n , N-W. 1.1.0 S t a m e n k o v i c , A . , Spar row, K-D-
" B a c k g r o u n d t o P r o p o s e d New F a t i g u e D e s i g n R u l e s " E x i s t i n g methods for c a l c u l a t i n g the s t a t i c strength
f o r S t e e l Welded J o i n t s i n O f f s h o r e Structures". o f w e l d e d T , Y , N , K- a n d X j o i n t s C H S " .
Report of the Department of Energy ' G u i d a n c e P a r t Two: R e c e n t l y a v a i l a b l e d e s i g n recommendations
Notes' Revision Drafting Panel- Kingston, P o l y t e c h n i c , June.1977
May 1 9 8 1 -
1- 1-0 Stamenkovic, A - , Sparrow, K.D.
Solli, 0. "A Review of E x i s t i n g Methods f o r the D e t e r m i n a t i o n of
"Corrosion fatigue of welded joint in structural steels t h e S t a t i c A x i a l S t r e n g t h of W e l d e d , T , Y , N, K and X J o i n t s
and the e f f e c t s of cathodic protection". in Circular Hollow Steel Sections".
DNV N o r w a y . Proceedings Int. Conference "Joints in Structural Steel-
work- Teeside April-1981
ECSC Seminar Cambridge, Nov. 78-
1.1.0 Stark, J-W-B-
S o l l i , 0. 2- 1-0 G e n e r a l A s p e c t s of the Dutch R e g u l a t i o n s for Tubular
" C o r r o s i o n F a t i g u e o f Weldments ot C-Mn S t e e l and 3.1.0 Structures"-
the E f f e c t of C a t h o d i c P r o t e c t i o n , S t r e s s R e l i e v i n g 4.1.0 S y m p o s i u m on T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s , D e l f t - Oct.1977
T r e a t m e n t and S a l i n e A t m o s p h e r e " .
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures 1- 1 - 0 S t a r k , J . W . B . , W a l , J . van d e r , W a r d e n i e r , J .
S e s s i o n 2- P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1981- 2- 1-0 "Recommendations tor the d e s i g n of t u b u l a r structures"-
Songa , T - , 3.1-0 ( i n D u t c h ) . Bouwen met S t a a l , n r . 4 4 - Polytechnisch
"Work d o n e i n t h e F i e l d o f M a r i n e C o r r o s i o n by CEC 4-1-0 tijdschrift, sept-1978
E x e c u t i v e Committee " C o r r o s i o n and S u r f a c e P r o t e c -
tion". 2.1.0 S t e i d l , G-, Bucak, o.
Rapporteurs report - "Rectangular structural steel hollow sections -
I n t e r n - Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures M e c h a n i c a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l properties-
S p e c i a l S e s s i o n 1. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981- ( i n German) B a n d e s , B l e c h e und R o h r e , H e f t 6.1979
O
1.1-1 S p a r r o w , K . D . , S t a m e n k o v i c , A- 1- 1 - 0 S t e i d l , G- '
1.1.7 "Experimental Determination of the U l t i m a t e Static-Strength 2- 1-0 " E n t w u r f D I N 4 1 1 6 ( D I N 18 8 0 8 ) - Schweisstechnische ^
of T - J o i n t s in C i r c u l a r H o l l o w S t e e l S e c t i o n s S u b j e c t to 3- 1-0 Besonderheiten".
A x i a l L o a d and Moment" - Vortragsveranstaltung im ' H a u s der Technik', Essen
Proceedings Int. Conference "Joints in Structural Steel- Dezember, 1979-
work", Teeside April.1981
S t e i d l , G - , B u c a k , 0-
1-0 S p e n g l e r , I.E. et a l - " M e c h a n i s c h - t e c h n o l o g i s c h e E i g e n s c h a f t e n warm
"The s t r e s s e d s t a t e in the supporting assemblies of und k a l t g e f o r m t e r Hohlprofil"-
t u b e t r u s s e s and t h e i r strength"- Hoesch Rohrenwerke- Hohlprofil-Informationen
A v t - S v a r k a , No. 5, p p . 74-7 5.1971 4, 1979.

1.1-0 Stallmeyer, J.E. 2.1-1 S t e w a r t s and L l o y d s Limited.

" S t a t i c T e s t s of a Full-Scale Pipe Joint" "The Local C r u s h i n g Strength of R.H.S- Junctions".
Report to C a l c o , June.1959 R e p o r t No- C / E - 6 4 / 6 5 / 1 -

1-1.0 Stallmeyer, J . E . 1-1-0 S t e w a r t s and L l o y d s ( A u s t r a l i a ) Pty. Ltd.

" S t a t i c T e s t of a F u l l - S c a l e P i p e Joint". " R e p o r t on the b e h a v i o u r of welded j o i n t s in tubular
Report to C a l i f o r n i a O i l Company, Dec.1959 structures".
Jan.1961
1-1-1 Stamenkovic, A . , Spar row, K.D.
1-1.2 " E x i s t i n g Methods for C a l c u l a t i n g the S t a t i c Strength 1.1-1 S t o l , H-G.A., Bijlaard, F.S-K-, Puthli, R e -
1.1-3 of w e l d e d T - and K- J o i n t s i n C i r c u l a r H o l l o w S e c t i o n " . determination o f s t r e n g t h and s t i f f n e s s o f welded
S c h o o l of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , K i n g s t o n Polytechnic, t u b u l a r T j o i n t s up to and beyond c o l l a p s e w i t h the
Kingston, Surrey, Engl- Oct-1976 f i n i t e element programme D i a n a " .
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B - 8 1 - 9 6 / 6 3 . 6 - 0 6 7 8 - 1981.

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 .7 T a n a k a , H-, S h i g e n o b u , T. 1-2.8 Teramoto, s. , M a t o b a , M - , K a w a s a k i , T.
" L i m i t A n a l y s i s of Beam-Column C o n n e c t i o n s (Part 7-2)' " F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of Welded T u b u l a r J o i n t s w i t h
T r a n s - A I J . No- 1 6 6 - Dec.1960 Various S t i f f e n e r s in Offshore Structures".
OTC 1 8 2 0 . 1 9 7 3
-7 T a n a k a , H., S h i g e n o b u , T.
" L i m i t A n a l y s i s of Beam-Column C o n n e c t i o n s (Part 7-1}' 1-3-1 T e y l e r , R. , G i b s z t e i n , M - , B j o r n s t a d , H - , Haugan, G.
T r a n s - A I J . No. 165-1969 "Parameter S t r e s s Analysis of T-joints"-
Det N o r s k e V e r i t a s R e p o r t 77-523-1977
-7 T a n a k a , H., S h i g e n o b u , T.
" L i m i t A n a l y s i s of Beam-Column C o n n e c t i o n s (Part 5}"- 1-2-0 Thebault, J - , Olagnon, M-, B a r n o u i n , B-
T r a n s - A I J . No. 1 6 3 , Sept.1969 " F a t i g u e A n a l y s i s of a T u b u l a r J o i n t Broken Under
Waves a n d C u r r e n t s Loadings"-
Tanaka, H-, Shigenobu, T. CNEXO/COB-
" L i m i t A n a l y s i s of Beam-Column C o n n e c t i o n s (design OTC 3 6 9 8 1 9 8 0
m e t h o d o f H-Beam t o B o x - C o l u m n C o n n e c t i o n s )
T r a n s . A I J . No. 1 7 4 . August.1970- 1-1.6 Thiensiripipat, N-, Morris, G-A.
" S t a t i c a l B e h a v i o u r of E n d - C r o p p e d C o n n e c t i o n s in
T a n a k a , H-, Yamada, T . Tubular Trusses-"
" L i m i t A n a l y s i s of Beam-Column C o n n e c t i o n s (Part 12)"- University of Manitoba, C i v i l Engineering Dept.
T r a n s . A I J . No. 185 , July.1971 Report No- S T I - 7 5 - Jan.1975

T a n a k a , H. Tborpe, T-W-, Morgan, Ranee, A., Silvester, D-R.V-

" P r o p o s a l of D e s i g n F o r m u l a for R e q u i r e d Web- Scott, O-M.
T h i c k n e s s of Beam-Column C o n n e c t i o n s " - "The e f f e c t o f N o r t h Sea S e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s on fatigue
T r a n s . A I J , No. 207, May.1973 crack growth in s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l " .
Conf. Fatigue in Offshore S t r u c t u r a l Steel, Inst, of
Tanaka, T-, Ogura, Y - , S a i k i , K-, Maruyama, K. and C i v i l E n g r s . , Westminster, London, Febr-1981
N a k a m u r a , M-
"Sumitomo log nodes f o r jack-up type rigs"- T o c h a c e k , M-
The Sumitomo S e a r c h , N o - 16, N o v . 1 9 7 6 " S t r e n g th o f Welded Elements o f T u b u l a r Structures
without G u s s e t P l a t e s (in Czech) P a r t I and II".
T a n i , S . S a i t o , K- R e s e a r c h R e p o r t CSAV-UTAM, Praha-1962
" S t e e l Framed R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e S t r u c t u r e Utilizing
S t e e l Pipe Column"- Togo, T
Experimental S t u d i e s o f the J o i n t s (Series)- "Experimental S t u d y on M e c h a n i c a l B e h a v i o u r o f Tubular
T r a n s - A I J . No. 76- Sept-1962 Joints"-
Doctorial Dissertation, Osaka, Univ. (in Japanese)-
Taylor, R.G. Jan.
"Structural Hollow S t e e l Sections"-
Paper presented to the I n s t i t u t i o n of Structural Tomkins, B . , S c o t t , P.M.
Engineers Conference, Canada, May.1966 "An A n a l y s i s o f the f a t i g u e e n d u r a n c e of t u b u l a r
T - j o i n t s by l i n e a r e l a s t i c f r a c t u r e m e c h a n i c s " -
Tebbett, I.E., Becket, C D . , Billington, C-J- S p r i n g f i e l d s N u c l e a r Power D e v e l o p m e n t Laboratorium
"The Punching Shear S t r e n g t h of T u b u l a r J o i n t s Re- Atomic Energy Research Establisment-1978
i n f o r c e d With A G r o u t e d Pile".
Wimpey L a b . L t d . , B r i t i s h P e t r . ( T r a d i n g ) Ltd. Topper, T . H . , Wetzel, R-M-, Morrow, JoDean-
OTC 3 4 6 3 - 1 9 7 9 " N e u b e r ' s R u l e A p p l i e d to F a t i g u e o f Notched Specimens"
J l of M a t e r i a l s , V o l . 41-1969
Tenge, P., Karlsen, A.
" A s s e s s m e n t of t h e I n f l u e n c e o f L o a d i n g Mode on Wide 1.3-1 Toprac A . A .
P l a t e T e s t F r a c t u r e R e s u l t s i n R e l a t i o n to Code 1-3-2 "Stresses at I n t e r s e c t i o n o f T u b e s , C r o s s and T - j o i n t s "
Requirements". J o u r n a l o f P e t r o l e u m T e c h n o l o g y , M a y . pp 695-702-1967
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures
S e s s i o n 3- P a r i s 5 - 8 o c t . 1981-

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536
 T r u c h o n , M . , A m e s t o y , M- V a e s s e n , G . H - G - , Back, J - de
" I n f l u e n c e o f B i - A x i a l Loads on t h e Propagation " F a t i g u e Behaviour of Welded S t e e l Joints in Air and
of Fatigue C r a c k s " . Seawater".
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures T N O - A p e l d o o r n , Delft U n i v e r s i t y of Techn-
S e s s i o n 9- P a r i s 5 - 8 o c t - 1981- OTC 3421-1979-

TGL 13-501 Verein Deutschen Eisenhlittenleute

" L i g h t gauge s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n . T u b u l a r Steel " U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zur K o r r o s i o n s e r m ' u d u n g an Offshore-
supporting structures" . konstruktionen".
Calculation, Structural design, Fabrication Acceptance.
TGL 13-501 (Trans-)1964 Entwurf Abschlussbericht Do.nr -7210/KB/1102, 1981-

U c h i n o , K - , S a k u r a i , H. and S u g i y a m a , S- Vincken, L.M-J.

" F a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of welded t u b u l a r joints". " C o n v e n t i o n a l and u n c o n v e n t i o n a l production systems
I s h i k a w a j i m a , H a r i m a , E n g - Rev - , v o l . 9 N o . 6,pp for the development of o i l and gas fields".
pp- 589,596, 1980 W o r k s h o p F a i r m o n t Hot S p r i n g s C o n f e r e n c e C e n t r e ,
Canada- Apr il-1980
1-2.3 U c h i n o , K-, S a k u r a i , H . , Sugiyama, S- 1-2-8 V i s s e r , W-*
" E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on the F a t i g u e Strength of Welded "Finite E l e m e n t A n a l y s i s f o r AUK C r o s s J o i n t "
Tubular K-Joints". R e v i s e d R e s u l t s dated 2 / 1 0 / 7 2 - Also reported in
IIW D o c . X V - 2 6 9 - 6 9 , J u l y . 1 9 6 9 KSEPL T e c h . S e r v i c e Report RKTR-0167.72-1972

1.2.3 U c h i n o , K - , S a k u r a i , H- and S u g i y a m a , S - 1-2.1 V i s s e r , W-*

"Study of the f a t i g u e strength of welded tubular joints". 1-2.3 " S t r e s s e s i n T u b u l a r C o n n e c t i o n s , P a c t 1: Unstiffened
T h i r d r e p o r t - S t r e s s and f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of w e l d e d tubu- T- and K-joints".
lar K-joints with joint eccentricity. K S E P L G r o u p R e s e a r c h R e p o r t R K G R - 0 0 9 2 - 72 - Sept-1972
I s h i k a w a j i m a , H a r i m a , E n g 1 - , R e v - , V o l - 1 3 , No - 5 ,
pp. 563-570, 1973 1.2-8 V i s s e r , W-*
"Brent A Platform. Finite Element Analysis of a
1-2-3 U c h i n o , K - , S a k u r a i , H - , and S u g i y a m a , S - K-joint" -
1-3-3 " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on the F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of Welded
Tubular K-joints". KSEPL Tech- Service Report RKTR-0038- 7 3 - F e b r - 1 9 7 3
IIW Doc- X I I I - 6 9 0 - 7 3 - X V - 3 4 4 - 7 3 - S e p t - 1 9 7 3
1-3.1 Visser, w.
1.2.8 U c h i n o , K. a n d M a t s u i , A . 1-3-2 "On t h e S t r u c t u r a l D e s i g n o f T u b u l a r Joints"
" E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on the F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h o f W e l d e d 1-3-3 P r o c e e d i n g s of the S i x t h A n n u a l O f f s h o r e Technology
Tube to G u s s e t - J o i n t s " Conference -
Progress Report no. 2 "Influence of the Length and Thick- OTC 2 1 1 7 , H o u s t o n , T e x a s , p p - 8 8 1 - 8 9 4 - M a y - 1 9 7 4
n e s s of R e - i n f o r c i n g Pads and S p o t H e a t i n g on t h e Fatigue 1-2-0 Vugts, J - H - *
Strength." " P r o b a b i l i s t i c Fatigue A n a l y s i s of Fixed O f f s h o r e
IIW Doc- X I I I - 7 2 6 - 7 4 , July-1974 Structures"-
ODC R e p o r t 50-
1-2-8 U c h i n o , K. a n d M a t s u i , ft.
" E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on the F a t i g u e S t r e n g t h of Welded 1-0 w a b a b a y a s h i , S a s a k i , R-
Tube to G u s s e t - J o i n t s - Crack I n i t i a t i o n L i f e and C r a c k " R e s e a r c h on S t e e l P i p e - c o n c r e t e C o n s t r u c t i o n , On
Propagation Formulae" - lu Covering S t e e l Pipe Under Bending Moment"-
Supplement to IIW D o c - X I I I - 7 2 6 - 7 4 , July-1974 T r a n s . A I J - No- 103- O c t - 1 9 6 4

Uehara, T-, Shigeo, E Hitomi, M- W a l k e r , E - F - , Webster, S - E - , Wood, A.M-

"Tubular Arch"- "The A t t r a c t i o n of Cast S t e e l Nodes for Offshore
Trans- JSCE, V o l . 47, No. 6, June-1962 Structures"-
B r i t i s h S t e e l Corp.
OTC 3694-

CO
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CO
CO
Walker, E.F. Wardenier, J .
" E f f e c t of Marine Environment" "Comparison of v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o the static
Rapporteurs Report s t r e n g t h of t u b u l a r joints".
Intern. Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures P a r t 1, C r o s s J o i n t s -
P l e n a r y s e s s i o n 4- P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1981- S t e v i n report No- 6 - 7 6 - 3 - TNO-IBBC r e p o r t No-
BI-76-33-35.3.51210-1976
Wall-is, J . R . , B a y a z i t o g l u , Y - 0 - , Chapman, F . M . ,
Mangiavacchi, A. W a r d e n i e r , J., K o n i n g , C . H - M - de -
"An A p p r o a c h to P r o b a b i l i s t i c F a t i g u e A n a l y s i s "Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c strength of welded
of Offshore Structures" . l a t t i c e girder j o i n t s in structural hollow sections".
Brown and Root Inc. P a r t 1; R e c t a n g u l a r h o l l o w s e c t i o n s -
OTC 3 3 7 9 - 1 9 7 9 S t e v i n report No- 6 - 7 6 - 4 - IBBC-TNO r e p o r t No.
BI-76-123/35-3-51210-1976
2.1.0 W a l l n e r , M - , N a y r h o f e r , P o n s c h a b , H-
" W e l d i n g of t h i n w a l l e d s t e e l p l a t e and cold formed Wardenier, J . , Koning, C.H-M- de.
s e c t i o n s ( i n Dutch) "- "Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c strength of welded
L a s t e c h n i e k , No- 3, M a r c h - 1 9 7 4 l a t t i c e girder j o i n t s in structural hollow sections".
P a r t 2; J o i n t s w i t h c i r c u l a r b r a c i n g s and a r e c t a n g u l a r
2-1.0 W a l l n e r , F., Ponshab, H.F. boom-
" M a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f c o l d - and hot finished S t e v i n report No- 6-76-6-
h o l l o w s e c t i o n s - A d v a n t a g e s of s p e c i a l S t e e l TNO-IBBC report No- B I - 7 6 - 1 2 4 / 3 5 - 3 . 5 1 2 1 0 -
grades". C i d e c t report No. 76-13-5Q.1976
( i n German) B e r g - und Httenmnnische Monatshefte.
Nr. 124, Heft 11-1979 2.1-3 W a r d e n i e r , J - , K o n i n g , C . H - M - de
3-1-3 "Supplement w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s of welded j o i n t s in
1-1-0 W a l . J . van der. structural hollow sections with a rectangular boom"-
" S t a b i l i t y Aspects i n the Dutch R e g u l a t i o n s for TNO-IBBC report N r . B I - 7 6 - 1 2 2 / 3 5 - 3-51210 .
Tubular Structures." S t e v i n report No. 6 - 7 6 - 5 .
S y m p o s i u m on T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s , D e l f t - Oct-1977 C i d e c t report No- 76-11 (5Q)-1976 o

1- 0 Wanke, J . Wardenier, J - , K o n i n g , C-H.M. d e , Douwen, A - A . v a n .

Stahlrohrkonstruktionen"- "Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded
S p r i n g e r , W i e n , New Y o r k - 1 9 6 6 W a r r e n en P r a t t t y p e j o i n t s o f R e c t a n g u l a r H o l l o w
Sections".
2- 1-0 Wardenier, J . S t e v i n report No. 6-76-9.
2-2-1 "Investigation on ( V i e r e n d e e l ) - j o i n t s ; determination TNO-IBBC report N r . BI-76-65/35-3-51210-
2-2-8 o f t h e M - 0 a n d F-6" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d the fatigue IIW d o c . X V - 3 8 6 - 7 6 - 1 9 7 6
behaviour"
T r a n s l . from Dutch). 4-1-3 wardenier, J - , Koning, C-H-M. de-
S t e v i n Report 6-72-11-1972 "Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded joints
w i t h SHS-bracings and a I - p r o f i l e as c h o r d " -
1.1.2 Wardenier, J - , Wal, J - van der- S t e v i n report No. 6 - 7 6 - 1 9 .
"Predominantly s t a t i c a l l y loaded tubular joints", T N O - I B B C r e p o r t N r . B I - 7 6 - 8 9 / 3 5 . 3 - 5 1 2 1 0 - 1976
( i n D u t c h ) Bouw 1 9 , B o u w e n met s t a a l 2 4 . 1 9 7 3
2-1-0 Wardenier, J - , K o n i n g , C-H-M-de, Douwen, A . A . van-
2-1-3 Wardenier, J - s'1-0 "Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded
" E x p e r i m e n t a l A n a l y s i s of welded j o i n t s in rectangular w a r r e n and p r a t t t y p e j o i n t s o f r e c t a n g u l a r hollow
hollow sections". sections" -
( T r a n s l . f r o m G e r m a n ) . Symposium on H o l l o w Sections, IWW-doc. X V - 3 8 6 - 7 6 , Sydney-1976
Dsseldorf- Sept- (VDI-Beratungsstelle f r Stahlver-
wendung, Cidect, Gipec)-1975 4.1.3 w a r d e n i e r , J - , K o n i n g , C-H-M- de
"Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded
j o i n t s w i t h RHS b r a c i n g s a n d a c h a n n e l p r o f i l e as
chord".
S t e v i n report 6-77-1.
TNO-IBBC report B I - 7 7 - 4 / 3 5 - 3 - 51210-
C i d e c t report 76/23 (5Q)-1977
 1-1-3 Wardenier, J - , Koning, C.H.M-, de- 1- 1.0 Wardenier, J -
"Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded 2- 1-0 " D e s i g n o f T u b u l a r J o i n t s a c c o r d i n g to the D u t c h Regula-
w a r r e n t y p e j o i n t s made o f c i r c u l a r h o l l o w sections". 3- 1.0 tions for Tubular Structures".
Stevin report 6-7 7-5- 4- 1-0 Symposium on T u b u l a r S t r u c t u r e s , D e l f t , Oct-1977
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 7 - 1 9 / 3 5 - 3 - 51210 -
Cidect report 77/8/5Q-1977 1.1-3 Wardenier, J - , Koning, C-H-M- de-
2-1-3 "Investigation i n t o the s t a t i c strength of welded
1-1-1 Wardenier, J - K T j o i n t s w i t h t h r e e b r a c i n g s m a d e o f RHS o r C H S " .
"The u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of t u b u l a r T- and TNO-IBBC r e p o r t No- B I - 7 7 - 3 7 / 3 5 - 3- 51210-1977
Y-joints". S t e v i n r e p o r t No. 6-7 7-6 -
Stevin report 6-77-23-
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 7 - 1 1 3 / 2 3 - 3 - 51210 - 1977 0 Wardenier, J - , Verheul, A.
0 " B i b l i o g r a p h y of welded joints in structural hollow
1- 1-0 Wardenier, J - 0 sections".
2- 1-0 " T e s t i n g and A n a l y s e s o f T r u s s Joints in hollow
3- 1-0 structural sections". 0 IIW doc- XV-403-77, Copenhagen.1977
C o n f e r e n c e on H o l l o w S e c t i o n s , Toronto, May-1977
1-0 Wardenier, J - , Stark, J-W-B.
4.1-3 Wardenier, J - , K o n i n g , C.H.M. d e , Douwen, A . A - van - 1.0 "The s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded l a t t i c e girder joints
" B e h a v i o u r of a x i a l l y l o a d e d K- and N-type gap joints 1.0 in structural hollow s e c t i o n s " .
w i t h b r a c i n g s o f s t r u c t u r a l h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and l- 1-0 F i n a l r e p o r t ECSC-March 1978-
p r o f i l e s as c h o r d " . Stevin report: 6-78-4-
(IIW d o c . X V - 4 0 1 - 7 7 ) - 1 9 7 7
TNO-IBBC report: B I - 7 8 - 2 0 - 0 0 6 3 . 43 - 4 7 0 - 1 9 7 8
4- 1-3 W a r d e n i e r , J - , K o n i n g , C . H . M . d e . B a c k , J . de
1-0 Wardenier, J -
" B e h a v i o u r of a x i a l l y loaded K- and N-type gap joints
w i t h b r a c i n g s o f h o l l o w s e c t i o n s and a channel profile 1.0 "The u l t i m a t e s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded lattice
1-0 girder joints in SHS". o
as c h o r d " -
IIW d o c . X V - 4 0 2 - 7 7 - 1 9 7 7 A c i e r , S t a h l - S t e e l 1978
1- 0 W a r d e n i e r , J - , K o n i n g , C - H - M - d e , Douwen, A - A - v a n .
1- 1-2 Wardenier, J - "Compar i s o n of the s t a t i c s t r e n g t h of welded joints
"The Ultimate s t a t i c strength of Tubular Cross joints"- made o f RHS w i t h d i f f e r e n t steel grades".
( T r a n s l . from B o u w e n met S t a a l 3 9 - a p r i l 1977}- IIW d o c - X V - 4 1 8 - 7 8 , Dublin-1978
Stevin report 6-77-22). 2- 3 Wardenier, J - , Koning, C-H-M- de-
"The f a t i g u e behaviour of N-type j o i n t s in welded
TNO-IBBC report B I - 7 7 - 1 1 2 / 3 5 - 3 - 5 1 2 1 0 - 1977 l a t t i c e g i r d e r s made o f s q u a r e h o l l o w s e c t i o n s "
2nd P h a s e " -
1. 0 Wardenier, J - Stevin report 6-78-11.
2.0 "General P r i n c i p l e s f o r the v e r i f i c a t i o n of the TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 8 - 7 1 / 0 0 6 3 - 4 - 3821.1978
3- 0 s a f e t y of p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y l o a d e d t u b u l a r joints"
4- 0 Stevin report 6-77-4. 1-0 W a r d e n i e r , J . , Mouty, J .
TNO-IBBC Report N r - B I - 7 7 - 1 6 / 3 5 - 3 - 51210 -1977 "Design r u l e s for predominantly s t a t i c a l l y loaded
2- 1-0 Wardenier, J - , Koning, C.H.M. de- welded j o i n t s with hollow s e c t i o n bracings and an
"Comparison of the s t a t i c strength of welded joints I-or H - s e c t i o n as c h o r d " .
m a d e o f RHS w i t h d i f f e r e n t steel qualities" IIW D o c - X V - 4 2 1 - 7 8 , IIW A n n u a l A s s e m b l y , 1 9 7 8 , also
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t N r - 77-109/05-3-31310- p u b l i s h e d i n " W e l d i n g i n t h e W o r l d " , V o l - 1 7 , No -
Stevin report 6-77-20-1977 9/10-1979

W a r d e n i e r , J - , K o n i n g , C - H . M . de - Wardenier, J .
" T h e f a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r o f w e l d e d N - t y p e J o i n t s made "The s t r e n g t h of p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t a t i c a l l y loaded
of square h o l l o w s e c t i o n s " . truss j o i n t s with a rectangular chord".
Stevin report 6-77-21. Intern-Scientific and T e c h n - C o n f . , K a t o w i c e , M a y . 1 9 7 9
TNO-IBBC r e p o r t B I - 7 7 - 1 0 7 / 0 5 - 3 . 3 1 3 1 0 , D e l f t , dec-1977

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541
ro W h i t e , R . N . , Fang , P . J .
1.3.3 Wordsworth, A . C , Smedley, G . P .
" S t r e s s C o n c e n t r a t i o n s at u n s t i f f e n e d tubular joints"
"Framing C o n n e c t i o n s for Square S t r u c t u r a l Tubing".
L l o y d s R e g i s t e r o f S h i p p i n g , UK -
J o u r n a l of the S t r u c t u r a l Division.
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 7 8 -
ASCE, V o l . 9 2 , No- ST2, A p r i l . 1 9 6 6
1.3.3 Wordsworth, A . C .
Wichman, K . R . , Hopper, A . G . , Mershon, J . L .
" S t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a c t o r s a t K a n d KT t u b u l a r joints"
" L o c a l S t r e s s e s i n S p h e r i c a l and C y l i n d r i c a l Shells
Conf. Fatigue in Offshore S t r u c t u r a l Steel. Inst, of
due to E x t e r n a l L o a d i n g s " .
Civil EngrsWestminster, London, Febr-1981
WRC B u l l e t i n N o . 1 0 7 , August.1965
1.2-3 Wylde, J . G -
Wildschut, H.
" F a t i g u e T e s t s on T u b u l a r K and KT J o i n t s Under
"COD M e a s u r e m e n t s and Wide P l a t e T e s t s o n W e l d e d
M a t e r i a l w i t h T h i c k n e s s e s o f 30 a n d 5 0 m m " . Axial Brace Loading"-
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine Structures The W e l d i n g Institute.
Session 3. P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981. OTC 3 6 9 7 .

W i l h o l t , J . J . J r . , Merwin, J . E . , Jirsa, J.O. 1.2.0 Wylde, J . G .

"Critical Plastic Buckling Parameters for Pipes in 1.3.0 " S t a t i c and f a t i g u e t e s t s on tubular T-joints".
Pure Bending". The W e l d i n g I n s t i t u t e , U K .
ECSC S e m i n a r C a m b r i d g e , N o v . 78.
An ASME P u b l i c a t i o n , 72-PET-29, Sept.1972
1.2.0 Wylde, J - G - , M c D o n a l d s , A.
Williams, A.K., Rinne, J.E. "The I n f l u e n c e o f J o i n t D i m e n s i o n s on the Fatigue
Strength of Welded Tubular Joints".
Fatigue Analysis of Steel Offshore Structures".
The W e l d i n g I n s t . U . K . N a t . E n g r - L a b . U . K .
P r o c e e d i n g s of I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , P t . 1
2nd I n t . C o n f . o n B e h a v i o u r o f O f f - S h o r e Struct.
Nov. Paper no. 7950.1976
London, E n g l . August - Paper 4 2- 1979
Wirsching, P.H.
" F a t i g u e R e l i a b i l i t y i n Welded J o i n t s of Offshore Wylde, J . G . ,
Structures". -4>
" F a t i g u e t e s t s on T u b u l a r K a n d KT J o i n t s U n d e r Axial -P->
U n i v . of A r i z o n a . Brace L o a d i n g . "
OTC 3380-1979 OTC 3 6 9 7 - 1 2 t h A n n u a l OTC i n H o u s t o n , T e x a s . M a y - 1 9 8 0
Wood, A . A . , C h a n d r a k e e r t h y , S.
Wylde, J . G . , McDonald, A.
" R e p o r t on C i d e c t programme 5 G , W a r r e n Joint Tests
"Modes o f f a t i g u e c r a c k d e v e l o p m e n t and stiffness
with cold-formed R.H.S.".
measurements i n welded t u b u l a r joints"-
U n i v e r s i t y of S h e f f i e l d , Sept-1972
Conf. Fatigue in Offshore S t r u c t u r a l Steel, Inst, of
C i v i l Engrs. Westminster, London, Febr-1981
Wordsworth, A - C -
"The e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of stresses at tubular
Wylde, J . G .
joints".
BSSM/RINA C o n f e r e n c e , "Measurement in the Offshore "The F a t i g u e Performance of T u b u l a r K a n d KT J o i n t s "
Industry". Edinburgh.197 5 I n t e r n - C o n f e r e n c e S t e e l i n Mar i n e Structures
S e s s i o n 8- P a r i s 5-8 o c t - 1981.
1.3.1 Wordsworth, A - C .
W y l i e , R.D. et al.
1.3.2 "Exper imental determination of stresses at unstiffened
t u b u l a r T and X j o i n t s . " "Metallurgical Factors Affecting Low C y c l e F a t i g u e and
F r a c t u r e o f S t e e l s Employed f o r Offshore D r i l l i n g Plat-
Joint Austr. Welding and Testing Conf- Perth.1977 forms" .
Southwest Research I n s t . R e p o r t to S n e l l . March.1966
1-3-1
1.3.4 Wordsworth, A . C . and Smedley, G-P-
1-1.7 Y a m a d a , M - , S a k a e , K.
"Stress concentrations at u n s t i f f e n e d tubular joints".
4-1-7 " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y on C o n c r e t e F i l l e d Steel Pipe
Eur. O f f s h o r e S t e e l s R e s e a r c h S e m i n a r . C a m b r i d g e . 1978
Columns - IV."
Combined B e n d i n g and A x i a l Load-
T r a n s i A I J . No. 103, Oct.1964
 10-45

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en
-
K
1-1-0 Zimmermann, w.
" T e s t s on P a n e l P o i n t Type J o i n t s f o r L a r g e D i a m e t e r
Tubes".
( S t u t t g a r t ) . R e p o r t Programme 5 A / 6 4 -
C i d e c t R e p o r t Programme 5A/64 - s e p t . 1965
1.2-0 Z i t n , R.
1-2-3 " F a t i g u e b e h a v i o u r of welded t u b u l a r j o i n t s i n c i r c u l a r
1.3.3 hollow s e c t i o n s " .
(in German). ( S t a a t l i c h e M a t e r i a l p r i i f u n g s a n s t a l t
S t u t t g a r t , H - 7 5 - 0 1 ) .1975

1-2-0 Zwaans, M - H - J - M . , J o n k e r s , P . A . M . , O v e r b e e k e , J . L .
"The E n d u r a n c e o f a Welded J o i n t Under Two t y p e s
o f Random L o a d i n g i n A i r and S e a w a t e r " .
I n t e r n . Conference S t e e l in Marine S t r u c t u r e s
Session 7- P a r i s 5-8 o c t . 1981.

i
 Stellingen

1. De door Sparrow a f g e l e i d e formule voor op moment b e l a s t e verbin-

dingen van ronde b u i s p r o f i e l e n i s gebaseerd op p r o e f r e s u l t a t e n van
v e r b i n d i n g e n d i e voor d i t doel n i e t j u i s t gedimensioneerd w a r e n .
(zie: Ultimate strengths of welded joints in tubular steel struc-
tures. Thesis Kingston Polytechnic, 1979).

2. De formule van Eastwood en Wood voor de s t a t i s c h e s t e r k t e van v e r -

b i n d i n g e n van r e c h t h o e k i g e b u i s p r o f i e l e n v e r t o o n t een s c h a a l e f f e c t .
Het i s dan ook o n b e g r i j p e l i j k dat deze formule i n Canada nog steeds
i n gebruik is.
(zie: The static strength of welded joints in structural hollow
sections, Constructional Steelwork, January 1971 en
Stelco: Hollow Structural Sections, Draft design manual for con-
nections, 1981).

3. In het v o o r s t e l voor DIN 18808 "Tragwerke aus H o h l p r o f i l e n unter

vorwiegend ruhender B e l a s t u n g " wordt voor e e n z e l f d e e f f i c i e n c y van
de wandstaven een wanddikte verhouding t u s s e n r a n d s t a a f en wand-
s t a a f g e e i s t , die b i j u i t v o e r i n g i n s t a a l St 52 (Fe 510) k l e i n e r i s
dan b i j s t a a l S t 37 (Fe 3 6 0 ) . D i t i s zowel i n tegenspraak met de
t h e o r i e a l s met het experiment.
(zie Entwurf DIN 18808: Tragwerke aus Hohlprofilen unter vorwie-
gend ruhender Belastung).

4. De door Mang v o o r g e s t e l d e a n a l y s e van op v e r m o e i i n g b e l a s t e b u i s -

v e r b i n d i n g e n met de " F a i l u r e C r i t e r i o n Method" welke gebaseerd i s
op de nominale normaalspanningen i n de v e r b i n d i n g s s t a v e n , leidt
tot resultaten die proefopstelling afhankelijk zijn.
(zie: Literaturanalyse ber Dauerfestigkeit Von Rundrohrknoten,
Universitt Karlsruhe, 1977).
 5. De parameter formules t e r b e p a l i n g van de geometrische spannings-
concentratie f a c t o r i n verbindingen van ronde b u i s p r o f i e l e n sugge-
r e r e n door c o f f i c i n t e n met d r i e c i j f e r s a c h t e r het decimaal teken
een g r o t e n a u w k e u r i g h e i d . Dat d i t n i e t het geval i s moge onder meer
b l i j k e n u i t het f e i t dat i n een t i j d s b e s t e k van twee j a a r Kuang
e.a. de meeste van z i j n voorgestelde formules w i j z i g d e , w a a r b i j in
n geval de c o r r e c t i e z e l f s t o t een v e r s c h i l van 60% l e i d t .
(zie: Stress concentration in tubular joints, OTC 2205, 1975 en
Stress concentration in tubular joints, SPE Journal, August
1977).

6. Bij het ontwerp van o f f s h o r e c o n s t r u c t i e s wordt nog te vaak a a n -

genomen dat g e l a s t e buis v e r b i n d i n g e n volledig s t i j f zijn hetgeen
i n de meeste g e v a l l e n o n j u i s t is.

7. S t a a l c o n s t r u c t i e s ontworpen volgens de " s t r e s s e d s k i n " methode l e -

veren vaak een minder g r o o t voordeel op dan i n e e r s t e instantie
verondersteld wordt.

8. Technische v o o r s c h r i f t e n kunnen, hoewel n i e t zo b e d o e l d , een b e p e r -

k i n g vormen voor de goede constructeur.

9. B i j het ontwerpen met de computer i s het n o o d z a k e l i j k dat construc-

t e u r s een g l o b a l e handberekening u i t v o e r e n , z e e r z e k e r wanneer zij
n i e t over een goed p r a k t i s c h i n z i c h t b e s c h i k k e n .

10. Voor een p r a k t i s c h e a f d e l i n g a l s C i v i e l e Techniek i s het zinvol

dat i n d i s s e r t a t i e s de p r a k t i s c h e t o e p a s b a a r h e i d van het onderzoek
een b e l a n g r i j k e p l a a t s i n n e e m t .
11. W e t e n s c h a p p e l i j k e p u b l i c a t i e s zouden g e s t i m u l e e r d moeten worden
door de h o n o r a r i a , d i e i n geen e n k e l e verhouding s t a a n t o t de g e -
l e v e r d e i n s p a n n i n g , geheel of g e d e e l t e l i j k v r i j t e s t e l l e n voor de
i nkomstenbel a s t i ng.

12. Door de ver doorgevoerde n i v e l l e r i n g i s het n i e t meer dan r e d e l i j k

dat e x t r a b e t a l i n g van overwerk voor geen danwel a l l e s a l a r i s c a t e -
gorien geldt.

13. De w i j z e waarop de T . H . de w a c h t g e l d r e g e l i n g p r e s e n t e e r t waarbij

w e d e r a a n s t e l l i n g op b a s i s van een g e d e e l t e l i j k e dagtaak m o g e l i j k
is, getuigt van een " n e u s k i j k e r s " politiek.

14. In de h u i d i g e Nederlandse p o l i t i e k kan men z i c h a f v r a g e n wanneer

de p r i j s d i e men voor een b o r r e l b e t a a l t , a f h a n k e l i j k wordt ge-
s t e l d van het inkomen van degene d i e het rondje betaalt.

S t e l l i n g e n behorende b i j het p r o e f s c h r i f t " H ol l ow S e c t i o n J o i n t s " van

J. Wardenier.

D e l f t , A p r i l 1982.