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    Iconography of Power

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    30 views197 pages

    Iconography of Power

    Uploaded by

    RodrigoCarrilloLopez
    Iconography of Power

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    of 197
    A CENTENNIAL BOOK (One handed books publish benwen 990 and 1997 ‘a this pimpin of the Universi of Clini Pres We have chosen ech Centennial Book ‘an example ofthe Pret fest publishing and bookmaking raion we celebrate che beginning of| ‘urscond exntiy UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Founded in 895 VICTORIA E. BONNELL Iconography of Power Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin seein an ha Sey dopa iia SiR ey of ee gt porn Se eeemerseatom vonage “tan Sere aa ea Rac pate somr “hep unin penance iu gino Ann tc Menmsie Someone nd Ui Mensa ‘nf trnpmat mae tealight os ro se a tamara fh Wk iS i a Mag ob Sia ‘Rosa ly oe Stone ans any Oe ‘Satta en Udy tone ee ~The el Tin AS ce npg of ne ‘nae yn Ree pe Hate roa any Rin wpm a be sian “etsy amen Soe lA” nn oat ye a Ue rs een For Geshe “The publisher gral acknowledges the conrbution provided bythe General Endownent Fane, which i supported ‘by ganerous gifs from the members of he Associates ofthe Universi of California Pres. CONTENTS Linofltertons x Key Abbreriions x Neteon Traieion xxi Tntrasioa PEASANT WOMEN IN POLITICAL POSTERS OF THLE 19308 Bilger 395 wsaon ies 345 Inder 47 ILLUSTRATIONS Falowing pe 108 Aleksandr Apt, "Goa prea’ dkcary obi’ 1917~okib toi” (ew ofthe rleeian Dicutorship, October ity October 918). 198 1 Nila Kochergn, "oe main 920 goa” (Mar 1920) 1920 4. Nikole Mikhail, “V nam kolloze nex mest pop klk ‘Theres No Room in Our Calleive Fam for Pst and Kus), 19% 4 Koastantn Zoo “Liub kas ann Lahore il edinoichaae ieee ipo vomochton shi? porcheloecek” (Every Collective Fam Peano Indvidal Farmer Now Har the Opportunity to Live Like Human Being 1934 45 Gustae Klis, "Ve namia Makes Engels Lenina Sina” {Raise Higher the Banner of Mas, Engels Lenin and alin) 955 6. Vilar Deni Vag piles” (Enemies of dhe Five Yer Pl) 1929 7 A Law, Sbyl mech mandayel” (The People's Decams Have Come Tied, 1950 8. Bods Berea, Mikhail Soloed Fa Shag, “Pod ‘ditt vom logo Stana-—vpetd khommaniens!” (Unde the Leader of the Great Stalin—Forvard ro Cornnunisn), 951 Faloing page 46 ‘4. Nikolai Kagout, "Oruhiom my dob vag (We Defeed the Enemy with Weapon) 1920 1. Rikhand Zin, “Puech i vpgodne Polite voeany xem? (Pai std Poel! Buy the 3% War Bond 4-197 13, "Tovah (Comrade) 9 14 Vaso lig stropeaa smb. Golosuite a spisok 17° (AlPRusian League for Womens Equa Vote for List No 7), wr 15. “Olan aa sevemom Kavksze (October in she Norcherm Cauca, 3937 16, Aleks Matec, Otiabrias olin (Octobe Revolution) on x. “Da deenseruc pobeda da” (Long Liv he Victory of Later) 18, Boss Zrorpkin, “Borba kesnogo saris smo loi” (Seuge ofthe Re Kaige wih the Dark Force) 199 19, Aleks Marenkor, "man zalogosobedhdenia mieovogo ‘rude (May 1—The Peg of Weld Labor Liberion, 1921 120, Petr Kinda "Belogvardist Bhishchnik eae lo aback lretan” (The White Guard Beas of Preys Teasing the Body of Workers and Pessnts ro Pees), 1920 at “ohiabrs-—yacnieny den wane” (October The Al Union Dayo the Shock Worker) 38 11, "Blem poshewdaaikam” (Dove wih the Pale Shock Workers), 3 135. Gus Klis, “Dadi illony kaifisirvannyth abchikh aro” (We Wil roduc Millions of Qualted Woekes' Cates), 93 age Adal Stroy, “Daeprosro’ postoen” (Dacproneo! Has Ben Bail 932 ‘Vikuor Govorkos “Visa ipa, tarsi rahene” (Yous Lamp, Comal Engine 193) 136, Vern Mulhin,Rabohkltbenine (Worker and Collective Pam Woman) 1937 137. A Renicheno, “Stathanorsho viene” (The Stakhanovite Movement) 935 Foloing pe 85 2b L Rein, “Selo rnc v gu!” (Baldy, Comtaden March in Seep, 115 2.2, "Soiurrabocith naka” (The Union of Workers and Science, 99 25. Alkan Api, “Obmanuyes brian” (To Our Desived Brother) 5ck 24, "Roms ice oi” (Rusia and Her Soler, 0 2. “Rostia—za raed” (Rusin—for Truth), ote 2.6 Alea Maks, “Golouite Pati Narodooi Sabo” (Vor forthe Paty of People Freedom) 987 2.7, Aleksandr Apsc “Intemational” Unteracionad, rat {LR Serrano, “Toe na, Da adem pnd rua vsokh stan” (May Long Live che Holiday of Woking People of All Counties, pat 24g, Dat Moos, "poe mala vere abbotsil” (May 1 Al Russian Voluntary Work Day, 920 2.40, “Che dal lasts revoiai ecotnitve besa” (What ‘he Oaber Revolucion Gave he Woman Worker and the Peasant Woman), 20 sun, "Vee oy! Podpsyats ma wocnny ae” (Evething forthe Wat Subcribe the 3h War Bond) 1914-1907 2.12, Adal Sukh, “Raskeposichennaia shenshina seo} ommaiz!” (Emancpsted Woman Build Cnmmnis), 1936 215, Kuimie Malevich, "She aves Rady da opal ma bab’ wy” (The Austrian Soldier March o Rav bu Got lena on Bab Pechfor 1984—987 2.14 Mita Chersmayk, sora po bali ipo babu (Stey af he Budi sod the Babe), 1920 Folin page 23 1s L Mescheriaoy, "Nz kala abo” (To Clete Woe, 9 4.2 ZakhrPichugi, “Kolthoew ot" (Collective Farm at Wo) 1930 44. Ves Korablea, “i, ovaieh, kam allo!” (Come, Comrade, Join Urin the Callie Fara, 1990 44 Nikolai Tepsitheroy, “Id holo" (Go and Join the Coleive Farm) ign0 3.5, "Krein iy klthoa!” (Peasant Woman, Jin the Callie ara, 1930 1.6, Alene Dene, "Kallcborae bd fkulnikom”(Colesive Farmer—Bean Able), 3930 3.7 “Kiet iakl Poni arabs Obfinim keane dry ella” (Peasant Wornen! Lee Us Inte the Harvest! Let Us Unie Pesan Hoascholds ino Costin) 1930 38. Natalia Pius, “Koltoznits bud udanie bork rosa” (Goleive Faren Woman, Bea Shock Woke f che Harve 953 3.9. Alki Sito, "K sachicohno! leno hin Toward Prosperous Cuba Li) 954 $10, Mata Voron, "Unis bork —boleissloma roca” (Shock Work at Reaping efits aBobhevik Harve), 1934 sa Nala Pits, "Zhenshchiny vkaoza— bai (Women in he Coleive Fats Are Great Forse) 1933 2.2, lui Tishesi, “Shite aly stakhanovser suialiichekih poe (Expand the Ranks of he Seances of che Socialist Fi 95 Foling page 188 442, Mithsl Cheremayhh and Viktor Deni, "Ti Lenin achischace seni ot nhs" (Comvade Lenin Cleanses the Ean of Sou), 20 43 "Pra brodi po Evrope,riaak Kommuninma” (A Specter Hains Europe, the Specie of Commie), 1920 43: A Sokol, "Pus gospodsevaisee Mas odoin per omnmunisticheso! revise” (Lc che Ruling Clases Shudder bef the Communist Revolution), 3922 44 Adolf Seakion, "i014 V- Uno Lenin.” 1904 445. "Nelda mol (The Gree Tomb), 1924 o 1935 46. “Lesin~sal i gant’ (Lenin Stel and Gani) 135 06926 449. Sen Bscey and Vladimir Shoko, Sate of Leia Filand Sation, Leningrad 1926 ‘+4 ‘Danka nh pana Cong Lie the Inerstional Polen Revolution) 49, “Torben ii" (Cceion of Orbe, 926 ‘410, Alebande Geasinoy, "Vladimir ich Lenin (UVa, 930 {HH Gusev Klutis, "Pod snamenem Lenina a stsiaiacheskoe stots (Under Lenin’ Banner for Soil Consrron, 3930 41. Gusta Klis, “Pobeds onlzma vn strane obec (Tae Vizory of Social in Out County Is Gusraten), 1932 4455 Gas Kluss, “Da ndastrac ase chansons sodina” (Loag Live Our Hap Socilic Mobeni, 3935 414 Ina Brod, ToifVisartonovich Sein” 991 1435. Gus Kluss “Real's nase pogrammy-— dex, or ethnic, was o serve asthe hss for social and polis oli ‘ary, Dating dhe immediate posrevolionary years ard well ino the 19208 the Bolshevik party wresced with the problem of defining ol- lective denies and making policies consistent with these definitions Tavented tricone perform a second fasesion of “estblishing or legtimirng insinstions, tru or relions of authority” Revolutions, sch s the one in Rusia in October 97, dscedi and destroy exiting insiacions and rclaions of author, opening up the discursive Fld fran ently new definition of the social order of politcal power The ley problem fr the Bolsheviks in che months fllowing the revolution wast legitimize the new parry-sate and a novel se of relations be fest subordinate and superordinate groups. The former dominant clases, and the Provisional Government that had ruled Russi since ebruary i917, lost powers a consequence ofthe October Revolusion Inch place was the Bolshevik pare and the new Soviet state, with cs commissrs, secret police, Re Army. and a small ut vociferous hand (oF tre believers, fallow cavers, opportunist, and henchmen. The Bolsheviks recognize very ealy that power without legitimacy pro- vided precarious basis for anew regime. A ky element in dei gi imation srategy was the formulation and diseminaion of thee wn master nanative of woud histo, which justified che eaishment of 4 “ctarorahip ofthe proeeara” under Bolshevik leadership and for- ‘fed the partys authority among the population ‘A third major function of invented traditions sto promote “sxial- ization, the inculcstion of belie, value systems and conventions of lohan” In the years before siting power, the Bolsheviks, under Leni edetp wee ding fom mos or e-wig ni {pus and ope a Rua yeh pfu commitment tonal of he ruth, fe the October Revolution, hei ranted ino sn elon v0 roe all of inddal aed socal Li in acndnce ma eslogc preps procaine bythe Bev trip: Aktoogh compere salon a oc re trained beyond eb rack nt he 393, cen che wey inepion che Bolhrsaimed at consi th india cae oat ce tual eenjoe woul nk se ad: lho el inna oso he cv abe ara and epee an hey 5 sin wn hall competes cote inca aulcncs. In he coune of inthe Devs put ino me fons propa spd owas che uy es the popu by cas of words th pena we) andi ‘pes By any pres anda the ef was impose ad exe he Witnaeref eng powes sey hd eed compeling en rs nd sete or example he ames ile ch ree tn the mage the he wre) nen ones the Novemier# fess an May Dayco nd oe de Siw waiting the sage at is a sip lage ea ing rooms, inentok) Tn ation, they wed pall pose Inenunenal pts, books neways and al sd nw ings au co ata saioce Nec Foch Reon fF ya sere on» gine so teal comied wo the trasfematon of hanin beng tough plc elton. “Mass propaganda took many difecent forms during de easly years of Soviet porter, but chere was 2 psvileging of ee ee inthe ask polit- ical eduction, This meant shata great deal of efforeandingenniy went Ineo the production of visual propaganda of ll types. Visual method for pasuasion and indocwination appealed co Bolshevik leaders be ‘ese ofthe low lve of lteray in the country and ehe strong vise teations ofthe Rasian people ‘When the Bolsheiks took power, a majority of the poplation was scl lier, especially ouside major urban centers. Daa for 1917 are not avalable, bu twenty yeas eater a national census dislosed chat about 8 percent ofthe tual populion and about 35 percent of che turban population was literate. Ava result of che widespread lneracy ‘campaign waged by the Bokheiks afer eking power (an adjuncs 10 their propaganda effors),oveal levels had substan improved by. 19267 Nevertheless, about half of the rural population and one-fifth ‘of the urbun population sil dd noe have even sudimentary literacy skills The “literate” classification was applied in che 1926 w a range ‘of people, including some with only the most elementary able to read and write, On che eve ofthe First Five Year Plan, «substan propor tion of che population (specially peasan) was sill pooly equipped to eead simple texts, such as newspapers. Vial propaganda, which realy minimized the need r0comprchend the writen word, ofered a meats of reaching broad stata of the population withthe Bolshevik mesg “The centrality of visual images and ritalin old esgime pageantry and especlly the Rusian Orthodox Church made for highly visual texdtional cular? The Rusia Orchodox icon occupies special place ia Rusan religious pactiag.As Leonid Onspenshy observer ina seudy of cons: “Ie can be sid that if Byzantium was prsminen in ving the word theology expressed in words, theology expres in the image was given prceminenly by Russa For the Orthodox be- Tice, “the holy image, jus like the Holy Seriprurs, transits not Jhuman ideas and conceptions of ruth, bus euth isthe Divine revelation” The image isl had sacred powers forthe Osha be Tiere. The power of uit, fr example, "was thought toe expecially concentrated in their icons, sometimes refered 10 as “gods (he), ‘which in ine of eed or on real occsions were usd or special ble ings." The prevalence of religious cons in Russian ife—vrzaly ev- cry peasant hu had is own icon, as did many urban dwellings gave Russians familiarity witha ean sype of imagery an an assumption ofits sarednes. ‘The Bolsheviks appreciated the effectiveness of images for teaching condinary people wih their message, Nadeehda Krups Lenin wile, expressed the sentiments of many fellow party members in 1925, when she observed: “For the present and the near fucur, a peasant ca ara ‘o improve his production ony if he seh by visual example. And in general, che peasant, just like the workers in their mass think much ‘more in tems of images than abstaceformlas and visu ctecion, ‘even wen 2 high level of literacy is cached, wil aways play a major role fr the peasant.” "Anoher factor promoting the heay zinc on mass forme of isl propaganda, such s politcal posers, was the disruption of che pricing, indusey caused by the revolution and Civil War (9183904). Major shortages of paper, breakdowns and closings of peiaing plants, and ‘eansportation problems sharply cae the printing nd dstbution ‘of newspapetsin these years. The main pary organ, Panda, hada dally press run of only about 18,000 copies, ad al rwentyfve Red Army rowspapers combined had a daily un oles than 20,000! Even tak- ing ine acconne that a single newspaper was often shard by several reader, this vas aot an impresve outreach in a population of many nilions of people Pola posters displayed in public phces offered amore elective way of using limiced supplies of paper an ink co each ‘vide audience. ‘Whatever the reason, che party accorded exceptional importance to visual propaganda during che Civil Wa. The fs politcal posters p= peared in August 918, 5 the Civil War was geting under way. Over ‘he next cree yeas, about 500 diferent posers were produced by sre than 450 diflerene orginiztions and institutions." A massive ‘number of posters went ino circulation. Ltd, a major organization for poser production operating under the Political Direcorae of the Revoluionary Miltary Coun ofthe Rusian Union of Federated So ilist Republics (RSFSR), diseibured a wal of 75 milion posers, postal, and labok pictures Berween 199 and 1922, Gosia, cesta publishing house etalished in 1919, printed 32 milion copies of seventy-five separate poster in the course of 920, The Rosta (Rain ‘Telegraph Agency) collectives in Moscow, Petograd, and other na- jor cities produced a unique form of poster tha combined the func tions of newspaper, magazine and information bullein (led Oka OSTA, or Rossa Windows) The Moscom Resta cllective alone pro duced over two milion poser ames ding dhe Civil Wan” All a net of public paces were decorated with posers, whose clot, design, and imaginative imagery calivened an otherwise drab society. “The visitor to Rusia” wrote American journals Albert Rhys Wiliams 1935, "is eruck by dhe multirudes of posters—in Factories and barracks, ‘on wall and alway-cars,on telegraph poles—everywhere”* ‘Wigh dhe end of the Civil War and che introduction of the New Economic Pliy in 192, the exhoratory fever of visual propaganda became atemuated, only tobe fll restored eight years later, atthe vim ‘ofthe adoption ofthe Ftst Five Year Plan. The rol ofthe writen and spoken word grew considerably in the 19208 with the spread of the Bolshevik pros and the introduction of the radio, Bu the onset ofthe Fire Five Year Plan brought resurgence in poiial posers and other foxms of visual propagands, Now poi are was again accorded & ‘ental place in the Bolshevik strategy to mobilize the population on a ‘gand scale and implant new orienation toward the selfand the socal and politcal wodld, The party lexdership understood that rational ‘ways ofchinking were deeply roored and revit to change and that the transformation of mass conciousness would require extraordinary measures. A new politcal at was created to couespond to the new «epoch of cash eollectivztion and indusaliation ‘As the 1930s proceed, visual propaganda became more intensive and widespread. For the ist time, in 193 al poste production was Drought under the supervision of che Are Deparmentof dhe State Pub- Thing Hous (Loo, whi operate under the dre supervision of the Central Commitee. Hencforh, the themes, rests, and image of posters were dictated to artists and closely regulated by ofc censors ‘This eentalzation and concol over poste production coincided with tremendous expansion inthe volume of posers, Wheres Civil War poster edions seldom exceeded 25.000 or 3,000, inthe 193 espe- cially the second half) key posers appeaced in editions of 100,00 0 20,000. la dhe city and the counteyside, in che factory and cllectve Fes ia tooms and partments and huts and dormitories, poses con- frosted virually every Soviet citizen with an exhoraion, admonition, or dedlamation, [Rusia entry int the Second Woeld Was in 1941 coincided with yet nother maja eff o use visual propaganda fr the purpose of mass ‘mobilization and indoctrination, World War postr, also prxlacd in vast editions, presented 2 new see of images resutecingteitional themes thar dated back to wari posters of Word War 1. A ptiod of High Saliise (1946~1953 followed when pol are was once gai twansfrmed ino 2 vehicle for an otherworldly socialist realism deper- ing life in the Soviet Union a prsiiacl Teach ofthese periods—the Civil War, he 1920s and nso, Wor ‘War I High Sainism—the syle of representation andthe visual vo- cabulary and grammar changed insignificant ways. Where dd these Alife visual languages come from? The Bolsheviks were commited to the Mars paradigm thae at was part ofthe supenstactare dete ined by the base (mode of prediction). Accordingly, some sought to create a new, specifically prolearan cuture.® The problem was thar the efccivenes of polvcal art depended on the ast’ ail to “spel the Language” ofthe viewer, co we images symbols, and scx of representation that people could understand, Tis meant desing ‘on familiar vocabularies and forms in order to convey a new message ‘The patern as Hobsbavim observes, was t0 use “ancient material to construct invented tadions of «novel type for ite novel purposes. Alarge ere of such materials is acamolted in che pas of any society, and an elaborate lnguage of symbolic practice and communication is aways available” Political artis drew on the rich tions of Russian popula cu- cure, commercial advertising, fine ars, religious an folk at, asc nythology, ce imagery of Western European labor and revoluionsry movements, and polite ar ofthe srs, Different elements were incorporated at ilferent periods. Mythical ements fom thes various sources were fused with contemporary ideology to ceateaspecal visi guage. Mythology in combination with poi ideology, gave So- vet propaganda a unique and compelling charscc yg, Bobi oni ad ener inv mage tbat incor porated elements from various waditions but were aio siimilly expressive of the Bolshevik ethos. These were the new ions—stan- Aandized images that depicedhezoes (sins) and enemies (he devil and his accomplices) according oa fied patter (the socalled podlin- niin church ar). The icons of Sovie politcal ar di ao refer the social instuions and relations of the soc, Rate, they were part ‘oF system of signs imposed by the authorities in an effort to cans form mass consciousness. Like other “invented tditions” ds ieono ‘raph images were consent and incesanly epeated, and ehey es0- ted strongly wich mythologies from the Rusia past. "This study focuses on four ses of iconographic images that appeared in poidcal posters, visual displays for holiday celebrations, nd moni- rmenelsculpare. i begin by cscusing the con of the worker per “sve image atthe very Gore of Bolshevik sherri. The worker icon provides «verte symbol of changing offal conceptions of the pro leatan has of political pve. Ie also conveys importa ides about the locaton ofthe sacred in Soviet socey since the proleariat was lsignazed asthe equivalent ofthe chosen cass in Bolshvil ideology and postased supethuman powers capable of uansforming nature in accordance withthe“ of Marxism-Lenini, "Throogh the creation and recreation ofthe worker ion, the Bol- shi sought eo ser hee continuity with che past and thi vision ‘of the fuse, From 1919 t0 1930, a single iconographic image of| the worker blacksmith predominated in Bolshevik vissl propagand, Afer 1930, however, the blacksmiths Seldor encountered in political fat. Anew image of the worker takes its place. The wansformation of| the woslericon in the 19308 cnincides with a gener dedine inthe representation of workers in poltial art and the shift of the sacred center toa new focus. The history ofshis imager is recounted in chaper ‘Asecond theme centers azound the conography af women. As Jaan ‘Wallach Sco has persuasively argued, “ender isa primary way of signifying eclaionsips of power. [i one ofthe recurrent rel ‘ences by which political power bas been conceived, legtimaced, and citi Visual imagery of men and women thus convey impor tant mowsiges about relations of domination and subordination, och in the fal of socal interaction and in che broader sphere of politcal life The depiction of gender has particular igtificance in perc when thority etions are in as sch sche Cail War years andthe 19308. ‘Civil War posers depicted « predominanly male word, Women were often tepresented alegricaly until 1920, when images of the ‘woman worker andthe pease wonran st become established. These ew, more relic female images were yall depicted in a subordi- ‘ate relationship co male workers ad peasants, chery conveying the dea that women had only a weak cm to membership in the pan ‘con of heroes. The implication of chee pans forthe emerging Bolsherik discourse an power is exmined in chapter 2. ‘Whereas women occupy a postion af secondary im porance in visual propaganda produced becween 197 and 1929, they appear very promi ‘endy in connection with the campaign forthe cllecivization of g- ricuture beginning in 1930. Collciviration, one mighe sy. pre send vill inthe female idiom. Chaper3 analyzes this important «episode in visual representation as part ofthe new Stalinist idcolegy and the broader changes taking place in che Function of pliteal ar ‘The thind theme eine in this study concer the iconography ofthe roche (leader. Images of Lenin appear exty in plitcl poses, increasing in frequency and prominence afr his deth in 1924 let not unl dhe eal 19305 shat eepresenations of poli leaders pa scully Sein—are centrally featured, Stalin, depicted asaliving goa moves o center stage in visual propaganda, displacing boch his pede cexsor Lenin and the proletariat asthe core elemens in Bolsbvik nythology. These trends, which continued duzing Workl War Il and reached their pel during che years of High Stalin, are dscusedin chapter 4 CChapecr 5 focuses on the depiction of intemal and exe enemies, In contast to other iconographic images examina inthis sad. the representation of enemies shows agood dea of contin beeween 967, and 1953, due tothe consistent appicton of sandandsples of satire and carcatze. Bu begnsing in the 9308and continuing in the 1940, the representation of enemies expands ro include a muliplcity of new images coresponding tothe categories of tranegresors concurrently incroduced inco verbal poliiesl discourse, These ate images of “the othe,” she negative gues against which Bolshevistempeed to de- Sine their postive heroes and create models or acceptable thought and tion. Such images served 0 eiaforce a Manichean view chat divided the word into evo camps analogous tothe for of good and evi, which existed ina sae of erconclale coal. Finally, chapcr 6 hifi in emphasis from a pancular iu deme ‘o an examination ofthe yeas 1945 t0 1953 Political rt rete ding the fia yeas of Saline ule incorporated clement fom elie pe tos and in some ways bought o 3 clminaion many eads ofthe preceding decades, Nevethele, the postwar poster were dsincively {ferent om anything chat ad pred ovew them 5 appre te thet almost supieal qualities. Satu by a newfound inpetal ‘thor and an intensified Sain cl, thee posters coneyed 3 von oF the “vine order” of Soi soe in which abrdance and haro- sous wee the esence ofthe new Stalinist myer one. In he Soviet paracie conjured up by poldeal ar, maay talon cas snarkrs and atte foe Soviet cies had disppaed, o be te placed by aac image of Hama rec ‘My overlay is ose an analytic framework based om Kin ast analogy, eating images as pr of ial langage (wich ale Con and sya) in which ll he cements are imtedependent. As we Nave se ey Figures or example, the male worker, the Female pas dn) in the Soviet vil ein change signicandy over sine. These anges wil be analyze in deri the hope of dentin ee di ince atebuts ofthese repens he appearance, pysig- ‘omy, ching, cv, etre, moons, and forth Til ao pay close atetion wo wha a eling dhe vial yeux of hepa: the positioning of ge an objets lation teach thr andthe environment. As images changed, so did the ya By ‘ny of ilsteaton, the posianing ofthe female peasant sclaon te other fre changed gical tthe sme me har the image of peasant wor changed, rou 190. Forme she had bon pre ‘ented in eombinaon wih oer hei gues (workers ofboth sexes oral ean) bu lly never lone thereby conveying the idea that her incon among ee heroes depended on 2 elainship of contiguity (metonymy) Tom 1930 on she apparel lone in posters rin dominant postion, a shia the sax tha profoundly eed Like books, images and their combinaons may he “read” i unpre dicable ways. Pires meant ro emphasie cas identigy alo. veyed—offen unintentionally and subliminally—ideas about gender and gender relations, ethnicity, and other forms of cultural and seal idenicaion. Though ics nor possible wo establish with cereainy how various groups inthe population “read” visual material his study a- tempts to map out the repertoie of rezences anilable in contempo- rary culture and eo gest Some posible interpretations. We an uy to comprehend che aims ofthe officals and arts who prodocd vs tal propaganda. Bue whatever the intention, images ar alma ays poljalent. Depending on context and audience, many diferent kinds ‘of messages may be exacted fom them [athe Civil War yes and afrecward, visual symbolism constituted one ofa number of key aces in which contemporaries struggled ver isues of meaning and iner- pretation. Ukimatly, ches struggles wereabour the nauze and uses of political power. “The artists who produced posters inthe early Soc pio were & divers group, with tsningin panting and poi and eigious art “Theic backgrounds and retions eo the Bolihevik rogime also vid great Some sich as dhe masefl arti Diitii Moor (1883-1046), had profesional carers a satiicalaniss under the old regime, but immediately threw in thee lot with the Bolsheviks afer che October Revolution, Moor creaed some of the mastrpiens of Soviet politcal a and served for many decades asthe unoficil “ommissar of pro- pagans revolutionary att" Aleksandr Apsie(80~1544) was one of the east and most influential political aries of dhe Civil War yes, Originally ersined as anion painter, he had been politi arise ‘ander the ol regime. In 1921 Apt enigrated ois native Lavi and ‘never returned tothe Soviet Union, Af he revolution, schools were ceetblihed to erin poliveal artes, and hy the 19308 there was 4 new generation of pople—sich a8 the three Kukryiky (Miki ‘Kuprianoy,Porii Krylov, and Nikolai Sokolon)—whas arctic ex- perience wis acquired under Bolshevik auspices * Prot to 193, dhe dispersion of poser production among many di. ferent onganzatons and insiutions presided say centalned dire tives eonceming content or exccuton, though s we shall se, cere nonetheless remarkable consistency in the creation and dissemination of cerain iconographic images. From 1931 on, however, visual pro paganda was highly centralized, and poster production eciginated in {single goverment department. Due tothe exteme seasiiviry of| poi are and i eel sole in indoctrination, it was supervised by the Central Commince and other top pary and goverment organ [Aer 93, poste artists wee invited to submit sketches appropriate foe puciculr slogans and texts prepared by loge and is counterparts in ‘he replies. Poster proton was monitored closely and from the 19928 0n, most posters were published wich the ame ofboth the artist, and che official response forthe poste’ ultimate content. "The audience for political are was highly variegated. Ieeseompassed ‘ducted groups who had raved tp Bertin and Parisand peasants who had never stayed far fom their But, hase who visited muscums and those who knew only the dubai (illustrated broadside). What they all had in common, however, was exposure ta highly visual culture ‘dominated, above all, by the icons ofthe Rusian Otodox Church. ‘Until the end of the Fist Five Year Plan in 1932, the audience for poli posers, monumencal seule, and holiday displays was pre- ‘dominanly urban. Bue even within the urban popelaton, there were many dren groups, set apareby education, sil background, goo- sraphial location, cthicty, gender, and rigon. Given this diversi, itis imposible to speak about a single inerpretation of the images discussed in this sty; there were many possible ways of undestand- ing these pictures, ‘Whar abou the reception of posters and ocher visual propaganda by onlinary people? The content of mages canbe described and analyzed, but this tls us lite if anything, abour the way contemporaries may have izerpreted whac they saw Unforeanaely the evidence concerning, contemporary reactions to posters is quite iniced. Wha we have ap plies mainly tothe fist half ofthe 190s, when journals wer published ‘vith extensive reviews of posters and occasional reports of meetings hid among workes or peusanes to evaluate posers. Memoiss, ne pipers, and unpublished documents provide sonal material on ‘his subje Inthe absence of direct prs of popular eacions, che sociologist ‘nse look atthe cual repestizes ofthe viewers. By cultural reper: totes Ihave in mind, st the habs of Seing and ncerpreting images that people brought to sul marci In Ras, this was Bas on viewing some combination of religious cons, a commercial adver sing, Western European and tit are of al kinds, and by che end of she Girl War, the accumulated legacy of Bose In this highly vial cure people had considerable opportunity o lok a pictues and lean the convensions for comprehending them. “Take the case of| religous icons, undoulvedly the most familar visual medium heore eons ured cera key levis, uch color symbolism, co convey smeaning. People accustomed vewingicons knew that ed wasabaly colo, used in conection with fines worthy of venetian. Whe Bolshevik ants uscd red to represent worker, they were invoking a long-standing convendon in color symbols fair to most Rus sias, OF course, red ad al heen associated with revolution since 792, when che Jacobs raiser flag. symbol of ebelion 2 ‘A scond aspect of whar I am elling cultural repertoires centered around the context fr interpreting polial ar, Viewers apprehended images in eli to relevant pam and creat exe i point of view. the depiction of « woman black must have struck contemporary elteingly ciry notin che countryside did women cisomaty

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