AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING (B)

) (
SUBJECT CODE: (AT2316)

Lecturer
Dr. / Mohamed Abd El-hafiz
E-mail : Eng.Mohamed.Hafiz@gmail.Com
Method of Assessment

Mark Method of Assessment

60 Written examination

15 Oral examination
Practical/laboratory
10
work

Other Assignments/class
15
work

100 Total
Subject Main Titles
1. Stopping Distance And its Calculations

2. Vehicle stability factors.

I. longitudinal stability.
II. lateral stability.

3. General on braking dynamics.

4. Experimental estimation of braking

properties of a vehicle.

5. Brake force distribution, characteristics

of vehicle braking dynamics.

6. Auxiliary brake system

 References

1. Rudolf Limpert (2011),Brake Design and Safety 3rd

edition.

2. David A. Crolla (2009), Automotive Engineering

Powertrain, Chassis System and Vehicle Body,
http://www.elsevierdirect.com/9781856175777

3. H. Heisler (2002),Advanced Vehicle Technology 2nd

edition. J. Y. Wong (2001),Theory of Ground
Vehicles.
 Braking Systems
Introduction
The Functions And Conditions Of Use
Of A Brake System
Road Conditions Which Affect On
Brakes Performance
Brake System Components
Brake System Components
Vehicle Deceleration and
Stopping Distance
Kinematics of a simple
stop
 Typical measured deceleration time history.

Driver reaction time : (t1 - t0) = 0.1 to 0.2 s Braking time: (t4 t3)

Initial system response time: (t2 t1) Release time: (t5 t4)

Deceleration rise time: (t3 t2)

Basic Brake System Design
Considerations
 Specific Steps for Hydraulic
Brake System Design

Step 1:
Brake Balance Front-to-Rear: Proper balance ensures directional
stability while braking for lightly and fully laden operating
conditions,

optimum tire-road friction utilization, and hence, minimum

stopping distances.

For a single vehicle without trailer, optimum brake balance is

determined by wheel base, weight (empty and laden), weight
distribution, center-of-gravity height, and deceleration range.

For brake systems utilizing ABS brakes, the underlying brake

system must perform safely with ABS brakes disabled.
 Step 2:
Wheel Brakes and Brake Torques: With the proper brake
balance established, the individual brake torques among
axles can be formulated in terms of component dimensions
such as wheel cylinder or caliper sizes, rotor diameter, and
brake factors (type of brake and lining friction material).

Step 3:

Brake Line Pressure, Valves, and Dual Split: With the

wheel/foundation brake sizes established, the brake line
pressure required for a design deceleration as well as any
modulating valves and diagonal or front-to rear hydraulic
split can be determined.
 Step 4:

Master Cylinder and Brake Fluid Volume: The master

cylinder diameter (cross-sectional area) is determined for a
specified pedal force and deceleration when the booster (if
any) has failed.

The travel of the individual master cylinder pistons for

each hydraulic split circuit is determined based upon zero-
pressure volume needs such as pad/ rotor play and air
inclusions, and pressurized volume needs such as elastic
caliper deformation and brake hose expansion. For the case
of a partial hydraulic brake failure, pedal travel, pedal
force, and associated deceleration are analyzed.
 Step 5:

Brake Pedal Force and Booster: For a specified pedal force and pedal
travel, the vacuum booster or hydro-boost size is determined based on
safety standards and human factors limitations. An adjustable brake
pedal may have to be considered to accommodate small and large
drivers.

Step 6:

Specific Design and Wear Measures: The sizes of brake pads or width
of brake linings are checked against a number of specific design
measures to ensure acceptable pad wear and rotor life, as well as brake
fade performance.
 Step 7:
Brake Temperature and Cooling: With brake balance and brake
sizes established, brake temperatures are determined for maximum
braking and loading conditions and checked against limit values.

Step 8:
Parking Brake System: With the wheel brakes established, the
parking brake is designed in terms of location (front, rear, or drive
shaft) and hill-holding capacity, as well as deceleration capability.
Human factors are considered in terms of location and modulation.
 Step 9:
Braking-in-a-Turn: With the entire brake system established,
the braking performance while turning is analyzed in terms of
tire-road friction utilization for a specified lateral acceleration.
In particular, the rake pedal force or deceleration at which the
brake of the first inner wheel will lock is determined.

Step 10:
Safety Standards: The braking performance of the vehicle is
evaluated with respect to any applicable safety standard,
industry practice, global compliance and certification, and
customer expectations.
 Brake System Design/Testing Checkpoints

The design and testing of the braking system must include

the following design checkpoints:

1) Braking Effectiveness.
2) Braking Efficiency
3) Stopping Distance, Lightly and Fully Laden
4) Response Time
5) Partial Brake System Failure
6) Brake Fluid Volume Analysis
7) Thermal Analysis
8) Emergency or Parking Brake
9) Specific Design Measures
10) In-Use Factors
11) Component Sizing
12) Safety Regulations
 Pedal Force and Pedal Travel

Safety standards provide for certain limitations

on pedal force.

The maximum force exerted with the right foot

for the 5th percentile female is approximately
445 N (100lb); for the male approximately 823 N
(185 lb).
 Manual or Standard Brakes
without Booster

For brakes without a booster, the brake system should be designed so that
for a maximum pedal force of 445 to 489 N, a theoretical deceleration of 1 g
is achieved when the vehicle is loaded at GVW (Gross Vehicle Weight;

Maximum pedal travel between fully released and the point where the
master cylinder piston bottoms out should not exceed 150 mm.

Drivers generally have rated pedal force/deceleration ratios of 267 to 445

N/g as very good, and 445 to 668 N/g as good.
 Brake Systems with Booster
A maximum pedal force of approximately 223 to 334 N should provide a deceleration of
0.9 to 1 g.

The associated pedal travel should not exceed 75 to 90 mm for cold (less than 366 K
or 200F) brakes.

The booster characteristic should increase linearly with pedal force and pedal travel.

The booster run-out point should be reached for decelerations greater

than 0.9 to 1 g. In order to ensure proper brake force modulation, a pedal force
not greater than 13 to 22 N should be required to start boost assist.

The boost ratio or gain should not be greater than approximately 4 to 6 to

ensure safe vehicle deceleration in the event of a boost failure.

Hydraulic brake line pressure rise time delays of 100 ms for single, and up to 180 ms for
double diaphragm boosters must be considered.
 Parking Brake

The parking brake should hold the vehicle stationary

when laden at GVW on a 30% slope (16.7 degrees)

with a hand force of not more than 356 N (80 lb) or a foot
force of less than 445 N (100 lb). With the apply force
limitations stated,

the parking brake should be able to slow a vehicle laden

at GVW at approximately 0.3 g.
 Chapter 2
Design and Analysis of Friction Brakes

Brake Factor
Definition of Brake Factor
The brake factor is defined as the ratio of total
drum or rotor drag Fd to the application force Fa
against one shoe or pad:
For a standard caliper disc brake with two brake pads
producing drag forces on the in- and out-board sides of the
rotor, the brake factor is
Braking efficiency

The power of a braking system is determined ultimately

by the friction between the tyres and the driving
surface. The concept of braking efficiency is based on
the assumption that the coefficient of friction between
tyre and driving surface can never be greater than 1.
 Braking Characteristics of a Two-Axle Vehicle
[reference (2) page (265) ]

Forces acting on a two-axle vehicle during braking

For instance, for a light truck with 68% of the static load on the rear axle
L2/L= 0.32, L1 /L = 0.68), h/L = 0.18, = 0.85, and fr = 0.01, the maximum
braking forces of the front and rear tires that the tire-ground contact
can support will be developed at the same time only if the braking force
 In other words, 47% of the total braking force must be placed on the
front axle and 53% on the rear axle to achieve optimum utilization of
the potential braking capability of the vehicle. The braking force
distribution that can ensure the maximum braking forces of the front
and rear tires developed at the same time is referred to as the ideal
braking force distribution. If the braking force distribution is not ideal,
then either the front or the rear tires will lock up first.

There are two cases

i. When the rear tires lock up first, the vehicle will lose directional
stability.
ii. The lock-up of front tires will cause a loss of directional control.
 The conditions under which the front or the rear
tires will lock first
 The front tires approach lock-up when
 Similarly, it can be shown that the rear tires approach lock-up
when the deceleration rate is

For a given vehicle with a particular braking force distribution on a given

road surface, the front tires will lock first if

On the other hand, the rear tires will lock first if

 Brake Torque Analysis

The brake factor BF is defined as the ratio of total drum or rotor drag
Fd to the application force Fa against one shoe

For standard disc brake. the brake factor BF is equal to

 Moment balance around the shoe pivot
point (A) yields

The total brake factor of the leading-trailing-

type block brake is given by adding the
brake factors of each shoe.
The hydraulic brake line pressure P produced by the pedal
force Fp is determined by

P = Fp p p / Amc

Amc = master cylinder cross-sectional area, cm2

Fp = pedal force, N

p = pedal lever ratio

p = pedal lever efficiency

A typical value for the pedal lever efficiency is 0.8, which includes
the efficiency of the master cylinder including return springs.
The braking force Fx per axle is obtained from the
definition of the brake factor from

Fx = 2 (P - Po) c Awc BF (r/R)

Awc = Wheel cylinder cross-sectional area, cm2

c = Wheel cylinder efficiency
BF= Brake factor

Po = push out pressure, required to bring brake shoes or

pads in contact with drum or disc, N/cm2
Pushout pressures for disc brakes in good mechanical condition are
small at 3.5 to 7 N/cm2 (5 to 10 psi) and may be ignored in most
cases.

Pushout pressures for drum brakes are determined by the shoe return
spring force and wheel cylinder area, and may assumes values as high
as 70 to 172 N/cm2 (100 to 250 psi).

The wheel Cylinder efficiency is approximately 0.96 for drum and

0.98 for disc brakes.

The total vehicle deceleration

a = (2/WR)[(Awc BF c r)f (P - Po)f +(Awc BF c r)r (P - Po)r ]