Fig.

18-38 This orbital welding equipment

has an all-digital programmable portable power
source rated at 200 amps. It has repeatability, Fig. 18-40 Remote hand control unit with contactor control used with
precision, and QA/QC verification possibili- the machine shown in Fig. 18-30. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
ties. Note the weld head, which makes fusion,
welds meeting aerospace, pharmaceutical, food Fig. 18-41 Wireless
processing, and instrumentation quality require- foot controls for the turn
ments. Magnatech Limited Partnership table and power source
that are so equipped. Two
less cords to maneuver
around and get damaged
on the job. Stainless Steel
Pipe purges and ready for
GTA welding in the 1G posi-
tion. Source: Team INDUS-
TRIES, INC. Photographer
Edward R. Bohnart

Fig. 18-39 A 350-amp a.c.-d.c. Heliarc welding machine. This Fig. 18-42 Remote fingertip control, which can be mounted on a
machine is capable of SMAW and GTAW processes. Note the pre- torch handle. The control wheel is moved perpendicular to the torch
sentation box with torch and accessories. ESAB handle. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

572Chapter 18Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles


Fig. 18-43 Remote fingertip control, which can be mounted on
a torch handle. The control wheel is moved parallel to the torch
handle. Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
12. Side-by-side stacking and positioning to reduce
floor space requirements
B. Advantages of solid-state electronic phase controls
with microprocessor memory
1. Constant arc heat produced during welding
because internal circuits compensate for the
following:
a. Changes of input line voltage
b. Changes in operating temperature to maintain
output current as set by the controls
2. Instantaneous output response with every control
adjustment.
3. Easy-to-use and accurate current setting
because the effect of fine current control
adjustments are essentially linear over the
entire range.
4. Selectable TIG start control from hot, normal, or
cold (with adaptive hot start for stick).
5. Process memory control that remembers the
setting from the polarity switch, DCEN TIG
or DCEP stick. By selecting the polarity, the
unit recalls the last procedure used on that
setting which reduces confusion and setup
time.
C. Complete welding controls
1. Current adjustment from 5 to 310 amperes that
is accomplished in a single range with digital
control on a single amperage control knob in
1-ampere increments. Allows crater out ability
down to the minimum output of the machine.
Table185 describes the range control.
2. Fine adjustment current control.
3. A.C., DCEN, DCEP selector switch with process
memory.
4. Remote control switch and receptacle for con
necting current control, arc start switch, or crater
fill control.
Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles Chapter 18573
Table 18-5 Current Range for an
A.C.D.C. Transformer-Rectifier
Solid-State Machine
Current Minimum (A) Maximum (A)
a.c. 5 3101
d.c. 5 3101
1
Finer resolution of the remote amperage control can be done by setting the main
a mperage control on the machine at the maximum amperage required for the welding
being done.
5. Balance control for TIG or DIG for stick.
6. High frequency intensity rheostat to adjust
strength of high frequency spark.
7. Process selector switch for TIG or stick
(depending on how it was last set up).
a. Controls gas solenoid
b. Provides high frequency start, continuous or
lift arc
c. Proper output volt-amp curve
d. Remote-control activation or deactivation
8. Postflow timer that controls gas flow after
welding.
9. Gas inlets and outlets.
10. 115 volts a.c. power (1,150 watts) available from
receptacles in the nameplate.
11. Power on/off switch.
12. Pilot light that indicates when machine is on.
D. Current control
1. Variable current while welding for the
following:
a. Making critical TIG or stick electrode welds
b. Filling craters
2. Selectable start for TIG and adaptive hot start
for stick that automatically increases the output
amperage at the start if needed to prevent the
electrode from sticking to the plate.
3. Output arc control that can be on for stick or
remote control for TIG, or set for trigger hold
for TIG. This not only stops or starts the arc but
also the high frequency, welding power, and
gas flow.
4. Hand controls that fasten to the torch for finger
tip control of amperage and output arc power.
5. Foot control provider that provides maximum
freedom for both hands.
6. Twenty and twenty-five control leads that let the
welder take the control to the work, with exten
sions cords of 25 to 75 feet.
E. Optional features
1. Output arc start switch, which is required for TIG
welding; this can be a simple push-button switch
or output contact control built into the various
foot and hand controls.
2. Sequencer control for mechanized weld
ing that allows arc fade control which auto
matically controls crater filling. It adjusts the
rate of final slope from 0 to 15 seconds and
allows setting of the final current level as well.
3. Sequencer control for mechanized welding to
allow initial amperage control (higher than
weld amperage for a hot start or lower for a cold
start). The start can also be timed from 0 to 15
seconds.
4. Pulser with on/off switch, background current
control, pulses per second [0.2510 pulses per
second (p.p.s.)] and percentage of time (595
percent) at peak amperage.
5. A condenser for power factor correction that
reduces operating costs by improving the supply
line power factor.
6. Undercarriage, which consists of a coolant reser
voir circulator for a water-cooled torch, a frame
for two cylinders to be racked, and four rubber
tires for moving the machine and getting the
Tungsten
Collet
Insulating Collet Nut
Material
Water Passage
Handle
Gas Passage in Collet
Gas Nozzle
Fig. 18-44 Sectional view of a TIG welding torch.
574Chapter 18Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles
machine off of the floor and raising the controls
to a more advantageous height.
The TIG Torch
The TIG torch (electrode holder) is one of the most im
portant items of apparatus. Figure 1844 is a sectional
drawing of a holder that identifies the essential working
parts.
The torch feeds both the current and the inert gas to
the weld zone. The torch is made up of a torch body, a
collet, a ceramic collet cup, a nozzle, and the electrode,
Fig.1845.
A hose and cable assembly is attached to the holder
that connects the torch to the power source, the shielding
gas supply, and the source of water it requires for cool
ing. Some torches have a manually operated switch on
the handle to control the gas. All torches are properly in
sulated to safely handle the maximum current for which
they are designed.
The current is fed to the welding zone through
the tungsten electrode that is held firmly in place by
a steel collet in the electrode holder. The electric arc
is the intense source of heat for welding. Most of the
heat of the arc is absorbed by the base metal, but a
portion of the heat of the arc goes into the electrode.
The electrode material is nonconsumable, and only
Gas In
Water In
Water Out
Electric Current
 deposit. Metal cups that become contaminated can be
Torch Cap wirebrushed clean and reused.
A number of manufacturers are indicating the size
of nozzles by numbers such as 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. These
numbers indicate the nozzle size in sixteenths of an inch.
For example, a size no. 4 nozzle indicates 416-(-) inch
O-Ring
diameter. In general, select a nozzle with a diameter that
is from four to six times the diameter of the electrode.
Electrode Nozzles with too small a hole size tend to overheat and
break. A hole that is too large provides poor gas shielding
and wastes gas.
Electrode Collet Electrode holders are water cooled, air cooled, or air/
gas cooled. Air/gas cooled holders are generally confined
to very light and intermittent duty. They are particularly
desirable, however, for work requiring currents up to 100
amperes because of their low weight, small size, and sim
plicity of operation. Holders above 100 amperes in size
are water cooled. (Electrode holders with capacities up to
Torch Body 500 amperes are available.)
A recent development for TIG welding torches is the
gas lens, Fig.1846. This is a permeable barrier of con
centric fine-mesh, stainless-steel screens that produces an
Collet Body
unusually stable stream of shielding gas. This device pre
vents turbulence of the gas stream that tends to pull in air,
High-Impact Cup
or Ceramic Cup
causing weld contamination. The source of gas turbulence
is the torch nozzle where the velocity of the entering gas is
much greater than that of the exiting gas. The gas lens re
duces the difference in velocities and directs the gas into
Fig. 18-45 Exploded view of a TIG welding torch.
a coherent stream.

tungsten has been found to be usable. Various sizes of

electrodes may be inserted into the holders for a range
of welding heats.
The shielding gas is fed to the weld zone through a gas
cup, or nozzle, at the head of the torch. A large variety
of torch heads are available. Some have straight heads,
others have heads at different angles, and a few have mov
able heads that can be adjusted to any angle. The material
of the nozzle must be highly heat resistant and capable Collet
of conducting the heat away from the lower edge so that Collet Body
Insulator
the nozzle does not overheat by radiation from the elec
trode. Gas nozzles are usually made of a refractory ce Gas Cup
ramic composition, glass, or metal, for welding up to 250 Gas Lens
amperes. Metal nozzles are used for high welding cur Integral
with Collet Body
rents over 250 amperes, and the torches are usually water
cooled. A glass cup eliminates blind spots by permitting
the operator to watch the weld pool. Electrode
Ceramic cups that become charred and burned
from overheating, or that have a buildup of contaminated
material on the inside, should be discarded. If used,
charred cups will spread contamination to the weld Fig. 18-46 Sectional view of a gas lens. Praxair, Inc.

Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles Chapter 18575

Gas Cup
Gas Lens
Gas Lens with Insulator
Weld Visibility
Conventional Gas Lens
Fig. 18-47 Electrode extension and improved visibility are pos-
sible with use of the gas lens. Praxair, Inc.
When a torch is equipped with a gas lens, the shielding
gas can be projected to a greater distance. Welding is pos
sible at nozzle elevations up to 1 inch. The tungsten elec
trode can be extended well beyond the cup. This improves
visibility by eliminating the blind spot at the weld pool,
Fig.1847. Inside corners and other hard-to-reach places
can be readily welded.
Electrodes
It is important that the correct type and size of electrode
be used for each welding application. The proper elec
trode is essential to good welding.
Tungsten Electrodes Tungsten is a metal with a melting
point higher than any other metal; of all the elements it
is second only to carbon. Carbon has a melting point of
6,740F, and tungsten, 6,170F. The symbol of the ele
ment tungsten is W. Tungsten also has low electrical
resistance, conducts heat well, and is a good emitter of
electrons especially when hot. Tungsten electrodes are
available as pure tungsten, or they may be alloyed with
1 to 2 percent thorium, or 1 percent zirconium, or 2 per
cent cerium, or 1 to 2 percent lanthanum added. They
have been found to be practically nonconsumable. Pure
tungsten is generally used for a.c. welding. The zirco
nium type is also excellent for a.c. welding. It has a high
resistance to contamination, produces a more stable arc
than pure tungsten, and has a higher current-carrying
capacity.
576Chapter 18Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles
Thoriated Tungsten ElectrodesThoriated tungsten
electrodes are available for DCEN welding. They are
generally not recommended for a.c. welding as they do
not maintain the spherical balled electrode tip. They
have proved to be effective with the enhanced square
wave power sources. Although they are more costly than
pure tungsten electrodes, their lower rate of consump
tion makes them more economical to use. Thoriated
tungsten electrodes run cooler, and their tips do not be
come molten so the arcing end is kept intact. When the
electrode accidentally touches it, the work does not be
come as contaminated and may be usable on noncritical
work without cleaning. Touch starting is facilitated and
the arc stability is improved, especially at low currents.
Thoriated tungstens have come under some scrutiny due
to their slight radioactivity. The level of radiation has
not been found to represent a great health hazard dur
ing welding, but rather the grinding dust from electrodes
may be a concern. Alternative rare earth doped tungsten
electrodes are available such as the ceriated and lanthan
ated electrodes.
Ceriated Tungsten Electrodes Ceriated tungsten
electrodes were developed as possible replacements
for thoriated tungsten electrodes because cerium, un
like thorium, is not a radioactive material. Tungsten
is alloyed with a nominal 2 percent cerium oxide.
Compared with pure tungsten, the ceriated tungsten
electrode proved similar in current levels and improved
in arc starting and arc stability characteristics to tho
riated tungsten electrodes. They are recommended for
DCEN welding, but they also do well on a.c. weld
ing, especially with the enhanced square wave power
sources.
Lanthanated Tungsten ElectrodesThe current levels,
advantages, and operating characteristics of lanthanated
tungsten electrodes are very similar to that of the ceriated
tungsten electrodes. These electrodes operate at slightly
different arc voltages than thoriated or ceriated tungsten
electrodes. They are alloyed with pure tungsten with 1 or
2 percent lanthanum oxide.
Tungsten electrodes have a small colored band to
indicate their alloy. Table 186 will help in the iden
tification and proper classification of these tungsten
electrodes.
Electrode Sizes and CapacitiesTungsten electrodes
are available in diameters of 0.010, 0.020, 0.040, 116 ,
3
32 , 18, 532 , 316 , and inch. They are manufactured in
lengths of 3, 6, 7, 18, and, in some instances, 24inches.
Seven inches is the convenient size for most manual
operations. They have either a chemically cleaned fin Note the difference in the current capacity of elec
ish or a ground finish that holds the diameter to a close trodes with DCEN, DCEP, and alternating current in
tolerance. The ground finish costs somewhat more dicated in Table187. Slightly higher current values are
than the cleaned finish, but makes for better electrical used with alloyed tungsten electrodes than with pure
pickup at the collet, thus reducing electrical resistance tungsten electrodes. These are only approximations. (In
and heat buildup in the torch. the welding industry, amperes are often referred to as
The current-carrying capacity of tungsten electrodes heats.) A good working rule is to select an electrode
depends on a number of variables such as the following: with the smallest diameter that can be employed without
dripping molten tungsten into the weld pool. Too high
Type of shielding gas
a current density with helium may result in a black de
Length of the electrode extending beyond the collet
posit of tungsten on the work. Too low a current density
Effectiveness of the cooling afforded by the electrode
may result in an arc that is hard to direct and may be
holder
hard to start.
Position of welding
Type of current used
Electrode Preparation and Maintenance There is some
disagreement as to the practice of grinding an electrode
to a pencil point. Experience has indicated that grinding
Table 18-6 Tungsten Electrode should be done only when welding with DCEN for carbon
Identification and stainless steels. Grinding should be done on a fine-
grit, hard, abrasive wheel. This wheel should not be used
Common Name AWS Classification Color Code to grind any other material to prevent contaminating the
Pure EWP Green tungsten electrode. Figure 1848, page 578 shows proper
2% cerium EWCe-2 Orange grinding techniques. The vertex angle of the tip controls
1% lanthanum EWLa-1 Black several factors and is most critical when doing automatic
1.5% lanthanum EWLa-1.5 Gold GTA welding, Fig.1849, page 579.
Another method of electrode preparation is to ball
2% lanthanum EWLa-2 Blue
the electrode so that a rounded end forms on the elec
1% thorium EWTh-1 Yellow
trode. Using DCEP and striking an arc on a piece of
2% thorium EWTh-2 Red copper forms the ball end. This ball must not be over
Zirconium EWZr-1 Brown 1 times the diameter of the electrode. (A larger ball

Table 18-7 Current Ranges for Tungsten Electrodes

ACHF Current1 (A) DCEN Current2 (A) DCEP Current3 (A)

Electrode Pure Tungsten Thoriated Pure Tungsten Thoriated Either Gas,

Diameter (in.) Argon Argon Argon Helium Argon Helium Either Electrode
0.010 15 20 15 20 25 30
0.020 1020 1025 530 1535 1535 1545
0.040 2030 2060 2070 2580 1580 3090
16
1
3080 60120 70135 80145 50150 60160 1020
32
3
60130 100180 150225 160235 135250 140260 1530
1
8 100180 160250 220360 230390 250400 260420 2540
32
5
160240 200320 360450 380500 400500 410525 4055
16
3
190300 290390 440740 480780 500750 510800 5580
14
1
250400 340525 740950 7501,000 7501,000 7801,100 80125

Recommended for welding aluminum, magnesium, and their alloys. With square wave current the range can be increased by 20 percent.
1

Recommended for welding steels, stainless steels, and other metals.

2

Recommended only when minimum penetration and maximum surface cleaning are desired. It is seldom used.
3

Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles Chapter 18577
 A 1 2 Maximum electrode life can be obtained if proper
operating conditions are employed in the welding
process. The following factors reduce tungsten elec
trode life:

0.5 to 2 Times
Erosion due to low temperature Caused by operation
Electrode at too low a current density.
1. Tungsten Electrode Diameter Melting and dripping Caused by operation at too high
2. Tapered End
a current density.
Grind end of tungsten on fine-grit, hard, abrasive
wheel before welding. Do not use wheel for other Oxidation Usually caused by improper shielding
jobs or tungsten can become contaminated during the cooling period when the gas postflow has
causing lower weld quality.
been shut off too soon. When cool, tungsten elec
1 trodes should show a mirror-bright arcing end with no
B
discoloration.
Contamination by other metal Caused by the hot
4 2
3 electrode touching the filler rod or base metal.
This is a particular problem with aluminum. The
aluminum apparently vaporizes and disrupts the
Ideal Tungsten arc, causing sputtering and resulting in black
PreparationStable Arc soot on the work. This continues until the alumi
1. Stable Arc num is removed. During this process the weld may
2. Flat become contaminated with the tungsten that is
3. Grinding Wheel
4. Straight Ground thrown off.

1 Water Supply The tremendous heat of the arc and high

C
current usually necessitate water cooling of the torch and
3
power cable. If the water flow is stopped or reduced, the
torch and electrode power cable will overheat and burn.
4 2 Although adequate protection from heat is important, the
equipment must also be lightweight and flexible for easy
handling.
Wrong Tungsten
PreparationWandering Arc
There are two methods of preventing overheating:

1. Arc Wander
2. Point
3. Grinding Wheel
4. Radial Ground
Fig. 18-48 Electrode preparation on a grinder, with a special
wheel used only for this operation. (A) A diagram of the tungsten
electrode. (B) Correct tungsten preparation produces a stable
arc. (C) Incorrect tungsten preparation produces a wandering
arc. Source: ESAB Welding and Cutting Products
indicates that the current is too high.) In practical ap
plication on noncritical welding many welders will take
new tungsten or tungsten that has had any contamina
tion removed and ball the tungsten with a higher than
normal alternating current, thus speeding up this oper
ation. The balled point is used with sine wave alternat
ing current for aluminum and aluminum-magnesium
alloys. A more pointed shape is usable with the square
wave and enhanced square wave a.c. waveforms. Figure
1850 shows a proper balled electrode shape.
A safety switch that opens and shuts off the electrical
power source until the flow of water resumes
A water-cooled, fusible link in the welding current
circuit, Fig.1851
When the temperature begins to rise, the switch closes
or the fuse blows, cutting off all power. When welding in
close quarters, however, care must be taken so that the
torch does not become overheated due to the heat gener
ated by welding.
If tap water is used to cool the torch head, it should not
be allowed to flow continuously, as cold tap water may be
below the dew point and could cause moisture buildup in
side the torch body. This may lead to weld zone contami
nation until the torch temperature exceeds the dew point.
Tap water is generally not recommended as a coolant be
cause of its inherent mineral content that can build up over
a period of time and clog the small cooling orifices in the
torch head. Conservation also dictates use of less wasteful
methods, such as water reservoir or radiator style water
recirculating systems.

578Chapter 18Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Welding Principles