COLOR FORUM
Colour Psychology and Colour Therapy:
Caveat Emptor
Zena OConnor*
Environment-Behaviour Studies Research Group, Faculty of Architecture, Design and Planning, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Received 17 April 2009; revised 9 September 2009; accepted 11 September 2009
Abstract: Information about colour psychology and
colour therapy abounds in popular culture. Articles found
in mass media as well as a plethora of Internet websites
are often devoted to colour and a range of psychological,
biological, and behavioral effects. The information avail-
able, which varies from scant summaries with catchy titles
to lengthy and comprehensive discussions, is often pre-
sented in an authoritative manner exhorting the reader to
believe a range of claims such as red is physically stimu-
lating and arousing and blue is calming, relaxing and
healing. However, empirical evidence or evidence of any
nature is only rarely cited and, when it is, its often in ref-
erence to ndings that are inappropriately generalized or
out-of-date and superseded. This article discusses a range
of colour psychology and colour therapy claims found in
popular culture and notes the similarities between these
claims and the writings of early theorists such as Birren,
Goldstein, Gerard and Luscher. While these authors have
a valid if somewhat dated place in the literature on colour,
there are a number of key reasons to be wary of colour
psychology and colour therapy claims made in popular
culture. These reasons are discussed in some detail and
provide compelling support for applying the caveat emptor
principle to colour psychology and colour therapy claims
found in nonacademic sources. 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Col Res Appl, 36, 229 234, 2011; Published online 29 April 2010 in
Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20597
Key words: psychology; physiology; health; color theory
*Correspondence to: Zena OConnor (e-mail: zena.designresearch@
gmail.com).
V
C 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Volume 36, Number 3, June 2011
THE INTERFACE BETWEEN COLOUR AND HUMAN
RESPONSE: CURRENT RESEARCH
Academic publications include a broad range of studies
that discuss the effects of light, as well as the inuence of
coloured light-waves in respect to human response. While
human vision is a complex and not yet fully understood
process, the receptor system for detecting light has been
found to be different from that associated with the circa-
dian cycle.1 Light inuences the human circadian rhythm
and changes in light-dark exposure can desynchronize the
circadian cycle affecting the ability to sleep and wake, as
well as impacting on physiological and metabolic proc-
esses. Furthermore, disruptions to the circadian rhythm
may result in changes in mood and behavior as evidenced
by studies that focus on seasonal affective disorder
(SAD).24 Light has also been found to have an effect on
the human neuroendocrine system and may also suppress
melatonin and elevate cortisol production, both of which
may have negative impacts.4,5 Furthermore, a number of
recent studies have indicated that certain wavelengths of
light may have specic impacts. For example, blue light
may improve cognitive performance; different coloured
lenses may assist with reading difculties such as dys-
lexia; and the human circadian system may be particularly
sensitive to short wavelength light.68 Despite many
advances in recent research, the precise roles of the rods
and cones of the retina as well as melanopsin in the con-
trol of circadian cycles remains to be determined.9
In addition, a plethora of studies exist which suggest
that colour may inuence a range of psychological, physi-
ological, and behavioral responses, and the range and
diversity in terms of the ndings from such studies is
highlighted by an analysis of 30 studies conducted by
229
Mikellides.10 For example, it has been suggested that red
has a greater capacity for arousal than blue11,12; however,
ndings from a more recent study suggest that there is no
statistically signicant difference between these two col-
ours in terms of physiological arousal and that it may be
hue rather than saturation (intensity) of colour that has an
impact.13 In addition, recent studies have found that
responses to colour may vary depending on age, gender,
culture, and preference.14,15
It is important to note that while many of the recent
studies that focus on psychological, physiological, and
behavioral responses are scientically rigorous, the nd-
ings are often based on an extremely limited range of
colour samples and/or a small sample group. In addition,
while associations may exist between various colours and
a range of different human responses, it does not neces-
sarily follow that such colours can be effectively used in
therapy or related applications as some sources in popular
media suggest.
COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND COLOUR THERAPY IN
POPULAR CULTURE
Sources of information about colour psychology and
colour therapy in popular culture include mainstream
magazines, online magazines, and Internet websites.
These sources often provide information relating to var-
ious psychological, biological, and behavioral effects of
colour. Internet search engine Google currently provides
access to 365,000 websites for information relating to
colour psychology and 284,000 websites for informa-
tion relating to colour therapy. For example, www.
about.com and www.colortherapyhealing.com offer
numerous pages on colour psychology and colour heal-
ing, respectively, with the latter providing fairly detailed
information about the use of colour as a therapeutic
tool and a range of colour therapy workshops. Simi-
larly, www.colour-affects.co.uk offers detailed informa-
tion about the psychological properties of colour and
provides a summary of four personality types linked to
specic colours. In addition, mass media magazines and
online magazines, such as Conscious Living Magazine
(www.consciousliving.net.au) and WellBeing Magazine
(www.wellbeing.com.au) feature articles on colour psy-
chology and colour therapy.
The information available from popular culture sour-
ces can vary from broad, generalized articles to detailed
pseudo-scientic discussions. Occasionally, such articles
and discussions may be peppered with generalizations,
platitudes, and motherhoods statements such as Colors
are the mother tongue of the subconscious or Color
heals. A typical example is the following by Camp-
bell16 which featured in the online magazine Conscious
Living.
Color can repair and heal the body, when the
frequency of the color aligns with the emotion needed
to activate the microparticulars so healing can take
230
place . . . The use of color in visualization is most
effective, and easiest for the novice to utilise, as color
has a very strong radiating effect on the whole body.
Every other form of color therapy is fundamentally
symbolic.
In a similar vein, Wright17 suggests that eleven
basic colours have fundamental psychological properties
that are universal, regardless of which particular shade,
tone or tint you are using. Each of them has potentially
positive or negative psychological effects and which of
these effects is created depends on the relationships
within colour combinations. While, Rewell18 provides
a somewhat more detailed discussion about specic
responses to colour in the online WellBeing Magazine
as follows.
Babies cry more in yellow rooms. Tension increases
in people in yellow rooms and people who drive
yellow cars are more prone to become aggravating in
heavy traffic . . . Spend time exposed to a lot of
yellow and youll feel like time has sped up . . . A
rejection of yellow indicates a fear of change.
Red stimulates the physical and adrenalin. It raises
blood pressure, the heart rate and respiration.
Other sources of information about colour psychology
and colour therapy found in popular culture include ar-
chitectural and interior design books (for example, see
Kopacz19 and Mahnke20) as well as technical reports,
such as those by Hill.21 In addition, a range of short
and long term courses and workshops are available
such as the colour therapy workshops offered by the
Colour Therapy Healing organization in the UK.22 Sim-
ilarly, the International School of Colour and Design23
in Sydney incorporates a colour psychology component
within its basic, diploma and distance learning courses;
and the Nature Care College24 offers a number of
colour-related modules as part of its Diploma of Ener-
getic Healing and Aura Soma 1 colour practitioner
course.
DEFINING COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND
COLOUR THERAPY
The term colour psychology, often used interchangeably
with the psychological effects of color as suggested by
Van Wagner,25 tends to refer to a range of affective, cog-
nitive, and behavioral responses and associations linked to
specic colours. While this denition of colour psychol-
ogy remains fairly consistent across mainstream media
and internet websites, some sources extend the denition
to include a larger gamut of responses such as colour
preference, as well as precognitive and biology-based
responses, dened by Kopacz to mean the inuence of
colour on human metabolism, circulation, and respiratory
systems (p 92).
In reference to colour therapy, Kopacz suggests that the
biological consequences of colour responses can be a
COLOR research and application
valuable tool in health management for the treatment of
various ailments, and this appears to be a fairly common
understanding of the term (p 93). While Logan-Clarke
and Appleby26 suggest that colour therapy, or chromather-
apy, can be used prescriptively as an holistic, noninva-
sive, and powerful therapy (p 1).
Across most popular culture sources, the range of
responses linked to colour varies enormously by type and
extent. That is, symbolic colour associations and colour
meanings are often mentioned in conjunction with a range
of psychological responses to colour including affect,
preference, and cognitive judgements; and these in turn
are often comingled with biological and behavioral
responses to colour. An example of the intermingling of a
range of different types of response is provided by Van
Wagner as follows.
Red is a bright, warm colour that evokes strong
emotions; Red is also considered an intense, or even
angry, colour that creates feelings of excitement or
intensity.
Blue calls to mind feelings of calmness or seren-
ity. It is often described as peaceful, tranquil,
secure, and orderly. Blue can also create feelings
of sadness or aloofness. Blue is often used to deco-
rate ofces because research has shown that people
are more productive in blue rooms.
Green is restful, soothing, cheerful and health-giv-
ing. Green is thought to relieve stress and help heal.
Those who have a green work environment experi-
ence fewer stomach aches. Green has long been a
symbol of fertility (p 57).
Similarly, symbolic associations of colour are inter-
mingled with psychological, physiological, and behavior
responses in the following example from Logan-Clarke
and Appleby.
Red is the colour for courage, strength, and pio-
neering spirit . . . It is the colour of anger, violence
and brutality.
Blue is calming, relaxing, and healing (but) not as
sedentary as indigo.
Green is the colour of balance and harmony and
can, therefore, be helpful in times of stress. If one
has experienced trauma, a green silk wrapped around
the shoulders can have a very therapeutic effect
(p 5,6,9).
Sources of information in popular culture tend to suggest
that an irrefutable, causal relationship exists between colour
and human response as an example from Hill illustrates:
Based on numerous studies by Drs. Morton Walker,
Gerard, and Faber Birren, the link between colour and
physiological responses has been well documented (p 7).
In addition, most sources imply that the link between
colour and human response is universal irrespective of
individual or cultural differences. For example, Logan-
Clarke and Appleby assert: Red . . . is stimulating and
Volume 36, Number 3, June 2011
energising, therefore, it is helpful for tiredness and leth-
argy, to stimulate low blood pressure, to boost sluggish
circulation . . . Red is energising and excites the emotions,
and can stimulate the appetite (p 10). Similarly, Rewell
contends Red stimulates the physical and adrenalin. It
raises blood pressure, the heart rate and respiration
(p32); and Kopacz suggests Red is believed to
sensitise the taste buds and sense of smell, increasing the
appetite . . . all this occurs because the heart rate instinc-
tively quickens, which causes a release of adrenalin into
the bloodstream raising blood pressure and stimulating
the nerves (p 76); and the sight of the colour blue
causes the body to release tranquilising hormones when it
is surveyed, particularly a strong blue sky and many
believe (blue) can lower blood pressure, slow the pulse
rate and decrease body temperature (p 79).
While a number of sources note that colour psychology
information is often based on anecdotal evidence, many
imply that various colour-related claims have sound em-
pirical support as in Hills assertion above. Similarly,
Kopacz notes the lack of evidential support but offers the
work of eight writers, psychologists, and designers includ-
ing Birren and Mahnke as well as Morton Walker (author
of Bald No More, Foods for Fabulous Sex, Your Guide to
Foot Health as well as The Power of Color) and Wright
(colour consultant of www.colour-affects.co.uk) as sup-
port for colour psychology and colour healing informa-
tion. Similarly, Mahnke notes the inconclusive nature of
ndings from research that focuses on the interface
between colour and human response, and also refers to
the work of Birren and Goldstein among others as support
for the psychophysiological effects of colour.
In regard to colour healing, it is suggested that colour
can be used as a treatment tool in conjunction with the
seven chakras of the body.19,20,26 The notion of chakras,
considered to be energy centres within the human body,
belong to a belief system originating from the Hindu
scriptures known as the Upanishads, dating from the rst
millennium BCE. Under the colour-chakra theory, a
colour is linked to each of the seven chakra and these col-
ours are associated with body functions and dysfunctions
within each chakra area. For example,
Red: Activates the circulation system and benets
the ve senses; used to treat colds, paralysis, anaemia,
ailments of the bloodstream and ailments of the lung;
Blue: Raises metabolism; is used to stabilize the
heart, muscles and bloodstream; used to treat burns,
skin diseases, glaucoma, measles and chicken pox,
and throat problems;
Green: Strengthens bones and muscles, disinfects
bacteria and virus, and relieves tension; used to treat
malaria, back problems, cancer, nervous disorders,
and ulcers, and to manage heart problems and blood
pressure.19
The allocation of colours to each of the chakras is rem-
iniscent of the doctrine of the four colour-linked humors
of the body from ancient Greek medicine: black bile,
231
yellow bile, green phlegm and red blood. The linking of
colour with the humors, the four elements (earth, re,
water and air) as well as the seasons, was a belief system
that continued through to the Renaissance as evidenced
by the colour correspondences depicted in the engraving
by Nicoletto Rosex.27
Aside from ancient belief systems, much of the infor-
mation currently available in popular culture about colour
psychology and colour therapy echo, if not directly quote,
the work of a number of key earlier theorists such as
Birren,28,29 Gerard,30 Goldstein,31,32 and Luscher.33
BIRREN, GERARD, GOLDSTEIN, AND LUSCHER
Extensively quoted by Kopacz and Mahnke mong others,
Faber Birren published more than 40 books and over 250
articles on colour psychology, colour therapy as well as
functional colour and colour vision. Tunney34 advises that
Birren was a leading authority on colour in the mid 20th
century who was retained as a colour consultant by
Dupont, General Electric, Sears & Roebuck and the
United States Navy. In Color psychology and color ther-
apy, Birren28 suggests that an unambiguous and universal
causal link exists between colour and human response,
and he cites Goldsteins assertion that It is probably not
a false statement if we say that a specic color stimula-
tion is accompanied by a specic response pattern of the
entire (human) organism. (p 144).
Kurt Goldstein published The Organism31 in 1939 and
was considered a highly inuential authority on the psy-
chological aspects of colour by Birren, who included sev-
eral excerpts from Goldstein in his Color psychology and
color therapy publication such as under the inuence of
red light, time is likely to be overestimated. Conversely,
under the inuence of green or blue light, time is likely to
be underestimated and under red light, weights will be
judged as heavier; under green light they will be judged
lighter (p 211). Birren as well Mahnke cite Goldsteins
1942 study,32 which discussed the perceived stimulating
effects of red and the opposite effects of green.
Robert Gerard,12,30 whose 1958 doctoral thesis (Differ-
ential effects of colored lights on psychophysical func-
tions) was subsequently presented as a conference paper
(Color and emotional arousal), is also frequently cited by
Birren and Mahnke. Gerards key ndings from his study
on the arousal properties of red, blue, and white illumina-
tion, as reported by Wise et al.,35 include: statistical dif-
ferences between red-blue (illumination) conditions for all
physiological measures except heart rate-responses to the
white light varied but most often were similar to those of
the red condition (p 5). Wise et al. also note that
Gerard, whose study involved a small sample of 24 male
university students, advised caution in terms of the gener-
alizability of his ndings. It is unfortunate that Gerards
advice was not reported by subsequent authors such as
Birren or Mahnke.
Max Luscher,33 who developed and published the
Luscher Color Test, included four basic colours (which he
232
referred to as psychological primaries) in the colour test:
Orange-red, bright yellow, blue-green and dark-blue; as
well as four auxiliary colours: violet, brown, black, and
neutral grey. Luscher, citing anecdotal evidence, assigned
specic associations and affective characteristics to each
colour. For example, red has a stimulating effect on the
nervous system, blood pressure increases, respiration rate
and heartbeat both speed up; while blue has the reverse
effect, blood pressure falls, heartbeat and breathing both
slow down (p 12). The Luscher Color Test is essentially
a colour preference test and its use in personality testing
and assessment has been cautioned by Walters et al.36
While the theories of Birren, Gerard, Goldstein, and
Luscher have their place in the literature on colour, it is
important to note that their theories have, to a large
extent, been superseded. It is unfortunate that despite the
breadth and depth of contemporary empirical studies that
focus on the interface between humans and colour or col-
oured light, the ndings of these studies rarely, if ever,
appear in the information currently available in popular
culture. This and a number of other reasons discussed in
detail below provide a compelling case for applying the
principle of caveat emptor in respect to colour psychology
and colour therapy information found in popular culture.
Caveat emptor
Latin for buyer beware, caveat emptor implies that in
the absence of a warranty, the buyer is at risk and the
onus for carefully assessing goods and services before
purchase remains with the buyer. There are a number of
key reasons why the principle of caveat emptor should
prevail in regard to colour psychology and colour therapy
information found in popular culture.
First, while ndings from research suggest that colour
inuences human response, the existence of an irrefutable
and universal causal link between colour and an unlimited
range of psychological, biological, and behavioral
responses remains an unsupported hypothesis. Wise et al.
assert that there are no hard-wired linkages between
environmental colours and particular judgemental or emo-
tional states (p 46). In addition, as aforementioned, a
range of studies exist which support a link between colour
and human response; however, the ndings are limited
by, and contingent on, the setting and context of the
study, the size and composition of the sample group, as
well as the limited range of colours used in the stimuli.
Furthermore, the ndings of many such studies are
also limited because of the methodological weakness of
studying a complex and subjective phenomenon such as
colour in isolation.
Another reason to be wary of some colour psychology
and colour therapy claims is the notion that the ancient
wisdom embedded within some claims represents eviden-
tial proof. For example, Kopacz cites the link between
colour and charkas per ancient Hindu scriptures; and Van
Wagner suggests that chromatherapy was practiced by
several ancient cultures, including the Egyptians and
COLOR research and application
Chinese. The implication being that not only is the wis-
dom of the ancients above question but it provides evi-
dential proof of the veracity of some colour-related
claims. It is important to note that ancient belief systems
are not always a guarantee of veracity as evidenced by
the superseded beliefs that the world is at, and the sun
and moon orbit the earth. While not intending to dispar-
age the wisdom of the ancients, a fair proportion of this
wisdom has been superseded by later scientic discovery
and the existence of a link with ancient wisdom should
not of itself be used as evidential proof of any claim.
A third reason to be cautious about colour psychology
and colour therapy information is the practice of occa-
sionally presenting factoids as facts. Coined by author
Norman Mailer, factoids are suppositions or inventions
presented as fact as illustrated by the Ferrell and McKay37
line in Anchorman: Its anchorman not anchor-lady, and
thats a scientic fact! Colour psychology and colour
therapy information available in popular culture occasion-
ally appear to be factoids presented as facts, such
Rewells18 assertions that: We are hard-wired to yellow
as a stimulus . . . If your environment is boring and time
passes slowly, surround yourself with small amounts of
yellow and People who dislike yellow often favour
blue to calm themselves and feel secure. If you drink cof-
fee for a pick-me-up, try drinking it from a yellow cup.
Similarly, Van Wagner25 claims: Yellow can also create
feelings of frustration and anger. While it is considered a
cheerful colour, people are more likely to lose their tem-
pers in yellow rooms and babies tend to cry more in yel-
low rooms. Without substantiation or empirical evi-
dence, such claims remain factoids not facts.
An additional reason to be wary of colour psychology
and colour therapy information found in popular culture
has to do with the level of external and ecological validity
embedded within such information, whether or not such
information is supported by empirical evidence. To
explain, while various studies exist that focus on the inter-
face between human response and colour, Arygrous,38
Campbell and Stanley,39 and Coolican40 consider it
empirically and methodologically unsound to draw gener-
alised conclusions from such studies and transfer them to
different settings or contexts.
The fallacy of the single cause, which provides a fth
reason to be cautious about colour psychology and colour
therapy claims, suggests that one single cause for an out-
come represents causal oversimplication. Under the post-
positivist paradigm, recent theorists such as Hard and
Sivik41 consider the interface between colour and human
response to be highly complex and open to the inuence
of a wide range of factors and mediating variables. While
correlation may indicate the existence of an association
between one variable (such as colour) and human
response, proving a causal link without allowing for medi-
ating variables and other inuences is now considered
empirically and methodologically unsound.38,40
Furthermore, key mediating variables in terms of the
interface between colour and human response include an
Volume 36, Number 3, June 2011
individuals personality, cultural experiences and affective
state. For example, an individuals stimulus screening
ability is rarely mentioned in colour psychology and
colour healing information found in popular culture. Meh-
rabian42 found that individual differences exist in terms of
stimulus screening ability, and high screeners are able to
automatically screen out less important components of
environmental stimuli such as colour and sound as
opposed to low screeners. Therefore, it is likely that an
individuals stimulus screening ability may negate claims
may about responses to colour in popular culture.
Finally, a seventh reason to question some colour psy-
chology and colour therapy information is the inherent
bias that is often evident. Referred to as subjective valida-
tion, this occurs when two unrelated events are perceived
or judged to be related because of an expectation of such,
or that an existing hypothesis demands a relationship. For
example, to apply the notion that green relieves stress
to the following claims: green silk wrapped around the
shoulders can have a very therapeutic effect and Those
who have a green work environment experience fewer
stomach aches indicates subjective validation and ren-
ders the internal validity of such claims awed.
To conclude, colour psychology and colour therapy
claims information found in popular culture suggest that
colour prompts a range of different human responses: psy-
chological, biological, and behavioral. Many of these
claims lack substantiation in terms of empirical support,
exhibit fundamental aws (such as causal oversimplica-
tion and subjective validation), and may include factoids
presented as facts. In addition, such claims often refer to
outdated research without referring to current research
ndings. It is therefore advisable to apply the principle of
caveat emptor when evaluating magazine articles and
Internet websites that focus on colour psychology and
colour therapy, plus check with a medical practitioner or
psychologist before accepting or acting upon such
information.
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