The Divided City of Khartoum

The question of urbanization

By: Khalafalla Omer M.Sc. Global Urban Development & Planning, University of Manchester, UK
Architect and Urban Planner MBA in Project Management, University of Science and Technology, Sudan
B.Sc. in Architecture and Spatial Planning, University of Science and Technology, Sudan
Email: khalaf_81@hotmail.com
Table of Contents

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2

Section 1 The implications of civil war conflict in Khartoum urbanization ......................................... 3

The eventual civil war conflict and IDPs flow to Khartoum .................................................................... 3
The weight of IDPs population in Khartoum ........................................................................................... 6
Current situation of IDPs ......................................................................................................................... 3

Section 2 official Responses program .............................................................................................. 5

Government response to IDPs ................................................................................................................ 6
UN Response ........................................................................................................................................... 6

Section 3 Challenges facing IDPs in Khartoum .................................................................................. 7

Sanitation and water supply gabs ............................................................................................................ 8
Informal housing, forced eviction and education ..................................................................................... 8

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Reference List ................................................................................................................................. 10

1|Page
Introduction: -

The high wave of IDPs flowing to Khartoum city as a consequence of the push forces of
continuous civil wars has been referred to many reasons, those reason can be subdivided into
the main factor which is the push factor of civil war, and to sub-factor of the pull forces, as
Khartoum city considered as a hub platform for education, economic and civil society life. As
well, the natural disaster such as famine and drought resulted from civil war has pushed many
people to Khartoum city. Actually, recent estimation shows that 30% of Khartoum total
populations are IDPs, which is considered one of the highest weights of IDPs population in
African cities. This essay is about to highlight the implication of civil war in the growing of IDPs
in Khartoum city. So its important to give a short brief on the three civil wars in Sudan, following
by monitoring flee of IDPs to Khartoum city. Then, to analyze the IDPs population in Khartoum,
by surveying and breakdown the forces affect the flowing of IDPs to Khartoum.

The governmental and international agencies responses to the flee of IDPs to Khartoum as well
took many shapes, from introducing new policies for IDPs to implement urban planning
approaches to accommodate the IDPs. By assessing these policies and planning approaches we
can then determine the potentials of public and International NGO sectors to deal with the
dramatic wave of IDPs flow to Khartoum. In fact, there is still many micro responds from small
NGOs and community initiative, However its still minors. The essay concentrates in the broad
wide official responses. Whether the government responds or the international NGOS response.

Its believed that IDPs situation has its own context, the civil wars pushed many people to
Khartoum city periphery. The government and NGOs respond is still not inclusive as huge
proportion of IDPs still facing many challenges. Highlighting challenges faces IDPs can be
addressed by many issues. In this essay, the IDPs challenges will be addressed with regard to
housing situation, employment, access to water, transportation and vulnerability to forced
eviction practice. And comparing these challenges with non-IDPs population in order to come
up with the comparison approach that presents the IDPs challenges in the context of Khartoum
City as whole.

The surveying and numbers will be captured from different resource, and its important to
consider that all surveying numbers are estimated. As there is no accurate numerical data base
resource for Khartoum IDPs. However, all the numbers introduced in the easy is referred to
reliable international agencies with a high credibility and accountability in dealing with IDPs
situation around the world.

At the end, it will be important to come up with finings that draw in the implication of the

2|Page
continuous civil war in IDPs livelihood lived in Khartoum and to bring well structure reliable
argument to address three main approaches of the essay. First, flee of IDPs to Khartoum, official
responds and on-going challenges facing IDPs population.

Section 1 The implications of civil war conflict in Khartoum urbanization

Sudan one of the most courtiers that face huge disaster resulted from continues civil war
conflicts, As per UNICEF about 5 million IDPs are displaced from their settlement due to military
clashes. Sudan is one of the highest IDPs populations in the world. The majority of IDP fled to
Khartoum city, as there are about 2.3 million IDPs stetted in Khartoum. That means 30% of
Khartoum population are IDPs, the high wave of urbanization that took place in Khartoum is
mainly because of high rate of displaced people as a consequence of contentious civil war. This
high dramatic proportion of IDPs settled in Khartoum can be refereed to four main civil/ethnic
war conflicts that took place in four region, South region, Darfur region, and The Three Areas ;(
Blue Nile, Bahr El Ghazal and South Kordofan).

The First Sudanese civil war was between Government of Sudan (GoS) and Sudanese People
Liberation Army (SPLA) took place in between 1955-1972 in south regions of Sudan, the main
reason behind the conflict is that SPLA demanding a fair democratic representation is southern
region. Half of million died during this war and more that 1 million displaced to nearby countries
and to other cities in Sudan such as Khartoum. However at the end of the war most of IDPs
returned to their origins settlements.

The second civil war in between 1983-2005 was as well between GoS and SPLA, it took place in
south region of the country as counties of first Sudanese civil war, but it spread to the Three
Areas ;( Blue Nile, Bahr El Ghazal and South Kordofan). The main reason behind the conflict is
that SPLA demanding fair controlling of oil natural resource in south region and Three Areas,
along with fair national distribution of wealth and power. In fact, the second civil war considered
one of the longest war after the World War II, UN estimation shows that 4 million people
displaced to other cities as consequence of the war, as well the war end up with separation of
South region of Sudan.

The other important war is Darfur War, it had been rooted to pat 10s decades, as Darfur region
is lacking water resource, and there were on-going clashes between Arab and African ethnic
tribes and informal militias. Darfur war is formally shaped in 2003, when two military rebels;
Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) claimed for a
national democratic transformation. The war is still going now-a days, UN estimations shows
that over 300,000 people are killed and 2,8-3 million are displaced as consequence of this war.

3|Page
In general, there are 5, 3 million IDPs in Sudan, 37% of IDPs are settling in Khartoum city, as per
UNHCR estimation there are over 2 million IDPs in Khartoum. Khartoum IDPs distributed
Khartoum city within four main localities; Jbl Awlia, Omdurman, Khartoum and Khartoum North,
as a consequence in civil war that took place in four main region; Darfur, South and The Three
Areas regions. That is not to say that all of IDPs arrived to Khartoum from this region. The war in
fact took more than 35 years, and over 25% of Khartoum IDPs are born in Khartoum. Tufts-IDMC
estimation shows that 33% of Omdurman locality populations are IDPs, 22% of Jbl Awlia locality
populations are IDPs, 14% of Khartoum North locality populations are IDPs and only 5% of
Khartoum locality populations are IDPs. This estimation demonstrates that Omdurman locality
shares the highest weight of Khartoum IDPs. (See Diagram No. 01)

Diagram 1: IDP and non-IDP residence in Khartoum (Source: Tufts-IDMC, 2008)

The time in which IDPs arrived to Khartoum can be grouped into four time periods. 1981-1985,
1986-1990, 1991-1995, 1996-2000 and 2001-2007. In fact in all these time periods there were
IDPs fled to Khartoum from all other four regions in where the war conflict took place. But Tufts-
IDMC estimation shows that during 2001-2007 there were dramatic increasing flows of IDPs
displaced from Darfur region, as at that time 55% of Khartoum IDPs are displaced from Darfur
region, comparing to only 9% of Khartoum IDPs are displaced from The Three Areas, as well only
4% of Khartoum are displaced from South region. This finding indicates that Darfur war was the
main driver of IDPs flowing to Khartoum during 2001-2007. However, during 1986-1995 the
highest amount of Khartoum IDPs are displaced from South region, as the estimation shows that
over 32% of Khartoum IDPs are displaced from South region, while about 20% of Khartoum IDPs

4|Page
are displace from The Three Areas region and 8% from Darfur region. This estimations shows
that the first and second civil wars were in fact the main driver of IDPs flow to Khartoum. On the
other hand the war that took place in the Three Areas region were in fact the main reason of IDP
flowing to Khartoum in the following time periods of 1981-1985 and 1996-2000, as the
estimations shows that over 22% of Khartoum IDPs are displaced from The Three Area region,
comparing to only 5-15% of Khartoum IDPs are displaced from Darfur and South region. (See
Diagram No. 02)

Diagram 2: IDP arrival by previous location (Source: Tufts-IDMC, 2008)

There are as well sub reasons in which IDPs fled to Khartoum, its believed that IDPs are mainly
driven by the push forces of continuous civil war. However, there are other sub pull forces drives
the flowing of IDPs, which are access to employment, join families settled in Khartoum, access to
education and access to housing. The estimations of Tufts-IDMC shows that accessing
employment is the main pull forces drives the flowing of IDPs behind the push forces of civil
war. In fact 70% of Khartoum IDPs arrived from Darfur are driven by the pull forces of accessing
employment, and 40% of Khartoum IDPs arrived from The Three Areas are as well driven by the
pull forces of employment. As well fem amount of Khartoum IDPs are driven by the pull forces
of housing, education and social cohesion opportunities. (See Diagram No. 03). This indication
demonstrates that employment opportunity is in fact the main pull forces that stand hand by
hand with push forces of continuous civil war.

5|Page
Diagram 3: Reasons for coming by previous location (Source: Tufts-IDMC, 2008)

Section 2 official Responses program

Many efforts put to resettle IDPs arrived to Khartoum. The government tends to follow the
international policy of assisting and protecting IDPs, such as Guiding Principles on International
Displacement. However there is still many concerns resulted from consequence of government
planning for IDPs. As well the International NGOs contributed in implanting the urban planning
settlement by implementing small projects such as health units, primary schools, water supply
and food and clothes relief within the guidance of governmental urban plans that lacks many
approaches which is already highlighted by international NGOs.

In general, the government urban approach for IDPs are not inclusive, as it covered only 15% of
IDPs; the government plans settled only 300,000 IDPs out of 2 million IDPs in miserable camps
located at the outskirt of the city. Those camps defined by ministry of urban planning and city
localities as permanent neighborhoods. However, all of IDPs camps lack adequate clean water
network supply, sanitation services, adequate building standards and other urban provision
services such as proper roads, transportation, street lighting and electricity. The camps are a
kind of miserable slums settlements. In fact the government is only contributing in supply
entitlement lands, as a bargaining policy to motivate the IDPs to vote for the ruling party. The

6|Page
government of Sudan implements four main camps to resettle only 15% of IDPs. As well, the
urban planning approach are led the IDPs to be a relief seekers rather than self-reliance citizens.
The four IDPs camps are Wad-Albashir camp, Al-Salam Omdurman, Jabal Awlia Camp and Mayo
camp.

Wad-Albashir camp accommodate 55,500 IDPs at the south west edge of Omdurman locality,
surrounded by squatting areas and provided by three water containers, four primary schools.
The homes are made by mud and all the dwellers are vulnerable in rain seasons; as their homes
usually destroyed or damaged in the high rain season.

Al-Salam Omdurman camp located nearby Wad-Albashir accommodate over 117,000 IDPs,
provided by seven water containers, eleven primary schools and one health unit. The camp
divided into 24 neighborhoods. The camp dwellers lacks of water supply as the distribution of
water containers are not met the demand of water of all camp dwellers, therefore the dwellers
are facing difficulties in purchasing water high price waters from vendors.

Jabal Awlia camp located in south of Khartoum accommodate 52,000 IDPs provided by 62
boreholes as the main water supply, along with seven primary school. In fact the IDPs settled in
Jabal Awlia camp facing transportation difficulties as the camp located 40 km away from city
center, in consequence; the IDPs are not offered transportation fees support. As well there is
land conflict as a private company named Sundus claim that the land of Jabal Awliya belong to
the company assets.
Mayo camp located in the south of Khartoum accommodate about 58,000 IDPs, provided by 75
water boreholes, one health care unit and six primary school. (See Table No. 01)

Table 1: Estimated population of the four camps in 2004 (HAC) and services available (Source: Tufts-IDMC, 2008)

7|Page
Moving to invisible urban life one can observe many difficulties facing IDPs. In fact there still no
accurate data about the urban livelihood of IDPs, there is no any formal identification card for
IDPs; most of the numbers indicate by NGOs are estimations based on surveying few samples of
IDPs. However these estimation raised by CARE International and UNDP shows that 95% of IDPs
living in camps are not comfort with their situation and wish to be relocated in a better
integrated livelihood settlements, they are feeling uncertainty towards their future as
consequence of the settled in a segregated settlements that locate at the out skirt of the city.
Moreover, the government approach in identifying these camps as neighborhoods pushed the
NGOs concerning with IDPs camps dwellers out of delivering relief services to camps dwellers.

Education and health services as well are one of the most concerns facing IDPs living in camps.
95% of IDPs facing mental or physical illness are not able to get adequate health services, as well
only 5.9 of primary school graduates are able to continue their high education school, and the
literacy classes are not covering all literacy IDPs.

IDPs living in the camps are not have access to skill upgrading program, as well they lack
employment opportunities; which push them to work as street venders and other informal jobs.
Moreover, they are not participating in political decision making, as they have only two
members in the parliament.

The UN Special Rapporteur expresses many concerns of the livelihood situation in IDPs camps.
Although he were able to visit only one camp, but he still reported many critical issues regarding
the education, health, relief and gender issues. He expressed that there are improvement in
health and education services. However, the IDPs lack access to work opportunities as they are
located at the peripheries, far away from commercial centers. He, as well, raised many concerned
regarding the lack of relief distribution. Moreover, he indicated that there are many crimes
raised from IDPs settlement, as southern women work as beer-maker, which is a norm in south
Sudan, but forbidden in north Sudan ruled by (Shariah Law), which is obviously mentioned in his
statement, Many have no choice other than to engage in practices such as beer-brewing
(traditional in the south, but strictly forbidden in the north under Shariah law) and prostitution.
Displaced southern women charged with these crimes make up 95 per cent of Khartoums
Omdurman Prison population. Another alarming feature is the imprisonment of girls as young
as 10, serving sentences for petty crimes, such as theft. The legal situation of these women and
girls was examined during the visit to the prison by the Special Rapporteurs team. (Tufts-IDMC,
2008).

8|Page
Section 3 Challenges facing IDPs in Khartoum

IDPs in Khartoum are facing many challenges in term of urban life and proper livelihood
situation, such as forced eviction and deprivation of housing materials and access to
employment. The IDPs camps are turned into neighborhood without any improvement in urban
provision, as the government is only contribute in supply titled lands which lacks urban
provision such water, sanitation and electricity. In general 30% of Khartoum population has no
access to piped water supply network, they relay in the common water boreholes, that provide
unclean water, as well 85% of Khartoum population has no access to sanitation network, as they
relay in unhealthy traditional sanitation pits. The huge weight of non-access of urban provision
of water and sanitation networks are observed in IDPs and squatting settlements. In fact 100%
of IDPs lived in IDPs camps or squatting settlement have no access to clean water and sanitation
network.

IDPs as well are living in poor housing condition, Tufts-IDMC estimations shows that 65% of
Khartoum IDPs are living in poor housing made of muds, compared to only 44% of non-IDPs
living in Khartoum are living in poor housing made of mud. As well, estimation shows that 8% of
IDPs living in Khartoum are squatting temporary squatting settlement, while only 2% of non-
IDPs are living in inadequate temporary settlements in Khartoum. (See Diagram No. 04). This
estimation demonstrates that IDPs are more likely to live in miserable housing conditions that
lack proper durable materials than non-IDPs.

Diagram 4: Housing materials (Source: Tufts-IDMC, 2008)

9|Page
Furthermore, IDPs are more likely to be vulnerable to forced eviction actions. Recent estimations
shows that 30% of IDPs are forced evicted from their settlements in Khartoum, comparing to
only 13% of non IDPs were forced evicted from their settlements. In fact, reason behind forced
evocation may vary, as 9% of IDPs were forced evicted because they could not pay the rent,
while 22% of IDPS were forced evicted due to government relocation program and only 4% of
IDPs were forced evicted because the owner of land are not interested to accommodate them.
On the other hand, only 6% of non IDPs were forced evicted as a consequence of government
relocation program and only 3% of non IDPs were forced evicted because they could not pay
the rent fees. In general, we can assumed that IDPs are likely to be forced evicted than non IDPs.
(See Diagram No. 05)
Finally, although most of IDPs camps are provided by basic education services, the estimation
shows that 28% of IDPs living in Khartoum are illiterate, while only 17% of non-IDPs are illiterate.

Diagram 5: Reason for eviction, IDPs and non IDPs

10 | P a g e
Conclusion: -

Khartoum city is the most African cities that accommodate high amount of IDPs, actually 30% of
Khartoum populations are IDPs, the main driver of growing IDPs are push forces of the civil war that took
place in other state within Sudan; Darfur, Sothern and Three Areas regions. However, there is another pull
forces that drives the growing no. of IDPs such as access to education and employment. The government
responded to the growing no. of IDPs by accommodate large no. of IDPs in IDPs camps, which later
turned into neighborhood by upgrading the informal land of IDPs into titled land. But still all IDPs
neighborhoods are lacking adequate water supply and sanitation networks. As well, international NGOs
concerning with IDPs are send many critics regarding insufficient distribution of relief and the
segregation raised from the government program in locating IDPs in the outskirts of the city. Al of this
situations resulted in the high weight of vulnerabilities facing IDPs. In fact, IDPs are more likely to live in
slums with poor housing condition and inadequate supply of water and sanitations facing frequent forced
eviction actions than non-IDPs. Its recommended that government policy program to put IDPs at the
center of urban development program, with inclusive urban planning approach to resettle IDPs in proper
urban livelihoods.

11 | P a g e
Reference List:-

Urban Refugees (2015). Resource center, Khartoum Sudan [Online]. Available at:
http://www.urban-refugees.org/khartoum/ (Accessed: 05 December 2016)
https://www.unicef.org/sudan/IDP_fact_sheet_November_2006.pdf

Assal, M. (2008). Urbanization and the future of Sudan, [Online]. Available at:
http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?page=imprimable&id_article=25987 (Accessed: 04
December 2016).

Geoffroy, A. (2008) IDPs and urban planning in Khartoum, Forced Migration Review (FMR), 6
May [Online]. Available at:
http://www.fmreview.org/sites/default/files/textOnlyContent/FMR/24/19.htm (Accessed: 03
December 2016).

Geoffroy, A. (2011) The Challenge of Protracted Displacement:

The Case of Khartoum, Refugee Cooperation, 21 Feb [Online]. Available at:
http://www.refugeecooperation.org/publications/sudan/pdf/05_degeoffroy.pdf (Accessed: 02
December 2016).

Tufts-IDMC (2008) Internal Displacement to Urban Areas: the Tufts-IDMC Profiling Study
Khartoum, Sudan: Case 1. Available at: http://fic.tufts.edu/assets/Tufts-IDMC-Profiling-2008-
Khartoum.pdf (Accessed: 2 December 2016).. Boston: The Feinstein International Center.

LANDINFO (2008) Sudan Internally displaced persons in Khartoum. Available at:

http://www.landinfo.no/asset/748/1/748_1.pdf (Accessed: 2 December 2016).. Oslo:
LANDINFO.

IRC (2011) City limits: urbanisation and vulnerability in Sudan: Khartoum case study: Available
at: http://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Pantuliano-2011-CityKhartoum.pdf (Accessed: 1
December 2016).. London: Overseas Development Institute.
http://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Pantuliano-2011-CityKhartoum.pdf

12 | P a g e
13 | P a g e