October 19, 2011

Dana Hursey

Technology and the Innovation Economy

Darrell M. West


E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y

I nnovationandentrepreneurshiparecrucialforlongtermeconomic
development.Overtheyears,Americaswellbeinghasbeenfurtheredby
scienceandtechnology.FearssetoffbytheSovietUnions1957launchofits
SputniksatelliteinitiatedawaveofU.S.investmentinscience,engineering,
aerospace,andtechnology.Bothpublicandprivatesectorinvestmentcreatedjobs,
builtindustries,fueledinnovation,andpropelledtheU.S.toleadershipina
numberofdifferentfields.
Inthispaper,Ifocusonwaystechnologyenablesinnovationandcreates
economicprosperity.Ireviewtherangeofnewadvancesineducation,health
care,andcommunications,andmakepolicyrecommendationsdesignedto
encourageaninnovationeconomy.Byadoptingpoliciessuchasapermanent
researchanddevelopmenttaxcredit,moreeffectiveuniversityknowledge
commercialization,improvingSTEMworkertraining,reasonableimmigration
Darrell M. West is vice reform,andregionaleconomicclusters,wecanbuildaninnovationeconomyand
president and director
of Governance Studies sustainourlongtermprosperity.
and a senior fellow at
Brookings. He is also
the founding director
of the Center for
The Link to Economic Prosperity
Technology Innovation. Researchershavefoundalinkbetweentechnologyinnovationandnational
economicprosperity.Forexample,astudyof120nationsbetween1980and2006
undertakenbyChristineQiangestimatedthateach10percentagepointincreasein
broadbandpenetrationadds1.3percenttoahighincomecountrysgrossdomestic
1
productand1.21percentforlowtomiddleincomenations.
Inaddition,TaylorReynoldshasanalyzedtheroleofcommunication
infrastructureinvestmentineconomicrecoveriesamongOECDcountriesand
foundthatnearlyallviewtechnologydevelopmentascrucialtotheireconomic
stimuluspackages. 2Hedemonstratesthatthereisastrongconnectionbetween
telecommunicationinvestmentandeconomicgrowth,especiallyfollowing
recessions.Thesekindsofinvestmentshelpcountriescreatejobsandlaythe
groundworkforlongtermeconomicdevelopment.
Asaresult,manynationsaroundtheworldareinvestingindigital
infrastructureasawaytojumpstarteconomiesweakenedbytherecentfinancial
collapse.Thedeclineinstockmarketvaluations,riseinunemployment,and
reductioninoveralleconomicgrowthhashighlightedtheneedtotargetfinancial
resourcesanddevelopnationalpriorities.Inconditionsofeconomicscarcity,
countriesnolongerhavetheluxuryofbeingpassiveandreactive.Instead,they
mustbeproactiveandforwardlooking,andthinkclearlyabouthowtocreatethe
basisforsustainableeconomicrecoveries.
Notsurprisingly,givenitslongtermpotential,anumberofcountrieshave
identifiedinformationtechnologyasacrucialinfrastructureneedfornational
development.Broadbandisviewedinmanyplacesasawaytostimulate
economicdevelopment,socialconnections,andcivicengagement.National

Technology and the Innovation Economy

1
leadersunderstandthatcrosscuttingtechnologyspeedsinnovationinareassuch
ashealthcare,education,communications,andsocialnetworking.When
combinedwithorganizationalchanges,digitaltechnologycangeneratepowerful
newefficienciesandeconomiesofscale. 3

People Understand Importance of Innovation, But Doubt U.S.

Future
Despitetheimportanceoftheconnectionbetweentechnologyinnovationand
economicprosperity,publicopinionsurveysrevealinterestingresultsinpeoples
viewsaboutinnovation.A2009NewsweekIntelGlobalInnovationSurvey
interviewed4,800adultsintheUnitedStates,China,UnitedKingdom,and
Germany.Researchersfoundthattwothirdsofrespondentsbelieveinnovation
4
willbemoreimportantthanevertotheU.S.economyoverthenext30years.
Peopleunderstandthebasicpointthatinnovationhasbeenkeytopastprosperity
andisvitalmovingforward.
ThesurveyalsofoundinterestingdifferencesbetweenAmericansandthe
Chineseinwhattheythinkisimportanttofutureadvances.Accordingtothe
survey,Americansarefocusedonimprovingmathandscienceeducation,while
Chinesearemoreconcernedaboutdevelopingcreativeproblemsolvingand
5
businessskills. Apparently,peoplefromtherespectivenationshavedifferent
fearsabouttheircurrentinnovationtrainingandwhatisnecessaryforfuture
innovation.
However,thereisaremarkabledivergencebetweenAmericansandChinesein
assessmentsofthecontemporarysituation.Americansareremarkablypessimistic
abouttheirownfuture.WhenaskedhowtheU.S.wasdoingin2009,only41
percentofAmericansthoughtourcountrywasaheadofChinaoninnovation
6
comparedto81percentofChinesewhofelttheU.S.wasahead. Americans
worriedthattheircountrywasfallingbehindoninnovationwhileothercountries
weremovingforward.
ThereareobjectivereasonsbehindthisAmericanpessimism.Therearetoo
fewAmericansstudyingthetraditionalSTEMfieldsofscience,technology,
engineering,andmath.Duetoourimmigrationpolicy,itisdifficultforforeign
studentswhoareeducatedintheUnitedStatestostayhere,getjobs,and
contributetoAmericaninnovationthewaymanyimmigrantshavedoneinthe
7
U.S.previously. Withourcurrentdebtandbudgetdeficitlevels,Americans
worryaboutourlongtermabilitytoinvestineducationandresearchintheway
wedidinthepastandproducepositiveresults.
Ananalysisofpatentsgrantedshowsthatourcountryslongtermdominance
hascometoanend.In1999,Americanscientistsweregranted90,000patents,
8
comparedto70,000forthosefromallothercountries. By2009,though,nonU.S.
innovatorsearnedmorepatents(around96,000)comparedtoAmericans(93,000).
ThisrepresentedthefirsttimeinrecentyearswherenonAmericanshadgarnered

Technology and the Innovation Economy

2
 9
morepatents.
TheUnitedStatesspendsonly2.8percentofitsfederalbudgetonnational
researchanddevelopmentasapercentageofGDP.Thisislessthanthe4.3percent
spentbythegovernmentinSweden,3.1percentbyJapan,and3.0percentbySouth
Korea,buthigherthanthatofGermany(2.5percent),France(2.2percent),Canada
(1.9percent),orEngland(1.9percent).Europeasawholedevotes1.9percentto
researchanddevelopment,whileindustrializednationsspendaround2.3
10
percent.
IfoneaddstogetherallthescienceandtechnologyworkersintheUnitedStates
asapercentageoftheworkplace,33percentofAmericanemployeeshavescience
ortechnologypositions.Thisisslightlylessthanthe34percentfigureforthe
NetherlandsandGermany,buthigherthanthe28percentinFranceand
11
Canada,.
Theproductivityinthisareahasfueledconsiderabledemandforthosewith
scienceandengineeringexpertise,andithasbeendifficultfortheUnitedStatesto
12
producesufficientknowledgeworkers. ThirtyeightpercentofKoreanstudents
nowearndegreesinscienceandengineering,comparedto33percentfor
Germany,28percentforFrance,27percentforEngland,and26percentforJapan.
TheUnitedStateshasfallenbehindinthisarea.Despitegreatdemandforthis
kindoftraining,only16percentofAmericangraduateshavebackgroundsin
13
scienceandengineering.
InAmerica,theprivatesectorsurpassedthefederalgovernmentin1980in
termsoftheamountofmoneyspentonresearchanddevelopment.By2003,
commercialcompaniesprovided68percentofthe$283billionspentonresearch
anddevelopment,comparedto27percentfromthefederalgovernment.Ofthis
total,$113billioncamefromthefederalgovernment,while$170camefromthe
privatesector.AccordingtoinformationfromtheNationalScienceBoard,the
percentageofresearchanddevelopmentspendingcomingfromthefederal
governmenthasdroppedfromaround63percentintheearly1960sto27percent
14
today,whilethatoftheprivatesectorincreasedfrom30to68percent.

The Need for a Clear Focus on Innovation

Inmovingforward,itisclearthatinformationtechnologyenablesinnovationina
varietyofpolicyareas.AccordingtoPhilipBond,thepresidentofTechAmerica,
eachtechjobsupportsthreejobsinothersectorsoftheeconomy.Andin
informationtechnology,hesays,therearefivejobsforeachITposition. 15
Fasterbroadbandandwirelessspeedsalsoenablepeopletotakeadvantageof
newdigitaltoolssuchasGISmapping,telemedicine,virtualreality,onlinegames,
supercomputing,videoondemand,andvideoconferencing.Newdevelopments
inhealthinformationtechnologyandmobilehealth,suchasemailingXraysand
othermedicaltests,requirehighspeedbroadband.Anddistancelearning,civic
engagement,andsmartenergygridsrequiresufficientbandwidth. 16

Technology and the Innovation Economy

3
 Highspeedbroadbandallowsphysicianstosharedigitalimageswith
colleaguesinothergeographicareas.Schoolsareabletoextenddistancelearning
tounderservedpopulations.Smartelectricgridsproducegreaterefficiencyin
monitoringenergyconsumptionandcontributetomoreenvironmentfriendly
policies.Videoconferencingfacilitiessavegovernmentandbusinesseslarge
amountsofmoneyontheirtravelbudgets.Newdigitalplatformsacrossavariety
ofpolicydomainsspurutilizationandinnovation,andbringadditionalpeople,
businesses,andservicesintothedigitalrevolution.
Intheeducationarea,bettertechnologyinfrastructureenablespersonalized
learningandrealtimeassessment.Imagineschoolswherestudentsmastervital
skillsandcriticalthinkinginapersonalizedandcollaborativemanner,teachers
assesspupilsinrealtime,andsocialmediaanddigitallibrariesconnectlearnersto
awiderangeofinformationalresources.Teacherstakeontheroleofcoaches,
studentslearnattheirownpace,technologytracksstudentprogress,andschools
arejudgedbasedontheoutcomestheyproduce.Ratherthanbelimitedtosix
hoursadayforhalftheyear,thiskindofeducationmovestoward24/7
engagementandlearningfulltime. 17
Theserepresentjustafewoftheexampleswhereinnovationistakingplace.
Technologyfostersinnovation,createsjobs,andboostlongtermeconomic
prosperity.Byimprovingcommunicationandcreatingopportunitiesfordata
sharingandcollaboration,informationtechnologyrepresentsaninfrastructure
issueasimportantasbridges,highways,dams,andbuildings.

Getting Serious about Innovation Policy

Tostimulateinnovation,weneedanumberofpolicyactions.Rightnow,the
UnitedStatesdoesnothaveacoherentorcomprehensiveinnovationstrategy.
Unlikeothernations,whothinksystematicallyaboutthesematters,wemake
policyinapiecemealfashionandfocusonshortversuslongtermobjectives.This
limitstheefficiencyandeffectivenessofournationalefforts.Thereareanumber
ofareasthatweneedtoaddress.
ResearchandDevelopmentTaxCredits:Anexampleofournationalshort
sightednessistheresearchanddevelopmenttaxcredit.MembersofCongress
haveextendedthismanytimesinrecentyears,buttheygenerallydothisonan
annualbasis.Ratherthanextendthiscreditoveralongperiodoftime,theyrenew
itepisodicallyandneveronapredictableschedule.
Thismakesitdifficultforcompaniestoplaninvestmentsandpursueconsistent
strategiesovertime.Duetopoliticaluncertaintiesandinstitutionalpolitics,we
endupcreatinginefficiencieslinkedtothevagariesoffederalpolicymaking. 18
Whilecompaniesinothercountriesinvestanddeductonamorepredictable
schedule,weshootourselvesinthefootthroughashortsightedperspective.
Bondnotesthat23countriesnowofferamoregenerousandstablecreditthan
theUnitedStates. 19

Technology and the Innovation Economy

4
 CommercializingUniversityKnowledge:Universitiesrepresentacrucial
linchpinineffortstobuildaninnovationeconomy.Theyareextraordinary
knowledgegenerators,butmustdoabetterjoboftransferringtechnologyand
commercializingknowledge.Universitylicensingofficesmustspeeduptheir
reviewprocessinordertoencouragetheformationofbusinesses.Universities
shouldthinkmoreseriouslyaboutinnovationmetricssotheyallocateresources
efficientlyandcreatetheproperincentives.
Rightnow,manyplacescountthenumberofpatentsandlicensingagreements
withoutmuchattentiontothebusinessescreated,productsthataremarketed,or
revenuethatisgenerated.Theyshouldmakesuretheirresourcesandincentives
arealignedwithmetricsthatencouragetechnologytransferand
commercialization. 20
STEMWorkforceTrainingandDevelopment:TheUnitedStatesisfacinga
crisisinSTEMtrainingandworkforcedevelopment.Therearemanydimensions
ofthischallenge,butoneofthemostimportantconcernsisthelownumberof
collegestudentsgraduatingwithdegreesinscience,technology,engineering,and
math.FewAmericanstudentsaredevelopingproficiencyinthesesubjects,which
ishinderingthecountryseconomicfuture.PastAmericanprosperityhasbeen
propelledbyadvancesintheSTEMfields.Skillsintheseareashelpedthecountry
winthespaceraceandtheColdWarandweneedthemnowaswetransitiontoa
technologydriveneconomy.
Todealwiththisproblem,PresidentBarackObamasCouncilofAdvisorson
ScienceandTechnology(PCAST)hasproducedanofficialreportthatcallsforthe
creationofaMasterTeachersCorps.Amongotherrecommendations,thereport
emphasizestwoactions:1)hiring100,000newSTEMteachersand2)paying
highersalariestothetop5percentofSTEMteachers. 21 However,inaneraof
budgetcutbacksandattacksonteacherunions,ithasbeendifficulttobuild
supportforraisingteachersalariesingeneralandadoptingdifferentialpayin
particular.
Inhis2011StateoftheUnion,thePresidentrestatedhiscommitmenttoputting
educationattheforefrontofthenationalagenda,emphasizingtheneedforquality
teachers,investmentinSTEMeducationprograms,andaboldrestructuringof
federaleducationfunding.Hecalledforidentifyingeffectiveteachersandcreating
rewardsystemstoretaintopperformingindividuals.
ItisvitaltoaddresstheseissuesbecausebasicfactsaboutSTEMteachingand
competencyarenotwellknown.Failingschoolsnotonlyharmstudents,they
weakentheoveralleconomy.WiththeU.S.facingacrisisofmassiveproportions
intermsofitsabilitytoinnovateandcreatejobs,itisimperativethatwetransform
STEMteachingtopreparestudentsforthefutureeconomy.Realemphasisshould
beplacedonteacherinvestmentbecauseresearchhasshownthatteachersarethe
primaryfactorinensuringstudentgrowthandachievement.
AnEinsteinStrategyforImmigrationReform:Weneedreasonable
immigrationreform.Oneofourmostimportantchallengesisanewnarrative
definingimmigrationasabraingainthatimproveseconomiccompetitivenessand

Technology and the Innovation Economy

5
nationalinnovation.AfocusonbrainsandcompetitivenesswouldhelpAmerica
overcomepastdeficienciesinimmigrationpolicyandenableourcountrytomove
forwardintothe21stcentury.Itisawaytobecomemorestrategicabout
promotingourlongtermeconomyandachievingimportantnationalobjectives. 22
WeneedtothinkaboutimmigrationpolicyalongthelinesofanEinstein
Principle.Inthisperspective,nationalleaderswouldelevatebrains,talent,and
specialskillstoahigherplaneinordertoattractmoreindividualswiththe
potentialtoenhanceAmericaninnovationandcompetitiveness.Thegoalisto
boostthenationaleconomy,andbringindividualstoAmericawiththepotentialto
makesignificantcontributions.Thiswouldincreasetheoddsforprosperitydown
theroad.Ithasbeenestimatedthatover50,000workerswithadvanceddegrees
leavethecountryforbetteropportunitieselsewhere. 23
O1GeniusVisas:InordertoboostAmericaninnovation,currentpolicy
containsaprovisionforavisabrainsprogram.Thesocalledgeniusvisa
knownasO1allowsthegovernmenttoauthorizevisasforthosehaving
extraordinaryabilitiesinthearts,science,education,business,andsports.In
2008,around9,000geniusvisasweregranted,upfrom6,500in2004.Theidea
behindthisprogramistofocusontalentedpeopleandencouragethemtocometo
theUnitedStates.Itisconsistentwithwhatnationalleadershavedoneinpast
eras,whereweencouragedthosewithspecialtalentstomigratetoournation.
However,thisprogramhasbeensmallandentrypasseshavegoneto
individualssuchasprofessionalbasketballplayerDirkNowitzkiofGermanyand
variousmembersoftheMerceCunninghamandBillT.Jones/ArnieZanedance
companies. 24 Whilethesepeopleclearlyhavespecialtalents,itisimportantto
extendthisprograminnewwaysandtargetpeoplewhocreatejobsandfurther
Americaninnovation.ThiswouldhelptheUnitedStatescompetemore
effectively.
EB5JobCreationVisas:ThereisalittleknownEB5visaprogramthatoffers
temporaryvisastoforeignerswhoinvestatleasthalfamilliondollarsinAmerican
localesofficiallydesignatedasdistressedareas.Iftheirfinancialinvestment
leadstothecreationof10ormorejobs,thetemporaryvisaautomaticallybecomes
apermanentgreencard.Withoutmuchmediaattention,therewere945
immigrantsin2008whoprovidedover$400millionthroughthisprogram. 25 Ona
percapitabasis,thesebenefitsmaketheprogramoneofthemostsuccessful
economicdevelopmentinitiativesinthefederalgovernment.
ThisisagreatwaytotieU.S.immigrationpolicytojobcreation.Ifagoalof
nationalpolicyistoencourageinvestmentandjobcreation,targetedvisasofthis
sortareveryeffective.Suchprogramsexplicitlylinknewimmigrationwith
concreteeconomicinvestment.Theyalsogenerateneededforeigncapital
($500,000)forpoorgeographicareas.Thereispublicaccountabilityforthispolicy
programbecauseentryvisasaregrantedonatemporarybasisandbecome
permanentonlyAFTERatleast10jobshavebeencreated.Thiskindofvisa
programistheultimateintargetingandqualitycontrol.Unlessthemoneyis
investedandleadstonewjobs,thenewcomerisnotallowedtostayintheUnited

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6
States.
H1BWorkerVisas:Rightnow,only15percentofannualvisasaresetaside
foremploymentpurposes.Ofthese,somegotoseasonalagriculturalworkers,
whileasmallnumberofH1Bvisas(65,000)arereservedforspecialty
occupationssuchasscientists,engineers,andtechnologicalexperts.Individuals
whoareadmittedwiththisworkpermitcanstayforuptosixyears,andareable
toapplyforagreencardiftheiremployeriswillingtosponsortheirapplication.
Thenumberreservedforscientistsandengineersisdrasticallybelowthefigure
allowedbetween1999and2004.Inthatinterval,thefederalgovernmentsetaside
upto195,000visaseachyearforH1Bentry.Theideawasthatscientific
innovatorsweresoimportantforlongtermeconomicdevelopmentthatwe
neededtoboostthenumbersetasideforthosespecialtyprofessions.
Today,mostofthecurrentallocationof65,000visasrunoutwithinafew
monthsofthestartofthegovernmentsfiscalyearinOctober.Eveninthe
recessionplaguedperiodof2009,visaapplicationsexceededthesupplywithinthe
firstthreemonthsofthefiscalyear.Americancompanieswereresponsiblefor49
percentoftheH1Bvisarequestsin2009,upfrom43percentin2008.The
companieswhichwereawardedthelargestnumberofthesevisasincludedfirms
suchasWipro(1,964),Microsoft(1,318),Intel(723),IBMIndia(695),PatriAmericas
(609),Larsen&ToubroInfotech(602),Ernst&Young(481),Infosystechnologies
(440),USTGlobal(344),andDeloitteConsulting(328). 26
Highskillvisasneedtobeexpandedbackto195,000becauseatitscurrent
level,thatprogramrepresentsonlysixandahalfpercentofthemillionwork
permitsgrantedeachyearbytheUnitedStates.Thatpercentageiswoefully
inadequateintermsofthesupplyneeded.EntryprogramssuchastheH1B,O1,
andL1visaprogramsgranttemporaryvisasforaperiodofafewyearstoworkers
withspecialtalentsneededbyAmericanemployers.TheyenableU.S.companies
toattracttoppeopletodomesticindustries,andrepresentagreatwayto
encourageinnovationandentrepreneurship.
RegionalEconomicClusters:Weneedregionaleconomicclustersthattake
advantageofinnovationrichgeographicniches.Thereareseveralexamplesof
successfulandgeographicallybasedclusterssuchasSiliconValley,BostonsRoute
128,andtheResearchTriangleinNorthCarolina.Ineachoftheseareas,thereisa
combinationofcreativetalentassociatedwithterrificuniversities,accessto
venturecapital,andstatelawsthatpromoteinnovationthroughtaxpolicyand/or
infrastructuredevelopment.
Researchhasdemonstratedthattheseinnovationclustersgeneratepositive
economicresults.AccordingtoaBrookingsreportbyMarkMuroandBruceKatz,
itisnowbroadlyaffirmedthatstrongclustersfosterinnovationthroughdense
knowledgeflowsandspillovers;strengthenentrepreneurshipbyboostingnew
enterpriseformationandstartupsurvival,enhanceproductivity,incomelevels,
andemploymentgrowthinindustries,andpositivelyinfluenceregionaleconomic
performance. 27

Technology and the Innovation Economy

7
 Thequestionishowtopromotesuchclustersinothergeographicareas.There
clearlyareotherplaceswiththeunderlyingconditionsthatfostertechnology
innovation.ButMuroandKatzcautionthatpoliticalleaderscantforceclusters
thatdontalreadyexistandthattheyshouldlettheprivatesectorleadin
encouragingclusterformation.Itisimportanttoleverageexistingresourcesand
takeadvantageofworkforcedevelopmentprograms,bankingrules,educational
institutions,andtaxpolicies. 28

Governance Studies
The Brookings Institution
1775 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20036
E-mail your comments to
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Editor This paper is distributed in the expectation that it may elicit

Christine Jacobs useful comments and is subject to subsequent revision. The
views expressed in this piece are those of the author and
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Endnotes

ChristineZhenWeiQiang,TelecommunicationsandEconomicGrowth,
1

Washington,D.C.:WorldBank,unpublishedpaper.

2TaylorReynolds,TheRoleofCommunicationInfrastructureInvestmentin
EconomicRecovery,WorkingPartyonCommunicationInfrastructuresand
ServicesPolicy,OECD,March,2009.

ErikBrynjolfssonandAdamSaunders,WiredforInnovation,Cambridge,
3

Massachusetts:MITPress,2009.

DanielMcGinn,TheDeclineofWesternInnovation:WhyAmericaisFalling
4

BehindandHowtoFixIt,TheDailyBeast,November15,2009.

DanielMcGinn,TheDeclineofWesternInnovation:WhyAmericaisFalling
5

BehindandHowtoFixIt,TheDailyBeast,November15,2009.

DanielMcGinn,TheDeclineofWesternInnovation:WhyAmericaisFalling
6

BehindandHowtoFixIt,TheDailyBeast,November15,2009.

DarrellWest,BrainGain:RethinkingU.S.ImmigrationPolicy,Washington,D.C.:
7

BrookingsInstitutionPress,2010.

DarrellM.West,BiotechnologyPolicyAcrossNationalBoundaries,NewYork:
8

Palgrave/Macmillan,2007.

MichaelArndt,BenFranklin,WhereAreYou?BusinessWeek,January4,2010,
9

p.29.

OrganisationforEconomicCoOperationandDevelopment,Scienceand
10

TechnologyStatisticalCompendium,2004.

OrganisationforEconomicCoOperationandDevelopment,Scienceand
11

TechnologyStatisticalCompendium,2004.

DarrellWest,BrainGain:RethinkingU.S.ImmigrationPolicy,Washington,
12

D.C.:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2010.

OrganisationforEconomicCoOperationandDevelopment,Scienceand
13

TechnologyStatisticalCompendium,2004.

Technology and the Innovation Economy

9
 NationalScienceBoard,ScienceandEngineeringIndictors2004,Washington,
14

D.C.:NationalScienceFoundation,2004,p.04.

PhilipBond,TechProvidesMapforNationsFuture,Politico,September18,
15

2011.

DarrellWest,AnInternationalLookatHighSpeedBroadband,Washington,
16

D.C.:BrookingsInstitution,February,2010.

DarrellWest,UsingTechnologytoPersonalizeLearningandAssessStudentsin
17

RealTime,Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitution,October6,2011.

MartinBaily,BruceKatz,andDarrellWest,BuildingaLongTermStrategyfor
18

GrowththroughInnovation,Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitution,May,2011.

PhilipBond,TechProvidesMapforNationsFuture,Politico,September18,
19

2011.

MartinBaily,BruceKatz,andDarrellWest,BuildingaLongTermStrategyfor
20

GrowththroughInnovation,Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitution,May,2011.

PresidentsCouncilofAdvisorsonScienceandTechnology,Prepareand
21

Inspire:K12EducationinScience,Technology,Engineering,andMathfor
AmericasFuture,September,2010.

RichardHermanandRobertSmith,Immigrant,Inc.:WhyImmigrant
22

EntrepreneursAreDrivingtheNewEconomyandHowTheyWillSavethe
AmericanWorker,Hoboken,NewJersey:JohnWiley&Sons,2010.

CenterforPublicPolicyInnovation,RestoringU.S.Competitiveness:
23

NavigatingaPathForwardThroughInnovationandEntrepreneurship,
Washington,D.C.,September7,2011.

24MoiraHerbst,GeniusesattheGate,BusinessWeek,June8,2009,p.14.

25LisaLerer,Invest$500,000,ScoreaU.S.Visa,CNNMoney.com.

MoiraHerbst,StillWanted:ForeignTalentAndVisas,BusinessWeek,
26

December21,2009,p.76.

MarkMuroandBruceKatz,TheNewClusterMoment:HowRegional
27

InnovationClustersCanFostertheNextEconomy,Washington,D.C.:Brookings
Institution,September21,2010.

Technology and the Innovation Economy

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 MarkMuroandBruceKatz,TheNewClusterMoment:HowRegional
28

InnovationClustersCanFostertheNextEconomy,Washington,D.C.:Brookings
Institution,September21,2010.

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