Damage Temperature Range (Deg

SI No. Susceptible Material Dependent Factors Effect More Info Detection/Testing Prevention Remarks
Mechanism Farenheit)

Two Types -1) Random (Lowers Tensile Strength but not creep
resistance)
Silicon and Alumunium does not affect
2) Chain or Plane concentrated- Brittle Fracture
graphatization;
800-1100 Chemistry, Stress, Temperature, Exposure -lower load bearing capacity
1 Graphatization CS, 0.5Mo (upto 1%Mo) Strength, Ductility, Creep Metallography chromium addition more than 0.7%
(427-593degC) Time a) Weld HAZ - eyebrow
Field Replicas may be inadequate since
b) Non-Weld -localized, occurs in yeilding planes chain like manner
damage might occur midwall.
in regions of plastic deformation due to cold working

Spherodization preferentially occurs above 1025 DegF (552degC)

Annealed steels and Coarse grained are more resistant than

850-1400
Softeining Chemistry, Microstructure, Temperature, normalized and fine grain. minimize long term exposure to high
2 CS, LAS (upto 9Cr) (440-760degC) Strength, Creep (increase ductility) Metallography
(Spehroidization) Exposure Time Silicon-killed more resistant than Al-killed temperatures
mostly: above 454degC
Pearlite phase unergo transformation
J=(Mn + Si)(P + Sn) x10,000 (in wt %), has been
-Control 'J' (below 100)factor and 'X' applied to parent steels
Temper Primarily 2.25Cr-1Mo 650-1070 Chemistry, Thermal history, temperature , For Weld Repairs, effects of temper embrittlement can be reversed
3 Reduced Toughness (DBTT temperature increase) Impact Testing/SEM (below 15)factor
Embrittlement Also 3Cr-1Mo (343-577degC) Exposure Time by heating at 1150degF (620degC)
-PWHT, Strength Levels X=(10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As)/100 (in ppm), is
applied to weld metals.
-Bessemer and Openhearth process cause lot of impurities. New -Low impurity elements &
Strain Ageing (Blue Increase Strength & Hardness; Decrease Ductility Metallography ; Can't be detected
4 Older (1980s) CS; C-0.5 Mo Impurity (Chemistry); Temperature BOF (Basic Oxygen Furnace) avoids these impurities. Aluminum>0.015 wt% -PWHT Less chances in deoxidised (Al)/fully kiled steel
Brittleness) & Toughness before fracture
-More chances in thick walls without stress relieving (stress relieved)

-400 Series SS (405,409,410,410S,430,446) and Not apparent with metallography. -use low ferrite alloys or non-ferrite.
885degF (475degC) 700-1000 -chromium content, amount of ferrte Ferritic alloys are not used for pressurized applications in refineries
5 Duplex Stainless Steels (Alloy 2205,2304,2507) -Toughness Loss -Increase in DBTT Temperature Bend or Impact Testing are used. Phenamenon is reversible by heating at
Embrittlement (371-540degC) phase, operating temperature due to this embrittlement, Eg-Duplex SS Tubes
- Ferrite Phase containing alloys Hardness also increases. 1100degF (593degC)and rapid cooling
-More rapidly in ferrite phase in 300 Series SS and Duplex SS weld
-300 series SS -wrought, weld and castings. HP
deposits -Cast Austenitic SS have high ferrite/sigma
and HK alloys are more susceptible due to high
hard phase precipitates, intermetallic brittle phase -Can occur is 300series SS (Austenitic phase) if PWHT done at content (up to 40%) and may have poor high
Sigma Phase (10%-40%) ferrite content. 1000-1700 -Chemical Composition, Time (primary
6 which is more susceptble to IGC, increase rate 1275degC -Metallography and Impact testing temperature ductility
Embrittlement -400 Series SS and ferritic and Martensitic SS (538-927degC) )and Temperature
with chromium and moly content -Tensile and Yeild strength of sigmatized Stainless Steel>solution -for SS clad Cr-Mo steels, exposure time to
with Cr>=17%.
annealed SS PWHT should be limited
-Duplex SS
-Control Operating Conditions
-Inpection is not used for brittle
-Size, shape and conentration effect of -Minimize pressue at ambient temperatures during
-CS and Low Alloy Steels primarily fracture
7 Brittle Fracture flaw -Straight Cracks without Branching stratup/shutdown Failure below DBTT
Also 400 Series SS -Susceptibe vessels can be inspected
-Residual and applied stress -Peridoic inspection at hig hstress locations
for pre-existing flaws/defects
-PWHT
-Scanning Electron Microscope (only
method for initial creep damage -An increase in 25degF (12degC ) or an
Creep and Stress -Material, Load and Temperature Ir-reversible damage
8 -All Metals and Alloys detection) increase of 15% on stress cut remainig life
Rupture -Less likely in fine grain Creep Threshold for CS = 343degC
in half or more
-Metallography
-minimize Thermal Stresses & Thermal
Cycling
-Temperature Swing (magnitude) and
-Designs to include flexibility of differential
Frequency Since surface cracking so Visual, MPT,
9 Thermal Fatigue All materials of construction -crack initiate on surface expansion Temp Swing>200eg F (93degC)
-Thermal gradient (cold water in hot tube) DPT
-Liner or Sleeve may be installed to
Nothches and sharp corners
prevent a colder liquid from contacting
pressure bounary wells
-Infra red monitoing of tube and
Short Term -localized deformation,buloging tubeskin temperatures, Visual,
All fire heater tube materials and common Occurs at low stress levels due to localized
10 Overheating -Stress -Temperature, Time, Stress -Rupture (fishmouth) accomapanied by thinning at Mechanism is similar to creep Thermocouples
materials of construction overheating
Rupture the fracture surface -Refractory lining monitored by heat
indicating paint and IR scans
-open burst with fracture edges drawn to a near
knife-edge -proper burner management
generally occurs in steam generating units including fired boilers, Burber management to prevent flame
11 Stem Blanketing CS and Low Alloy Steels -Heat Flux, Fluid Flow -proper BFW treatment It can cause caustic gouging
waste heat exchangers impingement
-elongated grain structure due to plastic -Visual Inspection for bulging
deformation
Nickel based filler material has closer
-100% DPT after buttering and thermal coefiicient of expoansion to
completion carbon steel so will avoid stress.
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (welded to -Type of filler metal, heating and cooling
Dis-similar metal -Creep and Thermal Fatigue crack are significant Nickel base alloys have closer thermal expansion coefiitciant to -100% UT on butter layer after PWHT
12 austenitic stainless steel or other alloys with rate, metal temperature, weld geometry,
weld cracking above 510degF carbon steel hence results in lower stress -100% RT Butttering of SS or nickel Based material
differential exoansion) thermal cycling
-100% UT-recordable over CS and then PWHT is done to
-PMI complete DMW to minimize the hardness
of mixed weld zone.
SS have higher coefficient of thermal
Generally occurs when a colder liquid comes in contact with -DPT and MPT
13 Thermal Shock All metalls and alloys expansion than CS and Nickel based alloys and
warmer surface -Difficult to locate
are more likely to see higher stresses

-localized thickness loss in form of pits, grooves,

Erosion/Erosion -Corrosion Contributes in most cases so -improve geometry, shape, material,
14 All Metals, alloys and refractories gullies, waves, rounded holes, valleys
Corrosion pure erosion by brasive wear is rare. B1715
-short time is needed for failure
 -Material Change may not help much
-Bubbles will create sound like pebbles -mechanical modification, design or
-operating temp. near boiling point
Copper, Aluminnium, Brass, Cast Iron, Carbon thrashed inside operating change is usually required
-solid particles in flow will add to Generally damage looks like sharp edge pitting and
15 Cavitation Steel, Low Alloy Steel, 300 Series SS, 400 Series -acoustic monitoring of turbulent areas -best prevented by avoiding the absolute
impingement occurs in localized low-pressure zones
SS and nickel base alloys -Visual examination of susceptible pressure to fall below the vapour pressure
-Inadequate NPSH
areas and external UT and RT of liquid or by changing material
properties
-Heat Treatmnet can increase toughness
-Some materials as titanium, CS and LAS have endurance limit (0.4-
and hence fatigue resistance of the
0.5 times of UTS). Below this min stress, fatigue will not occur DPT, MPT, SWUTat stress concentrated
metals. Fine grain structure performs
irrespective of no. of cycles. No. of cycles to crack reduces with areas
better than coarse against fatigue.
increase in stress.
Geometry, Stresss Level, No. of cycles, and -good design to prevent stress
VT for small dia piping to detect
16 Mechanical Fatigue All engineering alloys material properties (stregth, hardness and -Beach Marks/Clam shell finger prints concentrators
-Materials as Austenitic Stainles Steel, aluminium do have oscillations
microstructures -material selecion
endurance limit so fatigue depends on no. of cycles only . Same for
-generous radius in edges
300 SS, 400SS, aluminum Vibration monitoring of rotating
-remove burrs and lips caused by
equipment
machining
-Inclusions in metals accelerate fatigue
-low stress stamps

Amplitude and Frequency of vibration,

Fatigue resistance of materials, -Look for visible signs of vibration, pipe
-Design with proper supports
-Vibration damage of refractories movement or water hammering
-Install gusstes and stiffeneres
There is high likelihood of failure if -sounds from control valve and fittings
Vibration Induced -Vortex sheding can be minimuized at
17 All engineering alloys vibration frequncy synchronises with the -Damage is usually in form of crack initiating at a -Visual Inspection
Fatiue control valve outlet by proper sizing
natural frequency of component high stress point or discontinuity as thread or weld -DPT and MPT for surface inspection
-eliminate unnecessary connections
joint -damage to insulation jacketing may
-anchors and dampeners
lack of excessive support or stiffening indicate excessive vibration
allows vibration
-Refractory Material -Visual Inspection in Shutdowns
Refratyory Insulating ceramic fibres, castables, refractory Refractory Selection, anchors and fillers,
18 -erosion, thermal expansion or shock -Cracking, Spalling, D26 -Col Wall Equipment onstream IR to
Degradation brick and plastic refractories proper installation
- monitor hot spots

-Chemical Composition, impurity

elements, grain size, residual stress from
fabrication (cold working, welding),
section thickness (which controls resistant
and stress state)

-requires high stress so for thicker sections -Joint configuration in heavy walls should
-Surface cracks by UT and MPT of CS
be avoided to minimize restraint during
and LAS
-occurs at high temperature where creep welding and PWHT
Reheat Cracking/
ductility is not enough to accomodate
Stress Relief Low Alloy Steels (especially Cr-Mo Steels with Cracking of ametal due to stress relaxation during PWHT or in -UT and DPT for cracks in 300 series SS
strains required for relief of applied -Adequate preheat must be done
19 Cracking/ vanadium added), 300 eries SS and nickel base service at elevated temperatures above 750degF (399degC). It is and nickel based alloys
residual stress
Stress Relaxation alloys such as alloy 800H most often observed in heavy wall sections
-large grain size results in less ductile HAZ
Cracking -embedded cracks only detected by UT
-Intergranular cracking. Intragranular making material more prone to cracking
precipitates make grains stronger than
grain boundaries so creep occurs at -for thick SS wall, PWHT should be avoided
boundaries

-stress relief and stabilization heat

traetment of 300 SS for maximising CLSCC
and PTASCC resistance can cause reheat
cracking

Many metals are flammable in oxygen an enriched air (>25%O2)

even at low pressures whereas are not flammable in air.
-system pressure, oxygen content, line
Gaseous Oxygen -Copper alloys (>55% Cu)
CS. LAS, ASS, aluminium, plastic, rubbers, velocity, component thickness, design and -commercial O2 is dry and non-
20 Enhanced Ignition Ignition temp of most alloys are near the alloy's melting temp -Nickel Alloys(>50% Ni)
lubricants, titanium alloys piping configuration, clealiness and Corrosive so damage not detectable
and Combustion under stagnant condition. Actual system can ignite due to particle -Alloy 400
temperature
impact and other mechanisms at even room temperature -Al (not good for flowing O2)
 Damage
SI No. Susceptible Material Dependent Factors
Mechanism
-Electrolyte, Anode & Cathode in
electrolyte, electrical connection between
Anode and Cathode
1 Galvanic Corrosion All metals except most noble metals
Exposed Surface area, Difference in
potential
Atmospheric -location (marine,rural, indusctrial),
2 CS, LAS, Copper Alloyed Aluminium
Corrosion humidity
Temperature, poor design, insulating
material that holds more moisture (wick),
Corrosion Under cyclic thermal expansion or intermittent
3 CS, LAS, 300SS, Duplex SS
Insulation service, chlorides leached out of
insulation, marine, Paint or coating
damage,
cooling water corrosion and fouling, flui
temperature, type of water (fresh,
Cooling Water CS, all stainless steel, copper, aluminium, brackish, salt water) and type of cooling
4 presence of Ammonia
Corrosion titanium, nickel base alloys system (open circulating, closed
circulating), oxygen content, fluid
velocities
5 CO2 Corrosion Carbon Steel and Low Alloy Steel pCO2, pH, temperature, water
Flue Gas Dew Point Concentration of sulfur and chlorides,
6 CS, LAS, 300 SS
Corrosion temperature below dew point
aqueous environment, mostly stagnant or
local pitting under deposits, tubercles that shields
Microbilogically CS, LAS, 300 SS, 400 SS, Aluminium, Copper and low flow conditions, sulfur content, all
7 the organisms. Cup shaped pits within pits in CS
Induced Corrosion Nickel Base Alloys organisms need carbon, nitrogen and
and SS
phosphorous for growth,
temperature, moisture, oxygen
availability, soil resistivity, soil type (water
8 Soil Corrosion Carbon Steel, Cast Iron and Ductile Iron drainage), homogenity, cathoic protection, Pitting and General Thinning
stray current drainage, coating, age,
condition
KOH, NaOH Content, Alkaline salts to
9 Caustic Corrosion CS, LAS, 300 SS process streams, intentional addition for
sulfur and chlorine removal
Effect
Thickness loss, localized corrosion
-Pitting corrosion or localized thickness loss in
thickness
-300 SS also subject to SSC if chlorides are presnet. 140degF (60degC) and 400degF (205degC) austenitic stainless
Duplex SS is better.
Unform Corrosion and Pitting
broad, shallow pits, CLSCC for 300 SS
Localized corrosion due to alkaline salts due to
usually evaporation and high heat transfer
conditions,
More Info Detection/Testing Prevention Remarks
In anode -cathode contact , if anode is coated then a minor
-Good Design
damage will cause less anodic area and big cathodic area (un-
Visual and UT -Insulating Kits
coated) so damage will be faster. SO in case of galvanic couple,
-Coating of more noble metals
more noble (cathodic) metals may need to be coate)
VT and UT
-Appropriate paints/coatings and
maintaining insulation/sealing /barriers to
-planned inspection
moisture ingress
-CUI history for vessel or comparable
10degF (-12degC) and 350degF (175degC) for CS and LAS -Flame-sprayed aluminium coating for CS
equipment
(Sacrificial coating)
-visual conition
-aluminium foil wrapping on SS
-Stains
steels and duplex stainless steels -Insulation material selection. Closed-cell
-Guided Wave UT
glass material will hold less water against
-IR thermography
vessel/pipe wall than mineral wool and
potentially be less corrosive
scaling with fresh water > 60degC (140degF)
Brackish and Salt Water > 46degC (115degF)
300SS can suffer pitting, crevice and SCC in fresh, brakish and salt
water system
Copper -Zinc Alloys suffer de-zincifiation, can suffer SCC in
Localized or general corrosion,
grooving at HAZ,
ERW CS pipe suffer severe weld and HAZ corrosion in fresh and
brackish water
When connected to more anodic material, titanium may suffer
severe hydriding embrittlement generally above 82degC (180degF)
but can also occur at lower temperatures
UT, VT and RT Add Cr
Sulfur and chlorine gas will form SO2, SO3, HCl within combustion Wall Thickness by UT for economiser
Maintain temperature above dew point,
products. These gases will then condense to form acids to cause tubes, SCC on 300SS can be found
avoid 300 SS for chlorides
corrosion. using VT and PT
Biocides (chlorine, Bromine, Ozone,
Ultraviolet light) for system with cooling
water, storage tanks etc., maintain flow
Measuring Bioide residual microbe
velocities, minimize low flow or stagnant
counts and
zones, blow dry and prevent moisture
intrusion after hydrotest, maintain
coatings
inline devices, ultrasonic thickness
tools, indirectly by pressuretesting, Coatings, Cathodic Protction, Backfill
visually
Proper Design for mixing of injecte
chemicals, minimize hot spots, CS an 300
UT Thickness guaging to monitor
SS face severe problems in high strength
Caustic may become concentrated by departure from DNB, general corrosion from caustic, UT
cautic solutions above 150degF (or
evaporation and deposition scans and radiography, visual
66degC).
inspection by boroscopy
Alloy 400 and nickel based alloys exhibit
good corrosion resistance.
 -It is difficult to predict if conditions are
conducive to dealloying so suceptibility
and consequence shall be kept in mind.
-Addition of some alloys help. Tin addition
inhibits dealloying of copper alloys;
Under ground cast iron piping in some soils. -Color change, metallography,
admirability brass is inhibited by small
Primarily Copper Alloys (Bonze, Bronze, Tin) as temperature, degree of aeration, pH and echanger tubing (brass, bronz)in cooling water . Selective corrosion mechanism in which one or more constituents significant hardness reduction,
10 Dealloying amount of phosphorous, antimony and
well as Alloy 400 and cast iron exposure time of alloy are preferentially attacked leaving lower density acoustic technique, ultrasonic
arsenic; de-alumunification of aluminum-
Can be localized or uniform corrosion attenuation, (UT not used)
bronze can be prevented by heat
treatment to produce alpha and beta
microstructure

Composition of alloy, exposure conditions

incluing temperature, degree of aeration,
Primarily Grey Cast Iron, but also nodular and Graphitic corrosion is form of dealloying in which the iron matrix is
pH and exposure time. Moisture or
malleable cast irons. However nodular and corroded, leaving corrosion products and porous graphite which UT is no good, Acoustic technuiques, Coatings, Cement Lining, Cathodic
aqueous phase usually below 93degC wide spread or localized, soft area easily gouged
11 Graphitic Corrosion malleable cast irons tend to crumble when cause loss of strength, ductility, density. It usually occus in low pH Ultrasonic attenuation, significant protection, it can be both external and
(200degF). Low pH, high sulfates. Graphite by knife
attacked. White iron is not subject to damage and stagnant conditions. especuially in contact with soild or water hardness reduction, Metallography insternal protection
is cathodic to iron, so iron matrix corrodes
because there is no graphite. in sulfates.
and protects graphite in certain
conductive water.

SI No. Damage Mechanism Susceptible Material
Iron based alloys, CS, LAS (both
cast and wrought),
1 Oxidation
300SS, 400SS, Nickel Based on
composition and temperature
CS, LAS, 300SS, 400SS
Nickel alloys also affected
based on composition
2 Sulfidation
especially chromium content.
Copper base alloys form sulfide
at lower temperature than CS.
CS, LAS, 300SS, 400SS, Cast
3 Carburization
Stainless teels, Ni-based alloys gases with high carbon and weldability, corrosion resistance
4 De-Carburization CS, LAS
LAS, 300SS, Nickel base alloys
(dusting without carbide
5 Metal Dusting formation), heat resisting
alloys. No know metal alloy
immune to dusting,
High Temperature Oxidation (400degF or 204degC)
Dependent Factors Effect More Info Detection/Testing Prevention Remarks
CS oxidation > 1000degF (538degC) -best is to upgrade the material to more resistant
Process parameters such as Steam and alloy
Metal Temperature and Increasing chromium content result Temperature monitoring, Temp,
General Thinning
Alloy Composition, in more protective oxide scale. 300 monitoring by tubeskin thermocouples, -Chromium is primary alloying element to resist
SS resist scaling upto 1500degF IR thermometer, Loss of thickness by UT oxidation. Silicon and Aluminum are effective but
(816degC) have adverse affects on mechanical properties
Corrosion of CS and other alloys
from their reaction with sulfur
-upgrading to higher chrome alloy
Mostly uniform thinning however compounds at high temperature.
Composition, Temperature, -clading with 300SS or 400SS
can be localized or velocity Hydrogen acelerates sulfidic UT thickness and profile raiography
Sulfur content, -Aluminum diffusion treatment for LAS used to
erosion corrosion damage corrosion.
reduce sulfidation and minimize scale formation
Mconomy curve for corrosion rate
-harness testing, field metallography,
destructive sampling and magnetic based
techniques (eddy current),
Carbon abosorption in to a mterial
-select alloys with strong surface oxide or sulfide
at hig htemperature in contact with
High Temperature [typically -magentism for film formers (silicon and aluminum)
carbonanceous material or
above 1100degF (593degC)], Loss of ductility, toughness, Austenitic SS (paramagentic) material
carburizing environment
increases so can be checked -reduce carbon activity through lower temperature,
low oxygen (CO) higher oxygen/sulfur [artial pressure. Sulfur inhibits
Ducting is a sever form of
-for advance stages where cracking carburization
carburization
initiates, RT, UT and magnetic techniques
can be used
Damage on surface however may
be trough wall in extreme cases, Loss of strength due to carbon and
decarburized layer free of carbide carbides removal
Time, Temperature, Carbon Metallography, Replication, hardness control gas chemistry, alloy selection, addition of
phase so carbon steel will
Activity testing chromium and molybenum
become pure iron.
HTHA is type pf decarburization
Softening
-pits on surface (can be uniform but pits) -Sulfur (usually H2S) forms a protective layer that
with metal oxide and carbides dust minimizes dusting and carburization. It is believed
Type of carburization, Tempearure that sulfur retards tha caron transfer from
localized pitting in presence of
900-1500degF (482degC-816degC) -Metallography atmosphere to metal and supresses graphite
Temperature, alloy hydrogen and carbon, pits
nucleation an growth.
composition, hydrogen, contain soot or graphite dust
Complex series of reactions -Ultasonic inspection
menthane, propane gases,
involving reducing gas suchas - No known metal is immune
Thinning and pitting
hydrogen, methane, propane, or CO -RT for pitting and thinnning
-An aluminum diffusion treatment to the base
-Visual, if possible metal in some applications

All alloys, Alloy 50Cr-50Ni
6 Fuel Ash Corrosion family is more resistant
however still not immune
CS, LAS, 300SS, 400SS,
7 Nitriding
Nickel base alloys are more
resistant
concentration of molten salt
forming contaminants, metal
temperature and alloy
composistion are critical,
sulfur content
temperature (above
600degF (316degC) and
beomes severe above
900degF (482degC), time,
partial pressure of nitrogen, (toughness/ductility), weldability
metal composition
Accelerated high temperature
wastage of materials when
contaminants in the fuel form
deposits and melt on the metal
surface of fired heater, boiler and
gas turbines.
The slags are different for oil and
coal ash'
-Metallography for initial stages
-surface hardness (conern is crack
A hard brittle layer develops due to
propagation as hardness on surface may
high temperature process stream
Corrosion Resistance is badly not affect the vessel directly)
with nitrogen compounds as
affetcted, loss of creep strength, -Change in colour to dull gray
Ammonia or cyanides, particulary
mechanical properties -Nitrided layers are magnetic so
under reducing conditions
magnetism is a check for 300 SS
-EC testing to detect nitriding
forms Fe3N, Fe4N
-PT, RT and UT for advance stages
SI No. Damage Mechanism Susceptible Material Dependent Factors Effect More Info Detection/Testing Prevention Remarks
-sometimes visually on surface
-Resistant material
-PT or phase analysis EC
Chloride content, pH, temperature, stress, presence of oxygen and alloy composition, craking 400 SS and CS are not suscpetible to -use of low chloride water and dry out when
300SS, Duplex SS. Nickel base Genrally Transgranular cracks, sometimes -Eddy current inspection
is nmore for acidic environment however unform corrosion prevails below pH of 2, general CLSCC; Can be external under cleaned
1 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking alloys are highly resistant but intergranular cracks in sensetized SS also -UT
temperature for CLSCC is 60degC and above, higlly prone to cracking for Ni content 8-12%, insulation or internal with process -coating under insulation
not immune. observed; fracture has brittle appearance -RT is not very sensitive to cracks expect
highly resistant above 35% and nearly immune above 45% fluid; -design to avoid stagnation regions where chlorides
in advanced stages where a significant
can concentrate
crack network is developed

Brittle, Transgranular but not branched as

SCC and so often results in propagation of
Fatigue due to cyclic loading and
multiple parallel cracks.
corrosion. Cracking initiates at a
stress concentration suchas a pit on
Fatigue cracks evidence very little plastic
surface. Cracking can initiate at -Coating or inhibitors
deformation
multiple surfaces. -UT and MT -Minimize galvanic couple effect
-Material, Corrosive Environment, Cyclic Stress (due to thermal stress, vibration or differential except that final fracture may occur by
2 Corrosion Fatigue All Metal and Alloys -WFMT -use CRA
expansion)and Stress Raisers mechanical overload accompanied by plastic
Contrary to pure mechanical -Stress Relieving
deformation
fatigue, there is no fatigue limit -Startup slowly to minize crack propagation
load. Corrosion promotes failure at
a lower stress and no. of cycles than
-Rotating Equipment -Galvanic coupling of
material's endurance limit
shaft and impeller cause pitting. Pit can act
as stress concentrator and lead to fatigue.

Surface initiated cracks in piping and -WFMT (Wet Fluorescent MPT) -PWHT (@ 621degC/1150degF)
equipment exposed to caustic primarily -EC (Eddy Current) -300 SS offer advantae over CS
Caustic Strength, Temperature, Stress (Applied or esidual from forming/welding/bending etc),
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking (Caustic CS, LAS, 300SS. Nickel based paralleland adjacent to the non-PWHT -RT (Radiography) -Nickel based are more resistant
3 Low cautic (50-100ppm) but with concentrating agent suchas cyclic wet and dry condition,
Embrittlement) alloys are more resistant. welds. Described as spider web of small -ACFM (AC Field Measurement) -Steamout of non-PWHT Carbon steel should be
localized hot spot or high temperature steamout.
cracks. Predominantly intergranular -UT and external SWUT (Shear Wave UT) avoided. Low pressure staem only should be used
however in 300SS, it is transgranular. -AET (Acoustic Emmision Testing) for short time to minimize exposure.

-For Copper alloys:

-Copper Alloys
brasses, admirability brass, aluminum brass are susceptible. Zinc content of brass affect A) Copper Alloys
a) Coper Alloys
susceptibility especialy above 15%. -surface cracks may show bluish corrosion -Improved resistance for Zinc<15%
-Monitor pH , Ammonia Content of water
-Water phase is required. products - 90-10CuNi and 70-30CuNi are nearly immune
draw samples to assess susceptibility
-Oxygen is required but trace amount is sufficient. -Exchanger tubes show single or highly -prevent ingress of air in steam service
-EC ot vusual inspetion. Rolled area is
-pH>8.5 branhed cracks -300SS and Nickel base alloys are immune
highly susceptible
-Residual stress is enough -Cracking can be either transgranular or
-Copper alloys in Ammonia (aq) intergranular depending on environment B) Carbon Steel
4 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking b)For steel storage tanks and piping in
-CS in anhydrous ammonia and stress level -add small amount of water (min 0.2%)
anhydrous ammonia
-For CS -PWHT
-WF (Wet Fluorscent) MT welds inside
-Low Strength Steels (<70ksi tensile strength)
tank
-Anhydrous ammonia with <0.2% water; -Carbon Steel -Weld Hardness<225BHN
-Extrenal UT shear wave inspection using
Cracking has been observed at -27degF (-33degC) in lab test. -Prevent ingress of Oxygen. Oxygen below
TOFD
-PWHT eliminates susceptibility of common steels (<70 ksi tensile strength) -Cracking will occur at non-PWHT welds and (<10ppm) have been reported to lead to cracking
-AET
-Contamination with air or oxygen increased tendency to cracking HAZ under some instances
-Residual stress from welding and fabrication -intergranular cracking
SI No. Damage Mechanism Susceptible Material Dependent Factors More Info Detection/Testing Prevention Remarks

Amine Traeting Unit;

1 Amine Corrosion
Corrosion due to dissolved acid gases (CO2 H2S in lean amine prevents corrosion by Amine unit removes CO2, H2S and NH4SH
MEA>DGA>IPA>DEA>MDEA
and H2S), Heat Stable Amine Salts (HSAS), scaling, Proper operation control, control (mercaptans);
HSAS>2% cause heavy Visual, UT,profile
primarily CS ; design and operating practices, amine acid gases, temperature, avoid HSAS, use
corrosion radiography Temperature> 220degF (104degC) cause acid gas
concentartion, type of amine, temperature, CRAs (300SS, 400SS), prevent oxygen in Uniform corrosion at low velocities and localized
flashing and severe localize corrosion due to
velocity system, corrosion inhibitors when high due to turbulence
flashing due to 2-phase flow, if pressure drop is
high

CS, LAS;Alumnium, Copper

alloys and admirability NH4HS salts are not corrosive
Ammonium Sulfide brass NH4HS content, H2S , Velocity, Localized unless water is present; Use Alloy 825, DSS, Titanium at velocity
no corrosion<2% NH4HS unless velocity is high or
2 Corrosion (Alkaline Sour turbulence, pH, temperature alloy NH4HS precipitates when UT, RT, EC. IRIS above 20fps, maintain velocity 10-20 fps HCN breeaks H2S protective layer
HCN is present to break protective film
Water) 300SS, Nickel Based, omposition teperature drops in the range for CS,
Aluminium are more 120deg to 150egF
resistant
Nh3, HCL, H2O, amine salts concentration,
Water wash for salt above water dew
Ammonium Chloride CS>LAS>SS>DSS>825>625> low temperature for NH4CL precipitation
3 generally pitting under fouling UT and RT, Probes point, Pitting Resistance alloys are
Corrosion 276>titanium (above water dew
better, water wash, prevent chlorides,
point>300degF/149degC),
All (300SS may suffer Alloy 400, titanium and other nickel based are used
Chloride separation should be efficient,
pitting and SCC) UT, pH in boot for dilute HCL service in refineries.
HCL content, temperature and alloy Dry HCL is not corrosive but water wash, caustic injection, Nh3/Nh2-
4 Hyrochloric Acid Corrosion water,coupons, water
composition wet is aggressive injection, use nickel based alloys and
(Alloy 400, Titanium are quality Titanium is good for ilute HCL in oxidising
titanium
little useful for dilute HCL) conditions but fails in ry HCL

High Temperature H2/H2S CS>LAS,> >9% Cr improves resistance,

This is for H2S in presence of H2 (Sulfidation is
5 Corrosion H2S (sulfiation rate) Nickel based are same as SS as UT, RT, use alloys with Cr>9%, 304, 321, 316, 347
without H2)
(T>500degF/260degC) 400SS>300SS only Cr% matters

CS, Copper-nickel, alloy

400
Alloy 400 can be used to avoid
nickel based alloys suchas HIC/SOHIC/blistering. Stress Relieving
C276 have been used in HF (water content); temperature, alloy corrosion may be UT, RT, Monitor RE heat treatment is required to minimize
Hyro Fluoric Acid (HF)
6 some applications; composition, and contaminants sulfur and accompanied by Cracking due (Residual Element - C%, (but not immune) the possibility of SCC. CS is used for HF content 97-99% HF below 66degC
Corrosion
oxygen to HSC, Blistering, HIC/SOHIC Cu%, Ni%, Cr%)) content
LAS, 300SS, 400SS are C276 is used where cracking of Alloy 400
susceptible to corrosion occurs in presence of oxygen
and cracking and are not
used for HF service

napthanic acid, sulfur content, velocity and

Napthanic Acid Corrosion CS, LAS, 300SS, 400SS, Alloys with higher Moly (2-2.5% NAC>425degF (218degC), also at 350degF Total Acid Number (TAN) or netrualization number
7 alloy composition, sulfur restricts NAC so Localied corrosion, pitting RT better than UT
(NAC) Nickel based minimum), (177degC) is measure of acidity (organic acid content)
low sulfur crudes, more sever in 2 phases,

Temperature>250degF (121degC), Water

Proper Material Selection, maximum
Content, Alloy Chemistry, Velocity; CS and
Phenol (Carbolic Acid) velocity<30fps, temperature 30degF
8 CS>304>316>C276 SS corrode ast>450degF (232degC), Dilute UR, RT, Corrosion Probes
Corrosion (17degC) above dew point, C276 for
Aq. Solution (5-15% phenol) are very
higher velocity where SS316 is not good
corrosive to the extract dryer condensers

Acid Concentration, temperature, upgrade material if water cant be avoided, 304L is

9 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion CS>304L>316L>Alloy 20
CS, Resistant: 300SS
Sour Water Corrosion (CLSCC in presence of
10
(Acidic) Chloride), Copper and
Nickel Alloys
localised pitting and corrosion, free water is required for corrosion can penetrate 1/4" thick tube in eight Polymeriz
Contaminants, chlorides help in corrosion, UT, RT, probes good upto 120degF for 100% phosphoric acid and
both uniform corrosion also corrosion hours ation unit
low velocity SS316 up to 225degF
Sour Water corrosion causes
geeral thinning however can 300 SS below 60degC inpresence of chloride,
cause pitting in presence of Copper and Nickel alloys are resistant however
pH (4-7), H2S content, Oxygen Content UT, RT, probes
oxygen, pitting can start under copper alloys are corroded in presence of
porous sulfide layer not ammonia
affecting unform corrosion
 General Corrosion, attacks CS
CS, 316L, Alloy 20, high velocity between 2-3 fps material selection, velocity limits. Alloys C276,
concentration, temperature, velocity, HAZ rapidly, grooving in
11 Sulfuric Acid Corrosion silicon Cast Iron, Alloy B2, for CS and concentration UT, RT, probes alloy 20 and 904L resist corrosion by forming
contamination, oxidisers stagnant areas, dilute acid
C276 below 65% protective iron sulfate layer, caustic neutralizer
causes pitting
Aqueous Organic Acid type of acid, temperature, velocity of fluid, equivalent HCL number acid neutralizer injection, amines can be used to
12 CS looks similar to HCL corrosion UT, RT, probes
Corrosion pH, presence of other acids can be calculated reduce TAN, upgrade to CRA
SI No. Damage Mechanism Susceptible Material Dependent Factors Effect More Info Detection/Testing Prevention
enviorment -metal with surface sulfide typically sensetization occurs in Sensetization - 750degF to DPT, cracking occurs prevent scale by caustic
Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion 300SS, Alloy 600/600H, scale so that scale reacts with oxygen welds but can occur in base 1500degF (400 to 815degC), L in shutdown not in injection, use low carbon
1
Cracking Alloy 800/800H to form polythionic acid, sensitized metal, intergranular cracking, grades of 304 and 316 are operation so difficult grades, use SS321 and SS347
material and stress negligible thickness loss less susceptible to detect ,

2 Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
Non-PWHT CS welds, residual and
tensile stress, amine content,
temperature, most often associated
CS and LAS
with lean amine, rich amine cracking is
due to H2S problems, pure
alkanolamine does not cause cracking
Metallography, WFMT
starts in ID of piping and
(Wet Fluroscent PWHT of welds, Water wash
equipment primarily on HAZ,
Magnetic Particle of non=PWHT piping and
cracking parallel to welds, in
cracks mostly on process side Testing), SWUT (Shear equipment prior to welding,
weld metals the cracks are
Wave UT), AET heat treatment, steamout,
transverse or longitudnal with
(Acoustic Emission use solid or clad SS
the weld
Testing)

diffusion rate of H is minimal Monitor Process

at pH of 7. HCN in water Conditions, WFMT,
phases increases diffusion EC, RT, ACFM Cladding, Coatings, reduce
Wet H2S Damage pH, H2S, Temperature, Contaminants,
3 CS and LAS above pH 7. SSC occurs (Alternating Current pH, limit hardness, use HIC
(Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC) strength, residual stress
below 180degF (82degC) , it Field Measurement), resistant plates, PWHT
needs water for SCC above SWUT, AET for crack
180degF growth

A193 B7 bolts, B7M also when PWHT, hardness<200HB,

4 Hydrogen Stress Cracking - HF
Carbonate Stress Corrosion
5 CS and LAS
Cracking
Metallography,
over torqued, any Carbon Equivalent<0.43,
surface breaking
CS and LAS Steel strength, Harness and stress concentration of HF above cladding , Alloy 400 is
cracks, hardness test,
22HRC /237HB hardness, Piping resistant however can crack
WFMT
and Equipment exposed to HF if not stress relieved
SI No. Damage Mechanism Susceptible Material
C-0.5 Mo>M-
1 HTHA 0.5Mo>P1>P11>P22>P22+Vanadi
um>P3>P5
2 Titanium Hydriding Titanum alloys
Dependent Factors
methane formation inside
Temperature, pH2S, time and
metal and leads to cracking,
stress
metal temperature, solution
chemistry, ally composition,
temp>165degF (74degC), pH<3 or
pH>8 or pH=7 (with lot of H2S),
galvanic contact between titanium
and more active metal (potentials
<-0.9) suchas CS, 300 SS , can be
due to iron sulfidation embedded
in titanium surface
Effect More Info Detection/Testing Prevention Remarks
no noticeable change in
UT with combination of velocity ratio and
properties detectable by
AUBT () at a magnification of damage use Cr-Mo alloys,
normal inspection techniques P5, P9, 12Cr are not
visible at 1500X and lower; Ocurs at stabilize carbon by
till incubation period, susceptible in refinery
locations away from weld, for cladded titanium and niobium,
loss of strength Metallography can be used , conditions
vessel HTHA occurs at disbonded clad use 300 SS or clad
blistering with nacked eyes at
locations, AET not good
a later stage
Avoid titanium in amine
Metallurgical or mechanical and H2S service where
testing, bend test for leak is not acceptable
solubility of H2 in titanium is (50-300ppm),
embrittlement, burning of and is dangerous, avoid
Embrittlement above this carbide forms and can be
titanium tubes due to hydride galvanic coupling
tolerated up to 2000ppm
presence, Eddy current howvever same may
testing not be helpful in
alkaline sour water