1.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF LEADERSHIP

2. ROMANCE OF LEADERSHIP

CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership

According to the theory, follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly
determined by the leaders behavior, expertise, and aspects of the situation.

Novel and Appealing Vision. Charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who
advocate a vision that is highly discrepant from the status quo, but not so radical that
followers will view the leader as incompetent or insane. A leader who supports the status quo
or advocates only small, incremental changes will not be viewed as charismatic.
Emotional Appeals to Values. Followers are more likely to attribute charisma to leaders
who inspire them with emotional appeals to their values and ideals. Leaders who use
authority to implement an innovative strategy for attaining important objectives may gain
more expert power if the strategy is successful.
Unconventional Behavior. Charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who act in
unconventional ways to achieve the vision.
Self-Sacrifices. Leaders are more likely to be viewed as charismatic if they make self
sacrifices for the benefit of followers, and they take personal risks or incur high costs to
achieve the vision they espouse.
Confidence and Optimism. Leaders who appear confident about their proposals are more
likely to be viewed as charismatic than leaders who appear doubtful and confused.

Influence Processes
The primary influence process is personal identification, which involves a followers desire
to please and imitate the leader. Charismatic leaders appear so extraordinary, due to their
strategic insight, strong convictions, selfconfidence, unconventional behavior, and
dynamic energy that subordinates idolize these leaders and want to become like them.

The influence of a charismatic leader may also involve internalization of new values and
beliefs by followers. It is more important for followers to adopt the leaders attitudes and
beliefs about desirable objectives and effective strategies than merely to imitate superficial
aspects of the leaders behavior such as mannerisms, gestures, and speech patterns.

Facilitating Conditions
Contextual variables are especially important for charismatic leadership because the
attribution of exceptional ability to a leader is rare and may be highly dependent upon
characteristics of the situation. One important situational variable is follower fear and
anxiety about the future. Charismatic leaders are more likely to emerge in crisis situations
where people are worried about economic loss, physical danger, or threats to core
values. To set the stage for proposing new ways, the leader may try to discredit the old,
accepted ways of doing things.
Self-Concept Theory of Charismatic Leadership
Evidence of charismatic leadership is provided by the leaderfollower relationship, and a
charismatic leader has profound and unusual effects on followers. Followers perceive that the
leaders beliefs are correct, they willingly obey the leader, they feel affection toward the
leader, they are emotionally involved in the mission of the group or organization, they have
high performance goals, and they believe that they can contribute to the success of the
mission.
Leader Traits and Behaviors
Charismatic leaders are likely to have a strong need for power, high selfconfidence, and a
strong conviction in their own beliefs and ideals. The leadership behaviors that explain how a
charismatic leader influences the attitudes and behavior of followers include the following:
(1) Articulating an appealing vision,
(2) Using strong, expressive forms of communication when articulating the vision,
(3) Taking personal risks and making selfsacrifices to attain the vision,
(4) Communicating high expectations,
(5) Expressing optimism and confidence in followers,
(6) Modelling behaviors consistent with the vision,
(7) Managing follower impressions of the leader,
(8) Building identification with the group or organization,
(9) Empowering followers.

Influence Processes

Personal Identification When strong personal identification occurs, followers will imitate
the leaders behavior, carry out the leaders requests, and make an extra effort to please the
leader.
Social Identification. Strong social identification occurs when people take pride in being
part of the group or organization and regard membership as one of their most important social
identities
Internalization. With this influence process, followers embrace the leaders mission or
objectives as something that is worthy of their commitment. Sometimes charismatic leaders
influence followers to embrace new values, but it is more common for charismatic leaders to
articulate a vision describing task objectives in ideological terms that reflect existing follower
values
Self and Collective Efficacy. Task motivation also depends on individual selfefficacy and
collective efficacy. Individual selfefficacy is the belief that one is competent and capable of
attaining difficult task objectives. Collective efficacy refers to the perception of group
members that they can accomplish exceptional feats by working together.
Emotional Contagion. The effects of a charismatic leader on followers may also involve
emotional contagion, although this process was not when the theory was initially proposed. A
leader who is very positive and enthusiastic can influence the mood of followers to be more
positive, which is likely to increase their enthusiasm for the work and their perception that
they can accomplish difficult objectives (e.g., collective efficacy).

Facilitating Conditions
The motivational effects of charismatic leaders are more likely to occur when the leaders
vision is congruent with existing follower values and identities. Thus, charismatic leaders
must be able to understand the needs and values of followers.
According to the theory, a crisis condition is not necessary for the effectiveness of
charismatic leadership. Nevertheless, charismatic leadership is more likely to occur
when a group or organization is in serious trouble, there is not an obvious way to resolve
the problem, and there is considerable anxiety or even panic among the members

Consequences of Charismatic Leadership

Examples of positive and negative charismatics can be found in studies of political leaders.
Franklin D. Roosevelt lifted the United States out of the Great Depression, implemented
major social programs such as Social Security, and mobilized the nation for World War II. In
the same historical period, Adolf Hitler transformed Germany in a manner resulting in
paranoid aggression, persecution, destruction, and the death of millions of people.

Positive and Negative Charismatics

A better approach for differentiating between positive and negative charismatics is in terms
of their values and personality. Negative charismatics have a personalized power orientation.
They emphasize personal identification rather than internalization. They intentionally
seek to instill devotion to themselves more than to ideals. They may use ideological appeals,
but merely as a means to gain power, after which the ideology is ignored or arbitrarily
changed to serve the leaders personal objectives. They seek to dominate and subjugate
followers by keeping them weak and dependent on the leader. Authority for making
important decisions is centralized in the leader, rewards and punishments are used to
manipulate and control followers,

In contrast, positive charismatics have a socialized power orientation. They seek to instill
devotion to ideology more than devotion to themselves. In terms of influence processes,
they emphasize internalization rather than personal identification. Selfsacrifice and
leading by example are used to communicate commitment to shared values and the mission
of the unit, not to glorify the leader. Authority is delegated to a considerable extent,
information is shared openly, participation in decisions is encouraged, and rewards are
used to reinforce behavior consistent with the mission and objectives of the organization. As
a result, their leadership is more likely to be beneficial to followers, although it is not
inevitable if the strategies encouraged by the leader are inappropriate.

Effects of Positive Charismatics

The consequences for followers are better with a positive charismatic leader than with a
negative charismatic.
They are more likely to experience psychological growth and development of their abilities,
and the organization is more likely to adapt to an environment that is dynamic, hostile, and
competitive.
A positive charismatic leader usually creates an achievementoriented culture, a high
performing system, or a handson, valuedriven organization .
The positive charismatic can lead the organization in coping with a temporary crisis, but if
prolonged for a long period of time, a singleminded achievement culture creates excessive
stress and causes psychological disorders for members who are unable to tolerate this stress.

The Dark Side of Charisma

Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers.
Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers.
Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility.
Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers.
Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning.
Risky, grandiose projects are more likely to fail.
Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers.
Impulsive, non-traditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers.
Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors.
Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis.
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transforming leadership appeals to the moral values of followers in an attempt to raise their
consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and resources to reform
institutions.

Transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their selfinterest and

exchanging benefits. For a political leader, these activities include providing jobs, subsidies,
lucrative government contracts, and support for desired legislation in return for campaign
contributions and votes to re-elect the leader.

With transformational leadership, the followers feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect
toward the leader, and they are motivated to do more than they originally expected to do. The
leader transforms and motivates followers by
(1) Making them more aware of the importance of task outcomes,
(2) Inducing them to transcend their own selfinterest for the sake of the organization or
team, (3) activating their higherorder needs.
In contrast, transactional leadership involves an exchange process that may result in follower
compliance with leader requests but is not likely to generate enthusiasm and commitment to
task objectives.
Transformational leadership increases follower motivation and performance more than
transactional leadership, but effective leaders use a combination of both types of leadership.

Leader Behaviors

Idealized influence is behavior that increases follower identification with the leader, such as
setting an example of courage and dedication and making selfsacrifices to benefit followers.
Intellectual stimulation is behavior that influences followers to view problems from a new
perspective and look for more creative solutions. Individualized consideration includes
providing support, encouragement, and coaching to followers. A revision of the theory added
another transformational behaviour called inspirational motivation, which includes
communicating an appealing vision, and using symbols to focus subordinate effort
The original formulation of the theory included two types of transactional behavior:
contingent reward and passive management by exception. Contingent reward behavior
includes clarification of accomplishments necessary to obtain rewards, and the use of
incentives to influence subordinate task motivation. Passive management by exception
includes use of contingent punishments and other corrective action in response to obvious
deviations from acceptable performance standards. Another transactional behavior called
active management by exception
TABLE 12-2
Transformational and Transactional Behaviors
Transformational Behaviors
Idealized influence
Individualized consideration
Inspirational motivation
Intellectual stimulation
Transactional Behaviors
Contingent reward
Active management by exception
Passive management by exception
This behavior is defined in terms of looking for mistakes and enforcing rules to avoid
mistakes.

Influence Processes

The primary influence process for transactional leadership is probably instrumental

compliance.
Transformational leadership probably involves internalization, because inspirational
motivation includes efforts to link the task to follower values and ideals with behavior such
as articulating an inspirational vision. A leader can increase intrinsic motivation by increasing
the perception of followers that task objectives are consistent with their authentic interests
and values.

Transformational leadership also appears to involve personal identification. Followers may

identify with the leader, imitate the leaders behavior, and embrace the values and ideals
espoused by the leader. Personal identification may include follower attributions of charisma
to the leader.

Other processes that may mediate the effects of transformational leadership on follower
performance have been identified in research on the theory. Transformational leadership is
highly correlated with trust in the leader. Transformational behaviors such as inspirational
motivation (e.g., optimistic visioning) and individualized consideration (e.g., coaching) may
increase the selfefficacy of individual subordinates and the collective efficacy of teams.
Intellectual stimulation may increase the creativity of individual followers.
The influence process called cascading has been offered as a way to explain how a CEO can
indirectly influence the motivation of lowerlevel employees in an organization. The behavior
of a CEO is imitated by subordinates, and role modeling is repeated by managers at each
lower level. As yet, there is only very limited evidence for cascading of leader behaviors.
There is no evidence that key CEO behaviors will be imitated by lowlevel managers, or that
lowerlevel members of an organization will embrace the CEOs vision without a credible
strategy and major changes in programs, reward systems, and cultural values.

Facilitating Conditions
Transformational leadership is considered effective in any situation or culture. A number of
situational variables may increase the likelihood that transformational leadership will occur
or may enhance the effect of such leadership on followers

Guidelines for Transformational Leadership

Articulate a clear and appealing vision.
Explain how the vision can be attained.
Act confident and optimistic.
Express confidence in followers.
Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values.
Lead by example.
 TRAIT BASED PERSPECTIVE

One of the earliest approaches to studying leadership was the trait approach,
which involved a search for traits and skills that predict whether a person will
attain positions of leadership and be effective in these positions.
The term trait refers to a variety of individual attributes, including aspects of
personality, temperament, needs, motives, and values.
Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way.
Examples include self-confidence, extroversion, emotional maturity, and energy
level.
Needs (or motives) are another type of trait that involves a desire for particular
types of experiences. Needs and motives are important because they influence
attention to information and events, and they guide, energize, and sustain
behaviour.
Some traits and skills increase the likelihood that a leader will be effective, but
they do not guarantee effectiveness. A leader with certain traits can be effective
in one situation but ineffective in a different situation. Furthermore, two leaders
with a different pattern of traits can be successful in the same situation.
Managers who derailed were less able to handle pressure. They were more prone
to moodiness, angry outbursts, and inconsistent behaviour, which undermined
their interpersonal relationships with subordinates, peers, and superiors. In
contrast, the successful managers were calm, confident, and predictable during
crises. Managers who derailed were usually weaker in interpersonal skills.
Energy Level and Stress Tolerance: The trait research finds that energy level,
physical stamina, and stress tolerance are associated with managerial
effectiveness. High energy level and stress tolerance help managers cope with the
hectic pace, long hours, and unrelenting demands of most managerial jobs.
Self-confidence: Most studies on leader self-confidence or self-efficacy found
that it is related positively to effectiveness and advancement. Leaders with high
self-confidence are more likely to attempt difficult tasks and to set challenging
objectives for themselves.
Internal Locus of Control: People with a strong internal locus of control
orientation believe that events in their lives are determined more by their own
actions than by chance or uncontrollable forces. In contrast, people with a strong
external control orientation believe that events are determined mostly by chance
or fate and they can do little to improve their lives.
Emotional Stability and Maturity: A person who is emotionally mature is well
adjusted and does not suffer from severe psychological disorders. Emotionally
mature people have a more self-awareness of strengths and weaknesses.
Power motivation: Managers in large organizations must exercise power to
influence subordinates, peers, and superiors. People who are low in need for
power usually lack the desire and assertiveness necessary to organize and direct
group activities, to negotiate favourable agreements, to promote desirable
changes, and to impose necessary discipline.
 Narcissism: Narcissism is a personality syndrome that includes several traits
relevant to effective leadership, such as a strong need for esteem (e.g., prestige,
status, attention, admiration, and adulation), a strong personalized need for
power, low emotional maturity, and low integrity.
Achievement Orientation: Achievement orientation includes a set of related
needs and values, including need for achievement, willingness to assume
responsibility, performance orientation, and concern for task objectives.
Need for Affiliation: people with a strong need for affiliation receive great
satisfaction from being liked and accepted by others, and they enjoy working
with people who are friendly and cooperative. Most studies find a negative
correlation between need for affiliation and managerial effectiveness. The
ineffectiveness of managers with a high need for affiliation can be understood by
examining the typical pattern of behavior for such managers. These managers are
concerned primarily about interpersonal relationships rather than the task, and
they are unwilling to allow the work to interfere with harmonious relationships.
They seek to avoid conflicts or smooth them over rather than confront genuine
differences. They avoid making necessary but unpopular decisions.

Personal integrity: Integrity means that a persons behaviour is consistent with

values, and the person is honest, ethical, and trustworthy. Unless one is perceived
to be trustworthy, it is difficult to retain the loyalty of followers or to obtain
cooperation and support from peers and superiors.
Technical Skills: Technical skills include knowledge about methods, processes,
and equipment for conducting the specialized activities of the managers
organizational unit and knowledge about the organizations products and services
(technical specifications, strengths, and limitations). This type of knowledge is
acquired by a combination of formal education, training, and job experience.
Conceptual Skills: In general terms, conceptual skills involve good judgment,
foresight, intuition, creativity, and the ability to find meaning and order in
uncertain events. A person with low conceptual complexity sees things in
simplistic black and white terms.
Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal (or social) skills include knowledge about
human behaviour and group processes, ability to understand the feelings,
attitudes, and motives of others, and ability to communicate clearly and
persuasively. Communication ability are essential to develop and maintain
 cooperative relationships with subordinates, superiors, peers, and outsiders.
Someone who is charming, tactful, and diplomatic will have more cooperative
relation- ships than a person who is insensitive and offensive.

Emotional intelligence: Leaders with a high level of emotional intelligence are

more capable of solving complex problems, planning how to use their time
effectively, adapting their behaviour to the situation, and managing crises.
Social Intelligence: Social intelligence is defined as the ability to determine the
requirements for leadership in a particular situation and select an appropriate
response. A leader with high social perceptiveness understands what needs to be
done to make a group or organization more effective and how to do it.
Learning Ability: In a turbulent environment in which organizations must
continually adapt, innovate, and reinvent themselves, leaders must be flexible
enough to learn from mistakes, change their assumptions and beliefs. One of the
most important competencies for successful leadership in changing situations is
the ability to learn from experience and adapt to change

Limitations of Trait Theory:

1. There is lack of attention in many studies to the leadership context.
2. This line of research has been hindered by some methodological
and conceptual limitations.
3. Most trait studies focus on the relationship of traits and skills to
effective leadership, only test for simple, linear relationships.
However, the relationship is often curvilinear.
4. This approach fails to consider how the traits are interrelated and
how they interact to influence leader behaviour and effectiveness.
Guidelines for Understanding and Improving Relevant Competencies

Learn about your strengths and weaknesses.

Maintain self-awareness.
Identify and develop skills relevant for a future leadership position.
Remember that a strength can become a weakness.
Compensate for weaknesses.
 LEADER MEMBER EXCHANGE RELATIONSHIP

Influence is the essence of leadership. To be effective as a leader, it is necessary to

influence people to carry out requests, support proposals, and implement decisions. In
large organizations, the effectiveness of managers depends on influence over
superiors and peers as well as influence over subordinates.
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory describes the role-making processes
between a leader and each individual subordinate and the exchange relationship that
develops over time.
The exchange relationships are formed on the basis of personal compatibility and
subordinate competence and dependability. According to the theory, most leaders
develop a high-exchange relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates
who function as assistants, lieutenants, or advisors.
These relationships are formed gradually over a period of time. Unless the cycle is
broken, the relationship is likely to evolve to the point where there is a high degree of
mutual dependence, loyalty, and support.
The basis for establishing a high-exchange relationship is the leaders control over
outcomes that are desirable to a subordinate. These outcomes include such things as
assignment to interesting and desirable tasks, delegation of greater responsibility and
authority, more sharing of information, tangible rewards such as a pay increase, and
special benefits such as bigger office, personal support and approval. In return for
receiving these benefits, the subordinate in a high-exchange relationship provides
various types of benefits to the leader. The subordinate is usually expected to work
harder, to be more committed to task objectives, to be loyal to the leader, and to carry
out additional responsibilities such as helping with some of the leaders administrative
duties.
The assistance of committed subordinates can be invaluable to a manager. However,
the high-exchange relationships create certain obligations and constraints for the
leader. To maintain these relationships, the leader must provide attention to the
subordinates, remain responsive to their needs and feelings, and rely more on time-
consuming influence methods such as persuasion and consultation.
These subordinates need only comply with formal role requirements (e.g., duties,
rules, standard procedures, and legitimate directions from the leader), and each
subordinate receives only the standard benefits for the job (such as a salary).
Determinants and Consequences of LMX: Most of the research on LMX theory has
examined how LMX is related to other variables. A favourable relationship is more
likely when the subordinate is perceived to be competent and has values and attitudes
that are similar to those of the leader. When the exchange relationship is favourable,
behaviour by the leader is more supportive and includes more consultation and
delegation, more mentoring, less close monitoring, and less domination of
conversations. The behaviour of a high LMX subordinate includes more support of
the leader, more honest communication with the leader, and less use of pressure
tactics (e.g., threats, demands) to influence the leader. A manager who has a
favourable exchange relationship with the boss is more likely to establish favourable
exchange relationships with subordinates.
Evaluation of LMX Theory: LMX theory still has a number of conceptual
 weaknesses that limit its utility. The theory needs more elaboration about the way
exchange relationships evolve over time. The theory implies that exchange
relationships evolve in a continuous, smooth fashion, starting from initial impressions.
The few longitudinal studies suggest that LMX relationships may form quickly and
remain stable. Leader behaviours directed at selected individuals to increase their self-
efficacy and identification with the leader may have positive effects for those
individuals but negative effects on group performance. The challenge for a leader is to
develop differentiated relationships with some subordinates to facilitate achievement
of the teams mission, while maintaining a relationship of mutual trust, respect, and
loyalty with the other subordinates.

Guidelines for Correcting Performance Deficiencies

Gather information about the performance problem.
Try to avoid attribution biases.
Provide corrective feedback promptly.
Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms.
Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior.
Stay calm and professional.
Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance.
Ask the person to suggest remedies.
Express confidence that the person can improve.
Express a sincere desire to help the person.
Reach agreement on specific action steps.
Summarize the discussion and verify agreement.

MINTZBERG MANAGERIAL ROLES

Information Processing Roles

Disseminator
Monitor
Spokesperson

Decision-Making Roles
Entrepreneur
Disturbance handler
Resource allocator
Negotiator

Interpersonal Roles
Liaison
Figurehead
Leader
 SUBSITUTE FOR LEADERSHIP

Substitutes for leadership theory states that different situational factors can enhance,
neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviours.
Substitutes are variables that make leadership unnecessary/less important for
subordinates and reduce the extent to which subordinates rely on their leader.
The 'substitutes for leadership' theory proposes that, under some circumstances,
situational factors may substitute for leadership. In addition, there are situational
factors that may 'neutralise' leadership, i.e., prevent the leader from taking action.
Leader substitutes may be situational or organisational factors (such as job design, or
a cohesive work group) or follower characteristics (such as ability, training and
previous experience).
Well-designed jobs that provide clarity, meaning and intrinsic motivation should
require little guidance and inspiration from a leader. A highly cohesive group will
also be capable of working without close supervision. Of course, some things can
obstruct good leadership; these factors are called 'leadership neutralisers. A strength
of this theory is its emphasis on understanding the context within which leadership
occurs.
A strength of the substitutes-for-leadership model is its recognition of the role of
followers in the leadership process, rather than just the characteristics and behaviour
of the leader. A further emergent state is 'shared leadership'; this is a process in which
team leadership is shared across team members. However, given the importance of
teams for organisational functioning, this is likely to be an area of growth. It is
important to understand that leadership goes beyond a focus on the leader him or
herself.
Types of Substitutes
Characteristics of the subordinate
1. Subordinate ability
2. Subordinates professional orientation
Characteristics of the task
1. Unambiguous and routine task :- When all subordinates are performing
menial labour, there is little role leadership can play
2. Task that provides its own feedback as to how well the task is being done
3. Task that is intrinsically satisfying
Characteristics of the organization
1. Cohesive work groups :- A tight-knit group of employees have less need for a
leader
2. Organizational formulation :- Clear job goals that are written down,
performance appraisals that are written down
3. Self-managed work teams.
 CHALLENGES TO LEADERSHIP FROM FOLLOWSHIP

Followership refers to a role held by certain individuals in an organization, team, or group.

Specifically, it is the capacity of an individual to actively follow a leader. Followership is the
reciprocal social process of leadership. The study of followership (part of the emerging study
of Leadership psychology) is integral to a better understanding of leadership, as the success
and failure of groups, organizations, and teams is not only dependent on how well a leader
can lead, but also on how well the followers can follow.

1) Judgement. Followers must take direction but they have an underlying obligation to the
enterprise to do so only when the direction is ethical and proper. The key is having the
judgement to know the difference between a directive that your leader gives on how to
proceed that you do not agree with and a directive that is truly wrong.
No one disputes that good judgement is critical to being a good leader. It is just as important
in the follower. Show enough good judgement as a follower and you usually end up getting a
shot at being the leader. Something of an aside but there is a line that I have always liked
about judgement: Good judgement comes from experience; experience comes from bad
judgement.

2) Work ethic. Good followers are good workers. They are diligent, motivated, committed,
pay attention to detail and make the effort. Leaders have a responsibility to create an
environment that permits these qualities but regardless, it is the responsibility of the follower
to be a good worker. There is no such thing as a bad worker who is a good follower.

3) Competence. The follower cannot follow properly unless competent at the task that is
directed by the leader. It is the obligation of the leader to assure that followers are competent.
Sometimes things go wrong because the follower is not competent at the task at hand. When
this happens, leaders should blame themselves, not the follower. A sign of poor leadership is
blaming followers for not having skills they do not have.

4) Honesty. The follower owes the leader an honest and forthright assessment of what the
leader is trying to achieve and how. This is especially the case when the follower feels the
leaders agenda is seriously flawed. Respect and politeness are important but that said, it is
not acceptable for followers to sit on their hands while an inept leader drives the proverbial
bus over the cliff. Good leaders are grateful for constructive feedback from their team. Bad
leaders do not welcome feedback and here followers have to tread carefully. If the situation is
serious enough, consideration should be given to going above the leader in question for
guidance.

5) Courage. Followers need to be honest with those who lead them. They also need the
courage to be honest. It takes real courage to confront a leader about concerns with the
leaders agenda or worse, the leader himself or herself. It is not for naught that Churchill
called courage The foremost of the virtues, for upon it, all others depend. From time to
time, it takes real courage to be a good follower.

6) Discretion. A favourite saying in World War II was Loose lips sink ships. Sports teams
are fond of the expression What you hear here, let it stay here. Followers owe their
enterprises and their leaders discretion. Talking about work matters inappropriately is at best
unhelpful and more likely harmful. Discretion just means keeping your mouth shut. It should
be easy but many find it next to impossible. Bluntly, you cannot be a good follower and be
indiscreet. Everybody who works at an enterprise has a duty of care; indiscretion is not care,
it is careless.

7) Loyalty. Good followers respect their obligation to be loyal to their enterprise. Loyalty to
the enterprise and its goals is particularly important when there are problems, interpersonal or
otherwise, with a particular leader. Followers who are not loyal are inevitably a source of
difficulty. They create problems between team members; they compromise the achievement
of goals; they waste everybodys time; they are a menace. Loyalty is not a synonym for
lapdog. Rather, its essence is a strong allegiance and commitment to what the organization is
trying to do. Followers should remember that their obligation is to the enterprise, not a given
leader at a given point in time.

8) Ego management. Good followers have their egos under control. They are team players in
the fullest sense of the concept. They have good interpersonal skills. Success for good
followers relates to performance and goal achievement not personal recognition and self-
promotion. Sounds too good to be true and often it is. It is difficult but the best organizations
tie advancement and reward to performance and goal achievement as hard as that may be to
do.
 ROMANCE OF LEADERSHIP

ROUTINISATION OF CHARISMA

Charisma is a transitory phenomenon when it is dependent on personal identification with an

individual leader who is perceived to be extraordinary. When the leader departs or dies, a
succession crisis is likely. Many organizations founded by an autocratic charismatic leader
fail to survive this succession crisis. Charismatic leaders can do several things in an effort to
perpetuate their influence on the organization after they depart. The three approaches for
routinization of charisma are not mutually exclusive, and they all may occur to some degree
in the same organization.

One approach is to transfer charisma to a designated successor through rites and ceremonies.
However, it is seldom possible to find a successor for an extraordinary leader. In addition,
there are many reasons why a charismatic leader may be unwilling to identify a strong
successor early enough to ensure a smooth transition. The possible reasons include defense
mechanisms (e.g., the leader avoids thinking about death or retirement), preoccupation with
the mission, and fear of potential rivals.

A second approach is to create an administrative structure that will continue to implement the
leaders vision with rational-legal authority. This routinization of charisma can reduce the
effectiveness of the organization. It is difficult to maintain the enthusiastic commitment of
organization members when a charismatic leader with whom they identified is succeeded by
bland bureaucrats who emphasize obedience to formal rules. Even when not actively
encouraged by the leader, a formal administrative structure usually evolves in a new
organization as it grows larger and more successful. Conflicts are likely to occur between
bureaucratic administrators and the charismatic leader. Sometimes the administrators are able
to wrest control of the organization away from the leader.

A third approach to perpetuate the leaders vision is to embed it in the culture of the
organization by influencing followers to internalize it and empowering them to implement it.