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To cite this article: Cristin Sandoval, Roberto Valledor & Diego Lopez-Garcia (2017): Numerical
assessment of accumulated seismic damage in a historic masonry building. A case study,
International Journal of Architectural Heritage, DOI: 10.1080/15583058.2017.1356945
Article views: 9
Download by: [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] Date: 29 July 2017, At: 05:39
Numerical assessment of accumulated seismic damage
in a historic masonry building. A case study.
Cristin Sandovala,b,*, Roberto Valledora, Diego Lopez-Garciaa,c
a
Department of Structural & Geotechnical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de
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Chile, Casilla 306, Correo 22. Santiago, Chile.
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b
School of Architecture, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile, Casilla 306, Correo 22.
Santiago, Chile.
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c
National Research Center for Integrated Natural Disaster Management CIGIDEN,
CONICYT/FONDAP/15110017, Santiago, Chile.
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ABSTRACT an
The current state of damage of a two-story unreinforced masonry historic building in Santiago de
Chile is mainly due to the occurrence of the earthquakes of 3rd March 1985 (Mw 8.0) and 27th
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February 2010 (Mw 8.8). Among the modern strategies available for a structural assessment of
this type of constructions, nonlinear time-history analysis offers interesting possibilities but its
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use remains little explored because of their high computational demand. In this context, this
the accumulated seismic damage of a historic masonry building subjected to large seismic
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events. For this purpose, longitudinal and transverse components of accelerograms of the two
large earthquakes that were recorded near the building are considered. Nonlinear time-history
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analyses were carried out in sequence using a global finite element (FE) model of the structure.
The results show that the current crack pattern observed in the building can be simulated
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Keywords: Historic building; nonlinear time-history analysis; Seismic assessment; Total strain
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* Corresponding author:
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Tel.: +56 2 23544210
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E-mail address: csandoval@ing.puc.cl (C. Sandoval)
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1. INTRODUCTION an
The seismic assessment of unreinforced masonry historic buildings remains a complex task
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despite the efforts made so far in this research topic. Some of the difficulties inherent in this type
of studies derive from a lack of knowledge of the mechanical properties of the constituent
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materials, the geometry and morphology of the structure, the state of the connections between
resisting elements, the effectiveness of the horizontal diaphragms (if there are any), and the
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actual existing damage. In addition, assumptions commonly adopted in the analysis of structures
made up of other materials (such as isotropy, homogeneity, and linearly elastic behavior up to
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yielding) do not apply to masonry. For these reasons, accurate seismic analysis of unreinforced
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masonry historic buildings often requires sophisticated numerical models and computationally
expensive analyses.
The available approaches for the structural analysis of historic masonry constructions have
been described and evaluated in several previous works (e.g. Roca et al. 2010). In general,
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modern strategies for the assessment of the seismic behavior of this type of construction make
use of nonlinear incremental static (pushover) analysis (Pea et al. 2010; Loureno et al. 2011;
Akhaveissy & Milani 2013; Ademovic et al. 2013; Endo et al. 2015; Dal Cin & Russo 2016), or
nonlinear time history analysis (Mendes & Loureno 2009; Endo et al. 2015; Milani & Valente
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2015; Pea & Chvez 2016). Another frequently applied strategy in this type of studies is the
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limit analysis (Milani et al. 2006; Preciado & Ordua 2014), which requires previous knowledge
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of the possible collapse mechanisms of the structure. An interesting comparison between
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different methods of seismic analysis, applied to an ancient church damaged by the 2009
LAquila (Italy) earthquake, has recently been presented by Endo et al. (2015). Results obtained
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in this study show that the methods investigated (limit analysis, pushover analysis, and nonlinear
time history analysis) were able to predict most of the damage caused by the earthquake. The
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authors point out that pushover analysis, applied to the whole structure using various control
points, appeared adequate and reliable, providing a good balance between computational effort
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and accuracy of results. Similarly, in Milani & Valente (2015) the results of nonlinear time
history analysis of seven masonry churches, severely damaged by the 2012 Emilia-Romagna
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(Italy) earthquake, are presented and discussed. These analyses were carried out using the
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meaningful portion (20 seconds) of the ground motion recorded at Mirandola station during the
main event.
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Nonlinear time history analysis is probably the tool offering the most accurate and reliable
assessment of the structural seismic response of historic masonry constructions when the
physical nonlinear behavior of the masonry material is properly defined and when connections
between structural elements are suitably modelled. However, only a limited number of studies
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have employed this tool, mainly due to the fact that such analysis is computationally expensive
and requires a suitable selection of accelerograms that are not always available. For these
reasons, when an earthquake hits a historic building and causes damage, including its collapse,
an interesting opportunity arises in order to study and evaluate the results of different assessment
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strategies, providing highly interesting information to the scientific community as well as to
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practitioners.
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In accordance with present-day conservation and restoration principles
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(ICOMOS/ISCARSAH 2003), the structural model of a historic building is to be validated
adequately by means of comparison between its predictions and the empirical evidence. For
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example, comparisons can be made between the pattern of cracking predicted by the model for a
known case or load and the actual state of damage exhibited by the structure. Other procedures
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such as dynamic tests (OMA test) or in-situ stress tests (hole-drilling test or flat-jack test) can
also be used for the calibration or validation of a structural model by matching numerical results
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with experimental measurements. In these cases, a satisfactory comparison could lead to assume
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that the model is sufficiently validated, and therefore suitable to predict the structural response
under other possible conditions such as usage overloads, future earthquakes, etc. This
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methodological approach is also very useful to identify and evaluate possible repair or retrofit
strategies. Therefore, in the context of a seismic rehabilitation project, the validation process of a
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structural model is of critical importance given that an inadequate model might give rise to
erroneous conclusions about the structural behavior of a historic building, which in turn might
prompt unnecessary or insufficient intervention resulting in the loss of some heritage values or in
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Recent earthquakes worldwide have caused significant damage, including partial and
total collapse, in historic masonry buildings (Blondet et al. 2008; DAyala & Paganoni 2011;
Penna et al. 2014; Senaldi et al. 2015; Cakir et al. 2015; Rai et al. 2015, Torres et al. 2017). In
Chile, masonry heritage buildings are relatively scarce mainly due to the high seismic activity. In
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fact, several historic and traditional masonry buildings have suffered severe damage, including
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collapse, during the recent major earthquakes that have hit Chile. For example, the February 27,
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2010 (Mw 8.8) earthquake caused significant losses in the stock of historic and heritage
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buildings (among them churches, chapels, patio-centered buildings, and traditional country
houses) in the central and south regions of Chile. A general review of severely damaged historic
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structures after the 2010 Chile earthquake can be found in DAyala & Benzoni (2012) and in a
technical report published by the Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales (CMN 2010), while the
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damage observed in the specific case of adobe heritage buildings has been reported in Contreras
et al. (2011). In this context, the need to study the seismic behavior of historic and heritage
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buildings in Chile has become clear in order to avoid greater loss of the local architectural
heritage. However, the current Chilean seismic standard NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009), mainly
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oriented towards the analysis and design of modern buildings, does not contain specific
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assessment criteria for these types of constructions. The lack of such criteria in this standard has
led essentially to two scenarios: (1) abandonment or lack of maintenance of these structures
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because of absence of appropriate studies; and (2) modification of these structures to comply
with the criteria of the current seismic standard by means of introducing elements of reinforced
concrete and/or structural steel with the resulting loss or alteration of heritage and cultural value.
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With the above situation in mind, the main objective of the present article is to discuss the
ability and reliability of a numerical strategy based on the finite element (FE) method to
realistically simulate the structural behavior and the current pattern of damage of a historic
masonry building that was struck by two large earthquakes. The building selected as a case study
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for this purpose is the Palacio Pereira, located in Santiago, Chile. This heritage masonry
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mansion, built in 1872, was severely damaged by the March 3, 1985 (Mw 8.0) and the February
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27, 2010 (Mw 8.8) earthquakes. Its current state of damage is the consequence of lack of
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maintenance, lack of appropriate repairs after the earthquakes, and the deficiencies in its original
design. It is important to note that the case study selected in this research is considered one of the
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most emblematic buildings of the late 19th century in Santiago.
The novelty of the study lies in performing two consecutive nonlinear time-history
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analyses taking into account the recorded accelerograms that are considered the most similar to
the ones the case study was actually subjected to. The analyses consider the simultaneous
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was adopted to generate a 3D model of the structure, and the total strain crack model available in
the software Diana (TNO Diana 2015) was adopted to account for the nonlinear behavior of the
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material. The FE model is based on the information obtained by careful in-situ inspections as
well as from an investigation into the history of the building. Some material properties were
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calibrated from experimental tests performed in-situ, in particular from a shear test that was
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Due to the complexities associated with nonlinear time history analysis in this type of
studies and the lack of methods specifically orientated towards the seismic assessment of historic
masonry buildings in Chile, an additional aim of the present article is to assess the suitability of
linear elastic models, commonly used by practitioners, as a possible tool for structural diagnosis
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of historic masonry buildings subjected to seismic events. As is well known, the use of linear
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elastic analysis in studies of historic masonry constructions is widely questioned since such
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analysis is not able neither to estimate the ultimate capacity of the structure nor to simulate the
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development of complex failure modes observed in masonry constructions (Roca et al. 2010).
Despite these shortcomings, linear elastic analysis has been employed as an analytical tool at the
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diagnosis stage in numerous previous studies with satisfactory results (Mola & Vitaliani 1997;
Cakir et al. 2015). According to Meli & Pea (2004), linear elastic models can provide valuable
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preliminary information about the seismic response of historic masonry buildings, including
information related to the mode shapes and periods of vibration, identification of weakest areas
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in the structure and elements of undesirable structural behavior. Therefore, and in order to make
recommendations to practitioners, different types of linear elastic analyses were carried out and a
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comparison with results given by nonlinear time history analysis was made.
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In this study, linear elastic analyses were performed taking into account some
specifications of the Chilean seismic design standard NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009). Currently,
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this standard indicates that static analysis is the only analysis method valid for unreinforced
masonry structures. However, since static analysis leads to unrealistic assessments when applied
to structures that do not have rigid horizontal floor diaphragms, other alternatives were explored.
Particular attention was paid to response spectrum analysis because it is an analysis method that
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provides a good balance between accuracy and computational effort. The linear elastic analyses
were performed using the commercial software package SAP2000 (CSI 2015) and were
processed on a computer for commercial use with the objective of employing the same
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2. CASE STUDY: THE PALACIO PEREIRA
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BUILDING
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2.1. Information about the building
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The Palacio Pereira was designed by the French architect Lucien Ambroise Hnault in
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1872. It is a 2-story unreinforced masonry structure built in French neo-classical style, and its
total surface is 2741 m2. Until 1973 the Palacio Pereira underwent continuous remodeling of its
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interior, including extensions of the first floor and several modifications to the walls (both
openings and closings), and it has been abandoned since 1980. Today, however, the Palacio is
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the object of numerous studies that are part of an ambitious restoration project.
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In spite of the abandonment and the numerous earthquakes it was subjected to, the building
still conserves a large part of its claddings and original architectural ornaments. The cladding of
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the main faades (Figure 1a), which has a high architectural value due to the presence of a large
amount of decorative elements (balusters, precast pieces, volumetric elements, etc.), is composed
of lime mortar, while the cladding in the galleries and central transept is made of plaster. The
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presence of existing cladding on the masonry shear walls, in some cases, prevented exhaustive
masonry shear walls built from traditionally produced solid clay bricks and lime mortar of very
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poor quality. The structural walls have an average thickness of 60 cm and stand on foundations
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made up of stone continuous footing. The nominal dimensions of handmade clay bricks used in
the Palacio Pereira are 40x20x6 cm3. Figure 1b shows a typical wall section where the bond
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pattern between bricks is observed. an
Figure 2 shows an isometric view of the entire building and Figure 3 shows the main
characteristics of the first floor. It can be observed that the building has an irregular floor plan
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and numerous enclosed interior spaces. In-plan wall densities, expressed as the ratio of the area
of earthquake-resistance walls along a given direction to the total building area, are equal to
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5.9% and 6.5% in the longitudinal (Y-axis) and transverse (X-axis) directions respectively. It
should be noted that this quantity (in-plan area ratio) is generally associated with the base shear
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strength of a building.
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Originally, timber (oak) girders (flexible floor diaphragm) connected the shear walls of the
first floor of the building to each other. This original floor structure, with an approximate weight
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of 0.9 kN/m2, was composed of 10x30 cm timber beams regularly spaced at 50 cm. There were
two types of anchoring of girders to structural walls. At the inner walls timber beams simply
traversed the entire wall section, while at the main faades the anchoring was at least 40 cm into
the walls. Unfortunately, because of the abandonment, many timber girders have been stolen and
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today only a 23% of the floor system still exists in the building. Regarding the roof structure, this
is made up of wooden trusses except in the main galleries and the central transept where it is
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The Palacio Pereira withstood seven earthquakes of Richter magnitude 7 or greater, i.e., the
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September 1958, March 1965, and July 1971 earthquakes, the March 1985 earthquake and its
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April aftershock, and the February 2010 earthquake and its March aftershock. Most of the
damage of the building was caused by the 1985 and 2010 earthquakes, which caused seismic
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intensities equal to VIII (Modified Mercalli Intensity scale, IMM) at the location of the building
(Santiago). A previous investigation (CNM 2010) indicates that the 1985 earthquake caused the
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collapse of some inner walls and structural damage to the faades. In addition, the northwest
sector of the building, which was in an unsafe state prior to the 1985 earthquake due to lack of
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connection between their resistant elements, suffered severe damage and as a consequence a total
of ten enclosed inner spaces were demolished. These demolished spaces are not included in this
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study.
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The present condition of the Palacio Pereira (i.e., post February 2010 earthquake) has
been evaluated in detail as a result of careful in-situ inspections (Valledor 2016). Figure 4
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summarizes the most severe damage identified in the structure. Some of the corresponding plan
locations are highlighted in green in Figure 3. As for the eastern faade, it became partially
separated from the perpendicular walls (Figure 4a) and is appreciably out of plumb: the
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horizontal displacement at the top of the second floor (central area) is approximately equal to 15
cm. This situation could eventually lead to an out-of-plane failure of this faade.
Inside the building, it is likely that the absence of the timber floor has significantly
contributed to the structural deterioration of the structure. In general, the main timber beams of
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the original timber floor still exist only in a few inner enclosures (Figure 4b). This floor system,
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although not a rigid horizontal diaphragm, was probably able to provide certain lateral bracing
and out of plane resistance of the walls. Indeed, most of the large walls that have collapsed
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partially or totally were precisely the ones where the timber girders were no longer part of the
structural system (Figure 4c). In order to prevent the out-of-plane collapse mechanism of the
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inner walls some temporary emergency measures were carried out.
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Other significant damage observed was the absence of connection between the two main
(east and south) faades, caused by a vertical crack along the whole height of the second floor at
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the intersection of the faades (Figure 4d). In addition, both main faades exhibit a characteristic
damage pattern in the spandrels. Figure 4e shows examples of this type of damage. Similar
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damage is visible above many of the door openings inside the building (Figure 4f).
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3. STRUCTURAL MODELLING
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masonry construction is a complex task. A proper nonlinear time history analysis requires a
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suitable model to account for the physical nonlinear behavior of masonry material and an
adequate selection of ground motions. In general, in the analysis of large structural elements or
entire structures it is common to adopt the well-known macro-modelling approach, where units,
mortar and unit-mortar interfaces are lumped together into a homogenous continuum. This
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numerical approach has been employed extensively in the analysis of the seismic response of
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complex historic structures (Endo et al. 2015; Cakir et al. 2015; Pea et al. 2010; Mendes &
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Loureno 2009; Torres et al. 2017) and is considered an appropriate approach when a
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compromise between accuracy and efficiency is desired (Roca et al. 2010).
A 3D FE model of the Palacio Pereira was developed for nonlinear time history analysis.
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The model was intended to be representative of the condition of the building immediately before
the March 1985 earthquake. A global view of the 3D FE model implemented in the Diana
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software (TNO 2015) is shown in Figure 5a. The first floor system, the roof system and the
parapets were not explicitly included in the model because their stiffness properties were deemed
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to have no influence on the seismic response of the building. Their mass properties, however,
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were included in the model as tributary lumped masses at the nodes located at the first floor level
(floor system) and at the roof level (roof system and parapets). Likewise, the weight of these
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elements was also included in the model as tributary concentrated loads. The model of the entire
building is made up of 7,938 four-node quadrilateral isoparametric curved shell elements. The
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translation and rotation degrees of freedom at the base (i.e., ground level) of the model were
restrained.
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In the present study, the Total Strain Crack model available in the Diana software (TNO
2015) was adopted to account for the physical nonlinear behavior of masonry. In doing so, the
cracking of the material is then of the smeared-crack type. This model includes a parabolic
stress-strain relationship for compression, and an exponential stress-softening model for tension.
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The hysteretic behavior adopted for masonry is shown in Figure 5b. This material model has
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been used for nonlinear time history analysis in other recent applications (Mendes & Loureno
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2009, Ademovic & Hrasnica 2015).
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3.2 In-situ shear-compression test and calibration of material
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parameters
Because of the importance of the masonry shear strength in the assessment of the
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nonlinear seismic behavior of the building, an in-situ shear-compression test was carried out at
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the location indicated in Figure 3. Such in-situ test was essential to obtain and calibrate the
mechanical properties necessary to accurately assess the seismic response of the Palacio Pereira.
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It is important to note that this type of in-situ test has been employed in the study of several other
Figure 6a shows the in-situ test set-up and Figure 6b illustrates the post-test crack pattern.
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A horizontal load was applied at the midpoint of an interior supporting pillar at the first floor of
the Palacio Pereira. A rectangular 2 m tall by 1 m wide specimen was created, resulting in two
masonry panels of 1 m2 each. Both masonry panels were prevented from turning at their upper
and lower edges. The lateral load was applied monotonically (force controlled) up to failure,
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using a 600-kN hydraulic jack at a load increment rate of 0.25 kN/s. In total, four displacement
transducers were used to measure the diagonal displacements (two shortenings and two
extensions). The shear stress-angular strain curves obtained from the test can be seen in Figure
7a, where the maximum shear strength is max = 0.23 MPa. It must be noted that this maximum
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shear strength is affected by a vertical compressive stress of approximately 0.14 MPa as a result
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of the weight of the portion of the same wall located above the test specimen. More information
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about this in-situ test can be found in IDIEM (2013).
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With the objective of calibrating the parameters of the Total Strain Crack model, the in-
situ shear-compression test was simulated numerically using the DIANA software (TNO 2015).
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The corresponding FE model is made up of 8-node curved shell elements with an average size of
5x5 cm. The vertical compression stress was modelled as a uniformly distributed load applied
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method. The lateral load was applied with displacement control, 300 increments of 0.001 mm
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each.
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Typical values of density (=1800 kg/m3) and Poissons ratio (v=0.2) of masonry were
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adopted. In addition, the compressive strength of masonry was assumed equal to =2.1 MPa
according to the standard ASCE 41-06 (2007) for masonry in poor condition. Other masonry
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properties necessary for the numerical model that are usually derived from the compressive
strength, such as Youngs modulus and tensile strength, were obtained after a calibration process
that took into consideration certain simple analytical expressions typically used in this type of
studies (Almeida et al. 2002; Mendes & Loureno 2009; Sandoval & Roca 2012; Endo et al.
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2015). A value of elastic modulus equal to E=850fk and a value of tensile strength equal to
ft=0.06fk were adopted. Table 1 summarizes the values of the parameters that were finally
assumed in the model of the in-situ test, which will subsequently be adopted in the model of the
entire Palacio Pereira. It should be noted that and E values finally adopted are very close to
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suggested ones by the Italian code for structural assessment of existing constructions (Italian
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Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport 2009).
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Figure 7a shows a comparison between the shear stress-angular strain curve obtained
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numerically and the experimental curves, while Figure 7b shows the cracking pattern predicted
In order to evaluate the stress state of the vertical resisting elements of the Palacio
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Pereira, a nonlinear analysis under gravitational load was carried out. The self-weight of the
structure is 3,159 metric tons, and this load was applied incrementally in 100 steps of equal
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loads. The maximum compressive stress predicted by the model is 0.33 MPa, which is equal to
16% of the compressive strength adopted for the material. Figure 8 shows the stress distribution
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3.4. Modal analysis
A preliminary modal analysis was carried out in order to get insight into the modal
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periods, the modal shapes and the modal masses of the structure. Table 2 summarizes
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information on modes 1 and 16, which have the largest translational modal mass in directions X
and Y, respectively. The corresponding modal periods are Tx = 0.312 s and Ty = 0.145 s.
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The modal shape of mode 1 is shown in Figure 9a. It can be observed that it is essentially
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a local mode associated with out-of-plane deformations in some of the walls at the south-facing
faade. Similarly, the modal shape of mode 16 is shown in Figure 9b. It is a more complex
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modal shape associated with both in-plane deformations (mainly in the south-facing faade) and
out-of-plane deformations (mainly in the east-facing faade). This modal shape might impose
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significant stresses at the intersection of the faades (i.e., at the corner of Huerfanos street and
San Martin street). Analysis of the other modes revealed that most of them are essentially local
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modes, and in principle a comprehensive modal analysis might help explain (at least partially)
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the current deformed state of the structure. It is important to note, however, that while modal
analysis might lead to a better understanding of the general behavior of the structure, the model
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(intended to represent the structure as it was before the 1985 earthquake) does not take into
account neither the dilapidated state of the building nor possible failure of the connections
between resisting elements. This latter aspect could noticeably change the values of the modal
periods. Often, numerical models are also validated by comparing modal periods measured in-
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situ with modal periods predicted by the models, but in this study it was decided that such an
approach was not suitable due to the dilapidated state of the structure.
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4.1. Seismic demand
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As mentioned in Section 2, the Palacio Pereira has been in a state of neglect since 1980
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and the current state of damage is mainly due to the 1985 and 2010 earthquakes. Therefore, the
ground motions used in the nonlinear time history analyses were selected from the ground
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motions recorded during these events. The selection was made based on the proximity of the
recording stations to the Palacio Pereira and on the similarity between soil conditions. The
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The ground motion that was deemed most similar to the one the Palacio Pereira was
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actually subjected to during the 1985 earthquake is that recorded at the Endesa building located
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in downtown Santiago, not far from the location of the Palacio Pereira. The direction of the
longitudinal and transverse components of the ground motion essentially coincide with the east-
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west (Y-axis in Fig. 3) and north-south (X-axis in Fig. 3) directions of the Palacio Pereira,
respectively. Both components were applied simultaneously and in such a way that the direction
of the longitudinal component coincides with the Y-axis of the computational model. Both
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4.1.2 Earthquake of 2010
The ground motion that was deemed most similar to the one the Palacio Pereira was
actually subjected to during the 2010 earthquake is that recorded at the Santiago Centro station
located in downtown Santiago, close to the location of the Palacio Pereira. Again, the direction
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of the longitudinal and transverse components of the ground motion essentially coincide with the
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east-west and north-south directions of the Palacio Pereira, respectively. Both components were
applied simultaneously and in such a way that the direction of the longitudinal component
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coincides with the Y-axis of the computational model. Both components are shown in Figure 11.
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4.2. Nonlinear time history analysis
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With the aim of reproducing numerically the current damage of the Palacio Pereira, two
consecutive nonlinear time history analyses were performed. The structural model was first
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subjected to the 1985 Endesa record, and in such condition (i.e., from state at the end of the first
analysis) the model was then subjected to the 2010 Santiago Centro record. The equation of
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motion was solved by direct integration in the time domain using the Newmark- method with
= 0.5 and = 0.25, which is unconditionally stable (TNO Diana 2015). Rayleigh-type damping
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was adopted (5% in modes 1 and 16) along with a mass matrix consistent with the stiffness
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matrix. It is important to note that, unlike what was done in other studies (Endo et al. 2015; Pea
et al. 2010), both components of the ground motions were simultaneously applied to the
structure.
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Some insight into the progression of damage during the earthquakes was obtained by
examining the damage pattern at a time approximately equal to 50% of the total ground motion
duration and at the end of the ground motion. In the case of the 1985 earthquake, crack patterns
were examined at times t11 = 48.16 s and t12 = 96.32 s. In the case of the 2010 earthquake, crack
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patterns were examined at times t21 = 35.81 s and t22 = 71.62 s.
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At time t11 (i.e., 1985 earthquake, Figure 12a) cracks start to appear at the outer edges of
the wall openings and at the base of the first-story walls. This observation is consistent with
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expected stress concentrations at the openings, particularly at their corners. Vertical cracks
appear in the second-story walls, such as in those that connect the main faades. These cracks are
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consistent with the damage reported in Valledor (2016). At the end of the 1985 record (i.e., at
time t12) it is possible to observe that the most affected walls are the ones at parallel axes to the
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south faade which show diagonal cracks associated with horizontal loads and damage in areas
of spandrels and lintels. Horizontal cracks can also be seen at the second story of the structure
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and a high concentration of cracks is visible at the base of the walls. The connection between the
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southern and eastern faades is cracked at the upper level (Figure 4d).
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At time t21 (i.e., 2010 earthquake, Figure 13a), the progression of damage is more severe
in the interior second-story walls. There is an increase in vertical cracks, especially in those at
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the walls perpendicular to the south-facing faade. These cracks could suggest the absence of a
connection between the faades and the perpendicular walls, which could eventually cause a
wall, or part of a wall, to fall over. Practically all the porticos are cracked, a situation that is
worse at the second story of the building. The most damaged area is the southeast-facing room,
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where the faade walls are also affected by shear failures. The pattern of cracking observed at the
end of the 2010 earthquake (i.e., at time t22) indicates severe damage in practically the entire
building (Figure 13b). The most damaged areas are inside the building, which is consistent with
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4.3. Comparison between simulated and observed damage in the
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main faades
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As an attempt to investigate the accuracy and reliability of results given by nonlinear time
history analyses, a comparison between the damage predicted by the FE model in the main
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faades and the actual existing damage (also in the main faades) is presented in this section. It
should be noted that the existing level of damage in the building is rather similar in both the
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inner and external walls; however, a more detailed map of crack pattern of the main faades was
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achieved during the inspection stage. For this reason, only the faades were considered for
comparisons between existing damage and damage predicted by nonlinear time-history analysis.
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It is important to remark that, as noted by Roca et al. (2010), one of the main drawbacks
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of the macro-modelling approach is that damage appears as a smeared property over a large area
actually more localized, and is characterized by isolated cracks or concentrated lesions. Despite
this, smeared modelling of damage continues to be a suitable approach to model large structures
or entire buildings when an acceptable balance between computational effort and accuracy is
desired.
20
4.3.1. South faade
Figure 14 compares the cracked state of the southern faade predicted by the FE model
(Figure 14a) with the current state of the building (Figure 14b). The oval red marks indicate
areas where cracking coincides. It is important to mention that the actual building still has part of
t
ip
its original cladding, which is why possible damage in other areas cannot be disregarded.
cr
In general, a satisfactory agreement between the state at the end of the nonlinear time
us
history analyses and the current state of the south faade is observed, although the damage
predicted by the numerical model is greater than the actual existing damage. In particular, the FE
an
model predicts a greater extent of cracking in the porticos and at the base of the walls. Such
discrepancy could be due to incomplete damage assessment (some actual internal damage might
M
not be detected by visual inspection). Further, as mentioned before, smeared damage models aim
at providing general information about damage, but might create patterns of damage over large
ed
regions or volumes that may, occasionally, be somewhat unrealistic. As it can be seen in Figure
14a, most of the predicted damage at the end of the analyses is mainly concentrated at the
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corners of the openings (at both the first and second story), a damage pattern that is clearly
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observed in the real faade. However, a damage concentration is also predicted in some walls at
the first story of the faade, which is not consistent with the damage actually visible in the
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structure.
21
4.3.2. Eastern faade
Figure 15 compares the cracked state of the eastern faade predicted by the FE model
(Figure 15a) with the current state of the building (Figure 15b). Again, the oval red marks
indicate areas where cracking coincides. The 1985 earthquake caused a vertical crack at the
t
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connection between the southern and eastern faades, more precisely at the second story of the
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south faade. The 2010 earthquake caused this vertical crack to extend along the entire height of
the second story, thus creating a complete absence of connection between both faades. This
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cracking led to an out-of-plane deformation of the eastern faade, as shown in Figure 4d.
an
Due to the nature of the numerical model adopted, it was not possible to numerically
simulate complete separation between structural members, which is why the model does not
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predict the complete severance of the connection between the main faades. In the southern
faade a high degree of cracking is visible at the connection (upper right corner of Figure 15a),
ed
and there are similar cracks at the eastern faade (upper right corner of Figure 14a). However, in
the real building the severance of the connection is complete, as illustrated in Figure 15b, and not
pt
only at the upper part of the wall, as shown in Figure 15a. As mentioned before, this difference
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between the numerically simulated condition of the building and the actual state can be due to
the macro-modelling technique employed to model masonry, which assumes perfect rather than
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cracked connections between different structural elements. Again, the numerical model predicts
certain damage at the base of the walls, but such damage is currently not visible in the building.
22
4.4. Photogrammetric analysis of the state of cracking
The percentage of the cracked surface in each main faade following the 1985 earthquake
and in their final state after the 2010 earthquake were evaluated by means of photogrammetric
t
analysis. Table 3 summarizes the total number of pixels per faade and the number of pixels that
ip
indicate cracks (shown in blue in the captures). After the 1985 earthquake, the cracked area in
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the southern faade is 10.29% of the total area, while in the eastern faade the cracked area is
7.82%. Subsequently, after the 2010 earthquake (i.e., cumulative damage) the cracked area in the
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southern faade increased to 17.97% (i.e., an additional 7.68% of cracking) while that in the
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eastern faade rose to 16.71% (i.e., an additional 8.89% of cracking). These data provide
evidence that the 1985 earthquake had a greater effect on the southern faade whereas the 2010
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earthquake had a more significant effect on the eastern faade.
Several linear analytical studies were carried out with the aim of investigating the capability
pt
of the current Chilean seismic standard to diagnose heritage masonry buildings. Such studies
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were based on the Chilean code for the seismic design of buildings NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009),
which provides two methods for the analysis of conventional buildings: (1) static analysis and (2)
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modal response spectrum analysis (RSA). However, this code only permits static analysis in
unreinforced masonry structures. In order to assess the accuracy of modal response spectrum
analysis, two possible implementations were investigated. In the first analysis the seismic input
is given by the design response spectrum specified by NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009), whereas in
23
the second analysis the seismic input is given by the response spectrum of the same ground
motions considered in the nonlinear time history analysis. In addition, the same ground motions
were also considered to perform linear time history (TH) analyses with the aim of taking into
account the seismic load on the building in a more realistic manner. The mechanical properties
t
employed were those of the masonry of the building obtained from the in-situ shear test. These
ip
analyses were carried out using the commercial software package SAP2000 (CSI 2015).
cr
In linear static analysis, the seismic action is modeled as horizontal lateral forces applied at
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each floor level. When floor systems have considerable in-plane stiffness the lateral loads are
reasonably distributed among all the lateral load resisting elements. In the absence of in-plane
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stiff floor systems, however, the lateral loads unrealistically impose high demands locally on the
element they are applied at, and very low demands on the rest of the lateral load resisting
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elements. For this reason, static analysis as currently implemented in codes such as
NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009) is definitely not appropriate for structures where floor systems do
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not behave as horizontal diaphragms. Since, as mentioned before, static analysis is the only
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analysis method valid for unreinforced masonry structures in NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009), other
possible implementations of static analysis were explored. For instance, instead of as a single
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horizontal load per floor level, the seismic action could be modeled as a set of static horizontal
forces per floor level, each force applied at each wall in the direction of analysis. In doing so all
Ac
the walls are subjected to seismic demands, and the problem mention in the former paragraph is
then overcome. A representative example of the application of this idea is shown in Figure 16,
where shear stresses in a given wall (the southern faade in this case) due to static loads applied
at the first floor level and at the roof level are compared with shear stresses in the same wall
24
predicted by RSA. It can be observed that stress patterns are very similar to each other, which is
promising. However, the static loads applied on the wall were set equal to the story shear
demands on the wall given by RSA. In other words, in this example the (linearly elastic) shear
demand on the wall was known a priori. In a real case scenario, however, in which static analysis
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is to be performed (as prescribed by NCh433.Of1996 (INN 2009) instead of RSA, such shear
ip
demand is not known a priori: while it is clear that the sum of all forces of the set of forces at a
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given level must be equal to the horizontal seismic load at that level (which is given by code
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procedures), it is not obvious how to define the magnitude of each force of the set (i.e., the
magnitude of the force applied on each wall). In principle the most logical approach consists of
an
setting the magnitude of each force of the set proportional to the lateral stiffness of each wall.
This idea has some rational basis because in the presence of an in-plane stiff floor system the
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lateral force demand on each wall is indeed proportional to its lateral stiffness. However, the
implementation of this idea led to results that are very different from those given by RSA. Other
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criteria to determine the lateral static force on each wall were explored (such as force magnitudes
proportional to the cross-section area of the wall), but none led to satisfactory results.
pt
Figure 17. Clearly, RSA indicates seismic demands that are much higher than those indicated by
TH analysis. Such discrepancy is undoubtedly due to the fact that in RSA peak responses are
Ac
estimated by a modal combination rule, and even the most accurate modal combination rule (3D
complete quadratic combination) might lead to significant levels of error in structures having a
large number of modes that are very close to each other and having small modal mass. Further, a
comparison with Figure 14 indicates that results given by TH analysis are affected by a non-
25
negligible level of error. Damage is overpredicted at both ends of the facade and underpredicted
at the central part of the facade. In summary, it was found that linear analysis methods do not
lead to reasonably accurate predictions of damage. A more detailed review of results given by
t
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6. CONCLUSIONS
cr
The analysis of the seismic damage of the Palacio Pereira, an unreinforced masonry heritage
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building located in Santiago, Chile, was presented. The current structural condition of the
building was assessed using a smeared damage model. Two consecutive time-history analyses
an
were carried out. The input ground motions were the recorded accelerograms deemed most
similar to the actual ground motions the Palacio Pereira was subjected to. From an overall
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analysis of the results, the following comments and conclusions can be summarized:
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the Palacio Pereira building without excessive computational effort. This technique assumes
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perfect connections between structural elements due to the homogenization of the composite
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material, which in turn leads to a homogeneous state of cracking due to shear or out-of-plane
failure.
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Nonlinear time history analysis provided a generally accurate assessment of the failure
mechanisms of the brickwork, but overpredicted the amount and propagation of cracks.
26
Cracks in the southern faade predicted by nonlinear time history analysis are mainly due
to shear stresses and to out-of-plane bulging. This is largely the result of: (1) little constraint in
the direction perpendicular to the wall plane as a result of the weak connection between the
southern faade and the perpendicular walls, especially at the outer edges; and (2) the
t
characteristics of the local modal shapes associated with this faade (the modal frequencies of
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these modes coincide with the most significant frequency content of the 2010 earthquake).
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The state of cracking in the eastern faade predicted by nonlinear time history analysis
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(i.e., cracking at the base of the walls and also at the outer edges of the porticos and lintels) is
qualitatively consistent with the present state of this faade. However, the actual severance of the
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connection between the eastern and southern faades is only partially predicted by the numerical
model, which indicates cracking at the upper portion but does not completely disconnect the
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walls from each other. This is mainly due to the homogenization of brickwork by the macro-
modelling technique.
ed
Linear analysis methods that are suitable for the type of structure considered in this study
pt
(i.e., an unreinforced masonry structure that does not have horizontal floor diaphragms), such as
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response spectrum analysis and linear time history analysis, are either very conservative (in the
sense that they indicate levels of damage that are too high) or inaccurate (in the sense that they
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27
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Contreras S, Bahamondez M, Hurtado M, Vargas J, Jorquera N. (2011) La arquitectura en tierra
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ip
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Instituto Chileno de Normalizacin INN (2009). Norma Chilena Oficial NCh 433.Of1996
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ministeriale 14 gennaio 2008 (in Italian).
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Loureno PB, Mendes N, Ramos LF, Oliveira DV. (2011). Analysis of masonry structures
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churches. Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions. Padova, IT, 1121-1131.
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Pea F, Chvez MM. (2016). Seismic Behavior of Mexican Colonial Churches. International
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Pea F, Loureno PB, Mendes N, Oliveira DV. (2010). Numerical models for the seismic
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Torres W, Almazn JL, Sandoval C, Boroschek R. (2017) Operational modal analysis and FE
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historical buildings in Santiago, Chile: The case of the Pereira Palace. In 3rd International
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de una estructura patrimonial de albailera simple: el caso del Palacio Pereira. Master Thesis.
32
Table 1. Mechanical properties of masonry for numerical analysis.
t
ip
Nmm/mm2
cr
Compressive fracture energy 15.7
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Poissons ratio - 0.2
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Modulus of elasticity MPa 1785
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33
Table 2: Summary of modal information (modes with the largest modal masses)
Direction X Direction Y
Mode Period Unitary mass Cum. percentage Unitary mass Cum. percentage
t
ip
1 0,312 0,092659 9,27 0,000060 0,006
cr
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16 0,145 0,002656 37,79 0,323433 35,83
an
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pt
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34
Table 3. Summary of photogrammetric analysis
Total Cracked No. of pixels after No. of pixels after the Cracked
number area [%] the 1985 1985 & 2010 area [%]
t
ip
Southern 223,304 10.3 22,989 40,129 17.97
cr
faade
us
Eastern 68,579 7.8 5,366 11,465 16.71
an
faade
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac
35
Fig. 1. (a) General view of the Palacio Pereira; (b) typical section of a shear wall
t
ip
cr
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ed
pt
ce
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36
Fig. 2. Isometric view of the Palacio Pereira.
t
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cr
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an
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ed
pt
ce
Ac
37
Fig. 3. Floor first plan of the studied building and locations of the in-situ test and the main
damage observed illustrated in Fig. 4.
t
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cr
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pt
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Ac
38
Fig. 4. Major damage observed; (a) absence of connection of perpendicular walls in eastern
faade; (b) absence of wooden diaphragm; (c) out-of-plane collapse of an external wall; (d)
absence of connection of perpendicular walls from main faades; (e) cracking in the spandrels of
the faades; (f) typical cracking above doors and inner openings.
t
ip
cr
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an
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pt
ce
Ac
39
Fig. 5. a) FE model of the entire building, b) hysteretic behavior of masonry (Mendes &
Loureno 2009).
t
ip
cr
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an
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ed
pt
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Ac
40
Fig. 6. (a) Test set-up of in-situ shear test; (b) cracking pattern of test.
t
ip
cr
us
an
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ed
pt
ce
Ac
41
Fig. 7. (a) Experimental and numerical stress-strain curve; (b) cracking pattern of the FE model.
t
ip
cr
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an
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ed
pt
ce
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42
Fig. 8. Stress state under self-weight of the structure [Pa]
t
ip
cr
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an
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ed
pt
ce
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43
t
Fig. 9. Deformed shapes of modes 1 and 16.
ip
cr
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ed
pt
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Ac
44
Fig. 10. Components of the ground motion recorded at the ENDESA station during the 1985
earthquake: (a) transverse (X-axis) and (b) longitudinal (Y-axis).
t
ip
cr
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ed
pt
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45
Fig. 11. Components of the ground motion recorded at the Santiago Centro station during the
2010 earthquake: (a) transverse (X-axis) and (b) longitudinal (Y-axis).
t
ip
cr
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pt
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46
Fig. 12. Evolution of the damage in the building during the 1985 earthquake: (a) t11 = 48.16 s and
(b) t12 = 96.32 s.
t
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cr
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pt
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Ac
47
t
Fig. 13. Evolution of the damage in the building during the 2010 earthquake: (a) t21 = 35.81 s and
ip
(b) t22 = 71.62 s.
cr
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ed
pt
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Ac
48
Fig. 14. Comparison of tensile damage in the south faade of the Palacio Pereira after the 1985
and 2010 earthquakes: (a) cracking predicted by the numerical model and (b) current state of the
t
building.
ip
cr
us
an
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ed
pt
ce
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49
Fig. 15. Comparison of damage in the eastern faade of the Palacio Pereira after the 1985 and
2010 earthquakes: (a) cracking predicted by the numeric model and (b) actual state of the
t
building.
ip
cr
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an
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ed
pt
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50
t
ip
Fig. 16. Total shear stresses in the southern faade, structure subjected to the design response
spectrum of NCH433.Of1996: (a) static analysis (horizontal seismic load applied as horizontally
cr
distributed load along the length of the wall) and (b) RSA. The areas that supersede the shear
strength of the masonry are shown in blue.
us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac
51
Fig. 17. Total shear stresses at the southern faade, structure subjected to the ground motion
recorded at the Santiago Centro station during the 2010 Chile earthquake: (a) RSA and (b) TH
t
analysis. The areas that supersede the shear strength of the brickwork are shown in blue.
ip
cr
us
an
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ed
pt
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52