.

0 ,

. gcd , = 1 = =

.
, , such that = 3 and = 2

=< > = , , 2

6
= =2
3

clearly as , or 2 ; if = 2 2 = 4 =

the only right cosets of in are =

= = = , , 2 , , , 2

= 2 , , 2 .

=
 = , , 2 , , , 2 = 2 =

= , , 2 , , , 2 =< , >

= 123 = 12

Let G be a finite group and p be a prime.

If p divides the order of G, then G has an element of order p.

= , , , where 2 = 2 = 2
= and =

if proper = () ; 1 4

= , , , , ,

proper cyclic, not cyclic

proper


1 generator 15

generators 15 = 15

1 15 = 8 .

1 1
= 1 1 = 1 1

..

9 0,1 + = 0,0 + = 0,1 + 9

 2

, = 2, 2

ker = < 2,4 >

{ = 2, = 4 = 2

2 = 0 2 =0 }.

..

SUBRING:
,

..

INFINITE Integral domain with FINITE characteristic: D = Z2 [x]

as 2.1 = 0; char D = 2;

If 1 has additive order n, then char R is n.

..
 |

number of elements = ().

Normal subgroups: {e}, S3 and H = {e, (123), (132)} as i (H) = o (S3/H) = 6/3 = 2.

every subgroup of index 2 is NORMAL.

=< , |3 = = 2 = 2 >

= 123 = 12

=< > = , , 2 = 2 3

= , , 3 1 = .

3 :

, , , , , , 2 , , , , 3 .

Aut (Z8) = Z8x (or U8)

Z8x = {1,3,5,7}; maximum order of any element is 2;

no element has order 4, hence Z8x is not cyclic. Aut (Z8) is not cyclic even though Z8 is cyclic.

..

(1, 0) + < (2,2) > has infinite order , whereas in Z2xZ2 there is no element with infinite order.

..


a =1,b=4 b = 4a or [b 4a]8 = [0]8

: 4 8 8

4 , 8 = 4 8

ker = < ( 1 4 , 4 8 ) > .

or
Any group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z4 or K4 Kleins 4 group, which are Abelian.

..

H = <2> + <2>;

G/H ~ Z2+Z2;

G/K -> order is 4

(1,1) + K has order 4. hence G/K is cyclic and is isomorphic to Z4.

gcd , 1 = 1 < 1 > 1; for n = 1, result is trivial

= = 1

if < s. t = 1 1 ( 1)

( 1) ( 1 , which is impossible as > ( 1) > ( 1)

=
..

An ideal I is a prime ideal if and only if I R, and whenever ab I, either a I or b I.

if P and Q are both prime ideals, would PQ be a prime ideal? NO

(2) is a prime ideal in Z, because 2 is a prime number. Similarly (3) is prime ideal

(2)(3) = < lcm(2,3) > = < 6 >; as 6 is not a prime number, (6) is not a prime ideal.

In Z, prime ideals correspond to the ideals < p > generated by prime numbers.

as Z is a PID, prime ideal iff maximal ideal.

=
<>

, < > .

..
..

Theorem: Let G be a group such that every element of G other than

the identity has order 2. Then G is abelian.

..

Aut (K) ~ S3
a->a, b->b, ab->ab

a->a, b-> ab, ab->b

..

a->b, b->a, ab->ab

a->b, b->ab, ab->a

..

a->ab, b->b, ab->a

a->ab, b->a, ab->b

..

similarly for Z2+Z2

Aut (Z2+Z2) ~ S3

..

= < , | 2 = 2 = 2
= ; = > = 4

4 3

2 2 4 (2 2 ) (4 ) 3 .

..

number of Automorphism on Z9Z16

Zm Zn Zmn when m and n are relatively prime

Z9 Z16 Z144

Aut (Zm Zn) Aut (Zmn) = Umn

..

Aut (G H) Aut (G) Aut (H); when G and H are finite groups of relatively prime order

Aut (Zm Zn) Aut (Zm) Aut (Zn), whenever m and n are relatively prime.

..

1
= 1

prime factorize = 1 2 3 . ..

..
 1 2
1 2

, = ,

= .

..
If G is cyclic then Aut(G) is cyclic?

No, consider Z8

= 8 = 8 = 1,3,5,7 8

8 4.

..
If G is abelian then Aut(G) is abelian?

No

= 4

= 2 2 , .

1) = 1, = 2, =4

2) = = 2 odd prime . = 3, 5, 7 . .
.

= 1

1 .

I = 6Z, E = 2Z

E/I = {0+6Z, 2+6Z, 4+6Z} is group with order 3(prime)

Hence E/I is cyclic group with order 3

any cyclic group of order 3 is isomorphic to Z3

Hence E/I Z3

Even though M is maximal ideal, R/M is not a field because R is not a

commutative ring.

ONLY in a commutative ring R

M is maximal R/M is a field.


Let . Let let

If irreducible and deg = deg ,

irreducible

deg = deg ; ()

2 is irreducible over 2 is irreducible over

any Isomorphism maps an to an

characteristic of a ring is the additive order of the identity element (1, 1)

 .

If is irreducible over , then is irreducible over

..

if I is a maximal ideal of R, then I[x] need not be a maximal ideal of R[x].

I = 2Z, R = Z; R/I Z2, a field. Therefore I is maximal ideal of R

R[x]/I[x] R/I [x] Z[x]/2Z[x] Z/2Z[x] Z2[x], which is not a field.

Hence 2Z[x] is not a maximal ideal of Z[x], even though 2Z is a maximal ideal of Z.

If I is a prime ideal of R <=> I[x] is a prime ideal of R[x].

..
 = < > is a principal ideal.

if I = < > is maximal ideal of ,

is irreducible over

take any which the leading coefficient of

= is obtained by taking of coefficients of f x

since is irreducible over

< , >

< > < , >

I =< >

< > .

[]

< , > < >

< , >

R has only one maximal ideal i.e. {0}.

maximal ideals of R x R : {0} x R and R x {0}.

0
0 {0}
..
let the given rings be isomorphic

an onto homomorphism . = + + < 2 + 7 >
< 2 + 7 >

where ,

2 2 + 7 ker 2 2 + 7 = 0+ < 2 + 7 >

2
2 + 7 1 = 0 + < 2 + 7 >
2
2 + + 7 0 2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 7 0. 2 7

142 + 22 + 7 + 4 0 142 + 22 + 7 0 4 0

these equations are not satisfied of any ,

Thus onto homomorphism has kernel 2 2 + 7

 , 0

= + where ,

1 1
, ,
2 2

= + + +

= + + + . = + ; ,

<

+ = 2 + 2

then for any , = 1 > 0

()

..

5 , 2 is irreducible but not prime.

4 = 1 + 5 1 5

2| 1+ 5 1 5

but 2 does not divide either 1 + 5 1 5

if , is an irreducible element is a .

if , is an irreducible element is a and 3 4

..

3 + 3 [ 3]

3 + 3 = 3 1 + 3

3 1 + 5 [ 5]. Hence
5 .
 is a unit iff = . let ,

= + ;

= 2 + 2 = 1;

= 1, = 0

= 0, = 1

{1, }

..
 = + < 17 >, . 17 17

= . 1 , 1 = + 17()

1 = 170 0

 = + 5 + } = < 2, 1 + 5 >

5 2

s. t + 5 = + 2

ker =

5
2

3 1
+ = + ;
2 2

= + 0 < 1 }

define

s. t + = 2

is a of complex numbers with circle group

..
1 = ; 2 = .

..

5
=< 5, >; 5
<>

5

: 5

= 0 5;

=< 123 > = {, 123 , (132)}

3 6
= =2
3
2
= , 12 = =

1
12 = 13 12 13 = 12 13 = 132

12 = 23 . 123 = 132 =

3
2.

..

{ = }

..

2 3

= ;

4 = 22 4 = 2 + 2
2
4 = 2 4 = 2 2
2
=> 2 = 2 2 .

2 3 . = ,

1 1 .

2 4

= ;

4 = 22 4 = 2 + 2
2
4 = 2 4 = 2 2
 2
=> 2 = 2 2

16 2 = 8.

1
= .
2

= 0 . = ,

= < 2 2 >

= + + ,


2

+ + = + 2

..

..

solution 1:

= 2

in , coefficients belong to = 2, i. e coefficients are

consider =< 2, >

as 2 + but 2 +

1 but 1

solution 2:

2
2 2

2 .

2 [].

solution 3:

=< 2, > .

..

= 0

0
0 0

such that

, =

then = 0

is an integral domain and not a field

0 is prime ideal but not a maximal ideal ;

..
we know that is field of quotients of

all fields of quotients of a given integral domain are

But and are since is and is countable

if is a field of quotients of , then every element of must be a ratio of two integers

but 2 cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers.

..

field of quotients of a field F is isomorphic to F

Field of quotients must be ; but is to

1 = 1 = 1

1 = 1 = =
> 0

2
, >0

..
A4 cannot have an element of order 6
A 4 S4

we show that 4 does not have any element of order 6

decomposition into products of cycles

4 cycle 4

3 cycle 1 cycle 3

2 cycle 2 cycle 2

2 cycle 2

1 cycle 1

S4 has elements of orders 1, 2, 3, 4

S4 has no element of order 6 A4 has no element of order 6

..

There is no subgroup of order 6 in A4

Let be a subgroup of order 6 must be to either 6 or S3

as does not have any element of 6, cannot be isomorphic to 6

hence

3 has 3 elements of 2 12 , 13 and (23)

4 has 3 elements of 2 12 34 , 13 24 and 14 23

as , should also contain 3 elements of 2; and 4

2 elements of 4 must be in

But elements of order 2 in 3 where they in

hence 3

as H is neither isomorphic to 6 nor to 3 , doesnot exist

A4 doesnot have an subgroup of order 6 .

..

6| o A4 but A4 doesnot have an subgroup of order 6

of Lagrange s theorem is not true .

Let be a prime number and be a group of order

then is cyclic . or

= , = = 2 = }

3 3 123 and (12).

any group of 6 2 is isomorphic to 3 ( 3 )

..

. 0 + 1 + 2 2 + = (0 ) + (1 ) + (2 ) 2 +

..

iff and are

3 , 3 2 .

3 2 has elements of 6, whereas do not have an element of order

123 , 1 in 3 2 order = 3,2 = 6.

 = 2, = 1, = 2

= 2, = 2 2 = 0, 2 = 0;

for ker

.
< 3,1 >

..
let be the least positive integer s. t < >

let , then = < > =

= + where = 0 or <

if 0 <

= = =

and < contradiction

hence = 0 = =

=
< >

< >

= < >


in , for each | , < > is a unique subgroup of

..

if |, then in a of order n, of elements of is ()

Let and , if = 1 then = 1

5 as otherwise =< > would be another subgroup of 5

hence = 25, =< >.

.
< 1 > = . 1 < 1 >

= 0 1 = 1 .

= + where = < 2 3 >

: + 3 + = + 2 + = + 2 as 3 2

< 7 > and < 7 >.

In a , every nonzero element is a every is a UFD

any element in R is either a can be written as a product of finite number

of elements of R.

It can be easily show that is .

2
If , then divides =

but does not divide , so is a not a prime element

but 2 is irreducible element.

In a , all are , so this shows [ ] is not a .

if , then divides (1 + )(1 ) = + =

without dividing either of the factors, so again is a not a prime element.

This argument works equally well for = and

but for = 1, 2

and in fact 1 and 2 are

to show that 2 is

2 = + +

4 = 2 + 2 2 + 2

as , are integers 2 + 2 2, 2 + 2 2

hence either + or + is a

2 is ..

..

Consider the ideal = < , + > = < > for some 5

2 2 = | 2 = 4

1 + 5 1 + 5 = | 1 + 5 = 6

| gcd 4,6 = 2

= 1 2.

2 = 1 = 1 = < 1 >

. 1 2 1 + 5

2.

.
| in = , where

= 0 where = and 0 is

= 0 where = and 0 is

but , 0 0 is again

= 0 0

= 1 = 1 as .

..

1) product of polynomials is

2) if irreducible over , then is irreducible over .

an is

an is

..

60 = 4 3 5 4, 3 and 5

60 = 4 3 5 2 2 4

4 is cyclic group of 4 = 2 4 2

is iff is 1 as = = 1

3 2 and 5 4 .

2 2 4 is not cyclic as there is no element of order 16

the greatest order possible is 2,2,4 = 4.

Group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z4 or K4

Let G be a group of order 4; by Lagrange theorem, any element of G has order 1, 2 or 4.

If G has an element of order 4 then G is cyclic.

Assume G has no elements of order 4, then G has 3 elements of order 2. Then G is Abelian.

So G is Abelian and has 3 elements of order 2 and 1 element of order 1 (the identity), it follows
that G is isomorphic to the Klein four group.

both Z4 or K4 are abelian any group of order 4 is always abelian

2 4 2 2

=; =;

gcd , = 1 and =

Then = ().

if G is an abelian group of order pq, where p and q are distinct prime numbers, then G is cyclic.

= , s. t = , =

now is abelian =

gcd ( , ) = 1 gcd , = 1

= =

=< >.

Abelian group of order 6 is cyclic and isomorphic to Z6.

non-Abelian group of order 6 is isomorphic to S3.

any group of 6 is to 6 or 3 3
.

case1 : G1 x G2 is abelian as G1 and G2 are abelian (as they are cyclic)

Let 1 2 be , generated by = , and =

gcd , = > 1

consider = , = , = 1 , 2

and < as > 1

this is a contradiction as is the least positive integer s. t = 1 , 2

= 1 or gcd , = 1

= , 3 = = 2 ; = or = 2 } = {, , 2 , , , 2 }

3 = , 12 , 23 , 13 , 123 , 132

123 12

..

A non-empty subset S of R is a subring if , and .

S is closed under subtraction and multiplication.

..

3 = 0 , 1, 2

= 0, 1

2 + 2 = 0 + 0, 0 + 1, 1 + 0, 1 + 1

2 + 2 = 0 = 0 = 0

7 0 , 1 , 2 , 4
2 can be 0, 1, 2 or 4. Similarly for 2

2 + 2 = 0 = 0 and = 0;

5 0 , 1 , 4

2 + 2 = 0 even when 2 = 1 2 = 4

1 2
= doesnot have an inverse as = 12 + 22 = 5 = 0
2 1

. + + 2 + . . = 4 + 4 + 42 +

can be easily show that is an

=< 4 > = 4 = 4 () }

= 4 = 4
<4> 4

..

Think of 2 x 2 as a 2-dimensional vector space.

Then, Aut (2 x 2) can be thought as the vector space of all linear transformations from 2 x 2
to itself whose determinants are nonzero.

i.e. think of these linear transformations as 2 x 2 matrices.

only 6 of them have nonzero determinant. They are

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
, , , , ,
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Now, there are only two groups of order 6: 6 (abelian) or S3 (non-abelian). Since it may be
checked quickly that the matrix multiplication among these elements is NOT commutative, we
have one conclusion: Aut (2 x 2) is isomorphic to S3.
 1 1
implies that 1,0 1,0 0,1 1,1
0 1
.

2 2 = 0,0 , 1,0 , 0,1 , 1,1

any automorphism is determined by values of 1,0 and 0,1

always 0,0 = 0,0

hence 1,0 has 3 choices

after choosing 1,0 , 0,1 is left with 2 choices

automorphisms are possible

: 1,0 1,0 ; 0,1 0,1

: 1,0 1,0 ; 0,1 1,1 .

: 1,0 0,1 ; 0,1 1,0

: 1,0 0,1 ; 0,1 1,1 similarly ,

. 2 2

any group of order is isomorphic to either Z6 or S3

2 2 3 .

..

S.t every group G of order 4 is isomorphic to either Z4 or K4.

let | = 1, 2 4

if = 4, =< > is cyclic

if 4 = 2 is abelian

the only noncyclic abelian group of order 4 is 4

4 2 2

3
2 3 3 2 .
3


4 = , , , 2 = 2 = ; = , 2
=

4 2 2 ,

= 0,0 , = 1,0 , = 0,1 , = 1,1

= + .

4 2 2

..

also K4 can be defined as

4 = , , , 2 = 2 = 2 =

= , = , = .

1,2 = 1 , (2)

1 , 2 = (1,2)

1 , (2) = (2,1)

2 2 6

6 2 36 < 3 > .

.
 : , + ,

1
5 5 + 1 .
5

= 1 + 2 1 , 2 } = 1,

dim( ) = 2.

..

= 1 = =

= 1, 2 = 1 2

= 1 = {1, 2}

1 = 2, 1 2 = 3, 1

.
..

1 1 = 0 1 = 1

= 0 =
.

..

1 2 =< , > , , = .

Let , = > 1

, = 1 , 2

< , which is a contradiction as is the least positive integer.

..

The only homomorphisms from a Field F to any ring R are zero homomorphism and
injective homomorphism.

:
 = 0 =

1 1 = 0 .

..

R[x] is an integral domain iff R is an integral domain

Let f(x) = a0 + a1x + + an xn

g(x) = b0 + b1x + + bm xm.

If these are not 0, then we can assume an, bm 0.

Thus the highest-degree term of fg is anbm xm+n 0, so fg 0.

Thus R[X] has no zero divisors.

= 1, , , , = = 1, 1

= , , ,

 = =
2
= 2 = 1 =

= 2 = =

2 2 .

1 = 1 1 = 1 = 1

1 = 1 = 2 = 2

= ,

1 = 2 ,

= < 2, 1 + 5 >

5 2

+ 5 = [ + ]2
.
.

..

1 3
 = 3 3 = 1 3 = 1

= 21

= 21

= 21 3 7

= 7.

2 4

st = 4

if ker 2 = 0 4 = 0 4

is a multiple of 4

2 is a multiple of 8 8

ker = 8

1) =

2) = , = , gcd , = 1

let = < > and = < >

as and are relatively prime =

let = and =

=
= = as =

= = {}

= . similarly

hence lcm ,

=
= |

= ().

..

= = = 15
gcd , gcd ,

2 = 5,3 = 15

gcd , = 1 2 = 15 30

= 30 9

= 15 15 = 16 =

= 2 8
= 13579 8
268 8
= 17395 286

13579 268 , .

finite non-commutative ring.

infinite non-commutative ring without unity

2 2

..

finite noncommutative ring without unity

2 28

..

, the set of all matrices over , is a ring

if has unity 1, then also has unity In

if doesnot have unity, then also doesnot have unity

if is finite, is finite

if is infinite, is also infinite.

Show that every group of order 15 is cyclic

, 3 5

= < > = < >

, , 2 .


. 1, 3, 5.

15. ..

..

if G is an abelian group of order pq, and p & q are distinct primes, then G is cyclic.

by cauchy s theorem, elements and of order and

= and , = 1 = =

=< >.

Any group of order 15 is cyclic.

A5 has no element of order 15, since maximum order of any element in A5 is 5.

Hence A5 has no subgroup of order 15

similarly A5 has no subgroup of order 30 as this subgroup contains an element of order 15

= = gcd 2, =1
gcd ,
 = .

, ,

< 1

..

, . 2

, 1 2.

=< 1 >,

=< > = , ,

, < >
2 2
 .

..

()

= 1

1 .

..

= 1

every group G of order is either cyclic or dihedral

. 2

: 6 6 3

4 4 2 4 2 2 ( ).

note : = , = = 2 = }

4,6,10,14

> ,

group of order 15 is cyclic (5.3)

=< >

=< >

deg = 0 =

nonzero

deg = 0 =

= < >=< >

, 0,1

1
. = ;
2

1
= + = + ;
2 2 2

1
= ker = =0}
2

..

1
. = ;
3

1
= ker = =0}
3

1
.
2

..

. = 1

= 1 = 1

> 0 = 1

1 4 , . = 2 + 2 = +

neither of the factors is a as Norm is greater than 1

Thus is in [].

 3 4

= 1 + 1 2 + 2

neither factor is a > 1 12 + 12 > 1 22 + 22 > 1.

taking norm both sides

= 12 + 12 22 + 22

= 12 + 12 = 22 + 22

1 4, which is a contradiction

= where ,

number of Sylow p subgroups = , then

1 and |

= , where and are

1 and |

1 and |.


| 1

| 1 .

| .

let = gcd ,

To show + = or < > + < > = < >

= + < > + < >

< > < >+< >

let < > + < >

= + , = gcd ,

= and =
 = + | < >

< >+< >< >.

be a permutation s. t = ;

as 3 ,

let =

= = and = =

hence for every nonidentity permutation in , there exists some element with it

must be