American Music Education from 1983 to 2008

Overall:
Dissatisfaction with American education (especially ever since Sputnik in 1957)
The creation of educational research & reports to improve education.they all agreed that the
goal of education needed to be clarified, but there were many different ideas of what the goal
should be
A general aim of education in this time seems to be to compete with other countries in the global
economy
Multicultural movement in education
Standards movement & greater focus on educational research and teacher education/preparation
Increasing federal involvement in education
History:
Presidents: Ronald Reagan; George H. W. Bush; Bill Clinton; George W. Bush
Cold War (1947-1991)
Columbine School Shooting 1999
September 11, 2001

1980s (1930-1980 significant decline in education)

No federal authority over education at this point -most ed. funding comes from the states and
localities difficult to attain uniformity of quality on a national scale
1983- President Ronald Reagan appointed a National Commission on Excellence in
Education...the commission issued the report: A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational
Reform(rising tide of mediocrity)
1983 report: 20th Century Fund Task Force on Federal Elementary and Secondary Education
Policy- Called for the executive and legislative branches of the federal government to
emphasize the need for better schools

1990s
Attention focused on preserving the arts programs during economic pressures
Educational struggles continue...lack basic literacy and numeracy skills
Educational reforms: educational standards, accountability, authentic assessment
Federal government renewed its involvement in education in the early 1990s
National Standards for Arts Education (1994)
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Leading up to 1983:
Education Amendments Act of 1972- made multicultural education a legal requirement
Title IX Ethnic Heritage Program of Educational Amendments Act clarified the
intention of multicultural education and helped set its focus and direction
Title VII Emergency School Aid -authorized grants to schools in metropolitan areas to
develop cooperative relationships between schools with significantly different ethnic and
racial student bodies
A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform
1983: Published by the National Commission on Excellence in Education
 Reasons for the educational decline were weakness of purpose, confusion of vision,
underuse of talent, lack of leadership; specific educational reasons were: Content,
Expectations, Time, Teaching
General lack of concern in American society for the placement of the arts as non-basic
subjects
MENC responded by creating a music-specific version..CALLED??

1983 & Beyond- Educational Reforms (Reports & Acts):

Academic Preparation for College: What Students Need to Know and Be Able to Do
1983: Published by the College Board as part of the College Board Educational Quality
Project (to improve academic quality of secondary education & assure equal opportunities
for post-secondary education)
Strongly supported arts education. 6 major areas of study: arts, english, math, science,
social science, and foreign language
The arts can prepare students for college no matter their major area of study
Appreciation of the arts is helpful in understanding cultures
Educating Americans for the 21st Century
1983: Report by the National Science Board Commission on Precollege Education in
Mathematics, Science, and Technology
Plan to improve math, science, and tech ed for all American elementary and secondary
students so that their achievement is the best in the world by 1995
Urged federal government to take a leadership role in ed
Recommended longer school days, more required courses for HS graduation
High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America
1983: Report by Ernest Boyer (pres. Of Carnegie Foundation & former US Commissioner
of Ed.) - Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
Recommended that 1st 2 years of HS should be core curriculum of required
courses (including the arts)- arts are an essential part of the human experience
A Place Called School -1984 book by John Goodlad
Strong support for arts education: 10-15% of every students program should be the arts
Suggested ways for more efficient and effective schedules for school days
Purpose of education is to develop the individual & a collective democratic character
Toward Civilization: A Report on Arts Education
1988: Report by NEA- attempts to identify & justify the arts that should be taught in
school, and to suggest ways to improve them
Frank Hodsoll- chair of the NEA (supervised the research for this report)
Gap between commitment and resources for arts education and the actual classroom
practice...advocated for a redistribution of resources
The Goals: 2000: Educate America Act of 1994
8 national education goals to be accomplished by 2000 (improve preschool education
and attendance, set high achievement goals, cultural knowledge)
1. Readiness to learn
2. Improved graduation rates
3. Competency in core subjects
4. World leadership in math & science
5. Adult literacy
 6. Positive and safe learning environment
7. Professional development for teachers
8. Parental involvement
Led to the National Standards for Arts Education
1st time that standards were written for the arts as a core curricular subject (9
National Standards, with content standards and achievement standards)
Results: Did not meet any of the eight educational goals
Progress toward the goals for preschoolers and student achievement in math
and reading -more children were ready to learn (healthier and better prepared)
for Kindergarten
Higher math proficiency (especially elementary & middle school) & small
improvement in reading proficiency (middle school)
Teacher quality and school safety issues worsened
No Child Left Behind Act (2002)
Overall- wanted accountability (wanted the schools to measure whether students were
learning) and to reward/punish the schools as a result
Every child would be tested every year in grades 3-8 (state tests not national tests) in
reading & mathematics
Congress passed NCLB based on the success of more testing in Texas of better test
scores, shrinking achievement gap...etc.
Walt Haney (Boston College) pointed out the drawbacks of the TX testing system
Punishments for not making adequate progress for every subgroup of students toward
the goal of 100%
Results:
Failed: The goal of 100% proficiency by 2014 was out of reach
Excessive testing complaints...led to teaching to the test
States lowered standards to pretend to be proficient
Instructional time in history, science, the arts, geography, and even recess time
decreased...time was spent on reading, math, and test preparation
Test scores & test prep became priority over actual education

Educational Developments:
Center on Education Policy: national, independent advocate for public education
Creating Student Success in School, Work, and LIfe from the Center on Education
Policy - in reaction to NCLB -promotes arts education for advancement of school and to
help close the achievement gap
From the Capital to the Classroom: Year 4 of the No Child Left Behind Act
Arts classes becoming limited to only some students in school and after-school
opportunities
Increasing view of non-tested subjects as just for fun

Vision 2020 (published in 1994)

Paul Lehman -How Can the Skills and Knowledge Called for in the National Standards
Best Be Taught?
Goals and suggestions for music education by 2020: Comprehensive, balanced, and
sequential music programs to achieve standards and meet the needs of students
 HS- variety of class options
Music for all
Self-expression through music creation & performance
Informed listening (responding)
Relationships between the arts and other disciplines (connect)
Ability to learn new music independently
Integration of technology
Multicultural/diverse repertoire
Quality assessment & curriculum & good teachers

MENC: Music Educators National Conference

MENC established the Professional Certification Program- to improve the quality of
instruction in schools and to recognize outstanding music teachers
Increased lines of communication between the government & MENC
Focus on unity amongst music teachers/MENC because of the budget cuts
After September 11, 2001, MENC sent a CD of the disc, Sing America! To each member
of Congress (a recording of military bands)
National Anthem Project- Restoring Americas Voice (2004, launched by
MENC)- advocated for schools to teach the National Anthem

Multicultural Movement: Broaden the Eurocentric perception of the US

Traditional emphasis on Western art music = too restrictive for a nation of immigrants
General music programs were the 1st to integrate multicultural music into the curriculum...in the
1990s, ensembles had only just begun exploring multicultural music
By 1980s multiculturalism in music had evolved from world musics to the musics of the American
people
World musics = the study of the music of other countries
Multicultural musics = the study of the music of the many American cultures
Issue of authenticity developed
1972-1992: at least 4 issues of Music Educators Journal were dedicated to multicultural music
education
1989- The World of Music -book published by Silver Burdett and Ginn
1989: MENC published Multicultural Perspectives in Music Education (compiled by Anderson and
Campbell)
1990: MENC & Smithsonian and the Society for Ethnomusicology sponsored the Symposium on
Multicultural Approaches to Music Education
1985 the MENC Worlds Largest Concert series began (featured international concerts)
Now: Concert for Music in Our Schools Month sing-along, world-wide

Influential People:
Abraham A. Schwadron
Music professor at University of California LA
Wrote Aesthetics and Music Education (book)
Purpose- to provide a firm philosophical framework for contemporary music education
More aesthetic experiences should be available to all (not just the talented few)
 Music for musics sake
Music ed should prepare students for a consumer-oriented society

Gerard L. Knieter
Music prof. at California State University, Northridge; chair of music ed dept. at Temple
Wrote: The Nature of Aesthetic Education
Characteristics of an aesthetic experience: Focus, perception, involves affect, involves
cognition, involves the cultural matrix
3 modes of behavior in music: creativity, performance, response
Music ed should be for all students in different forms

Charles H. Ball
Associate professor of music at George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville Tennessee
Wrote: Thoughts on Music as Aesthetic Education
Experiencing art is the most important element in aesthetic education
Factual knowledge without music appreciation is wasted

Bennett Reimer
Professor of music emeritus at Northwestern University
Wrote: A Philosophy of Music Education (1st ed. 1970)

Jane Remer
Author, consultant, and faculty member at Teachers College/Columbia University
Wrote: The Arts for Arts Sake vs. Integration: A False Dichotomy for Schools
Art for aesthetic purpose vs. art for utilitarian purpose
Standards-based, test-driven school culture influences educators to have to make the arts
relevant by connecting them to the existing curriculum

Richard Colwell
Professor of music at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of Northern
Colorado, Boston University, and the New England Conservatory of Music
Wrote: Planning and Evaluation: The Evaluation Dilemma
Music is unique...no systematic way to teach
Musical success relies on talent.

Paul Lehman
Professor of music education at the University of Michigan; President of MENC
Wrote: The National Standards: From Vision to Reality
Described the significance of the standards project - allows arts educators to take
ownership of arts education (rather than advocacy groups who lack arts ed experience)

Michael L. Mark (1936-present) (Music professor at Towson University)

Wrote about the history of American Music Education- The No Child Left Behind Act in A History
of American Music Education
Created difficulties for music over the issue of testing - it wasnt required, so the
emphasis on testing in reading and math became the focus and resulted in a decrease
in instructional time for school music and art
 Also pushed music teachers to relate music to reading and math

Philip A. Alperson (1946-present)

Professor of philosophy at the University of Louisville; editor of the Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism
Praxial view of art- art education should take into account the motives, intentions, and
productive considerations of artists

David J. Elliott (Music prof at NYU)

Wrote: Music Matters and The Praxial Philosophy of Music Education
Music is something people do...musicing
Fundamental values of musicing: self-growth, self-knowledge, musical enjoyment, self-esteem
Sense of community
The nature of music should be the center of music education

Warrick L. Carter (1942-2017)

President of Columbia College (Chicago)
Music educators need to make school music welcoming for minority students to encourage
involvement

Patricia Shehan Campbell

Music prof. At University of Washington, Seattle
Wrote: Musical Exotica (multiculturalism)
Focuses on music education & ethnomusicology
In an attempt to include multicultural music in schools, students are often receiving
disconnected experiences that seem unorganized and without an overarching purpose
Important to maintain the core of music while teaching multicultural music

Kurt Gemeinhardt (1948-present)- flute and piccolo manufacturer who sponsored a series of free
educational seminars on the importance of communication, parental support, and generating local
support (applied to school band) -1982

Howard Gardner (1943-present)- (Professor of Cognition and Education at Harvard)

Wrote: Frames of Mind (book 1983)
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Developmental psychologist