2. a). a.

Setting Time
b.Soundness
c. Fineness
d. Strength with procedure and next sketch
b). Effects of Impurities in Mixing Water
Excessive impurities in mixing water affect setting time and concrete strength and also
cause efflorescence (deposits of white salts on the surface of concrete), staining, corrosion of
reinforcement, volume changes, and reduced durability.
Sea Water - Seawater containing up to 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts is generally
suitable as mixing water for plain concrete. Seawater is not suitable for use in making steel
reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete due to high risk of steel corrosion
Acid Waters - Acid waters may be accepted as mixing water on the basis of their pH
values. Use of acid waters with pH values less than 3.0 should be avoided. Organic acids, such
as tannic acid can have significant effect on strength at higher concentrations.
Alkaline Waters-Waters with sodium hydroxide concentrations up to 0.5 % and
potassium hydroxide in concentrations up to 1.2 % by weight of cement has no significant
effect on strength.The possibility for increased alkali-aggregate reactivity should be considered
before using the alkaline water as mixing water. Tannic acid can have significant effect on
strength at higher concentrations.
Industrial Wastewaters - Industrial wastewaters may be used as mixing water in
concrete as long as they only cause a very small reduction in compressive strength, generally
not greater than 10 % to 15 %. Wastewaters from paint factories, coke plants, and chemical and
galvanizing plants may contain harmful impurities. Thus such wastewaters should not be used
as mixing.
Sanitary Sewage-The sanitary sewage may be safely used as mixing water after
treatment or dilution of the organic matter.
 b) ii). Step-I Mining
Step-II Crushing, stepping and reclaiming of rawmaterials
Step-III Raw meal drying, grinding and homogenization
Step-IV Clinkeration
Step-V Cement grinding and storage
Step-VI Packing

3a. Discuss the characteristics of aggregates.

Aggregates can be classified as (i ) Normal weight aggregates, (ii ) Light weight aggregates and
(iii) Heary weight aggregates. Light weight aggregate and heavy weight aggregate will be discussed
elsewhere under appropriate topics.
Source
Aggregates from Igneous, Sedimentary rocks & Metamorphic rocks
Size
Shape
Texture
Strength
b. (i). Explain the alkali-aggregate reaction.
For a long time aggregates have been considered as inert materials but later on, particularly, after
1940s it was clearly brought out that the aggregates are not fully inert. Some of the aggregates contain
reactive silica, which reacts with alkalies present in cement i.e., sodium oxide and potassium oxide. In the
United States of America it was found for the first time that many failures of concrete structures like
pavement, piers and sea walls could be attributed to the alkali-aggregate reaction. Since then a
systematic study has been made in this regard and now it is proved beyond doubt that certain types of
reactive aggregates are responsible for promoting alkali-aggregate reaction.
The types of rocks which contain reactive constituents include traps, andesites, rhyolites,siliceous
limestones and certain types of sandstones. The reactive constituents may be in the form of opals, cherts,
chalcedony, volcanic glass, zeolites etc. The reaction starts with attack on the reactive siliceous minerals
in the aggregate by the alkaline hydroxide derived from the alkalies in cement. As a result, the alkali
silicate gels of unlimited swelling type are formed. When the conditions are congenial, progressive
manifestation by swelling takes place, which results in disruption of concrete with the spreading of pattern
cracks and eventual failure of concrete structures. The rate of deterioration may be slow or fast
depending upon the conditions. There were cases where concrete has become unserviceable in about a
years time. In India, the basalt rocks occurring in the Deccan plateau, Madhya Pradesh, Kathiawar,
Hyderabad, Punchal Hill (Jammu and Kashmir), Bengal and Bihar should be viewed with caution.
Similarly, limestones and dolomites containing chert nodules would be highly reactive. Indian limestones
of Bijawar series are known to be highly cherty. Regions of occurrence include Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Punjab and Assam.
Sandstones containing silica minerals like chalcedony, crypto to microcrystalline quartz or opal are found
to be reactive. Regions of occurrence include Madhya Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar and Delhi. Some of the
samples obtained from Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Kashmir were found to be containing reactive
constituents which could be identified by visual examination. These contain substantial quantities of
minerals like opals, chalcedony and amorphous silica. Quartzite samples of rock obtained from Kashmir
were also found to be highly reactive. Geographically India has a very extensive deposit of volcanic rocks.
The Deccan traps covering the western part of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, the dolomites of
Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Rajasthan, limestones of Jammu and Kashmir would form extensive
source of aggregate for concrete construction. The aggregates from these rocks should be studied
cautiously to see how far reactive are they. It is interesting to note that only such aggregates which
contain reactive silica in particular proportion and in particular fineness are found to exhibit tendencies for
alkali-aggregates reaction. It is possible to reduce its tendency by altering either the proportion of reactive
silica or its fineness.
 ASTM C494 Type F and Type G, High Range Water Reducer (HRWR) and retarding admixtures are
(ii).
used to reduce the amount of water by 12% to 30% while maintaining a certain level of consistency and
workability (typically from 75 mm to 200 mm) and to increase workability for reduction in w/cm ratio. The
use of superplasticizers may produce high strength concrete (compressive strength up to 22,000 psi).
Superplasticizers can also be utilized in producing flowing concrete used in a heavy reinforced structure
with inaccessible areas. Requirement for producing flowing concrete is defined in ASTM C 1017. The
effect of superplasticizers in concrete flow is illustrated in the chart below:

Another benefit of superplasticizers is concrete early strength enhancement (50 to 75%). The initial
setting time may be accelerated up to an hour earlier or retarded to be an hour later according to its
chemical reaction. Retardation is sometimes associated with range of cement particle between 4
30 m m. The use of superplasticizers does not significantly affect surface tension of water and does not
entrain a significant amount of air. The main disadvantage of superplasticizer usage is loss of workability
as a result of rapid slump loss and incompatibility of cement and superplasticizers.

Superplasticizers are soluble macromolecules, which are hundreds of times larger than water molecule
(Gani, 1997). Mechanism of the superplasticizers is known as adsorption by C3A, which breaks the
agglomeration by repulsion of same charges and releases entrapped water. The adsorption mechanism
of superplasticizers is partially different from the WRA. The difference relates to compatibility between
Portland Cement and superplasticizers. It is necessary to ensure that the superplasticizers do not
become fixed with C3A in cement particle, which will cause reduction in concrete workability.

Typical dosage of superplasticizers used for increasing the workability of concrete ranges from 1 to 3
liters per cubic meter of concrete where liquid superplasticizers contained about 40 % of active material.
In reducing the water cement ratio, higher dosage is used, that is from 5 to 20 liters per cubic meter of
concrete. Dosage needed for a concrete mixture is unique and determined by the Marsh Cone Test.

There are four types of superplasticizers: sulfonated melamine, sulfonated naphthalene, modified
lignosulfonates and a combination of high dosages of water reducing and accelerating admixtures.
Commonly used are melamine based and naphthalene based superplasticizers. The use of naphthalene
based has the advantage of retardation and affecst slump retention. This is due to the modified hydration
process by the sulfonates.
4 a). Sufficiently cured concrete containing good quality fly ash shows dense structure which offers high
resistivity to the infiltration of deleterious substances. A point for consideration is that the pozzolanic
reactivity reduces the calcium hydroxide content, which results in reduction of passivity to the steel
reinforcement and at the same time the additional secondary cementitious material formed makes the
paste structure dense, and thereby gives more resistance to the corrosion of reinforcement. Which one
will have an overriding effect on the corrosion of reinforcement will be a point in question. Published data
reports that concrete with fly ash shows similar depth of carbonation as that of concrete without fly ash,
as long as the compressive strength level is same. It is also recognised that the addition of fly ash
contributes to the reduction of the expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction. The dilution effect of alkali
and reduction of the water permeability due to dense texture may be one of the factors for reduction of
alkali-aggregate reaction. In conclusion it may be said that although fly ash is an industrial waste, its use
in concrete significantly improve the long term strength and durability and reduce heat of hydration. In
other words good fly ash will be an indispensable mineral admixture for high performance concrete.
High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFA)
Several laboratory and field investigation conducted in Canada and U.S.A. have demonstrated excellent
durability of high volume fly ash concrete. It was tested for water permeability, resistance to freezing and
thawing, resistance to the penetration of chloride ions, corrosion to steel reinforcement, resistance to
sulphate attack, controlling alkali-aggregate expansion, carbonation and durability in marine environment.
Influence on Fresh Concrete
Water demand increases in proportion to the amount of microsilica added. The increase in water demand
of concrete containing microsilica will be about 1% for every 1% of cement substituted. Therefore, 20 mm
maximum size aggregate concrete, containing 10% microsilica, will have an increased water content of
about 20 litres/m3. Measures can be taken to avoid this increase by adjusting the aggregate grading and
using superplasticizers. The addition of microsilica will lead to lower slump but more cohesive mix. The
microsilica make the fresh concrete sticky in nature and hard to handle. It was also found that there was
large reduction in bleeding and concrete with microsilica could be handled and transported without
segregation. It is reported that concrete containing microsilica is vulnerable to plastic shrinkage cracking
and, therefore, sheet or mat curing should be considered. Microsilica concrete produces more heat of
hydration at the initial stage of hydration. However, the total generation of heat will be less than that of
reference concrete.
Influence on Hardened Concrete
Concrete containing microsilica showed outstanding characteristics in the development of strength. Fig.
5.30 shows that 60 to 80 MPa can be obtained relatively easily. It has been also found out that modulus
of elasticity of microsilica concrete is less than that of concrete without microsilica at the same level of
compressive strength. As regards, the improvement in durability aspects many published reports, of this
investigation carried out, indicate improvement in durability of concrete with microsilica. There are some
investigations indicating contradiction, particularly with reference to resistance against frost damage.
With regard to whether or not, silica fume is effective for alkali-aggregate reaction, some research
workers report that it is effective, others conclude that while it is effective, addition of silica fume in small
quantities actually increases the expansion.\

b) i). Concrete, though not a refractory material, is incombustible and has good fire-resistant properties. Fire
resistance of concrete structure is determined by three main factorsthe capacity of the concrete itself to
withstand heat and the subsequent action of water without losing strength unduly, without cracking or spalling;
the conductivity of the concrete to heat; and coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete. In the case of
reinforced concrete, the fire resistance is not only dependent upon the type of concrete but also on the thickness
of cover to reinforcement, The fire introduces high temperature gradients and as a result of it, the surface layers
tend to separate and spall off from the cooler interior. The heating of reinforcement aggravates the expansion
both laterally and longitudinally of the reinforcement bars resulting in loss of bond and loss of strength of
reinforcement. The effect of increase in temperature on the strength of concrete is not much upto a temperature
of about 250C but above 300C, definite loss of strength takes place. Hydrated hardened concrete contains a
considerable proportion of free calcium hydroxide which loses its water above 400C leaving calcium oxide. If this
calcium oxide gets wetted or is exposed to moist air, rehydrates to calcium hydroxide accompanied by an
expansion in volume. This expansion disrupts the concrete. Portland blast furnace slag cement is found to be more
resistant to the action of fire in this regard. In mortar and concrete, the aggregates undergo a progressive
expansion on heating while the hydrated products of the set cement, beyond the point of maximum expansion,
shrinks. These two opposing actions progressively weaken and crack the concrete. The various aggregates used
differ considerably in their behaviour on heating. Quartz, the principal mineral in sand, granites and gravels
expands steadily upto about 573C. At this temperature it undergoes a sudden expansion of 0.85%. This expansion
has a disruptive action on the stability of concrete. The fire resisting properties of concrete is least, if quartz is the
predominant mineral in the aggregate. The best fire resistant aggregates, amongst the igneous rocks are, the
basalts and dolerites. Limestone expands steadily until temperature of about 900C and then begins to contract
owing to decomposition with liberation of carbon dioxide. Since the decomposition takes place only at a very high
temperature of 900C, it has been found that dense limestone is considered as a good fire resistant aggregate.
Perhaps the best fire resistant aggregate is blast furnace slag aggregate. Broken bricks also form a good aggregate
in respect of fire resistance. The long series of tests indicated that even the best fire resistant concretes have been
found to fail if concrete is exposed for a considerable period to a temperature exceeding 900C, while serious
reduction in strength occurs at a temperature of about 600C. Concrete does not show appreciable loss of strength
upto a temperature of about 300C. The loss of strength may be about 50% or more at about 500C. Figures 9.15
and 9.16 show the effect of different temperatures on the strength of concrete and Fig. 9.17 shows the influence
of temperature on the relative modulus of elasticity.

ii). Cement paste plays a dominant role in the deformation of concrete. The aggregates, depending upon
the type and proportions modify the deformation characteristics to a greater or lesser extent. Therefore, it
is logical initially to examine the structure of cement paste and how it influences creep behaviour and then
to consider how the presence of aggregate modifies the creep behaviour. Cement paste essentially
consists of unhydrated cement grains surrounded by the product of hydration mostly in the form of gel.
These gels are interpenetrated by gel pores and interspersed by capillary cavities. The process of
hydration generates more and more of gel and subsequently there will be reduction of unhydrated cement
and capillary cavities. In young concrete, gel pores are filled with gel water and capillary cavities may or
may not be filled with water. The movement of water held in gel and paste structure takes place under the
influence of internal and external water vapour pressure. The movement of water may also take place
due to the sustained load on concrete. The formation of gel and the state of existence of water are the
significant factors on the deformative characteristics of concrete. The gel provides the rigidity both by the
formation of chemical bonds and by the surface force of attraction while the water can be existing in three
categories namely combined water, gel water and capillary water. It is interesting to find how such a
conglomeration of very fine colloidal particles with enclosed water-filled viods behave under the action of
external forces. One of the explanations given to the mechanics of creeps is based on the theory that the
colloidal particles slide against each other to re-adjust their position displacing the water held in gel pores
and capillary cavities. This flow of gel and the consequent displacement of water is responsible for
complex deformation behaviour and creep of concrete. Creep takes place only under stress. Under
sustained stress, with time, the gel, the adsorbed water layer, the water held in the gel pores and capillary
pores yields, flows and readjust themselves, which behaviour is termed as creep in concrete.
Rheological Representation of Creep
Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of a material like hardened cement paste which exhibits both elastic
and inelastic components of deformation under load, can be expressed in rheological terms. The
rheological approach illustrates the mechanical behaviour of an ideal elastic, viscous and plastic
components.
Macroscopic Rheological Approach
At the macroscopic level, the structure of cement paste can be represented as a continuous solid phase
containing saturated voids having a wide ranges of sizes. Under the complex systems of applied loading,
below the elastic limit of the material, various combinations of these basic mechanisms of deformation
may be expected. On the basis of the available experimental evidence, it may be assumed that the long
term deformation mechanism in cement gel is that involving narrowing of the intercrystalline spaces. This
is reflected in the slow and decreasing rate of time-dependent of deformation, as well as in the
irrecoverable component of the deformations which increase with loading time. The time dependent
deformation behaviour of loaded and unloaded hardened cement paste shows a distinct similarity
between creep (and its recovery) and shrinkage (and swelling). All these processes are governed by
movement or migration of the various types of water held. It can be further explained as follows:
Application of uniaxial compression which is the most usual type of loading, results in as instantaneous
elastic response of both solid and liquid systems. The external load is distributed between these two
phases. Under sustained load, the compressed liquid begins to diffuse and migrate from high to lower
stressed areas. Under uniform pressure, migration takes place outwards from the body. This mechanism
is accompanied by a transfer of load from the liquid phase to the surrounding solid, so that stress acting
on the solid matrix increases gradually, resulting in an increased elastic deformation. There is reason to
believe that, after several days under sustained load, the pressure on the capillary water gradually
disappears, being transferred to the surrounding gel. Similarly, the pressure on the gel pore water
disappears after some weeks. The pressure on the inter and intracrystalline adsorbed water continues to
act during the entire period of loading, although the magnitude decreases gradually. It can be said that
the ultimate deformation of the hardened cement paste, in fact, is the elastic response of its solid matrix,
which behaves as if the spaces within it (which are filled with unstable gel) were quite empty.

5a).
B(i) Quality Assurance and Quality Control are extremely important aspects of any engineering or
construction project without which successful completion of the project cant be imagined. In fact, these
two are integral parts of virtually any project one can think of. Proper implementation of Quality Assurance
and Quality Control not only results in a sound project but also leads to more economy by means of
optimisation. Its hence important to realise the meaning or the definitions of the terms Quality Assurance
and Quality Control. Thats what this post is all about.
Quality Assurance : Quality Assurance or QA is the process of identifying or deciding all the quality
requirements for a project, identifying existing quality documents such as codes, specifications etc. that
are relevant to the quality requirements of the project and making them available for use, preparation of
new project specific quality documents such as Project Quality Plan (PQP) or Quality Assurance Plan
(QAP), Inspection Test Plans (ITP), Job Procedures (JP), Project Specifications etc. that would provide
the necessary framework or guidelines for ensuring that the planned or targetted quality requirements
(quality goals) for the project are achieved in a systematic and timely manner.
Quality Assurance includes all those quality parameters or guidelines that would ensure that a project or a
product meets its planned or targetted quality by its stakeholders or the producers. All the documents
providing quality parameters or guidelines for that purpose are part of quality domain and are called QA
documents. Examples of QA documents are the Project Quality Plan (PQP) or Quality Assurance Plan
(QAP), Inspection Test Plans (ITP), Job Procedures (JP), codes and so on.
Project Quality Plan (PQP) or the Quality Assurance Plan (QAP) is the most elaborate quality document
in a project. Ideally, it provides the complete framework or comprehensive guidelines for achieving the
planned or the target quality for all aspects involving the project such as planning, design, engineering,
construction, procurement, document control etc. etc.
QA documents like Inspection Test Plans (ITPs), Job Procedures (JPs) etc. are mostly construction
specific. Examples are ITPs and JPs for concreting, earthwork, structural steelwork, grouting and many
more, all of which are construction activities.
If the quality parameters or the guidelines provided in the QA documents are followed properly the
ultimate quality target for a project, product etc. would be achieved. To sum up in a simple way, Quality
Assurance is all about planning or finalising the quality targets for a project and then showing the ways of
achieving the same clearly.
Quality Control : Quality control includes all those tasks or activities performed in ground as per the
quality guidelines or framework prescribed in the Quality assurance documents such as Project Quality
Plan (PQP) or Quality Assurance Plan (QAP), Inspection Test Plans (ITPs), Job Procedures (JPs),
Project Specifications etc. in order to ascertain that the quality targets as laid down in the QA documents
are actually achieved in a systematic manner as suggested in these documents. The quality documents
generated while performing these tasks are Quality Control documents or QC documents.
Lets consider a very common construction activity, say, concreting in order to have a clearer picture of
quality documents. The framework or the guidelines for achieving the desired or target quality for
concreting are provided in QA documents such as ITPs, JPs, codes and so on. As prescribed in these
documents various activities like designing concrete mixes, conducting laboratory tests, doing inspections
etc. etc. are performed. These are nothing but Quality Control activities and the resulting documents like
the concrete mix design reports, laboratory test reports, inspection reports etc. are QC documents.
Similarly, calibration of measuring and test equipments and conducting quality audits are QC activities
and the resulting calibration and audit reports are QC documents. There are plenty of examples like
these.
Also, while the forms for recording laboratory test results, calibration results etc. are actually QA
documents, they become reports or QC documents when they are filled with laboratory test results or
calibration results.
Quality Control is usually performed by contractors, manufacturers, suppliers etc. and often has to be
approved by their clients or the representatives of the clients such as the consultants.

(ii). The concept of quality as we think of it now first emerged from the Industrial Revolution. Previously
goods had been made from start to finish by the same person or team of people, with handcrafting and
tweaking the product to meet 'quality criteria'. Mass production brought huge teams of people together to
work on specific stages of production where one person would not necessarily complete a product from
start to finish. In the late 19th century pioneers such as Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry
Ford recognized the limitations of the methods being used in mass production at the time and the
subsequent varying quality of output. Birland established Quality Departments to oversee the quality of
production and rectifying of errors, and Ford emphasized standardization of design and component
standards to ensure a standard product was produced. Management of quality was the responsibility of
the Quality department and was implemented by Inspection of product output to 'catch' defects.

Application of statistical control came later as a result of World War production methods, which were
advanced by the work done of W. Edwards Deming, a statistician, after whom the Deming
Prize forquality is named. Joseph M. Juran focused more on managing for quality. The first edition of
Juran's Quality Control Handbook was published in 1951. He also developed the "Juran's trilogy", an
approach to cross-functional management that is composed of three managerial processes: quality
planning, quality control, and quality improvement. These functions all play a vital role when evaluating
quality.

Quality, as a profession and the managerial process associated with the quality function, was introduced
during the second half of the 20th century and has evolved since then. Over this period, few other
disciplines have seen as many changes as the quality profession.

The quality profession grew from simple control to engineering, to systems engineering. Quality
control activities were predominant in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. The 1970s were an era of quality
engineering and the 1990s saw quality systems as an emerging field. Like medicine, accounting,
and engineering, quality has achieved status as a recognized profession[1]

As Lee and Dale (1998) state, there are many organizations that are striving to assess the methods and
ways in which their overall productivity, the quality of their products and services and the required
operations to achieve them are done.

6 a). BATCHING Batching is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients by either mass or volume
and introducing them into the mixer. To produce concrete of uniform quality, the ingredients must be
measured accurately for each batch. Most specifications require that batching be done by mass rather
than by volume (ASTM C 94 or AASHTO M 157). Water and liquid admixtures can be measured
accurately by either volume or mass. Volumetric batching (ASTM C 685 or AASHTO M 241) is used for
concrete mixed in continuous mixers. Specifications generally require that materials be measured for
individual batches within the following percentages of accuracy: cementitious material 1%,
aggregates 2%, water 1%, and admixtures 3%. Equipment should be capable of measuring
quantities within these tolerances for the smallest batch regularly used as well as for larger
batches. The accuracy of scales and batching equipment should be checked periodically and adjusted
when necessary. Liquid chemical admixtures should be charged into the mixture as aqueous solutions.
The volume of liquid, if significant, should be subtracted from the batched quantity of mixing water.
Admixtures that cannot be added in solution can be either batched by mass or volume as directed by the
manufacturer. Admixture dispensers should be checked frequently since errors in dispensing admixtures,
particularly overdoses, can lead to serious problems in both fresh and hardened concrete.

MIXING - All concrete should be mixed thoroughly until it is uniform in appearance, with all ingredients
evenly distributed. Mixers should not be loaded above their rated capacities and should be operated at
the mixing speed recommended by the manufacturer. Increased output should be obtained by using a
larger mixer or additional mixers, rather than by speeding up or overloading the equipment on hand. If the
blades of a mixer become worn or coated with hardened concrete, mixing action will be less efficient.
These conditions should be corrected. If concrete has been adequately mixed, samples taken from
different portions of a batch will have essentially the same density, air content, slump, and coarse-
aggregate content. Maximum allowable differences to evaluate mixing uniformity within a batch of ready
mixed concrete are given in ASTM C 94 (AASHTO M 157). Structural low-density concrete can be mixed
the same way as normal-density concrete when the aggregates have less than 10% total absorption by
mass or when the absorption is less than 2% by mass during the first hour after immersion in water. For
aggregates not meeting these limits, mixing procedures are described in PCA (1986).

Stationary Mixing -Concrete is sometimes mixed at the jobsite in a stationary mixer or a paving mixer
Stationary mixers include both onsite mixers and central mixers in ready mix plants. They are available in
sizes up to 9.0 m3 (12 yd3) and can be of the tilting or nontilting type or the open-top revolving blade or
paddle type. All types may be equipped with loading skips and some are equipped with a swinging
discharge chute. Many stationary mixers have timing devices, some of which can be set for a given
mixing time and locked so that the batch cannot be discharged until the designated mixing time has
elapsed. Careful attention should be paid to the required mixing time. Many specifications require a
minimum mixing time of one minute plus 15 seconds for every cubic meter (yard), unless mixer
performance tests demonstrate that shorter periods are acceptable and will provide a uniform concrete
mixture. Short mixing times can result in nonhomogenous mixtures, poor distribution of air voids (resulting
in poor frost resistance), poor strength gain, and early stiffening problems. The mixing period should be
measured from the time all cement and aggregates are in the mixer drum, provided all the water is added
before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed (ACI 304R-00). Under usual conditions, up to about 10%
of the mixing water should be placed in the drum before the solid materials are added. Water then should
be added uniformly with the solid materials, leaving about 10% to be added after all other materials are in
the drum. When heated water is used in cold weather, this order of charging may require some
modification to prevent possible rapid stiffening when hot water contacts the cement. In this case, addition
of the cementitious materials should be delayed until most of the aggregate and water have intermingled
in the drum. Where the mixer is charged directly from a batch plant, the materials should be added
simultaneously at such rates that the charging time is about the same for all materials. If supplementary
cementing materials are used, they should be added after the cement. If retarding or water-reducing
admixtures are used, they should be added in the same sequence in the charging cycle each time. If not,
significant variations in the time of initial setting and percentage of entrained air may result. Addition of
the admixture should be completed not later than one minute after addition of water to the cement has
been completed or prior to the start of the last three-fourths of the mixing cycle, whichever occurs first. If
two or more admixtures are used in the same batch of concrete, they should be added separately; this is
intended to avoid any interaction that might interfere with the efficiency of any of the admixtures and
adversely affect the concrete properties. In addition, the sequence in which they are added to the mix can
be important too. Ready Mixed Concrete Ready mixed concrete is proportioned and mixed off the project
site and is delivered to the construction area in a freshly mixed and unhardened state. It can be
manufactured by any of the following methods:

Central-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a stationary mixer (Fig. 10-3) and is delivered either in a
truck agitator (Fig. 10-4 bottom), a truck mixer operating at agitating speed (Fig. 10-3), or a nonagitating
truck (Fig. 10-4 top). Fig. 10-5 illustrates a central mix ready mix plant. 2. Shrink-mixed concrete is mixed
partially in a stationary mixer and completed in a truck mixer. 3. Truck-mixed concrete is mixed
completely in a truck mixer (Fig. 10-6). ASTM C 94 (AASHTO M 157) notes that when a truck mixer is
used for complete mixing, 70 to 100 revolutions of the drum or blades at the rate of rotation designated by
the manufacturer as mixing speed are usually required to produce the specified uniformity of concrete. All
revolutions after 100 should be at a rate of rotation designated by the manufacturer as agitating speed.
Agitating speed is usually about 2 to 6 rpm, and mixing speed is generally about 6 to 18 rpm. Mixing at
high speeds for long periods of time, about 1 or more hours, can result in concrete strength loss,
temperature rise, excessive loss of entrained air, and accelerated slump loss. When truck mixers are
used, ASTM C 94 (AASHTO M 157) also limits the time between batching and complete discharge of the
concrete at the job site; this time is 11 2 hours or before the drum has revolved 300 times after
introduction of water to the cement and aggregates or the cement to the aggregates. Mixers and agitators
should always be operated within the limits for volume and speed of rotation designated by the equipment
manufacturer.

TRANSPORTING AND HANDLING CONCRETE Good advanced planning can help choose the
appropriate handling method for an application. Consider the following three occurrences that, should
they occur during handling and placing, could seriously affect the quality of the finished work: Delays. The
objective in planning any work schedule is to produce the fastest work with the best labor force and the
proper equipment for the work at hand. Machines for transporting and handling concrete are being
improved all the time. The greatest productivity will be achieved if the work is planned to get the most out
of personnel and equipment and if the equipment is selected to reduce the delay time during concrete
placement. Early Stiffening and Drying Out. Concrete begins to stiffen as soon as the cementitious
materials and water are mixed, but the degree of stiffening that occurs in the first 30 minutes is not
usually a problem; concrete that is kept agitated generally can be placed and compacted within 11 2
hours after mixing unless hot concrete temperatures or high cement contents speed up hydration
excessively. Planning should eliminate or minimize any variables that would allow the concrete to stiffen
to the extent that full consolidation is not achieved and finishing becomes difficult. Less time is available
during conditions that hasten the stiffening process, such as hot and dry weather, use of accelerators,
and use of heated concrete. Segregation. Segregation is the tendency for coarse aggregate to separate
from the sand-cement mortar. This results in part of the batch having too little coarse aggregate and the
remainder having too much. The former is likely to shrink more and crack and have poor resistance to
abrasion. The latter may be too harsh for full consolidation and finishing and is a frequent cause of
honeycombing. The method and equipment used to transport and handle the concrete must not result in
segregation of the concrete materials. Methods and Equipment for Transporting and Handling Concrete.

B (i). Plain concrete possesses a very low tensile strength, limited ductility and little resistance to
cracking. Internal microcracks are inherently present in the concrete and its poor tensile strength is due to
the propagation of such microcracks, eventually leading to brittle fracture of the concrete. In the past,
attempts have been made to impart improvement in tensile properties of concrete members by way of
using conventional reinforced steel bars and also by applying restraining techniques. Although both these
methods provide tensile strength to the concrete members, they however, do not increase the inherent
tensile strength of concrete itself. In plain concrete and similar brittle materials, structural cracks (micro-
cracks) develop even before loading, particularly due to drying shrinkage or other causes of volume
change. The width of these initial cracks seldom exceeds a few microns, but their other two dimensions
may be of higher magnitude. When loaded, the micro cracks propagate and open up, and owing to the
effect of stress concentration, additional cracks form in places of minor defects. The structural cracks
proceed slowly or by tiny jumps because they are retarded by various obstacles, changes of direction in
bypassing the more resistant grains in matrix. The development of such microcracks is the main cause of
inelastic deformations in concrete. It has been recognised that the addition of small, closely spaced and
uniformly dispersed fibres to concrete would act as crack arrester and would substantially improve its
static and dynamic properties. This type of concrete is known as Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Fibre
reinforced concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of cement, mortar or
concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibres. Continuous meshes, woven
fabrics and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete fibres.
Fibres Used
Although every type of fibre has been tried out in cement and concrete, not all of them can be effectively
and economically used. Each type of fibre has its characteristic properties and limitations. Some of the
fibres that could be used are steel fibres, polypropylene, nylons, asbestos, coir, glass and carbon. Fibre is
a small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristic properties. They can be circular or
flat. The fibre is often described by a convenient parameter called aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of the
fibre is the ratio of its length to its diameter. Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to 150. Steel fibre is one
of the most commonly used fibre. Generally, round fibres are used. The diameter may vary from 0.25 to
0.75 mm. The steel fibre is likely to get rusted and lose some of its strengths. But investigations have
shown that the rusting of the fibres takes place only at the surface. Use of steel fibre makes significant
improvements in flexural, impact and fatigue strength of concrete, It has been extensively used in various
types of structures, particularly for overlays of roads, airfield pavements and bridge decks. Thin shells and
plates have also been constructed using steel fibres. Polypropylene and nylon fibres are found to be
suitable to increase the impact strength. They possess very high tensile strength, but their low modulus of
elasticity and higher elongation do not contribute to the flexural strength. Asbestos is a mineral fibre and
has proved to be most successful of all fibres as it can be mixed with Portland cement. Tensile strength of
asbestos varies between 560 to 980 N/mm 2. The composite product called asbestos cement has
considerably higher flexural strength than the Portland cement paste. For unimportant fibre concrete,
organic fibres like coir, jute, canesplits are also used. Glass fibre is a recent introduction in making fibre
concrete. It has very high tensile strength 1020 to 4080 N/mm 2. Glass fibre which is originally used in
conjunction with cement was found to be effected by alkaline condition of cement.

(ii) Concrete Cloth

It combines the flexibility of geotextile fabrics with the durability of hardened concrete.
Concrete Cloth can be used:
Where a hardened protective surface is required

Where conventional concrete is difficult or impossible to install.

A flexible cement-impregnated fabric that hardens when hydrated to form a thin, durable concrete layer.
Concrete Cloth (CC) consists of:
-Dry concrete mix

-Reinforcing fiber matrix

-Fabric top surface

-PVC bottom coating

Fabric top surface
Water impermeable PVC coating

Key benefits:

Quick: Unroll, place and wet

Simple: Cannot be over-hydrated
Versatile: One material, many uses
Durable: Wear-resistant concrete
Robust: Fiber matrix reinforcement
Portable: Easily transported and deployed without specialized equipment

Concrete Cloth Civil Applications

Ditch lining Erosion and scour protection Slope protection, weathered rock protection External pipe
protection & ballast Internal culvert repair Secondary containment Weed control