Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2016i
Engineers Handbooks
September 2016
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Wind Modeling Handbook
The Wind Wizard is not currently available for the AS:1170.2 wind code
variant.
Your attention is particularly drawn to BS6399-2:1997 Clause 1.1. For building shapes
which are not covered by the Standard you will need to seek specialist advice.
We would recommend having the following books to hand when using the software:
Wind Loading - a practical guide to BS 6399-2 Wind Loads on buildings. (Ref. 7)
Wind and Loads on buildings: Guide to Evaluating Design Wind Loads to BS6399-
2:1997. (Ref. 8)
Unless explicitly noted otherwise, all clauses, figures and tables referred to in this
handbook are from reference 4.
Scope
Tekla Structural Designer can assess and apply wind loading to your model in advance of
analysis and design.
It can determine:
main wind parameters
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The model has to be clothed in wall panels and roof panels. Wind is applied
intelligently to this building envelope within the scope below and the limitations clearly
laid out in the next section.
It is assumed that the wind loads are developed to assess the overall stability of the
structure and for member design. The wind loads have not been specifically developed
for the design of cladding and fixings.
You can, should you wish, use Tekla Structural Designer purely for wind
assessment by setting up a model of consisting only of wall panels and roof
panels (no members) the software can determine the wind loading on the
building envelope.
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Wind Modeling Handbook
Given the above, zoning is semi-automatic, (not attempted for roofs with more than
4 sides which are defaulted to single conservative coefficient), with full graphical
feedback.
Load decomposition is fully automatic where valid, (wall panels and roof panels
need to be fully supported in the direction of span).
Limitations
Throughout the development of the Wind Modeller extensive reference has been made
to the and we consider it advisable that you are fully familiar with these before using
the software.
In addition, because wind loading is complex and its application to general structures
even more so, it is essential that you read and fully appreciate the following limitations
in the software:
Geometry
You should seek specialist advice for building shapes that are not covered by
Clause 1.1 of BS6399-2:1997
Loaded Areas
The difference between the loaded area of wall panels and roof panels defined at the
centre-line rather than the sheeting dimension is ignored.
Wind Direction
All outward faces within 60 degs of being perpendicular to wind direction - loads
applied as windward normal to face. All inside faces within 60 degs to wind direction
- loads applied as leeward normal to face. All other faces considered as side.
Orthogonal wind directions at the definition of the user.
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Automatic zoning applies to all wall panels subject to the limitations described below:
Wall panels that are more than 15 from the vertical are outside the scope Clause
2.4.1.5.
The inset storey clause 2.4.4.2 b) is not implemented. You can edit the zones
manually according to your engineering judgement to include zone E if you consider
this necessary.
Wall panels of internal wells are not automatically identified Clause 2.4.3.2a. You
can manually edit the zones to apply the roof coefficient to the wall panels.
Wind loading on roof panels
Automatic zoning only applies to all triangular roof panels and quadrilateral roof
panels that are not concave, i.e. all of the internal angles < 180
The inset storey clauses 2.5.1.7 a) and b) are not implemented. In clause a) the
software sets Hr and H equal conservatively. You are obviously able to edit the
zones manually according to your engineering judgement to include the further
zones indicated in Figure 18 should you consider this necessary.
It should be noted that in Table 8 for curved and mansard eaves, the zones start
from edge of horizontal roof and not from the edge of the feature.
Special care should be taken for winds blowing on duopitch with slopes that differ by
more than 5. If the wind is blowing on the steeper slope (that is that the less steep
slope is downwind of ridge), the downwind slope should be set to be a flat roof with
mansard at eaves for this wind direction.
Mansard and Multipitch Roofs are not detected automatically, However, you can
manually apply the relevant roof type, apex type and bay position parameters for
each appropriate wind direction to match the requirements of Figure 22 and Figure
23 - see Creating Wind Zones on the Building.
Roof Overhangs are not explicitly handled. It is suggested that you should define two
separate roof panels - one forming the overhang and the other covering the inside
of the building. You can then define Cpi values manually to either have the same
coefficient as the adjacent wall, (Clause 2.5.8.2 Small Overhangs), or as an open
sided building (Clause 2.6.3).
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Wind Modeling Handbook
to contain these loads and then include these with the relevant system generated loads
in design combinations in the normal way.
This decomposition on to the mid pier column could in certain cases result in an
averaging of the wind pressure profile that removes the localised pressure increase at
the corners of the building.
The example below illustrates the problem and provides an alternative model as a
workaround:
Wind zones
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Alternative Model
1. Define the structure including all the wall panels and roof panels that will carry the
wind loading.
In order to get the best results from wind modelling you should ensure that
you define the largest possible sizes for the wall and roof elements. The results
you obtain may be compromised if you define many small elements rather
than one large one.
In complex models you must ensure the outward face of each wall is set
correctly, as this is important for determining the wind direction relative to the
wall.
The front and back faces of the wind walls are assigned different colours
(controlled via Settings > Scene) but if you are struggling to distinguish
between them you can also switch on the Local Axes for Wind Panels via Scene
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Wind Modeling Handbook
Content.
If the outward face of a wall is set incorrectly it can be reversed from the Edit
toolbar.
2. We recommend that you perform an analysis and design at this stage for the gravity
loading only, but this is not essential.
3. Run the Wind Wizard to define the information required for the wind analysis of the
structure. The wind wizard automatically determines the wind zoning and external
pressure coefficients for the roofs and walls.
4. Confirm the wind zones - If necessary review the Roof Properties and use the Roof
Type options to change the roof type if required - if the type is changed you will also
have to run Update Zones.
(See Reviewing wind zones and wind zone loads in the User Guides).
5. Define the wind loadcases you want to consider. Tekla Structural Designer can
calculate details for standard loadcases automatically. You can easily define the
information for other loadcases yourself.
6. Combine the wind loadcases with the other loadcases you have defined for your
structure to create the design combinations you need to consider.
Whilst defining the models wall and roof panels, it is essential that you define the
largest planar surfaces possible for these if you want to get the best results from the
software. If you ignore this advice, then the calculation of the reference height can be
unconservative.
A single wall panel is determined to be a single planar surface. The outward face is
vitally important for determining the wind direction relative to the wall, that is windward
or leeward.
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It is recommended that you check the outward faces are as you intend by ensuring they
all shaded in the same colour (the one assigned to Wind Wall - Front in Settings >
Scene). The inward faces will all be shaded in a different colour. To correct any mistakes,
choose the Reverse command (located on the Edit toolbar) and then click once on a
wall panel to switch its direction. Note that connected wall panels are checked to ensure
that the normal directions are consistent whenever automatic zoning is carried out, for
example at the end of the Wind Wizard. If there is a problem it is indicated on the Wind
tab of the Project Workspace, with affected panels being marked thus: ( ).
Once a wall panel has been placed the following additional panel properties can be
specified:
Rotation angle - defines the span direction, 0 is horizontal and 90 is vertical.
Is a parapet wall - you can indicate whether the wall panel is a parapet or not.
If a building face comprises a parapet above a wall, you should not attempt to
model this as a single wall panel. It should be input as an upper and lower
panel, with the upper panel being set as a parapet.
Gap - where the gap to the adjacent building is not consistent due to the shapes of
the buildings it is up to you to decide whether to specify the average or worst-case
gap. The default gap is 1000 m which effectively give no funnelling. A zero gap value
explicitly means ignore funnelling, for example where this building and the adjacent
one are sheltered by upwind buildings
Solidity - If you set the wall panel as a parapet, then you also need to indicate the
Solidity of the parapet. (Wall panels that are not parapets automatically adopt a
solidarity of 1.0).
Decompose to Member - for wall panels that are not parapets, you can indicate how
the wall load is decomposed on to supporting members. See Load Decomposition
on to Roof and Wall Panels.
To set this information as you require, select the wall panels and then use the
Properties Window to make changes.
A single roof panel is determined to be a single planar surface. The orientation of a roof
panel is automatically determined when placed based upon the slope vector the line
of maximum roof slope.
Initially the roof type is set to Default. This is interpreted as Flat if the roof slope < 5
degrees, otherwise it is interpreted as Monopitch. You should select the roof panel and
then use the Properties Window to adjust the roof type as necessary for all other
situations (i.e. For Duopitch, Hip Main, Hip Gable or Mansard).
The span direction is also set in the Properties Window, this is defined as an angle,
where 0 is parallel to the X axis and 90 is parallel to the Y axis.
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Wind Modeling Handbook
Once the wall and roof panels are in place, you use the Wind Wizard to define sufficient
site information to calculate the effective wind speeds and dynamic pressures for the
required wind directions and heights around the building, (that is the Reference Height
(Hr) for each wall panel or roof panel).
The wind speed calculations are automated, the data source for the calculations is
either:
taken directly from the BREVe database, which is based upon the Ordnance Survey
data of Great Britain,
input directly.
It should be noted that BS6399-2:1997 recommends that the Standard Method requires
assessment of orthogonal load cases for wind directions normal to the faces of the
building. The wizard permits you to create wind load for any wind direction and thus it
is up to you to create those loads for the directions most appropriate to your structure.
This page allows you to specify the method that you want to use to calculate the wind
loading on the building, and the source of the wind data.
Assuming you have are going to specify the site data using BREVe Grid Ref data there
are two options for the source of the wind data:
BREVe - UK National Grid Ref.,
BREVe - Irish Grid Ref.
This page allows you to define the location of the site using the BREVe database, and to
define various options to be considered in the wind analysis. Once you have retrieved
the data for a site from the BREVe database you can edit these to take account of your
local knowledge of the site.
Building details
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Grid Ref.
This shows the grid reference of the site which you have picked through BREVe,
irrespective of the method you use to define the site location.
Site Altitude, A
You are able to override the altitude determined by BREVe by entering a value
directly here.
Air Density
You need to enter air density at the site.
Orientation of North
The orientation of North is defined using the same convention as is applied to the
orientation of the Building Direction Arrows.
This can best be understood by reference to a couple of examples:
In the first example the building axes are aligned in the default directions (Dir 1 = 0
= Global X), and the orientation of North has been set to 315.
The resulting relation between the building axes and North is as shown below:
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Wind Modeling Handbook
In the second example the building direction has been input with Dir 1 = 30 and the
orientation of North has been set to 250
In this case the building axes are related to North as shown below:
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Consider Topography
If you check this box, then BREVe uses the topographic data it recovers for the site
and determines the Altitude Factor Sa in accordance with Clause 2.2.2.2.3. Otherwise
the topographic data is ignored and Sa is calculated in accordance with Clause
2.2.2.2.2.
In theory the topography could be significant for some directions and not for
Consider Obstructions
With this box checked, BREVe uses the obstruction data it recovers for the site and
determines the Effective Height He as defined in Clause 1.7.3.3. Otherwise the
obstructions are ignored and He is taken as Hr - see Clause 1.7.3.2.
BREVe information
Using BREVe, there are 2 methods available for you to define the site location:
Site By Ref...
You can define the grid reference of the site.
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Wind Modeling Handbook
You define this either as a national grid reference, or by specifying the Easting and
Northing information for the site. There are several Internet based tools available
which allow you to determine the Ordnance Survey grid reference from a postcode
or given location, for example www.streetmap.co.uk or www.multimap.co.uk,
Site By Map...
You can pick the site from a Land / Town Map,
You can pick the site from a Orography Map.
You can pick the site from a ground roughness Category Map,
The site data is analysed fully by BREVe. Parameters are either set automatically but
conservatively (Safe parameters within a 1 km square).
Next
This page allows you to specify the method that you want to use to calculate the wind
loading on the building, and the source of the wind data.
The remaining topics in this section assume you have chosen to enter the site data
manually (Other).
This page allows you to define the site details when information is not available from
the BREVe database, for instance if it is located outside of the UK.
Altitude
You need to enter the basic altitude that you want to use for the site directly. This is the
altitude of your models base.
Air Density
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
If for some reason, the level 0.0m in the Tekla Structural Designer model does not
correspond to the ground level, for example a site datum may have been used rather
than a building datum, then this field allows you to set the appropriate value so that the
reference heights can be calculated correctly.
If you select the Standard Method and Other Data Source, then the next page of the
Wizard allows you to enter the wind data yourself.
Ground Roughness
When this box is checked, you need to use your own topographic data and determine
the Altitude Factor Sa in accordance with Clause 2.2.2.2.3. Otherwise Sa is calculated in
accordance with Clause 2.2.2.2.2 and you are not able to override it.
Season factor
Probability factor
Next
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Wind Modeling Handbook
If you select the Hybrid Method and Other Data Source then the next page of the
Wizard allows you to enter the data for ground roughness and obstructions yourself.
However, most of the data is then dependent on the wind direction, so you must also
make your choice of wind directions on this page.
Direction
Initially there are 4 orthogonal wind directions relative to the Tekla Structural
Designer axes, (not geographical North), but you are able to update these using the Dir.
buttons and / or changing the direction value as required. (Note: Minimum 1 difference
between directions). At least one direction must be defined.
Each row of the grid operates in a similar manner to the relevant fields of the Other
Standard Wind Data page
reference 8 (section 4.10, page 26) essentially recommends using the Standard Method
approach to topography even for the Hybrid Method. So, when calculating the Terrain
and Building Factor, Sb, we ignore the effects of topography, that is we take Sh = 0.
When the box is checked, you need to use your own topographic data and determine
the Altitude Factors Sa as defined in Clause 2.2.2.2.3. Otherwise Sa is calculated as
defined in Clause 2.2.2.2.2 and you are not able to override it.
In theory the topography could be significant for some directions and not for
Season factor
Probability factor
Next
Results page
The final page of the Wizard is a summary of the results - peak velocity pressure ranges.
Initially this method creates 4 orthogonal wind directions relative to the Tekla Structural
Designer axes, (not geographical North). Except for the Hybrid Method with Other Data,
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
you can update the wind directions either by using the Dir. buttons or by changing the
direction value as required.
Separately, for each relevant parameter of the Standard Method, BREVe determines the
worst case over all its 30 sectors. If the orientation of the building is not known, then
Sd is taken as 1.0 for all directions. Otherwise we determine the worst case Sd for each
direction. You can not override the system value in either case.
The worst case Sd is based on splitting the difference to the next direction, with a
minimum of 15 and maximum of 45. Within these ranges Sd is interpolated.
For each reference height in the model, we then calculate the site wind speed (Vs using
equation 8) and thus the effective wind speed (Ve using equation 12) and the dynamic
pressure (qs using equation 1) for each direction. When calculating actual loads on walls
and roofs, we use the qs value for the relevant reference height, but the Results page
only shows the maximum values for each direction.
The Vortex view shows the effective wind speed calculated for each reference height for
each 30 sector. Since a single worst case value is used for each parameter, the speeds
for different sectors only differ due to Sd provided that the orientation of the building is
known.
In this case, BREVe uses the directional method to determine the parameters required
to calculate Vs using equation 8, for each height in the building at 30 intervals, (0 to
330) taking the diagonal dimension `a' as the default 5.0m. (The size effect factor is
applied when determining individual loads). We then use equation 27 to determine Ve
and equation 16 for qs.
For each required wind direction the worst case Ve is used for each height, based on
splitting the difference to the next direction, with a maximum of 45 degrees. Within
these ranges Ve is not interpolated.
Theoretically, it is possible for a quadrant to use different 30 directions for each height,
so the critical wind direction is not displayed in the summary.
The Vortex view shows the effective wind speed calculated for each reference height for
each 30 sector.
The calculation of Ve and qs are very similar to the BREVe Standard Method, (see above),
except that the worst case data has been entered by you, and this page allows you to
enter your own values for Sd.
As there is no data for each 30 sector, the Vortex view only shows the effective wind
speed calculated for each reference height for each direction.
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Wind Modeling Handbook
The calculation of Ve and qs are be very similar to the BREVe Hybrid Method, (see
above), except that the data has been entered by you for each direction only so a direct
calculation can be performed instead of taking the worst case over a range of sectors.
Also this page allows you to enter your own values for Sd.
As there is no data for each 30 sector, the Vortex view only shows the effective wind
speed calculated for each reference height for each direction.
Before moving on you should take a moment to inspect the Wind Model status on the
Project Workspace> Status tab, in order to check that no have been encountered.
Related topics
Creating Wind Zones on the Building
If any errors have occurred in this process, a red cross appears next to Pressure Zones
in the Project Workspace.
Basic Geometry
The basic building geometry is assessed as follows:
Reference Height (Hr) is taken as the difference between highest point on wall or
roof panel and ground level.
Wall height (H) is taken as the difference between highest and lowest points on the
wall panel.
These definitions apply to wall panels without parapets and the actual parapets.
Wall panels with parapets above them will take their highest point from the parapet.
See the diagram below.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Roof height (H) is taken as the difference between highest point on wall or roof
panel and ground level. This definition does not handle the upper roof of inset
storey but is conservative and only affects the scaling dimension, b - see Clause
2.5.1.7.
The Building Breadth, B is calculated from the smallest enclosing rectangle around
the whole building (considered over all roof and wall panels only) for the given
direction. You can override the calculated value in case the Tekla Structural Designer
model does not include the whole building.
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Wind Modeling Handbook
Wall Zones
Wall Type
60 deg Windward,
120 deg - Leeward,
Other walls are classed as Side.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Windward Walls
Windward walls have a single zone, Table 5 is used with interpolation for D/H.
Leeward Walls
Side Walls
Side walls are assessed for recesses (narrow or wide), irregular flushed faces, downwind
re-entrant corners. In all cases, side walls have the relevant number of zones. Table 5 is
used.
Roof Zones
Roof zones are automatically generated where possible for each wind direction. In
essence each roof panel is assessed in its own right based on its properties. The
interconnectivity of touching roof panels is not generally considered.
Direction
Internally the roof slope vector (line of maximum slope) is determined from the normal
vector, with its direction always giving a positive slope angle, i.e. the roof slope vector
must always point up the slope.
We calculate the angle between the wind direction and projection of roof slope vector
onto horizontal plane ( in range -180 to +180).
Automatic Zoning
Automatic zoning normally only applies to all triangular roof panels and quadrilateral
roof panels that are not concave, that is that all of the internal angles < 180. However,
additionally, it only applies to Hip Gable roofs if they are triangular, and Hip Main roofs
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Wind Modeling Handbook
if they are quadrilateral. Further, Downwind Slope Hip Gables must not have 2 upwind
corners.
Dimensions
All zone dimensions are specified in plan.
Flat Roofs
See BS 6399 Clause 2.5.1, Figure 16 and Table 8.
Monopitch Roofs
See BS 6399 Clause 2.5.2.3, Figure 19 and Table 9.
Duopitch Roofs
See BS 6399 Clause 2.5.2.4, Figure 20 and Table 10.
Hip Gable
See BS 6399 Clause 2.5.3, Figure 21 and Table 11.
Hip Main
See BS 6399 Clause 2.5.3, Figure 21 and Table 11.
Mansard Roofs
If you manually set the connected roof types to Mansard, then the program will
correctly identify the special cases in BS6399 Figures 17c, 22a and 22b, and use the
correct tables and values. See BS 6399 Clauses 2.5.1.6.2 & 2.5.4
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Multi-bay Roofs
We allow you to interpret BS 6399 Clause 2.5.5 and Figure 23 as you think
appropriate and manually define the roof types and sub-types accordingly. You also
have the ability to manually set the multi-bay position for each roof panel for each
wind direction:
Not Multi-Bay - for this wind direction (conservative default),
Upwind Bay first bay of many for this wind direction,
Second Bay for this wind direction,
Third or more Bay for this wind direction.
Where the reduction applies, the values of all coefficients are reduced according to
Table 12.
Non-Automatic Zoning
Where automatic zoning does not apply, the system creates a single zone covering the
entire roof as follows:
Flat B,
Monopitch B,
Duopitch B for upwind, F for downwind, B for side,
Hip Gable B for upwind, G for downwind, I for side,
Hip Main B for upwind, F for downwind, I for side.
Initially the expectation is that only Expert users may want to make changes to the
actual zone layouts or other data.
Whenever you edit the zones for a wall or roof item, please note that the zone layout
will not be updated to reflect changes elsewhere in the model, you must make any
necessary changes yourself.
The Auto button on the dialog provides various options to control the number of
loadcases before they are generated (its intention being to prevent generation of very
large numbers of loadcases). Alternatively you can create loadcases manually using the
Add button.
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Wind Modeling Handbook
You then specify which direction the loadcase will be created for and set default values
for all the zone loads generated in the loadcase.
Once generated these loadcases are standard load cases so you can include them in
combinations in the normal manner.
Try to use engineering judgement to identify the critical loadcases so that the number
of load combinations that need to be considered can be minimized.
The direction of the one way decomposition of the wind zone loads to roof members is
as specified by the span direction of the roof panel. All types of elements (except
bracing and cold rolled members) are considered during the load decomposition.
Wall Panels
Irrespective of the setting of this parameter, the initial decomposition of wind zone
loads to wall members is similar to the roof decomposition. Again all types of elements
are considered except bracing and cold rolled members.
This second stage is always performed if the members supporting the wall are
concrete walls, irrespective of the DecomposeToMember setting.
References
1. ASCE/SEI 7-10. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. ASCE,
2010. ISBN: 978-0-7844-1085-1.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
2. Kishor C. Mehta and James M. Delahay (2004). Guide to the Use of the Wind Load
Provisions of ASCE 7-02. ASCE Press. ISBN: 0-7844-0703-7. British Standards
Institution (25/04/05). Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4: General actions
- Wind actions. BS EN 1991-1-4:2005.
4. British Standards Institution (July 2002). Loading for Buildings Part 2: Code of
practice for wind loads. BS6399-2:1997.
7. Cook, N.J. (1999). Wind Loading - a practical guide to BS 6399-2 Wind Loads on
buildings. Thomas Telford, London. ISBN: 0 7277 2755 9.
9. BREVe software package version 3. Copyright 2009 CSC (UK) Ltd; BRE Ltd;
Ordnance Survey.
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Stability Requirements Handbook
1. Global second-order effects to allow for deformation of the structure under load,
2. Member second-order effects to allow for deformation of the members under load,
3. Global imperfections - additional second order effects due to the structure not being
built plumb and square,
There are various methods of allowing for each of these and they can be different for
steel and concrete. There is also some variation based on country code.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
You have the choice of three analysis types on the Analysis page of the Design Options
dialog. These are,
First-order (Elastic) analysis,
Amplified forces (kamp) method (uses first-order analysis),
Second-order analysis.
For both steel and concrete, first-order analysis is only acceptable providing that second
order effects are small enough to be ignored. - see A practical approach to setting the
analysis type.
Both steel and concrete can use the amplified forces method to determine second-
order effects although for steel this does have restrictions on use (regular frameworks
with cr > 4).
If the amplified forces method is selected you must also indicate which formula to use
for determining the amplification factor,
If the structure is clad and if the stiffening effect of cladding is not taken into account
explicitly:
kamp = cr/(1.15cr - 1.5)
If the structure is unclad or clad with a direct allowance made for the stiffening effect:
kamp = cr/(cr - 1)
During the design process for both steel and concrete members, the member end
forces from the analysis of the lateral loadcases are amplified by the 'appropriate' value
of kamp. Since the analysis is first-order this is carried out as part of summing the load
effects from each loadcase (multiplied by their appropriate load factor given in the
design combination). The 'appropriate' value is the worse of kamp,Dir1 and kamp,Dir2 based
on the worst value of cr for all stacks in the building,
The kamp results are summarised for each column in both directions. These can be
viewed as follows:
1. Open a Review View, and select Tabular Data from the Review toolbar.
2. Select kamp from the View Type drop list on the Review toolbar.
3. The kamp results in both directions are tabulated for each column in the building.
Full second-order analysis is not restricted to regular frameworks, but requires cr > 2.
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Stability Requirements Handbook
significant issue for both the amplified forces method and second-order analysis. It is
therefore important that appropriate member type specific modification factors have
been specified - see Modification Factors.
Unless cr is greater than 10 (in which case second-order effects can be ignored), it is
essential that your final design utilizes one of the second-order analysis approaches.
During the initial sizing process you may however choose to run a first-order analysis.
Proceeding in this way you can obtain sections and an overall building performance
with which you are satisfied, before switching to P- analysis.
Note: If the rigorous second-order (P-) analysis approach is used during the initial
sizing process, you may find that it can be more sensitive to parts of your model that
lack stiffness.
1. On the Analysis page of the Design Options dialog, initially set the analysis type to
First-order analysis.
2. Perform Design All (Gravity) using first-order analysis in order to size members for
the gravity loads.
3. Once the members are adequately sized for the gravity combinations obtain a figure
for the buildings elastic critical load factor, cr (See: How do I assess the worst elastic
critical load factor for the building?)
4. If the cr that has been determined is greater than 10 you can continue to perform
Design All (Static) with the analysis type set to First-order analysis.
5. If cr is less than 10 you will need to proceed with one of the second-order
approaches - and if it is very low (i.e. less than 2.0) some remodelling is required:
Either, refine the design until cr is greater than 2.0 to make the structure suitable
for a final design using the full second-order approach, (which is the only method
permitted if the structure contains non-linear members such as tension only
braces - see below),
Or, in order to use the amplified forces (kamp) approach, refine the design further
until cr is greater than 4.0.
6. When a suitable cr has been achieved change the analysis type to the full second-
order, or the amplified forces method as appropriate. (If the kamp approach is
selected you must also indicate which formula to use for determining the
amplification factor, This will depend on whether the structure is clad or not and if
the cladding is taken into account explicitly or not.)
7. With the analysis type still set to the full second-order, or the kamp approach perform
Design All (Static).
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
If you use the kamp approach be aware that BS5950-1:2000 classes certain structures
outside the scope of this method. e.g. tied portals, or structures containing tension only
braces. For such structures, you would need to ensure that cr is greater than 2.0, and
use the full second-order analysis approach for the static design.
Where
h= the storey height
s =the storey drift in the appropriate direction (1 or 2) for the particular column
under the current combination of loads
How do I assess the worst elastic critical load factor for the building?
To determine the sway sensitivity for the building as a whole, the worst stack (storey) in
the worst column throughout the building in both directions has to be identified - this
can be done as follows:
1. On completion of the analysis, open a Review View and select Tabular Data from the
Review toolbar.
2. Select Sway from the View Type drop list on the Review toolbar.
3. The elastic critical load factor in both directions (Dir1 & Dir2) is tabulated for each
column in the building.
4. Make a note of the smallest value from all of the columns in either direction.
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Stability Requirements Handbook
If there are a lot of columns in the building - in order to quickly determine the
smallest elastic critical load factor in each direction, simply click on the
Dir1 header until the columns are arranged in increasing order of Dir1,
then repeat for Dir2.
Note however that you are not restricted in your choice of analysis type irrespective of
the value of cr (it is your call, although we will warn you about it).
Twist
A measure of twist is also tabulated for each column - this indicates the degree to
which if you push the column one way, how much it moves orthogonally as well. If you
have a building where the 'lateral load resisting system' is not well dispersed then
pushing one way can cause significant movement in the other direction.
The twist is reported as a ratio of: distance moved in the direction of loading/absolute
distance moved.
When a column node moves in X and Y then the 'total' deflection is SQRT(
delta_x^2 + delta_y^2) in other words the diagonal of the triangle and not
either of the sides. So if a node moves say 10mm in X and 2mm in Y, its
diagonal i.e. absolute deflection in this plane is SQRT(100 + 4) = 10.198. Hence
its twist is what it should have been with just X loading i.e. 10mm divided into
what it actually moved i.e. 10.198. So Twist = 1.0198.
Modification Factors
You specify the modification factors to be applied for each of the different materials
from the Modification Factors page of the Analysis Options dialog. (which is located on
the Analyse toolbar).
These factors also vary according to the member types, (and in the case of concrete
members whether they are cracked or not).
For concrete members in particular, design codes can require that analysis stiffness
adjustment factors are applied since the appropriate properties to use in analysis are
load and time dependent.
For various other investigations it is also possible that you will want to apply an
adjustment to material properties. One suggested example is the assessment of
structures subject to corrosion. Another classic requirement in this regard relates to
torsion, it is common engineering practice to assume that if it will work without
assuming any torsional strength, then torsion can be ignored.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Although default modification factors for each material are provided in the settings sets
to reflect the design code being worked to, you should check that these are appropriate
for your particular analysis model.
For steel this is incorporated in the design routines for all members (beams, columns,
braces).
Similarly for concrete, much of the calculation is carried out as part of the design.
However, in order to assess the 'effective length' of the member (columns and walls) the
incoming members at the top and bottom of the column stack or wall panel are
identified and their properties established.
Global imperfections
These are typically represented by the application of .
Member imperfections
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Solver Model Handbook
This handbook looks at the solver models created during analysis and also considers
specific properties and modelling techniques related to them.
Solver models
If you have performed more than one analysis type on the structure, then (providing the
geometry and loading have not changed between runs), each solver model and set of
results is retained. You can show results for each analysis type without having to re-
analyse.
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not constitute a change in the geometry. Hence,
if different meshes have been applied for each analysis, you can review the different
solver models by opening a Solver View and then choosing the model required from
the right click menu.
Although 1D elements and solver nodes are displayed, 2D elements are not (even when
you have chosen to mesh slabs/walls). This is because 2D elements are only formed at
the point of analysis.
Any FE meshes in this solver model are formed using the mesh parameters in place for
the most recent run of 1st order linear analysis.
If the analysis has yet to be run, the current mesh parameters are applied.
Running any other analysis type after changes to either geometry or loading will prevent
you from displaying results for this model.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Results are still displayed for the old solver model until the working solver
model is updated to reflect the changes (by running an analysis).
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not cause the working solver model to
be updated: consequently if you run an analysis with certain mesh
parameters, then a second analysis type with different mesh parameters, both
sets of results can be displayed.
The 3D building analysis model consists a mix of 1D analysis elements and FE meshes
as follows:
beams and columns are modelled as 1D analysis elements
walls are either mid-pier analysis elements, or FE meshes
slabs (optionally) form rigid diaphragms in floors
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Solver Model Handbook
Optionally you can choose to mesh all 2-way slabs making a fully meshed model (both
walls and floors) possible.
This is generally not recommended as it will inevitably increase the model size, (and
potentially the time to solve for large models), although it might be considered that a
fully meshed model behaves more correctly where slabs are considered to be part of
the lateral load resisting system of the structure.
It is more likely that you will choose to mesh specific floor levels only (e.g. transfer
levels), keeping other levels unmeshed.
Any FE meshes in this solver model are formed using the mesh parameters in place for
the most recent run of 1st order non-linear analysis.
If the analysis has yet to be run, the current mesh parameters are applied.
Running any other analysis type after changes to either geometry or loading will prevent
you from displaying results for this model.
Results are still displayed for the old solver model until the working solver
model is updated to reflect the changes (by running an analysis).
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not cause the working solver model to
be updated: consequently if you run an analysis with certain mesh
parameters, then a second analysis type with different mesh parameters, both
sets of results can be displayed.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Any FE meshes in this solver model are formed using the mesh parameters in place for
the most recent run of 2nd order linear analysis.
If the analysis has yet to be run, the current mesh parameters are applied.
Running any other analysis type after changes to either geometry or loading will prevent
you from displaying results for this model.
Results are still displayed for the old solver model until the working solver
model is updated to reflect the changes (by running an analysis).
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not cause the working solver model to
be updated: consequently if you run an analysis with certain mesh
parameters, then a second analysis type with different mesh parameters, both
sets of results can be displayed.
Any FE meshes in this solver model are formed using the mesh parameters in place for
the most recent run of 2nd order non-linear analysis.
If the analysis has yet to be run, the current mesh parameters are applied.
Running any other analysis type after changes to either geometry or loading will prevent
you from displaying results for this model.
Results are still displayed for the old solver model until the working solver
model is updated to reflect the changes (by running an analysis).
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not cause the working solver model to
be updated: consequently if you run an analysis with certain mesh
parameters, then a second analysis type with different mesh parameters, both
sets of results can be displayed.
If the analysis has yet to be run, the current mesh parameters are applied.
Running any other analysis type after changes to either geometry or loading will prevent
you from displaying results for this model.
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Solver Model Handbook
Results are still displayed for the old solver model until the working solver
model is updated to reflect the changes (by running an analysis).
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not cause the working solver model to
be updated: consequently if you run an analysis with certain mesh
parameters, then a second analysis type with different mesh parameters, both
sets of results can be displayed.
If the analysis has yet to be run, the current mesh parameters are applied.
Running any other analysis type after changes to either geometry or loading will prevent
you from displaying results for this model.
Results are still displayed for the old solver model until the working solver
model is updated to reflect the changes (by running an analysis).
Changes to mesh size or uniformity do not cause the working solver model to
be updated: consequently if you run an analysis with certain mesh
parameters, then a second analysis type with different mesh parameters, both
sets of results can be displayed.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The sub models are analysed sequentially for gravity loads, starting at the top level and
working down. Support reactions from each level are transferred to the level below.
Two-way slabs are only meshed in grillage sub-models at those levels where they have
been set as meshed for 3D Building Analysis. For all other slabs Load decomposition is
carried out prior to the analysis.
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Solver Model Handbook
Analysis objects
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
A separate solver model is created for each analysis type performed, each solver model
consisting of analysis objects with properties that reflect those specified in the physical
model.
Object Description
Rigid Optionally created from one way and two way slabs and
diaphragm roof panels - in this type of diaphragm all the solver nodes
in the plane of the diaphragm are constrained to move
together in the plane of the diaphragm.
Semi-rigid Optionally created from one way spanning slab panels only
diaphragm - in this type of diaphragm all the solver nodes in the plane
of the diaphragm are seed nodes of a
quadrilateral/triangular finite element mesh.
In Tekla Structure Designer semi rigid diaphragms
cannot be created from two way slabs.
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Solver Model Handbook
A single concrete column can be created over several storey heights (stacks) and can
start and finish at any level. Different column sections can be defined in each stack, and
the column is not restricted to being co-linear between stacks.
The creation of continuous concrete columns in this way, (as opposed to defining a new
column at each storey) does not have any significance for analysis or design purposes,
but is ultimately important for detailing purposes.
The physical location of the column is a determined from the alignment snap points and
offsets specified in the column properties, and the insertion point(s) picked.
For concrete columns the alignment snap points and offsets are structurally
significant as they will also have an effect on the Concrete column solver
elements.
The solver elements for each column stack are always located at the stack centroid -
thus they do not necessarily coincide with the insertion line used to position the column
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
originally. If the centroid position shifts from one stack to the next a rigid offset is
created automatically to connect the solver elements. Similar rigid offsets are also
created as required to connect incoming beams into the column centroids.
To see solver elements, solver nodes and rigid offsets: open a Solver View, and
then in Scene Content check 1D Elements> Geometry & RigidOffset and Solver
Nodes> Geometry.
As a consequence of this method of modeling, you are freer to simplify the grid layout
in order to create the structure more effectively, and then employ column offsets to
position each column exactly, knowing that during analysis the program automatically
assumes the column is located at its centroid as shown in the plan view.
Concrete beam members consist of one or more beam spans. Although a single beam
member is created, this does not prohibit different beam sections from being defined in
each span.
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Solver Model Handbook
The physical location of the beam is a determined from the alignment snap points and
offsets specified in the beam properties, and the insertion points picked.
In the minor direction beam solver elements are always located at the centre of each
beam section - as beam widths or minor offsets may vary, this may result in the
introduction of lateral rigid offsets to make the connection between spans.
In the major direction beam solver elements are created at the same level as the
insertion line used to position the beam.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
To see solver elements, solver nodes and rigid offsets: open a Solver View, and
then in Scene Content check 1D Elements> Geometry & RigidOffset and Solver
Nodes> Geometry.
Rigid offsets
Rigid offsets are automatically applied to the start and end of solver elements as
required to ensure that the analysis model is properly connected.
This will occur whenever Concrete beam solver elements or Concrete column solver
elementsare not co-linear. A typical example of this occurs when concrete edge beams
are aligned to be flush with the face of the supporting columns, as shown below:
To see rigid offsets: open a Solver View, and then in Scene Content ensure that
1D Elements> RigidOffsets is checked.
Rigid zones
Design codes allow engineers to assume parts of concrete beams / columns are rigid,
leading to more efficient designs.
Tekla Structural Designer uses Rigid Zones to cater for this where columns and beams
are connected and where beams are connected to other beams.
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Solver Model Handbook
Columns can have rigid zones when they are the supporting or supported
member, but beams will only have rigid zones when they are the supported
member.
In most situations in order to get an efficient design you would want rigid zones to be
applied - however a Rigid zones not applied option is also provided in Model Settings
for cases where you dont want to use them.
For example, you might choose not to apply them if you encounter problems with
short members and rigid zones which cannot be overcome by modifying the physical
model.
When rigid zones are not applied, the position of releases in analysis model is
affected, and member start and end points for design are also adjusted.
When applied, rigid zones are created at concrete column/beam connections. The
proportion of the zone which is modelled as rigid (the thick black line shown below) is
specified as a percentage, the remaining portion of the rigid zone (the red line inside the
rigid zone) remains elastic. The proportion of the rigid zone that is rigid can vary
between 0 - 100%
As shown above, the elastic portion of the rigid zone is aligned with the central span
solver element.
There is a significant difference between Rigid Zones Not Applied and Rigid Zones
Applied with 0% rigidity. The total elastic length of a member is the same in the two
models, but the position of releases and start/end of design members will be different.
Rigid zones should not be confused with rigid offsets which are used to ensure that the
analysis model is properly connected, i.e. it is possible to have rigid offsets in the model
even if rigid zones are turned off.
Consider the following 2 span beam supported on columns and loaded with a udl:
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The analysis model is simply constructed from the solver elements with rigid offsets
applied as necessary to connect the beam solver elements to the column solver
elements.
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Solver Model Handbook
Rigid Zones are activated via Model Settings, and this is also where the percentage of
rigidity of the zones can be specified. Initially for this example it will be left at the default
of 50%.
The revised solver model is as shown below, note the rigid zones that have been
formed where the columns and beams connect:
The beam bending moment diagram for the revised model is as shown below.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The above diagram was generated from a Results View to illustrate that a gap
is formed in the diagram where there are rigid zones. It should be noted that
when the same result is displayed in a Load Analysis View the gap is removed,
leaving only the non-rigid length of the member displayed.
We might expect the extra stiffness introduced at the supports to increase the hogging
moments and reduce the sagging moments, however because the element end forces
are now reported at the rigid zone boundaries (rather than the ends of the solver
elements) - in this example the main effect is that the hogging moment over the central
column support is substantially reduced.
To investigate the effect of the percentage rigidity an additional run is made with the
percentage rigidity increased to 100%. The bending moment diagram that results is
shown below:
As expected the extra stiffness introduced at the supports increases the hogging
moments and reduce the sagging moments in comparison to the run at 50%.
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Solver Model Handbook
If this result is compared to the run in which rigid zones were not applied, it is clear that
although the sagging moments are identical, the hogging moments that are reported
are not the same. This is because, although the total elastic length of a member is the
same in the two models, the position of the start and end of design members is
different (being taken at the rigid zone boundaries when applied).
When rigid zones are applied to a pin ended member, the end release is shifted from
the end of the solver element to the rigid zone boundary.
To illustrate this effect the model illustrated in Rigid Zones Example 1 - fixed ended
beamis modified to have pinned connections introduced at the two remote ends of the
beam.
The analysis model is constructed from the solver elements with rigid offsets applied to
connect the beam and column solver elements. Releases are formed at the two remote
ends of the beam solver elements.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
For comparison, rigid zones are then introduced, (with 0% rigidity in order to keep the
total elastic length of the beams the same in both models).
Because the releases are moved to the rigid zone boundaries, this has the effect of
reducing the moments in the beams.
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Solver Model Handbook
A single steel column can be created over several storey heights (stacks) and can start
and finish at any level. Different column sections can be defined in each stack, (provided
a splice is defined at the change point).
Each steel column stack is placed on an insertion line between points, but its geometry
is drawn to reflect the major and minor snap points (and any offsets) specified in the
column properties.
The alignment snap points and offsets have no effect on the Steel column
solver elements.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Each steel column solver element is created between its insertion points. Its position
NOT being affected by major and minor snap points or offsets.
Consider the two stack column shown in the Structure View below. The same alignment
(major snap: bottom, minor snap: left) has been applied to both stacks, but the section
size reduces. Consequently, although the insertion lines for the two stacks are co-linear,
the centroids of the two sections are not co-linear.
In the Solver View it can be seen that the solver elements for each stack are co-linear,
(coinciding with the insertion lines).
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Solver Model Handbook
Steel beam members can be defined as single span, or continuous over multiple spans.
If continuous, although a single beam member is created, this does not prohibit
different beam sections from being defined in each span.
Each steel beam span is placed on an insertion line between points, but its geometry is
drawn to reflect:
the major and minor snap points (and any offsets) specified in the beam properties.
the level type specified in the construction level dialog
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Solver Model Handbook
When the level type is set to T.O.S (top of steel), each beam is displayed according to
the alignment snap points and offsets specified.
When the level type is set to S.S.L (structural slab level), each beam is in addition
lowered by the slab thickness specified in the construction level dialog.
The alignment snap points and offsets and the construction level type have no
effect on the Steel beam solver elements.
Each steel beam solver element is created between its insertion points. Its position
NOT being affected by:
major and minor snap points and offsets
the level type specified in the construction level dialog
the section size
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
To see solver elements and solver nodes: open a Solver View, and then in
Scene Content check 1D Elements> Geometry and Solver Nodes> Geometry.
Element loads can not be applied directly to the brace itself and moments due to self
weight loading are ignored.
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Solver Model Handbook
Each steel brace is placed on an insertion line between points, with its geometry being
drawn to reflect the major and minor snap points (and any offsets) specified in the
brace properties.
The alignment snap points and offsets have no effect on the Steel brace solver
elements.
Each steel brace solver element is created between its insertion points. Its position
NOT being affected by:
major and minor snap points and offsets
the section size
Individual steel braces can be made inactive in the solver model by unchecking the
Active box in the brace properties.
Once a steel brace has been placed its properties can be edited if required to specify
that it is Tension only or Compression only.
Tension only and Compression only members are non-linear elements and
therefore require non-linear analysis. If linear analysis is performed they will
be treated as linear elements.
A and V Braces should be modeled using special tools which can be found on the 'Steel
Brace' drop list in the 'Steel' section on the 'Model' tab.
Although it is also possible to model the exact same brace arrangement using individual
elements created using the simple 'Steel Brace' command, it is important to note that
whilst the Notional Loads \ EHFs (Equivalent Horizontal Forces) calculated for models
built using the A or V Brace tools are correct, this is not the case when the A or V braces
are built up out of individual brace members. In this latter case, elements of the vertical
loads that are supported by the bracing system are 'lost' and are not included in the
Notional Load \ EHF calculations with the result that the calculated Notional Loads \
EHFs are not correct.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Concrete walls can be created over several storey heights, and can start and finish at
any level. Although a single wall is created, this does not prohibit different thicknesses
from being defined in each panel, (in which case the panels will be set back on one or
both faces, depending on the alignment that has been specified).
The creation of continuous wall in this way, (as opposed to defining a new wall at each
storey) does not have any significance for analysis or design purposes, but is ultimately
important for detailing purposes.
The physical location of the wall is a determined from the alignment and offsets
specified in the wall properties, and the insertion points picked.
For walls the alignment and offsets are not structurally significant as they will
have no effect on the solver model.
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Solver Model Handbook
For both model types, horizontal wall beam solver elements are introduced are mainly
to collect slab mesh nodes and line elements. For meshed walls this allows the wall
meshing to be independent of slab meshing.
Solver elements for each wall panel are always located along the insertion line used to
position the wall originally, irrespective of any alignment offsets that have been
specified.
To see solver elements, solver nodes and 2D elements: open a Solver View, and
then in Scene Content check 1D Elements> Geometry, 2D Elements>
Geometry and Solver Nodes> Geometry.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
1. If you have specified a door or window opening in a wall panel you must model the
wall using FE elements, otherwise a Walls with openings have a mid-pier validation
error is displayed and the analysis will not proceed.
2. Assuming the wall has been modelled using FE elements, the analysis will still not
proceed if you have applied a wind wall panel over the top of the wall. In this
situation a Panel is not surrounded by load carrying members validation error is
displayed. This error can only be cleared by deleting the openings from the affected
walls.
3. Given that the analysis has been able to complete; a Panel contains openings -
these are ignored in design warning will always be issued when a wall containing
openings is designed. When you encounter this warning, as well as taking stock of
the design implications; you need also to consider if the analysis model is
appropriate, as potentially it may not reflect your original intention. In certain
situations the Alternative model for wall openings may prove to be a better solution.
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Solver Model Handbook
If an opening is introduced in a meshed wall, the properties of the lintel wall beam
directly above the opening are automatically adjusted in order to prevent the panel
being unrealistically stiff. The adjustments that are applied are as follows:
wall beam properties in the lintel use the lintel depth (h2), rather than the panel
depth (h1)
wall beam nodes in the lintel are removed from the slab diaphragm
Modeling in this way the lintel becomes less stiff resulting in improved wall results when
subject to gravity and lateral loading.
If the presence of an opening would form a beam like strip above or below the opening,
you are advised to create separate wall panels to each side of the opening and then
model the strip between the panels with a connecting beam ('coupling beam').
If the openings were to be created as a window and door the resulting model would be
as shown:
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
However, by separating the wall into discrete panels and inserting coupling beams you
obtain an alternative model as below:
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Solver Model Handbook
Such an idealisation enables the panels either side of the openings to be designed for
their respective forces and enables the strips between the openings to be designed as
beams.
Of course, this approach will require some additional detailing, but that would have
been the case anyway had the openings been added and subsequently ignored by the
design.
Wall extensions (End 1/End 2) are applied in order to remove physical overlaps with
adjoining walls and columns without compromising the integrity of the underlying
analysis model.
The example below shows the effect of a positive extension at end 1 and a negative
extension at end 2.
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Although the length of the wall used in the analysis model (Lwall) is unchanged, the wall
length that is used in the design, quantity reporting and drawings changes to Lwall,d
The view below illustrates some examples where wall extensions can be applied.
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Solver Model Handbook
1. Where wall end does not match architectural grid - not created automatically.
Although this case could be catered for by using construction lines, it is both quicker
to create and easier to edit by manually applying wall extensions.
3. Where two wall ends meet - a negative extension can be applied automatically.
4. Where a wall end meets another wall part way along its length- a negative extension
can be applied automatically.
Consider case 2 above, where the wall ends overlap the columns.
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If negative extensions are not automatically applied you will see an overlap of the wall
with the columns (as shown on the left). Potentially you could attempt to fix this by
creating extra construction lines or grids on the faces of the columns and then reinsert
the wall between the faces. Although this looks better, the analysis model shown below
is poor as the wall panels are dis-continuous and poorly connected to the columns.
If negative wall extensions are employed instead, the analysis model is much better.
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Now consider cases 3 and 4 in the case study, where two walls overlap.
If negative extensions are not automatically applied you will see the overlap of walls (as
shown above left). The main problem with this is that from a design point of view the
concrete overlaps would result in a duplication of reinforcement in the overlapped
areas.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Potentially you could attempt to fix this by creating extra construction line or grid on
the right hand face of the vertical wall and then reinsert the horizontal walls to this new
line (as shown above right). Although this looks better, the analysis model shown below
is very poor. The wall panels are completely disconnected from each other, this model
will not resist lateral load in anything like the same way.
However by once again employing negative wall extensions, the overlaps are removed
from the design whilst still retaining the correct analysis model.
Releases
End releases are applied by editing member properties in the physical model. They
cannot be edited directly in solver views.
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Column Releases
The fixity at the top and bottom of each column stack can be set as:
Free end - only applicable to the top end of top-most stack and the bottom end of
the bottom-most stack
Fixed - in both directions (i.e. encastr, all degrees of freedom fixed)
Pinned - in both directions (i.e. a pinned connection is created between the stack
above and the stack below)
User defined - (i.e. fixed in one direction but pinned in the other)
User Defined
The User defined option (i.e. pinned in one direction but fixed in the other) is not
available in the Properties Window and can only be specified as follows:
2. Choose Edit
3. From the Column Property Dialog open the Releases page and choose the stack to
edit.
Wall Releases
Walls can be released about the minor axis at the top and bottom of each panel as
follows:
Fixed - Encastr, all degrees of freedom fixed.
Continuous (incoming members pinned) - A fully fixed connection is created
between the wall panel above and the wall panel below. Incoming members and
incoming slabs are pinned to the wall.
Pinned - A pinned connection is created between the wall panel above and the wall
panel below.
Beam Releases
Releases at the two ends of a beam span can be set as follows:
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Fully fixed (free end) - Denotes a cantilever end. It is achieved by checking the Free
end box.
(In a single span beam this box can only be checked if the opposite end is fully fixed.)
Pin - Pinned to the support or supporting member. This means pinned about the
major and minor axes of the section but fixed torsionally.
Moment - Major axis moment connection, and pinned about the minor axis.
Fully fixed - Encastr, all degrees of freedom fixed.
Continuous - This setting is automatically applied when a continuous beam is
created and effectively creates a non-editable fully fixed connection between the
spans of the continuous member. The connection can only be edited by splitting the
beam.
User defined - This setting appears if the connection is pinned for major axis
bending (My released) but remains fixed for minor axis bending (Mz).
In addition to the above release options you are also able to apply a torsional
release at either end by checking the appropriate box. Similarly an axial release can be
applied to beams of all materials apart form concrete.
User Defined
The User defined option is not available in the Properties Window and can only be
specified as follows:
2. Choose Edit
4. Check the Mz and uncheck the My degree of freedom at the desired end as
required.
Brace Releases
Braces can only be connected to supports or to the supporting structure via pinned
connections. A torsional release can be applied at one end if required. If the brace
connects into a beam (e.g. an A brace) an axial end release can be specified at one end
to prevent vertical load from the beam being carried by the brace.
Supports
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Columns and walls have supports automatically placed underneath them, unless they
are placed directly upon existing elements which provide a means of support (e.g.
transfer beams or transfer slabs).
If the default supports are inappropriate, they can be changed, simply by box selecting
the supports that require editing and then adjusting the support degrees of freedom
displayed in the Properties Window.
Supports can be edited in both physical model views and solver model views.
Wall supports and manually placed supports default to fully fixed, whereas column
supports default to being rotationally free in Mx & My.
The options for a support that is translationally free in Fx, Fy, or Fz are:
Release
Spring Linear
Spring Non-linear
In addition an upper limit should be defined to set a cap on the force or moment that
can be supported.
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These are specifically provided for supports under columns (of any material), but will
result in a validation error if placed under walls (meshed or mid-pier), or if they are used
for any other supports.
Where no Floor has been defined above a support then L is taken as total
length of column.
Partial fixity spring stiffness is thus calculated as follows for each of the two bending
releases Mx and My:
Nominally pinned (spring stiffness) - x% * 4 * E*I/L (default x% = 10%)
Nominally fixed (spring stiffness) - x% * 4 * E*I/L (default x% = 100%)
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Since the spring stiffness is dependent upon stack height and column stiffness (E and I),
the spring stiffness will change if any changes are made to column stack height, column
E or I values.
In addition, since for steel, Auto Design can change the column size (and hence I value)
the spring stiffness will change with any change in column size.
Rigid diaphragms
In a typical building lateral resistance is provide at a few discrete points and it is
assumed that applied lateral loads will be distributed to the lateral load resisting
systems via floor diaphragm action. Within Tekla Structural Designer rigid diaphragm
modeling is achieved using diaphragm constraints.
A diaphragm constraint will maintain exact relative positioning of all nodes that it
constrains, i.e. the distance between any two nodes constrained by a diaphragm will
never change, therefore no axial load will develop in any member that lies in the plane
of a diaphragm between any two constrained nodes.
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Static Analysis and Design
Handbook
This handbook describes the automated processes that take place when you perform a
static analysis and design of your building.
Definitions
Various terms referred to in the analysis-design processes are listed below:
Term Head Code Description
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Irrespective of whether you run Design Steel (Static), Design Concrete (Static), or Design
All (Static), the same basic steps are required:
The below analysis-design processes run from start to finish without user
intervention - you should therefore ensure Design Options are configured
correctly before they are initiated.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Model validation
Validation is a check on your structure which must be performed before it can be
analysed and designed. Validation checks all elements in your structure for a wide range
of conditions. If any condition is not satisfied then Tekla Structural Designer tells you. Two
types of validation message can be displayed.
Errors
Error messages prevent the analysis from continuing until appropriate corrective action
is taken.
Warnings
Although warning messages do not prevent the analysis process from continuing, it is
very important that these messages are reviewed to decide whether any action is
warranted.
Load decomposition
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Static Analysis and Design Handbook
Whether decomposition is performed or not will depend on the analysis model, the slab
properties and the mesh setting.
1 way slab loads are always decomposed for each analysis model considered.
2 way slab loads are decomposed for 3D building analysis and grillage chasedown
models unless the option to Mesh 2-way Slabs in 3D Analysis has been applied.
2 way slab loads are not decomposed for the FE chasedown model
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
If the Mesh 2-way slabs in 3D Analysis option has been checked, it is then not
necessary to decompose the loads on two-way slabs prior to analysis.
FE chasedown is the only analysis type for which 2-way slab load decomposition is never
required prior to analysis.
A sophisticated FE (rather than yield-line) model is applied, which caters for irregular
slabs, openings and any loading.
Global imperfections
Following a first-order analysis of all gravity loadcases, the forces at the nodes at the
top/bottom of each column stack/wall panel are resolved vertically. A proportion of the
vertical load is determined which gives the value of the horizontal load at each point.
The proportion is code dependent.
These horizontal loads are applied to the nodes in a particular direction (Direction 1 or
Direction 2 or both) as specified in an individual design combination.
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Static Analysis and Design Handbook
Pattern Loading
If combinations of pattern load exist then the pattern loading is automatically generated
prior to analysis.
3D Building Analysis
A traditional frame analysis of the complete structure is always the first analysis
performed. This analysis generates a first set of results for the design of beams,
columns and walls.
The Solver model used for Grillage Chasedown emulates a traditional analysis and
establishes an alternative second set of design forces for beams, columns and walls.
It is important to note however that the chasedown analysis procedure is only valid for
gravity loads. The chasedown analysis results for any lateral loading case (wind / seismic
ELF / EHF) or from the direct analysis of any combination that includes a lateral loading
case are not valid.
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Therefore in order to generate the design forces mentioned above, the chasedown
analysis results are merged with the building analysis combination results as follows:
2. Identify all gravity cases used in the combination and the relevant load factor
Subtract the 1st order linear building analysis result multiplied by the relevant
load factor
Add the chasedown result multiplied by the relevant load factor
4. For results with Imposed load reduction, subtract the relevant % of the chasedown
result for each reducible loadcase.
Following this procedure means that chasedown analysis of lateral loading cases or
combinations is not required.
This procedure is only applied to beam, column, and wall-line results, but not
to 2D nodal results. For this reason it is not possible to calculate or display 2D
element chasedown results for combinations that include lateral load cases.
FE Chasedown Analysis
The Solver model used for FE Chasedown is generated as part of the combined analysis
and design process if the model contains flat slabs, or slabs on beams - the results from
this analysis being required for the design of these slabs.
The same results can also be used to generate a third set of design forces for the
chosen member types, (provided you have chosen in the Design Options dialog to
design the concrete beams, columns, or walls for FE Chasedown results).
It is important to note however that the chasedown analysis procedure is only valid for
gravity loads. The chasedown analysis results for any lateral loading case (wind / seismic
ELF / EHF) or from the direct analysis of any combination that includes a lateral loading
case are not valid.
Therefore in order to generate the design forces mentioned above, the chasedown
analysis results are merged with the building analysis combination results as follows:
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Static Analysis and Design Handbook
2. Identify all gravity cases used in the combination and the relevant load factor
Subtract the 1st order linear building analysis result multiplied by the relevant
load factor
Add the chasedown result multiplied by the relevant load factor
4. For results with Imposed load reduction, subtract the relevant % of the chasedown
result for each reducible loadcase.
Following this procedure means that chasedown analysis of lateral loading cases or
combinations is not required.
This procedure is only applied to beam, column, and wall-line results, but not
to 2D nodal results. For this reason it is not possible to calculate or display 2D
element chasedown results for combinations that include lateral load cases.
A significant consideration when opting to design for the FE chasedown results is that
the slabs will tend to carry a significant proportion of the load direct to the columns.
Sway sensitivity
In order to determine whether the structure is 'non-sway' or 'sway sensitive', the elastic
critical load factor is calculated.
If the structure is determined as 'non-sway', first-order analysis results can be used for
both steel and concrete design.
If it is 'sway sensitive' then (global) second-order effects must be taken into account,
either by:
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Both steel and concrete can use the amplified forces method to determine second-
order effects although for steel this does have restrictions on use (regular frameworks
with cr > 3). Full second-order analysis is preferred for steelwork and can also be used
for concrete.
Member design
The final step in the combined analysis-design process is member design for all
members for all available sets of design forces.
Up to three sets of analysis results will exist for concrete member design as follows:
3D Building Analysis results will always be used to design all beams, columns and
walls.
Grillage Chasedown results will exist for gravity loadcases if the model contains any
concrete beams, in which case they will also be used to design all beams, columns
and walls.
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Static Analysis and Design Handbook
FE Chasedown results for gravity loadcases will also exist if the model contains 2-
way spanning slabs.
Concrete beams can be designed for this set of results by checking the Design
Beams for FE Chasedown analysis results box under Design > Design Options
> Concrete > Beam > General Parameters
Columns and walls can also be designed for this set of results by checking similar
boxes on their respective General Parameters pages.
Reset Autodesign
On completion of your chosen design process, the original member design mode
assigned to each member can either be retained or updated. (For example, you might
typically reset auto-designed steel members into check mode if they have a pass status.)
The action that is taken is controlled via Design Options > Autodesign.
Design Review
On completion of the combined-analysis and design process the Review View and
Review toolbar open automatically.
In this view a colour coded version of the model is displayed so that design status and
various other parameters can be graphically interrogated and/or modified.
Examples / Gravity and Lateral Beam & Slab Flat slab and Beam
When useful? analysis buildings & Slab buildings
(Notional/Wind/Seismic)
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Analysis Whole model in one pass Each sub model Each sub model
Method sequentially from top sequentially from top
to bottom chasing to bottom chasing
member loads down member loads down
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Forces for
design
RC Beam Yes All Combs Yes All Gravity load Optional All Gra
cases load cases
RC Column Yes All Combs Yes All Gravity load Optional All Gra
cases load cases
RC Wall Yes All Combs Yes All Gravity load Optional All Gra
cases load cases
Foundation Yes All Combs except Yes All Gravity load Yes All Gravity l
design patterns cases cases
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Seismic Analysis and Design
Handbook
This handbook describes Tekla Structural Designers seismic analysis and design
capability, which is available both for ASCE7 and Eurocode EN1998-1.
Definitions
Various terms used in Tekla Structural Designers seismic processes are described below:
Code Spectra
The spectra specified in a countrys loading and design codes for use in ELF and RSA
analysis.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
consist of 3 kinds of loadcases: Static, RSA Seismic and RSA Torsion. The Effective
Seismic Weight Combination is not included in this category of combination.
Static Loadcase
Standard loadcases, e.g. Self weight - excluding slabs, Dead, etc., and derived cases for
NHF/EHF, but no patterns.
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
= Frequency ratio = i / j
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Overview
All seismic codes work in a similar manner from the loading view point with relatively
minor differences in terminology and methodology.
It is worth noting at the start that seismic analysis determines a set of forces for which it
is expected (statistically) that if those forces are designed for and other design
precautions taken (additional seismic design) then in the event of an earthquake the
structure may well suffer extensive damage but will not collapse and for some
categories of building should actually remain serviceable.
In Tekla Structural Designer a seismic wizard gathers all the information together to setup
the requirements for a seismic analysis.
The results from the chosen method of seismic analysis are used in combination with
other gravity and lateral load cases to design both normal members and those
members in seismic force resisting systems (SFRS). These latter members need
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
additional design and detailing rules to ensure they resist the seismic forces that they
have to resist during an earthquake.
The additional design and detailing requirements of seismic design are only
supported in Tekla Structural Designer for the ACI/AISC Head Code.
Seismic Wizard
In Tekla Structural Designer the Seismic Wizard sets up the information required for
seismic analysis - the main parameters to be input being:
Ground acceleration - strength of the earthquake
The Importance Class of the building - the use to which the building is being put -
typically
I= very minor, farm and temporary buildings,
II= general buildings occupied by people,
III = buildings occupied by a large number of people
IV = critical buildings with a post-disaster function eg hospitals, police stations,
fire stations and buildings along access route to them)
The ground conditions upon which the building is founded (typically Hard Rock,
Rock, Shallow soil, Deep Soil, Very Soft Soil)
Building height - for low buildings the first mode of vibration is totally dominant in
taller buildings other modes become significant
Plan and vertical irregularities in the building
From this input the Seismic Wizard determines the elastic design response spectrum to
be used for the building.
Additionally the Wizard sets up the Seismic Inertia combination - the combination of
loads likely to be acting on the building when the earthquake strikes.
Related topics
Eurocode EN1998-1:2004 Seismic Wizard
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Torsion
When a structure's centre of mass at a level does not align with the position of the
centre of rigidity then torsion is introduced in the structure at that level when an
earthquake excites the structure. To account for this, there are three types of torsion
potentially applied to levels with non-flexible diaphragms during a seismic analysis
Inherent torsion - in a 3D analysis when the centre of mass and centre of rigidity at a
level do not align, this is taken account of automatically
Accidental torsion - to allow for the miss positioning of loads in a structure, an
additional eccentricity of usually 5% of the structure's width in all relevant directions
- this is accounted for with a torsion load case in the analysis
Amplified accidental torsion - structures with certain SDCs and certain horizontal
irregularities require an amplified accidental torsion to allow for extra effects
Vibration Analysis
Using the Seismic Inertia combination, a vibration analysis is run for two purposes:
the natural frequencies of the building in two directions are determined to assist
with the calculation of the seismic base shear that in turn is used to determine the
distribution of applied loads up the building for an ELF analysis
the frequencies and mode shapes of the building are determined that need to be
included in an RSA analysis so that typically 90% of the mass in the building is
mobilised during the RSA analysis
Based on the natural frequency and the Seismic Inertia combination, a total base shear
on the structure is determined and this is then set up as a series of forces up the
structure at each level (in the shape of an inverted triangle) and these deflect the
structure in an approximation to the shape of the first mode.
The resulting seismic load cases are combined with the correct combination factors with
the other gravity and lateral load cases in the seismic combinations to give the design
forces and moments which are used in both the conventional design of all steel and
concrete members, and the seismic design of any steel or concrete members that have
been identified as part of a seismic force resisting system.
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
The RSA method uses a set of vibration modes that together ensure that the mass
participation is typically 90% in the structure in a particular direction.
The response of the structure is the combination of many modes that correspond to the
harmonics. For each mode, a response is read from the design spectrum, based on the
modal frequency and the modal mass, and they are then combined to provide an
estimate of the total response of the structure.
When the base shear from RSA is < X% of the base shear (code dependent, 85% in the
US) from ELF then the RSA forces and drifts are factored up to the X% level as defined in
the code. This equates the two methods giving RSA a small advantage over ELF but
recognising that there will be differences in the distribution of forces and deflections up
the structure.
As a result of the combination methods (SRSS and CQC), the resulting seismic load cases
are without sign and so they are applied with the correct combination factors both +
and - around the static results of the other gravity and lateral load cases in the seismic
combinations to give the design forces and moments which are used in both the
conventional design of all steel and concrete members, and the seismic design of any
steel or concrete members that have been identified as part of a seismic force resisting
system.
1 Model Validation Run to detect any design issues which might exist.
This is similar to standard model validation but also checks:
Seismic Inertia Combination must exist
At least one RSA Seismic Combination must exist
including at least one RSA Seismic Loadcase.
2 Vibration Analysis A 1st Order Vibration analysis for the Seismic Inertia
Combination only, which returns the standard results for
that analysis type, but also the fundamental periods for
directions 1 & 2.
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4 Static Analysis 1st Order Linear or 2nd Order Linear analysis is performed
for all RSA Seismic Combinations and all their relevant
loadcases, i.e. this includes Static Loadcases, but does not
include RSA Seismic and RSA Torsion Loadcases.
Seismic Drift
All structures are assessed for seismic drift - this is done using the ELF approach and so
even if RSA is requested, an ELF analysis will be run.
Drift is assessed on a floor to floor horizontal deflection basis and there are limits for
acceptability of a structure - if too floppy then the structure may fail the seismic drift
check and the RSA will not progress as a result.
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
We do not consider more accurate methods of analysis like time history analysis. As
a result there are some situations with very tall buildings and very irregular buildings
that Tekla Structural Designer does not cater for.
Diaphragms - rigid and semi-rigid diaphragms (meshed floors) are available and it is
the user's responsibility to ensure they are modelled suitably. Rigid diaphragms are
only allowed in limited circumstances and, so called, 'flexible diaphragms' can be
modelled as semi-rigid diaphragms with extremely low stiffness. Force transfer into
and out of the diaphragm is not checked.
Collector elements - no checks included.
Non-structural elements - no checks included.
The seismic design requirements for a particular member are based upon which
Seismic Force Resisting System (SFRS) the member forms part. Hence, in Tekla Structural
Designer you can set appropriate members as part of one of the following systems:
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Not specified - this is a 'catch all' for all other types- but no seismic design
performed.
Walls
Special reinforced concrete structural wall
Intermediate precast structural wall
Ordinary reinforced concrete structural wall
The following member types are not allowed to be part of a SFRS in Tekla Structural
Designer
Any timber, cold-formed, general
All other Characteristics, e.g. steel joists, truss members, purlins
Composite members
Plated, Westok, Fabsec, concrete filled, concrete encased selectable but no design
(i.e. only rolled)
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
or, dcol /2 + L
L = 0 (default) in
2. X type bracing is defined as more than one V or inverted V (A) type brace pair on the
beam. When more than one A or V brace pair is detected, the additional checks
required by AISC 341-05 and AISC 341-10 given in Section 8.3 are out of scope. This
situation is not detected during validation, but it is identified in the seismic design,
so that the beam is given a beyond scope status.
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3. The use of K braces is not allowed in AISC 341. An error is provided in validation.
4. Tension only braces were permitted to the 05 version but had no additional
requirements. In the 10 version they are only are allowed for OCBF. Thus, an error is
provided in validation when a tension only brace is set as part of a SCBF and the
code is the 10 version. (The same validation is also applied to compression only
braces.)
5. If seismic loadcases are included in combinations and there is not at least one
member assigned to each of Direction 1 and Direction 2 then a warning is issued.
Certain conditions (e.g. high seismicity) necessitate that a seismic design is performed
- additional design and detailing requirements have to be applied in this situation.
The additional design and detailing requirements of seismic design are only
supported in Tekla Structural Designer for the ACI/AISC Head Code.
The overall modelling, analysis and conventional design process using the ELF method
is summarised as follows:
1. Modelling
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
Set the
Select ELF method of analysis (note some vertical or horizontal irregularities can
prevent the use of this method)
Set up the relevant seismic combinations
3. Static Design
4. Calculation Output
The overall modelling, analysis and conventional design process using the RSA method
is summarised as follows:
1. Modelling
3. Static Design
5. Calculation Output
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The additional design and detailing requirements of seismic design are only
supported in Tekla Structural Designer for the ACI/AISC Head Code.
The overall modelling, analysis and design process to be followed when seismic design
is required depends on the analysis procedure (ELF or RSA) that you have chosen to
perform.
The seismic design requirements vary depending upon the 'sophistication' of the SFRS.
For example OMF have less stringent requirements than SMF.
The overall modelling, analysis, conventional design and seismic design process using
the ELF method is summarised as follows:
1. Modelling
Identify the primary seismic members, i.e. those members that are part of the
seismic force resisting system, and assign them an SFRS direction and SFRS type.
These members will be designed and detailed according to the seismic
provisions.
3. Static Design
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Seismic Analysis and Design Handbook
4. Calculation Output
The overall modelling, analysis, conventional design and seismic design process using
the RSA method is summarised as follows:
1. Modelling
Identify the primary seismic members, i.e. those members that are part of the
seismic force resisting system, and assign them an SFRS direction and SFRS type.
These members will be designed and detailed according to the seismic
provisions.
3. Static Design
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4. Vibration Analysis
At this point it is recommended that you run a 1st order vibration analysis in
order to confirm the model converges on a solution, (until it is able to do so, it is
pointless proceeding with a full RSA Seismic Design).
6. Calculation Output
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Concrete Design Handbook
This handbook provides a general overview of Tekla Structural Designer in the context of
its application to concrete structure design.
Refer to the Reference Guides for details of the specific concrete calculations
that are performed for each design code.
Concrete Design is not currently available for the AS:1170 code.
Autodesign (concrete)
The design mode for each member is specified in the member properties.
If the member type has been set to be designed using Design and detailing
groups (concrete), then if at least one member of the group is set to
autodesign the whole group will be auto-designed.
Selecting minima removes the current arrangement and begins with the minimum
allowed bar size from the selection order.
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Concrete beams and columns and isolated foundations are automatically put into
groups for two reasons:
For editing purposes - individual design groups can be selected and displayed
graphically so that their properties can be changed as a group in the properties window.
A fixed set of rules are used to determine the automatic member grouping: for
example beams must be of similar spans, columns must have the same
number of stacks, bases must be of similar lengths in X and Y, and similar
depths etc. The same rules also constrain manual group editing.
For design and detailing purposes - to reduce the processing time and also reduce the
volume of output created.
In Tekla Structural Designer, concrete design groups are analogous to the manually
created design groups described above. Concrete detailing groups (which are created
automatically and cannot be edited) are analogous to the sub-groups.
When the option to design a specific concrete member type using groups is checked, for
that member type:
In each design group the first member to be designed is selected arbitrarily. A full
design is carried out on this member and the reinforcement so obtained is copied to
all other members in the group.
These other members are then checked one by one to verify that the reinforcement
is adequate for each and if this proves not to be the case, it is increased as necessary
and the revised reinforcement is copied to all members in the group.
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Concrete Design Handbook
This process continues until all members in the group have been satisfactorily
checked.
A final check design is then carried out on each group member. During this process
peak and individual utilisations are established.
Concrete member design groups are formed according to the following rules:
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
Each parent design group is sub-divided into one or more detailing groups.
Detailing groups are formed for the different concrete member types based on the
following rules:
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Concrete Design Handbook
checked the option: Provide ties through floor depth for internal columns in Design
Options > Concrete > Column > Detailing Options.
Group management
Automatic Grouping
In Model Settings the user defined Maximum length variation is used to control
whether elements are sufficiently similar to be considered equivalent for grouping
purposes.
Manual/Interactive Grouping
After assessing the design efficiency of each group, you are able to review design
groups and make adjustments if required from the Groups tab of the Project
Workspace.
When manually adding members to a group, the order in which they are
added will incrementally affect the average length within the group, (which is
then compared to the maximum length variation). Therefore, if members are
not being added as you expect, try adding them in a different order.
If you have made changes in Design Options that affect grouping, you can update the
groups accordingly from the Groups tab of the Project Workspace by clicking Re-group
ALL Model Members.
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When new beam elements are created when a split or join command is run the
resulting beam elements are automatically placed in existing design and detailing
groups [or new groups created].
3. Uncheck the box adjacent to each concrete member type for which you want to de-
activate design grouping.
Nominal cover
For walls
For 1 layer of reinforcement, the vertical bar is on the centre-line of the wall thickness,
the face of the horizontal bar is closest to the critical concrete face.
For 2 layers of reinforcement, the horizontal bars are placed outside the vertical bars at
each face.
The nominal concrete cover is measured to the face of the horz bar or any
link/containment transverse reinforcement that may be present.
Assume cracked
Assuming concrete sections are cracked has a direct affect on the analysis; smaller
Modification Factors are applied to cracked sections causing an increase in deflection.
Indirectly the design can also be affected because the sway sensitivity calculations are
also influenced by this assumption.
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Reinforcement Parameters
Reinforcement Parameters
The reinforcement parameters which are common to all the concrete member types are
specified in Design Options > Concrete > Reinforcement Parameters.
Similarly an iterative procedure is used to select links for each shear design region on
the beam.
Rationalisation of Reinforcement
The rationalisation process is carried out separately for the longitudinal bars in the top
of the beam and those in the bottom of the beam.
There is no need to rationalie the arrangement of shear links. These can vary in size,
spacing and number from region to region without having any impact on adjoining
regions.
Deflection control
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
A beam element or beam line is initially created in the model with a rectangular cross-
section.
The beam properties can then be edited to take account of flanges arising from
adjoining slabs, making the following beam shapes possible:
These shapes have common features which are shown in the figure below:
where
hf = depth of slab
bw = width of beam
= beff1 + bw + beff
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Concrete Design Handbook
Flanged beam properties can be specified under the Design Control heading in beam
properties.
Typically, flanged beams can be either T shaped with a slab on both sides of the beam
or shaped with a slab on only one side of the beam.
The characteristic behaviour of flanged beams which can be made use of in design is
the fact that the major axis bending resistance of the member is enhanced by the
presence of adjoining concrete slabs which serve to increase the area of the
compression zone activated during major axis bending.
This effectively raises the position of the neutral axis thereby increasing the lever arm of
the longitudinal tension reinforcement and reducing the quantity of reinforcement
required.
The combinations of beam modelling and design choices that are allowed are:
If a beam is modelled and analysed with a rectangular cross-section it may be
designed as a rectangular beam or as a flanged beam at the choice of the user.
If a beam is modelled and analysed as a flanged beam it can only be designed as a
flanged beam.
Curved in plan flanged beams can be modelled and designed however for such beams
the flange width must be set manually.
If a slab is present, the beam automatically validates the slab as a potential candidate
for being a beam flange using a number of criteria, the main ones being;
the slab can be on one or both sides of the beam but
it must extend for a distance the slab depth from the vertical face of the beam
and
it must extend for the full span length of the beam
the slab must be a reinforced concrete slab
if there are slabs on both sides of the beam, they may be of different depths and
these depths may vary along the length of the beam
The effective width of any valid slab on each side of the beam, beff,i, is calculated and the
results that are appropriate at the mid-span length point are displayed in the Properties
window.
For beams that are not parallel, the effective width of the flange will vary along the
length of the beam and the value used in element design calculations is the
minimum width that occurs in the distance between the points of zero moment i.e. the
previously calculated L0 length.
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The presence of holes or openings in slabs can have an impact on the effective width of
the slab used in the element design; indeed, in some circumstances it may mean that
the beam cannot be designed as flanged.
However, as it is difficult to identify holes or openings in slabs that are within the
calculated effective flange width - such openings are ignored in the automatic
calculation of the effective flange width. Where such holes or openings exist you should
therefore manually adjust the flange width to take account of them. This is achieved
using the Allowance for openings left/right parameters in the beam properties.
Longitudinal reinforcement
In order to determine the design forces for the bending checks user defined
longitudinal reinforcement regions must first be established.
Longitudinal Reinforcement Shapes Library
Bar layers
Designed longitudinal reinforcement is positioned in the top and bottom of the beam
and can be tension reinforcement or compression reinforcement.
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Concrete Design Handbook
The longitudinal reinforcement in the top and bottom of a beam can consist of 1 to nL
parallel layers with the layer nearest to the top or bottom surface of the beam being
Layer 1.
The number and diameter of bars in each layer can vary but bars in different layers
must be vertically aligned. This is to ensure that there is adequate space to allow the
concrete to be poured and properly compacted around the bars.
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Longitudinal reinforcement in the side of the beam is only provided in beams with a
depth greater than a certain value as follows:
h 750 mm BS8110
The common basic Shapes of bars used for the purposes of providing longitudinal
reinforcement in beams are shown in the table below.
In the first release, only the Shapes listed in the table are available for selection.
00 Straight bar
26 Single crank
46 Double crank
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11 Standard bob
34 Standard bob
with crank
11 Extended bob
34 Extended bob
with crank
21 U bar
There are three Standard Patterns for top reinforcement, SPT1, SPT2 and SPT3 and two
Standard Patterns for bottom reinforcement, SPB1 & SPB2 as illustrated in the figures
below.
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Concrete Design Handbook
Modified versions of the above standard patterns are applied for use in single spans
and in cantilever spans where no backspan beam is present.
For short span beams, it becomes uneconomic and impractical to lap bars in beams.
These facts coupled with the anchorage lengths that are required make the use of
multiple design regions for the longitudinal reinforcement unnecessary. To cater for this
a short span beam length can be defined in Design Options > Beam > Reinforcement
Settings and the bar patterns adopted for such short spans are as shown below:
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When considering the longitudinal steel in the top and bottom of the beam, the design
checks are performed in a specified number of regions that are symmetrically placed
about the centre of the beam. The regions are specified as user defined proportions of
the clear span of the beam, expressed as a percentage; the number of regions being
initially governed by the choice of longitudinal bar pattern.
Top Regions
Three standard patterns are available for defining the top regions:
To provide flexibility, once a pattern has been selected you are able to vary the
percentage region widths, with the range of each being 0% Ti 100% and with Ti =
100%.
For example the Standard Top 2 pattern initially consists of 5 regions, T1, T2, T3, T4, and
T5 :
By varying the percentage region widths a number of possibilities can be catered for:
In each top region, the maximum negative bending moment within the region is
determined for design purposes.
Bottom Regions
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Two standard patterns are available for defining the bottom regions:
Similar to the top patterns, once a pattern has been selected you are able to vary the
percentage region widths, with the range of each being 0% Bi 100% and with Bi =
100%.
In each bottom region, the maximum positive bending moment within the region is
determined for design purposes.
The standard patterns for cantilevers are edited and applied in the same way as the
standard patterns for continuous spans. Up to 3 regions can be defined for the top, but
only a single region exists for the bottom.
The design value of the bending moment used for the design in a region is the
maximum factored bending moment arising in the region under consideration.
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There is a close link between the reinforcement patterns and the design regions. After
selecting a Standard Reinforcement Pattern, you can then choose the length of each
design region. The number of regions adopted will dictate the bars that are used to
reinforce the beam and likewise, the selection or de-selection of particular bars will
dictate the design regions used.
The selection process of Standard Reinforcement Patterns and Design Regions is:
1. Choose a Standard Reinforcement Pattern for the top reinforcement (from the
Standard Pattern Setup droplist)
The bar selection and design region lengths are inextricably linked. If a bar is not
selected then the design region has zero length.
It is important that the bar and design region selection is carried out in an orderly
manner and that the selections are made in the correct order.
This relationship between bars and design regions is best illustrated using Standard
Patterns SPT1 and SPB1 as an example (for an internal span) as shown in the diagram
below.
Considering the top reinforcement first, if the user opts to de-select Bar 2 then design
regions T4 and T5 will be zero length and the user will then select a length for T1.
Likewise for the bottom reinforcement, de-selecting Bars 7 and 11 will set designs
region B2 and B3 to zero length.
If all the available bars are selected in this example then the bars used to provide the
area of reinforcement required by the design in each design region will be;
Design Region T1 (& T5) : Bar 1 + Bar 2
Design Region T2 (& T4) : Bar 1
Design Region T3 : Bar 3
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Shear reinforcement
Vertical shear reinforcement is provided in the form of links which can be single or
multiple with 1 ( ) or 2 ( or ) vertical legs.
The common basic shapes of bars used for the purposes of providing shear
reinforcement in beams are shown in the table below.
In the first release, only the shapes listed in the table are available for selection.
51 Closed Link/Stirrup
47 Open Link/Stirrup
21 Top Closer
Link/Stirrup
99 Single Leg
Link/Stirrup
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63 Torsion Link/Stirrup
There are three Standard Patterns for shear reinforcement, Closed, Open and Torsion.
However, you are initially only offered a choice of 2 patterns, Closed or Open.
Closed
Closed links (shape code 51) with additional double leg (shape code 51) or single leg
links (shape code 99) if required by the design. The design dictates the number of
vertical legs required. You can choose if single leg links are acceptable.
Open
Open links with top closers (shape codes 47 and 21) with additional double leg
(shape code 47) or single leg links (shape code 99) if required by the design. The
design dictates the number of vertical legs required. You can choose if single leg
links are acceptable.
Torsion
Torsion links (shape code 63) for the outer linkwith closed links (shape code 51) or
single leg links (shape code 99) as internal links if required by the design. Note that
this is not a user option but is determined by the design.
When considering shear, the design shear checks are performed in each of 3 regions S1,
S2 and S3 as shown below. In each region, the maximum vertical shear from all load
combinations and analysis types, Vzi, is determined and this maximum value used to
determine the shear reinforcement required in that region.
The lengths of the shear regions are subject to user selection and may be either:
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Optimised
This option is only valid when the maximum positive shear from all combinations and
analysis types occurs at one end of a beam and the maximum negative shear from all
combinations and analysis types occurs at the other end of the beam. If this situation
does not exist then this option is not allowed and the Fixed Proportions method will be
used.
In this case in the central region S2, shear reinforcement is provided to meet the
maximum of the minimum code requirement or minimum user preference whilst in
regions S1 and S3, designed shear reinforcement is required.
The position and length of region S2 is determined from considerations of the shear
resistance of the concrete cross-section and this then enables the lengths of regions S1
and S3 to be determined.
In this method, region S2 is defined as being that part of the beam in which the
minimum amount of shear reinforcement is acceptable.
Or
Fixed proportions
In this case the regions are defined as fixed proportions of the clear span [face to face
length] of the beam expressed as a percentage S1%, S2% and S3% with the default values
for S1 and S3 being MAX(0.25*L, 2*h) and that for S2 being (L-S1-S3).
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When Autodesign has been selected, an iterative procedure is used to design both the
longitudinal bars and links. This applies the spacing maximisation method which
attempts to return a solution with the largest possible longitudinal bar spacing and
largest possible link spacing.
Selecting yes results in the corner bars being increased in size before the intermediate
bars, i.e. increased in preference. All bars will start off at the same size (unless the initial
bar size is driven by the current arrangement or the stack above), but when the check
fails the corner bars will be increased in size if all bar sizes are the same, otherwise the
intermediate bars will be increased in size. This means that when the final design is
produced, either all bars will be the same size or the corner bars will be one size larger
than the intermediate bars.
Alternatively, if you require all bar sizes to be the same, selecting no results in all bar
sizes being increased together.
Selecting this option for a column stack determines that the starting arrangement for
longitudinal bars will match the arrangement of the bars in the stack above if the
section geometry matches.
The selection of this option is only relevant when the shape, dimensions, rotation and
eccentricity of the given stack match the stack above exactly. When running auto-design
for a stack, if all of these criteria are met and this option is selected, then the program
will set all longitudinal bar positions to match those of the stack above and set all bars
to the same size as the equivalent bars in the stack above.
Section
Shape
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Trapezium
Parallelogram
Regular polygon (between 3 and 8 sides)
When defining a section with two axes of symmetry (e.g. a rectangular section) you
should ensure that the longer dimension is input as the depth and the shorter
dimension as the breadth (as shown below left).
A rotation can then be applied if required, in order to orientate the column correctly in
the model.
When the section is designed the major axis calculations will then relate to bending
about the strong axis and the minor axis calculations to bending about the weak axis.
If the breadth and depth has been transposed during input (as shown above right),
major axis would then relate to bending about the weak axis and minor axis would
relate to bending about the strong axis.
Holes
Rectangular or circular holes can be placed in rectangular and circular columns when
the section is being defined, they cant be placed in other column shapes.
Reinforcement link arrangements such as double links, triple links and cross-links are
not designed intelligently to account for holes.
Slenderness
The significant parameter within the slenderness criteria is a choice of how the column
is contributing to the stability of the structure.
bracing - provides lateral stability to the structure.
braced - considered to be braced by other stabilizing members.
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The second slenderness parameter is the effective length factor, which is either input
directly by choosing the User input value option, or it is calculated in accordance with
the requirements of the selected design code.
Stiffness
When determining the effective length, if no effective beams are found at the end of a
stack, Tekla Structural Designer considers whether there is a flat slab restraining the stack
at that end. The Use slab for calculation... (upper/lower, major/minor) options are used
to indicate whether any such slab should be considered as a restraint.
If there are no effective beams and there is no flat slab, the program looks for a slab on
beams. If a slab on beams is found, this then acts as a restraint at the position provided
the Use slab for calculation... option has been selected, as is the case for flat slabs.
Load reductions
To cater for additional floors that are carried by the column that have not been included
in the model an Assume extra floors supported column property is provided. This
allows you to specify how many extra floors are carried by the column. These are then
taken into account when determining any reduction percentage to apply.
Reductions are only applied to those imposed load cases that have had the
Reductions box checked on the Loading dialog. The reduction percentage for
the number of floors carried is shown in Model Settings.
The floors that define the stacks can be designated either as to be or not to be'
included in the determination of the imposed load reductions through Count floor as
supported check boxes for each level in the column properties. This feature enables
what appears to be a roof to be counted as a floor, or conversely allows a mezzanine
floor to be excluded from the number of floors considered for any particular column.
The moments from fixed ended beams framing into a column are never reduced.
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For the first release, reinforcement lifts are restricted to contain only one
stack.
During design, an arrangement is created for the top stack in the reinforcement lift
which passes the design checks. This arrangement is then applied to all stacks in the
reinforcement lift. The next stack down is then designed using the applied
reinforcement arrangement. If the initial arrangement does not pass, the new
arrangement which does pass is applied to all stacks and design continues with the new
arrangement starting at the top stack. Eventually, the limits of bar size and spacing are
reached or the design passes for all stacks - design then stops.
Intermediate loads are allowed. The moments due to imperfections and slenderness
effects are added appropriately, and the result checked against the minimum design
moment as appropriate.
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You are required to select whether each wall is in autodesign mode or check mode.
Selecting check mode ensures that the existing reinforcement arrangement is not
changed.
This option only appears if Autodesign is selected. It applies to both longitudinal bars
and links.
Selecting minimum bars removes the current arrangement and begins with the
minimum allowed bar size from the order list.
Auto-design applies the spacing maximisation method for both longitudinal bars and
links. This attempts to return a solution with the largest possible longitudinal bar
spacing and largest possible link spacing.
Slenderness
The significant parameter within the slenderness criteria is the choice of how the wall is
contributing to the stability of the structure.
In-plane (major) direction, a wall is usually considered to be a bracing member.
Out-of-plane (minor) direction, a wall is usually considered to be braced by other
stabilizing members.
The second slenderness parameter is the effective length factor, which is either input
directly by choosing the User input value option, or it is calculated in accordance with
the requirements of the selected design code.
Stiffness
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When determining the effective length, if no effective beams are found at the end of a
stack, Tekla Structural Designer considers whether there is a flat slab restraining the stack
at that end. The Use slab for calculation... (upper/lower, major/minor) options are used
to indicate whether any such slab should be considered as a restraint.
If there are no effective beams and there is no flat slab, the program looks for a slab on
beams. If a slab on beams is found, this then acts as a restraint at the position provided
the Use slab for calculation... option has been selected, as is the case for flat slabs.
Reinforcement
The wall properties: Reinforcement layers, Form and Include end zones can be
combined as required in order to obtain a range of reinforcement patterns, e.g:
Single layer, using mesh reinforcement
Two layers, using mesh reinforcement
Single layer, using loose bars
Two layers, using loose bars
End zones, with a single layer of mesh in the mid zone
End zones, with two layers of mesh in the mid zone
End zones, with a single layer of loose bars in the mid zone
End zones, with two layers of loose bars in the mid zone
Load reductions
To cater for additional floors that are carried by the wall that have not been included in
the model an Assume extra floors supported wall property is provided. This allows you
to specify how many extra floors are carried by the wall. These are then taken into
account when determining any reduction percentage to apply.
Reductions are only applied to those imposed load cases that have had the
Reductions box checked on the Loading dialog. The reduction percentage for
the number of floors carried is shown in Model Settings.
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A wall may contain one or more reinforcement lifts, each of which may contain one or
more stacks.
For the first release, reinforcement lifts are restricted to contain only one
stack.
During design, an arrangement is created for the top stack in the reinforcement lift
which passes the design checks. This arrangement is then applied to all stacks in the
reinforcement lift. The next stack down is then designed using the applied
reinforcement arrangement. If the initial arrangement does not pass, the new
arrangement which does pass is applied to all stacks and design continues with the new
arrangement starting at the top stack. Eventually, the limits of bar size and spacing are
reached or the design passes for all stacks - design then stops.
Intermediate loads are allowed. The moments due to imperfections and slenderness
effects are added appropriately, and the result checked against the minimum design
moment as appropriate.
Walls can be loaded laterally, but are always considered to span vertically.
Horizontal moments that may develop in a meshed wall are ignored in the design.
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The As,reqd for a given panel is determined from an analysis (which is carried out as part
of the Design All process).
For each panel the following basic design check is performed in all areas where no
patches exist:
Is As,prov > As,reqd ?
For panels in Autodesign mode, As,prov is increased until either a pass is achieved or the
limiting reinforcement parameter limits have been exceeded.
For panels not in Autodesign mode, the result will be a pass or fail.
Decomposition
One-way load decomposition in Tekla Structural Designer is a simple procedure that does
not determine slab design forces. When a slabs decomposition is set as one-way it is
assumed that it is some form of precast slab (presumably designed by safe load tables).
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Note that this FE based approach inherently caters for point loads, line loads,
openings, etc and for the possibility of variable adjacent span lengths in a
continuous 1-way slab (and of course it can still be applied to the simple case of a 1-
way slab with a uniform UDL applied and uniform span lengths).
In order to perform span - effective depth checks for irregular shaped beam and slab
panels, they have to be converted to idealized four sided rectangular panels.
To do this, the enclosing lengths of the panel in X and Y are first determined, (local X
being defined by the panel rotation angle):
Lx-enc = maximum overall length of the panel measured parallel to local X
Ly-enc = maximum overall length of the panel measured perpendicular to local X
A user specified adjustment ratio is then applied to these lengths to determine the
adjusted lengths. Conservatively the adjustment ratio defaults to 1.0 in both directions.
In situations where the panel does not have 4 sides, (such as the one shown below),
some engineering judgement might be required when deciding on appropriate values
of the adjustment ratios in each direction.
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Edge Category
For the span-effective depth check, the edge categories in each direction have to be
manually assigned to the idealized slab panel. The three edge categories being:
Unsupported
Continuous Support
Dis-continuous Support (default)
Slab reinforcement
Slabs panels can potentially have 4 layers of background reinforcement, (however any
of the below layers/directions can be set to none if required).
Top of slab
x dir reinforcement
y dir reinforcement
Bottom of slab
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x dir reinforcement
y dir reinforcement
These patches are either in the top or the bottom of the slab and may or may not have
reinforcement defined in them. If no reinforcement is defined then the background
reinforcement is used. If reinforcement is defined then for the top/bottom, x/y
direction, the user has the option to use the sum of the background + patch
reinforcement - if reasonably aligned.
Note that patches may overlap on the plan view, and there is no restriction on this, even
patches relating to the same layer of reinforcement are allowed to overlap. This
situation is handled conservatively during design by simply ignoring the overlap.
Concrete slab design is an interactive process typically consisting of the following steps:
a. Add Patches
b. Design Panels
c. Review/Optimise Panel Design
d. Design Patches
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7. Print Calculations
A simple flat slab model as shown below is used in order to demonstrate the techniques
involved in the slab design process.
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If necessary you should consider manually splitting and joining slab panels to facilitate
management of the pattern loading process.
By default, only beam loads, and slab loads that have been decomposed on to beams,
are patterned. Loads applied to meshed slabs should be manually patterned using
engineering judgement; this is achieved on a per panel basis for each pattern load by
toggling the loading status via Update Load Patterns on the Load ribbon.
Design All
Analysis is required to establish the moments to be used in the slab design - this
analysis is automatically performed when either Design Concrete or Design All are
run.
Typically these moments are taken from the FE chasedown model results - as each floor
is analysed individually this method mimics the traditional design approach.
If you have elected to mesh 2-way slabs in the analysis, the 3D Building Analysis model
results will also be considered.
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beams).
Slab deflections are obtained by reviewing the 2D deflection contours for the FE
Chasedown results in the Results View. Corresponding deflections for the 3D Building
Analysis will only be available if you have elected to mesh 2-way slabs in the analysis.
By viewing the deflection results for combinations based on service rather than
strength factors the stiffness adjustments that you apply do not need to account for
load factors.
The default adjustment factors can be edited from the Analyse ribbon by selecting
Options > Modification Factors > Concrete.
Select a Level
In models with distinct floor levels you should use 2D Views to work on the floor design
one level at a time. Occasionally the 3D geometry of a model may make it less easy to
distinguish between individual floors, in which case it may be easier to design the floors
one sub-model at a time.
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When working in a 2D View use the right click menu to design or check slabs
and patches: this saves time as only the slabs and patches in the current level
are considered.
Running Design Slabs or Design Patches from the Design ribbon will take
longer as it considers all the slabs and patches in the model.
Add Patches
Typically you should expect to work on this one floor at a time, (making use of multiple
views when creating patches as discussed below).
It is suggested that you add patches in the Results View while looking at relevant
moment contours - For example you might (after selecting the FE chasedown result
type) have Mx moments on in one view on the left and My moments in a second view
on the right, as below:
By doing this, it is possible to see how patches extend over the peaks.
Typically, at the initial patch creation stage you should make the patches a reasonable
size and not be concerned if they are a bit too big - as this should be reviewed/resolved
at the patch design optimisation stage.
In a slab on beam situation, you may want to add beam and wall patches to cover the
full extent of non-zero top bending moments. By doing so you can then set the top
reinforcement in the slab panels to none and the panel design should still pass.
Design Panels
Panel design is dependent on the areas of patches (patch areas which are
excluded from panel design) - hence patches should be added before panels
are designed.
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1. From the Design ribbon run Design Slabs in order to design or check all the panels
in the model - by default newly created panels will all be in auto-design mode - so
reinforcement is selected automatically.
or
2. In the 2D View of the floor which you want to design right click and choose either
Design Slabs or Check Slabs. Working in this way restricts the design or checking to
the slab panels in the current view. This will be a much faster option on large
buildings and avoids time being wasted designing slab panels at levels where
patches have not yet been set up.
These right click options operate on the same basis as the options for beams
and columns:
- Design Slabs will re-design the slabs (potentially picking new reinforcement)
regardless of the current autodesign setting.
- Check Slabs will check the current reinforcement in the slabs regardless of
the current autodesign setting.
Once again it is suggested that you use split Review Views to examine the results as
indicated below.
The view on left shows Slab Design Status, the view on right shows Slab
Reinforcement in the panels. Note that the tool tip indicates all panel/patch
reinforcement as you hover over any panel.
If the selections are unacceptable you may need to review the design settings. e.g - if
8mm dia bars are selected and you would just never use anything less than a 10mm bar
in a flat slab, then set that as a minimum.
Once the selections are reasonable it is advisable to select all the panels and swap them
out of auto-design mode (and after this point be careful not to use the right click option
to design panels unless you really want to.).
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After using the Review View update mode to standardise reinforcement you can then
run Check Slabs from the right click menu to check the revised reinforcement.
Remember:
Consider swapping between Status and Ratio views - if utilisations all < 1 but some
panels failing then problems are to do with limit checks. The Ratio view is better for
helping you focus on the critical panels.
During this process it will also make sense to be adding panel patches in which the
reinforcement is set to none and strip is set to average. The purpose of this is to
smooth out local peaks at the most critical locations which would otherwise dictate
the background reinforcement level needed to get a pass status.
Design Patches
Having established and rationalied the slab panel reinforcement which sets the
background levels of reinforcement, it is now logical to design the patches which will top
up the reinforcement as necessary within the strips of each patch.
To do this, either:
1. From the Design ribbon run Design Patches in order to design or check all the
patches in the model - by default newly created patches will all be in auto-design
mode - so reinforcement is selected automatically.
or
2. In the 2D View of the floor which you want to design right click and choose either
Design Patches or Check Patches. Working in this way restricts the design or
checking to the patches in the current view.
These right click options operate on the same basis as the options for beams
and columns:
- Design Patches will re-design the patches (potentially picking new
reinforcement) regardless of the current autodesign setting.
- Check Patches will check the current reinforcement in the patches
regardless of the current autodesign setting.
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Punching checks can be added over the entire floor, or structure by windowing it. You
can then select any check and review the properties assigned to it. Internal/edge/corner
locations are automatically determined (with a user override if you require). Once
added click Check Punching Shear and the checks are done and status is shown as:
Pass - if no shear reinforcement is needed
Warning - if shear reinforcement is needed
Fail - if it is impossible to achieve required capacity by adding share reinforcement
Unknown - if check not run yet
Beyond scope or error - if for example the centroid of the column/wall lies outside
the slab
Drawings that convey the structural intent are easy to create. It should be borne in mind
that these are NOT the final detail drawings, their purpose is to eliminate the need for
manual mark-up drawings as a means of communication between the engineer and the
detailer.
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Print Calculations
Create a model report that includes the panel, patch, and punching check calculations
that have been performed. (The default Building Design report includes these along
with design calculations for other member types in the model).
An interactive design approach is adopted as the patch and panel design are inter-
dependant.
2-way spanning slab on beam design is an interactive process typically consisting of the
following steps:
6. Print Calculations
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A simple slab on beam model as shown below is used in order to demonstrate the
techniques involved in the slab design process.
By default, only beam loads, and slab loads that have been decomposed on to beams,
are patterned. Loads applied to meshed slabs should be manually patterned using
engineering judgement; this is achieved on a per panel basis for each pattern load by
toggling the loading status via Update Load Patterns on the Load ribbon.
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Design All
Analysis is required to establish the moments to be used in the slab design - this
analysis is automatically performed when either Design Concrete or Design All are
run.
Typically these moments are taken from the FE Chasedown model results - as each floor
is analysed individually this method mimics the traditional design approach.
If you have elected to mesh 2-way slabs in the analysis, the 3D Building Analysis model
results will also be considered.
Select a Level
In models with distinct floor levels you should use 2D Views to work on the floor design
one level at a time. Occasionally the 3D geometry of a model may make it less easy to
distinguish between individual floors, in which case it may be easier to design the floors
one sub-model at a time.
When working in a 2D View use the right click menu to design or check slabs
and patches: this saves time as only the slabs and patches in the current level
are considered.
Running Design Slabs or Design Patches from the Design ribbon will take
longer as it considers all the slabs and patches in the model.
You may optionally want to add beam and wall top surface patches to cover the full
extent of non-zero top bending moments. By doing so you can then set the top
reinforcement in the slab panels to none and the panel design should still pass.
Typically you should expect to work on this one floor at a time, (making use of multiple
views when creating beam patches as discussed below).
It is suggested that you add patches in the Results View while looking at relevant
moment contours - For example you might (after selecting the FE chasedown result
type) have Mdx top moments on in one view on the left and Mdy top moments in a
second view on the right, as below:
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By doing this, it is possible to see how patches extend over the moment contours.
It is suggested that at the initial patch creation stage you should make the patches a
reasonable size and not be concerned if they are a bit too big - as this should be
reviewed/resolved at the patch design optimisation stage.
Design Panels
Slab on beams panel design takes account of any beam or wall patches (by
excluding the patch areas from panel design) - hence patches should be
added before panels are designed.
1. From the Design ribbon run Design Slabs in order to design or check all the panels
in the model - by default newly created panels will all be in auto-design mode - so
reinforcement is selected automatically.
or
2. In the 2D View of the floor which you want to design right click and choose either
Design Slabs or Check Slabs. Working in this way restricts the design or checking to
the slab panels in the current view. This will be a much faster option on large
buildings and avoids time being wasted designing slab panels at levels where
patches have not yet been set up.
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These right click options operate on the same basis as the options for beams
and columns:
- Design Slabs will re-design the slabs (potentially picking new reinforcement)
regardless of the current autodesign setting.
- Check Slabs will check the current reinforcement in the slabs regardless of
the current autodesign setting.
3. If you chose to set the top reinforcement in the slab panels to none but the design
detects that top reinforcement is required, the affected panels will fail. In this
situation you should increase the widths of the adjacent beam or wall patches
before checking or designing the slab panels once again.
4. When panels are being designed (as opposed to checked), the design does not
currently automatically increase reinforcement to satisfy deflection, in which case
the panels might fail. In this situation you could manually increase the
reinforcement until deflection is satisfied.
The span-effective depth check takes into account the edge category at the
start and end of the span direction being checked, (the program default is to
treat each edge as dis-continuous), therefore if the edges are in reality
continuously supported, setting them as such will improve the result.
Review Views can be employed to examine the results and once again it is suggested
that you use split views as indicated below.
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The view on left shows Slab Design Status, (with slab patches turned off in Scene
Content to assist clarity), the view on right shows Slab Reinforcement in the panels.
Note that the tool tip indicates all panel/patch reinforcement as you hover over any
panel.
If the selections are unacceptable you may need to review the design settings. e.g - if
8mm dia bars are selected and you would just never use anything less than a 10mm bar
in a slab, then set that as a minimum.
Once the selections are reasonable it is advisable to select all the panels and swap them
out of auto-design mode (and after this point be careful not to use the right click option
to design panels unless you really want to.).
After using the Review View update mode to standardise reinforcement you can then
run Check Slabs from the right click menu to check the revised reinforcement.
Remember:
Consider swapping between Status and Ratio views - if utilisations all < 1 but some
panels failing then problems are to do with limit checks. The Ratio view is better for
helping you focus on the critical panels.
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Having established and rationalied the slab panel reinforcement which sets the
background levels of reinforcement, it is now logical to design any beam or wall patches
that you may have defined.
To do this, either:
1. From the Design ribbon run Design Patches in order to design or check all the
patches in the model - by default newly created patches will all be in auto-design
mode - so reinforcement is selected automatically.
or
2. In the 2D View of the floor which you want to design right click and choose either
Design Patches or Check Patches. Working in this way restricts the design or
checking to the patches in the current view.
These right click options operate on the same basis as the options for beams
and columns:
- Design Patches will re-design the patches (potentially picking new
reinforcement) regardless of the current autodesign setting.
- Check Patches will check the current reinforcement in the patches
regardless of the current autodesign setting.
Drawings that convey the structural intent are easy to create. It should be borne in mind
that these are NOT the final detail drawings, their purpose is to eliminate the need for
manual mark-up drawings as a means of communication between the engineer and the
detailer.
Print Calculations
Create a model report that includes the panel, patch, and punching check calculations
that have been performed. (The default Building Design report includes these along
with design calculations for other member types in the model).
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For a concrete structure, the following settings and options in particular should be
considered before running the design:
1. Grouping - decide if you want to make use of Design and detailing groups
(concrete).
2. Concrete Design Options - check the concrete Design Options are appropriate for
your design.
Gravity design
In large models you may prefer to adopt a two-stage design process in which a gravity
design is performed in advance of the full design.
The gravity design stage enables you to design or check concrete beams, columns and
walls for the designated gravity combinations.
Full design
All concrete beams, columns and walls are designed or checked for all active
combinations.
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As part of the full design process a 3D building analysis is performed, for which you
must select (via Design Options) the analysis type. Choice of analysis type (ACI/AISC) will
depend on the code being designed to.
1. Review View - use the various tools on the Review toolbar to get an overall picture
of the design results.
2. Hover the cursor over the member until its outline is highlighted, then right click.
The results dialog is displayed from where all the detailed calculations can be viewed.
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4. Hover the cursor over the member until its outline is highlighted, then right click.
Steel is re-selected for the member and then the results dialog is displayed from where
all the detailed calculations can be viewed.
Generally you are advised to perform interactive member designs only after the Design
All process has been carried out. In this way multiple analysis models will have been
considered to arrive at the forces being designed for.
The Interactive Beam Design Dialog displays a limited selection of the relevant critical
design results including bar details and allows you to make changes to the number, size
and spacing (for links only) of the selected bars.
After making changes, you are able to see the effect on the displayed results you then
have the option of cancelling or accepting the changes.
1. Right click the member you want to design interactively and select Interactive
Design... (Static or RSA as required) from the context menu that is displayed.
The Interactive Beam Design Dialog opens, displaying results for the existing
reinforcement.
When the dialog is opened, the current reinforcement and check results are shown for
each beam in the beam line.
When any of the editable fields are changed, the checks are re-run and the results are
updated; enabling you to quickly see the effect of every single change you make to the
reinforcement.
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Span Summary
A tree view displays the design status of each span and the associated utilisation ratio.
Click a particular span in the summary to display or edit its design in the tabbed pages.
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Deflection check
This checks the actual span: effective depth ratio against the limiting span : effective
depth ratio.
Links tab
Optimise Button
This calculates the optimum length of the central region given the reinforcement
that you have selected. The button is not be visible when the beam is in a design
group with other beams, and is also not visible when the span is a cantilever.
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Buttons
OK
Closes the dialog and saves the current design
Cancel
Closes the dialog without saving changes
Check
Opens the Results dialog displaying the detailed results for the current design
Detail Drawing
Creates a detail drawing for the selected member
Drawing Options
Opens the DXF Export Preferences dialog
1. If the Interactive Beam Design Dialog is open, click Cancel to close it.
3. Change the Top and Bottom longitudinal bar pattern in the Properties Window
as required.
4. Hover the cursor over the beam until its outline is highlighted, then right click.
The Interactive Beam Design Dialog opens and reinforcement is automatically re-
selected for the beam based on the new bar pattern.
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Generally you are advised to perform interactive member designs only after the Design
All process has been carried out. In this way multiple analysis models will have been
considered to arrive at the forces being designed for.
The Interactive Column Design Dialog displays a limited selection of the relevant
critical design results including bar details and allows you to make changes to the
number, size and spacing (for ties only) of the selected bars. Interaction diagrams are
also displayed for the current design.
After making changes, you are able to see the effect on the displayed results you then
have the option of cancelling or accepting the changes.
1. Right click the member you want to design interactively and select Interactive
Design... (Static or RSA as required) from the context menu that is displayed.
The Interactive Column Design Dialog opens, displaying results for the existing
reinforcement.
When the dialog is opened, the current reinforcement and check results are shown for
each stack.
When any of the editable fields are changed, the checks are re-run and the results are
updated; enabling you to quickly see the effect of every single change you make to the
reinforcement.
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Stack Summary
A tree view displays the design status of each stack and the associated utilisation ratio.
Click a particular stack in the summary to display or edit its design in the tabbed pages.
Longitudinal tab
All straight-edged cross sections have "Principal" bars located at shear tie corners.
Between these, evenly spaced identical "Intermediate" bars can be located.
Circular sections have 6 or more evenly spaced bars around the edge of the section.
In the first release only one layer of reinforcement against any shear tie edge
is permitted.
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Ctr spacing - the centreline spacing for the current number of bars along the
length
Status -indicates when the maximum bar spacing limit has been exceeded.
(When the minimum bar spacing limit is exceeded this is displayed elsewhere in
the Design Summary Table).
Cross-section
The drawing displays:
Exact bar positions (drawn to scale)
Tie locations
Section dimensions
Principal bar labels
Containment status
This status is determined based on the requirements for bars being tied.
Links tab
Use support region links
Check the box to design support regions for the links.
Link spacing
specifies the link spacing (if support regions are applied two different spacings can
be specified)
Link size
Used to change the size of link bars (all must have the same size).
Cross-section
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Buttons
OK
Closes the dialog and saves the current design
Cancel
Closes the dialog without saving changes
Check
Opens the Results dialog displaying the detailed results for the current design
Detail Drawing
Creates a detail drawing for the selected member
Drawing Options
Opens the DXF Export Preferences dialog
Circular Columns
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Steel bars are arranged by modifying the bar size and count fields.
Principal bars exist at fixed locations; they are labelled with numbers in the cross-
section. You can only change the principal bar sizes, not their locations.
Intermediate bars are the unnumbered bars in the cross-section. You can change both
their size and number. They are defined in the bar location table by reference to the
principal bars between which they lie.
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A count of 1 for each intermediate length in the bar location table indicates that a
single intermediate bar is positioned between each of the principal bars.
If the count was increased to 2 for Int. length 1-2, but reduced to 0 for Int. length 2-3,
the following arrangement is achieved .
Note that Int. lengths 3-4 and 4-5 are adjusted automatically in the table to match.
Link arrangements in rectangular and parallelogram sections have the following basic
options:
Single links,
Double links,
Triple links,
Cross links.
Tie bars are used with these arrangements. Link arrangements in other section shapes
use standard link positions with additional tie bars where required.
Generally you are advised to perform interactive member designs only after the Design
All process has been carried out. In this way multiple analysis models will have been
considered to arrive at the forces being designed for.
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The Interactive Wall Design Dialog displays a limited selection of the relevant critical
design results including bar details and allows you to make changes to the number, size
and spacing (for links only) of the selected bars. Interaction diagrams are also displayed
for the current design.
After making changes, you are able to see the effect on the displayed results you then
have the option of cancelling or accepting the changes.
1. Right click the member you want to design interactively and select Interactive
Design... (Static or RSA as required) from the context menu that is displayed.
The Interactive Wall Design Dialog opens, displaying results for the existing
reinforcement.
When the dialog is opened, the current reinforcement and check results are shown for
each stack.
When any of the editable fields are changed, the checks are re-run and the results are
updated; enabling you to quickly see the effect of every single change you make to the
reinforcement.
Stack Summary
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A tree view displays the design status of each stack and the associated utilisation ratio.
Click a particular stack in the summary to display or edit its design in the tabbed pages.
Longitudinal tab
Use end-zones
check in order to define end-zones.
Cross-section
The drawing displays:
Exact bar positions (drawn to scale)
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Link locations
Section dimensions
Lateral tab
Use links
Check the box to specify links.
Use support region links
Check the box to design support regions for the links.
link spacing
specifies the link spacing (if support regions are applied two different spacings can
be specified)
Link size
Used to specify the size of link bars (all must have the same size).
Cross-section
The drawing displays:
Exact bar positions (drawn to scale)
Link locations
Section dimensions
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Top, mid fifth and bottom moment results for each analysis type are plotted on the
diagram for each combination
The curves for bending about the major axis are shown in red
The curves for bending about the minor axis are shown in blue
Buttons
OK
Closes the dialog and saves the current design
Cancel
Closes the dialog without saving changes
Check
Opens the Results dialog displaying the detailed results for the current design
Detail Drawing
Creates a detail drawing for the selected member
Drawing Options
Opens the DXF Export Preferences dialog
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Steel Design Handbook
This handbook provides a general overview of Tekla Structural Designer in the context of
its application to steel structure design.
Refer to the Reference Guides for details of the specific steel calculations that
are performed for each design code.
Material type
The material types supported depend on the code being designed to:
Steel is the only material permitted if designing to AISC 360.
Steel and Cold formed materials are both permitted if designing to the
Eurocode or BS 5950.
Autodesign (steel)
The design mode for each member is specified in the member properties.
If a member type has been set to be designed using Design groups, then if at
least one member of the group is set to autodesign the whole group will be
automatically designed.
When Autodesign is not selected (i.e. check mode), you assign your desired section size
to the member and Tekla Structural Designer determines if the section is sufficient.
When Autodesign is selected the section type to be used is specified from a Design
Section Order and Tekla Structural Designer attempts to automatically determine a
suitable size.
The following controls can be applied to further limit the sections considered:
Size Constraints
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Deflection Limits
Camber (in the case of beams)
The design process commences by starting with the smallest section in the chosen
order file. Any section that fails any of the design conditions is rejected and the design
process is then repeated for the next available section in the list.
On completion of the design process, the first satisfactory section from the Section
Designation list is assigned to the member.
2. Click the Design section order drop list and select <New\Edit>...
3. Choose a section order from the available list and then click Edit...
The sections contained within the chosen order file appear in the Sections in use list on
the right of the page.
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Changing the order of sections within an order file is a global change that
affects ALL projects, (not just the currently open one).
Changing the order of sections within an order file is a global change that
affects ALL projects, (not just the currently open one).
Size Constraints
Size Constraints are only applicable when Autodesign is checked. They allow you to
ensure that the sections that Tekla Structural Designer proposes match any particular
size constraints you may have. For instance for a composite beam you may want to
ensure a minimum flange width of 150mm. If so you would simply enter this value as
the Minimum width, and Tekla Structural Designer would not consider sections with
flanges less than this width for the design of this beam.
Setting columns that do not help resist lateral loads to be designed for gravity loads
only will reduce the overall design time.
For example:
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Design groups
Steel members are automatically put into groups, primarily for editing purposes. In this
way, individual groups can be selected and displayed graphically so that their properties
can be changed as a group in the properties window.
A fixed set of rules are used to determine the automatic member grouping: for
example beams must be of similar spans, columns must have the same
number of stacks etc.
The same rules also constrain manual group editing.
If required grouping can also (optionally) be utilised in order to design steel member
types according to their groups.
In order use grouping for this second purpose you should first ensure your groups are
configured to only contain those members that you intend to eventually have the same
section size applied.
3. Check the box adjacent to each member type for which you want to apply design
grouping.
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In each design group the first member to be designed is selected arbitrarily. A full
design is carried out on this member and the section so obtained is copied to all
other members in the group.
These other members are then checked one by one to verify that the section is
adequate for each and if this proves not to be the case, the section is increased as
necessary and the revised section copied to all members in the group.
This process continues until all members in the group have been satisfactorily
checked.
A final check design is then carried out on each group member. During this process
peak and individual utilisations are established.
Instability factor
Long members in a model that have axial force in them can be unstable during second-
order analysis because their individual elastic critical buckling load factor is lower than
the elastic critical buckling load factor of the building as a whole and is less than 1.0.
However, often such members, for example the rafters in a portal frame, are stable in
design because there are many smaller members or sheeting, for example, that restrain
the member in reality. They fail in the analysis because it is too resource intensive to
model all the individual restraining members in the model which would also add
unwanted clutter.
To prevent or to reduce the incidence of such failures during the analysis a multiplier
can be applied to the minor axis inertia of these members which caters for the effect of
the restraining members.
This multiplier can be applied to steel beams, composite beams and steel columns. It is
defined in the properties window by checking the Prevent out of plane instability box
and then entering a suitable value in the Instability factor field.
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not be continuously restrained over any length between restraints. In addition to major
axis bending, it also considers minor axis bending and axial loads.
In its simplest form a steel non-composite beam can be a single member between
supports to which it is pinned.
It can also be a continuous beam consisting of multiple members that do not, with the
exception of the remote ends, transfer moment to the rest of the structure.
Steel non-composite beams that share load with columns form part of a rigid moment
resisting frame.
Steel non-composite beams can optionally be set as continuous; in which case all
internal connections are considered continuous.
At the remote ends of the beam there are a number of options for the end fixity
depending upon to what the end of the beam is connected. These are:
Free end
Moment connection
Pin connection
Fully fixed
Conditions of restraint can be defined in- and out-of-plane for compression buckling
and top and bottom flange for lateral torsional buckling (LTB). It is upon these that the
buckling checks are based.
A full range of strength and buckling checks are available. As mentioned above the
buckling lengths are based on the restraints along the member. The effective lengths to
use in the checks depend on the type of restraint, particularly at supports.
In all cases, the program sets the default effective length to 1.0L, it does not attempt to
adjust the effective length (between supports for example) in any way. You are
expected to adjust the effective length factor (up or down) as necessary. Any strut or
LTB effective length can take the type Continuous to indicate that it is continuously
restrained over that length.
Each span of a continuous beam can be of different section size, type and grade. The
entire beam can be set to automatic design or check design.
In check design mode web openings can be added and designed for .
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Fabrication
Rolled
A wide range of doubly symmetric rolled sections can be designed.
Plated
You can add your own plated sections and these can then be designed.
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Westok cellular
Design of Westok cellular beams is currently beyond scope.
Westok plated
You can add Westok plated sections and these can then be designed.
Fabsec
Design of Fabsec beams is currently beyond scope.
Section
Tekla Structural Designer will design steel non-composite beams for an international
range of doubly symmetric I-sections, C-sections, rectangular and square hollow
sections for many different countries and also for many specific manufacturers.
Restraints
Lateral and Strut restraints are determined from the incoming members described
within the Tekla Structural Designer. The buckling checks are based on these.
By right clicking a member to edit its properties in the Property dialog, you are then
able to edit the restraints. You can indicate continuously restrained sub-beams and also
edit length factors.
In the Properties Window you can independently set both the top and bottom flanges
as continuously restrained.
By setting Top flange cont. rest. and/or Bottom flange cont. rest. to Yes the relevant
buckling checks are not performed during the design process.
This topic is only applicable to designs in which the Head code has been set to
BS. (The checking of beams with web openings to US codes is currently Beyond
Scope.)
You cannot currently automatically design sections with web openings, you must
perform the design first to get a section size, and then add and check the openings. This
gives you complete control of the design process, since you can add appropriate and
cost effective levels of stiffening if required, or can choose a different beam with a
stronger web in order to reduce or remove any stiffening requirement.
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When openings are added they can be defined as rectangular or circular and can be
stiffened on one, or on both sides.
Openings can not be defined from the Properties Window, they can only be defined
from the Properties Dialog, (by right clicking on the member and selecting Edit...)
As each web opening is added it is checked against certain geometric and proximity
recommendations taken from SCI Publication P068.
We advise you to comply with the following positional recommendations for web
openings:
Web openings are designed using the bending moment and vertical shear values at
the side of the opening where the moment is lower,
Openings should preferably be positioned at the mid-height of the section. If not,
the depth of the upper and lower sections of web should differ by not more than a
factor of two,
Openings should not be located closer to the support than two times the beam
depth or 10% of the span whichever is the greater,
The best location for any opening is between 1/5 and 1/3 of the span from a support
in uniformly loaded beams, or in lower shear zone of beams subject to point loads,
Openings should be not less than the beam depth, D, apart,
Unstiffened openings should not generally be deeper than 0.6D or longer than 1.5D,
Stiffened openings should not generally be deeper than 0.7D or longer than 2D,
Point loads should not be applied at less than D from the side of the adjacent
opening.
Dimensional checks - The program does not check that openings are
positioned in the best position (between 1/5 and 1/3 length for udls and in a
low shear zone for point loads). This is because for anything other than simple
loading the best position becomes a question of engineering judgment or is
pre-defined by the service runs.
Deflection Limits
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It is often found that serviceability criteria control the design of normal composite
beams. This is because they are usually designed to be as shallow as possible for a
given span.
Deflections limits allow you to control the amount of deflection in both composite
beams and steel beams by applying either a relative or absolute limit to the deflection
under different loading conditions.
Camber
Camber is primarily used to counteract the effects of dead load on the deflection of a
beam. This is particularly useful in long span composite construction where the self-
weight of the concrete is cambered out. It also ensures little, if any, concrete over pour
occurs when placing the concrete.
In the latter case, if 100% of the dead load deflection is cambered out, it is also possible
to include a proportion of the imposed load deflection if required.
A lower limit can be set below which the calculated camber is not applied, this ensures
that impractical levels of camber are not specified.
Natural frequency
A natural frequency check can optionally be requested. When activated a simple (design
model) approach is taken based on uniform loading and pin supports. This fairly simple
calculation is provided to the designer for information only. The calculation can be too
coarse particularly for long span beams and does not consider the response side of the
behaviour i.e. the reaction of the building occupants to any particular limiting value for
the floor system under consideration. In such cases the designer has the option to
perform a 1st Order Vibration Analysis.
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Seismic
The beams must be simply supported, single span unpropped structural steel beams.
Beams are designed for gravity loads acting through the web only. Minor axis bending
and axial loads are not considered.
If either minor axis bending or axial loads exist which exceed a limit below
which they can be ignored, a warning is given in the beam design summary.
Profiled steel sheeting can be perpendicular, parallel and at any angle in between
relative to the supporting beam web.
Alternatively you may give the size of a beam and Tekla Structural Designer will then
determine whether it is able to carry the previously mentioned forces and moments
and satisfy the Serviceability requirements.
An auto-layout feature can be used for stud placement which caters for both uniform
and non-uniform layouts.
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In check design mode web openings can be added and designed for
The loadcase defined for construction stage slab wet concrete has a Slab wet
loadcase type specifically reserved it. Clicking the Calc Automatically check box
enables this to be automatically calculated based on the wet density of concrete and the
area of slab supported. An allowance for ponding can optionally be included by
specifying it directly in the composite slab properties.
It is usual to define a loadcase for Imposed construction loads in order to account for
heaping of the wet concrete etc.
Having created the loadcases to be used at construction stage, you then include them,
together with the appropriate factors in the dedicated Construction stage design
combination. You can include or exclude the self-weight of the beam from this
combination and you can define the load factors that apply to the self weight and to
each loadcase in the combination.
You should include the construction stage slab wet concrete loadcase in
the Construction stage combination, it can not be placed in any other
combination since its loads relate to the slab in its wet state. Conversely, you
can not include the Slab self weight loadcase in the Construction
stage combination, since its loads relate to the slab in its dry state. The loads
in the Construction stage combination should relate to the slab in its wet
state and any other loads that may be imposed during construction.
TIP: If you give any additional construction stage loadcases a suitable title you
will be able to identify them easily when you are creating the Construction
stage combination.
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You define the composite stage loads into one or more loadcases which you then
include, together with the appropriate factors in the design combinations you create.
You can include or exclude the self-weight of the steel beam from any combination and
you can define the load factors that apply to the beam self weight and to each loadcase
in the combination.
The Slab self weight loadcase is reserved for the self weight of the dry concrete in the
slab. Clicking the Automatic Loading check box enables this to be automatically
calculated based on the dry density of concrete and the area of slab supported. An
allowance for ponding can optionally be included by specifying it directly in the
composite slab properties.
If you uncheck Automatic Loading, the Slab self weight loadcase is initially empty - it
is therefore important that you edit this loadcase and define directly the load in
the beam due to the self weight of the dry concrete. For each other loadcase you
create you specify the type of loads it contains Dead, Imposed or Wind.
For each load that you add to an Imposed loadcase you can specify the percentage of
the load which is to be considered as acting long-term (and by inference that which acts
only on a short-term basis).
All loads in Dead loadcases are considered to be entirely long-term while those in Wind
loadcases are considered entirely short-term.
Concrete slab
You can define concrete slabs in both normal and lightweight concrete.
The related topic links below describe those properties that are shared by composite
and non-composite beams.
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Typically, at the outset you will know which beams are to be non-composite and which
are to be composite and you will have specified the construction type accordingly.
However, circumstances can arise in which a beam initially intended to be composite
proves to be ineffective. Examples might be:
very small beams,
beams with a significant point load close to a support,
beams where the deck is at a shallow angle to the beam, hence the stud spacing is
impractical,
beams where, for a variety of reasons, it is not possible to provide an adequate
number of studs, and
edge beams, where the advantages of composite design (e.g. reduced depth) are not
so clear
Where Tekla Structural Designer is unable to find a section size which works compositely,
you can ask for a non-composite design for the same loading. You will find that this
facility is particularly useful when you right click on a key beam in the model in order to
perform an individual member design.
Floor construction
The deck type and angle used in the beam design are determined from the properties
of an adjacent slab item. If there are multiple adjacent slab items with different
properties, it is the users responsibility to indicate which one governs.
When specifying the slab item properties you will find that a wide range of profiled
metal decks have been included for manufacturers from many countries. PC Planks
are also available, but only for the EC Headcode.
The slab items rotation angle relative to the global X axis is used to set the profiled
metal deck as spanning at any angle between 0 (parallel) and 90 (perpendicular) to
the direction of span of the steel beam.
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The shear connection between the concrete slab and the steel beam is achieved by
using shear studs.
19mm diameter studs with 100 and 125 nominal height (95 and 120 as welded height)
are offered. 22mm diameter studs are also offered but only for precast plank
decks. Studs do not have a given capacity as their resistance is derived.
Effective Width
The effective width can either be entered directly, or to have it calculated automatically
proceed as follows:
Tekla Structural Designer will calculate the effective width of the compression flange, be,
for each composite beam as per section 4.6 of BS 5950 : Part 3 : Section 3.1 : 1990.
Although the program calculates be, it is your responsibility to accept the calculated
figure or alternatively to adjust it. Engineering judgement may sometimes be required.
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To the left of the beam, some engineers might prefer to use one half of the
mean distance to the adjacent beam. To do so you would need to manually adjust the
calculated value via the Floor construction page of the Beam Properties.
Metal deck
The position and attachment of the decking is taken into account in the longitudinal
shear resistance calculations.
The applied longitudinal shear force is calculated at the centre-line of the beam, and at
the position of the lap (if known). If the position of the lap is not known, then the default
value of 0mm should be used (that is the lap is at the centre-line of the beam) as this is
the worst case scenario.
Stud strength
The stud properties you can choose from are appropriate to the stud source.
You can allow group sizes of 1 or 2 studs - any group sizes that you don't want to be
considered can be excluded.
For example, if you do not set up groups with 2 studs, then in auto-design the program
will only try to achieve a successful design with a maximum of 1 stud in a group.
For groups with 2 studs you must specify the pattern to be adopted (e.g. along the
beam, across the beam, or staggered).
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It is up to you to check that a particular pattern fits within the confines of the
rib and beam flange since Tekla Structural Designer will draw it (and use it in
design) anyway.
If you choose the option to optimize the shear interaction, then Tekla Structural
Designer will progressively reduce the number of studs either until the minimum
number of studs to resist the applied moment is found, until the minimum allowable
interaction ratio is reached or until the minimum spacing requirements are reached.
This results in partial shear connection.
Further details of stud optimization and the partial interaction rules are provided in the
Steel Design Reference Guides. Refer to the Composite Beam Section in the guide
appropriate to the code being designed to.
Transverse reinforcement
Since the profile metal decking can be perpendicular, parallel or at any other angle to
the supporting beam the following assumptions have been made:
if you use single bars they are always assumed to be at 90 to the span of the beam,
if you use mesh then it is assumed to be laid so that the main bars are at 90 to the
span of the beam.
The reinforcement you specify is assumed to be placed at a position in the depth of the
slab where it is able to contribute to the longitudinal shear resistance
The auto-selected bars can be tied into the stud group spacing by checking the Bar
spacing as a multiple of stud spacing option. Alternatively, the spacing can be
controlled directly by the user.
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When the option Bar spacing as a multiple of stud spacing is checked, the Transverse
Reinforcement tab provides the user with controls on the bar size and the multiples of
stud spacing.
These can be used to achieve a selection of say, 12mm diameter bars at 2 times the
stud spacing, with a slightly greater area than a less preferable 16mm diameter bars at
4 times the stud spacing.
When the option Bar spacing as a multiple of stud spacing is not checked, the
Transverse Reinforcement tab provides the user with direct control on the bar size and
the bar spacing.
Connector layout
When running in Auto-design mode you may not want to specify the stud layout at the
start of the design process. To work in this way check Auto-layout to have the program
automatically control how the stud design will proceed. When the beam is subsequently
designed Auto-layout invokes an automatic calculation of the required number of
studs, which is optimized to provide an efficient design.
'Auto layout' can actually be checked regardless of whether you are auto
designing the beam size or checking it. The combination of 'Check' design with
'Auto layout' of studs can be used to assist you to rationalie your designs e.g.
to force a beam to be the same size as others in the building but have Tekla
Structural Designer determine the most efficient layout of studs.
You may choose to perform the initial design with Auto-layout checked and then refine
the spacing with Auto-layout unchecked if the spacing is not exactly as you require.
This may arise if for instance the theoretical design needs to be marginally adjusted for
practical reasons on site.
For perpendicular decks, the Auto-layout dialog provides two options for laying out the
studs:
Uniform
Non-uniform
Uniform
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The Uniform option forces placement in ribs at the same uniform spacing along the
whole length of the beam.
Whether the stud groups are placed in every rib (as shown above), alternate ribs, or
every third rib etc. can be controlled by adjusting the limits you set for Minimum group
spacing ( ) x rib and Maximum group spacing ( ) x rib.
The number of studs in each group will be the same along the whole length of the
beam, this number can be controlled by adjusting the limits you set on the Stud
strength page.
Example:
If you set Minimum group spacing 2 x rib and Maximum group spacing 3 x rib,
then the program will only attempt to achieve a solution with studs placed in
alternate ribs, or studs placed in every third rib. It will not consider a solution
in which studs are placed in every rib.
Additionally, if on the Studs - Strength page, you have allowed groups of 1 stud
and 2 studs; then if 1 stud per group proves to be insufficient the program will
then consider 2 studs per group.
Non-uniform
If optimization has been checked (see Optimize shear interaction) studs are placed at
suitable rib intervals (every rib, alternate ribs, every third rib etc.), in order to achieve
sufficient interaction without falling below the minimum allowed by the code.
If optimization has not been checked, studs are placed at suitable rib intervals in order
to achieve 100% interaction.
Knowing the number of studs necessary to achieve the required level of interaction, it is
possible that placement at a given rib interval could result in a shortfall; the program
will attempt to accommodate this by working in from the ends, (as shown in the
example below). If every rib is occupied and there is still a shortfall, the remainder are
'doubled-up', by working in from the ends once more.
In this example the point of maximum moment occurs one third of the way along the
span, this results in an asymmetric layout. If you prefer to avoid such arrangements you
can check the box Adjust layout to ensure symmetrical about centerline. A redesign
would then result in the symmetric layout shown below.
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For both Uniform and Non-uniform layouts, if the minimum level of interaction can not
be achieved this is indicated on the design summary thus: Not able to design stud
layout.
For parallel decks, the Auto-layout again provides Uniform and Non-uniform layout
options, but the way these work is slightly different.
Uniform
The Uniform option forces placement at a uniform spacing along the whole length of
the beam. The spacing adopted will be within the limits you set for Minimum group
spacing distance and Maximum group spacing distance. If the point of maximum
moment does not occur at mid span, the resulting layout will still be symmetric.
The number of studs in each group will be the same along the whole length of the
beam, this number can be controlled by adjusting the limits you set on the Stud
strength page.
Non-uniform
If optimization has been checked (see Optimize shear interaction) studs are placed at a
suitable spacing in order to achieve sufficient interaction without falling below the
minimum allowed by the code.
If optimization has not been checked, studs are placed at a suitable spacing in order to
achieve 100% interaction.
If the point of maximum moment does not occur at mid span, the resulting non-
uniform layout can be asymmetric as shown below.
For both Uniform and Non-uniform layouts, if the minimum level of interaction can not
be achieved this is indicated on the design summary thus: Not able to design stud
layout.
You may prefer to manually define/adjust the group spacing along the beam. This can
be achieved by unchecking Auto layout.
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If you specify the stud spacing manually, then it is most important to note:
- the resulting design may not be the optimal design possible for the beam, or
- composite design may not be possible for the stud spacing which you have
specified.
To generate groups of studs at regular intervals along the whole beam use the Quick
layout facility. Alternatively, if you require to explicitly define the stud layout to be
adopted for discrete lengths along the beam use the Layout table.
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Your input for these parameters is used to automatically determine Distance end
2 - this latter parameter can not be adjusted directly, hence it is greyed out.
If required click Insert to divide the beam into additional segments. (Similarly
Delete will remove segments). You can then specify a different stud layout for each
segment.
We would advise that having entered No. of studs in length, group and spacing and
ignoring Distance ends 1 and 2 you click Update, this will automatically fill in the
missing fields.
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In its simplest form a steel column can be a single pin ended member between
construction levels that are designated as floors.
More typically it will be continuous past one or more floor levels, the whole forming one
single entity typically from base to roof.
Steel columns that share moments with steel beams form part of a rigid moment
resisting frame.
In all cases you are responsible for setting the effective lengths to be used appropriate
to the provided restraint conditions. All defaults are set to 1.0L.
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For design purposes, in addition to the General design parameters, the column
properties listed below should be considered:
Simple Columns
A steel column can be designated as a `simple column' - in which case specific design
rules are required.
A simple column should not have any applied loading in its length. Simple columns are
subject to axial forces and moments due to eccentricity of beam reactions. In order to
prevent end fixity moments you would have to manually pin the ends of the column.
The simple column design rules have not yet been implemented in Tekla
Structural Designer: such columns are thus classed as beyond scope when
designed.
Section
Tekla Structural Designer can handle design for an international range of steel I-sections
and also rectangular, square and circular hollow sections for many different countries
and also for many specific manufacturers.
Restraints
Restraints to flexural and torsional buckling are determined from the incoming
members described within the Tekla Structural Designer. The buckling checks are based
on these.
Members framing into either Face A or C will provide restraint against major axis
strut buckling. Members framing into either Face B or D will provide restraint against
minor axis strut buckling. Tekla Structural Designer determines the buckling restraints
and you cannot edit these.
You have complete control on the settings for the lateral torsional buckling (LTB)
restraints to the flanges on Faces A and C. The default is blank so you are forced to
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Restraints are considered effective on a particular plane providing they are within 45
to the local coordinate axis system.
In all cases Tekla Structural Designer sets the default unrestrained length factor to 1.0.
You have the control to set any unrestrained length to be continuously restrained over
that length - when set in this way the relevant buckling check is not performed during
the design process.
Load Reductions
To cater for additional floors that are carried by the column that have not been included
in the model an Assume extra floors supported column property is provided. This
allows you to specify how many extra floors are carried by the column. These are then
taken into account when determining any reduction percentage to apply.
Reductions are only applied to those imposed load cases that have had the
Reductions box checked on the Loading dialog. The reduction percentage for
the number of floors carried is shown in Model Settings.
The floors that define the stacks can be designated either as to be or not to be'
included in the determination of the imposed load reductions through Count floor as
supported check boxes for each level in the column properties. This feature enables
what appears to be a roof to be counted as a floor, or conversely allows a mezzanine
floor to be excluded from the number of floors considered for any particular general
column. The moments from fixed ended beams framing into a column are never
reduced.
Splices are allowed at floor levels only and must be placed at changes of angle between
two adjacent stacks and at changes of section size or type. A validation error will result if
this is not the case. The splice can be given an offset from the floor level - the default of
500mm is considered not to be structurally significant. You must detail the splice to
resist the applied forces and moments. The detail should provide continuity of stiffness
and strength. Splices given considerable offset should take account of the P- moment
at the position as well as the forces from the analysis.
Each lift (length between splices) of a general column can be of different section size
and grade. Different section types within the same column are not allowed due to the
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particularly complex design routines that general columns require. You are responsible
for guaranteeing that the splice detail ensures that the assumptions in the analysis
model are achieved and that any difference in the size of section between lifts can be
accommodated practically.
Column splice connections are not designed in Tekla Structural Designer, however the
steel column splice loads can be output to a report if required.
In this report factored forces are output at the top and bottom of each lift for every
column in which a splice has been defined.
The splice offset from the floor level is taken into account when calculating these forces.
Eccentricity moments are also reported. These are determined using the vertical end
reactions of incoming beams at each level applied at the connection eccentricities that
have been specified in the column properties dialog. Again, the splice offset from the
floor level is taken into account when calculating the eccentricity moments.
The below example illustrates the effect of the splice offset. The lower splice has been
offset by 500mm, so the (Lift 1 Top and Lift 2 Bottom) loads are reported 500mm above
the 1st floor level. The higher splice has not been offset, so the (Lift 1 Top and Lift 2
Bottom) loads are reported at the 2nd floor level.
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Web Openings
In the current release of the program the design or checking of columns with
web openings is Beyond Scope.
If you need to provide access for services, etc., then you can add openings to a designed
column and then check them.
You can define rectangular or circular openings and these can be stiffened on one, or
on both sides.
You cannot currently automatically design sections with web openings, you must
perform the design first to get a section size, and then add and check the openings. This
gives you complete control of the design process, since you can add appropriate and
cost effective levels of stiffening if required, or can choose a different column with a
stronger web in order to reduce or remove any stiffening requirement.
The 'Quick-layout' process, which is activated using the check box on the Web
openings dialog page, adds web openings which meet certain geometric and proximity
recommendations taken from SCI Publication P068. The openings so created are the
maximum depth spaced at the minimum centres recommended for the section size.
Web openings can also be defined manually. With the Quick-layout check box
unchecked, the `Add' button adds a new line to the web openings grid to allow the
geometric properties of the web opening to be defined.
Seismic
Applied loading
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Design Forces
The design forces for strength checks are obtained from an analysis of the entire
structure. Braces can be subject to axial compression or tension, but will not be subject
to major and minor axis bending.
Although it is also possible to model the exact same brace arrangement using individual
elements created using the simple 'Steel Brace' command, it is important to note that
whilst the calculated for models built using the A or V Brace tools are correct, this is not
the case when the A or V braces are built up out of individual brace members. In this
latter case, elements of the vertical loads that are supported by the bracing system are
'lost' and are not included in the calculations with the result that the calculated are not
correct.
Section
The design of steel braces is carried out for rolled I-sections, C-sections, T-sections,
rectangular, square and circular hollow sections, angles, double angles, and flat
sections.
Compression
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
If either an Angle (single or double) or Channel or Tee section has been selected as the
brace member then a 'Connection at each end' property box appears which allows
selection of an appropriate Clause from Table 25 of the BS code to describe the
connection type.
Notes:
1. Clauses 4.7.10.2b, 4.7.10.2c, 4.7.10.3b, 4.7.10.3c, 4.7.10.3d and 4.7.10.3e only apply
to Bolted connections so in these cases 'Bolted' should be selected in the
'Connection' property box. ('Bolted' is the default connection.)
2. For Angle (single and double), Channel and Tee sections the Effective Length Factors
will be auto-completed according to the connection Clause selected but these
Factors can be changed if required. For Angle (single and double) sections the length
Lv-v is always assumed to be L/3 and the Effective Length Factor v-v will act on this
Lv-v.
3. For single Angle sections the longer leg is assumed to be the connected element
unless 'Short attached' is checked on the Size page of the dialog.
4. For double unequal Angle sections, whichever leg is not the back-to-back leg is
assumed to be the connected element when connection Clauses 4.7.10.3a and
4.7.10.3b are selected, and vice versa with Clauses 4.7.10.3c, 4.7.10.3d and 4.7.10.3e
Tension
The net area of the section is required for tension checks. This can be specified either
as:
Percentage value
Effective net area
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Notes:
1. For section types B and C listed above, an Effective net area (Ae) should be
entered either as a percentage of the gross area (Ag) or as an absolute value. The
default is to use 100% of Ag, and an absolute value can not be used if autodesign is
also selected.
Truss members can either be defined manually, or the process can be automated using
the Truss Wizard. Irrespective of the method used the resulting truss members will be
one of four types:
Internal
Side
Bottom
Top
The scope for internal and side truss members is the same as that for braces.
See:
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The scope for top and bottom truss members are the same as those for beams, with
the exception that seismic forces are not designed for.
See:
The properties for internal and side truss members is the same as that for braces.
See:
The properties for top and bottom truss members are the same as those for beams.
See:
Steel joists (or bar joists) are simply supported secondary members, which do not
support any other members - they only support loaded areas.
Steel joists can be defined with ends at differing levels.
They can not support any other member.
Slab and roof loads are supported by steel joists and loads are distributed to them.
Standard types
Steel joists are constrained to standard types specified by the Steel Joist Institute. They
are standardized in terms of span, depth and load carrying capacity. There are four
standard types of steel joist available in Fastrak Building Designer.
K series joists -open web, parallel chord steel joists - depths 8" to 30" with spans up
to 60ft.
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2.5 K series joist substitutes - a depth of 2.5in, intended to be used for spans up to
10ft.
KCS series joists - K series adapted and specially designed for constant
moment/shear along length (position of point loads become irrelevant).
LH series joists - long span joists - depths 18" to 48" for clear spans up to 96ft.
DLH series joists - deep long span joists - depths 52" to 72" for clear spans up to
144ft.
Special Joists
"SP" suffixes can be added to K, LH and DLH Series joists. Special Joists can handle 'non-
uniform' loading situations. They will attract loads and participate in the 3D structural
analysis, but they can not be checked or designed. Load diagrams for the relevant joist
can be output to forward to the fabricator for designing.
Joist Girders
These are provided as an option to support steel joists. They will attract loads and
participate in the 3D structural analysis, but they can not be checked or designed.
Only Joist Girders and SP joists are able to support members along their length.
The inertia and area values are taken directly from the Steel Joist Institute tables.
Gravity design
In large models you may prefer to adopt a two-stage design process in which a gravity
design is performed in advance of the full design.
The gravity design stage enables you to design or check the simple beams, composite
beams and Gravity only design/simple columns for the designated gravity combinations
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(this will include the Construction Stage combination). Other members will also be
designed or checked for these combinations but the resulting section sizes are less
useful and are likely to require increasing in later stages of the analysis/design process.
This approach is intended to speed up the design process.
After the gravity design has been completed, by default all steel members are reset to
check design mode. You may therefore decide to reset certain members to auto design
e.g. columns and beams in 'moment frames'. In such cases, when the full design is
performed member 'pre-sizing' will take place and for members resisting lateral loads
this section size will be used if it is larger than that which resulted from the Gravity
design.
Full design
All beams, columns and braces are designed or checked for all active combinations.
(Gravity only design members will be designed or checked for the active gravity
combinations).
Full design is initiated by clicking Design Steel (Static), or Design All (Static).
As part of the full design process a 3D building analysis is performed, for which you
must select (via Design Options) the analysis type. Choice of analysis type (ACI/AISC) will
depend on the code being designed to.
If at this stage you want to quickly investigate an alternative section for a specific
member, you are able to do so without having to re-perform the entire structure design.
Simply change the section size assigned to the member and view the results once more.
Alternatively you put the member back into autodesign mode, modifying any of its
other properties as required before using the Design Member command to redesign it
in isolation (again without having to re-perform the entire structure design).
Changing the section size or other properties associated with a member will
invalidate the analysis and potentially the design status for the model
(displayed in the Status Bar).
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Provided that the analysis status is valid, the design results are based on the current
analysis and can be viewed as follows:
1. Hover the cursor over the member until its outline is highlighted, then right click.
The results dialog is displayed from where all the detailed calculations can be
viewed.
Changing the section size will invalidate the analysis status for the model.
2. Change the section size displayed in the Properties Window to that required.
3. Hover the cursor over the member until its outline is highlighted, then right click.
Changing the section size will invalidate the analysis status for the model.
2. Review and adjust the member properties as required and ensure the auto-design
setting is active.
3. Hover the cursor over the member until its outline is highlighted, then right click.
A new section is selected for the member and then the results dialog is displayed.
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Foundation Design Handbook
This handbook provides a general overview of Tekla Structural Designer in the context of
its application to the foundation design.
Columns and walls typically have supports at their bases (apart from transfer
columns/walls where the lower end resides on a beam, slab etc.). These supports can be
set to be pinned/fixed/sprung or non-linearly sprung (compression/tension only) as
required.
At any time during the modelling process, you can define isolated foundations (pad
bases, strip bases and pile caps) which are associated with the above mentioned
supports.
Typically pad bases and pile caps can only support and be loaded by a single
column, and strip bases can only support and be loaded by a single walI;
however, if a ground beam is attached to the same support, loading from the
beam will also be considered in the isolated foundation design.
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Analysis types
Isolated foundations are designed using the results of up to three analysis types:
3D Building Analysis
FE Chase-down Analysis
Grillage Chase-down Analysis
The following forces and moments on the supports are determined from the analysis of
the active load combinations:
Vertical force in direction Z
Horizontal forces in directions Y and X
Moments around X and Y axis
A torsional moment around the Z axis is also determined, but the base/pile
cap is not designed for this in the current release.
The surcharge depth and soil unit weight that have been specified in the base/pile cap
properties are used to determine the soil self weight. This is applied as an added load,
Fsoil
For isolated foundations user can apply additional surcharge loads: acting in the global
Z direction.
Permanent (dead) surcharge load
Variable (live) surcharge load
Design Forces
To obtain the design forces, the loads due to foundation self weight, soil self weight and
additional surcharge are added to the forces acting on the supports.
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These design forces (axial load and bi-axial shear and moment) are then applied to the
base/pile cap at the foundation level.
Design Checks
The foundation is treated as being a rigid base resting on the soil working up to a
maximum bearing pressure. Tension is not able to develop, but uplift (zero pressure) is
allowed.
When bases are placed at different levels and close to each other there is a potential
risk that the lower base will be affected by the base pressure of the other one. A specific
check is made for this and if they are too close a validation warning message is issued.
6. Print Calculations
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The small concrete building model shown below will be used to demonstrate the base
design process.
The model has already been designed prior to placing the bases.
At this stage, as you are not aware of the individual base size and depth requirements;
you can simply choose to place the bases where required, accepting the default
size/depth offered.
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To obtain an idea of the range of potential sizes, bases should initially be designed
individually for their respective loads, as follows:
1. Access Design Options to ensure that group design is turned off for Isolated
Foundations.
2. Select the bases to be auto-sized and in the Properties Window and choose to auto-
design both the size and depth; In this way the program establishes suitable base
dimensions for you.
Each base will be sized accordingly (any that are not in auto-design mode will simply
be checked).
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4. With the auto-design options unchecked, you can then adjust individual base
dimensions and re-check if required (by right clicking the base that has been edited
and choosing Check Member).
Once pad bases have been sized individually, the designs can be rationalised by
activating grouping, in order to obtain one design per group sufficient for all bases
within the group.
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3. Right click on the same base and from the context menu choose Create Property
Set...
4. Select all the other bases that you want to be in the same group.
5. In the Properties Window, click Apply... to apply the property set you have just
created to the selected bases.
Ensure you click Apply from the Properties Window and not from
the right click menu, otherwise the properties will only be applied to the
last base selected.
6. From the Groups page of the Project Workspace, right click on Pad Bases (under the
Design branch) and choose Regroup Members - this will put those bases that share
similar properties into the same group.
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7. Open the Design Options dialog, and from the Design Groups page check the option
to design isolated foundations using groups.
8. Click Design Pad Bases - the results obtained will reflect the grouping that has been
applied.
In the Review View you can examine the design efficiency by switching from
Foundations Status to Foundations Ratio. Note that the tool tip also indicates the
base size and status as you hover over any base.
If the selections are unacceptable you may need to review the settings in Design
Options> Concrete> Foundations.
Drawings that convey the structural intent are easy to create. It should be borne in mind
that these are NOT the final detail drawings, their purpose is to eliminate the need for
manual mark-up drawings as a means of communication between the engineer and the
detailer.
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Print Calculations
Create a model report that includes the concrete pad base design calculations that have
been performed. (The default Building Design report includes these along with design
calculations for other member types in the model).
6. Print Calculations
The small concrete building model shown below will be used to demonstrate the pile
cap design process.
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The model has already been designed prior to placing the pile caps.
Before a pile cap can be placed, the Pile Type Catalogue must contain at least
one pile type.
At this stage, as you are not aware of the individual pile cap size and depth
requirements; you can simply choose to place pile caps where required, accepting the
default size/depth offered.
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To obtain an idea of the range of potential sizes, pile caps should initially be designed
individually for their respective loads
Note that when piles are auto-designed the outcome will depend on the auto-design
method selected; the pile cap size will either be based on the minimum number of piles
required, or on the minimum pile capacity.
2. Still in the Design Options, ensure that group design is turned off for Isolated
Foundations.
3. Select the pile caps to be auto-sized and then in the Properties Window choose to
auto-design both the piles and depth; In this way the program will establish suitable
pile cap dimensions for you.
4. From the Foundations ribbon click Design Pile Caps and all the pile caps set in auto-
design mode will be sized accordingly. (Those not in auto-design mode will simply be
checked).
At any point you can switch to a user defined arrangement, modify the pile cap
configuration and have the design re-checked.
One example where you might choose a user defined arrangement is where the site
boundary imposes restrictions on the positioning of the pile cap relative to the
column/wall it supports. Switching to a user defined arrangement allows you to
specify an eccentricity and create an offset pile cap.
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Once pile caps have been sized individually, the designs can be rationalised by
activating grouping, in order to obtain one design per group sufficient for all pile caps
within the group.
3. Right click on the same pile cap and from the context menu choose Create Property
Set...
4. Select all the other pile caps that you want to be in the same group.
When applied moments are significant, be cautious when grouping pile caps
where auto-design has initially determined different principal directions.
5. In the Properties Window, click Apply... to apply the property set you have just
created to the selected pile caps.
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Ensure you click Apply from the Properties Window and not from the
right click menu, otherwise the properties will only be applied to the last pile
cap selected.
6. From the Groups page of the Project Workspace, right click on Pile Caps (under the
Design branch) and choose Regroup Members - this will put those pile caps that
share similar properties into the same group.
7. Open the Design Options dialog, and from the Design Groups page check the option
to design isolated foundations using groups.
8. Click Design Pile Caps - the results obtained will reflect the grouping that has been
applied.
In the Review View you can examine the design efficiency by switching from
Foundations Status to Foundations Ratio. Note that the tool tip also indicates the
base size and status as you hover over any base.
If the selections are unacceptable you may need to review the settings in Design
Options> Concrete> Foundations.
Drawings that convey the structural intent are easy to create. It should be borne in mind
that these are NOT the final detail drawings, their purpose is to eliminate the need for
manual mark-up drawings as a means of communication between the engineer and the
detailer.
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Print Calculations
Create a model report that includes the concrete pile cap design calculations that have
been performed. (The default Building Design report includes these along with design
calculations for other member types in the model).
Foundation mats are designed for the results of up to three analysis types:
3D Building Analysis
FE Chase-down Analysis
Grillage Chase-down Analysis
In each of the above analyses, mats are modelled as meshed 2-way slabs, either
supported on ground bearing springs, or on discreet piled supports, (or a combination
of both).
In both the FE and grillage chase-down models the mat and first level above the mat are
always combined in a single sub-model.
When not supported by a mat, columns and walls typically have supports at their bases.
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When a mat is introduced these supports must be removed - as the mat now
supports the whole building on ground bearing springs. Consequently adding a mat
means re-analysis and hence re-design of the whole building.
Inherent in the re-design is the inclusion of soil structure interaction (or support
settlement). In the past this has often been ignored, even though design codes suggest
that it should be considered.
If you want to include design for situation without support settlement then you need to
think about the workflow sequence or use runs with differing ground stiffness
assumptions.
Note however that soil structure interaction only affects the 3D analysis model results,
and the chasedown results in the lowest sub-model. Members in all other sub-models
are thus already being designed both with and without the affects of support
settlement.
Soil Parameters
Unless you have defined discreet piled supports, the mat will need to be supported on
ground bearing springs.
When using ground bearing springs, a check is performed as part of the design process
to ensure the allowable bearing pressure you enter is not exceeded.
Both linear and non-linear ground springs can be defined, although in the majority of
cases it is suggested that linear springs should suffice.
Stiffness
You are required to enter an appropriate stiffness for the soil conditions on site.
The actual value entered is your responsibility, but as a guide the table below1 illustrates
the potential range of values that might be considered.
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Horizontal Support
The degree of horizontal support provided by the ground springs can be set as:
Fixed
Free
Spring (default 20% of vertical spring stiffness)
If set to Free a mechanism will result unless you provide additional discreet supports.
1. Reference: Foundation Analysis and Design, Joseph E. Bowles, 1995 (Table 9-1)
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An interactive design approach is adopted as the patch and panel design are inter-
dependant.
The design procedure (demonstrated in the Mat foundation design example) typically
consists of the following steps:
2. Model validation
a. Add Patches
b. Design Mats
c. Review/Optimise Mat Design
d. Design Patches
e. Review/Optimise Patch Design
f. Add and Run Punching Checks
8. Print Calculations
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
The small concrete building model shown below will be used to demonstrate the mat
foundation design process.
The model has already been designed and member sizing issues have been resolved
prior to placing the mat foundation.
In order to retain the existing reinforcement design all members have been set to
check mode. Alternatively you might choose to check and increase the reinforcement
instead, (by leaving members in autodesign mode choosing the option to select bars
starting from current.)
Unless you have defined discreet piled supports, the mat will need to be supported on
ground bearing springs. These are defined by specifying appropriate Soil Parameters in
the mat properties.
If using an area method of mat creation you will also need to specify the amount of
slab overhang.
The remaining properties are the same as those used to define a typical concrete flat
slab.
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The Mesh 2-way slabs in 3D Analysis option gets activated automatically for
the level in which the mat is created, enabling the 3D analysis model to be
supported on the ground springs.
In this example the minimum area method is used to create a mat with:
Default overhang
mat thickness 600mm
Ground springs used
Default allowable bearing pressures
Default linear spring properties
Model validation
Once the mat has been placed it is worth running a validation check from the Model
ribbon at this stage - specifically to check for potential conflicting supports.
A Supports exist within area of Mat Foundation warning is issued if member supports
conflict with ground springs. (This may be intentional if you have created user-defined
supports to model piles, but if not it can be remedied by right clicking on the warning
and choosing Delete Items).
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Analysis is required to establish the bearing pressures and the moments to be used for
the mat design.
Gravity, lateral and seismic combinations can be analysed by running Design All
(Static), and any seismic RSA combinations by running Design All (RSA).
The above processes will also recheck all the member designs taking account
of the effects of soil structure interaction.
You can check the mat bearing pressure and 2D deflection contours from the Results
View for each of the analysis types that have been performed before commencing the
detailed design.
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By viewing the 2D deflection results for combinations based on service rather than
strength factors the stiffness adjustments that you apply (via Analysis Options>
Modification Factors> Concrete) do not need to account for load factors.
Depending on the steps that have been taken to establish the mat size, at this point the
design condition reported in the Status Bar for the members will either be Valid or Out
of Date.
Unless the status is Valid you should recheck the member designs (taking into account
the effects of soil structure interaction) by clicking Design All (Static) from the Design
toolbar.
Similarly if an RSA design has previously been performed, but is now out of
date Design All (RSA) should be re-run.
In models with mats at distinct floor levels you should use 2D Views to work on the mat
design one level at a time. Occasionally the 3D geometry of a model may make it less
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easy to distinguish between individual floors, in which case it may be easier to design
the floors one sub-model at a time.
When working in a 2D View use the right click menu to design or check mats
and patches: this saves time as only the mats and patches in the current level
are considered.
Running Design Mats or Design Patches from the Foundation ribbon may take
longer as it considers all the mats and patches in the model.
Add Patches
When placing patches under walls you can choose to place a single patch along the wall,
an internal patch under the middle, or end patches at the wall ends (as shown above).
Typically at the initial patch creation stage you should make the patches a reasonable
size and not be concerned if they are a bit too big - as this will be reviewed/resolved at
the patch design optimisation stage.
Whilst the command to add Patches appears on both the Foundations and
Design ribbons, the former defaults to creating patches on the bottom surface,
the latter to the top surface. For mats the Foundations ribbon default will
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generally be correct.
Design Mats
Mat design is dependent on the areas of patches (patch areas which are
excluded from mat design) - hence patches should be added before mats are
designed.
1. From the Foundations ribbon run Design Mats in order to design or check all the
mats in the model (each according to their own autodesign setting), or,
2. If you have created mats at multiple levels you may prefer to work on one level at a
time. To do this, open a 2D View of the level to be designed then right click and
choose either Design Slabs or Check Slabs.
These right click options operate on the same basis as the options for beams
and columns:
- Design Slabs will re-design slabs and mats (potentially picking new
reinforcement) regardless of the current autodesign setting.
- Check Slabs will check the current reinforcement in slabs and mats
regardless of the current autodesign setting.
It is suggested that you use split Review Views to examine the results. You could
arrange one view to show Mat Design Status, and then a second view to show Slab
Reinforcement in the panels. Note that the tool tip indicates all panel/patch
reinforcement as you hover over any panel.
If the selections are unacceptable you may need to review the design settings. e.g - if
8mm dia bars are selected and you would just never use anything less than a 10mm bar
in a mat, then set that as a minimum.
Once the selections are reasonable it is advisable to select all the panels and swap them
out of auto-design mode (and after this point be careful not to use the right click option
to design panels unless you really want to.)
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After using the Review View update mode to standardise reinforcement you can then
run Check Slabs from the right click menu to check the revised reinforcement.
Remember:
Consider swapping between Status and Ratio views - if utilisations all < 1 but some
panels failing then problems are to do with limit checks. The Ratio view is better for
helping you focus on the critical panels.
During this process it will also make sense to be adding panel patches in which the
reinforcement is set to none and strip is set to average. The purpose of this is to
smooth out local peaks at the most critical locations which would otherwise dictate
the background reinforcement level needed to get a pass status.
Design Patches
Having established and rationalised the slab panel reinforcement which sets the
background levels of reinforcement, it is now logical to design the patches which will top
up the reinforcement as necessary within the strips of each patch.
To do this, either:
1. From the Foundations ribbon run Design Patches in order to design or check all the
foundation patches in the model - by default newly created patches will all be in
auto-design mode - so reinforcement is selected automatically, or,
2. In the 2D View of the level which you want to design right click and choose either
Design Patches or Check Patches. Working in this way restricts the design or
checking to the patches in the current view.
These right click options operate on the same basis as the options for beams
and columns:
- Design Patches will re-design the patches (potentially picking new
reinforcement) regardless of the current autodesign setting.
- Check Patches will check the current reinforcement in the patches
regardless of the current autodesign setting.
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Punching checks can be added over the entire level, or structure by windowing it. You
can then select any check and review the properties assigned to it.
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Drawings that convey the structural intent are easy to create. It should be borne in mind
that these are NOT the final detail drawings, their purpose is to eliminate the need for
manual mark-up drawings as a means of communication between the engineer and the
detailer.
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Print Calculations
Create a model report that includes the panel, patch, and punching check calculations
that have been performed. (The default Building Design report includes these along
with design calculations for other member types in the model).
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Vibration of Floors to SCI P354
Handbook
Detailed guidance on the subject is available through the SCI Publication P354 Design of
Floors for Vibration: A New Approach (Ref. 2).
This handbook describes the method for the assessment of floor vibration in
accordance with P354 that has been adopted in Tekla Structural Designer. The method
seeks to establish, with reasonable accuracy, the response of the floor to dynamic
excitation expected in offices of normal occupancy. This excitation is almost solely
based on occupants walking. With appropriate design criteria, the approach is likely to
be equally applicable to sectors other than offices.
The existing solution to checking this type of criterion - a simple calculation of the
natural frequency of an individual beam - is felt in many cases to be insufficiently
accurate. More importantly, such calculations do not consider two important factors,
the natural frequency is only the 'response side' of the equation. The 'action' side of
the equation is also important i.e. the dynamic excitation - this is the activity that
might cause an adverse response from the floor. Walking, dancing and machine
vibration are all on the 'action' side of the equation and are all very different in their
potential effect.
the natural frequency of an isolated beam is exactly that and takes no account of the
influence (good or bad) of the surrounding floor components. In particular, with
composite floors, the slabs will force other beams to restrict or sympathize with the
beam under consideration.
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is compared with certain limits that have been recommended by industry experts
for a limited classification of building type. They are not arbitrary but are not
absolute either (cf. calculated deflection and deflection limits)
is relatively insensitive. That is, a twofold change in the response factor will only just
be perceptible to the occupants (cf. logarithmic scale of sound power levels, dbA).
could be over-conservative particularly for those buildings where tight requirements
are imposed.
Notwithstanding the above, this approach is another tool at your disposal that could
enable you to spot a problem before the floor is built and prevent the first steps of the
client into his new building proving a disaster!
You should find that the check is simple to operate, but it will require you to make
choices that may be unfamiliar to you. The purpose of this handbook is to assist you in
becoming familiar with the requirements of the check and to assist you in making
reasonable judgments regarding the input required.
Scope
The reference upon which Tekla Structural Designers floor vibration check is based is
the main limiting factor with regard to scope. This is SCI Publication P354 (Ref. 2). There
are no doubt many other texts that deal with vibration problems in buildings, and
indeed there is a British Standard dealing with the evaluation of human exposure to
vibration in buildings, BS 6472: 1992 (Ref. 1). However this SCI publication has distilled
this wider knowledge into readily usable design guidance that is specifically aimed at
floors in multi-storey buildings of normal occupancy.
You are able to define an area on a particular floor level that is to be subject to the
vibration response analysis and design. The layout of beams in real multi-storey
buildings can be of almost any configuration. The methodology adopted in P354 is
only applicable to regular structures which by and large have to be created from
rectilinear grids. It is your responsibility to make an appropriate selection of the
beams etc. that are to be the basic components of the idealized case.
As you proceed through the input making your selections, Tekla Structural Designer will,
where it is possible to do so, interrogate the underlying model and retrieve the
appropriate data. Once all the data has been assembled, you are then able to perform
the check, after which a detailed set of results will be available for review. If you are
unhappy with the outcome of your choices you can close the results window and make
alternative selections by editing the Floor Vibration Check item properties.
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Glossary
The design guidance is based on composite floors acting compositely with the steel
beams. It is unclear whether the design approach is directly applicable to non-
composite construction.
For simplicity and to avoid the necessity of Tekla Structural Designer having to
identify all the beams in the area selected for vibration assessment, the component
of the unit mass from the self-weight of the beams is ignored. This will lead to a
slight inaccuracy in the participating mass that is conservative (more mass is
advantageous). Note, however, that beam self-weight is included in the calculation of
beam deflection but only when the self-weight loadcase is included in the load
combination.
Cantilever beams are excluded from the analysis.
Cold formed sections are excluded.
Design Philosophy
General
The Engineer ensures the safety of building occupants by satisfying all design criteria at
the Ultimate Limit State. Similarly, the health of building occupants is partly taken care
of when deflection limits at the Serviceability Limit State are satisfied (although this
Limit State does have other purposes than simply the health of occupants).
However, for floors that are subject to cyclic or sudden loading, it is the human
perception of motion that could cause the performance of a floor to be found
unsatisfactory. Such perception is usually related to acceleration levels. In most practical
building structures, the reaction of the occupants to floor acceleration varies between
irritation and a feeling of insecurity. This is based on the instinctive human perception
that motion in a 'solid' building indicates inadequacy or imminent failure.
The working environment also affects the perception of motion. For busy environments,
where the occupant is surrounded by the activity that is producing the vibrations, the
perception of motion is reduced. In contrast, for quieter environments (such as
laboratories and residential dwellings), where the source of vibration is unseen, the
perception of motion is significantly heightened.
The design philosophy to ensure that the potential for such human response is
minimized, has a number of facets,
the dynamic excitation causing the vibration i.e. the disturbing force profile, which
is force and time dependent. For the sorts of building and occupancy considered
here, this is the act of walking.
the required performance. This depends upon the type of environment. As
discussed above this, in turn, depends upon the involvement of the occupant in the
generation of the vibration and also on the nature of the occupancy. The latter is
important for laboratories carrying out delicate work, or operating theatres, for
example.
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the provided performance. This is the Response Factor and is dependent on the
system natural frequency and, more importantly, the participating mass. The latter is
driven mainly by the selection of an area of floor that is reasonable and appropriate.
Dynamic Excitation
In a classical spring-mass system that includes a (viscous) damper, when a simple force
is applied to the mass to extend (or contract) the spring, the mass moves up and down
(oscillates). This movement is significant at first but eventually reduces to zero due to
the resistance offered by the damper. In a floor system in a building,
the mass is the self-weight of the floor and any other loading that is present for the
majority of the time that the occupants could be exposed to vibration effects,
the spring is the stiffness of the floor system, which will have a number of different
component beams (secondary and primary) and the floor slab,
the damper is provided by a number of elements that are able to absorb energy
from the free vibration of the system. There will be energy absorbed,
within connections, since they behave 'better' than the ideal that is assumed
from losses due to the unsymmetrical nature of real buildings e.g. grid layout,
and dispersion of loads from furnishings and contents
from components such as partitions that are out-of-plane of the vibration and
interfere with the 'mode'.
The determination of the contribution of each of these components as they affect real
floor systems is given in detail in later sections. These describe the 'response' side of the
floor system. In order to establish the required performance of the system the 'input'
must also be defined i.e. that event, events or continuum that is the 'dynamic
excitation'.
In the simple example described at the start of this section the 'input' was simply a force
that caused a displacement to the system and was then released. This might be
equivalent to a person jumping off a chair onto the floor. However, in the context of the
concerns over the vibration of floors, it is not this sort of input that is of interest. The
main concern is the excitation of the floor brought about by walking.
Unlike the simple example, walking produces loading that is cyclic. This loading can be
idealized into a series of sine curves of load against time. Each curve is an exact multiple
of the walking frequency called harmonics. When one of these harmonics of the cyclic
loading coincides with the natural frequency of the floor system then resonance is set
up. The consequence of resonance that is detected, and may disturb occupants, is the
associated peak acceleration. For the first harmonic, the peak acceleration is dependent
upon the applied force (the weight of one standard person multiplied by a factor, n),
the mass of the system (the self-weight of the floor plate plus other loading that could
be considered as permanent), and the amount of damping in the system (the damping
ratio, ). The factor, n, is known as a Fourier coefficient and links the magnitude of the
applied force in any harmonic of the walking function to the weight of one standard
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Glossary
person. It has been established experimentally for different activities and different
activity frequencies.
Hence, the dynamic excitation of a floor is dependent upon the forcing function due to
walking and its relationship to the natural frequency of the floor system. It is the level of
the peak acceleration that this generates that is particularly important in determining
the performance of the floor.
Required Performance
The required performance of a floor system is very dependent upon the potential
response of humans. Human response is a very complex subject since there is no such
thing as a 'standard human'. The perception of vibration will differ from person to
person, their body mass varies significantly and the body's reaction will depend upon
age, gender etc. The human response has been studied and the accepted wisdom is
embodied in BS 6472: 1992, Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in
buildings (1 Hz to 80 Hz) (Ref. 1).
It may be remembered that it is the acceleration of the floor system that the human
perceives. BS 6472: 1992 provides a series of curves one of which is the 'base' limit of
(vertical) acceleration against frequency (of the floor). Within the practical range of
frequencies dealt with, a single value of the 'base' limit on acceleration is given as 0.005
m/s2. This single value holds
down to 3 Hz but no floor should be allowed to have a system natural frequency
below this value anyway
up to 10 Hz. Such a large value would be unusual but beyond that point there is a
simple linear relationship between the base limit of acceleration and the natural
frequency within an extended but just practical range.
The accelerations acceptable for different use of buildings are described using the 'base'
limits. Multiplying factors are used to increase the base acceleration limit according to
the intended use of the building. The multiplying factors are referred to as 'response
factors' in the SCI guidance. Thus the target acceleration of the floor under
consideration is the root mean square acceleration multiplied by the response factor.
This design condition is turned on its head to give a 'provided response factor' that is
then compared with the 'required response factor'. The required response factor is the
measure of the Required performance and is given in the SCI guidance as,
R = 8 for a workshop
R = 8 for a general office
R = 2 for a residential building during day time use
You should choose a required response factor based on both engineering judgement
and the advice given in P354. In particular it may be noted that, changing R by a factor
of 2 is equivalent only to the most marginal change to human perception.
Provided Performance
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It is in establishing the provided performance that most of the design calculations are
required. The object of these calculations is to determine the 'required response factor'.
The start point is the calculation of the natural frequency of the floor system. This is
established from the individual component frequencies for each of two possible shape
modes, namely the Secondary Beam Mode and the Primary Beam Mode. The natural
frequencies of the individual components can be adjusted to allow for boundary
conditions e.g. two spans continuous. The fundamental frequency, f0, is the lower value
for the two modes considered. A minimum natural frequency is given in SCI P354 of 3.0
Hz.
Next the 'modal mass' is required. This is dependent upon the physical size of the floor
plate selected and an effective width and/or length that is itself dependent on the
natural frequency of the floor. The modal mass has by far the largest influence on the
response factor provided.
The 'Resonance Build-up Factor' makes allowance for the time it takes for someone
walking across the floor to begin to excite the floor - vibration is not instantaneous upon
the first footfall. This has an upper limit of 1.0 and can be taken conservatively as 1.0.
The calculation requires the 'damping ratio' - this is a user input.
The resonance build-up factor, the damping ratio, the modal mass, and the weight of a
'standard person' along with an appropriate Fourier coefficient are used to calculate the
peak acceleration.
The final determination of the response factor provided requires the 'root mean square'
acceleration. The rms acceleration has two formulations depending upon the
fundamental, system frequency. The response factor is a very simple calculation.
Provided Performance
System Frequency
Deflections
For the primary beam, the base maximum simply supported deflection,
PBSS, is derived from the TSD model with no allowance for boundary conditions.
For the secondary beam, the base maximum simply supported deflection,
SBSS, is derived from the TSD model and the maximum deflection for a fixed end
condition, SBFE, is calculated from,
SBFE = m*b*LSB4/(384*ES*ISB) + m*b*LSB2/(24*G*Ay)
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Glossary
Where
For the slab, the base maximum deflection for a fixed end condition, SlabFE, is calculated from,
SlabFE = m*LSlab4/(384*EC*ISlab)
Where
= Es*1.1/short
These base, maximum simply supported deflections for both primary and secondary
beams, **SS, derived from the TSD model, can be adjusted to cater for boundary
conditions for 'two-span continuous' or 'three-span continuous' cases to give barSS.
For 'two span continuous' the adjusted deflection is taken from P354 as,
barSS = MIN[(0.4 + kM/kS * (1 + 0.6 * LS2/LM2))/(1 + kM/kS), 1.0] ***SS
Where
= IM/LM
= IS/LS
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LM = the span of the critical span selected by the user (primary or secondar
beam as appropriate)
LS = the span pf the adjoining span selected by the user (primary or secon
beam as appropriate)
IM = the inertia of the critical span selected by the user (primary or second
beam as appropriate)
For 'three span continuous' the adjusted deflection is taken from P354 as,
barSS = MIN[(0.6 + 2 * kM/kS * (1 + 1.2 * LS2/LM2))/(3 + 2 * kM/kS), 1.0] * **SS
Where
kM = the 'stiffness' of the critical (middle) span selected by the user (primar
secondary beam as appropriate)
= IM/LM
kS = the stiffness of the adjoining (outer) span selected by the user (primar
secondary beams as appropriate)
= IS/LS
LM = the span of the critical (middle) span selected by the user (primary or
secondary beam as appropriate)
LS = the span of the adjoining (outer) span selected by the user (primary o
secondary beams as appropriate)
IM = the inertia of the critical (middle) span selected by the user (primary o
secondary beam as appropriate)
IS = the inertia of the adjoining (outer) span selected by the user (primary
secondary beams as appropriate)
and
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Glossary
and
System Frequency
The natural frequency of the system, f0, is calculated from,
f0 = MIN{ fSBmode, fPBmode}
Limitations
The absolute minimum natural frequency of the floor system is limited to 3.0 Hz. Where
the floor system frequency is below these limits the design fails.
Similarly, no single element within the floor structure should have a fundamental
frequency less than 3.0 Hz. Three additional checks are therefore carried out and their
results only published if there is a Fail. These checks are,
fPBSS = 18/ PBSS must be 3 else the design Fails
Modal Mass
The 'modal mass' is the effective mass participating in the vibration of the floor. In
accordance with SCI P354, it is taken as the 'unit mass' multiplied by the effective plan
area of the floor participating in the motion as given by,
M = m * Leff * S
Where
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Where
Where
EISB = dynamic flexural rigidity of the composite secondary beam (in Nm2 wh
m is in kg/m2)
and
Lx =
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Glossary
There are two mode shape factors, e at the point of excitation and r at the point of
response.
If the response and excitation points are unknown, or if a general response for the
whole floor is required, e and r can conservatively be taken as 1.
TSD will not calculate the values of these mode shape factors, and will default to 1.0 but
also gives you the option of providing values to be used.
First it is necessary to calculate the walking velocity as given by Equation 16 of SCI P354,
V = 1.67 * fp2 - 4.83 * fp + for fp in the range 1.7 to 2.4 Hz
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4.5
Where
Where
Note that the resonance build-up factor has an upper bound of 1.0 and may,
conservatively be set to 1.0.
Response Acceleration
Response Acceleration
Where
= 1.0 for 5 f0 16
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Glossary
Response Factor
The 'base curves' in BS 6472: 1992 are given in terms of root mean square (rms)
acceleration
The 'required response factor', Rreqd, is a user input and leads to the final design
condition,
Rprov Rreqd
This method calculates the number of times an activity (for example walking along a
corridor) will take place during an exposure period, na, from,
na = (1/Ta)*(VDV/(0.68*aw,rms))4
where
= Lp/V if Lp is known OR
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Input Requirements
General
The simplified method for the analysis of the vibration of floors given in the SCI
Publication P354, on which the Tekla Structural Designer check is based, is only
applicable to regular structures which, by and large, are created from rectilinear grids.
Of course the floor layouts of 'real' multi-storey buildings are rarely uniform and Tekla
Structural Designer therefore provides you with the opportunity to select the more
irregular floor areas to be assessed with grids that are other than rectilinear.
In so far as the selection of the beams to be used in the analysis is concerned, only
beams with Non-Composite or Composite attributes are valid for selection and, within
these confines, you are able to:
select a single beam
select a beam span as critical plus an adjoining span (in a two or three span
configuration)
In all cases, and subject to the above restrictions, which beams from the selected area
of floor are chosen is entirely at your discretion and under your judgement, but it is
expected that the beams chosen will be those that are typical, common or the worst
case. Irrespective, Tekla Structural Designer will take these beams as those that form
the idealized floor layout. There is no validation on what the you select (although there
is some validation on which beams are selectable i.e. beams which have no slab for part
of their length, beams from angle sections, beams with no adjoining span when a 2-
span configuration is chosen, and beams with no adjoining span at both ends when a 3-
span configuration is chosen will not be selectable).
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Glossary
Unit mass
The unit mass in kg/m2 is used to establish the 'participating mass' of the floor - that is
the mass of floor and its permanent loading that has to be set in motion during
vibration of the floor. It is taken as the slab self-weight (and to be accurate, the beam
self-weight), other permanent 'Dead' loads and the proportion of the 'Imposed' loads
that can be considered as permanent. The latter is usually taken as 10% and, whilst this
is the default, the value is editable since imposed storage loads, for example, would
warrant a higher value.
The unit mass is obtained by summing all the loads (or the appropriate percentage in
the case of imposed loads) that act over or in the selected area. This includes any
blanket, area, line and spot loads that are present within the selected area. The
component of any of these load types that lie outside of the selected area are ignored.
Nodal loads directly on columns are also ignored. The total load is then divided by the
area selected.
The slab self-weight will usually be in the Slab Dry loadcase - note that in the case of
composite slabs this includes the weight of decking. The beam self-weight is in a
separate protected loadcase. For simplicity this component of the unit mass is ignored.
This leads to a slight inaccuracy in the participating mass that is conservative (more
mass is advantageous).
Note that the use of imposed load reductions has no effect on the floor vibration check.
Slab data
If there are more than one set of slab attributes in the selected area then you have to
choose which of these it is appropriate to use. From the designated slab attributes the
following information/data is obtained,
the un-transformed inertia in cm4 per metre width. For profiled decking this takes
account of the concrete in the troughs and is independent of the direction of span of
the decking. For pc slabs it is the gross inertia ignoring the formed cells.
the short-term modular ratio for normal or lightweight concrete as appropriate.
If the designated slab attributes are for a 'generic' slab, then you are asked for the
inertia and the dynamic modular ratio.
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uncracked composite inertia based on the dynamic modular ratio that is required. Steel
joist inertias from the database are assumed to be 'gross' inertias of the chords and are
editable. Following guidance contained in AISC Steel Design Guide 11
(Ref. 3), section 3.6, the gross steel joist inertia is factored by quantity Cr and displayed
as the 'effective' inertia in the results viewer.
The span of the critical/base beam and the adjoining beams is required.
The deflection of the critical beam under the permanent loads is required. To calculate
this value, the deflection under the Dead loads and the appropriate percentage of the
Imposed load deflection is summed.
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Glossary
You are required to specify the mode shape factors, e and r, which are to be used in
the evaluation of the root mean square response acceleration. The default value is 1.0
for both variables.
Damping ratio
Floors do not vibrate as a free mass but have some damping i.e. dissipation of the
energy in the system. Four values of damping ratio are recommended in P354 as a
percentage,
0.5%, for fully welded steel structures, e.g. staircases,
1.1%, for completely bare floors or floors where only a small amount of furnishings
are present,
3.0%, for normal, open-plan, well-furnished floors (the default),
4.5%, for a floor where the designer is confident that partitions will be appropriately
located to interrupt the relevant mode(s) of vibration i.e. the partition lines are
perpendicular to the main vibrating elements of the critical mode shape.
Since an even higher damping ratio might be justified for storage floors for example, a
range of up to 10% is offered.
The designer will often not know, reliably, the maximum corridor length. The default is
therefore taken as the longer of the floor plate dimensions.
If the designer does not wish to estimate the maximum corridor length or accept the
default, then the Resonance Build-up Factor can be set to 1.0 by selecting Not known
for the maximum corridor length. This sets the Resonance Build-up Factor to 1.0.
Walking Pace
The walking frequency (pace) must be selected in the range 1.7 to 2.4 Hz. This range is
equivalent to a walking velocity of 2.5 to 5.7 mph (4.0 to 9.1 kph). 'Walking' velocities less
than and greater than this are achievable - slow walking 1.0 to 1.5 mph (1.6 to 2.4 kph)
or running 6.0 to 12.0 mph (9.6 to 19.2 kph). However, the range of validity of the
formula for calculating the walking velocity is given as that quoted. Thus any
consequent value outside of the range 1.7 to 2.4 Hz is given a Warning that this is
outside of the range given in Equation 16 of SCI P354. The default value is 1.8 Hz.
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Engineers Handbooks (BS)
References
1. British Standards Institution. BS 6472: 1992 Guide to the evaluation of human
response to vibration in buildings (1Hz to 80 Hz). BSI 1992.
2. The Steel Construction Institute. Design of Floors for Vibration: A New Approach.
SCI P354. 2007.
3. AISC Steel Design Guide Series. 11: Floor Vibrations Due to Human Activity. AISC
2003 re-print.
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