Mechanical Properties of Materials 1.1. IMPORTANT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ‘The following are the most important mechanical properties of engineering materials: (i) Elasticity (i) Plasticity (iii) Ductility (iv) Brittleness (v) Malleability (vi) Toughness (vii) Hardness, and (vii) Strength Some of the above properties can not be mutually reconciled; hence no material can possess them all simultaneously. The criteria of suitability (or otherwise) of an engineering material, forming part of cither a machine or a structure, is dependcat upon the possession of one or more of the above properties. The above properties are assessed, with a fair degree of accuracy, by resorting to mechanical tests. 1.2, ELASTICITY - When external forces are applied on a body, made of engineering materials, the ‘external forces tend to deform the body while the molecular forces acting between the molecules offer resistance against deformation. The deformation or displacement of the particles continues Uil full resistance to the external forces is setup. If the forces are now gradually diminished, the body will return, wholly or partly to its original shape. Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to retum 10 its original dimension when the load is removed If a body regains completely its original shape, it is said to be perfectly elastic, For any particular material, a critical value of the load, known as the elastic limit marks the partial break down of elasticity beyond which removal of load results in a degree of permanent deformation ot permanent set (Fig. 1.1). Steel, aluminium, copper, stone, concrete etc. may be considered (0 be perfectly clastic, within veruain limits, ‘ Stress-Strain relationship : The load per unit area, normal to the applied load is known as stress (p). Similarly, the deformation per unit length in the direction of deformation is known as strain (¢). The elastic properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small specimens of material. The tests are conducted in materials-testing-laboratories ‘equipped with testing machines capable of loading the specimens in gradually applied increments, and the resulting stresses and strains are measured at all such load increments, till the specimen fails. Fig, 11 shows one such stress-strain diagram (schematic). In Fig. 1.1(a), the specimen is loaded only upto point A, well within the elastic limit F. When the load, correspgading to point A, is gradually removed the curve follows the same path AO and the strain completely disappears. Such a behaviour is known as the elastic behaviour. In Fig. 1.1(6), the specimen o2 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS ome stress (b) o We STRESS (P) puastic. © eran], c}-e.asnic RECOVERY > STRAIN (€) > STRAIN (€) @ ) FIG. 1.1. ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY is loaded upto point B, beyond the elastic limit E. When the specimen is gradually unloaded, the cusve follows path’ BC, resulting in a residual strain (OC) or permanent strain. Such a behaviour of the material, loaded beyond the elastic limit, is known as partially clastic behaviour. A more detailed discussion of stress-strain curve is given in § 2.4. Homogeneity and Isotropy : A material is homogeneous if it has same composition throughout the body. For such 2 material, the elastic properties are the same at each and every point in the body. It is interesting to note that for a homogeneous material, the elastic properties need not be the same in all the directions. If a material is equally elastic in all the directions, it is said to be isotropic. If, however, it 1s not equally elastic in all directions, ie. it possesses different elastic propertics in different directions, it is called anisotropic. A theoretically ideal material could be equally elastic in all directions, ie. isotropic. Many structural materials meet the requirements of homogeneity and isotropy. We shail be dealing with only the homogeneous and isotropic materials in this book. 1.3, PLASTICITY Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. A material in plastic state is permanently deformed by the application of load, and it has no tendency to recover. Every elastic material possesses the property of plasticity, Under the action of large forces, most engineering materials become plastic and behave in a manner similar 10 a viscous liquid. The characteristic of the material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond those at the elastic limit is known as plasticity, When large deformations occur in a ductile material loaded in the plastic region, the material fs said to undergo plastic flow. The property is particularly useful in the operations of pressing and forging. ‘Plasticity’ is also useful in the design of structural members, utilising its wleimate strength. 1.4, DUCTILITY Ductitity is the characteristic which permits a material 10 be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section, under the action of a tensile force. In a ductile material, therefore, large deformation is possible before absoluee failure ot rupture takes place. A ductile material must, of necessity, possess a high degree of plasticity and strength. During ductile extcnsion, a material shows a certain degree of elasticity, together with a considerable degree of plasticity. Ductility is measured in the tensile test of specimen of the material, either in terms of percentage clongation