Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Chapter 4: Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Basic Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Breadth-First Search and Depth-First Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Rooted Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Counting Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5 Counting Binary Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.6 Number of Spanning Trees Contains a Certain Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.7 Embedding Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
v
prelims.tex 11/8/2008 12: 54 Page vi
vi Contents
Contents vii
viii Contents
Chapter 15: Cubic 3 -Connected Graphs and Cubic 3 -Laceable Graphs . . . . . 417
15.1 Properties of Cubic 3 -Connected Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
15.2 Examples of Cubic Super 3 -Connected Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
15.3 Counterexamples of 3 -Connected Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
15.4 Properties of Cubic 3 -Laceable Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
15.5 Examples of Cubic Hyper 3 -Laceable Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
15.6 Counterexamples of 3 -Laceable Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Contents ix
x Contents
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
prelims.tex 11/8/2008 12: 54 Page xi
Preface
Since the origin of graph theory with Euler, people have liked graph theory, because
it is a delightful playground for the exploration of proof techniques without much
previous background needed. With the application of graph theory to many areas of
computing, social, and natural sciences, the importance of graph theory has been
recognized. For this reason, many good graph theoretic results have been developed
in recent years. It is almost impossible to write a book that covers all these good graph
theories.
The architecture of an interconnection network is always represented by a graph,
where vertices represent processors and edges represent links between processors.
It is almost impossible to design a network that is optimum from all aspects. One
has to design a suitable network depending on its properties and requirements. Thus,
many graphs are proposed as possible interconnection network topologies. Thus, these
graphs can be referred to as good graphs. For this reason, the theory of interconnection
networks is referred to as good-graph theory.
Thus, we need some basic background in graph theory to study interconnection
networks. The rst 10 chapters cover those materials presented in most graph theory
texts and add some concepts of interconnection networks. Later, we discuss some
interesting properties of interconnection networks. Sometimes, these properties are
too good to be trueso the beginner nds them hard to believe. Such properties
can be observed from interconnection networks, diameter, connectivity, Hamiltonian
properties, and diagnosis properties. We can also study these properties in general
graphs.
Ends of proofs are marked with the symbol . This symbol can be found directly
following a formal assertion. It means that the proof should be clear after what has
been said. There are also some theorems that are stated, without proof, via back-
ground information. In this case, such theorems are stated without proofs and the
symbol .
The main purpose of this book is to share our research experience. Our experience
tells us that much background is not needed for doing research. Looking for a proper
theme is a difcult problem for research. We are just lucky in nding problems. For
this reason, we put some of our results at the end of each chapter but we do not put any
exercises in this book. We observed that all the material, contents, and exercises in
every book are exercises of previous books. For this reason, we hope that the readers
can nd their own exercises.
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the work of Professor Jimmy
J.M. Tan. We have worked together for a long time. Yet, at least one-third
of this book is his contribution. We also thank all the members of the Com-
puter Theory Laboratory of National Chiao-Tung University: T.Y. Sung, T. Liang,
H.M. Huang, Chiuyuan Chen, Y.C. Chuang, S. S. Kao, Y.C. Chang, T.Y. Ho,
R.S. Chou, C.N. Hung, J.J. Wang, S.Y. Wang, C.Y. Lin, C.H. Tsai, J.Y. Hwang,
C.P. Chang, J.N. Wang, J.J. Sheu, C.H. Chang, T.K. Li, W.T. Huang, Y.C. Chen,
xi
prelims.tex 11/8/2008 12: 54 Page xii
xii Preface
H.C. Hsu, K.Y. Liang, Y.L. Hsieh, M.C. Yang, P.L. Lai, L.C. Chiang, Y.H. Teng,
C.M. Sun, and K.M. Hsu.
We also thank CRC Press for offering us the opportunity of publishing this book.
Lih-Hsing Hsu also thanks his advisor, Professor Joel Spencer, for entering the area
of graph theory. We also thank Professor Frank Hsu for strongly recommending to us
the area of interconnection networks. Finally, we thank all of our teachers; without
their encouragement, this book could never have been written.
prelims.tex 11/8/2008 12: 54 Page xiii
Authors
Lih-Hsing Hsu received his BS in mathematics from Chung Yuan Christian Univer-
sity, Taiwan, Republic of China, in 1975, and his PhD in mathematics from the State
University of New York at Stony Brook in 1981. From 1981 to 1985, he was an asso-
ciate professor at the Department of Applied Mathematics at National Chiao Tung
University in Taiwan. From 1985 to 2006, he was a professor at National Chiao Tung
University. From 1985 to 1988, he was the chairman of the Department of Applied
Mathematics at National Chiao Tung University. After 1988, he joined the Depart-
ment of Computer and Information Science of National Chiao Tung University. In
2004, he retired from National Chiao Tung University, holding a title as an honorary
scholar of that university. He is currently the chairman of the Department of Computer
Science and Information Engineering, Providence University, Taichung, Taiwan. His
research interests include interconnection networks, algorithms, graph theory, and
VLSI layout.
xiii
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ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 1
1 Fundamental Concepts
1
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 2
x v w
f
d y
g y
u
e h i x
w v u
(a) (b) (c)
y
w
a b c
d
z
x
underlying graph UG is the simple graph with the vertex set V and (x, y) E(UG) if
and only if x = y and either (x, y) E(G) or (y, x) E(G).
The choice of head and tail assigns a direction to an edge, which we illustrate by
assigning edges as arrows. See Figure 1.2 for an example of a digraph. Sometimes,
weights are assigned to the edges of graphs or digraphs. Thus, we have weighted
graphs, weighted digraphs, (unweighted) graphs, and (unweighted) digraphs.
Graphs arise in many settings, which suggests useful concepts and terminologies
about the structure of graphs.
Example 1.1
A famous brain-teaser asks: Does every set of six people have three mutual acquaintances
or three mutual strangers?
Fundamental Concepts 3
u u
y y v
v
x w x w
G G
Example 1.2
Suppose that we have m jobs and n people, and each person can do some of the jobs. Can
we make assignments to ll the jobs? We model the available assignments by a graph H
having a vertex for each job and each person, putting job j adjacent to person p if p can do j.
A graph G is bipartite if V (G) is the union of two disjoint sets such that each edge
consists of one vertex from each set. The graph H of available assignments is bipartite,
with the two sets being the people and the jobs. Because a person can do only one job
and we assign a job to only one person, we seek m pairwise disjoint edges in H.
A complete bipartite graph, illustrated in Figure 1.4, is a bipartite graph whose
edge set consists of all pairs having a vertex set from each of two disjoint sets covering
the vertices. When the assignment graph H is a complete bipartite graph, pairing up
vertices is easy, so we seek the best way to do it. We can assign numerical weights on
the edges to measure desirability. The best way to match up the vertices is often the
one where the selected edges have maximum total weight.
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 4
Example 1.3
Suppose that we must schedule for Senate committee meetings into designated weekly
time periods. We cannot assign two committees to the same time if they have a common
member. How many different time periods do we need?
We create a vertex for each committee, with two vertices adjacent when their
committees have a common member. We must assign labels (time periods) to vertices
so that the endpoints of each edge receive different labels. The labels have no numer-
ical value, so we call them colors, and the vertices receiving a particular label form
a color class. The minimum number of colors needed is the chromatic number of G,
written (G). Because vertices of the same color must form an independent set, (G)
equals the minimum number of independent sets that partition V (G). This generalizes
bipartite graphs. A graph G is k-partite if V (G) is the union of k (possibly empty) inde-
pendent sets. When they are pairwise disjoint, these sets that partition V (G) are called
partite sets (or color classes). The graph in Figure 1.5 has chromatic number 3 and is
3-partite (there could be graphs that are also 4-partite, 5-partite, etc.). We will study
the chromatic number of graphs in Chapter 10.
The most (in)famous problem in graph theory involves coloring. A map is a
partition of the plane into connected regions. Can we color the regions of every
map, using at most four colors, so that neighboring regions have different colors? In
each map, we introduce a vertex for each region and an edge for regions sharing a
boundary. We obtain a planar graph. A graph is planar if it can be drawn in the plane
without line crossings. In other words, the map coloring problem asks whether each
planar graph has a chromatic number of at most 4. We will study planar graphs in
Chapter 12.
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 5
Fundamental Concepts 5
Example 1.4
We can model a road network by a graph having edges that correspond to road segments
between intersections. We can assign edge weights to measure distance or travel time.
We may want to know the shortest route from x to y.
w y
w x y z a b c
w 0 1 0 0 w 0 0 1
c b a A(G) x 1 0 1 0 M(G ) x 0 1 1
G
y 0 1 0 1 y 1 1 0
z 0 0 1 0 z 1 0 0
x z
w y
w x y z a b c
w 0 0 0 0 w 0 0 1
H c b a A(H ) x 1 0 0 0 M(H ) x 0 1 1
y 0 1 0 1 y 1 1 0
z 0 0 0 0 z 1 0 0
x z
incident. The incidence matrix M(G) of a loopless graph G has rows indexed by
V (G) and columns indexed by E(G), with mij = 1 if vertex vi belongs to ej ; otherwise
mij = 0. For a loopless digraph, mij = +1 if vi is the tail of ej , mij = 1 if vi is the
head of ej , and mij = 0 if otherwise.
A graph may have many adjacency matrices, depending on the ordering of the
vertices. Each ordering of the vertices determines an adjacency matrix. The adjacency
matrix of G is symmetric if G is a graph (not a digraph). Moreover, every entry in
A(G) is 0 or 1, with 0s on the diagonal if G is a simple graph.
Example 1.5
In Figure 1.7, we draw a simple graph G and a digraph H, together with the adjacency
matrices and incidence matrices that result from the vertex ordering w, x, y, z and the
edges ordering a, b, c. The adjacency matrix for the graph having two copies of each of
these edges would obtained by changing each 1 to 2.
When we present an adjacency matrix for a graph, we are implicitly naming the
vertices by the order of its rows. The ith vertex corresponds to the ith row and column.
This provides names for the vertices. We cannot store a graph in a computer without
naming the vertices. Nevertheless, we want to study properties (like chromatic number
or connected) that do not depend on the names of the vertices. If we can nd a one-to-
one correspondence (bijection) between V (G) and V (H) that preserves the adjacency
relation, then G and H have the same structural properties.
An isomorphism from G to H is a bijection f : V (G) V (H) such that (u, v)
E(G) if and only if ( f (u), f (v)) E(H). We say G is isomorphic to H, written G
= H,
if there is an isomorphism from G to H.
When G is isomorphic to H and H is also isomorphic to G, we may say G and H
are isomorphic (to each other). Because an adjacency matrix encodes the adjacency
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 7
Fundamental Concepts 7
p q p r q s a b a b c d
p 0 0 0 1 a 0 0 1 1
A(G) r 0 0 1 0 A(H) b 0 0 1 0
s r q 0 1 0 1 d c c 1 1 0 0
G s 1 0 1 0 H d 1 0 0 0
relation, we can also describe isomorphism using adjacency matrices. The graphs G
and H are isomorphic if and only if we can apply a permutation to the rows of A(G)
and the same permutation to the columns of A(G) to obtain A(H).
Example 1.6
The graphs G and H in Figure 1.8 are 4-vertex paths. They are isomorphic by an isomor-
phism that maps p, q, r, s to b, a, d, c, respectively. Rewriting A(G) by placing the rows
in the order p, q, r, s and the columns also in order yields A(H). Another isomorphism
maps s, r, q, p to a, b, c, d, respectively.
The set of the pair (G, H) such that G is isomorphic to H is the isomorphism
relation on the set of graphs. Obviously, isomorphism is an equivalence relation. An
isomorphism class of graphs is an equivalence class of graphs under the isomorphism
relation.
When discussing the structure of a graph G, we consider a xed vertex set, but our
comments apply to every graph isomorphic to G. Therefore, we sometimes use the
informal expression unlabeled graph to mean an isomorphic class of graphs. When we
draw a graph, its vertices are named by their physical locations, even if we give them
no other names. We often use the name graph for the drawing of a graph. When we
redraw a graph to display some structural aspect, we have chosen a more convenient
member of the isomorphism class.
We often discuss two isomorphic graphs using the same name. Our statement
applies to all graphs in their isomorphism class. Hence, we usually write G = H instead
of G = H. Similarly, when we say that H is a subgraph of G, we mean technically that
H is isomorphic to a subgraph of G, or G contains a copy of H.
This treatment of isomorphism classes leads us to using the notation Kn , Pn , and
Cn , respectively, to denote a clique, a path, or a cycle with n vertices. Similarly, Kr,s
denotes the complete bipartite graph with partite sets of cardinalities r and s.
Example 1.7
Suppose that X is a set of size n. Obviously, X contains C(n; 2) = n(n 1)/2 unordered
pairs of (u, v) with u = v. We may include or omit each pair as an edge. Thus, there are
2C(n;2) simple graphs with vertex set X. For example, there are sixty four simple graphs
having four vertices. However, these fall into eleven isomorphism classes as illustrated in
Figure 1.9 in complementary pairs. Only P4 is isomorphic to its complement. Note that
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 8
the isomorphism classes have different sizes. We cannot count the isomorphism classes
of n-vertex simple graphs, though, by dividing 2C(n;2) by the size of a class.
Example 1.8
In Figure 1.10, we have four graphs with each vertex having a degree of 3. However,
these graphs are not pairwise isomorphic. Several are drawings of K3,3 , as shown by their
exhibited isomorphisms. One contains C3 and hence cannot be a drawing of K3,3 .
Consider the graphs in Figure 1.11. Because they have many edges, we prefer to
consider their complements. Note that graphs G and H are isomorphic if and only if
G and H are isomorphic. It is observed that the complement of one of these graphs is
connected, but the complement of the other is not connected. These two graphs cannot
be isomorphic.
Fundamental Concepts 9
d
x y z
H
e f
b c
G
Example 1.9
Let G be the path with a vertex set {1, 2, 3, 4} and an edge set {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}. This
graph has two isomorphisms: an identity permutation and the permutation that switches
1 with 4 and switches 2 with 3. Interchanging vertices 1 and 2 is not an automorphism of
G, although G is isomorphic to the graph H with the vertex set {1, 2, 3, 4} and the edge
set {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4)}.
The automorphisms of G can be viewed as the permutations that can be applied
simultaneously to the rows and columns of A(G) without changing A(G). For example,
permuting the vertices of one independent set of Kr,s does not change the adjacency
matrix. Thus, Kr,s has r!s! automorphism if r = s. Moreover, Kt,t has 2(t!)2 auto-
morphisms. Thus, the complete bipartite graph Kr,s is vertex-transitive if and only
if r = s.
The graph G in Figure 1.12 is vertex-transitive but not edge-transitive. Yet the
graph H in Figure 1.12 is edge-transitive but not vertex-transitive.
walk with no repeated edge. A path is a walk with no repeated vertex. A walk from
u to v has rst vertex u and last vertex v; these are its endpoints. A walk (or trail) is
closed if it has a length of at least 1 and its endpoints are equal. A cycle is a closed
trail in which rst = last is the only vertex repetition (a loop is a cycle of length 1).
Paths and trails are walks and hence have endpoints. A path or trail may have
length 0, but a cycle or closed walk cannot. We use the words path and cycle in three
closely related contexts: as a graph or subgraph, as the special case of a walk, and as
a set of edges. In a simple graph, a walk is completely specied by its sequence of
vertices. Hence, we usually describe a path or a cycle (or walk) in a simple graph by
its ordered list of vertices. Although we may list only vertices, the walk still consists
of both vertices and edges. We may start a cycle at any vertex. To emphasize the cyclic
aspect of the ordering, we often list each vertex only once when naming a cycle.
Example 1.10
The graph in Figure 1.13 has a closed walk of length 11 that visits vertices in the order
a, x, a, x, u, y, c, d, y, v, b, a. Omitting the rst two steps yields a closed trail (no edge
repetition). The edge set of this trail is the the union of the edge sets of three pairwise
edge-disjoint cycles. The trail
u, y, c, d, y, v contains the edge of the path
u, y, v.
With the previous example, we have the following observation: suppose that u
and v are distinct vertices in G. Obviously, every walk from u to v in G contains a
path from u to v. Moreover, every closed odd walk contains an odd cycle.
The denitions and remarks hold for digraphs, with each ei being an ordered pair
(vi1 , vi ). In a path or cycle of a directed graph, successive edges follow the arrows.
For example, the digraph consisting only of the edge (x, y) has a path from x to y but
no path from y to x.
A graph G is connected if it has a path from u to v for each pair u, v V (G).
Otherwise, it is disconnected. The vertex u is connected to the vertex v in G if G has a
path from u to v. The connection relation in a graph consists of the vertex pairs (u, v)
such that u is connected to v.
Connectedness is a property of graphs. However, the connection relation on ver-
tices and the phrase u is connected to v are convenient when writing proofs. To specify
the stronger condition (u, v) E(G), we say u and v are adjacent or u and v are joined
by an edge. We use connected to for the existence of a path from u to v, and we use
joined to for the existence of an edge (u, v).
a c
x y
b v d
Fundamental Concepts 11
r u y
s
v w z
q t x
Example 1.11
The graph in Figure 1.14 has three components. The vertex sets of components are {q, r},
{s, t, u, v, w}, and {x, y, z}. The vertex v is a cut vertex. The edges (q, r) and (v, w) are the
cut edges.
THEOREM 1.1 An edge of a graph is a cut edge if and only if it belongs to no cycle.
Proof: Suppose that edge e = (x, y) belongs to a component H of G. Note that the
deletion of e affects no other components. It sufces to prove that H e is connected
if and only if e belongs to a cycle.
Suppose that H e is connected. Then H e contains a path P from x to y.
Obviously, P {e} forms a cycle containing e.
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 12
Conversely, suppose that e belongs to a cycle C. Let u and v be any two different
vertices in V (H). Because H is connected, H has a path P from u to v. Suppose that
P does not contain e. Then P exists in H e. Thus, H e has a path from u to v.
Suppose that P contains e. By the symmetry role of x and y, we can assume that x is
between u and y on P. Since H e contains a path from u to x along P, a path from x
to y along C, and a path from y to v along P. The transitivity of the connection relation
implies that H e has a path from u to v. Since u and v were chosen arbitrarily from
V (G), we have proved that H e is connected.
COROLLARY 1.1 Every nontrivial graph has at least two vertices that are not
cut-vertices.
Fundamental Concepts 13
Proof: Summing the degrees counts each edge twice, as each edge has two ends
and contributes to the degree at each endpoint.
COROLLARY 1.2 Every graph has an even number of vertices of odd degree. No
graph of odd order is regular with odd degree.
Example 1.12
The Petersen graph is drawn in Figure 1.15. The graph is useful enough to have an
entire book devoted to it (Holten and Sheehan [156]). The Petersen graph has a simple
description using the set S of all two-element subsets of a 5-element set. Let G be the
graph with V (G) = S such that two vertices join an edge if and only if they are disjoint
as sets. Hence, the Petersen graph is vertex-transitive. Obviously, the Petersen graph is
a 3-regular graph with 10 vertices. Thus, it has 15 = 3 10/2 edges.
Example 1.13
Let S be the set of all n-tuples in which each position is 0 or 1. Obviously, S contains 2n
elements. The n-dimensional hypercube is the graph Qn with vertex set S in which two
n-tuples are adjacent if and only if they differ in exactly one position. In Figure 1.16, we
illustrate Q3 . The hypercube is an architecture for parallel computers [220]. Processing
units can communicate directly if they correspond to adjacent vertices in Qn .
The Hamming weight of a 0, 1-vector is the number of 1s. Every edge of Qn consists
of a vector of even weight and a vertex of odd weight. Hence, the vectors of all even
weights form an independent set, and the vectors of all odd weights form an independent
010 110
011 111
001 101
000 100
FIGURE 1.16 Q3 .
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 14
set. Thus, Qn is bipartite. Because each vector can be changed in n places, Qn is n-regular.
By Corollary 3.3, Qn has n2n1 edges.
Deleting the dashed edges in the illustration leaves 2Q2 . This suggests an inductive
description of Qn . The basis is the 1-vertex graph Q0 , which consists of the unique binary
vector of length 0. Given Qn1 , we construct Qn in two steps: (1) Take two disjoint copies
of Qn1 . Call them Q0 and Q1 ; (2) For each v V (Qn1 ), append a 0 to the end of the
vector for v in Q0 and a 1 to the end of the vector for v in Q1 , and add an edge consisting
of these two vertices.
(a) (b)
Fundamental Concepts 15
(a) (b)
length of the shortest path between any two vertices is at most 2. Compared to this
graph, the three-dimensional hypercube is a 3-regular graph with eight vertices such
that the length of the shortest path between any two vertices is at most 3. It has more ver-
tices as compared to the three-dimensional hypercube and a shorter distance between
any two vertices. We call it the simple Petersen graph. As an extension, hring and Das
[260] introduce the k-dimensional folded Petersen graph, FPk , to be Pk . It is observed
that FPk possesses qualities of a good network topology for distributed systems with
a large number of sites, because it accommodates 10k vertices and is a symmetric,
3k-regular graph such that the distance between any two vertices is at most 2k. Being
an iterative Cartesian product on the Petersen graph, it is scalable. Moreover, hring
and Das [260] dene the folded Petersen cube networks FPQn,k as Qn Pk . It turns
out that FPQn,k and its special derivations FPQ0,k = FPk and FPQn3,1 = HPn , called
the n-dimensional hyper Petersen network (originally proposed by Das and Banerjee
[79]), are better than the comparable-size hypercubes and several other networks with
respect to the usual metrics of a multicomputer architecture.
Let G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) be two graphs. The tensor product of G1 and
G2 , denoted by G1 G2 , is the graph with vertex set V1 V2 such that (u1 , v1 ) is joined
to (u2 , v2 ) k times if and only if u1 is joined to u2 m times in G1 and v1 is joined to v2
n times in G2 with k = mn. The strong product of G1 and G2 , denoted by G1 G2 , is
the graph (G1 G2 ) (G1 G2 ). We illustrate G1 G2 in Figure 1.19a and G1 G2 in
Figure 1.19b where G1 and G2 are shown in Figure 1.18.
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 16
Note that the adjacency matrix of G1 G2 is the tensor product of the adjacency
matrix of G1 and the adjacency matrix of G2 . Let m and n be positive integers. It is
apparent that Km Kn = Kmn .
Let G be any graph and k be any positive integer. We use k G to denote the graph
obtained by duplicating k times to each edge in G. Obviously, 1 G = G. The graph 2 K2
is denoted by C2 .
PROPOSITION 1.3 For n 2, there are 2C(n1;2) simple graphs with the vertex
set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } such that every vertex degree is even.
Proof: Let A be the set of simple graphs with the vertex set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn1 } and
let B be the set of simple graphs with the vertex set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } such that every
vertex degree is even. In Example 1.7, we observed that |A| = 2C(n1;2) . To prove this
proposition, we set a bijection from A to B as follows.
Let G be a simple graph with vertices v1 , v2 , . . . , vn1 . We form a new graph G
by adding a vertex vn and making it adjacent to each vertex that has an odd degree in
G, as illustrated in Figure 1.20.
The vertices with an odd degree in G have an even degree in G. Also, vn itself
has even degree because the number of vertices of odd degree in G is even. Con-
versely, deleting the vertex vn from any graph on {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } with even degrees
produces a graph on {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn1 }, and this is the inverse of the rst proce-
dure. We have established a one-to-one correspondence between the sets. Hence,
|B| = 2C(n1;2) .
The pigeonhole principle is a simple notion that leads to elegant proofs and may
reduce case analysis.
PROPOSITION 1.4 Every simple graph with at least two vertices has two vertices
of equal degree.
Proof: In a simple graph with n vertices, every vertex degree belongs to the set
{0, 1, . . . , n 1}. Suppose that fewer than n values occur. By the pigeonhole principle,
the proposition holds. Otherwise, both (n1) and 0 occur as vertex degrees. However,
vn
G
G
Fundamental Concepts 17
this is impossible, because the vertex of degree (n 1) is adjacent to all others, but
the vertex of degree 0 is an isolated vertex. We get a contradiction.
THEOREM 1.4 Every loopless graph G has a bipartite subgraph with at least
e(G)/2 edges.
Proof: We start with an arbitrary partition of V (G) into two sets, X and Y . By
including the edges having one endpoint in each set, we obtain a bipartite subgraph
H with bipartition X and Y . Suppose that H contains fewer than half the edges of G
incident to a vertex v. Then v has more neighbors in its own class than in the other
class, as illustrated in Figure 1.21. By moving v to the other class, we gain more edges
of G than we lose.
We make such a local switch in the bipartition as long as the current bipartition
subgraph has a vertex that contributes fewer than half its edges. Each such switch
increases the number of edges in the subgraph. Obviously, the process must termi-
nate. When it terminates, we have degH (v) degG (v)/2 for every v V (G). Hence,
e(H) e(G)/2 by the degree-sum formula.
Example 1.14
The algorithm used in Theorem 3.4 does not necessarily produce a bipartite subgraph
with the most edgesonly a bipartite graph with at least half the edges. For example, the
graph in Figure 1.22 is 5-regular with 8 vertices. Hence, it has 20 edges. The bipartition
X = {a, b, c, d} and Y = {e, f , g, h} yields a bipartite subgraph with 12 edges. In this
X Y
v
h a
g b
f c
e d
bipartite graph, each vertex has degree 3. The algorithm terminates here. Any switching
of one vertex would pick up two edges but lose three. Nevertheless, the bipartition
X = {a, b, g, h} and Y = {c, d, e, f } produces a 4-regular bipartite subgraph with 16 edges.
Thus, an algorithm seeking a maximum example by local changes. It may get stuck in a
local maximum.
The proof in Theorem 1.4 illustrates one way to prove the existence of the desired
conguration. Dene a sequence of changes to an arbitrary conguration that must
terminate but can terminate only when the desired property occurs.
Fundamental Concepts 19
Example 1.15
The list 2, 0, 0 is not graphic. However, the list 2, 2, 1, 1 and the list 1, 0, 1 are graphic.
Obviously, the graph K2 + K1 realizes 1, 0, 1. Suppose that we add a new vertex adjacent
to the isolated vertex and to one vertex of degree 1. We obtain a graph with degree
sequence 2, 2, 1, 1 as illustrated in Figure 1.23. Conversely, if we have a graph realizing
the list 2, 2, 1, 1 in which some vertex w of maximum degree is adjacent to vertices of
degrees 2 and 1, we can delete w to obtain a graph with degree list 1, 0, 1.
Example 1.16
These observations suggest a recursive test for graphic sequences. To test the sequence
33333322, we can seek a realization with a vertex y of degree 3 that has three neighbors of
degree 3. Such graph exists if and only if 2223322 is graphic by deleting y. We rearrange
this as 3322222 and seek a realization having a vertex x of degree 3 with one neighbor
of degree 3 and two neighbors of degree 2. Such a graph exists if and only if 211222 is
graphic by deleting x. We rearrange this as 222211 and seek a realization having a vertex
w of degree 2, with neighbors of degree 2. Such a graph exists if and only if 11211 is
graphic. Perhaps you recognize that this is indeed graphic. Beginning with a realization
11211, we can insert w, y, x with the properties desired to obtain a realization of the
original sequence 33333322 as shown in Figure 1.24. The realization is not unique.
THEOREM 1.5 (Havel [141], Hakimi [135]) For n > 1, the nonnegative integer
list d of size n is graphic if and only if d is graphic, where d is the list of size n 1
obtained from d by deleting its largest element and subtracting 1 from its next
largest elements. The only 1-element graph is sequence is d1 = 0.
ch001.tex 30/6/2008 9: 37 Page 20
S
x
y
w
Proof: The statement is trivial for n = 1. Assume that n > 1. We rst prove that the
condition is sufcient. Let d be the sequence d1 d2 dn , and G be a simple
graph with degree sequence d . We can add a new vertex adjacent to vertices in G hav-
ing degrees d2 1, d3 1, . . . , d+1 1. Note that these di are the largest elements
of d after (only copy of) itself. However, the numbers d2 1, d3 1, . . . , d+1 1
need not be the largest numbers in d .
To prove necessity, let G be a simple graph with degree sequence d. We want to
produce a simple graph G realizing d . Let w be a vertex of degree in G. Let S be
a set of vertices in G having the desired degrees d2 , d3 , . . . , d+1 .
Suppose that N(w) = S. We can delete w to obtain G . Suppose that N(w) = S.
Some vertex of S is missing from N(w). In this case, we will modify G to increase
|N(w) S| without changing the degree of any vertex. Because N(w) S can increase
at most times, repeating this procedure converts an arbitrary G that realizes d into
a graph G that realizes d and has N(w) = S. From G , we then delete w to obtain the
desired graph G realizing d .
The modication of G that increases |N(w) S| without changing the degree of
any vertex is described as follows: because deg (w) = = |S|, there exists a vertex
x S and another vertex z / S such that w is adjacent to z and w is not adjacent to x.
By the choice of S, deg(x) deg(z). Thus, there exists a vertex y / {x, z, w} such that
y is adjacent to x, but y is not adjacent to z. Now, we modify G by adding the edge set
{(w, x), (z, y)} and deleting the edge set {(w, z), (x, y)} (see Figure 1.25 for illustration).
The desired modication is obtained.
The vertex degree notation for digraphs incorporates the distinction between heads
and tails of edges. Let v be a vertex in a directed graph. The out-neighborhood or
successor set N + (v) is {x V (G) | v x}. The in-neighborhood or predecessor set
N (v) is {x V (G) | x v}. The out-degree of v, deg+ (v), is the cardinality of N + (v).
Similarly, the in-degree of v, deg (v), is the cardinality of N (v).
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 21
2 Applications
Isomorphisms
on Graph
The main goal of this book is to share our research with the readers. We believe that
anyone can do well in research with very little background. So it is time to see what
we can do with the limited background provided in Chapter 1.
1. i = k and j = l 1 (mod n)
2. j = l and k = i 1 (mod m) if i + j is even
Assume that m and n are positive integers, where n is even. The honeycomb
rhombic torus HRoT(m, n) is the graph with V (HRoT(m, n)) = {(i, j) | 0 i < m, 0
j i < n} such that (i, j) and (k, l) are adjacent if they satisfy one of the following
conditions:
1. i = k and j = l 1 (mod n)
2. j = l and k = i 1 if i + j is even
3. i = 0, k = m 1, and l = j + m if j is even
21
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 22
Chou and Hsu [62] unify these three families of honeycomb torus into gener-
alized honeycomb torus. Assume that m and n are positive integers, where n is
even. Let d be any integer such that (m d) is an even number. The generalized
honeycomb rectangular torus GHT(m, n, d) is the graph with V (GHT(m, n, d)) =
{(i, j) | 0 i < m, 0 j < n} such that (i, j) and (k, l) are adjacent if they satisfy one of
the following conditions:
1. i = k and j = l 1 (mod n)
2. j = l and k = i 1 if i + j is even
3. i = 0, k = m 1, and l = j + d (mod n) if j is even
See Figure 2.1 for various honeycomb tori. Obviously, any GHT(m, n, d) is a 3-
regular bipartite graph. We can label those vertices (i, j) white when i + j is even or
black if otherwise.
It is easy to conrm that the honeycomb rectangular torus HReT(m, n) is isomor-
phic to GHT(m, n, 0) and the honeycomb rhombic torus HRoT(m, n) is isomorphic to
GHT(m, n, m (mod n)). With the following theorem, the honeycomb hexagonal torus
HT(n) is isomorphic to GHT(n, 6n, 3n).
(a) (b)
x1
x3
x3 x3
x3 x3
x2
x3 x3
(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.1 (a) HReT(6, 6), (b) HRoT(4, 6), (c) HT(3), and (d) GHT(3, 18, 9).
(mod 6n)) if (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x2 1, x3 ). Therefore, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) are
adjacent.
Case 2. x3 x3 = 1. Because x1 + x2 + x3 = 2 and x1 + x2 + x3 = 1, (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(x1 , x2 , x3 1).
Assume that 1 x3 < n. Then h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x3 , x1 x2 + 2n) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(x3 1, x1 x2 + 2n). Assume that x3 = 0. Then h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, x1 x2 + 2n)
and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (n 1, x1 x2 + 5n (mod 6n)). Assume that x3 = n. Then
h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, x1 x2 + 5n (mod 6n)) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (n 1, x1 x2 + 2n).
Assume that 2 n x3 1. Then h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x3 + n, x1 x2 + 5n (mod 6n))
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 24
and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x3 + n 1, x1 x2 + 5n (mod 6n)). Therefore, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) and
h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) are adjacent.
Assume that e is an wraparound edge of HM(n). We have the following three
cases:
Case 3. e {((i, n i + 1, 1 n), (i n, 1 i, n)) | 1 i n}. Obviously, (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(i, n i + 1, 1 n) and (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (i n, 1 i, n). Thus, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is (1, 4n +
2i 1) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is (0, 4n + 2i 1). Therefore, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 )
are adjacent.
Case 4. e {((1 n, i, n i + 1), (n, i n, 1 i)) | 1 i n}. Obviously, (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(1 n, i, n i + 1) and (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (n, i n, 1 i). Thus, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is (0, 4n) if
i = 1 and (n i + 1, n i + 1) if 1 < i n. Again, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is (0, 4n 1) if i = 1
and (n i + 1, n i) if 1 < i n. Therefore, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) are adjacent.
Case 5. e {((i, 1 n, n i + 1), (i n, n, 1 i)) | 1 i n}. Obviously, (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
(i, 1 n, n i + 1) and (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (i n, n, 1 i). Thus, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is (0, 0) if
i = 1 and (n i + 1, 3n + i 1) if 1 < i n. Again, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is (0, 1) if i = 1 and
(n i + 1, 3n + i) if 1 < i n. Hence, h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) and h(x1 , x2 , x3 ) are adjacent.
Thus, the theorem is proved.
For example, the honeycomb torus illustrated in Figure 2.1c is actually isomorphic
to the generalized honeycomb torus illustrated in Figure 2.1d.
row 000
row 001
row 010
row 011
0112 row 100
row 101
row 110
row 111
To dene edges in Gkn , we rst dene the function fs for every 1 s k, mapping
V (Gkn ) onto itself as follows:
i ij+1 ij1 ij+1 ij1 s
fs tj j tj+1 . . . tnin t1i1 . . . tj1 = tj+1 . . . tnin t1i1 . . . tj1 tj for any 1 s k
Note that all fj are bijective functions. Each vertex x V (Gkn ) is linked to exactly 2k
vertices fj (x) and fj1 (x) for all 1 j k. For example, in G24 the vertex t31 t41 t11 t22 is
linked to t41 t11 t22 t31 , t41 t11 t22 t32 , t21 t31 t41 t11 , and t22 t31 t41 t11 .
For example, n = 3, k = 2, f (0000) = t11 t21 t31 , f (0001) = t21 t31 t11 , and f (0112) = t32 t11 t22 .
Obviously, the function is bijective.
Let u = a0 a1 . . . an1 i and v = b0 b1 . . . bn1 j be two distinct vertices in WB(n, k).
Then (u) and (v) are two distinct vertices in Gkn given as follows:
+1 ai +1 ai2 +1
ti+1 . . . tnan1 +1 t1a0 +1 t2a1 +1 . . . ti1
a
(u) = ti i1
+1 bj +1 bj2 +1
tj+1 . . . tnbn1 +1 t1b0 +1 t2b1 +1 . . . tj1
b
(v) = tj j1
Assume that u and v are adjacent in WB(n, k). Without loss of generality, we
may assume that j = i 1 (mod n). Thus, at = bt for all 0 t = j n 1; that is,
v = a0 a1 . . . ai2 bi1 ai . . . an1 (i 1). Therefore,
ai +1 i+1 +1 +1 bi1 +1
tnan1 +1 t1a0 +1 t2a1 +1 ti1
a a
(v) = ti+1 ti+2 i2
ti = fbi1 ((u))
On the other hand, suppose that (u) and (v) are adjacent in Gkn . Then
(v) can be fs ((u)) or fs1 ((u)) for some 1 s k. Suppose that (v) = fs ((u))
ai +1 ai+1 +1 a +1 ai2 1 s+1
for some 1 s k. Then (v) = ti+1 ti+2 . . . tn n1 t1a0 +1 t2a1 +1 . . . ti1 ti
and v = a0 a1 . . . ai1 sai . . . an1 (i 1). Therefore, (u, v) E(WB(n, k)). Similarly,
(v) = fs1 ((u)) also implies (u, v) E(WB(n, k)).
This theorem is proved.
x31 x32 x33 x34 x31 x32 x33 x34 x34 x31 x32 x33
x21 x22 x23 x24 x21 x22 x23 x24 x24 x21 x22 x23
x11 x 12 x13 x14 x11 x12 x13 x14 x14 x11 x12 x13
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 2.3 (a) The graph M(3, 4), (b) the graph C(3, 4) with a faulty (dashed) edge
F = (x2,3 , x2,4 ), and (c) a recovery from a fault affecting the dashed edge F = (x2,3 , x2,4 ).
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 27
Moreover, xi1 ,i2 ,..., in is adjacent to another vertex xj1 , j2 ,..., jn if all indices t with 1 t n
but one index k satisfy it = jt ; and the index k is such that ik = jk satises |ik jk | = 1.
Let Vp = {xi1 ,i2 ,...,in | ik = 1 or mk for some 1 k n} be the set of peripheral vertices.
Assume that xi1 ,i2 ,..., in is a vertex in Vp . The antipodal vertex of xi1 ,i2 ,...,in is xj1 , j2 ,..., jn ,
with jk = mk ik + 1, which is another vertex in Vp . It is easy to conrm that every
vertex in Vp has exactly one antipodal. In M(m1 , m2 , . . . , mn ), we add the edges joining
each vertex in Vp to its antipodal counterpart to form a new graph P(m1 , m2 , . . . , mn ).
We call these P(m1 , m2 , . . . , mn ) projective-plane graphs because their construction
is similar to that of the projective plane when n = 2.
FIGURE 2.4 The recovery of M(3, 4) for the faulty edge F = (x2,3 , x2,4 ) in P(3, 4).
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 28
(a) (b)
labeled by xi, j with 1 i k and 1 j 2 canonically. The vertices x1,1 , xk,1 , x1,2 ,
and xk,2 are called the corner vertices of Lk . We have the following theorem.
THEOREM 2.4 Assume that Lk is a 1-EFT(Lk ) graph. Then (i) degLk (x) 3 for
any vertex x of Lk and (ii) eft1 (Lk ) 2.
Proof: Assume that some vertex x with degLk (x) = 2. Let e be any edge incident
with x. Then degLk e (x) = 1. Because degLk (x) 2 for any vertex x of Lk , Lk is not
a subgraph of Lk e. We nd a contradiction to Lk being a 1-EFT(Lk ) graph. Hence,
degLk (x) 3. Because there are exactly four corner vertices in every Lk , we have
eft1 (Lk ) 2.
Let L2 (L3 , and L4 , respectively) be the graph P(2, 2) (the graph in Figures 2.5a,
and 2.5b, respectively). From the previous discussion, Lk is 1-EFT(Lk ) for k = 2, 3,
and 4. Note that there are exactly two edges added to Lk with k = 2, 3, and 4. By
Theorem 2.4, these graphs are optimal. By checking all three cases joining two edges
to the corner vertices of Lk , the optimal 1-EFT(Lk ) is unique for k = 2, 3, and 4. We
obtain the following theorem.
x2,2 x3,2 x3,1 x2,1 x1,1 x2,2 x1,2 x1,1 x2,1 x3,1 x4,1 x3,1 x3,2 x4,2 x5,2 x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x3,1 x3,2
x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x5,1 x5,2 x3,2 x4,2 x5,2 x5,1 x4,1 x5,1 x2,1 x2,2 x1,2 x1,1 x1,1 x5,2 x5,1 x2,1 x2,2
x3,1 x4,2 x5,1 x2,1 x2,2 x3,2 x2,2 x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x5,2 x1,1 x1,2 x4,2 x4,1
x3,2 x4,2 x5,2 x1,1 x1,2 x3,1 x2,1 x1,1 x5,2 x5,1 x5,1 x2,1 x2,2 x3,2 x3,1
(e) (f) (g)
THEOREM 2.7 Assume that k is an even integer with k 4. Then eft1 (Lk ) k 2.
x1,2 x 2,2 x i,2 xi1,2 xk/21,2 xk/2,2 xk/21,2 xk/22,2 xki,2 xki1,2 xk1,2 xk,2
x1,1 x 2,1 x i,1 xi1,1 xk/21,1 xk/2,1 xk/21,1 xk/22,2 xki,1 xki1,1 xk1,1 xk,1
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(a) (b)
Page 30
xi,2 xi,2 x
i1,2
(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.8 (a) a 1-EFT(Lk ) where k is even and k 4, (b) the three-dimensional mesh M(k/2, 2, 2), (c) recongured Lk for any faulty edge of the
Lk ,
form (xi,1 , xi,2 ), and (d) recongured Lk for any faulty edge of the form (xi,1 , xi+1,1 ) or (xi,2 , xi+1,2 ).
Graph Theory and Interconnection Networks
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 31
x 1,2 x 2,2 x 3,2 x 4,2 x 5,2 x 6,2 x7,2 x 8,2 x 9,2 xk3,2 xk2,2 xk1,2 xk,2
x 1,1 2,1 x 3,1 x 4,1 x 5,1 x 6,1 x7,1 x 8,1 x 9,1 xk3,1 xk2,1 xk1,1 xk,1
THEOREM 2.8 Assume that k is an odd integer with k 7. Then eft1 (Lk ) k 1.
x1,1 x5,2 x6,2 x9,2 x10,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 xk4,2 xk3,2 xk,2 xk1,2 xk2,2 xk5,2 x4i3,2 x4i,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x3,2 x2,2
(a) k 4m 1
x2,1 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk4,1 xk3,1 xk,1 xk1,1 xk2,1 xk5,1 x4i3,1 x4i,1 x11,1 x8,1 x7,1 x4,1 x4,2 x1,2
25/7/2008
x1,1 x5,2 x6,2 x9,2 x10,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 xk2,2 xk1,2 xk,2 xk3,2 xk4,2 x4i3,2 x4i,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x3,2 x2,2
k 4m 3
12: 33
x2,1 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk2,1 xk1,1 xk,1 xk3,1 xk4,1 x4i3,1 x4i,1 x11,1 x8,1 x7,1 x4,1 x4,2 x1,2
xk1,1 xk,1 xk3,1 xk2,1 x2i,1 x2i1,1 x10,1 x11,1 x8,1 x9,1 x6,1 x7,1 x4,1 x5,1 x5,2 x4,2 x3,2
(b)
Page 32
xk1,2 xk,2 xk3,2 xk2,2 x2i,2 x2i1,2 x10,2 x11,2 x8,2 x9,2 x6,2 x7,2 x3,1 x2,1 x1,1 x1,2 x2,2
x1,1 x1,2 x2,2 x2,1 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i2,1 x4i1,1 xk3,1 xk,1 xk,2 xk3,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 x10,2 x9,2 x6,2
(c) k 4m 1
x5,2 x4,2 x3,2 x3,1 x4,1 x7,1 x8,1 x11,1 x4i1,1 x4i,1 xk2,1 xk1,1 xk1,2 xk2,2 x4i,2 x4i1,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2
x1,1 x1,2 x2,2 x2,1 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk2,1 xk1,1 xk1,2 xk2,2 x4i2,2 x4i1,2 x10,2 x9,2 x6,2
k 4m 3
x5,2 x4,2 x3,2 x3,1 x4,1 x7,1 x8,1 x11,1 x4i,1 x4i3,1 xk3,1 xk,1 xk ,2 xk3,2 x4i3,2 x4i,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2
FIGURE 2.10 Recongures of Lk in Lk where k is odd and k 7 for any faulty edge in (a)(g), respectively.
Graph Theory and Interconnection Networks
ch002.tex
xk1,2 xk2,2 xk5,2 x4i,2 x4i1,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x2,1 x1,1 x5,2 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i2,1 x
4i1,1
xk4,1 xk3,1 xk,1
(d)
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k 4m 1
xk,2 xk3,1 xk4,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 x10,2 x9,2 x6,2 x3,2 x2,2 x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x7,1 x8,1 x11,1 x4i1,1 x4i,1 xk5,1 xk2,1 xk1,1
xk,2 xk3,2 xk4,2 x4i3,2 x4i,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x2,1 x1,1 x5,2 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk5,1 xk2,1 xk1,1
12: 33
k 4m 3
Applications on Graph Isomorphisms
xk1,2 xk2,2 xk5,2 x4i2,2 x4i1,2 x10,2 x9,2 x6,2 x3,2 x2,2 x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x7,1 x8,1 x11,1 x4i,1 x4i3,1 xk4,1 xk3,1 xk,1
x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x7,1 x8,1 x11,1 x4i1,1 x4i,1 xk2,1 xk1,1 xk1,2 xk2,2 x4i,2 x4i1,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x2,1
Page 33
(e) k 4m 1
x1,1 x5,2 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i2,1 x4i1,1 xk3,1 xk,1 xk,2 xk3,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 x10,2 x9,2 x6,2 x3,2 x2,2
x1,2 x4,2 x4,1 x7,1 x8,1 x11,1 x4i,1 x4i3,1 xk3,1 xk,1 xk,2 xk3,2 x4i3,2 x4i,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x2,1
k 4m 3
x1,1 x5,2 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk2,1 xk1,1 xk1,2 xk2,2 x4i2,2 x4i1,2 x10,2 x9,2 x6,2 x3,2 x2,2
x1,2 x1,1 x5,2 x4,2 x3,2 x6,2 x9,2 x10,2 x4i2,2 x4i1,2 xk3,2 xk,2 xk,1 xk3,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 x10,1 x9,1 x6,1
25/7/2008
(f)
k 4m 1
x2,2 x2,1 x5,1 x4,1 x3,1 x7,2 x8,2 x11,2 x4i1,2 x4i,2 xk2,2 xk1,2 xk1,1 xk2,1 x4i,1 x4i1,1 x11,1 x8,1 x7,1
12: 33
x1,2 x1,1 x5,2 x4,2 x3,2 x6,2 x9,2 x10,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 xk2,2 xk1,2 xk1,1 xk2,1 x4i2,1 x4i1,1 x10,1 x9,1 x6,1
k 4m 3
x2,2 x2,1 x5,1 x4,1 x3,1 x7,2 x8,2 x11,2 x4i,2 x4i3,2 xk3,2 xk,2 xk,1 xk3,1 x4i3,1 x4i,1 x11,1 x8,1 x7,1
Page 34
xk1,1 xk2,1 x4i,1 x4i1,1 x12,1 x11,1 x8,1 x7,1 x4,1 x4,2 x1,2 x1,1 x5,2 x6,2 x9,2 x10,2 x13,2 x14,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 xk4,2 xk3,2 xk,2
(g)
k 4m 1
xk1,2 xk2,2 x4i,2 x4i1,2 x12,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x3,2 x2,2 x2,1 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x13,1 x14,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk4,1 xk3,1 xk,1
xk,1 xk3,1 xk4,1 x4i,1 x4i1,1 x12,1 x11,1 x8,1 x7,1 x4,1 x4,2 x1,2 x1,1 x5,2 x6,2 x9,2 x10,2 x13,2 x14,2 x4i1,2 x4i2,2 xk2,2 xk1,2
k 4m 2
xk,2 xk3,2 xk4,2 x4i,2 x4i1,2 x12,2 x11,2 x8,2 x7,2 x3,1 x3,2 x2,2 x2,1 x5,1 x6,1 x9,1 x10,1 x13,1 x14,1 x4i1,1 x4i2,1 xk2,1 xk1,1
(d) (e)
FIGURE 2.11 (a) The graph pair (G1 , G1 ), (b) the graph pair (G2 , G2 ), (c) the graph G1 G2 ,
(d) the graph (G1 E1 ) (G2 E2 ), and (e) the graph (G1 , G1 ) (G2 , G2 ).
COROLLARY 2.3 Let be any permutation on the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. We have
1. (G1 , G1 ) (G2 , G2 ) (Gn , Gn ) = (G(1) , G(1) ) (G(2) , G(2) )
(G(n) , G(n) )
2. (G1 , G1 ) (G2 , G2 ) (Gn , Gn ) = (G(1) , G(1) ) (G(2) , G(2) )
(G(n) , G(n) )
1. There exists a function from V (G) into itself such that the function
h : V (G K2 ) V (G K2 ) given by h((xi , z1 )) = (xi , z1 ) and h((xi , z2 )) =
((xi ), z2 ) induces an isomorphism from G K2 into a subgraph of
(G , G) (C2 , K2 ) X.
2. For any edge e = (xi , xj ) in G, there exists an isomorphism fe
from G K2 into a subgraph of ((G , G) (C2 , K2 )) Ye satisfying
p1 ( fe ((xi , z1 ))) = p1 ( fe ((xi , z2 ))) for every xi V (G) where p1 is the rst
projection of the specied vertex.
Let Pn be the path graph of n vertices with V (Pn ) = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 } and
E(Pn ) = {(xi , xi+1 ) | 0 i n 2}. We consider aspanning supergraph Pn of Pn
dened by E(Pn ) = E(Pn ) {(xi , xni1 ) | 0 i 2 1}. We illustrate P4 and
n
(P4 , P4 ) (C2 , K2 ) in Figure 2.12. Let be a function from V (Pn ) into V (Pn ) dened
by (xi ) = xni+1 for every i. It can be easily veried that satises condition (1).
We use (P5 , P5 ) (C2 , K2 ) for illustration. Figures 2.13a and 2.13b show P5 and
(P5 , P5 ) (C2 , K2 ). In Figure 2.13c, we illustrate (P5 , P5 ) (C2 , K2 ), where the ver-
tices are labeled according to the function h, and the the graph isomorphic to P5 K2
is shown by thick lines.
Let e = (xi , xi+1 ) be an edge of Pn . Let fe be the function dened by
fe ((xj , zk )) = (xni+j1 , zk ) for 1 j i and fe ((xj , zk )) = (xji1 , z3k ) for i < j n.
x0 x1 x2 x3
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2.12 (a) The graph P4 and (b) the graph (P4 , P4 ) (C2 , K2 ).
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 37
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4
(a) (b)
(x4,z2) (x3,z2) (x2,z2) (x1,z2) (x0,z1) (x4,z2) (x3,z2) (x2,z2) (x1,z2) (x0,z2)
(x0,z1) (x1,z1) (x2,z1) (x3,z1) (x4,z1) (x0,z1) (x1,z1) (x2,z2) (x3,z1) (x4,z1)
(c) (d)
Let us consider the example illustrated in Figure 2.13d. Identifying fe (xi , z1 ) and
fe (xi , z2 ) specied in condition 2, we obtain a graph that can tolerate fault on edge
(x1 , x2 ). It is not surprising that the faithful graph Pn is 1-EFT(Pn ). To generalize
this result, let G be an arbitrary graph, and G be FG(G). Then (G , G) (C2 , K2 )
is 1-EFT(G K2 ). Obviously, the number of edges in (G , G) (C2 , K2 ) X is
at most |E(G K2 )| + 2(|E(G )| |E(G)|) |V (G)|. Because the function h is an
isomorphism from G K2 into a subgraph of (G , G) (C2 , K2 ) X, it
follows
that 2(|E(G )| |E(G)|) |V (G)| 0, that is, |E(G )| |E(G)| |V (G)| 2 . Let fe
be a function satisfying condition 2. The function ge : V (G) V (G) dened
by ge (xi ) = p1 (fe ((xi , z1 )) is called an e-rotation of G . Obviously, ge induces an
isomorphism from G into G e. As a summary, we have the following lemma.
The question whether any 1-EFT(G) is FG(G) naturally arises. Let us consider G
to be the n-path graph Pn . The n-cycle Cn is a spanning supergraph of Pn dened by
E(Cn ) = E(Pn ) {(x1 , xn )}. Harary and Hayes [145] point out that Cn is an optimal
1-EFT(Pn ) graph. By Lemma 2.3, Cn is not FG(Pn ) if n 3. Therefore, Cn is FG(Pn )
if and only if n = 2. Thus any 1-EFT(G) graph is not necessarily FG(G).
Assume that n is a positive even integer. Let us construct a supergraph Cn of Cn
as follows: E(Cn ) = E(Cn ) {(xi , xi+ n2 ) | 1 i n/2}.
LEMMA 2.5 Assume that n is a positive even integer n. Cn is FG(Cn ) if and only if
n 4.
Proof: Note that C2 = 2 K2 and C2 = 3 K2 . Thus, there are two parallel edges in
C2 K2 , but there is no parallel edge in (C2 , C2 ) (C2 , K2 ) Ye for any e E(C2 ).
Hence, there is no fe that satises condition (2). Thus, C2 is not FG(C2 ).
Now, we discuss the case n 4. Let be the function from V (Cn ) into V (Cn )
dened by (xi ) = xi+ n2 (mod n) for every i. It can be observed that satises con-
dition 1. (See Figure 2.14a for the case n = 4; the vertices are labeled according
to the function h.) Choose an arbitrary edge e from Cn ; say, e = (x n2 , x n2 + 1 ). Con-
sider the function fe : Cn K2 (Cn , Cn ) (C2 , K2 ) given by fe ((xj , zk )) = (xj , zk ) if
1 j n/2, and fe ((xj , zk )) = (x 3n j1 , z3k ) otherwise. It follows that fe satises con-
2
dition 2. (See Figure 2.14b for the case n = 4 with e = (x2 , x3 ); the vertices are labeled
according to fe .) Since (Cn , Cn ) (C2 , K2 ) is vertex-transitive, we can always nd fe
for every edge e E(Cn ) that satises condition 2. Hence, Cn is FG(Cn ).
(x0,z2)
(x2,z2) (x3,z2) (x0,z2) (x1,z2) (x1,z2) (x3,z1) (x2,z1)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2.14 The graph (C4 , C4 ) (C2 , K2 ). (a) The function h satises condition 1 and (b)
the function fe satises condition 2, where e = (x1 , x2 ).
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 39
[284] proved that any such B in EFTL (n, k) satises the following two conditions: (1)
w(d j ) k for every 1 j n; that is, the Hamming weight of each d i is at least k and
(2) w(d i + d j ) k 1 for every 1 i < j n; that is, the Hamming distance h(d i , d j )
between d i and d j is at least k 1. Then they employed an ad hoc program to verify
edge fault tolerance and thus generate optimal linear k-EFT graphs for k = 2, 3 and
n 26.
Sung et al. [293] show that these two conditions are actually the necessary
and sufcient conditions for matrix B EFTL (n, k) with k = 2. They also show
that eftL (n, 3) = eftL (n, 2) + 1 and present a construction scheme for optimal linear
k-EFT(Qn ) for k = 2, 3. They also conjectured that eftL (n, 5) = eftL (n, 4) + 1. Ho
et al. [153] extend the idea in Ref. 347 to present some necessary and sufcient
conditions for matrix B in EFTL (n, k). With this result, Ho et al. [153] prove that
eftL (n, k + 1) eftL (n, k) + 1 and eftL (n, k + 1) = eftL (n, k) + 1 if k is even.
Assume that B is any m n matrix and R is any proper subset of {1, 2, . . . , m}.
Using column vectors, we can write B as [c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ] and B(R) as [cR1 , cR2 , . . . , cRn ].
Let h be a column or row vector. We use htr to denote the transpose of h.
THEOREM 2.11 A matrix B is in EFTL (n, k) if and only if the Hamming weight of
any column vectorthat is, a summation of t different columns of B with 1 t n
is greater than k; that is, w(ci1 + ci2 + + cit ) > k for any 1 i1 < i2 < < it n
and 1 t n.
Proof: Assume that B is a matrix such that the Hamming weight of some col-
umn vectorthat is, a summation of t different columns of B with 1 t nis
at most k. Then there exist some 1 i1 < i2 < < it n and 1 t n sat-
isfying w(ci1 + ci2 + + cit ) k. Let h = (h1 , h2 , . . . , hm )tr = ci1 + ci2 + + cit .
Let R = {i | hi = 1}. Obviously, |R| = w(h) k and cRi1 + cRi2 + + cRit = 0. There-
fore, {cRi1 , cRi2 , . . . , cRit } is linearly dependent. Hence, the rank of B(R) is less than n.
Therefore, B / EFTL (n, k).
On the other hand, assume that B is a matrix such that the Hamming weight of any
column vectorthat is, a summation of t different columns of B with 1 t nis
greater than k. Let R be any subset of {1, 2, . . . , m} with |R| k. Thus, any nontrivial
linear combination of at most n different columns of B(R) is not zero. Hence, the rank
of B(R) is n. Therefore, B EFTL (n, k).
THEOREM 2.12 eftL (n, k + 1) eftL (n, k) + 1. Moreover, eftL (n, k + 1) = eftL
(n, k) + 1 if k is even.
Proof: Assume that B is a matrix in EFTL (n, k + 1). Let B be any matrix obtained
by deleting any row from B . Obviously, B is a matrix in EFTL (n, k). Hence,
eftL (n, k + 1) eftL (n, k) + 1.
Let k be an even integer. Assume that B = (bi, j ) is any m n matrix in EFTL (n, k).
Form a new matrix B = (bij ) from B by adding a new row (bm+1,1
, bm+1,2
, . . . , bm+1,n )
m
where bm+1, j = i=1 bi, j . In other words, the new row is the even parity check
row of B. Thus, the Hamming weight of any column in B is even. Therefore, the
Hamming weight of any linear combination of column vectors of B is even. Let
ch002.tex 25/7/2008 12: 33 Page 42
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Let u and v be two vertices of a graph G. Suppose that there exists a path from u to v in G.
The distance from u to v, written dG (u, v) or simply d(u, v), is the least length among all
paths from u to v. Suppose that there exists no path from u to v in G. Then d(u, v) = .
The distance of any two vertices of a graph (or digraph) can be computed by the
breadth-rst search algorithm that is discussed in Chapter 4. With this method, we
can determine the radius and the diameter of a graph. However, we can more easily
determine these parameters in some particular graphs.
43
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 44
01000 11000
01001 11001
01011 11011
01010 11010
011 111 01110 11110
01111 11111 TQ5
010 110 01101 11101
01100 11100
000 100 00000 10000
00001 10001
001 101 00011 10011
TQ3 00010 10010
00110 10110
00111 10111
00101 10101
00100 10100
ALGORITHM H
1. If z = v, then the path is determined.
2. Assume that there exist neighbors w of z such that h2 (w, v) = h2 (z, v) 1.
Let w be such w that differs from z with the largest double bit. We reset z
to be w .
3. Assume that all the neighbors w of z satisfy h2 (w, v) h2 (z, v). Let j be
the smallest index of double bits that z differs from v. Choose w to be the
neighbor of z that differs from z in the 2jth bit. We reset z to be w .
We use PH (u, v) to denote the path joining from u to v obtained by the previous
algorithm. Following are two examples.
Example 3.1
Find PH (000100101, 111000010) and PH (000100101, 111000011). We list the paths
move by move:
000100101
000100101
001000101 001000101
001000100 001000001
111000100 111000001
111000010 111000011
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 46
Note that the rightmost differing double bit is selected in step 3. The resulting
parity change guarantees that all subsequent routing for the message will be by step
2 until the destination is reached. Hence, step 3 is executed at most once for a given
message. With this routing algorithm, we have the following theorems.
n+1
THEOREM 3.2 The diameter of the twisted cube TQn is 2 .
Next, we briey give the denitions of crossed cubes and Mbius cubes. Two
2-digit binary strings x = x1 x0 and y = y1 y0 are pair-related, denoted by x y, if
and only if (x, y) {(00, 00), (10, 10), (01, 11), (11, 01)}. The n-dimensional crossed
cube CQn , proposed in Ref. 93, is a graph CQn = (V , E) that is recursively con-
structed as follows: CQ1 is a complete graph with two vertices labeled by 0 and 1.
CQn consists of two identical (n 1)-dimension crossed cubes, CQn1 0 and CQn11 .
are adjacent
in CQn if and only if (1) un2 = vn2 , if n is even; and (2) for
0 i < n 2 1 , u2i+1 u2i v2i+1 v2i . The crossed cubes CQ3 and CQ4 are illustrated in
Figure 3.2.
The n-dimensional Mbius cube MQn , proposed in Ref. 76, has 2n vertices.
Each vertex is labeled by a unique n-bit binary string as its address and has con-
nections to n other distinct vertices. The vertex with address x = xn1 xn2 . . . x0
connects to n other vertices yi , 0 i n 1, where the address of yi satises (1)
yi = (xn1 . . . xi+1 xi . . . x0 ), if xi+1 = 0; or (2) yi = (xn1 . . . xi+1 xi . . . x0 ) if xi+1 = 1.
From the previous denition, x connects to yi by complementing the bit xi if
xi+1 = 0, or by complementing all bits of xi . . . x0 if xi+1 = 1. For the connection
between x and yn1 , we can assume that the unspecied xn is either 0 or 1, which gives
slightly different topologies. If xn is 0, we call the network generated the 0-Mbius
cube, denoted by 0-MQn ; and if xn is 1, we call the network generated the 1-Mbius
CQ4
0000 0001
0010
0011 1111 1101
1010 1011
0000 0001
1-MQ4 1011
0101
0111 1001
1101 1100
cube, denoted by 1-MQn . The Mbius cubes 0-MQ4 and 1-MQ4 are illustrated in
Figure 3.3.
3.3 SHUFFLE-CUBES
Li et al. [224] present a variant of hypercubes called the shufe-cube, SQn . SQn is
obtained from Qn by changing some links of Qn . It has a diameter of around n/4.
Let u = un1 un2 . . . u1 u0 be an n-bit string. We use pj (u) to denote the j-prex
of u; that is, pj (u) = un1 un2 . . . unj , and si (u) the i-sufx of u; that is, si (u) =
ui1 ui2 . . . u1 u0 . Let u and v be two vertices. Let denote an addition with
modulo 2. We dene the following four sets: V00 = {1111, 0001, 0010, 0011},
V01 = {0100, 0101, 0110, 0111}, V10 = {1000, 1001, 1010, 1011}, and V11 = {1100,
1101, 1110, 1111}. For ease of exposition, we limit our discussion to n = 4k + 2 for
k 0.
We recursively dened the n-dimensional shufe-cube, SQn , as follows: SQ2 is
i1 i2 i3 i4
Q2 . For n 3, SQn consists of 16 subcubes SQn4 , where ij {0, 1} for 1 j 4
i1 i2 i3 i4
and p4 (u) = i1 i2 i3 i4 for all vertices u in SQn4 . The vertices u = un1 un2 . . . u1 u0
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 48
10 11
0000 0100 1000 1100
00 01
For example, the vertex 111101 in SQ6 is linked to the following vertices in dif-
ferent subcubes of dimension 2: 101101, 101001, 100101, and 100001. We illustrate
SQ6 in Figure 3.4 by showing only edges incident at vertices in SQ20000 and omitting
the others. It is easy to see that the degree of each vertex of SQn is n and the number
of vertices (edges, respectively) is the same as that of Qn .
j j
For 1 j k, the jth 4-bit of u, denoted by u4 , is dened as u4 =
u4j+1 u4j u4j1 u4j2 . In particular, the 0th 4-bit of u, u4 , is dened as u4 = u1 u0 . Thus,
0 0
j j
u4 = v4 if and only if u4j+i = v4j+i for 2 i 1. Similar to the Hamming distance,
we dene the 4-bit Hamming distance between u and v, denoted by h4 (u, v), as the
j j j j j
number of 4-bits u4 with 0 j k such that u4 = v4 , that is, h4 (u, v) = |{ j | u4 = v4
for 0 j k}|.
With the notion of h4 (u, v), we can redene SQn as follows: the vertex u and the
vertex v are adjacent if and only if one of the following conditions holds:
j j
1. u4 v4 Vu0 for exactly one j satisfying 1 j k and u4 = v4 for all
j j
4
0 j = j k
j j
2. u40 v40 {01, 10} and u4 = v4 for all 1 j k
For example, the ten neighbors of 1011000010 in SQ10 are given by 0011000010,
0010000010, 0001000010, 0000000010, 1011100010, 1011100110, 1011101010,
1011101110, 1011000000, and 1011000011. In other words, the vertex u is adjacent
to the vertex v only if h4 (u, v) = 1. However, the converse is not necessarily true.
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 49
Next, we propose a routing algorithm on SQn . Assume that u and v are two vertices
of SQn . We use h4 (u, v) to denote the number of u4 for 1 j k such that u4 = v4 .
j j j
3.3.1 ROUTE1(U, V)
1. Suppose that u = v. Then accept the message.
2. Find a neighbor w of u such that h4 (w, v) = h4 (u, v) 1 if w exists. Then
route into w.
3. Suppose that there is no neighbor w of u such that h4 (w, v) = h4 (u, v) 1.
Then route into the neighbor w of u that changes u1 u0 in a cyclic manner
with respect to 00, 01, 11, and 10. For example, w = pn2 (u)00 if u1 u0 = 10.
Example 3.2
Let u = 0001000101001000110000 and v = 0000000000000000000011 be two vertices
of SQ18 . The path obtained from Route1(u, v) is
THEOREM 3.3 (Moore Bound) Suppose that G is a graph with diameter D and
maximum degree d. Then
THEOREM 3.4 (Moore Bound) Suppose that G is a digraph with diameter D and
maximum degree d. Then
d D+1 1
n(G)
d1
The (n, d, D) problem is one of the most difcult problems in graph theory [68].
It is known that only very few graphs satisfy the Moore bound. In the following
discussion, we present two families of graphs (digraphs). The orders of the diameter
of these families of digraphs meet the Moore bound.
Let d be an integer with d 2. Let X(t) denote the set {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xt )|
xi {0, 1, . . . , d 1}}. Obviously, |X(t)| = d t . The de Bruijn digraph, proposed in
Ref. 85, BRU(d, t), is the digraph with vertex set X(t) such that an edge exists from
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ) to (y1 , y2 , . . . , yt ) if and only if xj = yj1 for 2 j t. In Figure 3.5,
we illustrate BRU(2, 2) and BRU(2, 3). We use UBRU(d, t) to denote the underlying
simple graph of BRU(d, t).
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 51
000
01
001 100
010
00 11 101
011 110
10
111
BRU(2,2)
BRU(2,3)
LEMMA 3.2 There exists a path of length t joining any two vertices x and y in
BRU(d, t).
Proof: Suppose that x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ) and y = ( y1 , y2 , . . . , yt ) are two vertices
of BRU(d, t). Obviously,
p0 = x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ), p1 = (x2 , x3 , . . . , xt , y1 ), . . . , pi =
(xi+1 , . . . , xt , y1 , . . . , yi1 ). . . , pt = y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yt ) forms a path of length t joining
x to y.
LEMMA 3.3 There exists a path of length at most t joining any two vertices x and
y in Kautz(d, t). Hence, D(Kautz(d, t)) = D(UKautz(d, t)) = t.
Proof: Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yt ) be two vertices of Kautz(d, t).
Suppose that xt = y1 . Then
p0 = x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ), p1 = (x2 , x3 , . . . , xt , y1 ), . . . ,
pi = (xi+1 , . . . , xt , y1 , . . . , yi1 ), . . . , pt = y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yt ) forms a path of length t
joining x to y.
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 52
202
212
120
010 102
020
With Corollary 3.4, we notice that the diameter of the de Bruijn graphs and the
diameter of the Kautz digraphs are closed to the Moore bound.
e 1324 b
f c
12 21 2314 3124
ALGORITHM In order for the path to be minimal in length, the moves must be
restricted to two possible choices: for any vertex u = 1 2 . . . k with 1 = 11 , either (1)
exchange 11 with 12 , thereby reducing the length of the cycle 1 by 1, or (2) exchange
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 54
11 with jl (where 2 j k and 1 l |j |), thereby merging the two cycles 1 and
j into one cycle.
A path from a vertex u to the destination is said to follow the shortest
routing scheme if the moves are restricted to these two types. For example,
3, 4, 5, 2, 1, 6 = (1, 3, 5)(2, 4)(6). Applying the algorithm, we obtain (1, 3)(1, 5)
(1, 2)(1, 4)(1, 2). It is easy to conrm that (1, 3, 5)(2, 4)(6)(1, 3)(1, 5)(1, 2)(1, 4)
(1, 2) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Thus, the product (1, 3)(1, 5)(1, 2)(1, 4)(1, 2) corresponds to a
shortest path from 3, 4, 5, 2, 1, 6 to the identity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
Let d(u) denote the distance between the vertex u to the identity permutation. Let
c be the number of cycles of length at least 2 in any permutation u and m be the total
number of symbols in those c cycles of the permutation u. With the previous routing
algorithm, D(u) is d(u) = c + m if 1 is the rst symbol, and c + m 2 if otherwise.
For example, let u = 3, 2, 5, 4, 1, 6 = (1, 3, 5)(2)(4)(6) = (1, 3, 5). Then c = 1,
m = 3, and d(u) = c + m 2 = 2. Let u = 1, 4, 3, 2, 5, 6 = (1)(2, 4)(3)(5)(6) = (2, 4).
Then c = 1, m = 2, and d(u) = 1 + 2 = 3. With this observation, it can be proved that
the diameter of Sn is 3(n1) 2 .
The n-dimensional pancake graph, denoted by Pn , is a graph with the vertex
set V (Pn ) = { p1 p2 . . . pn | pi
n and pi = pj for i = j}. The adjacency is dened as
follows: p1 p2 . . . pi . . . pn is adjacency to pi pi1 . . . p1 , pi+1 . . . pn through an edge of
dimension i, where 2 i n (prex substring reversal). The pancake graphs P2 , P3 ,
and P4 are shown in Figure 3.8. Again, Pn is an (n 1)-regular graph with n! vertices.
Note that Pn is bipartite if and only if n = 2 and 3.
The star graph and the pancake graph [3,4] are attractive alternatives to the n-cube.
They have many signicant advantages over the n-cube, such as a lower degree and a
1234 4321
12
3214 3421 2341
2134
21 3124 2431
2314 1324
3241
(a)
4231
2413
123
3142
213
321 4213
4132 1423
1342
231 312 1432 4123
3412 4312 1243
132
2143
(b) (c)
smaller diameter. There are a lot of studies on the properties of these two families of
graphs. We note that Gates and Papadimitriou [121] began the study on the diameter of
the pancake graphs. At this point, the diameter of the pancake graphs is still unsolved
[144].
The concrete values of D(Pn ) for small n are studied in Refs. 73, 144, and 205.
Collective results are listed in the following table:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
D(Pn ) 0 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17
Furthermore, we dene the edge congestion of the network G under the routing
algorithm A, denoted by cA (G), as
LEMMA 3.4 Assume that G is an n-vertex graph such that the removal of w edges
partitions G into two not necessarily
connected
subgraphs of k vertices and n k
vertices, respectively. Then c(G) 2k(nw k) . Moreover, this bound is tight.
ch003.tex 19/7/2008 17: 46 Page 56
Proof: Assume that A and B are the subgraphs of the partition and let be any
shortest path routing of G. Note that contains a shortest path (u, v) for each (u, v).
It contains k(n k) paths from A to B and same k(n k) paths from B to Athat cross
the w edges in the cut. Thus, some edge of the cut must crossed at least 2k(nw k)
times. As this is true for every shortest path routing of G, c(G) 2k(nw k) . Because
a shortest path may cross the cut many times, this is not an upper bound. However,
the bound is tight for G if G is the complete graph Kn .
COROLLARY 3.3 Assume that G is an n-vertices graph with edge congestion c(G)
n2
n2 1
and bisection width bw(G). Then c(G) 2bw(G) if n is even and c(G) 2bw(G)
if n is odd.
Now, we compute the edge congestion and the bisection width of the hypercube Qn .
n
n
n n
cA (e) = |PA (x, y)| i = 2n i = 2n n2n1
i i
eE(Qn ) (x,y)V V xV i=0 i=0
Thus, c(Qn ) 2n .
On the other hand, suppose that C is the routing strategy that routes x to y by
changing the rightmost differing bit iteratively. To be precise, assume that x differs
from y at k bits, say, the l1 -, l2 -, . . . , lk -th bits with 0 l1 < l2 < < lk n 1. Then
PC (x, y) is given by
x = x 0 , x 1 , . . . , x k = y, where x d differs from x d+1 at the ld+1 -th
bit. Let e = (u, v) be an edge of Qn with u and v differing at the jth bit such that
(u, v) is incident on PC (x, y). That is, either [u, v] PC (x, y) or [v, u] PC (x, y). Let
us consider [u, v] PC (x, y). It follows from algorithm C that xn1 . . . xj = un1 . . . uj
and yj . . . y1 y0 = vj . . . v1 v0 . Therefore,
Similarly,
22n
Now, we prove that bw(Qn ) = 2n1 . By Corollary 3.3, 2n = c(Qn ) 2bw(Q n)
.
Thus, bw(Qn ) 2 . Let V0 = {u | u = un1 un2 . . . u1 u0 V (Qn ) with un1 = 0}
n1
and V1 = {u | u = un1 un2 . . . u1 u0 V (Qn ) with un1 = 1}. Let X denote the edges
joining vertices between V0 and V1 . Obviously, the deletion of X from Qn par-
titions Qn into V0 and V1 . It is observed that |V0 | = |V1 | and |X| = 2n1 . Hence,
bw(Qn ) = 2n1 .
follows: f (i) = v = v0 if the host sends its message to v at time i, and f (i) = v0 if
the host is idle at time i. Let s = |{i | f (i) V }|, which is called the workload of
the host. Obviously, s t. The function f is called a (t, s)-transmitting scheme if
f (i)V Nti ( f (i)) = V ; that is, all vertices in V can receive the message in t time units.
In a (t, s)-transmitting scheme, each processor in G receives the message either
from the host or from its neighbor within t time units, while the workload of the
host is given by s. Such a t is called a feasible transmitting time. The cost of a (t, s)-
transmitting scheme f , denoted by c( f ), is dened as the ordered pair (t, s). We use
TS(G) to denote the set of all possible transmitting schemes for G. Let f , g TS(G)
be two transmitting schemes with c( f ) = (t1 , s1 ) and c(g) = (t2 , s2 ). We say f g if
c( f ) c(g) lexicographically; that is, t1 < t2 or t1 = t2 and s1 s2 .
A scheme f TS(G) is an optimal transmitting scheme for G if f g for
all g TS(G). The optimal transmitting cost of G, denoted by c(G), is dened as
c(G) = c( f ) = (t , s ), where t = t(G) is the optimal transmitting time, and s = s(G)
is the optimal workload of the host.
Obviously, we can always obtain a (D + 1, 1)-transmitting scheme, where D is
the diameter of the underlying network. An optimal transmitting scheme is what we
seek. The problem of designing an optimal transmitting scheme for a graph G is
important to
the communication
of interconnection networks. Alon [8] proposes an
optimal n2 + 1, 2 -transmitting scheme for n-dimensional hypercube Qn .
In the following sections, we study the transmitting problem of some graphs.
THEOREM 3.6 [149] c(Pn ) = ( n , n ).
Proof: Without loss of generality, we assume that n = m2 for some positive integer
m. Assume that f is an optimal transmitting scheme with c( f ) = (t, s). Pn can be easily
partitioned into m nonoverlapping intervals I1 , I2 , . . . , Im with |Ii | = 2i 1 vertices for
1 i m. An (m, m)-transmitting scheme can be easily obtained by setting f (i) to the
center of Imi+1 . Thus, m t.
On the other hand, it is observed that |Nr (v)| 2r + 1 for any vertex v and
nonnegative integer r. Because f is a transmitting scheme,
t1
m = | f (i)V Nti ( f (i))|
2
(2r + 1) = 1 + 3 + + (2t 1) = t 2 (3.1)
r=0
t1
| f (i)V Nti (f (i))| (2r + 1) = 3 + + (2t 1) = t 2 1 = m2 1
r=1
COROLLARY 3.4 [149] c(Cn ) = ( n , n ).
Therefore,
t1 r+1
d 1 d(d t 1) t
|f (i)V Nti ( f (i))| = (3.2)
d1 (d 1) 2 d1
r=0
Now we consider d 3. Because for any vertex v we have Nn (v) = V (BRU(d, n)),
we can give an (n + 1, 1)-transmitting scheme as follows: the host sends a message
to an arbitrary vertex in BRU(d, n) and then idles. After (n + 1) units of time, all
processors in BRU(d, n) can receive the message. Assume that the optimal transmitting
time is t n. It follows that
d(d n 1) n
|f (i)V Nti ( f (i))| < dn
(d 1)2 d1
It means that not all of the vertices in BRU(d, n) can receive the message in n time
units, which is a contradiction. Thus, the (n + 1, 1)-transmitting scheme is optimal for
BRU(d, n) when d 3.
Let d = 2. Assume that (t , s ) is the optimal transmitting cost for
BRU(2, n). For all (t, s)-transmitting schemes, it follows from (3.2) that
|f (i)V Nti ( f (i)) | 2n n 1 < 2n if t n 1. Thus we have t n, and in par-
ticular, t n. Suppose
that t = n and s = 1. It follows that |f (i)V Nti ( f (i))| =
|Nn1 ( f (1)) | ni=1 2i1 = 2n 1 < 2n , which is a contradiction. Thus, if t = n,
we must have s 2.
We give an (n, 2)-transmitting scheme f as follows: f (1) = 1 = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1),
f (k) = 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0) for an arbitrary k with 2 k n, and f (i) = v0 for all i = 1, k.
In other words, the host sends a message to vertex 1that is, (0, . . . , 0, 1), at the rst
time unit, and then to vertex 0that is, (0, . . . , 0) at the kth unit of time, 2 k n.
For any vertex v = (vn1 , vn2 , . . . , v0 ), 2 v 2n 1, it is obvious that
d(1, v) n 1, as vi = 1 for some 1 i n 1. Thus, Nn1 (1) = V (BRU(d, n))
{0}. Therefore, Nn1 (1) f (k) = Nn1 (1) {0} = V (BRU(d, n)). Hence, the proposed
(n, 2)-transmitting scheme is optimal.
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4 Trees
LEMMA 4.1 Every tree with at least two vertices has at least two leaves. Moreover,
deleting a leaf from a tree with n vertices produces a tree with (n 1) vertices.
Proof: Assume that T is a tree with at least two vertices. Obviously, it has an edge
e because T is connected. Let P be any maximal path containing e. Obviously, the
two endpoints x and y of P have only one neighbor on the path. Thus, degT (x) =
degT ( y) = 1. Hence, x and y are leaves.
Let v be a leaf of a tree T and let T = T v. Suppose that u and w are any two
vertices of T . Let P be a path of T from u to w. Obviously, v / P because degT (v) = 1.
Thus, P is also present in T . Hence, T is connected. Because a vertex deletion cannot
create a cycle, T is also acyclic. Thus, T is a tree with (n 1) vertices.
Trees have many equivalent characterizations, any of which could be taken as the
denition. Such characterizations are useful because we need only to verify a graph
that satises any one of them to prove that it is a tree. Then we can use all the other
properties.
Proof: We rst prove that statement 1 implies statements 2 and 3. Assume that
T is a connected n-vertex graph with no cycles. We use induction on n to prove
61
ch004.tex 19/7/2008 17: 47 Page 62
statements 2 and 3. Because any acyclic 1-vertex graph has no edge, the implication
holds for n = 1. For the induction step, we assume that the implication holds for those
m-vertex graphs with 1 m < n. Assume that T is a connected graph with no cycles.
By Lemma 4.1, there exists a leaf v such that T = T v is acyclic and connected. By
induction hypothesis, e(T ) = n 2. Hence, e(T ) = n 1.
We prove that statement 2 implies statements 1 and 3. Assume that T is a con-
nected n-vertex graph with (n 1) edges. Let us delete edges from cycles of T one
by one until the resulting graph T is acyclic. As no edge of a cycle is a cut edge,
T remains connected. By the previous paragraph, T has (n 1) edges. In other
words, T = T . Thus, T is acyclic.
We prove that statement 3 implies statements 1 and 2. Assume that T is an
n-vertex graph with (n 1) edges and no cycles. Suppose that T has k components with
orders n1 , n2 , . . . , nk . Because T has no cycles, eachcomponent has (ni 1) edges.
Summing this over all components yields e(T ) = ki=1 (ni 1) = n k. Because
e(T ) = n 1, k = 1. Thus, T is connected.
We prove that statement 1 implies statement 4. Assume that T is a connected
n-vertex graph with no cycles. Let u and v be any two vertices of V (T ). Because T is
connected, T has at least one path from u to v. Suppose that G has two distinct paths
P and Q from u to v. Obviously, some edge e = (x, y) appears in exactly one of them.
There exists a closed walk containing e. We can delete e from T , which yields a walk
W from x to y, not including e. Hence, W contains a path R from x to y. Obviously,
R {e} forms a cycle of T , which contradicts the hypothesis that T is acyclic. Hence,
T has exactly one path from u to v.
Finally, we prove that statement 4 implies statement 1. Assume that T has exactly
one path from u to v for every u and v in V (T ). Obviously, T is connected. Suppose
that T has a cycle C. Then T has two paths between any pair of vertices on C. Thus,
T has no cycles.
With Theorem 4.1, it is easy to see that every connected graph contains a
spanning tree. Moreover, every n-vertex graph with (n k) edges has at least
k components. With m components, there must be at least (n m) edges. The next
result illustrates induction using deletion of a leaf.
PROPOSITION 4.1 Assume that T is a tree with k edges and G is a simple graph
with (G) k. Then T is a subgraph of G.
Proof: We prove this proposition by induction on k. Obviously, every simple graph
contains K1 . The proposition holds for k = 0. Suppose that the proposition holds for
trees with fewer than m edges with 0 m < k. Because k > 0, by Lemma 4.1 we can
choose a leaf v with neighbor u in T . Let T = T v. T is a tree with (k 1) edges.
Because (G) k > k 1, by the induction hypothesis, G contains a copy of T as
a subgraph. Let x be the vertex in this copy of T that corresponds to u (see Figure 4.1
for illustration). As T has only (k 1) vertices other than u, x has a neighbor y in G
that does not appear in this copy of T . Obviously, we can add the edge (x, y) on T to
obtain a copy of T in G.
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Trees 63
G
T
x
y
Because a tree has no cycle, every edge of a tree is a cut edge. Because a tree has
a unique path linking each pair of vertices, adding any edge creates exactly one cycle.
We apply these observations to prove results that are used by algorithms for nding
spanning trees in weighted graphs. We use subtraction and addition as operations
involving sets to indicate the deletion and inclusion of edges.
PROPOSITION 4.2 Suppose that T and T are two spanning trees of a connected
graph G such that e E(T ) E(T ). Then there is an edge e E(T ) E(T ) such that
T e + e is a spanning tree of G.
Proof: Since e is a cut edge of T , T e is disconnected. Let U and U be the vertex
sets of the component T e. Because T is connected, it has an edge e with endpoints
in U and U. Now T e + e is a spanning tree.
PROPOSITION 4.3 Suppose that T and T are two spanning trees of a connected
graph G such that e E(T ) E(T ). Then there is an edge e E(T ) E(T ) such that
T + e e is a spanning tree of G.
Proof: Obviously, the graph T + e contains a unique cycle C. Since T is acyclic,
there exists an edge e E(C) E(T ). Since C is the only cycle in T + e, T + e e
is connected and acyclic. By Theorem 4.1, T + e e is a spanning tree of G.
The diameter of a tree is the length of its longest path, because every path in a tree
is the shortest path between its endpoints. We next describe the centers of trees. The
proof uses deletion of all leaves to obtain a subtree; this sometimes provides a cleaner
inductive proof than deleting one leaf.
THEOREM 4.2 (Jordan [187]) The center of a tree is one vertex or one edge.
Proof: We use induction on the number of vertices. The statement is trivial for trees
with one or two vertices. Assume that the statement holds for trees with fewer than
n vertices with n > 2. Let T be an arbitrary n-vertex tree. Form T by deleting every
leaf of T . Since T contains n vertices and (n 1) edges, T is a tree with at least one
vertex.
Let u be a vertex in T . It is observed that the vertex at maximum distance from
u is a leaf. Since all the leaves have been removed, T (u) = T (u) 1 for every
u V (T ). Moreover, the eccentricity of a leaf in T is greater than the eccentricity of its
neighbor in T . Hence, the vertices minimizing T (u) are the same vertices minimizing
ch004.tex 19/7/2008 17: 47 Page 64
T (u). By the induction hypothesis, for T they consist of a single vertex or two
adjacent vertices.
It can be proved by induction that a BFS correctly computes the distance between
any vertex v to the start vertex u. The longest distance from u to another vertex is (u).
Hence, we can compute the diameter of a graph G by running a BFS from each vertex.
In a DFS, we explore always from the most recently discovered vertex that has an
unexplored edge (this is also called backtracking). In contrast, a BFS explores from
the oldest vertex, so the difference between DFS and BFS is that, in a DFS, the set
R is maintained as a LIFO stack rather than a queue.
Trees 65
A DFS that traces only one path at a time is much easier to do by hand or to
program. Further, in cases where we need to nd only one of the possible solutions,
it pays to search all the way down a path for a solution rather than to take a long time
building a large number of partial paths, only one of which in the end will actually be
used. On the other hand, when we want a solution involving a shortest path or when
there may be very long dead-end paths (while solution paths tend to be relatively
short), then the BFS is better.
DFS and BFS are common techniques for problem solving. Try to use these
techniques for the following puzzles.
Example 4.1
Suppose that we are given three pitchers of water, of sizes 10, 7, and 4 quarts. Initially,
the 10 quart pitcher is full and the other two empty. We can pour water from one pitcher
into another, pouring until the receiving pitcher is full or the pouring pitcher is empty. Is
there a way to pour among pitchers to obtain exactly 2 quarts in the 7 or 4 quart pitcher?
If so, nd a minimum sequence of pourings to get 2 quarts.
Example 4.2
Three jealous wives and their husbands come to a river. The party must cross the river
(from near shore to far shore) in a boat that can hold at most two people. Find a sequence
of boat trips that will get the six people across the river without ever letting any husband
be alone (without his wife) in the presence of another wife.
Example 4.3
Find all ways to place eight nontaking queens on an 8 8 chessboard. Recall that one
queen can capture another queen if they are both in the same row or the same column or
a common diagonal.
r Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
Level 4
THEOREM 4.3 A directed tree T is a rooted tree if and only if T contains a vertex
r with deg (r) = 0, and deg (v) = 1 for all other vertices v of T .
Proof: Let T be a rooted tree with root r. Then deg (r) = 0. Let v be any nonroot
vertex of T . Suppose that v is at level i. Obviously, i > 1. Thus, v is adjacent from
exactly one vertex at level (i 1). We have deg (v) = 1.
Conversely, let G be a directed graph containing a vertex r with deg (r) = 0 such
that deg (v) = 1 for all vertices with v = r. Let u1 be any vertex of T with u1 = r.
Since deg (u1 ) = 1, there is a vertex u2 such that u2 is adjacent to u1 . If u2 = r, then
there exists a vertex u3 adjacent to u2 . These vertices u1 , u2 , and u3 are the beginning
of a sequence.
We continue this sequence as far as possible. First, we claim that this sequence
contains only distinct vertices. Suppose that ui = uj with i < j and the vertices
ui , ui+1 , . . . , uj1 are distinct. Then in the underlying tree, ui , ui+1 , . . . , uj1 , uj = ui
is a cycle, which is impossible. Thus, the sequence is nite; say, u1 , u2 , . . . , un . Since
only deg (r) = 0, un = r. Therefore,
r = un , un 1 , . . . , u2 , u1 is a path from r to u1 .
Hence, G is a rooted tree with root r.
With Theorem 4.3, every rooted tree contains a unique root. Since it is common to
draw the root r of a rooted tree T at the top and the remaining vertices at the appropriate
level i (i = 2, 3, . . .) below r, all arcs are directed downward. Hence, the directions
indicated in such a drawing are superuous. Consequently, it is customary to draw a
rooted tree in this manner, without arrows on the edges.
Let T be a rooted tree. Suppose that vertex v of T is adjacent to u lies in the level
below v. We say that u is called a child of v, and v is the parent of u. Suppose that
there is a path from v to w in T such that w lies below v. We say that w is a descendant
of v and v is an ancestor of w. Let v be a vertex of T . We consider the subtree of
a rooted tree T that induces by a vertex v and all of its descendants as a rooted tree
with root v. This subtree is called the maximal subtree of T rooted at v. A vertex with
no children is called a leaf. All other vertices are called internal vertices.
A rooted plane tree is a rooted tree with a left-to-right ordering specied for the
children of each vertex. A binary tree is a rooted plane tree in which each vertex has
at most two children, and each child is designated as its left child or right child. The
subtree rooted at a children of the root are the left subtree and the right subtree of the
tree. A k-ary tree allows each vertex up to k children. A rooted plane tree is called
a full m-ary tree if every vertex of T has m children or no children. Thus, in a full
binary tree every vertex has two children or no children.
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Trees 67
THEOREM 4.4 A full m-ary tree with i internal vertices has order (mi + 1).
Proof: Let T be a full m-ary tree with n vertices having i internal vertices. Every
internal vertex of T has m children, and every child has a unique parent. Since only
the root is not a child of other vertices, n = mi + 1.
COROLLARY 4.1 Every full binary tree with i internal vertices has (i + 1) leaves.
Proof: Suppose that T is a full binary tree with i internal vertices. By Theorem 4.4,
T has (2i + 1) vertices. Since T has i internal vertices, the remaining (i + 1) vertices
are leaves.
THEOREM 4.5 Suppose that T is a binary tree of height h and order n. Then
h n 2h 1
h
2k1 = 1 + 2 + + 2h1 = 2h 1
k=1
we conclude that
h
h
h
h= 1n= pk 2k1 = 2h 1
k=1 k=1 k=1
COROLLARY 4.2 Suppose that T is a binary tree of height h and order n. Then
An hth complete m-ary tree is a full m-ary tree with (mh 1)/(m 1) vertices
and of height h. In particular, the complete binary tree of height h, denoted by BTh ,
is a rooted tree given by V (BTh ) = {1, 2, . . . , 2h 1}, and (i, j) E(BTh ) if and only if
j/2 = i. The vertex 1 is the root of BTh . The level of a vertex i is log2 i + 1.
The binary tree is a commonly used data structure. Three common methods are
used to recover information from its inherent relationships; namely, inorder, preorder,
and postorder traversal. These three algorithms are described as follows:
1. Procedure inorder(r)
a. if T = , then
b. inorder(left child of v)
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Trees 69
2 1 7 4 3
8 6 5
Proof: As we delete the vertex x from T while constructing the Prfer sequence,
all neighbors of x except one have already been deleted. We recorded x once for each
such neighbor. After the deletion of x, x never appears again. Suppose that x remains
at the end. One edge incident to x also remains. Thus, x appears (deg(x) 1) times in
the sequence.
Therefore, we can count trees with each i having degree di by counting sequences
of length (n 2) having (di 1) copies of i for each i. Suppose that we assign sub-
scripts to the copies of each i to distinguish them. There are (n 2)! sequences.
However, the copies
of each i are in fact indistinguishable. We have counted each
desired arrangement ni=1 (di 1)! times, once for each way to order the subscripts
on each type of label.
Example 4.4
Let us count those trees with vertices {1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} that have degrees (3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1,
1), respectively. We compute (n 2)!/ ni=1 (di 1)! = 30. These trees are suggested in
ch004.tex 19/7/2008 17: 47 Page 70
1 3 4 1 4 3 4 1 3
Figure 4.4. For the rst gure, it corresponds to six trees by picking from the remaining
four vertices where two are adjacent to vertex 1. For each of the remaining gures, it
corresponds to twelve trees by picking the neighbor of vertex 3 from the remaining four
and then picking the neighbor of the central vertex from the remaining three.
There is a recursive way to count spanning trees by separately counting those that
contain a particular edge e and those that omit e.
Let e = (u, v) be an edge of G. The contraction of e is the operation of replacing
u and v by a single vertex whose incident edges are the edges other than e that were
incident to u or v. The resulting graph, denoted G e, has one fewer edge than G.
Visually, we think of contracting e as shrinking e to a single point. Contraction
may produce multiple edges. To count spanning trees correctly, we must keep the
multiple edges. However, in other applications of contraction, the multiple edges may
be irrelevant. Since no spanning tree contains a loop, we may freely discard loops that
arise in contraction. The following recurrence applies for all graphs.
Example 4.5
It is easy to conrm that (G e) = (G e) = 4 in Figure 4.5. By Proposition 4.4,
(G) = 8.
THEOREM 4.7 (Matrix Tree Theorem, Kirchoff [201]) Let K be the matrix
obtained by deleting any row s and column t of K(G). Then (G) = (1)s+t det(K ).
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Trees 71
G Ge Ge
2 1 1 1 2 0 1 1
K(D) 0 0 0 K(D) 0 2 0
0 1 1 3 0 1 1
Example 4.6
Let G be the graph in Example 4.5. The vertex degrees are 3,3,2,2. We can form the
associated Kirchoff matrix on the left below. Take the determinant of the matrix in the
middle. We obtain (G) = 8.
3 1 1 1
1 3 1 1
3 1 1 1
1 1 2 0 8
2 0
1 0 2
1 1 0 2
THEOREM 4.8 (Directed Matrix Tree Theorem, Tutte [314]) The number of
in-trees rooted at vi is the value of any cofactor in the ith row of K(D)+ . Similarly,
the number of out-trees rooted at vi is the value of any cofactor in the ith column
of K(D) .
Example 4.7
The digraph in Figure 4.6 has two out-trees rooted at 1 and two in-trees rooted at 2. We
can check these results using determinants.
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LEMMA 4.2 A sequence of (left and right) parentheses is well-formed if and only
if it contains an even number of parentheses, half of which are left and the other half
are right, and we read the sequence from left to right, the number of right parentheses
never exceeds the number of left parentheses.
Let Bn denote the set of all binary tree with n nodes, Wn denote the set
of all well-formedparentheses.
In the following discussion, we will prove that
|Bn | = |Wn | = 1 +1 n 2n
n .
Procedure transform(T)
1. if T = , then
2. write (
3. transform(left child of v)
4. write )
5. transform(right child of v)
It can be easily proved by induction that the function f has one-to-one correspon-
dence. Hence, |Bn | = |Wn |.
THEOREM 4.9 |Bn | = |Wn | = 1 +1 n 2n n .
Trees 73
Let p1 p2 . . . p2n be a sequence of n left and n right parentheses that is not well-
formed. By Lemma 4.2, there is a prex of it that contains more right parentheses than
left. Let j be the least integer such that the number of right parentheses exceeds the
number of left parentheses in the subsequence p1 p2 . . . pj . Clearly, the number of right
parentheses is then one larger than the number of left parentheses, or j is not the least
index to satisfy the condition. Now, invert all pi s for i > j from left parentheses to
right parentheses, and from right parentheses to left parentheses. Clearly, the number
of left parentheses is now (n 1) and the number of the right parentheses is now
(n + 1).
Conversely, given any sequence p1 p2 . . . p2n of (n 1) left parentheses and (n + 1)
right parentheses, let j be the rst index such that p1 p2 . . . pj contains one more right
parenthesis than left parentheses. If we now invert all parentheses in the section
pj+1 pj+2 . . . p2n from left to right and from right to left, we get a sequence of n left and
n right parentheses that is not well-formed. This transformation is the inverse of the
one of the previous paragraph. Thus, the one-to-one correspondence is established.
The number of sequence of (n 1) left and (n + 1) right parentheses is
2n
n1
We can choose the places for the left parentheses, and the remaining places will have
right parentheses. Thus, the number of well-formed sequences of length n is
2n 2n 1 2n
=
n n1 1+n n
These number are called Catalan numbers. There is another method for computing
the number of binary trees of n vertices through the use of a generating function as
follows. Let bn denote the number of binary trees with n nodes.
1. Show that b0 = 1 and that n 1, bn = n1
k=0 b
k bn1k .
2. Let B(x) be the generating function B(x) = n=0 bn x . Show that B(x) =
n
LEMMA 4.4 Assume that G is an undirected graph and D is the digraph associated
with G. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the spanning trees of G and
the out-tree rooted (in-tree) at any vertex of D.
From the one-to-one correspondence stated in Lemma 4.4, the number of spanning
trees of an undirected graph G containing a particular edge (u, v) equals the number
of out-trees in the associated digraph containing (u, v) plus the number of out-trees in
the associated digraph containing (v, u).
To avoid treating the arcs that are incident to the root vertex r of D as a special
case, we augment the original digraph D with a new vertex u, along with a new arc
(u, r). Again, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the out-tree of D and those
of the augmented digraph. Correspondingly, the augmented Kirchoff matrix A for the
rooted digraph D is dened as the Kirchoff matrix K with one added to the diagonal
entry for the root vertex (or equivalently, the matrix of the augmented digraph with the
row and the column corresponding to the new root removed). We have the following
corollary.
Because exactly one arc enters each nonroot vertex in an out-tree, there is a
one-to-one correspondence between the out-trees of D that contain arc a and those
D a, which is obtained from D by removing all arcs, except a, that enter the terminus
of a. Thus, the number of spanning trees containing an arc can be computed by
evaluating the determinant of the augmented Kirchoff matrix for D a.
Suppose that we rst compute the inverse of the augmented Kirchoiff matrix. The
determinant of the augmented Kirchoff matrix for D a can be found in constant time.
The classical adjoint matrix of a matrix A, adj(A) = [bij ], is det(A) A1 . The value
of bij is (1)i+ j det(Aji ), where Aji is the matrix
obtained from A by deleting row
j and column i. The determinant of A = [ij ] is nj=1 ij (1)i+ j det(Aij ). This is
expansion by cofactors across row i. Thus, the determinant of A can be computed by
cross-multiplying row i of A and column i of the matrix adj(A). The crucial observation
ch004.tex 19/7/2008 17: 47 Page 75
Trees 75
Example 4.8
Let G be the graph shown in Figure 4.7a. The corresponding Kirchoff matrix of G is the
matrix A in Figure 4.7d. The associated digraph D is shown in Figure 4.7b. Obviously, the
corresponding Kirchoff matrix of D is again the matrix A. With Lemma 4.4, the number
of spanning trees of G is the number of rooted trees rooted at the vertex 1. We add to the
digraph D a root u and joining u to the vertex 1 to obtain a directed graph D as shown
in Figure 4.7c. Obviously, the number of spanning rooted trees of D rooted at 1 is the
number of spanning rooted roots of D rooted at u. Thus, the number of spanning rooted
trees of D rooted at 1 is the determinant of the augmented Kirchoff matrix B shown in
Figure 4.7e. Obviously, the number of spanning trees of G containing the edge (6, 2) is
the sum of the number of spanning trees of D containing the arc (6, 2) and the number
of spanning trees of D containing the arc (2, 6). Let T be any spanning rooted tree of
D rooted at 1 containing the arc (6, 2). Note that the in-degree of the vertex 2 in T is 1.
Obviously, T does not have any arcs in {(1, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2)}. Thus, the number
2 3 2 3 2 3
u
1 4 1 4 1 4
6 5 6 5 6 5
(a) (b) (c)
2 1 0 0 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 1
1 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0
A B C
0 1 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 3 1 0
0 1 0 1 3 1 0 1 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 1 3 1
1 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 0 0 1 3 1 1 0 0 1 3
of spanning rooted trees of D rooted at 1 containing the arc (6, 2) is the determinant of
the matrix C shown in Figure 4.7f.
Trees 77
0010... 1100...
New roots
0010... 1100...
0000
1000 0001
Similarly, we would like to know whether BTn is a subgraph of the folded hyper-
cube FQn . Note that FQn is a bipartite graph if n is odd. Using an argument similar
to that in Theorem 4.11, we have the following theorem.
THEOREM 5.1 A graph G is Eulerian if and only if the degree of each vertex is
even and its edge set generates a connected component.
Proof: Assume that graph G is Eulerian. From the previous discussion, we know that
the degree of each vertex is even and its edge set generates a connected component.
Conversely, suppose that the degree of each vertex of G is even and the edge set of G
generates a connected component. Let T be a trail in G of maximum length. Obviously,
79
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 80
(a) (b)
T
e
T
v
T is a maximal trail. By Lemma 5.1, T is closed. Let G = G E(T ). Since the closed
trail T has an even degree at every vertex, G is an even graph. We will claim that
E(G ) = . Obviously, T traverses every edge of G and is a Eulerian circuit once our
claim holds.
Suppose that E(G ) = . Since G has one nontrivial component, G has a path from
e to a vertex of T . Thus, some edge e of G is incident to some vertex v of T . Let T
be any maximal trail in G beginning from v along e . See Figure 5.2 for illustration.
By Lemma 5.1, T is closed. Hence, we can detour from T along T when we reach
v, and then complete T to obtain a longer trail than T . However, T is the longest trail
in our hypothesis. Thus, E(G ) = .
This proof and the resulting algorithm are basically those of Hierholzer [145].
Before discussing constructive aspects, we generalize to all connected graphs.
Given a gure G to be drawn on paper, how many times must we pick up and move
the pen (or plotter) to draw? This is the minimum number of pairwise edge-disjoint
trails whose union is E(G). Since the number of trails needed to draw G is the sum of
the number needed to draw each component, we may reduce the problem to connected
graphs. Recall that every circuit is a closed trail. The graph G in Figure 5.3 has four
odd vertices and we can decompose it into two trails. Adding dashed edges forms G
to G , as in Figure 5.3, making it Eulerian.
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 81
G G
THEOREM 5.2 Let G be a connected nontrivial graph with 2k odd vertices. The
minimum number of pairwise edge-disjoint trails covering the edges is max{k, 1}.
Proof: A trail contributes an even degree to every vertex, except that a nonclosed
trail contributes an odd degree to its endpoints. Therefore, a partition of the edges into
trails must have some trail ending at each odd vertex. Note that each trail has (at most)
two ends. It requires at least k trails. Since e(G) > 0, it also requires at least one trail.
Thus, one trail sufces if k = 0.
To prove that k trails sufce when k > 0, we can pick up the odd vertices in G
arbitrarily and form G by adding a copy of each pair as an edge, as illustrated in
Figure 5.3. Obviously, the resulting G is connected and even. By Theorem 5.1, G
has an Eulerian circuit. As we traverse the circuit, we start a new trail in G each time
we traverse an edge of G E(G). This yields k-disjoint trails partitioning E(G).
THEOREM 5.3 Suppose that G has one nontrivial component and at most two odd
vertices. Then Fleurys algorithm constructs an Eulerian trail.
Proof: We use induction on e(G). The claim is immediate for e(G) = 1. Assume that
e(G) > 1, and assume that the claim holds for graphs with e(G) 1 edges. Suppose
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 82
P
u v
G
x
FIGURE 5.4 Illustration of Theorem 5.3.
that G is even. Then every edge of G is in a cycle. Thus, G has no cut edge. Hence,
starting with some vertex v along an edge (u, v) leaves a graph with two odd vertices.
By induction hypothesis, the algorithm completes the circuit of G by completing a
trail from u to v in G (u, v).
Suppose that G has two odd vertices u and v. Assume that d(u) = 1. Then traversing
(u, x) leaves one nontrivial component. Thus, we assume that d(u) > 1. Let P be a path
from u to v and (u, x) be an edge incident to u but not on P. Suppose that (u, x) is a
cut edge. Since u and v are connected in G (u, x), x would be the only odd vertex in
its component of G (u, x) (see Figure 5.4). Thus, (u, x) is not a cut edge. Therefore,
u has an incident edge (u, x) whose traversal leaves a graph G (u, x) having at most
one nontrivial component and at most two odd vertices.
Suppose that x = v. Then G (u, x) is even. Suppose that x = v. Then the vertices
of G (u, x) are even except for x and v. By induction, the algorithm completes
an Eulerian trail of G from u to v by traversing an Eulerian trail of G (u, x) from
x to v.
5 4
6 1 2 3
13 14
y
15 9
7 10
8
12
11
Example 5.1
In the digraph in Figure 5.5, the solid edges indicate an in-tree T of paths into v. We
follow the Eulerian circuit starting with edge 1. Then, we avoid using edges of T until
we have no choice. Assuming that the ordering at v places 1 before 7 before 13, the
algorithm traverses the edges in the order indicated.
THEOREM 5.4 Assume that G is a digraph with one nontrivial component and
deg+ (u) = deg (u) for all u V (G). Then the previous algorithm constructs a Eulerian
circuit of G.
Proof: First, we construct T . We must prove that T forms a spanning tree of the
subgraph generated by the set of edges in G. The search (BFS) from v reaches a
new vertex at each step. Otherwise, all edges between the current reached set R and
the remaining vertices enter R. Note that each edge within R contributes once to the
in-degree and once to the out-degree of vertices in R. Moreover, each edge entering
R contributes only to the in-degree. Hence, the sum of in-degrees in R exceeds the
sum of out-degrees, which contradicts our hypothesis that deg+ (u) = deg (u) for each
vertex u.
Now we use T to build a trail as directed. We need to prove the trail obtained
by the algorithm is indeed an Euler circuit. Since deg+ (u) = deg (v), there exists an
edge leaving v once we enter a vertex u = v. Since we cannot use an edge of T until it
is the only remaining edge leaving its tail, we cannot use all edges entering v until we
have nished all the other vertices. Since T contains a path from each vertex to v, the
trail can end only at v. Moreover, we end at v only if we have used all edges leaving
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 84
a f
In-tree has: Circuit:
(f,a) and (d,e) (b,c,d,f,b,d,e,f,a,b)
b e (f,a) and (d,f ) (b,c,d,e,f,b,d,f,a,b)
(f,b) and (d,e) (b,c,d,f,a,b,d,e,f,b)
(f,b) and (d,f ) (b,c,d,e,f,a,b,d,f,b)
c d
v, and hence also all edges entering v. Thus, the trail obtained by the algorithm is an
Euler circuit.
Example 5.2
Consider digraph in Figure 5.6. Every in-tree to b contains the edges (a, b), (e, f ), (c, d),
exactly one of {( f , a), ( f , b)}, and exactly one of {(d, e), (d, f )}. Thus, there are exactly
four in-trees to b. It is observed that the
number of legal sets of orderings of the edges leav-
ing the vertices for each in-tree is (di 1)! = (0!)3 (1!)3 = 1. Hence, we can generate
one Eulerian circuit for each in-tree, starting along the edge (b, c) from b.
THEOREM 5.5 (van Aardenne-Ehrenfest and de Bruijn [323], Tutte and Smith
+
[316]). Assume that G is a Euler
n digraph. Let di = deg (vi ) = deg (vi ). Then the
number of Eulerian circuits is c i=1 (di 1)! where c is the number of in-trees or the
number of out-trees from any vertex.
Proof: We have observed that the previous algorithm generates these many distinct
Eulerian circuits using in-trees to v with e being the rst edge in the exit ordering at
v. We need only to show this produces all Eulerian circuits.
To nd the tree and ordering for an Eulerian circuit C, we can follow C from e
and record the exit ordering of edges leaving each vertex. For each vertex w other
than v, we collect in a set T the last edge leaving w. Since the last edge leaving a
vertex occurs in C after all edges entering it, each edge in T extends to a path in T
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 85
By Theorem 5.5, we can compute the number of Euler circuits for directed graphs.
However, we do not know how to compute the number of Euler circuits for undirected
graphs.
5.3 APPLICATIONS
5.3.1 CHINESE POSTMAN PROBLEM
Suppose that a mail carrier traverses all edges in a road network, starting and ending
at the same vertex. The edges have nonnegative weights representing distance or time.
We seek a closed walk of minimum total length that uses all the edges. This is called
the Chinese Postman Problem, in honor of the Chinese mathematician Guan Meigu
[131], who proposed it.
Suppose that every vertex is even. The graph G is Eulerian and the answer is the
sum of the weights. Otherwise, we must repeat edges. Every traversal is an Eulerian
circuit of a graph obtained by duplicating edges of G. Finding the shortest traversal is
equivalent to nding the minimum total weight of edges whose duplication will make
all vertices even. We say duplication because if we need not use more times in making
all vertices even, then deleting two of those copies will leave all vertices even. There
may be many ways to choose the duplicated edges.
Example 5.3
Let us consider the graph shown in Figure 5.7. The eight outer vertices are odd. If
we match them around the outside to make the degrees even, the extra cost is 4 + 4 +
4 + 4 = 16 or 2 + 6 + 6 + 2 = 16. We can do better by using all the vertical edges, which
total only 12.
The example illustrates that adding an edge from an odd vertex to an even vertex
makes the even vertex odd. We must continue adding edges until we complete a trail
to an odd vertex. The duplicated edges must consist of a collection of trails that pair
4 1 1 4
3 2
3
2 2 2 2
3 2 3
1
4 1 4
up the odd vertices. We may restrict our attention to paths pairing up the odd vertices,
though the paths may need to intersect.
Edmonds and Johnson [91] described a way to solve the Chinese Postman Problem.
Suppose that there are only two odd vertices. We can nd the shortest path between
them and solve the problem. Suppose that there are 2k odd vertices. Then we can
nd the shortest paths connecting each pair of odd vertices. We use these lengths of
weights as the edges of K2k . Then our problem is equivalent to nding the minimum
total weight of k edges that pair up these 2k vertices. An exposition appears in Ref. 126.
1 0 0
0 000
001 11 0 100
0 0
0 010
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 1 101 0
1
0
0 1 011 1 0 110
111
1 1 1
1 1
0
B(2, 3)
THEOREM 5.6 The edges labels in any Eulerian circuit of BRU(2, n 1) form a
cyclic arrangement in which the consecutive segments of length n are the 2n distinct
binary vectors.
Proof: Let us traverse an Euler circuit C in BRU(2, n 1). Suppose that we arrive at
a vertex whose sequence a = a1 a2 . . . an1 . The previous edge (n 1) labels, looking
backward, must be an1 an2 . . . a1 , because the label on an edge entering a vertex
agrees with the last digit of the sequence at the vertex. If C next traverses an edge
with label an , then the subsequence ending there is a1 , a2 , . . . , an . As the 2n1 vertex
labels are distinct and the two edges leaving each vertex have distinct labels, we have
2n distinct subsequences determined from C.
1. N is a network of type L if |W | = 1.
2. Suppose that |W | > 1. Then N is a network of either type P or type S and
consists of k 2 networks N1 , . . . , Nk as child subnetworks parallel or series
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P P
e
a b c d
a b
c d
FIGURE 5.10 Electrical circuit corresponding to the network shown in Figure 5.9.
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 89
s s
e a b
a b e
c d c d
t t
(a) (b)
P
a c c a
S S e
e e
b d d b
a b c d
t
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 5.12 (a) The dual network of the network in Figure 5.9, (b) electrical circuit
corresponding to the network in (a), and (c) a graph representation to the network in (a).
a
Z
b
Metal
c Polysilicon
Diffusion
(a) d Contact
e a b c d
VDD
VDD
e
a b
c d
OUT
Z
e a c
b d GND
(b) GND (c)
a b e c d
VDD
VDD
a b
e
OUT
c d
Z
e a c GND
b d
(d) GND (e)
FIGURE 5.13 CMOS functional cell: (a) Gate-level scheme, (b) electric-level scheme,
(c) geometric layout corresponding to the scheme in (b), (d) another electric-level scheme,
and (e) geometric layout corresponding to the scheme in (d).
ch005.tex 19/7/2008 17: 50 Page 91
we write (L, L ) as L for short. Suppose that e1 , e2 , . . . , em are all the edges in both
G[N] and G[N ]. We say that e1 , e2 , . . . , em forms a common Euler trail (circuit) in
(G[N], G[N ]). A network N has a double Euler trail (DET) if there is a common
Euler trail for both some G[N] of N and some G[N ] of the dual network N . We say
that (G[N], G[N ]) realizes a DET pair (L, L ) for N and N , where L and L are the
corresponding Euler trails in G[N] and G[N ], respectively. We say that a network N
is DET if N possesses a DET. For example, the s.p. graphs in Figures 5.11a and 5.12c
do not have a common Euler trail, but the ones in Figures 5.11b and 5.12c have a
common Euler trail abecd. Thus, the network in Figure 5.9 is DET.
Actually, the problem of DET networks arises from a more general problem called
DCT (N). Let DCT (G[N], G[N ]) be the minimum number of disjoint common trails
that cover all of the edges in G[N] and G[N ]. We dene DCT (N) as the minimum of
DCT (G[N], G[N ]) among all possible graph representations G[N] and G[N ]. Uehara
and vanCleemput [318] proposed a solution method for the layout of cells in the style
shown in Figure 5.13. We assume that the height of each cell is xed by technolog-
ical considerations. The width of the cell, and therefore the area of the cell, can be
minimized by ordering the transistors in the layout so that chains of transistors can
share a common diffusion region. Uehara and vanCleemput [318] dened a graph
model for functional cells on two dual multigraphs (G[N], G[N ]) and proposed a
heuristic method for nding a small number of common trails that cover the given
(G[N], G[N ]). Later, Maziasz and Hayes [249] gave a linear time algorithm for solv-
ing DCT (G[N], G[N ]) and an exponential algorithm for nding the DCT (N). Several
other papers have also explored the use of graph models to nd solutions for layout
[35, 249, 318]. Ho et al. [154] presented a linear time algorithm to recognize DET
networks. We hope that the DCT (N) problem can be solved in the near future.
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6.1 MATCHINGS
Many applications of graphs involve pairings of vertices. For example, among a set
of people, some pairs are compatible as roommates. We want to know under what
conditions we can pair them all up. In Chapter 1, we considered the case of jobs and
applicants, asking whether all the jobs can be competently lled. Bipartite graphs have
a natural vertex partition into two sets, and we want to know whether the edge pair can
pair up the two sets. However, the graph need not be bipartite in the roommate problem.
A matching of size k in a graph G is a set of k pairwise disjoint edges. The
vertices belonging to the edges of a matching are saturated by the matching. The
others are unsaturated. A perfect matching or 1-factor is a matching that saturates
every vertex of G.
To nd a large matching, we could iteratively select an edge disjoint from those
previously selected. This yields a maximal matching. A maximal matching cannot be
enlarged, because edges are incident to all others. A maximum matching is a matching
of maximum size.
Example 6.1
(Maximal = maximum.) The smallest graph having a maximal matching that is not a
maximum matching is P4 . Obviously, the middle edge forms a maximal edge of size 1.
But the two pendant edges form a larger matching.
Example 6.2
(Problem of the truncated chessboard.) Consider an 8 8 chessboard whose upper-
left and lower-right corner squares have been removed. (See Figure 6.1a.) We have 31
dominoes, each domino covering exactly two adjacent squares of the chessboard. Can
we cover the 62 squares of the chessboard with the 31 dominoes?
93
ch006.tex 30/6/2008 10: 39 Page 94
(a) (b)
FIGURE 6.1 (a) A truncated chessboard and (b) the graph corresponding to (a).
Example 6.3
(Dating problem.) In a coeducational college, each girl has k boyfriends, and each boy
has k girlfriends. Is it possible to have a dance in which all students simultaneously dance
with one of their friends? Later, it will be shown that this is possible if k > 0.
THEOREM 6.2 (Hall [137]) Suppose that G is a bipartite graph with bipartition X
and Y . Then G has a matching of X into Y if and only if |N(S)| |S| for all S X.
Proof: Necessity was observed previously. For sufciency, suppose that G satises
the condition |N(S)| |S| for all S X. Let M be a maximum matching of G. Suppose
that M does not saturate S. We want to nd a set X that violates the hypothesis. Suppose
that u X is unsaturated. Let S and T be the subsets of X and Y , respectively, that are
reachable from u by M-alternating paths.
We claim that M matches T with S {u}. The M-alternating paths from u reach Y
along edges not in M and reach X along edges in M. Hence, every vertex of S {u} is
reached along an edge in M from a vertex in T . Since there is no M-augmenting path,
every vertex of T is saturated. Thus, an M-alternating path reaching y T extends
via M to a vertex of S. Hence, these edges of M establish a bijection between T and
S {u}. Thus, |T | = |S {u}|.
The matching between T and S {u} implies that T N(S). In fact, T = N(S).
(See Figure 6.3.) An edge between S and a vertex y Y T is an edge not in M. Then
we can nd an M-alternating path to y that contradicts y / T . With T = N(S), we have
|N(S)| = |T | = |S| 1 < |S|. This contradicts the hypothesis of the theorem.
ch006.tex 30/6/2008 10: 39 Page 96
S
u
T=N(S)
When the sets of bipartition have the same size, Halls Theorem is known as the
Marriage Theorem. The name arises from the scenario of a symmetric compatibility
relation between a set of n men and a set of n women. If every man is also compatible
with k women and every woman is compatible with k men, then there must be a
perfect matching using compatible pairs. The proof applies also to bipartite graphs
with multiple edges, which enlarges the scope of applications.
COROLLARY 6.1 For k > 0, every k-regular bipartite graph has a perfect
matching.
Proof: Suppose that the bipartition is X and Y . Counting the edges by endpoints in X
and endpoints in Y shows that k|X| = k|Y |. Since k > 0, |X| = |Y |. Suppose that Halls
condition holds. By Theorem 6.2, a matching saturating X is obtained. As |X| = |Y |,
this matching is a perfect matching.
Now, we check Halls condition. Consider S X, and suppose that there are m
edges between S and N(S). Since G is k-regular, we have m = k|S|. Since these m
edges are adjacent to N(S), we have m < k|N(S)|. Hence, k|S| k|N(S)|, which yields
|N(S)| |S|. Having chosen S X arbitrarily, we have established Halls condition.
Thus, the corollary is proved.
Suppose that a graph G does not have a perfect matching. We can prove that a
matching M is a maximum matching by proving that G has no M-augmenting path.
However, exploring all M-alternating paths to seek an augmentation would take a long
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Example 6.4
(Matchings and vertex covers.) Let G and H be the graph shown in Figure 6.4. The
graph G has a matching and a vertex cover of size 2. The vertex cover of size 2 prohibits
matchings with more than two edges. Moreover, the matching of size 2 prohibits vertex
covers with fewer than 2 vertices. In graph H, these sizes differ by one for an odd cycle.
The difference can be arbitrarily large in general graphs.
THEOREM 6.4 (Knig [203], Egervry [95]) Assume that G is a bipartite graph.
Then the maximum size of a matching in G equals the minimum size of a vertex cover
of G (see Figure 6.5).
Proof: Suppose that G has bipartition X and Y . Since distinct vertices must be used
to cover the edges of a matching, we have |U| |M| whenever U is a vertex cover
and M is a matching in G. Let U be a minimum vertex cover U of G. To prove that
equality can always be achieved, we need to construct a matching of size |U|.
Let R = U X and T = U Y . Moreover, let H and H be the subgraphs of G
induced by R (Y T ) and T (X R). We use Halls Theorem to show that H has
a matching of R into Y T and H has a matching of T into X R. Since H and H
are disjoint, the two matchings together form a matching of size |U| in G.
G H
X S
H
H
T NH(S )
FIGURE 6.6 The independent number of a bipartite graph does not always equal the size of
a partite set.
We now change the study of independent sets of edges into independent sets of
vertices. The independence number of a graph is the maximum size of an independent
set of vertices. From the graph in Figure 6.6, it is observed that the independent number
of a bipartite graph is not always equal to the size of a partite set.
In this notation, the KnigEgervry Theorem states that (G) = (G) for every
bipartite graph G. We will prove that (G) = (G) for bipartite graphs without isolated
vertices. We have already observed that (G) (G).
Since the edges of G omitted by a matching need not form an edge cover of G, the
relationship between matchings and edge covering is more complicated. Nevertheless,
we have a similar formula.
THEOREM 6.5 (Galli [120]) Assume that G is a graph without isolated vertices.
We have (G) + (G) = n(G) (see Figure 6.7).
Proof: Suppose that we use a maximum matching M to construct an edge cover of
size n(G) M. Then the smallest edge cover is no bigger than n(G) M. We conclude
that (G) n(G) (G). On the other hand, suppose that we use a minimum edge
cover L to construct a matching of size n(G) L. Then the largest matching is no
smaller than n(G) L. We conclude that (G) n(G) (G). These two inequalities
complete the proof.
Let M be a maximum matching in G. We can construct an edge cover of G by
using M and adding one edge incident to each unsaturated vertex. The total number
of edges used is n(G) |M|, as desired. Thus, we save |M| edges because each edge
of the matching covers two vertices instead one.
For the other inequality, let L be the minimum edge cover. Suppose that the two
endpoints of some edge e in L belong to other edges in L. Then L e is also an edge
cover. Hence, L is not a minimum edge cover. Therefore, L consists of k disjoint
stars, for some k. (Note that stars are the trees with a diameter of 2). Since L has one
edge for each vertex that is not a center of its stars, we have |L| = n(G) k. We can
form a matching of size k = n(G) |L| by choosing one edge arbitrarily from each
star in L.
THEOREM 6.6 (Tutte [315]) A graph G has a 1-factor if and only if o(G S) |S|
for every S V (G).
Proof: (Lovsz [242]) As noted previously, Tuttes condition is necessary. We need
to prove only that Tuttes condition is also sufcient.
We note that Tuttes condition is preserved by addition of edges. Suppose that
G = G + e. Let S V (G). Because the addition of e combines two components of
G S into one, the number of components that have an odd order does not increase.
Thus, o(G S) o(G S).
Therefore, it sufces to consider a simple graph G such that G satises Tuttes
condition, G has no 1-factor, and adding any edge to G creates a 1-factor. We will
obtain a contradiction in every case by constructing a 1-factor in G. This implies that
every graph satisfying Tuttes condition has a 1-factor.
Let S = . Then o(G) = 0. Then n(G) is even, because a graph of odd order must
have a component of odd order. Let U = {x V (G) | N(x) = V (G) {x}}.
S
Even Even
GU
M2 M1 y M2 w w M2 y M1 M2
M1
P1 M1 P1
M1 P2 P2 M1
M2 x M1 z M2 M2 x M1 z M 2
(a) (b)
REMARK: For any graph G and S V (G), the difference o(G S) |S| has the
same parity as n(G). Hence, o(G S) exceeds |S| by at least two for some S if n(G)
is even and G has no 1-factor.
COROLLARY 6.3 (Berge [21]) Let d(S) = o(G S) |S|. Then the largest num-
ber of vertices in a matching in G is
min {n d(S)}.
S V (G)
Proof: Let S be a subset of V (G). Obviously, at most |S| edges can match ver-
tices of S to vertices in odd components of G S. Thus, every matching has at least
o(G S) |S| unsaturated vertices. We want to achieve this bound.
Let d = max{o(G S) |S| | S V (G)}. The case S = implies d 0. Let
G = G Kd . Since d(S) has the same parity as n(G) for each S, we know that n(G ) is
even. Suppose that G satises Tuttes condition. Deleting the d-added vertices elim-
inates edges that saturate at most d vertices of G, and so we can obtain a matching of
the desired size in G from a perfect matching in G (see Figure 6.11).
The condition o(G S ) |S | holds for S = , because n(G ) is even. Suppose
that S is nonempty but does not contain all of Kd . Then G S has only one com-
ponent. We have 1 = o(G S ) |S |. Suppose that Kd S . Let S = S V (Kd ).
We have G S = G S, so o(G S ) = o(G S) |S| + d = |S |. Thus, G indeed
satises Tuttes condition.
COROLLARY 6.4 (Petersen [272]) Every 3-regular graph with no cut edge has a
1-factor.
Proof: Let G be a 3-regular graph with no cut edge. To prove this corollary, we can
prove that each edge set S V (G) satises Tuttes condition.
Let us count the edges between S and the odd component of G S. Since G is
3-regular, each vertex of S is incident to at most three edges between S and the odd
component of G S. Suppose that each odd component H of G S is incident to
at least three such edges. Then, 3o(G S) 3|S|. Hence, o(G S) |S|. Since G has
G Kd
no cut edge, the number of edges between S and H cannot be 1. Moreover, the number
of edges between S and H cannot be even, because then the sum of degrees in H would
be odd. Hence, there are at least three edges from H to S, as desired.
6.5 FACTORS
Petersen also found a sufcient condition for 2-factors, which can be proved using
only Eulerian circuits and bipartite matching. Note that every connected 2k-regular
graph is Eulerian. Thus, the edge set can be partitioned into edge-disjoint cycles. Yet,
we prove a stronger result that these cycles can be organized into 2-factors.
THEOREM 6.7 (Petersen [272]) Every regular graph of even degree has a 2-factor.
Proof: Let G be a 2k-regular with vertices v1 , v2 , . . . , vn . Obviously, every compo-
nent of G has an Eulerian circuit C. For each component, dene a bipartite graph H with
vertices u1 , u2 , . . . , un and w1 , w2 , . . . , wn by putting ui wj if vj immediately follows
vi somewhere on C. Because C leaves and enters each vertex k times, H is k-regular.
Every regular bipartite graph has a 1-factor. A 1-factor in H designates one edge
leaving vi (incident to ui in H) and one entering vi (incident to wi in H). Combining
these edges for each component of G yields a 2-regular spanning subgraph of G.
Example 6.5
Let G be the graph K5 . Obviously,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2, 5, 1 forms an Euler cir-
cuit of G. The corresponding bipartite graph H is shown in Figure 6.12. Obviously,
{(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 1)} forms a 1-factor of H. The corresponding 2-factor in
G is the cycle
1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The remaining edges of H form another 1-factor. Again, it
corresponds to the remaining 2-factor
1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 1 in G.
U W
1 1 1
2 2
5 2 3 3
4 4
4 3 5 5
G H
3 1
G 2 0 H
2 0
Multiple edges dont affect the existence of 1-factors. However, they do affect
the existence of an f -factor. Tutte [315] proved a necessary and sufcient condition
for a graph to have an f -factor. The original proof was quite difcult. Later Tutte
reduced it to checking for a 1-factor in a related graph. We describe the construction
of this related graph. This is a beautiful example of transforming a graph problem into
a previously solved problem.
We assume that f (w) d(w) for all w. Otherwise, immediately G has no f -factor.
We construct a graph H that has a 1-factor if and only if G has an f -factor as follows.
Let e(w) = d(w) f (w) 0 be the excess degree at w. To construct H, we replace
each vertex v by a bipartite graph graph Kd(v),e(v) , with partite sets A(v) of size d(v)
and B(v) of size e(v). For each edge (v, w) in G, we join one vertex of A(v) to one
vertex of A(w) so that each A-vertex participates in one such edge.
In Figure 6.13, we illustrate a graph G with the indicated function f and the
corresponding simple graph H. The dashed edges in H form a 1-factor that translates
back into an f -factor of G.
THEOREM 6.8 A graph G has an f -factor if and only if the graph H constructed
previously from the pairs G, f has a 1-factor.
Proof: Suppose that G has an f -factor. Then the corresponding edges in H leave e(u)
vertices of A(v) unmatched. We match them arbitrarily to the vertices of B(v) to obtain
a 1-factor of H. Similarly, we rst delete the matched edges involving B-vertices in
a 1-factor of H. The remaining matched edges of H will correspond to the edges of
1-factor of G. Hence, H has a 1-factor if and only if G has an f -factor.
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 105
7 Connectivity
Example 7.1
(Connectivity of the n-dimensional cubes Qn .) The cube Qn is n-regular. We can cut
Qn by deleting the neighbors of a vertex, so (Qn ) n. To prove that (Qn ) = n, we show
that every vertex cut of Qn has at least n vertices.
We use induction on n. Obviously, Qn is a clique with connectivity n for n = 0, 1.
This completes the basis. Suppose that (Qn1 ) = n 1 with n 2. We know that Qn
is obtained from two copies Q, Q of Qn1 by adding a matching joining corresponding
vertices in Q and Q . Let S be an arbitrary vertex cut in Qn .
Suppose that Q S is connected and Q S is connected. Then Qn S is also
connected unless S deletes at least one endpoint of every matched pair. This requires
that |S| 2n1 . However, 2n1 n for n 2. Hence, we may assume that Q S is
disconnected. By induction hypothesis, S contains at least n 1 vertices in Q. Suppose
that S contains no vertices of Q . Then Q S is connected and all vertices of Q S have
neighbors in Q S. Thus, Qn S is connected. Hence, S must also contain a vertex of
Q . Therefore, |S| n.
105
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 106
Example 7.2
(The k-connected Harary graph Hk,n .) Let k < n. Place n vertices, {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn1 },
in circular order. Suppose that k = 2r. Form Hk,n by making each vertex adjacent to the
nearest r vertices in each direction around the circle. Suppose that k = 2r + 1 and n is
even. Form Hk,n by making each vertex adjacent to the nearest r vertices in each direction
and to the vertex opposite it on the circle. In each case, Hk,n is k-regular. Suppose that
k = 2r + 1 and n is odd. Construct Hk,n from H2r,n by adding the edges xi xi+(n+1)/2
for 0 i (n 1)/2. The graphs H4,8 , H5,8 , and H5,9 are shown in Figure 7.1.
THEOREM 7.1 (Harary [138]) (Hk,n ) = k. Hence, the minimum number of edges
in a k-connected graph on n vertices is kn/2.
Proof: We prove only the case that k = 2r. Let G = H2r,n . From the symmetric of
G, it sufces to prove that x0 and xj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n 1, cannot be disconnected by
less than 2k vertices. Suppose that x0 and xj can be disconnected by 2k 1 vertices,
xi1 , xi2 , . . . , xi2k1 , where 1 i1 < i2 < < i2k1 n 1. One of the two intervals
[0, j] and [ j, n] contains at most (k 1) of these indices. Suppose it is interval [0, j].
Note that the difference between their indices is less than (k 1). Two consecutive
vertices of the sequence obtained by removing xi1 , xi2 , . . . from x0 , x1 , . . . , xj , are joined
by an edge. Consequently, there is a path from x0 to xj , which is a contradiction.
The remaining cases can be proved similarly.
Perhaps our transmitters are secure and never fail. However, our communication
links are subject to noise or other disruptions. In this situation, we want to make it
hard to disconnect our graph by deleting edges.
A disconnecting set of edges is a set F E(G) such that G F has more than one
component. A graph is k-edge-connected if every disconnecting set has at least k edges.
The edge-connectivity of G, written (G), is the minimum size of a disconnecting set.
In other words, (G) is the maximum k such that G is k-edge-connected.
Let S and T be two subsets of V (G). We use [S, T ] to denote the edge set having
one endpoint in S and the other in T . An edge cut is an edge set of the form [S, S]
where S is a nonempty proper subset of V (G).
The notation for edge-connectivity continues our convention of using a prime
for an edge parameter analogous to a vertex parameter. Using the same base
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 107
Connectivity 107
letter emphasizes the analogy and avoids the confusion of using many different
letters.
Since there is no path of G [S, S] from S to S, every edge cut is a disconnecting
set. However, the converse is false. In K3 , the set of all edges is a disconnecting set
but is not an edge cut. In K3,3 , every set of seven edges is a disconnecting set, but none
of them is an edge cut.
Suppose that n(G) > 1. Then every minimal disconnecting set of edges is an edge
cut. Suppose that G F has more than one component for some F E(G). Then we
can delete all edges having one endpoint in some component H of G F. Thus, F
contains the edge cut [V (H), V (H)]. Therefore, F is not a minimal disconnecting set
unless F = [V (H), V (H)].
Deleting one endpoint of each edge in an edge cut F will delete every edge of F.
Hence, we expect that (G) (G) always holds. To prove this, we must be careful
not to delete the only vertex of a component of G F and thereby produce a connected
subgraph. The inequality (Kn ) (Kn ) holds by our convention that (Kn ) = n 1.
x T
T
S S
T
T y
T
Example 7.3
(Possibility of < < .) Let G be the graph in Figure 7.3. Obviously, (G) = 1,
(G) = 2, and (G) = 3.
An edge cut may contain another edge cut as a subset. For example, K1,2 has
three edge cuts. However, one of them contains the other two. The minimal nonempty
edge cut of a graph have useful structural properties and a special name: a bond is a
minimal nonempty edge cut. Here minimal means that no proper nonempty subset of
these edges is also an edge cut. Bonds in connected graphs are the edge cuts that leave
only two components.
In Chapter 1, we introduced the terms cut vertex and cut edge for vertex cuts and
edge cuts of size 1. Some authors have used articulation point to mean cut vertex,
and some authors have used isthmus or bridge to mean cut edge. Every graph with
connectivity 1 other than K2 has a cut vertex. These graphs are sometimes called
separable graphs. Obviously, K1 and K2 have no cut vertex. Assume that G is a
connected graph with no cut vertex and G is neither K1 nor K2 . Then G is 2-connected.
Connected subgraphs without cut-vertices provide a useful decomposition of a graph
into subgraphs.
A block of a graph G is a maximal connected subgraph of G that has no cut vertex.
Suppose that G itself is connected and has no cut vertex. Then G is a block.
Suppose that H is a block of G. Then H is a graph has no cut vertex. However,
H may contain vertices that are cut vertices of G. For example, the graph drawn in
Figure 7.4 has seven blocks.
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 109
Connectivity 109
Let P1 and P2 be two paths of a graph G. We say that P1 and P2 are internally disjoint
if I(P1 ) I(P2 ) = .
THEOREM 7.4 Suppose that G is a graph with at least three vertices. Then the
following statements are equivalent (and characterize 2-connected graphs):
P R
z
u v
w
Connectivity 111
w
u v u v
t x d
v
w c z
u
a b y
Example 7.4
The graph in Figure 7.7 has four pairwise internally disjoint paths from x to y. Thus,
(x, y) 4. It can be conrmed that S = {b, c, z, d} is an x, y-cut of size 4. Thus,
(x, y) 4. Note that every path from x to y intersects S and every x, y-cut has a vertex from
each path. We have (x, y) = (x, y) = 4. We can further check that (a, z) = (a, z) = 3.
Moreover, {y, u, w} is an a, z-cut. Actually, this graph is 3-connected. We can nd three
pairwise internally disjoint paths for every pair u, v V (G).
Yet we nd ve pairwise edge-disjoint paths from w to z and a set {(w, a),
(w, b), (w, c), (w, u), (w, x)} of ve edges whose deletion breaks all paths from w to z.
Mengers original theorem states the local equality (x, y) = (x, y). The global
equality (G) = (G) and the analogous results for edge-connectivity and digraphs
were observed by others. All are considered forms of Mengers Theorem.
THEOREM 7.5 (Menger [252]) Let x, y be any two vertices of a graph G with
(x, y)
/ E(G). Then the minimum size of an x, y-cut equals the maximum number of
pairwise internally disjoint paths from x to y.
Proof: It is observed that any x, y-cut must contain an internal vertex from each
path in a set of pairwise internally disjoint paths from x to y. These vertices must be
distinct. Thus, (x, y) (x, y).
To prove equality, we use induction on n(G). Suppose that n = 2. Then
(x, y)
/ E(G) implies (x, y) = (x, y) = 0. The theorem holds for n = 2. Assume that
the theorem holds for any graph with less than n vertices with n > 2. Let G be any
graph containing two vertices x and y with k = G (x, y). We need to construct k
pairwise internally disjoint paths from x to y in G.
Case 1. G has a minimum x, y-cut S such that S ( N(x) N( y)) = . Let V1 be the
set of vertices on x, S-paths and let V2 be the set of vertices on S, y-paths.
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 113
Connectivity 113
v1 v2
Case 1 S S
S y y
y
x x x
G H1 H2
Case 2
x y
G
Thus, we assume that N(x) and N( y) are disjoint and exhaust V (G) {x, y}. Let
G be the bipartite graph with bipartition N(x), N( y) and edge set [N(x), N( y)]. Every
path from x to y in G uses some edge from N(x) to N( y). Therefore, x, y-cuts in G are
precisely the vertex covers of G . Hence, (G ) = k. By the KnigEgervry Theorem,
there is a matching of size k from N(x) to N( y). These edges yield k pairwise internally
disjoint paths from x to y of length 3. See Figure 7.8 for an illustration.
The following global version for k-connected graphs, observed by Whitney [340],
is also referred to as the Menger Theorem.
THEOREM 7.6 The connectivity of G equals the maximum k such that (x, y) k
for all x, y V (G).
Proof: By Theorem 7.5, (x, y) = (x, y) when (x, y) / E(G). By denition,
(G) = min{(x, y) | (x, y)
/ E(G)}. Thus, we need to show that (x, y) (G) if
(x, y) E(G).
We rst claim that (G) (G (x, y)) + 1. Suppose that G is the complete graph
Kn . Obviously, (G (x, y)) = n 2 = (G) 1. Suppose that G is not a clique. Then
(G) n 2. Let S be a minimum separating set of G (x, y). Suppose that S is also
a disconnecting set of G. Then (G) = (G (x, y)) = |S|. Thus, we assume that S is not
a minimum separating set of G. Since G = Kn , |S| < n 2. Moreover, G (x, y) S
consists of two components: one contains x and the other contains y. Thus, one of
these components has at least two vertices. Without loss of generality, we assume that
x is in a component with at least two vertices. Obviously, S {x} is a separating set
of G. Thus, (G) (G (x, y)) + 1.
By denition, G (x, y) = 1 + G (x,y) (x, y). Thus,
The line graph of a graph G, written L(G), is the graph whose vertices are edges
of G, with ef E(L(G)) if e = (u, v) and f = (v, w) in G. For graphs in Figure 7.9,
e and f share a vertex. We use the notation (x, y) to be the maximum size of a set
of pairwise edge-disjoint paths from x to y, and (x, y) to be the minimum number of
edges whose deletion makes y unreachable from x.
f
f h h
e
e
g i
i
g
G L(G)
Connectivity 115
THEOREM 7.7 Suppose that x and y are distinct vertices of a graph G. Then the
minimum size of an x, y-disconnecting set of edges equals the maximum number of
pairwise edge-disjoint paths from x to y; that is, (x, y) = (x, y).
Proof: We modify G by adding two new vertices s, t and two new edges (s, x) and
( y, t) to obtain G . It is easy to see that (x, y) = G (x, y) and (x, y) = (x, y).
G
We extend each path from x to y by starting from the edge (s, x) and ending
with the edge ( y, t). A set of edges disconnects y from x in G if and only if the
corresponding vertices of L(G ) form an (s, x), ( y, t)-cut. Similarly, edge-disjoint
paths from x to y in G become internally disjoint paths from (s, x) to ( y, t) in
L(G ), and vice versa. Since x = y, ((s, x), ( y, t)) / E(L(G )). By Mengers Theorem,
G (x, y) = ((s, x), ( y, t)) = ((s, x), ( y, t)) = G (x, y).
L(G ) L(G )
There are similar Menger-type results for edge connectivity and for digraphs.
Dirac extended Mengers theorem to other families of paths. An (x, U)-fan is a set of
(x, U)-paths such that any two of them share only the vertex x.
THEOREM 7.8 (Fan Lemma, Dirac [87]) A graph is k-connected if and only if it
has at least k + 1 vertices and there is an (x, U)-fan for every choice of x and U with
|U| k and x / U.
Proof: Suppose that G is k-connected. We construct G from G by adding a new
vertex y to all of U. By Lemma 7.1, G also is k-connected. By Mengers Theorem,
there exist k pairwise internally disjoint paths from x to y in G . Deleting y from these
paths produces an (x, U)-fan of size k in G.
Conversely, suppose that G has at least k + 1 vertices and there is an (x, U)-fan for
every choice of x and U with |U| k and x / U. Obviously, the statement holds for
for every choice of x and U with |U| = k and x / U. Thus, deg (x) k for every vertex
in G. Let x and y be any two different vertices of G. Let U = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yk1 } be
a set of (k 1) neighbors of y not containing x. We set U = U {y}. Obviously, we
can extend the (x, U)-fan by adding the edges {( yi , y) | yi U } to obtain k internally
disjoint paths from x to y. Hence, G is k-connected.
trouble is that G1 has a cut edge. On the other hand, G2 has the balanced orientation
D2 , shown in Figure 7.10c, in which each vertex is reachable from each other vertex
in at most two steps; in particular, D2 is strongly connected.
Certainly, a necessary condition for G to have a strongly connected orientation is
that G is 2-edge-connected. Robbins [275] showed that this condition is also sufcient.
Connectivity 117
from S by at most one. Since it includes all arcs of D, both [S, S] and [S, S] contain at
least r/2 arcs. The result follows.
s4k2 (u) = s4k2 (v), and p4 (u) p4 (v) = i1 i2 i3 i4 j1 j2 j3 j4 Vs2 (u) . Therefore, the
i1 i2 i3 i4 j1 j2 j3 j4
number of edges in SQn between SQ4k2 and SQ4k2 is 24k4 , which is greater
i1 i2 i3 i4
than |F|. As a consequence, each subcube SQ4k2 F is connected to every sub-
j1 j2 j3 j4
cube SQ4k2 F. Furthermore, it follows from the induction hypothesis that each
i1 i2 i3 i4
subcube SQ4k2 F is connected. Hence, SQ4k+2 F is connected.
Case 2. There is a subcube containing at least 4k 2 vertices in F. It follows that
H1 contains at most four subcubes. The proof is similar to Case 2 for SQ6 .
Hence, SQ4k+2 is 4k + 2 connected. The theorem follows.
Li et al. [224] also generalize shufe cubes into generalized shufe cubes by
lowering the diameter and keeping both the connectivity and the number of edges.
The problem of nding a graph (or digraph) with n vertices each of which has
degree (or outdegree) at most d to minimize the diameter and to maximize the connec-
tivity by giving n and d is a multiobjective optimization problem. Usually, for such a
problem, a solution is selected based on a tradeoff between two objective functions.
However, for this problem, it is different; that is, there exist solutions that are nearly
optimal to both. In the following, we present some solutions to this problem.
As discussed in Chapter 3 the de Bruijn digraph BRU(d, t) contains d t vertices of
diameter t and with the outdegree of each vertex being d. The diameter is very closed
to the Moore bound. It is proved that the connectivity of BRU(d, t) is d 1, which is
one less than the degree bound d. The Kautz digraph Kautz(d, t) contains (d + 1)d t1
vertices of diameter t and with the outdegree of each vertex being d. The diameter is
very closed to the Moore bound. It is proved that the connectivity of Kautz(d, t) is d,
which is the best possible connectivity.
The maximum degree of the undirected de Bruijn graph UBRU(d, t) is 2d. Hence,
the diameter of UBRU(d, t) is bounded by a constant times the Moore bound. The
connectivity of UBRU(d, t) is shown to be 2d 2. Similarly, the maximum degree of
the undirected Kautz graph UKautz(d, t) is 2d. Hence, its diameter is again bounded
by a constant times the Moore bound. The connectivity of UKautz(d, t) is shown to
be 2d 1.
Connectivity 119
We here formally dene the wide diameter and the fault diameter of an underlying
network G = (V , E). Let u and v be two distinct vertices in G, and let (G) = . Let
C(u, v) denote the set of all internally disjoint paths between u and v. An element
in C(u, v) is called a container between u and v. Each element i of C(u, v) consists of
internally disjoint paths, and the longest length among these paths is denoted by
li (u, v). The number of elements in C(u, v) is denoted by |C(u, v)|. We dene d (u, v) as
the minimum over all li ; that is, d (u, v) = min1i|C(u,v)| {li (u, v)}. We write d1 (u, v)
as d(u, v), which means the shortest distance between u and v. D (G) is called the
-diameter of G and is given by
f
d (u, v) = max {dGF (u, v) | u, v
/ F}
FV , |F|=
f
The -fault diameter, denoted by D (G), is given by
f f
D (G) = max d (u, v)
u,vV
f
By the Menger Theorem, D (G) = if . In particular, the fault diameter of G
f
is dened as D1 (G). The fault diameter, proposed by Krishnamoorthy and Krishna-
murthy [206], estimates the impact of the diameter when a fault occurs. Fault diameters
and wide diameters are important measures for interconnection networks.
f
Obviously, we have D(G) D1 (G) D (G).
f
THEOREM 7.13 (Saad and Shultz [279]) Dn (Qn ) = Dn1 (Qn ) = n + 1.
Proof: Each vertex u of Qn can be expressed as an n-bit string u = un1 un2 . . . u0 .
We use uk to denote the string un1 un2 . . . uk+1 uk uk1 . . . u0 .
Assume that u and v are two different nodes in the n-dimensional hypercube.
We use H(u, v) to denote the set of indices such that ui = vi . Obviously, |H(u, v)| =
h(u,v)1
h(u, v). Let {i }i=0 be the decreasing sequence of indices in H(u, v) and {j }n1 j=h(u,v)
be the decreasing sequence of indices such that uj = vj . For 1 i h(u, v), we set
h(u,v)1+i
Pi =
u, xi,1 = u0+i , xi,2 = xi,11+i , . . . , xi,h(u,v) = xi,h(u,v)1 = v with the addition of
superscripts being performed under modulo h(u, v); and for h(u, v) j n 1, we
j
set Pj =
u, uj , x0,1j , x0,2j , . . . , x0,h(u,v)1 , vj , v.
For example, let n = 5, u = 00000, and v = 00111. Then P1 =
00000, 00100,
00110, 00111, P2 =
00000, 00010, 00011, 00111, P3 =
00000, 00001, 00101,
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 120
00111, P4 =
00000, 10000, 10100, 10110, 10111, 00111, and P5 =
00000, 01000,
01100, 01110, 01111, 00111.
Obviously, P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn form n disjoint paths joining u to v. With this con-
struction, dn (u, v) 2 + h(u, v) if h(u, v) = n and dn (u, v) n if h(u, v) = n. Hence
Dn (Qn ) n + 1.
n n1
Let u = 00 . . . 0 and v = 0 11 . . . 1. Assume that F = {ui | 0 i n 2}.
Obviously, un1 is the only fault-free node that is adjacent to u. Let
P =
u = x0 , x1 , . . . , xk = v be any path in Qn F joining u to v. Obviously, x1 = un .
f
Since h(x1 , v) = n, the length of P is at least n + 1. Therefore, D1 (Qn ) n + 1.
f f
Since D(G) D1 (G) D (G) holds for any graph G, Dn (Qn ) = Dn1 (Qn ) =
n + 1 is obtained.
It is interesting to study the wide diameter and the fault diameter of other inter-
connection networks. There are some studies on the fault diameter and wide diameter
for the other interconnection networks [130,217].
THEOREM 7.14 Assume that t is a positive integer. Suppose that G0 and G1 are
two k-regular maximum-connected graphs with t vertices, and is a 1-1 connection
between G0 and G1 . Then, G0 G1 is (k + 1)-regular super-connected if and only if
(1) t > k + 1 or (2) t = k + 1 with k = 0, 1, 2.
Proof: Since G0 and G1 are k-regular-connected graphs, t k + 1. By denition,
G0 G1 is a (k + 1)-regular graph. In order to prove that G0 G1 is super-connected,
ch007.tex 30/6/2008 10: 31 Page 121
Connectivity 121
A perfect matching
G0 G1
THEOREM 7.15 Assume that t is a positive integer. Suppose that G0 and G1 are two
k-regular maximum-edge-connected graphs with t vertices, and is a 1-1 connection
between G0 and G1 . Then, G0 G1 is (k + 1)-regular super-edge-connected if and
only if (1) t > k + 1 or (2) t = k + 1 with k = 0.
As noted in Chapter 3, the hypercube does not have the smallest diameter for its
resources. Various networks are proposed by twisting some pairs of links in hypercubes
[1,76,92,93]. Because of the lack of the unied perspective on these variants, results
of one topology are hard to extend to others. To make a unied study of these variants,
Vaidya et al. introduced the class of hypercube-like graphs [322]. We denote their
graphs as H -graphs. The class of H -graphs, consisting of simple, connected, and
undirected graphs, contains most of the hypercube variants.
Now, we can dene the set of n-dimensional H -graph, Hn , as follows:
Connectivity 123
G0 A perf
e
matc ct
hing
ct G1
rfe g
pe chin
A at
m
Gr-1
A pe
matc
rfect
hing
G2
THEOREM 7.16 Suppose that r and t are positive integers with r 3. Assume
that G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 are k-regular maximum-connected graphs with |V (Gi )| = t for
0 i r 1. Then, H = G(G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 ; M) is (k + 2)-regular super-connected
if and only if (1) k 1 or (2) k = 0 and r = 3, 4, 5.
THEOREM 7.17 Suppose that r and t are positive integers with r 3. Assume
that G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 are k-regular maximum-edge-connected graphs with |V (Gi )| = t
for 0 i r 1. Then, H = G(G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 ; M) is (k + 2)-regular super-edge-
connected if and only if (1) k 2, (2) k = 1 and r = 3, or (3) k = 0 and r = 3.
COROLLARY 7.4 Suppose that r and t are positive integers with r 3. Assume
that G0 , G1 , . . . , Gk1 are k-connected and k -edge-connected graphs with |V (Gi )| = t
for 0 i r 1. Then, H = G(G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 ; M) is (k + 2)-connected and
(k + 2)-edge-connected.
Let t be an integer with t 2. Let G1 and G2 be two graphs with t vertices such
that V (G1 ) = {ai | 0 i < t} and V (G2 ) = {bi | 0 i < t}. Let C be a set of edges given
by C = {(ai , bi ) | 0 i < t} {(bi , ai+1 (mod t) ) | 0 i < t}. The graph G(G1 , G2 ; C) is
dened as the graph with the vertex set V (G(G1 , G2 ; C)) = V (G1 ) V (G2 ), and edge
set E(G(G1 , G2 ; C)) = E(G1 ) E(G2 ) C.
proposed in Ref. 269. For 0 i < d, let Vir denote the set { j | 0 j < cd r , j = i(mod d)}.
We use RCi (c, d, r) to denote the subgraph of RC(c, d, r) induced by Vir . For a
positive integer N, let ZN be the additive group of residue classes modulo N.
We can recursively describe RC(c, d, r) as follows: Suppose that r = 0. Then
RC(c, d, 0) is the graph with V (RC(c, d, 0)) = {0} and E(RC(c, d, 0)) = if c = 1,
V (RC(c, d, 0)) = {0, 1} and E(RC(c, d, 0)) = {(0, 1)} if c = 2, and V (RC(c, d, 0)) = Zc
and E(RC(c, d, 0)) = {(i, i + 1) | i Zc } if c 3. Suppose that r 1. The induced sub-
graph RCi (c, d, r) is isomorphic to RC(c, d, r 1) for 0 i < d. More precisely, let fir
be the function from Zcd r1 into Vir dened by fir (x) = dx + i. Then, fir induces an iso-
morphism from RC(c, d, r 1) into RCi (c, d, r). Let H(c, d, r) denote the set of edges
of RC(c, d, r) not in d1
i=0 (E(RCi (c, d, r))). Then, H(c, d, r) = {(i, i + 1) | i Zcd }.
r
8 Graph Coloring
Example 8.1
Each color class in a proper coloring is an independent set. Thus, G is k-colorable if and
only if G is k-partite. In Figure 8.1, we illustrate optimal colorings of the 5-cycle and the
Petersen graph. These two graphs have chromatic number 3.
Example 8.2
Every k-colorable graph is a k-partite graph. Thus, K1 and K2 are the only 1-critical and
2-critical graphs. By the characterization of bipartite graphs, the 3-critical graphs are odd
cycles. We can test 2-colorability by using breadth-rst search (BFS) from a vertex in each
component. A graph is bipartite if and only if G[X] and G[Y ] are independent sets where
X = {u V (G) | d(u, x) is even} and Y = {u V (G) | d(u, x) is odd}. Beyond this, we
have no characterization of 4-critical graphs and no good algorithm to test 3-colorability.
Let (G) denote the order of the largest complete subgraph of G. Obviously,
(G) (G). Since each color class is an independent set, (G) n(G)/(G). With
Example 8.1, we have examples with (G) > (G).
125
ch008.tex 30/6/2008 10: 50 Page 126
b
a c c
c b a b
a
c c
b a
a b
FIGURE 8.1 Optimal colorings of the 5-cycle and the Petersen graph.
We may study the behavior of the chromatic number under various graph
operations. It is easy to obtain the following theorem.
THEOREM 8.1
1. (G + H) = max{(G), (H)}
2. (G H) = (G) + (H)
3. (G H) = max{(G), (H)}
4. (G H) min{(G), (H)}
It is interesting to point out that Hedetniemi conjectured that the equality holds
for all graphs in the equation 4 in 1966. This conjecture remains open.
Let G be a k-critical graph G with a 2-vertex cut {u, v}. By Theorem 8.2, u and v
cannot be adjacent. A {u, v}-component Gi of G is of type 1 if every (k 1)-coloring
of Gi assigns the same color to u and v. A {u, v}-component Gi of G is of type 2 if
every (k 1)-coloring of Gi assigns different colors to u and v. See Figure 8.3 for
illustration.
H3
H2
H1 S
u u u
v v v
Type 1 Type 2
FIGURE 8.3 A 4-critical graph with a 2-vertex cut {u, v} and its two {u, v}-components.
ch008.tex 30/6/2008 10: 50 Page 128
THEOREM 8.3 (Dirac [89]) Let G be a k-critical graph with a 2-vertex cut
{u, v}. Then
Proof:
COROLLARY 8.3 Assume that G is a k-critical graph with a 2-vertex cut {u, v}.
Then degG (u) + degG (v) 3k 5.
Proof: Let G1 be the {u, v}-component of type 1 and G2 be the {u, v}-component of
type 2. Set H1 = G1 + (u, v) and H2 = G2 (u, v). By Theorem 8.3 and Lemma 8.1, we
have degH1 (u) + degH2 (v) 2k 2 and degH2 (w) k 1 where w is the new vertex
obtained by identifying u and v. It follows that degG1 (u) + degG1 (v) 2k 4 and
degG2 (u) + degG2 (v) k 1. Hence, degG (u) + degG (v) 3k 5.
PROPOSITION 8.2 (Welsh and Powell [337]) Suppose that G is a graph with
degree sequence d1 d2 dn . Then (G) 1 + max{min{di , i 1} | 1 i n}.
Proof: We apply the greedy coloring with vertices in nonincreasing order of degree.
As we color the ith vertices, there at most min {di , i 1} of its neighbors already have
colors. Thus, the index of its color is at most 1 + min{di , i 1}. Maximizing this over
i yields the upper bound.
THEOREM 8.4 (Szekeres and Wilf [296]) (G) 1 + maxHG (H) for any
graph G.
Proof: Suppose that k = (G) and H is a k-critical subgraph of G. By Lemma 8.1,
(G) 1 (H ) maxHG (H).
THEOREM 8.5 (Gallai [119], Roy [278], Vitaver [325]) Suppose that D is an
orientation of G. We use l(D) to denote its longest path. Then (G) 1 + l(D). Fur-
thermore, there exists an orientation of G to make the equality hold. (See Figure 8.4).
Proof: Suppose that D is an orientation of G. Let D be a maximal acyclic subdigraph
of D. Obviously, D is an orientation of a spanning subgraph H of G. Color V (G) by
assigning f (v) to be the length of the longest path in D that ends at v plus 1. Since D
has no cycle, f is strictly increasing along each path in D .
2
2 4
3 1 3
5
1 v
6
1 5 4
u
D and D D*
FIGURE 8.4 Illustration of Theorem 8.5.
ch008.tex 30/6/2008 10: 50 Page 130
The bound (G) 1 + (G) is tight for cliques and odd cycles. Using the greedy
algorithm with a proper vertex ordering, we can show that these are essentially the only
graphs with (G) > (G). With this result, the Petersen graph is 3-colorable. To avoid
unimportant complications, we phrase the statement only for connected graphs. It can
be extended to all graphs, because the chromatic number of a graph is the maximum
chromatic number of its components. We present the proof by Lovsz [242].
THEOREM 8.6 (Brooks [33]) Suppose that G is a connected graph other than a
clique or an odd cycle. Then (G) (G).
Proof: Suppose that G is a k-chromatic connected graph other than a clique or an odd
cycle. Without loss of generality, we may assume that G is k-critical. By Corollary
8.2, G is a block. Since 1-critical and 2-critical graphs are complete and 3-critical
graphs are odd cycles, we have k 4.
Suppose that G has a 2-vertex cut {u, v}. By Corollary 8.3, 2(G) degG (u) +
degG (v) 3k 5 2k 1. Since 2(G) is even, (G) = k (G).
Assume that G is 3-connected. Since G is not complete, there are three vertices
u, v, and w in G such that (u, v) E(G) and (v, w) E(G) but (u, w) / E(G). Set u = v1
and w = v2 and let v3 , v4 , . . . , vn(G) = v be any ordering of the vertices of G {u, w}
such that each vi is adjacent to some vj with j > i. This can be achieved by arranging the
vertices of G {u, w} in nonincreasing order of their distance from v; using, say, BFS.
We can now describe a (G)-coloring of G. Assign color 1 to v1 = u and v2 = w.
Then successively color v3 , v4 , . . . , vn(G) , each with the rst available color in the list
1, 2, . . . , (G). By the construction of the sequence v1 , v2 , . . . , vn(G) , each vertex vi ,
1 i n(G) 1, is adjacent to some vertex vj with j > i. Therefore, vi is adjacent
to at most (G) 1 vertices vj with j < i. It follows that, when its turn comes to
be colored, vi is adjacent to at most (G) 1 colors, and, thus, that one of the
colors 1, 2, . . . , (G) will be available. As vn(G) is adjacent to two vertices of color 1
(namely v1 and v2 ), vn(G) is adjacent to at most (G) 2 other colors. Hence vn(G)
can be assigned one of the colors 2, 3, . . . , (G).
Example 8.3
(Mycielskis construction.) Mycielski [257] found a construction scheme that builds
from any k-chromatic triangle-free graph G a (k + 1)-chromatic triangle-free supergraph
G . Let G be a k-chromatic triangle-free graph with vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. Let
U = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un }. Then V (G ) = V U {w}. Let the subgraph of G induced by V ,
G [V ], is G. We add edges to make ui adjacent to all of NG (vi ), and then make N(w) = U.
The resultant graph is G .
Note that U is an independent set in G . From the 2-chromatic graph K2 , the rst
iteration of Mycielskis construction yields the 3-chromatic C5 . The second iteration
yields the 4-chromatic Grtzsch graph, shown in Figure 8.5. These graphs are the triangle-
free k-chromatic graphs with fewest vertices for k = 2, 3, 4.
for k 3. For k = 2, it states that every 2-chromatic graph contains a nontrivial path.
For k = 3, it states that every 3-chromatic graph contains a cycle. Dirac [86] proved
that the conjecture holds for k = 4. If F is a subdivision of H, then we call F is an
H-subdivision.
THEOREM 8.8 (Dirac [86]) Every graph with chromatic number of at least 4
contains a K4 -subdivision.
Proof: Let G be a 4-chromatic graph. Without loss of generality, we may assume
that G is critical. Hence, G is a block and (G) 3. We proceed by induction on n(G).
Suppose that n(G) = 4. Then G is K4 and the theorem holds trivially. Assume that the
theorem is true for all 4-chromatic graphs with fewer than n(G) vertices.
Suppose that G has a 2-vertex cut {u, v}. By Theorem 8.3, G has two {u, v}-
components G1 and G2 , where G1 + (u, v) is 4-critical. Since n(G1 + (u, v)) < n(G),
by induction G1 + (u, v) contains a subdivision of K4 . Let P be a path from u to v
in G2 . Then G1 P contains a subdivision of K4 . Hence, G contains a subdivision
of K4 .
Now, suppose that G is 3-connected. Since 3, G has a cycle C of length at least
four. Let u and v be nonconsecutive vertices on C. Since G {u, v} is connected, there
is a path P in G {u, v} connecting the two portions of C {u, v}. We may assume
that the origin x and the terminus y are the only vertices of P on C. Similarly, there is
a path Q in G {x, y}.
Suppose that P and Q have no vertex in common. Then C P Q is a subdivi-
sion of K4 . See Figure 8.6a for illustration. Otherwise, let w be the rst vertex of
P on Q and let P denote the section from x to w of P. Then C P Q is a sub-
division of K4 . See Figure 8.6b for illustration. Hence, in both cases, G contains a
subdivision of K4 .
Catlin [36] proved that Hajs conjecture fails for k 7. Hadwiger [133] proposed
a weaker conjecture: every k-chromatic graph contains a subgraph contractible to Kk .
It means that a subgraph of a k-chromatic graph becomes Kk after a sequence of edge
contractions. This is a weaker conjecture because a Kk -subdivision is a special type
of subgraph contractible to Kk . Hadwigers conjecture is still open.
x x
C C
P'
Q
w
P
(a) y (b) y
Example 8.4
(Elementary examples.) Suppose that we are coloring the vertices of an independent
set. We can independently choose one of the k colors at each vertex. Each of the k n
functions to [k] is a proper coloring. Hence, (K n ; k) = k n .
We can color the vertices of Kn in some order. The colors chosen earlier cannot be
used on the ith vertex. There remain (k i + 1) choices available for the ith vertex, no
matter how the earlier colors were chosen. Hence, (Kn ; k) = k(k 1) (k n + 1).
Thus, (Kn ; k) = 0 if k < n, as it should be, because Kn is k-chromatic.
Suppose that we want color a tree with k coloring. We can choose any vertex as a
root. We can color this vertex in k ways. Along with a coloring, we grow the tree from
the root. At every stage, only the color of the parent is forbidden. Thus, we have (k 1)
choices for the color of the new vertex. Furthermore, we can see inductively that every
proper k-coloring arises in this way by deleting a leaf. Hence, (T ; k) = k(k 1)n 1 for
every n-vertex tree.
All examples of (G, k) are polynomials in k of degree n(G). This holds for every
graph. For this reason, we call (G; k) the chromatic polynomial of G.
PROPOSITION 8.3 Let x(r) = x(x 1) (x r + 1). Let pr (G) denote the
number of partitions of V (G) into exactly r independent sets. Then (G; k) =
n(G)
r=1 pr (G)k(r) , which is a polynomial of degree n(G).
Proof: Suppose that r colors are actually used in a proper coloring. The coloring
classes partition V (G) into exactly r independent sets. Suppose that k colors are
available. The number of ways to assign colors to a partition when exactly r colors
are used is k(r) . This accounts for all colorings. Thus, the formula for (G; k) holds.
Since k(r) is a polynomial in k and pr (G) is a constant for each r, this formula implies
that (G; k) is a polynomial function of k. Suppose that G has n vertices. There is
exactly one partition of G into n independent sets and no partition using more sets.
The leading term is k n .
n(G)
Computing the chromatic polynomial using (G; k) = r=1 pr (G)k(r) is not fea-
sible, because listing partitions into independent sets is no easier than nding the
ch008.tex 30/6/2008 10: 50 Page 134
smallest such partition (chromatic number). There is also a recurrence, which is similar
to counting the numbers of spanning trees. Again G e denotes the graph obtained by
contracting the edge e in G. However, since we are counting colorings, we can discard
multiple copies of edges that arise from the contraction.
Proof: Let e = (u, v). Obviously, every proper k-coloring of G is a proper k-coloring
of G e. Moreover, any proper k-coloring of G e is a proper k-coloring of G if and
only if it gives distinct colors to the endpoints u and v of e. Hence, we can count
the proper k-colorings of G by substracting from (G e; k) the number of proper
k-colorings of G e that give u and v the same color. The colorings of G that give u
and v the same color correspond directly to proper k-colorings of G e, in which the
color of the contracted vertex is the common color of u and v.
Example 8.5
Deleting an edge from C4 produces P4 . Contracting an edge of C4 produces K3 . Since P4
is a tree, (P4 ; k) = k(k 1)3 . Since K3 is a clique, (K3 ; k) = k(k 1)(k 2). Using the
chromatic recurrence, we obtain (C4 ; k) = (P4 ; k) (K3 ; k) = k(k 1)(k 2 3k + 3).
Since both G e and G e have fewer edges than G, we can use the chromatic
recurrence inductively to compute (G; e). The initial conditions are graphs with no
edges. We have already computed (K n ; k) = k n .
Example 8.6
(Near-complete graphs.) Suppose that a graph G has many edges. We may
compute its chromatic polynomial by working up to cliques instead of down to
their components. For example, we want to compute (Kn e; k). We can write
(G e; k) = (G; k) + (G e; k) instead of (G; k) = (G e; k) (G e; k). We let
G be Kn in this alternative formula and obtained
!
n3
(Kn e) = (Kn ; k) + (Kn1 ; k) = (k n + 2)2 (k i)
i=0
n n1
such that (G e; k) = i=0 (1)
ia
ik
ni and (G e; k) = i=0 bi k n1i . By the
chromatic recurrence,
The following result with regard to (G; k) is very interesting, because (G; k)
has meaning when evaluated at negative integers.
THEOREM 8.11 (Stanley [286]) (G; 1) is (1)n(G) times the number of acyclic
orientations of G.
Proof: We use induction on e(G). Let a(G) be the number of acyclic orientations of
G. Suppose that G has no edges. Obviously, a(G) = 1 and (G; 1) = (1)n(G) . So
the claim holds. We will prove that a(G) = a(G e) + a(G e) for e E(G). Suppose
this recurrence, a(G) = a(G e) + a(G e) for e E(G), holds. Combined with the
induction hypothesis,
Example 8.7
There are exactly 4 edges in C4 . Thus, there are 16 orientations for C4 . Of these, 14 are
acyclic. We know that (C4 ; k) = k(k 1)(k 2 3k + 3). Obviously, (C4 ; 1) = 14.
ch008.tex 30/6/2008 10: 50 Page 136
A function f from the set of natural numbers N into the set of real num-
bers R is additive if f (m + n) = f (m) + f (n) for all m, n N , f is multiplicative if
f (m n) = f (m) f (n) for all m, n N , and f is increasing if f (m) f (n) whenever
m n. The following theorem can easily be obtained.
From the mathematical point of view, the previous theorem is very good. It
classies all multiplicative increasing functions on N . We also observed that all mul-
tiplicative increasing functions are generated by additive multiplicative increasing
functions. It is very natural to study similar results on other algebraic systems.
Let f be a real-valued function dened on the set of all graphs, G. The function f is
additive if f (G + H) = f (G) + f (H) for any G, H G. The function f is multiplicative
if f (G H) = f (G) f (H) for any G, H G. The function f is increasing if f (G)
f (H) when G is a subgraph of H. A graph function f is MI if it is multiplicative and
increasing. A graph function f is AMI if it is additive, multiplicative, and increasing.
Note that MI is closed, undertaking the nonnegative power, nite product, and point-
wise convergence. Let S MI. We use
S to denote the set of functions obtained by
ch008.tex 30/6/2008 10: 50 Page 137
taking nonnegative power, nite product, and pointwise convergence from elements
of S. In other words, the following functions are elements in
S:
1. f
, 0, and f S
2. ki=1 fii , i 0, and fi S
3. limm fm , where fm is of type 1 or 2
Lovsz observed this fact in Theorem 8.12 and asked if the set of multiplicative
increasing functions (with respect to a weak product) is generated by {hG | G is a
graph}; that is, it is conjectured that MI =
{hG | G is a graph}. Although the conjecture
is disproved by Hsu [168,169], we present some interesting examples of multiplicative
increasing graph functions.
Let f1 (G) be dened as the number of vertices of G. Obviously, f1 = hK1. Moreover,
it is proved in Ref. 168 that f = hK 1 for some 0 if f is an MI function with
f (K1 ) = 0. Let f2 (G) be dened as 2|E(G)|. It can be checked that f2 = hK2 . Let f3 (G)
1/m
be dened as max{deg(v) | v G}. It is proved in Ref. 168 that f3 = limm hK1,m . Let
f4 (G) be dened as max{|| | is an eigenvalue of A(G)}. It is proved in Ref. 168 that
f4 = limm hPm . Let f5 (G) be dened as f5 (G) = limn (Gn )1/n , where (G) is
1/m
8.9 EDGE-COLORINGS
We want to schedule games for a league with 2n teams so that each pair of teams plays
each other. However, each team plays at most once a week. Since each team must
play with (2n 1) other teams, the season lasts at least (2n 1) weeks. The games
of each week must form a matching. We can schedule the season in (2n 1) weeks
if and only if we can partition E(K2n ) into (2n 1) disjoint matchings. Since K2n is
(2n 1) regular, the games for each week forms a perfect matching.
We use Figure 8.7 to describe a solution. Arrange (2n 1) vertices cyclically. The
solid line indicates a matching for a week. Rotating the picture as indicated by the
dashed matching yields another matching. The (2n 1) rotations of the gure yield
the desired matchings.
A k-edge-coloring of G is a labeling f : E(G) [k]. The labels are colors, and
the set of edges with one color is a color class. A k-edge-coloring is proper if edges
sharing a vertex have different colors. Thus, each color class is a matching. A graph is
k-edge-colorable if it has a proper k-edge-coloring. The edge-chromatic number (G)
of a loopless graph G is the least k such that G is k-edge-colorable. The multiplicity
of an edge is the number of times its vertex pair appears in the edge set.
Chromatic index is another name used for (G). In contrast to (G), multiple
edges greatly affect (G). Obviously, a graph with a loop has no proper edge-coloring.
The word loopless excludes loops but allows multiple edges.
The bound (G) 2(G) 1 follows easily for all loopless graphs. We use the
greedy algorithm to color the edges of G in some order. Always assign the current edge
the least-indexed color different from those already appearing on edges incident to it.
Since no edge is incident to more than 2(G) 1 colors, we have (G) 2(G) 1.
Since any proper edge-coloring assigns different colors for the edges incident to
any vertex, (G) (G). For bipartite graphs, (G) achieves the trivial lower
bound.
THEOREM 8.15 (Knig [204]) Let G be a bipartite graph with multiple edges
allowed. We have (G) = (G).
Proof: By Corollary 6.1, every regular bipartite graph H has a 1-factor. By induction
on (H), this yields a proper (H)-edge-coloring. It therefore sufces to show that
every bipartite graph G with maximum degree k has a k-regular bipartite supergraph H.
We construct such a supergraph. Add vertices to the smaller partite set of G, if
necessary, to equalize the sizes. If the resulting G is not regular, then each partite set
has a vertex with a degree of less than (G ) = (G). Add an edge consisting of this
pair. Continue adding such edges until the graph becomes regular.
Vizing proved that (G) + 1 for any loopless simple graph G. The proof is
omitted.
THEOREM 8.16 (Vizing [326,327]) Every simple graph with maximum degree
has a proper (G) + 1-edge-coloring.
For loopless graphs with multiple edges, (G) may exceed (G) + 1. Shannon
[283] proved that the maximum of (G) in terms of (G) alone is 3(G)/2. Vizing
proved that (G) + (G), where (G) is the maximum edge multiplicity. The edges
of the graph in Figure 8.8 are pairwise-intersecting and require distinct colors:
(G) = 3(G)/2 = (G) + (G).
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9 Hamiltonian Cycles
Example 9.1
A spanning cycle in a bipartite graph visits the two partite sets alternately. Thus, there
can be no such cycle unless the parts have the same size. Hence Km,n is Hamiltonian only
if m = n. Alternatively, we can argue that the cycle returns to different vertices of one
part after each visits the other part.
141
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r n
s t m
a
f e b l
g d c k
q o
h j
i
G H
Example 9.2
The graph G in Figure 9.2 fails this necessary condition, even though it is bipartite with
partite sets of equal size. Hence it is not Hamiltonian. The graph G is 3-regular but not
3-connected. Tutte [312] conjectured that every 3-connected 3-regular bipartite graph is
Hamiltonian. Horton [158] found a counterexample with 96 vertices, and the smallest
known counterexample now has 50 vertices (Georges [122]).
The graph H in Figure 9.2 shows that the necessary condition is not sufcient. This
graph satises the condition but no spanning cycle. All edges incident to 2-valent vertices
must be used in a Hamiltonian cycle. In graph H, it uses three edges incident to the central
vertex. Thus, H is not Hamiltonian.
The Petersen graph also satises the condition but is not Hamiltonian. A spanning
cycle is a connected 2-factor. However, 2C5 is the only 2-factor of the Petersen graph.
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Example 9.3
Let G be a graph that consists of two cliques, one of order (n + 1)/2 and the
other of order (n + 1)/2. Moreover, these two cliques share a vertex. Obviously,
(G) = (n 1)/2. Since G is not 2-connected, it is not Hamiltonian.
THEOREM 9.2 (Dirac [88]) Suppose that G is a graph with at least three vertices
and (G) n(G)/2. Then G is Hamiltonian.
Proof: Since K2 is not Hamiltonian but satises (K2 ) = n(K2 )/2, the condition
n(G) 3 is needed.
Suppose that there is a non-Hamiltonian graph satisfying the condition
(G) n(G)/2 and n(G) 3. Adding edges to G cannot reduce (G). Thus, we may
restrict our attention to maximal non-Hamiltonian graphs with a minimum degree of at
least n/2. Thus, no proper supergraph of G is also non-Hamiltonian. Hence, G + (u, v)
is Hamiltonian if u is not adjacent to v.
Since every spanning cycle in G + (u, v) contains the new edge (u, v), G has a
spanning path from u = v1 to v = vn . Suppose that some neighbor of u immediately
follows a neighbor of v on the path; say, u vi+1 and v vi . Then G has the spanning
cycle
u = v1 , vi+1 , vi+2 , . . . , v, vi , vi1 , . . . , v2 , v1 = u shown in Figure 9.3.
To prove that such a cycle exists, let S = {vi | u vi+1 } and T = {vi | v vi }.
Summing the sizes of these sets yields
Obviously, vn
/ S T . Thus, |S T | < n. Hence, |S T | 1. We have established
a contradiction by nding a spanning cycle in G. Hence, there is no maximal non-
Hamiltonian graph satisfying the hypotheses.
Ore observed that the proof uses (G) n(G)/2 only to show deg(u) + deg(v) n.
Therefore, we can weaken the requirement of minimum degree n/2 to require only
that deg(u) + deg(v) n whenever u is not adjacent to v. We also did not need the
u vi vi1 v
fact that G was a maximal non-Hamiltonian graph. We only need that G + (u, v) was
Hamiltonian and thereby provided a spanning path from u to v.
THEOREM 9.3 (Ore [262]) Suppose that G is a graph and u, v are distinct nonad-
jacent vertices of G with deg(u) + deg(v) n(G). Then G is Hamiltonian if and only
if G + (u, v) is Hamiltonian.
Proof: One direction is trivial. The proof of the other direction is the same as the
previous theorem.
THEOREM 9.4 (Ore [262]) Suppose that G is a graph with n vertices such that
degG (x) + degG ( y) n for every pair of nonadjacent vertices x, y in G. Then G is
Hamiltonian.
Proof: Obviously, we can repeatedly join any two nonadjacent vertices u and v with
deg(u) + deg(v) n(G) by an edge to obtain a complete graph. Applying Theorem 9.3,
we prove the theorem.
Bondy and Chvtal [30] observed the essence of Ores argument in a much more
general form that yields sufcient conditions for cycles of length l and other graphs.
Here, we discuss only the case of spanning cycles. Using the previous theorem to add
edges, we can test whether G is Hamiltonian by testing whether the larger graph is
Hamiltonian.
The (Hamiltonian) closure of a graph G, denoted as C(G), is the supergraph of G
on V (G) obtained by iteratively adding edges between pairs of nonadjacent vertices
whose degree sum is at least n until no such pair remains. See Figure 9.4 for illustration.
Ores lemma yields the following theorem.
Mathematically, we need to check whether the closure does not depend on the
order we choose to add edges when more than one is available. Otherwise, a graph
may have two closures.
n(G). Suppose that in either sequence a pair (u, v) become addable. Then it must
eventually be added before the sequence ends. Hence, f1 , being initially addable to
G, must belong to G1 . Similarly, if f1 , f2 , . . . , fi1 E(G1 ), then fi become addable to
G1 . Therefore it belongs to G1 . Hence, neither sequence contains a rst edge omitted
by the other sequence. We have G1 G2 and G2 G1 .
Now, we have a necessary and sufcient condition to test for Hamiltonian cycles
in graphs. However, this necessary and sufcient condition does not help much. It
requires us to test whether another graph is Hamiltonian. Yet, it does furnish a method
for proving sufcient conditions. Any condition that forces C(G) to be Hamiltonian
implies a Hamiltonian cycle in G. For example, C(G) = Kn . Chvtal used this method
to prove the following sufcient condition on vertex degrees.
THEOREM 9.6 (Chvtal [70]) Suppose that G is a graph with vertex degrees
d1 d2 . . . , dn . If i < n/2 implies that di > i or dni n i, then G is Hamiltonian.
Proof: Note that adding edges to form the closure reduces no entry in the degree
sequence. It sufces to consider the special case where G is closed. Here, we prove
that the condition implies G = Kn .
Suppose that G = C(G) = Kn . We need to nd a value of i less than n/2 such that
the Chvtals condition is not satised; that is, at least i vertices have degree at most
i and at least n i vertices have degree less than n i.
Since G = Kn , among all pairs of nonadjacent vertices we can choose a pair
u and v with a maximum degree sum. Since G is closed, (u, v) / E(G) implies
deg(u) + deg(v) < n. Without loss of generality, we may assume that deg(u) deg(v).
As deg(u) + deg(v) < n, deg(u) < n/2. We set i = deg(u) (see Figure 9.5).
Since we choose a nonadjacent pair with maximum degree sum, every vertex of
V {v} that is not adjacent to v has degree at most deg(u) = i. Moreover, there are at
least n 1 deg(v) deg(u) = i of these vertices. Similarly, every vertex of V {u}
that is not adjacent to u has degree at most deg(v) < n deg(u) = n i. Again, there
are n 1 deg(u) of these vertices. Since deg(u) deg(v), we can also add u to the set
of vertices with degree at most deg(v). Thus, we obtain n i vertices with degree less
than n i. Hence, we have proved di i and dni < n i for this specially chosen i.
We get a contradiction to the hypothesis.
u
N(v)
N(u)
v
c
Km Km Kn2m
(m, m, . . . , m, n m 1, n m 1, . . . , n m 1, n 1, n 1, . . . , n 1)
THEOREM 9.8 Suppose that G is a graph with n 3 and e > C(n 1, 2) + 1. Then
G is Hamiltonian. Moreover, the only non-Hamiltonian graphs with n vertices and
C(n 1, 2) + 1 edges are C1,n and C2,5 for n = 5.
Proof: Let G be a non-Hamiltonian graph with n 3. By Theorem 9.7, G is degree-
majorized by Cm,n for some integer m < n/2. Therefore
1 2
e e(Cm,n ) = (m + (n 2m)(n m 1) + (m(n 1))
2
1
= C(n 1, 2) + 1 (m 1)(m 2) (m 1)(n 2m 1)
2
C(n 1, 2) + 1
Furthermore, equality can hold if G has the same degree sequence as Cm,n , and if
either m = 2 and n = 5, or m = 1. Hence, e(G) can equal C(n 1, 2) + 1 only if G has
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uj
ai
uj
aj
the same degree sequence as C1,n or C2,5 , which is easily seen to imply that G
= C1,n
or G
= C2,5 .
There is another sufcient condition for Hamiltonian cycles that involves con-
nectivity and independence, but not degrees. The proof gives a good algorithm to
construct a Hamiltonian cycle or disprove the hypothesis.
THEOREM 9.9 (Chvtal-Erds [71]) Suppose that G is a graph with (G) (G).
Then G has a Hamiltonian cycle or G = K2 .
Proof: Suppose that G is a graph with (G) (G) such that G = K2 . Suppose that
(G) = 1. Then, G = Kn and hence G is Hamiltonian. Thus, we assume (G) > 1. Let
k = (G) (G) and let C be a longest cycle in G. Obviously, C forms a Hamiltonian
cycle of G if we can prove that C spans G.
Suppose that C is not a Hamiltonian cycle of G. Let H be a component of G C.
Since (G) (G) and every graph with (G) 2 has a cycle of length at least (G) + 1,
C has at least k + 1 vertices. Moreover, C has at least k vertices with edges to H.
Otherwise, the vertices of C with edges to H contradicts (G) = k. Let u1 , u2 , . . . , uk
be k vertices of C with edges to H, in clockwise order. For i = 1, 2, . . . , k, let ai be the
vertex immediately following ui on C.
Suppose that any two of these vertices are adjacent; say, ai aj . Then we can
construct a longer cycle by using the edge (ai , aj ), the portions of C from ai to uj and aj
to ui , and a path from ui to uj through H. See Figure 9.7 for illustration. This argument
holds for the case ai = ui+1 . Thus, we can conclude that no ai has a neighbor in H.
Hence {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } plus a vertex of H form an independent set of size k + 1. This
contradiction implies that C is a Hamiltonian cycle.
9.4 HAMILTONIAN-CONNECTED
A graph G is Hamiltonian-connected if there exists a Hamiltonian path joining any
two different vertices of G. A Hamiltonian-connected graph G is optimal if G contains
the least number of edges among all the Hamiltonian-connected graphs with the same
number of vertices as that of G.
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It is known that any bipartite graph with at least three vertices is not Hamiltonian-
connected. The counterpart of Hamiltonian-connected graphs in bipartite graphs is
known as Hamiltonian-laceable graphs. A bipartite graph with bipartition (X, Y ) is
Hamiltonian-laceable if there exists a Hamiltonian path joining any two vertices from
different partite sets; that is, one in X and one in Y . This concept is proposed by Sim-
mons [285]. It is easy to check whether every hypercube Qn is Hamiltonian-laceable
if n 1. The following lemma can be obtained easily.
Comparing Lemma 9.3 with Theorem 9.10, we do not know how to prove that a
Hamiltonian-laceable graph is optimal; that is, containing the least number of edges
among all Hamiltonian-laceable graphs with the same number of vertices.
G H
THEOREM 9.11 Suppose that G is a graph and u, v are distinct nonadjacent vertices
of G with deg(u) + deg(v) n(G) + 1. Then G is Hamiltonian-connected if and only
if G + (u, v) is Hamiltonian-connected.
Proof: Obviously, G + (u, v) is Hamiltonian-connected if G is Hamiltonian-
connected.
Suppose that G + (u, v) is Hamiltonian-connected. Let x and y be any two distinct
vertices of G. We need to nd a Hamiltonian path of G between x and y.
Let P be a Hamiltonian path of G + (u, v) between x and y. Obviously, P is a
Hamiltonian path of G if (u, v) is not in P. Thus, we consider that (u, v) is in P.
Without loss of generality, P can be written as
x = z1 , . . . , zi , zi+1 , . . . , zn(G) = y with
{zi , zi+1 } = {u, v}. Let H1 be the subgraph of G induced by {z1 , z2 , . . . , zi+1 } and H2
be the subgraph of G induced by {zi , zi+1 , . . . , zn(G) }. We have
We claim that there is an index j {1, 2, . . . , n} {i, i + 1} such that (zi , zj ) and
(zi+1 , zj+1 ) are edges of G. Suppose that the claim is not true. Then degHj (u) +
degHj (v) n(Hj ) 1 for j {1, 2}. As degG (u) + degG (v) = degH1 (u) + degH2 (u) +
degH1 (v) + degH2 (v), degG (u) + degG (v) n(H1 ) 1 + n(H2 ) 1 = n(G). We obtain
a contradiction. Hence, our claim holds.
Suppose that j < i. Then
x = z1 , . . . , zj , zi , zi1 , . . . , zj+1 , zj+1 , . . . , zn(G) = y
forms a Hamiltonian path of G joining x and y. Suppose that j > i + 1. Then
x = z1 , . . . , zi , zj , zj1 , . . . , zi+1 , zj+1 , . . . , zn(G) = y forms a Hamiltonian path of G
joining x and y.
We nd the required Hamiltonian path and the theorem is proved.
THEOREM 9.12 (Erds [99]) Suppose that G is a graph such that any two non-
adjacent vertices of G satisfying deg(u) + deg(v) n(G) + 1. Then G is Hamiltonian-
connected.
Proof: Obviously, we can repeatedly join any two nonadjacent vertices u and v
with deg(u) + deg(v) n(G) + 1 by an edge to obtain a complete graph. Applying
Theorem 9.11, we prove the theorem.
THEOREM 9.13 Suppose that G is a graph with at least four vertices and
(G) n(G)/2 + 1. Then G is Hamiltonian-connected.
THEOREM 9.14 (Ore [262]) Assume that G = (V , E) is a graph with n vertices with
n 4. Then G is Hamiltonian if e n 3 and Hamiltonian-connected if e n 4.
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Proof: Assume that x and y are any two different vertices of G0 G1 . Without loss
of generality, we have the following two cases: (1) both x and y are in G0 or (2) x is
in G0 and y is in G1 .
Assume that both x and y are in G0 . Since G0 is Hamiltonian-connected, there
exists a Hamiltonian path P of G0 joining x and y. Obviously, P can be written
as
x, P1 , w, z, P2 , y. Note that x = w if l(P1 ) = 0 and z = y if l(P2 ) = 0. Obvi-
ously, w = z and there exists a Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining w and z. Thus,
x, P1 , w, w, Q, z, P2 , y forms a Hamiltonian path of G0 G1 .
Assume that x is in G0 and y is in G1 . Since |V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )| 3, there exists a
vertex z in G0 such that x = z and z = y. Thus, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of G0
joining x to z and there exists a Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining z to y. Obviously,
x, P, z, z, Q, y forms a Hamiltonian path of G0 G1 .
Thus, the theorem is proved.
THEOREM 9.17 Assume that G0 , G1 , and G0 G1 are bipartite graphs such that
|V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )| 2. Moreover, G0 G1 is bipartite. Then G0 G1 is Hamiltonian-
laceable if both G0 and G1 are Hamiltonian-laceable.
Proof: By the symmetric property of G0 G1 , without loss of generality we can
assume the following two cases:
Case 1. x V00 and y V01 . Since G0 is Hamiltonian-laceble, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path P of G0 joining x and y. Obviously, P can be written as
x, P1 , w, z, P2 , y
with w V00 and z V01 . Note that it is possible that l(P1 ) = 0 and l(P2 ) = 0. Obvi-
ously, w V11 and z V10 . Thus, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining w
and z. Thus,
x, P1 , w, w, Q, z, P2 , y forms a Hamiltonian path of G0 G1 .
Case 2. x V00 and y is in G11 . Since |V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )| 2, there exists a vertex z
in V01 . Obviously z V10 . Thus, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of G0 joining x to z
and there exists a Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining z to y. Obviously,
x, P, z, z, Q, y
forms a Hamiltonian path of G0 G1 .
Thus, the theorem is proved.
LEMMA 9.4 Suppose that u and v are two distinct vertices of G. There are at most
min{degG (u), degG (v)} mutually independent Hamiltonian paths between u and v if
(u, v)
/ E(G), and there are at most min{degG (u), degG (v)} 1 mutually independent
Hamiltonian paths between u and v if (u, v) E(G).
Now, we assume that n 6. Suppose that s and t are two distinct vertices of G.
Let H be the subgraph of G induced by the remaining (n 2) vertices of G. We have
the following two cases.
Case 1. H is Hamiltonian. We can relabel the vertices of H with {0, 1, 2, . . . , n 3}
so that
0, 1, 2, . . . , n 3, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H. We use Q to denote the
set {i | (s, [i+1]) E(G) and (i, t) E(G)}. Since e = n 4, |Q| n 2 (n 4) = 2.
There are at least two elements in Q. Let q1 and q2 be the two elements in Q. For j = 1, 2,
we set Pj as
s, [qj + 1], [qj + 2], . . . , [qj ], t. Then P1 and P2 are two independent
Hamiltonian paths between s and t.
Case 2. H is non-Hamiltonian. There are exactly (n 2) vertices in H. By
Theorem 9.8, there are exactly (n 4) edges in the complement of H and H is iso-
morphic to C1,n2 or C2,5 . Since e = n 4, (s, v) E(G) and (t, v) E(G) for every
vertex v in H. We can construct two independent Hamiltonian paths between s and t
as the following cases.
Case 2.1. H is isomorphic to C2,5 . We label the vertices of C2,5 with {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
as shown in Figure 9.9a. We set P1 =
s, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, t and P2 =
s, 2, 3, 4, 1, 0, t.
Obviously, P1 and P2 form the required independent paths.
Case 2.2. H is isomorphic to C1,n2 . We label the vertices of C1,n2 with
{0, 1, . . . , n 3} as shown in Figure 9.9b. We set P1 =
s, 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 3, t and
P2 =
s, 2, 3, . . . , n 3, 1, 0, t. Obviously, P1 and P2 form the required independent
paths.
0 1
4 3
(a)
2
3
n3
0 1 4
n4
(b)
THEOREM 9.22 Let G be a graph such that degG (x) + degG ( y) n + 2 for any two
vertices x and y with (x, y)
/ E(G). Suppose that u and v are two distinct vertices of
G. Then there are degG (u) + degG (v) n mutually independent Hamiltonian paths
between u and v if (u, v) E(G), and there are degG (u) + degG (v) n + 2 mutually
independent Hamiltonian paths between u and v if (u, v) / E(G).
Proof: Suppose that s and t are two distinct vertices of G, and H is the subgraph
of G induced by the remaining (n 2) vertices of G. Let u and v be any two dis-
tinct vertices in H. Obviously, degH (u ) + degH (v ) n + 2 4 = n 2 = |V (H)|. By
Theorem 9.3, H is Hamiltonian. We can label the vertices of H with {0, 1, . . . , n 3}
so that
0, 1, 2, . . . , n 3, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H. Let S denote the set
{i | (s, [i + 1]) E(G)} and T denote the set {i | (i, t) E(G)}. Clearly, |S T | n 2.
We have the following two cases:
Case 1. (s, t) E(G). Assume that |S T | degG (s) + degG (t) n 1. Then
degG (s) + degG (t) 2 = |S| + |T | = |S T | + |S T | degG (s) + degG (t) n 1 +
n 2. This is a contradiction. Thus, there are at least w = degG (s) + degG (t) n
elements in S T . Let q1 , q2 , . . . , qw be the elements in S T . For j = 1, 2, . . . , w, we
set Pj =
s, [qj + 1], [qj + 2], . . . , [qj ], t. So P1 , P2 , . . . , Pw are mutually independent
paths between s and t.
Case 2. (s, t) / E(G). Suppose that |S T | degG (s) + degG (t) n + 2 1. Then
degG (s) + degG (t) = |S| + |T | = |S T | + |S T | degG (s) + degG (t) n + 2 1 +
n 2. This is a contradiction. Thus, there are at least w = degG (s) + degG (t) n + 2
elements in S T . Let q1 , q2 , . . . , qw be the elements in S T . For j = 1, 2, . . . , w, we
set Pj =
s, [qj + 1], [qj + 2], . . . , [qj ], t, and P1 , P2 , . . . , Pw are mutually independent
paths between s and t.
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Example 9.4
Let G be the graph (K1 + Knd1 ) Kd where d is an integer with 4 d < n 1.
Obviously, e = n 1 d n 4. Let x be the vertex corresponding to K1 , y be an
arbitrary vertex in Kd , and z be a vertex in Knd1 . Then degG (x) = d, degG ( y) = n 1,
degG (z) = n 2, (x, y) E(G), ( y, z) E(G), and (x, z)
/ E(G). By Theorem 9.21, there
are n 2 e = n 2 (n 1 d) = d 1 mutually independent Hamiltonian paths
between any two distinct vertices of G. By Lemma 9.4, there are at most (d 1) mutually
independent Hamiltonian paths between x and y. Therefore, the result in Theorem 9.21
is optimal.
Let us consider the same example as previously. It is easy to check whether
any two vertices u and v in G, degG (u) + degG (v) n + 2. Let x and y be the same
vertices as described earlier. By Theorem 9.22, there are degG (x) + degG ( y) n =
d + (n 1) n = d 1 mutually independent Hamiltonian paths between x and y. By
Lemma 9.4, there are at most d 1 mutually independent Hamiltonian paths between x
and y. Hence, the result in Theorem 9.22 is also optimal.
COROLLARY 9.1 Suppose that r is a positive integer. Let G be a graph such that
degG (x) + degG ( y) n + r for any two distinct vertices x and y. Then there are at least
r mutually independent Hamiltonian paths between any two distinct vertices of G.
However, we would like to make the following conjecture. Assume that r > 1 and
G is a graph such that degG (u) + degG (v) n + r for any two distinct vertices u and v
in G. Then there are at least r + 1 mutually independent Hamiltonian paths between
any two distinct vertices of G.
DEFINITION 9.1: Suppose that B is a b-regular graph with vertex set S(b) and A is
any normal (g, b) family. We can recursively dene the n-dimensional generalized
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shufe-cube GSQ(n, A, B) for any n = kg + b for k 0 with its vertex set being S(n)
as follows:
For example, Qn is GSQ(n, A, B), where A = {A0 } is a normal (1,0) family with
A0 = {1} and B = Q0 . Moreover, SQn is GSQ(n, A, B), where A = {A00 , A01 , A10 , A11 }
is a normal (4,2) family and B is Q2 .
Assume that GSQ(n, A, B) is a generalized shufe-cube. Obviously, GSQ(n, A, B)
is an n-regular graph with 2n vertices. Suppose that u and v are two ver-
j j
tices in GSQ(n, A, B). For 1 j k, the jth g-bit of u, denoted by ug , is ug =
ugj+b1 ugj+b2 ugj+bg . In particular, the 0th g-bit of u is ug = ub1 ub2 u0 .
0
The g-bit Hamming distance between u and v, denoted by hg (u, v), is the number of g-
j j j j j
bits ug with 0 j k such that ug = vg ; that is, hg (u, v) = |{ j | ug = vg for 0 j k} |.
We also use hg (u, v) to denote the number of ug for 1 j k such that ug = vg .
j j j
Route2(u, v)
Route3(u, v)
Example 9.5
As noted before, SQn is a generalized shufe-cube GSQ(n, A, B) with B = Q2 . It is
known that Q2 is Hamiltonian-laceable. Suppose that u = 0001000101001000110000
and v = 0000000000000000000011 are two vertices of SQ18 . Obviously, 00 and 11 are
in the same part and 10 is a neighbor of 11. Hence,
00, 01, 11, 10 is a Hamiltonian path
from 00 to 10 in Q2 . We can set Z(u, v) as
00, 01, 11, 10, 11. The path obtained from
Route3(u, v) is
We note that this path is shorter than the path obtained in Example 3.2.
Note that we should apply Step 3 exactly 2b 1 times to obtain a vertex w such
that either w = v or w is a neighbor of v. Thus, we have the following theorem.
B. Let P be a Hamiltonian path from sb (u) to sb (z). We set Z(u, v) to be the vertex
sequence
P, sb (v). We can also apply Route3(u, v) to obtain a path from u to v. So
we have the following theorem.
T
S w
v
S
uv0 v
C v1
v2 w
T
Otherwise, let S be the set of vertices in V (D) V (C) that are heads of arcs joined
to C, and let T be the set of vertices in V (D) V (C) that are tails of arcs joined to C.
See Figure 9.11 for illustration.
Since D is strongly connected, S, T , and (S, T ) are all nonempty. Thus, there is
some (v, w) in D with v S and w T . Obviously, u is in the directed (k + 1)-cycle
v0 , v, w, v2 , . . . , vk . The theorem is proved.
For arbitrary digraphs, we consider degree conditions. The basic result is analo-
gous to Diracs Theorem. By applying it to the digraph obtained from a graph G by
replacing every edge by a pair of opposed edges with the same endpoints, we obtained
Diracs Theorem as a special case. A digraph is strict if it has no loops and has at most
one copy of ordered pair as an edge.
S
P
C
T
10 Planar Graphs
Example 10.1
In the woods, there live three sworn enemies A, B, C. We must nd paths to install
three utilities: gas, water, and electricity. In order to avoid confrontations, we want to
avoid having any of these paths cross each other. It turns out that we cannot solve the
problem. This question is equivalent to draw K3,3 in the plane without edge crossings.
(See Figure 10.1.) Later, we will give the reason why there is no solution.
161
ch010.tex 30/6/2008 10: 30 Page 162
A B C
G W E
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.2 (a) A planar graph and (b) its planar embedding.
int J
ext J
Let J be a Jordan curve in the plane. The rest of the plane is partitioned into two
disjoint open sets called the interior and exterior of J. We denote the interior and the
exterior of J, respectively, by int J and ext J. The closure of int J is denoted by Int J
and the closure of ext J is denoted by Ext J. Clearly, Int J Ext J = J. The Jordan
Curve Theorem states that any line joining a point in int J to a point in ext J must
meet J in some point. See Figure 10.3 for an illustration. It seems that this theorem is
intuitively obvious. However, a formal proof of it is quite difcult.
Let G be any planar graph. We draw G in the plane. Suppose that C is a span-
ning cycle of G. Then C is drawn as a closed curve. Suppose that the drawing is
an embedding of G. Chords of C must be drawn inside or outside this curve. Two
chords conict if their endpoints on C occur in alternating order. By the Jordan Curve
Theorem, conicting chords must embed in opposite faces of C.
Example 10.2
K5 and K3,3 are two important examples of nonplanar graphs. Let us draw K3,3 in the
plane. Let C be a 6-cycle from K3,3 . Obviously, three pairwise conicting chords are left.
We can put at most one inside and one outside. Hence K3,3 is not planar.
Now, we draw K5 in the plane. Let C be a 5-cycle from K5 . Obviously, ve chords
are left. However, at most two chords can go inside or outside. Hence K5 is not planar.
ch010.tex 30/6/2008 10: 30 Page 163
v1 e2
v7 f1
e3 f3
e13 f6 e1
f2
e11 v4 v2
e12 f7 e10 e5 f4 e4
v8
e7 e6
v6 e9
f5 v5 v3
e8
A plane graph G partitioned the rest of the plane into a number of connected
regions. The closures of these regions are called the faces of G. A plane graph with
seven faces, f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , and f7 is shown in Figure 10.4. We shall denote by F(G)
and (G), respectively, the set of faces and the number of faces of a plane graph. Each
plane graph has exactly one unbounded face, called the exterior face. The face f1 of
the graph in Figure 10.4 is the exterior face.
The family of planar graphs and the family of graphs embeddable on the sphere are
actually the same. Given an embedding of a graph G on the sphere, we can puncture
the sphere within any face and project from there onto a plane tangent to the antipodal
point to obtain a planar embedding of G. The punctured face on the sphere becomes
the exterior face in the plane, and the process is reversible. Thus, any planar graph can
be embedded in the plane so that any vertex v is on the exterior face of the embedding.
Let us view a geographic map on the plane or the sphere as a plane graph, in which
the faces are the territories of the map, the vertices are places where several boundaries
meet, and the edges are the portions of the boundaries that join two vertices. Here, we
allow graphs with loops and multiple edges. From any plane graph G, we can build
another plane graph called its dual.
Suppose that G is a plane graph. The dual graph G of G is a plane graph having a
vertex for each region in G. The edges of G correspond to the edges of G as follows:
suppose that e is an edge of G that has region X on one side and region Y on the other
side. Then the corresponding dual edge e E(G ) is an edge joining the vertices x
and y of G that correspond to the faces X and Y of G.
Example 10.3
In Figure 10.5, we have a plane graph G with dashed edges and its dual G with solid
edges. Since G has ve vertices, seven edges, and four faces, G has ve faces, seven
edges, and four vertices. As in this example, a simple plane graph may have loops and
multiple edges in its dual. A cut edge of G becomes a loop in G , because the faces on
both sides of it are the same. Multiple edges arise in the dual when distinct regions of
G have more than one common boundary edge. With this example, we know the reason
why we allow graphs with loops and multiple edges as we discuss planar graphs.
A statement about a connected plane graph becomes a statement about the dual
graph when we interchange the roles of vertices and faces. Edges incident to a vertex
ch010.tex 30/6/2008 10: 30 Page 164
FIGURE 10.5 A plane graph G with dashed edges and its dual G with solid edges.
FIGURE 10.6 The plane graph with four faces of lengths 3,4,4,7.
(a) (b)
become edges bounding a face, and vice versa. For example, let us consider the degree-
sum formula say about edges and faces instead of edges and vertices. The length of a
face in a plane graph G is the length of the walk in G that bounds it. Note that a cut edge
belongs to the boundary of only one face. Yet it contributes twice to the boundary of the
face as we traverse the boundary. The plane graph in Figure 10.6 has four faces, with
lengths 3,4,4,7. The sum of the lengths is 18, which is twice that of the number of edges.
Note that different embeddings of a planar graph may have nonisomorphic duals.
For example, the plane graph in Figure 10.7a has faces of lengths 6,4,3,3. And the
plane graph in Figure 10.7b has faces of lengths 5,5,3,3. It is easy to check whether
these two graphs are isomorphic. However, their duals have degree sequences 6,4,3,3
and 5,5,3,3, respectively. Hence, the duals are not isomorphic. However, it can be
proved that every 3-connected planar graph has essentially one embedding.
ch010.tex 30/6/2008 10: 30 Page 165
PROPOSITION 10.1 Let l(Fi ) denote the length of face Fi in the plane graph G.
Then 2e(G) = l(Fi ).
Proof: It is observed that bounding edges for a face X correspond to dualedges
incident to the dual vertex x. Since e(G) = e(G ), the statement 2e(G) = l(Fi )
is the same as the degree-sum formula 2e(G ) = degG (x) for G . Alternatively,
adding up the face lengths counts each edge twice.
THEOREM 10.1 (Euler [99]) If a connected plane graph G has n vertices, e edges,
and f faces, then n e + f = 2.
Proof: We prove this theorem by induction on n. Suppose that n = 1. Then G is a
bouquet of loops, each being a closed curve in the embedding. Assume that e = 0.
Then we have one face. Obviously, the formula holds. By the Jordan Curve Theorem,
each added loop passes through a region and partitions it into two regions. Thus, the
formula holds for n = 1 and any e 0.
Now suppose that the theorem holds for any connected plane graph G with k
vertices for 1 k < n(G). Since G is connected, we can nd an edge that is not a loop.
When we contract such an edge, we obtain a plane graph G with n vertices, e edges,
and f faces. The contraction does not change the number of faces, but it reduces
the number of edges and vertices by one. Applying the induction hypothesis, we nd
n e + f = n + 1 (e + 1) + f = 2.
REMARK:
1. Eulers formula implies that all planar embeddings of a connected graph G have
the same number of faces. Thus, although the dual depends on the emdedding
chosen for G, the number of vertices in the dual does not.
2. Deleting an edge of G has the effect of contracting an edge in G because two
faces of G merge into a single face in G e. Similarly, contracting an edge of
G has the effect of deleting an edge in G .
3. Eulers formula fails for disconnected graphs. The general formula for a plane
graph with k components is n e + f = k + 1.
THEOREM 10.2 Suppose that G is a simple planar graph with at least three vertices.
Then e(G) 3n(G) 6. Moreover, e(G) 2n(G) 4 if G is triangle-free.
Proof: It sufces to consider connected graphs, as otherwise we could add all
the edges in each connected component. We can use Eulers formula to relate
n(G) and e(G) if we can dispose of f . Note that n(G) 3 and loopless. Every
face boundary in a simple graph contains at least three edges. Let { fi } be the
sequence of face-lengths. By Proposition 10.1, 2e = fi 3f . Since n e + f = 2,
ch010.tex 30/6/2008 10: 30 Page 166
We can also use Eulers formula to show that K5 and K3,3 are nonplanar. For K5 ,
we have e = 10 > 9 = 3n 6. Since K3,3 is triangle-free, we have e = 9 > 8 = 2n 4.
The following corollary is a direct consequence of Theorem 10.2.
COROLLARY 10.1 Every simple planar graph has a vertex of degree at most 5.
The proof of Theorem 10.2 shows that having (3n 6) edges in a simple n-vertex
planar graph requires 2e = 3f . Moreover, every face is a triangle. Suppose that G has
some face that is not a triangle. We can add an edge between nonadjacent vertices on
the boundary of this face to obtain a larger planar graph. Here, the family of simple
plane graphs with 3n 6 edges, the family of triangularations, and the family of
maximal plane graphs all belong to the same family.
Informally, we think of a regular polyhedron as a solid, whose boundary consists
of regular polygons of same length, with same number of faces meeting at each vertex.
When we lay the surface out in the plane, we obtain a regular planar graph with faces
of the same length. Hence, the dual is also regular. We can prove that there are only
ve regular polyhedra by proving that there are only ve regular planar graphs whose
duals are also simple and regular.
Suppose that G is a plane graph with n vertices, e edges, and f faces. Suppose
also that G is regular of degree k and that G is regular of degree l. Thus, G has
faces of length l. By the degree-sum formula for G and G , we have kn = 2e = lf .
Substituting for n and f into Eulers formula, we have e[(2/k) 1 + (2/l)] = 2. Since
e and 2 are positive, (2/k) 1 + (2/l) > 0. Hence, 2l + 2k > kl. This is equivalent to
(k 2)(l 2) < 4. Because the dual of a 2-regular graph is not simple, we conclude
that k, l 3. By Corollary 10.1, k, l 5. There are only ve solution pairs for (k, l):
(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,3), (5,3). Once we specify k and l, there is only one way to lay
out the plane graph when we start with any face. Hence, there are no more than ve
known Platonic solids.
k l (k 2)(l 2) e n f Name
3 3 1 6 4 4 Tetrahedron
3 4 2 12 8 6 Cube
4 3 2 12 6 8 Octahedron
3 5 3 30 20 12 Dodecahedron
5 3 3 30 12 20 Icosahedron
In October 23, 1852, Sir William Hamilton received a letter from Augustus de
Morgan at University College in London. In this letter, the Four Color Problem rst
appeared. The problem was asked by de Morgans student Frederick Guthrie, who
later attributed it to his brother Francis Guthrie. The problem was phrased in terms of
map coloring, in which the faces of a planar graph are to be colored.
In 1878, Cayley announced the problem to the London Mathematical Society.
Within a year, Kempe [200] published a solution. Soon, Kempe was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society. In 1890, Heawood posed a refutation. Yet Kempes idea was the
alternating paths in the previous Five Color Theorem. Eventually, Appel and Haken
[1214] solved the Four Color Problem.
In 1878, Tait proved a theorem relating face-coloring of planar maps to proper
edge-colorings of planar graphs. He used this in an approach to the Four Color
Problem.
01
01
10
11 10 11 00
01 10 01 11 00 11
01 00
01
10 01 01 11 c b
11 00 01
THEOREM 10.7 (Grinberg [127]) Suppose that G is a loopless plane graph having
Hamiltonian cycle
C, and G has fi faces of length i inside C and fi faces of length i
outside C. Then i (i 2)( fi fi ) = 0.
Proof: First, we prove that i (i 2)fi = n 2 by induction on the number of edges
inside C.
that there are no edges insideC. Obviously, fi = 0 if i = n and fn = 1.
Suppose
Hence, i (i 2)fi = n 2. Suppose that i (i 2) fi = n 2 for any graph with k
ch010.tex 30/6/2008 10: 30 Page 170
G H H
FIGURE 10.9 Graphs G, H , and H .
edges inside C. Assume that G is a loopless plane graph having a Hamiltonian cycle C
and having (k + 1) edges inside C. We can delete an edge e from the inside of C. Obvi-
ously, G e is a loopless planegraph having C as its Hamiltonian cycle and having k
edges inside C. By induction, i (i 2)gi = n 2, where gi is the number of faces of
length i for G e inside C. Now, we add e back to G e to obtain G. The edge addi-
tion cuts a face of some length r into two faces of lengths s and t. Then s + t = r + 2,
because the new edge contributes to each face and each of the edges on the old face con-
tributes to one of the new faces. All other contributions to the sum remain unchanged.
From this equality we obtain (s 2) + (t 2) = (r 2), so that the total contribution
from these faces is also the same as before. Thus, i (i 2)fi = n 2.
Since
the inside and outside are symmetric with respect to C, i (i 2)fi = n 2.
Thus, i (i 2)( fi fi ) = 0.
Grinbergs condition is used to show that graphs are not Hamiltonian. The argu-
ments can often be simplied by using modular arithmetic. We apply such arguments
to the rst known non-Hamiltonian 3-connected 3-regular planar graph (Tutte [313]).
Originally, Tutte used an ad hoc argument to prove that this graph is not Hamiltonian.
For many years, this graph was the only known example.
The Tutte graph G is shown in Figure 10.9. Let H denote each component of the
subgraph obtained by deleting the central vertex and the three long edges. Any Hamil-
tonian cycle must visit the central vertex of G. Thus, it must contain a Hamiltonian
path in one copy of H between the two other entrances to that graphs. By adding a
path of length 2 between the desired endpoints of the Hamiltonian path in H we obtain
the graph H , shown in Figure 10.9. Obviously, H has a Hamiltonian path with the
desired entrance if and only if H is Hamiltonian. Furthermore, H is Hamiltonian if
and only if the graph H shown in Figure 10.9 is Hamiltonian.
Obviously, there are seven 5-faces, one 4-face, and one 11-face in H . Grinbergs
condition becomes 2a4 + 3a5 + 9a9 = 0, where ai = fi fi . Thus, 2a4 0 mod 3.
Since there is only one 4-face, a4 = 1. However, the equation 2 (1) 0 mod 3
is impossible. Thus, G is not Hamiltonian.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 171
11 Optimal k -Fault-Tolerant
Hamiltonian Graphs
11.1 INTRODUCTION
An interconnection network connects the processors of the parallel computer. Its
architecture can be represented as a graph in which the vertices correspond to the pro-
cessors and the edges to the communication links. Hence, we use graph and network
interchangeably. There are a lot of mutually conicting requirements in designing
the topology of computer networks. It is almost impossible to design a network that
is optimal from all aspects. One has to design a suitable network depending on the
requirements and their properties. The Hamiltonian properties are one of the major
requirements in designing the topology of a network. For example, the Token ring
approach is used in some distributed operation systems. An interconnection network
requires the presence of Hamiltonian cycles in the structure to meet this approach.
Fault-tolerance is also a desirable feature in massive parallel systems that have a
relatively high probability of failure. A number of fault-tolerant designs for specic
multiprocessor architectures have been proposed based on graph-theoretic models, in
which the processor-to-processor interconnection structure is represented by a graph.
When faults occur in a network, it corresponds to removing edges and vertices
from the graph. Let G = (V , E) be a graph and let V V and E E. We use G V
to denote the subgraph of G induced by V V , and G E the subgraph obtained
by removing E from G. Faults can be in the combination of vertices and edges. Let
F V E. We use G F to denote the subgraph induced by V F and deleting the
edges in F from the induced subgraph.
Suppose that G V is Hamiltonian for any V V and |V | k. Then G is called a
k-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph. An n-vertex k-vertex fault-tolerant Hamil-
tonian graph is optimal if it contains the least number of edges among all n-vertex
k-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs. Obviously, every k-vertex fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graph has at least k + 3 vertices. Moreover, the degree of every vertex in
a k-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph is at least k + 2. The vertex fault-tolerant
Hamiltonicity, Hv (G), is dened as the maximum integer l such that G F remains
Hamiltonian for every F V (G) with |F| l if G is Hamiltonian, and undened if
otherwise. Obviously, Hv (G) (G) 2. Moreover, a r-regular graph G is optimal
vertex-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if Hv (G) = r 2.
Suppose that G E is Hamiltonian for any E E and |E | k. Then G is called
a k-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph. An n-vertex k-edge fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian graph is optimal if it contains the least number of edges among all n-vertex k-edge
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs. Obviously, every k-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
171
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 172
graph has at least k + 3 vertices. Moreover, the degree of every vertex in a k-edge
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph is at least k + 2. The edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonic-
ity, He (G), is dened as the maximum integer l such that G F remains Hamiltonian
for every F E(G) with |F| l if G is Hamiltonian, and undened if otherwise. Obvi-
ously, He (G) (G) 2. Moreover, a r-regular graph G is optimal edge-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian if He (G) = r 2.
Suppose that G F is Hamiltonian for any F V E and |F| k; then G is
called a k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph. An n-vertex k-fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian graph is optimal if it contains the least number of edges among all n-vertex
k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs. Obviously, every k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
graph has at least k + 3 vertices. Moreover, the degree of every vertex in a k-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graph is at least k + 2. The fault-tolerant Hamiltonicity, Hf (G),
is dened as the maximum integer l such that G F remains Hamiltonian for every
F V (G) E(G) with |F| l if G is Hamiltonian, and undened if otherwise. Obvi-
ously, Hf (G) min {Hv (G), He (G)} (G) 2. Moreover, a r-regular graph G is
optimal fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if Hf (G) = r 2.
The design of k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph is equivalent to k-fault-tolerant
design for token rings. Previous results have been focused mostly on the construction
of either optimal k-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph or k-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graphs. Several families of optimal 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs
are proposed in Refs 139, 140, 234, and 256.
Let n and k be positive integers with n k + 3. Obviously, the complete graph Kn
is k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Thus, there exists an n-vertex k-fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian graph for any integer n with n k + 3. Suppose that n and k are positive integers
such that nk is even. Let G = (V , E) be an n-vertex (k + 2)-regular k-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graph. From the previous discussion, G is an optimal k-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graph. However, we have difculty showing that any optimal k-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graph is (k + 2)-regular for k 3. Similarly, suppose that n and
k are positive integers such that nk is odd. Let G = (V , E) be an n-vertex k-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graph such that there is exactly one vertex y V such that degG (y) = k + 3
and degG (x) = k + 2 for any x V {y}. Since the number of vertices with odd degree
in any graph is even, G is an optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph. Again, we
cannot conclude that there is exactly one vertex of degree k + 3 and all the remain-
ing vertices are of degree k + 2 in any optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph for
k 3. These two problems can be solved once we prove that every Harary graph Hk,n
is an optimal (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph for k 3.
Wong and Wong [345] and Paoli et al. [263] proved that the Harary graph
Hk,n , introduced in Example 7.2, is optimal (k 2)-vertex fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian and optimal (k 2)-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian for n being even and odd,
respectively. Although the graph Hk,n is both optimal (k 2)-vertex fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian and optimal (k 2)-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, it is not necessary
for Hk,n to be optimal (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Sung et al. [291] showed
that Hk,n is optimally (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian for k = 4, 5 and conjectured
that the same is true for all k 6.
Now, we concentrate on the construction of k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs.
To make it simple, we concentrate only on the regular k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
graphs. Thus nk is even, where n is the number of vertices.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 173
THEOREM 11.1 (Ore [261]) Assume that G is an n-vertex graph with n 4. Then
G is Hamiltonian if e n 3.
COROLLARY 11.1 The graph Kn F has a Hamiltonian path for F E(Kn ) with
|F| n 2.
Proof: Choose any f F. We set F = F {f }. Obviously, |F | n 3. Thus,
Kn F has a Hamiltonian cycle C. Suppose that f C. We delete f from C to obtain
a path P. Obviously, P is a Hamiltonian path of Kn F. Suppose f / C, we delete any
edge of C to obtain a path P. Again, P is a Hamiltonian path of Kn F. The corollary
is proved.
x2 x2
x1 x3 x1 x3
k3
x k1 k2
G X(G, x)
the graph G F1 such that the remaining graph is Hamiltonian for f + |F1 | t 2.
Then the graph X(G, x) (F1 F3 ) is Hamiltonian where F3 is a subset of MG (x) and
|F3 | = f .
Proof: Since F3 MG (x) and |F3 | t 2, there exists a set V V (Kt ) of size t f
such that every two distinct vertices in V can be joined by a Hamiltonian path of the
graph Kt F3 for f = |F3 (V (Kt ) E(Kt ))|. We dene a faulty set F2 of G as follows:
/ V or (xi , ki ) F3 , 1 i t}
F2 = {(x, xi ) | ki
edges, denoted by F2 , of NX(G,U ) (v) from the graph G F1 is Hamiltonian because
With Corollary 11.2, we can easily obtain other optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamil-
tonian graphs from an known optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph by (k + 2)-
node expansions on a vertex of degree k + 2. Note that the complete graph Kk+3 of
k + 3 vertices is (k + 2)-regular and is the smallest optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamil-
tonian graph. The graphs obtained by a sequence of (k + 2)-node expansions from
Kk+3 are also (k + 2)-regular, and thus optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. One
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 177
r
r
FIGURE 11.2 The graphs B(1, 1), B(1, 2), and B(1, 3).
1. G = Kk+3
2. pick any vertex r as the root of G
3. for i = 1 to s 1 do
4. B = {v | d(v, r) = i}
5. For all v B
6. G = X(G, v)
The graphs B(1, 1), B(1, 2), and B(1, 3) are shown in Figure 11.2. The vertex
labeled r indicates the root assigned by Procedure B(k, s). It can be veried that
the number of vertices in B(k, s) is [(k + 2)(k + 1)s 2]/k. Moreover, the distance
between a vertex v to the root r is at most s. Therefore, the diameter of B(k, s) is at
most 2s. Thus, we have constructed a family of optimal k-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
graphs with diameter 2 logk+1 n c.
Now, we concentrate on k = 1 and present some examples of cubic 1-Hamiltonian
graphs. Let m be an even integer. Harary and Hayes [139,140] proposed a fam-
ily of cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs, denoted by H(m) for m 4, where
V (H(m)) = {0, 1, 2, . . . , m 1} and E(H(m)) = {(i, i + 1) | 0 i m 1} {(0, m/2),
(0, m 1)} {(i, m i) | 1 i m/2 1}. Examples of H(4) and H(8) are shown in
Figure 11.3. Note that H(4) is indeed a complete graph K4 , which is the smallest
1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph.
Mukhopadhyaya and Sinha [256] proposed another family of cubic 1-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graphs, denoted by M(m) with m even and m 4. Let m 4 be an integer
and t be a nonnegative integer. To dene M(m), we rst introduce MS(i, t), as illustrated
in Figure 11.4, which is dened as follows:
V (MS(i, t)) = xi,j r
| 1 j t xi,j l
| 1 j t {yi , zi }
E(MS(i, t)) = xi,j l l
, xi,j1 | 1 < j t xi,j r r
, xi,j+1 |1j t1
xi,j l r
, xi,j | 1 j t xi,1 l r
, yi , (yi , zi ) , yi , xi,1
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 178
0 0
1 7
1 3 2 6
3 5
2 4
H(4) H(8)
zi zi
MS(i, 0) MS(i, 3)
It can be veried that MS(i, t), for t 2, is isomorphic to the graph obtained
from performing a 3-node expansion on the vertex yi of MS(i, t 1). The graph
M(m) for m even is constructed as follows (for convenience, we write yi = xi,0
l = xr
i,0
if t = 0):
y0 r y0
x 0,1 l
x 0,1
r
x0,2
x 0,2
l
r
x 0,3 l
x 0,3
l r
x2,2 x 1,2
z l
x 2,1 z r
x1,1
y2 y1 y2 y1
r
x 2,1 x l1,1
r l
x1,2
x 2,2
M(4) M(18)
r
r
x 0,1 y0 x l
x 0,2 0,1 l
x0,2
r
l
x4,2 x 1,2
r
l
x 4,1 x1,1
z0
y4 y1
z4 z1 l
r
x4,1 x1,1
l
x r4,2 x1,2
z3 z2 r
l
x3,2 x2,2
r
l
x3,1 x 2,1
y3 y2
r l
x 3,1
x r
3,2
x x l
2,2
2,1
W(2)
and M(4) = 1, the diameter of W (m) is O( n), and diameter for B(1, s) is 2 log2 n c.
It is interesting to nd other cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs with smaller
diameters.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 180
2
H8 K4 G11 G1
X(K4,v0) X(G41,v0)
y0 v1 v2
(a1)
(a2)
M16 1 2
K4 G2 G2
z0 y0 z1 y1 z2 y2
X(K4,v0) X(G21,v1)
x0 x1 x2
(b1) (b2)
W30 G30 G31 G32
a0 a1 a2
e0 b0 b1 b2
e1 e2
(c1 ) (c2)
THEOREM 11.7 (Ore [261]) Assume that G is an n-vertex graph with n 4. Then
G is Hamiltonian-connected if e n 4.
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LEMMA 11.7 Suppose that G0 and G1 are two k-regular graphs with the same
number of vertices. Suppose that the total number of faults in G0 G1 is not greater
than k. There exists at least one healthy matching edge (z, z) between G0 and G1 .
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LEMMA 11.8 Suppose that G0 and G1 are two k-regular graphs with the same
number of vertices. Let x and y be two healthy vertices in G0 G1 . Suppose that the
total number of faults in G0 G1 is not greater than k 2. There exists at least one
healthy matching edge (z, z) between G0 and G1 such that {x, y} {z, z} = .
The Lemmas 11.7 and 11.8 result immediately from the fact that |V (G0 )| =
|V (G1 )| k + 1.
THEOREM 11.8 Assume that k 4. Suppose that G0 and G1 are two (k 2)-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian and (k 3)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected graphs with
|V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )|. Then the graph G = G0 G1 is (k 1)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
Proof: Obviously, (G) (k + 1). To prove that G0 G1 is (k 1)-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian, it sufces to show that G F is Hamiltonian for any faulty set
F V (G) E(G) with |F| = k 1.
Case 1. All (k 1) faults are in the same component. We may assume without loss of
generality that all faults are in G0 . Since G0 is (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian and
f0 = k 1, there exists a Hamiltonian path P0 of G0 F0 joining x to y. Since f1 = 0
and G1 is (k 3)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected, there exists a Hamiltonian
path P1 on G1 joining y to x. Therefore,
x, P0 , y, y, P1 , x, x forms a Hamiltonian
cycle of G F. See Figure 11.8a.
Case 2. Not all k 1 faults are in the same component. Without loss of generality,
we may assume that f1 f0 k 2. Since k 4, G1 F1 is Hamiltonian-connected.
By Lemma 11.7, there exists a healthy matching edge between G0 and G1 ; say,
(x, x). Now, we claim that there exists a vertex y incident to x such that (x, y) is on
a Hamiltonian cycle in G0 F0 , and the edge (y, y) is healthy. Obviously, such a
Hamiltonian cycle can be written as
x, P0 , y, x.
By Lemma 11.5, among all the healthy vertices in G0 F0 incident to x, there
are at least (k 2) f0 + 2 = k f0 edges, which are on some Hamiltonian cycle in
G0 G1 G0 G1
x x x x
y y y y
(a) (b)
G0 F0 . Of all these k f0 edges, there is at least one edgesay, (x, y)such that y,
y, and (y, y) are healthy. Otherwise, G would contain at least f0 + (k f0 ) = k faults,
which would contradict the fact that the total number of faults is k 1. Thus, our
claim holds.
Since G1 F1 is Hamiltonian-connected, there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 join-
ing y to x. Obviously,
x, P0 , y, y, P1 , x, x forms a Hamiltonian cycle of G F. See
Figure 11.8b. This completes the proof of this theorem.
THEOREM 11.9 Assume that k 5. Suppose that G0 and G1 are two (k 2)-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian and (k 3)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected graphs with
|V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )|. Then the graph G = G0 G1 is (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-
connected.
Proof: Let F be a set of faults with F V (G) E(G) and |F| = k 2. Let x and y
be two healthy vertices in G. To prove this theorem, we need to nd a Hamiltonian
path of G F joining x and y. The proof is classied into the following two cases:
Case 1. x and y are not in the same component. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that x is in G0 , and y is in G1 . This case can be further divided into two
subcases.
Case 1.1. All k 2 faults are in the same component. Without loss of generality,
we may assume that all k 2 faults are in G0 . Thus, there is a Hamiltonian cycle
in G0 F0 . On this cycle, there are two vertices incident to x. One of these two
vertices is not y; say, z. Obviously, this cycle can be written as
x, P0 , z, x. Since G1
is Hamiltonian-connected, there is a Hamiltonian path P1 of G1 joining z to y. Thus,
x, P0 , z, z, P1 , y forms a Hamiltonian path of G F joining x to y. See Figure 11.9a.
Case 1.2. Not all k 2 faults are in the same component. By Lemma 11.8, we can
nd a healthy matching edge (z, z) between G0 and G1 where z V (G0 ) {x} and
z V (G1 ) {y}. Since G0 and G1 are (k 3)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected,
there is a Hamiltonian path P0 of G0 F0 joining x to z, and there is a Hamiltonian
path P1 of G1 F1 joining z to y. Obviously,
x, P0 , z, z, P1 , y forms a Hamiltonian
path of G F joining x to y. See Figure 11.9b.
G0 G1 G0 G1 G0 G1
x y x y y w w
z z z z x z z
Case 2. x and y are in the same component. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that x and y are in G0 . We divide this case into three subcases.
Case 2.1. All k 2 faults are in G0 . Thus, G0 is (k 3)-Hamiltonian-connected and
f0 = k 2. Let g be a faulty edge or a faulty vertex. In G0 (F0 {g}), there is a
Hamiltonian path P of G0 (F0 {g}) joining x and y. Removing the fault g, this
Hamiltonian path is separated into two subpaths; say,
x, P01 , z and
w, P02 , y, which
cover all the vertices of G0 F0 . Obviously, there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of G1
joining z to w. Thus,
x, P01 , z, z, P1 , w, w, P02 , y forms a Hamiltonian path of G F
joining x to y. See Figure 11.9c.
Case 2.2. All k 2 faults are in G1 . This subcase can be further divided into two
subcases.
Case 2.2.1. At least one of x and y is healthy. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that y is healthy. Since f1 = k 2, there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C of
G1 F1 . On this cycle C, there are two vertices incident to vertex y. At least one of
these two vertices is not x; say, z. We can write C as
z, P1 , y, z. Since k 5, there
exists a Hamiltonian path P0 of G0 {y} joining x to z. Obviously,
x, P0 , z, z, P1 , y, y
forms a Hamiltonian path of G F joining x to y. See Figure 11.9d.
Case 2.2.2. Both x and y are faulty. In G0 , the number of healthy edges incident
to y is k and f1 = k 2. There exists a healthy vertex z incident to y such that z = x
and z is healthy. Since f1 = k 2, there exists a Hamiltonian cycle of G1 F1 . Let w
be a vertex on this cycle incident to z. Obviously, C can be written as
w, P1 , z, w.
Since k 5, there exists a Hamiltonian path P0 of G0 {z, y} joining x to w. Obvi-
ously,
x, P0 , w, w, P1 , z, z, y forms a Hamiltonian path of G F joining x to y. See
Figure 11.9e.
Case 2.3. Neither F V (G0 ) E(G0 ) nor F V (G1 ) E(G1 ). Since |F| = k 2
and not all faults are in one component, we have f0 k 3 and f1 k 3. Con-
sequently, both G0 F0 and G1 F1 are Hamiltonian-connected. By Lemma 11.8,
there is at least one healthy matching edge between G0 and G1 say, (z, z)such that
z V (G0 ) {x, y}.
By Lemma 11.6, there are at least (k 3) f0 + 2 = k 1 f0 edges of G0 F0
incident to vertex z such that each one of them is on some Hamiltonian path in
G0 F0 joining x to y. Among these k 1 f0 edges, we claim that there is
at least onesay, (z, w)such that w, w, and (w, w) are healthy. If this is not
true, |F| = f0 + (|F| f0 ) f0 + (k 1 f0 ) = k 1, which contradicts the fact that
|F| = k 2. Thus, this Hamiltonian path can be written as
x, P01 , z, w, P02 , y.
Since f1 k 3, there is a Hamiltonian path P1 of G1 F1 joining z to w. There-
fore,
x, P01 , z, z, P2 , w, w, P02 , y forms a Hamiltonian path of G F joining x to y. See
Figure 11.9f. Thus, this theorem is proved.
COROLLARY 11.5 Assume that G0 and G1 are k-regular and super fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian where k 5 and |V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )|. Then G0 G1 is (k + 1)-regular
super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 185
Some recursive circulant graphs [302] and some k-ary n-cubes [349] are proved
to be super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. These graphs can be recursively constructed
using the operation G(G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 ; M) discussed in Chapter 7. Again, Chen
et al. [53] observed that the insight of the proofs of the aforementioned results can be
summarized as follows.
COROLLARY 11.6 Assume that G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 are k-regular and super fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian with the same number of vertices, where r 3 and k 5. Then
G(G0 , G1 , . . . , Gr1 ; M) is (k + 2)-regular super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 11.10 (a) The Petersen graph P and (b) a schematic representation of P2 .
FIGURE 11.11 (a) A copy of C5 , (b) another copy of C5 , (c) the matching M, and (d) the
Petersen graph P.
THEOREM 11.12 Suppose that G0 and G1 are extendable 4-regular super fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graphs with |V (G0 )| = |V (G1 )|. Then G0 G1 is 5-regular super
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 187
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 11.12 (a) A copy of C5 C5 , (b) another copy of C5 C5 , (c) the matching M, and
(d) P C5 .
We believe that our approach in this section can be applied to the same problem
on other interconnection networks. Denitely, we can repeatedly apply Theorems
11.8 through 11.11 to obtain the result in this section. However, we need a lot of
efforts to check the base cases for the requirement k 5 in Theorems 11.9 through
11.11. By introducing the concept of the extendable 4-regular super fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graph, all difculties are solved immediately. Thus, it would be a great
improvement if Theorems 11.8 through 11.11 remain true for smaller k. For this
reason, Kueng et al. prove that Theorems 11.10 and 11.11 also hold for k = 4 [210].
Let H be the graph shown in Figure 11.13a. Obviously, H is a 3-regular graph. We
can conrm that H is 3-regular super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian by brute force. Let
G1 and G2 be two copies of H. Let G be the graph shown in Figure 11.13b. Obviously,
1 7
4 10
5 6 3 8 11 12
2 9
(a) (b)
G = G1 G2 for some 1-1 connection . Again, we can prove that G {2, 12} is not
Hamiltonian by brute force. Thus, G is not 2-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
Therefore, the bound of k in Theorem 11.8 is optimal.
LEMMA 11.12 Let u and v be two distinct vertices of Pn with (u)n = (v)n such that
d(u, v) 2. Then ((u)n )n = ((v)n )n . Moreover, {((u)i )1 | 2 i n 1} =
n {(u)1 ,
(u)n } if n 3.
Let F V (Pn ) E(Pn ) be any faulty set of Pn . We use F i to denote the set
{i} {i}
F (V (Pn ) E(Pn )). Then we set F 0 to denote the set F ni=1 F i . An edge (u, v)
is F-fault if (u, v) F, u F, or v F; and (u, v) is F-fault free if (u, v) is not F-fault.
Let H = (V , E ) be a subgraph of Pn . We use F(H) to denote the set (V E ) F.
{i } {i }
vertices u and v with u V (Pn 1 ) F and v V (Pn m ) F such that Qi is a
{a }
Hamiltonian path of Pn i F i joining xi to yi for every 1 i m.
Proof: Let u1 = u and v = vm . Since there are at least three F-fault free edges in
E ij ,ij+1 for any 1 j < m, we can easily choose two different vertices uij and vij+1
{i } {i }
in Pn j such that (vij , uij+1 ) is F-fault free. Obviously, uij = vij . Since Pn j F ij is
{i }
Hamiltonian-connected for all ij I, there is a Hamiltonian path Qj of Pn j F ij join-
ing uij and vij . Thus,
ui1 , Q1 , vi1 , ui2 , Q2 , . . . , vim1 , uim , Qm , vim forms a Hamiltonian
path of PnI F joining u and v. The lemma is proved.
3214, 2314, 4132, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4231, 3241, 1423, 4123, 3214
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 1234
1234, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243
1234, 3214, 2314, 4132, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 4312, 2134, 3124, 1324
1234, 3214, 2314, 4132, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 4231, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 2141, 4231, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 4132, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143
1234, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3241, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2314
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3214, 4231, 2431
1234, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3241, 4231, 1324, 2314, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142
1234, 2134, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3214
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 4312, 2134, 3124, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412
1234, 3214, 2314, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4231, 2431, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 4312, 2134, 3124, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2413, 1423, 4123
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 4132
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213
1234, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3241, 2341, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4231
1234, 3214, 2314, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 1342, 2431, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321
n
z y n
{i } (u) {i } (u) P {i2}
Pn 1 uf ' Pn 1 wu x n {i } {i2}
Pn 1 n Pn
v u (u)
n (w)
n (x)n
(v )
Case 3. |F i1 | n 5. We can choose any F-fault free edge (u, (u)n ) in E i1 ,i2 such
{i}
that u V (Pn (i1 )). By the assumption of this lemma, any Pn F is Hamiltonian-
connected for i
n. Then by Lemma 11.13, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q1 of
Pn F joining u and (u)n . Then
u, Q1 , (u)n , u forms a Hamiltonian cycle of Pn F.
See Figure 11.14c for illustration.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 192
{i }
Case 1. |F i1 | = n 4. Hence, F Pn 1 .
{i }
Case 1.1. (u)n = (v)n = i1 . Choose any element f in F(Pn 1 ). By the assumption of
{i }
this lemma, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q of Pn 1 F + {f } joining u and v. We
may write Q as
u, Q1 , x, f , y, Q2 , v where f = f if f is incident to Q or f is any edge
of Q if otherwise. Obviously, d(x, y) 2. By Lemma 11.12, ((x)n )n = ((y)n )n . By
n {i1 }
Lemma 11.13, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q3 of Pn joining (x)n and (y)n .
Then
u, Q1 , x, (x) , Q3 , (y) , y, Q2 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of Pn F joining u
n n
and y, say x, such that ((x)n )n = (v)n . By Lemma 11.13, there exists a Hamiltonian path
n {i1 }
Q2 of Pn joining (x)n and v. Then
u, y, Q1 , x, (x)n , Q2 , v forms a Hamiltonian
path of Pn F joining u to v. See Figure 11.15b for illustration.
Case 1.3. (u)n = (v)n = ij with j = 1. Since there are at least ve F-fault free edges
in E i1 ,ij , there exists an F-fault free edge (w, (w)n ) in E i1 ,ij such that (w)n = i1 and
(w)n = v. By the assumption of this lemma, there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C1 of
{i } {i }
Pn 1 F and a Hamiltonian path Q1 of Pn j joining u and v. We may write Q1
as
u, Q2 , (w)n , y, Q3 , v and C1 as
w, x, Q4 , z, w. Since d(z , z) 2, by Lemma
11.12 ((z)n )n = ((x)n )n . Thus, we can choose a vertex from z and x, say z, such that
n {i1 ,ij }
((z)n )n = ((y)n )n . By Lemma 11.13, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q5 of Pn
joining (y)n and (z)n . Then
u, Q2 , (w)n , w, x, Q4 , z, (z)n , Q5 , (y)n , y, Q3 , v forms a
Hamiltonian path of Pn F joining u and v. See Figure 11.15c for illustration.
Case 1.4. (u)n = ij and (v)n = ik with ij , ik and i1 are all distinct. Since there are
at least ve F-fault free edges in E i1 ,ij , there exists an F-fault free edge (w, (w)n )
in E i1 ,ij such that (w)n = i1 and (w)n = u. By the assumption of this lemma, there
{i } {i }
exists a Hamiltonian cycle C1 of Pn 1 F and a Hamiltonian path Q1 of Pn j F
joining u and (w)n . We may write C1 as
w, z, Q2 , y, w. Since d(y, z) 2, by Lemma
11.12, ((y)n )n = ((z)n )n . Thus, we can choose a vertex from y and z, say y, such that
n {i1 ,ij }
((y)n )n = (v)n . By Lemma 11.13, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q3 of Pn
joining (y) and v. Thus,
u, Q1 , (w) , w, z, Q2 , y, (y) , Q3 , v forms a Hamiltonian
n n n
With a similar but much difcult argument, as for pancake graphs, we can discuss
the fault-tolerant Hamiltonicity and the fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connectivity of the
(n, k)-star graph Sn,k .
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 194
The (n, k)-star graph is an attractive alternative to the n-star graph [2]. However,
the growth of vertices is n! for an n-star graph. In order to remedy this drawback,
the (n, k)-star graph is proposed by Chiang and Chen [60]. The (n, k)-star graph is a
generalization of the n-star graph. It has two parameters n and k. When k = n 1, an
(n, n 1)-star graph is isomorphic to an n-star graph, and when k = 1, an (n, 1)-star
graph is isomorphic to a complete graph Kn .
Let n and k be positive integers with n > k. Let
n denote the set
{1, 2, . . . , n}. The (n, k)-star graph, denoted by Sn,k , is a graph with the vertex set
V (Sn,k ) = {u1 u2 . . . uk | ui
n and ui = uj for i = j}. Adjacency is dened as fol-
lows: a vertex u1 u2 . . . ui . . . uk is adjacent to (1) the vertex ui u2 u3 . . . u1 . . . uk ,
where 2 i k (that is, we swap ui with u1 ) and (2) the vertex xu2 u3 . . . uk , where
x
n {ui | 1 i k}. The graph S4,2 is shown in Figure 11.16. The edges of type
1 are referred to as i-edges, and the edges of type 2 are referred to as 1-edges. By
denition, Sn,k is an (n 1)-regular graph with n!/(n k)! vertices. Moreover, it is
vertex-transitive.
The following theorem is proved by Hsu et al. [172].
THEOREM 11.16 Suppose that n and k are two positive integers with n > k 1.
Then
14 41
4 1
24 S3,1 34 21 S3,1 31
42 2 12 43 3 13
S3,1 S3,1
32 23
42
12 32
14 34
14
13 31
24
43 41
23 21
The arrangement graph [83] was proposed by Day and Tripathi as a generaliza-
tion of the star graph. It is more exible in its size than the star graph. Let n and k
be positive integers with n > k, the (n, k)-arrangement graph An,k is the graph (V , E)
where V = {p | p is an arrangement of k elements out of the n symbols: 1, 2 . . . , n} and
E = {(p, q) | p, q V and p, q differ in exactly one position}. By denition, An,k is a reg-
ular graph of degree k(n k) with n!/(n k)! vertices. An,1 is isomorphic to the com-
plete graph Kn , and An,n 1 is isomorphic to the n-dimensional star graph. Moreover,
An,k is vertex-symmetric and edge-symmetric [83]. Figure 11.17 illustrates A4,2 .
The following theorem is proved by Hsu et al. [173].
THEOREM 11.17 Hf (An,k ) = k(n k) 2 and Hf (An,k ) = k(n k) 3 for any two
positive integers with n k 2.
The augmented cubes AQ1 , AQ2 , AQ3 , and AQ4 are illustrated in Figure
11.18. It is proved in Ref. 66 that AQn is a vertex-transitive, (2n 1)-regular,
and (2n 1)-connected graph with 2n vertices for any positive integer n. Let
0 )} and E c = {(u, uc ) | u V (AQ0 )}. Obviously, E h and
Enh = {(u, uh ) | u V (AQn1 n n1 n
Enc are two perfect matchings between the vertices of AQn1 0 and AQn11 . Let i
LEMMA 11.17 Let x and y be any two vertices in AQn1 0 with n 4. Assume that
(x, y) 2 h c h c
/ En . Then x , x , y , and y are all distinct.
00 01
0000 0001 0100 0101
0 1
(a) AQ1
0010 0011 0110 0111
10 11
(b)
AQ2
(c) (d)
AQ3 AQ4
FIGURE 11.18 The augmented cubes AQ1 , AQ2 , AQ3 , and AQ4 .
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 197
LEMMA 11.19 Let u be a vertex in AQn1 0 . Let A(u) = {v | (u, v) E(AQ0 )} and
n1
B(u) = {xh | x A(u)} {xc | x A(u)}. Then |A(u)| = 2n 3 and |B(u)| = 4n 8.
Let F V (AQn ) E(AQn ) be any faulty set of AQn . An edge (u, v) is F-fault free
if (u, v) F, u F, and v F; otherwise, it is F-fault. Let H = (V , E ) be a subgraph
of AQn . We use F(H) to denote the set (V E ) F.
By brute force, we have the following three lemmas.
LEMMA 11.23 Hf (AQ4 ) = 5 and Hfk (AQ4 ) = 4. Moreover, AQ4 has property 2H.
Proof: Suppose that {w, x} and {y, z} are two pairs of four distinct vertices of AQn .
We are going to construct two disjoint spanning paths R1 and R2 of AQn such that R1
joins w and x and R2 joins y and z. We consider the following four cases:
Case 1. {w, x, y, z} V (AQn1
0 ). With the assumption of this lemma, AQ
n1 has
property 2H. There exist two disjoint paths
w, P1 , x and
y, P2 , z spanning AQn1
0 .
Without loss of generality, we can assume that l(P1 ) l(P2 ). Since n 4, l(P2 ) 4.
Then P2 can be written as
y, P4 , u, v, z. By Lemma 11.18, (uh , vh ) E(AQn1 1 ).
1
With the assumption of this lemma, AQn1 is 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-
connected. Then AQn1 1 is Hamiltonian-connected. Thus, there exists a Hamiltonian
h h 1 . Then R =
w, P , x and R =
y, P , u, uh , P , vh , v, z
path
u , P3 , v in AQn1 1 1 2 4 3
form the desired disjoint spanning paths of AQn . See Figure 11.19a for illustration.
0 ) and z V (AQ1 ). Let y be a vertex in {yh , yc } {z}.
Case 2. {w, x, y} V (AQn1 n1
With the assumption of this lemma, there exists a Hamiltonian path
y , P2 , z in
1
AQn1 and there exists a Hamiltonian path
w, P1 , x in AQn10 {y}. Obviously,
R1 =
w, P1 , x and R2 =
y, y , P2 , z form the desired disjoint spanning paths of
AQn . See Figure 11.19b for illustration.
Case 3. {w, x} V (AQn1 0 ) and {y, z} V (AQ1 ). With the assumption of this
n1
lemma, there is a Hamiltonian path R1 =
w, P1 , x in AQn1
0 , and there is a Hamilto-
nian path R2 =
y, P2 , z in AQn1
1 . Then R and R form the desired disjoint spanning
1 2
paths of AQn . See Figure 11.19c for illustration.
Case 4. {w, y} V (AQn1
0 ) and {x, z} V (AQ1 ).
n1
Suppose that {(w, x), (y, z)} E(AQn ) = . Without loss of generality, we can
assume that (w, x) E(AQn ). Obviously, there exists a vertex u in V (AQn1
0 ) {y, zh }.
y y y* y
w w w
u uh
x z v vh x x
z z
w x w w*
u uh z* z
x
y z y
(d) (e)
Suppose that {(w, x), (y, z)} E(AQn ) = . Let w be a vertex in {wh , wc } {z}
and z be a vertex in {zh , zc } {z }. Again, there exists a Hamiltonian path
w , P1 , x
1
in AQn1 {z}, and there exists a Hamiltonian path
y, P2 , z in AQn1
0 {w}. Obvi-
ously, R1 =
w, w , P1 , x and R2 =
y, P2 , z , z form the desired disjoint spanning
paths of AQn . See Figure 11.19e for illustration.
Hence, the lemma is proved.
are Hamiltonian-connected. Note that |Enh Enc | |F| 2n (2n 3) 25. There
are two distinct F-fault free edges (u, v) and (x, y) such that u and x are in
0
AQn1 F(AQn1
0 ), and v and y are in AQ1
n1 F(AQn1 ). By assumption,
1
u v u uh ui
fi
uih
x y v vh vi v hi
v vh vh vh
u uh v c v uh
f1
f1
u xu f1 ux
w f2 f2
f2 x uh w uc w h
xh wh
w w h
Case 4.1. l(P2 ) 1. Then uh , vh , wh , and xh are distinct. Since AQn1 has property
2H, there exist two disjoint spanning paths
uh , P3 , vh and
wh , P4 , xh in AQn1 1 .
Obviously,
u, uh , P3 , vh , v, P1 , w, wh , P4 , xh , x, P2 , u forms a Hamiltonian cycle of
AQn F. See Figure 11.20d for illustration.
Case 4.2. l(P2 ) = 0. Then u = x. Moreover w, u, and v are distinct. Obviously, one
of the following cases holds: (1) {wh , wc , uh , uc , vh , vc } are all distinct, (2) (wh = vc
and wc = vh ), (3) (wh = uc and wc = uh ), and (4) (vh = uc and vc = uh ).
Suppose that (1) {wh , wc , uh , uc , vh , vc } are all distinct or (2) (wh = vc and
w = vh ). Since AQn1 has property 2H, there exist two disjoint spanning paths
c
wh , P5 , uh and
uc , P6 , vh in AQn1
1 . Then
u, uc , P , vh , v, P , w, wh , P , uh , u
6 1 5
forms a Hamiltonian cycle of AQn F. See Figure 11.20e for illustration.
Suppose that (3) (wh = uc and wc = uh ) or (4) (vh = uc and vc = uh ). Without
loss of generality, we assume that wh = uc and wc = uh . Since AQn1 is (2n 6)-
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected, there is a Hamiltonian path
uh , P7 , vh in
1
AQn1 {wh }. Thus
u, uh , P7 , vh , v, P1 , w, wh , u forms a Hamiltonian cycle of
AQn F. See Figure 11.20f for illustration.
This completes the proof of the lemma.
Hamiltonian path joining u and v in AQn F for any two different vertices u and
v V (AQn ) F.
connected. By symmetric property of AQn , we have the following two sub cases:
claim that there exists an edge (w, x) on P such that both (w, wh ) and (x, xh )
are F-fault free. Assume that there is no such edge. Then at least l(P)/2
edges in Enh Enc are F-fault. Since l(P) 2n1 |F(AQn1
0 )|, |F| = |F(AQ0 )| +
n1
(2 n1 |F(AQn1 )|)/2 2
0 n2 + |F(AQn1 )|/2 > 2n 4. We get a contradiction.
0
w , P3 , x in AQn1 F(AQn1
h h 1 1 ). Obviously,
u, P , w, wh , P , xh , x, P , v forms a
1 3 2
Hamiltonian path of AQn F joining u and v. See Figure 11.21a for illustration.
Case 2. |F(AQn1
0 )| = 2n 5. Thus, |F F(AQ0 )| 1.
n1
xh . Therefore,
u, P1 , w, wh , P3 , xh , x, P2 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F
joining u and v. Suppose that there is no Hamiltonian path of AQn1 0 F(AQn1
0 )
u wh w wh
w
x xh
v u v
(a) (b)
v u y* y v u v
xi xih zih w
si f shi x ih xi i
i
fi
ri r hi y ih yi
wi wih
u
(a) (b) (c)
wi and xi . Thus,
u, Pi , wi , wi , R1 , xi , xi , Pi , v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F
h h 1 h h 2
and (x, x ) are F-fault free and wh , xh , and v are distinct. We can write P as
h
u, P1 , w, x, P2 , y . Since AQn1 is (2n 6)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected,
there exists a Hamiltonian path P3 of AQn1 1 F(AQn1
1 ) {v, y} joining wh and
h h h
x . Then
u, P1 , w, w , P3 , x , x, P2 , y , y, v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F
joining u and v. Assume that there is no Hamiltonian path of AQn1 0 F(AQn1
0 )
joining u and y . Since AQn1 is (2n 6)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected,
there exists a Hamiltonian path Qi of AQn1 0 (F(AQn1
0 ) {f }) joining u and
i
y for every fi F(AQn1 0 ). We can write Q as
u, P 1 , r , f , s , P 2 , y . Since
i i i i i i
|F(AQn1 0 )| = 2n 5 5 and |F F(AQ0 )| 1, there exists an index i such that
n1
(ri , ri ) and (si , sih ) are F-fault free. Since AQn1
h 1 is (2n 6)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-
connected, there is a Hamiltonian path R1 of AQn1 1 (F(AQn1
1 ) {y, v}) joining rh
i
1 h h 2
and si . Then
u, Pi , ri , ri , R1 , si , si , Pi , y , y, v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F
h
1 . Since n (2n 4) 4, there are at least four ver-
neighbors with u in AQn1 2
tices in A B, say {xi | 1 i 4}, such that xih C. Let wi be a common neighbor
of u and xi . Moreover, let yih and zih be the two neighbors of xih in C. Thus,
|{yih | 1 i 4} {zih | 1 i 4}| 6. There exists some i such that one of yih and
zih , say yih , satisfying yi {u, v, wi } and yi is F-fault free. We can write C as
xih , zih , P1 , yih , xih . Since AQn1 is (2n 6)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, there exists
a Hamiltonian path P2 of AQn1 1 F(AQn1
1 ) {u, w , x } joining b and v. Then
i i i
u, wi , xi , xih , zih , P1 , yih , yi , P2 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F joining u and
v. See Figure 11.22c for illustration.
Case 3. |F(AQn1
0 )| = 2n 4. Thus, |F F(AQ0 )| = 0.
n1
Case 3.1. {u, v} V (AQn1 0 ). Let f and f be any two elements in F(AQ0 ). Since
1 2 n1
AQn1 is (2n 6)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected, there exists a Hamiltonian
path P joining u and v in AQn1 0 (F(AQn10 ) {f , f }), which may or may not
1 2
include f1 or f2 on it. Removing f1 and f2 , the path P is divided into three, two, or one
pieces, depending on the cases in which f1 and f2 are on P or not. For the last two
cases, we may arbitrarily delete one or two more edges from P to make it into three
subpaths. Therefore, without loss of generality, we may write these three subpaths as
u, P1 , w, f1 , x, P2 , y, f2 , z, P3 , v.
Assume that l(P2 ) 1. Then wh , xh , yh , and zh are distinct. Since AQn1 1 has prop-
erty 2H, there are two disjoint spanning paths
w , P4 , x and
y , P5 , z in AQn1
h h h h 1 .
Obviously,
u, P1 , w, w , P4 , x , x, P2 , y, y , P5 , z , z, P3 , v forms a Hamiltonian path
h h h h
ously,
u, P1 , w, w , P6 , x , x, P2 , y, y , P7 , z , z, P3 , v forms a Hamiltonian path
h h h h
of AQn F joining u and v. See Figure 11.23b for illustration. Assume that
{(x, w), (x, z)} En2 = . Without loss of generality, we can assume that (x, w) is in
En2 . Then xh = wc and xc = wh . Since AQn1 is (2n 6)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-
connected, there is a Hamiltonian path P8 of AQn1 1 {xc } joining xh and zh .
Obviously,
u, P1 , w, x , x, x , P8 , z , z, P3 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F
c h h
z zh v zh v zh
f2 z z
y yh x y xc
h
xy x
c
v f2 f2
f x f1
u x xh
1
f1
wh u w wh u w x h w c
w
(a) (b) (c)
u y yh u y v zh u y yh
uw
x v x x
f1 f1
xh f1 xh f1 v xh
x x w w h
w w
y wh wh
1. wh , xh , yh , and v are distinct. Since AQn1 1 has property 2H, there are two
disjoint spanning paths
w , P4 , x and
y , P5 , v in AQn1
h h h 1 . Obviously,
u, P , w,
1
wh , P4 , xh , x, P3 , y, yh , P5 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F joining u and v.
See Figure 11.24b for illustration.
x , u, and v are distinct. Since l(C) = 2n1 and (2n1 /2) 3 = 2n2 3 5, there
h
are at least ve edges that we can choose. Hence, such an edge exists. Since AQn1 1
u u v
w w
wh w
f1 f1 u wh
wh
x xh x
x xh v xh
v
u, P4 , w , w, P1 , x, x , P5 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of AQn F joining u and
h h
z y z y z y
s x
s x s
x
w1
w3
t t t
w u1 w u1
u2 w2
u2
u v u3 v u3 v
FIGURE 11.26 The graphs (a) G, (b) X(G, u), and (c) X(X(G, u), w).
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 207
Case 3.2. P contains (s, t). Then (s, z) is not in P. Hence, P contains the subpath
y, z, v. Since (v, u3 ) P, P contains the subpath
u1 , u3 , u2 , t and the edge (y, x).
Thus, P has a cycle
v, w2 , w3 , x, y, z, v. This is a contradiction.
The lemma is proved.
Yet there are some interconnection networks that are recursively constructed using
node expansion. We still want to know its fault-tolerant Hamiltonicity and its fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian connectivity. In this section, we use the WK-recursive network
as an example.
The WK-recursive network is proposed by Vecchia and Sanges [324]. We use
K(d, t) to denote the WK-recursive network of level t, each of whose basic mod-
ule is a d-vertex complete graph, where d > 1 and t 1. It offers a high degree of
scalability, which conforms very well to a modular design and the implementation
of distributed systems involving a large number of computing elements. A trans-
puter implementation of a 15-vertex WK-recursive network has been realized at the
Hybrid Computing Center in Naples, Italy. In this implementation, each vertex is
implemented with the IMS T414 Transputer [186]. Recently, the WK-recursive net-
work has received much attention, due to its many favorable properties. In particular,
it is proved that He (K(d, t)) = d 3 [108], Hv (K(d, t)) = d 3 [116], and K(d, t)
is Hamiltonian-connected [116]. Ho et al. [151] prove that Hf (K(d, t)) = d 3 and
Hf (K(d, t)) = d 4.
The WK-recursive network can be constructed hierarchically by grouping basic
modules. A complete graph of any size d can serve as a basic module. We use K(d, t)
to denote a WK-recursive network of level t, each of whose basic module is a d-vertex
complete graph, where d > 1 and t 1. The structures of K(5, 1), K(5, 2), and K(5, 3)
are shown in Figure 11.27. K(d, t) is dened in terms of a graph as follows.
Each vertex of K(d, t) is labeled as a t-digit radix d number. Vertex
at1 at2 . . . a1 a0 is adjacent to (1) at1 at2 . . . a1 b, where b = a0 and (2)
at1 at2 . . . aj+1 aj1 (aj )j1 if aj = aj1 and aj1 = aj2 = . . . = a0 , where (aj )j1
denotes j 1 consecutive aj s. An open edge is incident to at1 at2 . . . a0 if
at1 = at2 = . . . = a0 . The open edge is reserved for further expansion. Hence,
its other end vertex is unspecied. The open vertex set Ov of K(d, t) is the set
{at1 at2 . . . a0 | ai = ai+1 for 0 i t 2}. In other words, Ov contains those
vertices with open edges.
Obviously, K(d, 1) is a d-vertex complete graph augmented with d open edges. For
t 1, K(d, t + 1) consists d copies of K(d, t), say K1 (d, t), K2 (d, t), . . . , Kd (d, t). Thus,
we consider Ki (d, t) as the ith component of K(d, t + 1). Letting I = {w1 , . . . , wq } to
be any q subset"q of {1, 2, . . . , d}, we dene graph KI (d, t) as the subgraph of K(d, t + 1)
induced by i=1 V (Kwi (d, t)). For t 2, the open vertices of Ki (d, t) can be labeled
as oi,0 and oi,j for 1 i = j d, where oi,0 is the only open vertex of K(d, t + 1) in
Ki (d, t) and oi,j is the vertex in Ki (d, t) joining with the vertex oj,i in Kj (d, t) with an
open edge. Note that (oi,j , oj,i ) is the only edge joining Ki (d, t) to Kj (d, t).
Now, we dene the extended WK-recursive network K(d, t) as the graph obtained
from K(d, t) by replacing all open edges with the edges joining to x. For example,
K(5, 1) and K(5, 2) are illustrated in Figure 11.28. Obviously, K(d, 1) is isomorphic
to the complete graph Kd+1 . It is observed that K(d, t) is d-regular.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 208
0 00
04 01
40 10
03 02
4 1 44 41 14 11
43 42 13 12
30 20
34 31 24 21
3 2 33 32 23 22
(a) (b)
000
004 001
040 010
003 002
044 041 014 011
030 020
400 100
034 031 024 021
404 401 104 101
300 200
304 301 204 201
(c)
FIGURE 11.27 The graphs (a) K(5, 1), (b) K(5, 2), and (c) K(5, 3).
From Figure 11.29, it is observed that K(5, 2) is obtained from K(5, 1) by taking
node expansion at all vertices of K(5, 1). With this observation, we have the following
theorem.
x x
(a) (b)
FIGURE 11.28 The graphs (a) K(5, 1) and (b) K(5, 2).
y5 y y5 y y5 y
y4 y1 y y4
4
y3 y2 y3 y2 y3
(a) (b) (c)
y5 y y5 y y5 y
y4
With Theorems 11.3 and 11.20, and Lemma 11.1, we have the following theorem.
that it is possible that F dq=1 Fq = . For example, it is possible that (o1,2 , o2,1 ) F
but (o1,2 , o2,1 )
/ dq=1 Fq .
Now, we construct another graph H(F) from the complete graph Kd with ver-
tex set {1, 2, . . . , d} by considering vertex i corresponding to the ith component
of K(d, t + 1) for every i. Let F = {(, ) | o, F, o, F, or (o, , o, ) F}.
We set H(F) = Kd F . Since |F| d 4, by Lemma 11.4, H(F) is Hamiltonian-
connected. This result will help us nd a Hamiltonian path between any two vertices
in K(d, t + 1) F. However, there are several problems to be conquered. Let us
consider the following example.
Assume that u is a vertex in K i (d, t) and v is a vertex in K j (d, t) with 1 i = j d.
Let
i = w1 , w2 , . . . , wd = j be a Hamiltonian path of H(F). Let Pi be a Hamiltonian
path of K i (d, t) Fi joining u to oi,w2 , let Pq be a Hamiltonian path of K wq (d, t) Fwq
joining owq ,wq1 to owq ,wq+1 for 2 q d 1; and let Pj be a Hamiltonian path of
K j (d, t) Fj joining oj,wd1 to v. Obviously,
Pi , P2 , . . . , Pj forms a Hamiltonian
path of K(d, t + 1) F joining u to v. See Figure 11.30 for illustration.
Yet we need to guarantee the existence of required paths in each component. Later,
we will prove that K(d, t) is (d 4)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected by induc-
tion. In the induction step, we assume K(d, t) is (d 4)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-
connected and prove that K(d, t + 1) is (d 4)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected.
With the assumption, the required Hamiltonian path Pq exists for 2 q d 1. How-
ever, we cannot nd Pi if u = oi,w2 . Similarly, we cannot nd Pj if oj,wd1 = v. To solve
the problem, we can nd another Hamiltonian path
i = z1 , z2 , . . . , zd = j of H(F) to
meet the boundary conditions that u = oi,z2 and v = oj,zd1 . As a conclusion, we have
the following lemma.
Ki (d,t)
u
Pi1
KWd-1 (d,t)
Pd-1
PP33
KW3 (d,t)
KW2 (d,t)
P2
Pjd
Kj (d,t)
v
set {i | (s, [i + 1]) E(G) and (i, t) E(G)} where [i] denotes i mod (n 2). Since
e n 4, |Q| n 2 (n 4) = 2. There are at least two elements in Q. Let q1 and
q2 be the two elements in Q. For j = 1, 2, we set Pj as
s, [qj + 1], [qj + 2], . . . , [qj ], t.
Then P1 and P2 are two orthogonal Hamiltonian paths between s and t.
Suppose that e n 5, (s, t) / E, or H is not isomorphic to the complete graph
Kn 2 . Then |Q| 3. Let q1 , q2 , and q3 be the three elements in Q. For j = 1, 2, and 3,
we set Pj as
s, [qj + 1], [qj + 2], . . . , [qj ], t. Then P1 , P2 , and P3 are three mutually
orthogonal Hamiltonian paths between s and t.
Thus, we consider e = n 4, (s, t) E, and H is isomorphic to the complete graph
Kn2 . Let ST be the set of vertices in H that are adjacent to s and t, let ST be the set
of vertices in H that are adjacent to s but not adjacent to t, let ST be the set of vertices
in H that are not adjacent to s but adjacent to t, and let S T be the set of vertices in H
that are not adjacent to s or adjacent to t.
Let a = |ST |, b = |ST |, c = |ST |, and d = |S T |. Without loss of generality,
we assume that degG (s) degG (t). Then b c, b + c + 2d = n 4, and a + b +
c + d = n 2. Thus, a d = 2. Hence, a 2.
Suppose that a 3. Let q1 , q2 , and q3 be three vertices in ST and q4 , q5 , . . . , qn2
are the remaining vertices of H. We set P1 as
s, q1 , q2 , X, q3 , t, P2 as
s, q2 , q3 , Y , q1 , t, and P3 as
s, q3 , Z, q1 , q2 , t, where X, Y , and Z are any permu-
tation of q4 , q5 , . . . , qn2 . Obviously, P1 , P2 , and P3 are three mutually orthogonal
Hamiltonian paths between s and t.
Suppose that a = 2. Then d = 0. Suppose that c 1. Then b 1. We rearrange the
vertices of H so that 0 is a vertex in ST , 1 and 2 are the vertices in ST , 3 is a vertex in ST ,
and 4, 5, . . . , n 3 are the remaining vertices. Obviously,
0, 1, 2, . . . , n 3, 0 forms a
Hamiltonian cycle of H. Let Q denote the set {i | (s, i) E(G) and ([i + 1], t) E(G)}.
Obviously, |Q| 3. Thus, there are three mutually orthogonal Hamiltonian paths
between s and t.
Finally, we consider a = 2, d = 0, and c = 0. Thus, b = n 4. In this case, s is
adjacent to t and adjacent to all the vertices in H; t is adjacent to s and adjacent to exactly
two vertices in H; say, q1 and q2 . Let
s = v1 , v2 , . . . , vn = t be any Hamiltonian path
of G between s and t. Obviously, vn1 is either q1 or q2 . Therefore, there are exactly
two orthogonal Hamiltonian paths between s and t.
Case 2. H is non-Hamiltonian. There are exactly (n 2) vertices in H. By Theorem
11.23, there are exactly (n 4) edges in the complement of H, and H is isomorphic to
C1,n 2 or C2,5 . Hence, s is adjacent to V (G) {s} and t is adjacent to V (G) {t}. We
can construct two orthogonal Hamiltonian paths of G between s and t as the following
cases.
Case 2.1. H is isomorphic to C2,5 . We label the vertices of C2,5 with {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} as
shown in Figure 11.31a. Let P1 =
s, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, t and P2 =
s, 3, 4, 5, 2, 1, t. Then
P1 and P2 form the required orthogonal paths. By brute force, we can check that there
are exactly two orthogonal Hamiltonian paths between s and t.
Case 2.2. H is isomorphic to C1,n2 . We label the vertices of C1,n2 with
{1, 2, . . . , n 2}, as shown in Figure 11.31b. Let P1 =
s, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 2, t and
P2 =
s, 3, 4, . . . , n 2, 2, 1, t. Then P1 and P2 form the orthogonal Hamiltonian
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 213
3
1 2 4
n2
3 5
1 2
n3
5 4
(a) (b)
paths. Let
s = v1 , v2 , . . . , vn = t be any Hamiltonian path of G between s and t. Obvi-
ously, 1 is either v2 or vn1 . Therefore, there are exactly two orthogonal Hamiltonian
paths between s and t.
From the previous discussion, we have the following theorem.
2 q n 1, and there exists a Hamiltonian path Pn of Kwn (d, t) Fn joining own ,wn1
to v. Therefore, P =
u, P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn , v is a Hamiltonian path of KI (d, t) F
joining u to v.
LEMMA 11.30 Let d 4 and t 1. Assume that u and v are two vertices of K(d, t).
Let r and s be any two open vertices such that |{u, v} {r, s}| = 0. Then there exist
two disjoint paths R and S such that (1) R joins u to one of the vertices in {r, s}, say r,
(2) S joins v to s and (3) R S spans K(d, t).
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction on t. The lemma is obviously true for
t = 1, because K(d, 1) is isomorphic to the complete graph Kd with Ov = V (K(d, 1)).
Thus, we assume that this lemma holds for K(d, n) for every 1 n t. We claim, that
the statement holds for K(d, t + 1).
Let u V (Ki (d, t)), v V (Kj (d, t)), r V (Kk (d, t)), and s V (Kl (d, t)). Since there
is only one open vertex in each component, we have k = l. Now, we consider the
following cases:
Case 1. i = j.
Case 1.1. |{i, j} {k, l}| = 0. Thus, there exists an index in {k, l}, say k, such
that u = oi,k . Let I1 = {i, k} and I2 = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wd2 } = {1, 2, . . . , d} I1 such that
w1 = j, wd2 = l, and v = oj,w2 . By Lemma 11.29, there exists a Hamiltonian path R
of KI1 (d, t) joining u to r; there exists a Hamiltonian path S of KI2 (d, t) joining v to s.
Obviously, R and S are the required paths.
Case 1.2. |{i, j} {k, l}| = 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that i = k. Let
R be a Hamiltonian path of Ki (d, t) joining u to r. Let I = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wd1 } =
{1, 2, . . . , d} {i} such that w1 = j and wd1 = l. By Lemma 11.29, there exists a
Hamiltonian path S of KI (d, t) joining v to s. Obviously, R and S are the required
paths.
Case 1.3. |{i, j} {k, l}| = 2. Without loss of generality, we assume that i = k and
j = l. By assumption, |{u, v} {r, s}| = 0. Let I = {w2 , . . . , wd1 } = {1, 2, . . . , d}
{i, j}. By induction, we can nd two disjoint paths Sj1 and Sj2 such that (1) Sj1 joins v
to oj,w2 , (2) Sj2 joins oj,wd1 to s, and (3) Sj1 Sj2 spans Kj (d, t). Let R be a Hamiltonian
path of Ki (d, t) joining u and r. By Lemma 11.29, there exists a Hamiltonian path
1
S of KI (d, t) joining ow2 ,j to owd1 ,j . Obviously, R and S =
v, Sj1 , S , Sj2 , s are the
required paths.
Case 2. i = j.
Case 2.1. i / {k, l}. Let I = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wd2 } = {1, 2, . . . , d} {i, k} such that
wd2 = l. By induction, we can nd two disjoint paths Si1 and Si2 of Ki (d, t) such
that (1) Si1 joins u to oi,k , (2) Si2 joins v to oi,w1 , and (3) Si1 Si2 spans Ki (d, t). Let
R be a Hamiltonian path of Kk (d, t) joining ok,i and r. By Lemma 11.29, there exists
a Hamiltonian path S of KI (d, t) joining ow1 ,i to s. Obviously, R =
u, Si1 , R , r and
S =
v, Si2 , S , s are the required paths.
Case 2.2. i {k, l}. Without loss of generality, we assume that i = k. Let
I = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wd1 } = {1, 2, . . . , d} {i} such that wd1 = l. By induction, we can
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 215
nd two disjoint paths Si1 and Si2 of Ki (d, t) such that (1) Si1 joins u to r, (2) Si2 joins v
to oi,w1 , and (3) Si1 Si2 spans Ki (d, t). By Lemma 11.29, there exists a Hamiltonian
path S of KI (d, t) joining ow1 ,i to s. Obviously, R = Si1 and S =
v, Si2 , S , s are the
required paths.
Case A1.1. H(F) is isomorphic to the complete graph K5 (1, 2) and {i, j} = {1, 2}.
Obviously, d = 5 and |F| = 1. Thus, exactly one of o1,2 , o2,1 , or (o1,2 , o2,1 ) is faulty.
By the symmetric property of H(F), we may assume that (i, j) = (1, 3) or (i, j) = (5, 3).
1. (i, j) = (1, 3). Obviously,
i, 5, 4, 2, j and
i, 4, 2, 5, j form two orthogonal
Hamiltonian paths of H(F). By Lemma 11.28, we can construct a Hamiltonian path
between u and v of K(d, t + 1) F unless (1) (u = oi,4 and v = oj,2 ) or (2) (u = oi,5
and v = oj,5 ).
Suppose that u = oi,4 and v = oj,2 . Obviously,
i, 5, 2, 4, j is a Hamiltonian path in
H(F) satisfying the boundary conditions: u = oi,5 and v = oj,4 . Suppose that u = oi,5
and v = oj,5 . Since exactly one of o1,2 , o2,1 , or (o1,2 , o2,1 ) is fault, Kj (d, t) {oj,5 } is
Hamiltonian-connected. Let Pj be the Hamiltonian path of Kj (d, t) {oj,5 } joining oj,4
to oj,2 . By induction, Kq (d, t) F is Hamiltonian-connected for q {i, 5, 4, 2}. Let Pi
be the Hamiltonian path of Ki (d, t) F joining u to oi,4 ; let P5 be the Hamiltonian
path of K5 (d, t) joining o5,2 to o5,j ; let P4 be the Hamiltonian path of K4 (d, t) joining
o4,i to o4,j ; let P2 be the Hamiltonian path of K2 (d, t) joining o2,j to o2,5 . Therefore,
path
u, Pi , P4 , Pj , P2 , P5 , v is the required path.
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i
i
4
i
1 2
d2 3
3
1 2
1
3 2 d2
5 4
j
d3
j
j
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 11.32 Illustrations for Case A1: (a) Case A1.2, (b) Case A1.3, and (c) Case A1.4.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 217
(1) (u = oi,1 and v = oj,1 ) or (2) (u = oi,5 and v = oj,5 ). By the symmetric property of
H(F), we consider only the case u = oi,1 and v = oj,1 .
Since |Fi | = |Fj | = 0, Kj (d, t) (Fj {oj,1 }) is Hamiltonian-connected. Let Pj
be the Hamiltonian path of Kj (d, t) (Fj {oj,1 }) joining oj,5 to oj,3 . By induction,
Kq (d, t) Fq is Hamiltonian-connected for q {i, 1, . . . , 5}. Let Pi be the Hamiltonian
path of Ki (d, t) Fi joining u to oi,2 ; let P1 be the Hamiltonian path of K1 (d, t) F1
joining o1,4 to o1,j ; let P2 be the Hamiltonian path of K2 (d, t) F2 joining o2,i to
o2,5 ; let P3 be the Hamiltonian path of K3 (d, t) F3 joining o3,j to o3,4 ; let P4 be the
Hamiltonian path of K4 (d, t) F4 joining o4,3 to o4,1 ; let P5 be the Hamiltonian path
of K5 (d, t) F5 joining o5,2 to o5,j . Therefore, path
u, Pi , P2 , P5 , Pj , P3 , P4 , P1 , v is
the required path.
Case A2. i = j. Without loss of generality, we assume that i = j = 1. Let A =K1 (d,
t) {(o1,r , or,1 ) | 2 r d}, B = {or,1 | 2 r d}, and C = K(d, t + 1) A B.
We set FA = F A, FB = F B, and FC = F C.
Suppose that |FA | > 0 or |FB | > 0. We consider the graph K11 (d, t). Let
F = FA {(o1,r , x) | or,1 F or (o1,r , or,1 ) F for 2 r d}. Obviously, |F | d 4.
By induction on K11 (d, t), there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of K11 (d, t) F joining
u to v. Thus, path P1 can be written as
u, P11 , o1,a , x, o1,b , P12 , v. Since |FA | > 0
or |FB | > 0, |FC | d 5. Therefore, H(F) {1} is Hamiltonian-connected. There
exists a Hamiltonian path
a = w1 , . . . , wd1 = b of H(F) {1} joining vertex a
to vertex b. By Lemma 11.29, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of KI (d, t + 1) F
joining oa,1 to ob,1 where I = {w1 , . . . , wd1 }. Hence, the Hamiltonian path
u, P11 , o1,a , oa,1 , Q, ob,1 , o1,b , P12 , v is the required path.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 218
Suppose that |FA | = 0 and |FB | = 0. Hence, |FC | d 4. Therefore, H(F) {1}
is Hamiltonian. Let
w1 , . . . , wd1 , w1 be the Hamiltonian cycle in H(F) {1} with
|{o1,w1 , o1,wd1 } {u, v}| = 0. By Lemma 11.30, there exist two disjoint paths R and S
such that (1) R joins u to one of the vertices in {o1,w1 , o1,wd1 }, say o1,w1 , (2) S joins
v to o1,wd1 , and (3) R S spans K1 (d, t). By Lemma 11.29, there is a Hamiltonian
path P of KI (d, t) F joining ow1 ,1 to owd1 ,1 , where I = {w1 , . . . , wd1 }. Hence, the
Hamiltonian path
u, R, o1,w1 , P, o1,wd1 , S, v is the required path.
Second, we show that K 1 (d, t) is (d 4) fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected for
d 4 and t 2. Let u and v be any two distinct vertices in K 1 (d, t) and F be the
faulty set with |F| d 4. We have to show that there exists a Hamiltonian path of
K 1 (d, t) F joining u to v.
We construct graph H 1 (F) by setting V (H 1 (F)) = V (H(F)) {0} and
E(H 1 (F)) = E(H(F)) {(r, 0) | or,0 / F where 2 r d}. Obviously, H 1 (F) is
Hamiltonian-connected.
Case B1. u Ki (d, t) and v Kj (d, t) with i = j. Assume that there exists a Hamilto-
nian path
i = w1 , w2 , . . . , wd+1 = j of H 1 (F) joining i and j that meets the boundary
conditions: u = oi,w2 and oj,wd = v. By Lemma 11.28, there exists a Hamiltonian path
of K(d, t + 1) F joining u and v. By Theorem 11.24, there exists such a Hamilto-
nian path in H 1 (F) that meets the boundary conditions except Cases 2 through 5. We
will show that Lemma 11.28 holds when H 1 (F) is isomorphic to K5 e where e is
any edge in K5 , the subgraph N of H 1 (F) induced by V (H 1 (F)) {i, j} is a complete
graph; isomorphic to C2,5 ; isomorphic to C1,n2 .
Case B1.1. H 1 (F) is isomorphic to the complete graph K5 e for any edge e in K5 .
We label the vertices in K5 as 0, 1, . . . , 4. See Figure 11.33a for illustration. By the
denition of H 1 (F), {i, j} = {0, 1}. Obviously, d = 4 and |F| = 0. By the symmetric
property of H 1 (F), we may assume that (i, j) = (1, 2) or (i, j) = (4, 2).
1. (i, j) = (1, 2). Obviously,
i, 4, 0, 3, j and
i, 3, 0, 4, j form two orthogonal
Hamiltonian paths of H 1 (F). By Lemma 11.28, we can construct a Hamiltonian path
between u and v of K 1 (d, t + 1) F unless (1) (u = oi,4 and v = oj,4 ) or (2) (u = oi,3
and v = oj,3 ).
i
i
x4
1 i
x1 x2 x3
4 0 x d-1
x3
x1 x2
x2 x1
x3 xd-1
3 2 x5 x4
j
xd-2
j
j
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 11.33 Illustrations for Case B1: (a) Case B1.1, (b) Case B1.2, (c) Case B1.3, and
(d) Case B1.4.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 219
ox2 ,x5 ; let P3 be the Hamiltonian path of K3 (d, t) F3 joining ox3 ,j to ox3 ,x4 if l = 3
and P3 = {x} if otherwise; let P4 be the Hamiltonian path of K4 (d, t) F4 joining
ox4 ,x3 to ox4 ,x1 ; let P5 be the Hamiltonian path of K5 (d, t) F5 joining ox5 ,x2 to ox5 ,j if
l = 5 and P5 = {x} if otherwise. Therefore, path
u, Pi , P2 , P5 , Pj , P3 , P4 , P1 , v is the
required path.
Case B1.4. The subgraph N of H 1 (F) induced by V (H 1 (F)) {i, j} is isomorphic
to C1,n2 ; vertex i is adjacent to j and all the vertices in N; j is adjacent to i and all the
vertices in N. We label the vertices of C1,n2 as indicated in Figure 11.33d. Obviously,
E(N) = d 3 and degN (1) = d 3. It is easy to see that
i, x1 , x2 , . . . , xd1 , j and
i, xd1 , xd2 , . . . , x1 , j form two orthogonal Hamiltonian paths of H 1 (F) between i
and j. By Lemma 11.28, we can construct a Hamiltonian path between u and v in
K 1 (d, t + 1) F unless (1) (u = oi,xd1 and v = oj,xd1 ) or (2) (u = oi,x1 and v = oj,x1 ).
Suppose that u = oi,xd1 and v = oj,xd1 . Obviously,
i, x3 , xd1 , . . . , x4 , x2 , x1 , j
is a Hamiltonian path in H 1 (F) satisfying the boundary conditions: u = oi,x3 and
v = oj,x1 . By Lemma 11.28, we can construct a Hamiltonian path between u and v in
K 1 (d, t + 1) F.
Suppose that u = oi,x1 and v = oj,x1 . Since |Fi | = |Fj | = 0, Kj (d, t) {oj,x1 } is
Hamiltonian-connected. Let Pj be the Hamiltonian path of Kj (d, t) {oj,x1 } joining
oj,x3 to oj,x4 . Let l be the index that xl is vertex 0 in N. By induction, Kq (d, t) Fq is
Hamiltonian-connected for q {i, x2 , . . . , xd1 } {xl }. Let Pi be the Hamiltonian path
of Ki (d, t) joining u to oi,x3 ; let P3 be the Hamiltonian path of K3 (d, t) F3 joining
ox3 ,i to ox3 ,j if l = 3 and P3 = {x} if otherwise. Suppose l = 4; let P4 be the Hamiltonian
path of K4 (d, t) F4 joining ox4 ,j to ox4 ,x5 if d 7 and let P4 be the Hamiltonian path
of K4 (d, t) F4 joining ox4 ,j to ox4 ,x2 if d = 6. Suppose l = 4; let P4 = {x}. Let Pq
be a Hamiltonian path of Kq (d, t) Fq joining oxq ,xq1 to oxq ,xq+1 for 4 q d 2 if
l = q and Pq = {x} if otherwise; let Pd1 be the Hamiltonian path of Kd1 (d, t) Fd1
joining oxd1 ,xd2 to oxd1 ,x2 if l = d 1 and Pd1 = {x} if otherwise; let P2 be a Hamil-
tonian path of K2 (d, t) F2 joining ox2 ,xd1 to ox2 ,x1 ; let P1 be a Hamiltonian path of
K1 (d, t) F1 joining ox1 ,x2 to ox1 ,j if l = 1 and P1 = {x} if otherwise. Therefore, path
u, Pi , P3 , Pj , P4 , . . . , Pd1 , P2 , P1 , v is the required path.
Case B2. u Ki (d, t) and v is the vertex x. Since |F| d 4, |F K(d, t + 1)| d 4
and there exists at least one vertex or,x with {or,x , (or,x , x)} F = . With the previous
proof, K(d, t + 1) F is Hamiltonian-connected. There exists a Hamiltonian path P1
of K(d, t + 1) F joining u to or,x . Hence, Hamiltonian path
u, P1 , or,x , x = v is the
required path.
Case B3. u, v Ki (d, t). Let A = Ki (d, t) {(oi,r , or,i ) | 1 r = i d}, B = {or,i | 1
r = i d}, and C = K(d, t + 1) {(oi,x , x)} A B. We set FA = F A, FB = F B,
and FC = F C.
Suppose that |FA | > 0 or |FB | > 0. Consider the graph Kii (d, t). Let
F = FA {(oi,r , x) | or,i F or (oi,r , or,i ) F for 1 r = i d}. Obviously, |F | d 4.
By induction on Kii (d, t), there exists a Hamiltonian path Pi of Kii (d, t) F joining u
to v. Path Pi can be written as
u, Pi1 , oi,a , x, oi,b , Pi2 , v. Since |FA | > 0 or |FB | > 0,
|FC | d 4. Therefore, H 1 (F) {i} is Hamiltonian-connected. There exists a Hamil-
tonian path
a = w1 , . . . , b = wd of H 1 (F) {i} joining vertex a to vertex b. By
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1. They can provide good expandability. That is, with the growing size of the
multicomputer systems, the alterations in both hardware conguration and
communication software of each vertex can be minimized.
2. Compared with some nonhierarchical interconnection networks, such as the
hypercube, they can integrate more vertices by using the same number of
links.
3. They can integrate the positive features of two or more nonhierarchical
networks.
4. They can be applied to new hybrid computer architectures utilizing both
optical and electronic technologies. Specically, processors are partitioned
into two groups, where electronic interconnects are used to connect proces-
sors within the same group, and optical interconnects are used for intergroup
communication.
In the past decade, a number of HINs were proposed. There are two different kinds
of HINs: (1) HINs that consist of exactly two levels [82,125,177,264,265,336] and
(2) HINs that can be dened recursively until a prescribed number of levels is reached
[78,331,352,354]. The recursively dened HINs are desired because of their excellent
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 222
expandability. The fully connected cubic networks (FCCNs), proposed in Ref. 331,
are a class of HINs that are dened recursively by taking the three-dimensional cube
as the basic graph. It indicates that FCCNs are a class of newly proposed hierachi-
cal networks for multisystems, which enjoy the strengths of constant vertex degree
and good expandability. Some interesting properties about FCCNs are discussed in
Ref. 331. In particular, Yang et al. [348] present a shortest-path routing algorithm.
Let Z8 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. For m 1 and a Z8 , let am = aa
. . . a.
m
For n 1, an n-level FCCN, FCCNn , is a graph dened recursively as follows:
1. FCCN1 is a graph with V (FCCN1 ) = Z8 and E(FCCN1 ) = {(0, 1), (0, 2),
(1, 3), (2, 3), (4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 7), (6, 7), (0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7)}. Obviously,
FCCN1 is isomorphic to Q3 .
2. When n 2, FCCNn is built from eight vertex-disjoint copies of FCCNn1 by
adding 28 edges. For 0 k 7, we let kFCCNn1 denote a copy of FCCNn1
with each vertex being prexed with k, then FCCNn is dened by
#
7
V (FCCNn ) = V (kFCCNn1 )
k=0
$ %
#
7
E(FCCNn ) = E(kFCCNn1 ) {(pqn1 , qpn1 ) | 0 p < q 7}
k=0
Since FCCNn has 64 vertices and FCCNn0 has 65 vertices, we can check the
following two lemmas by brute force.
66
77
44
55
41
26 27 50
24 25 37
22 23
33
20 21
31
(a) 06 07
16 17
04 05
14 15
02 03
12 13
00 01
10 11
(b)
666
777 66
77
444 44
555 55
41
26 27 50
37 w
24 25
222 22 23
333
221 33
20 21
330 31
066 077 06 07
044 166 177 16 17
055 04 05
022 033 144 155 14 15
02 03 13
122 133 12
000 011 01
00
100 111 10 11
(c) (d)
FIGURE 11.34 The graphs (a) FCCN1 , (b) FCCN2 , (c) FCCN3 , and (d) FCCN20 .
joining u to v.
Suppose that u bFCCNn and v is the extra vertex w. Let k0 , k1 , . . . , k7 be
any permutation of Z8 such that k0 = b, u = k0 k1n , and k7 = 0. Let xi = ki ki1 n
LEMMA 11.35 (Ho [148]) Both FCCNn and FCCNn0 are 1 fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian for n 2.
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. It is sufcient to prove that a graph
G is 1 fault-tolerant Hamiltonian by proving that G f is Hamiltonian for any
f V (G) E(G) with |f | = 1. By Lemma 11.33, the statement holds for n = 2. We
assume the statement holds for l with 2 l n.
First, we prove that FCCNn+1 f is Hamiltonian.
ch011.tex 30/6/2008 18: 45 Page 225
is Hamiltonian.
Suppose that f V (bFCCNn ) E(bFCCNn ). By the induction hypothesis, there
is a Hamiltonian cycle C of bFCCNnb f . Since C can be traversed forward and back-
ward, we can assume that C =
w, bk7n , Pb , bk1n , w with k1 = 0. Let k2 , k3 , . . . , k6 be
any permutation of Z8 {b, k1 , k7 } such that k2 = 0. We set k8 = b. Let xi = ki ki1 n
n+1 n+1
for 3 i 7, yj = kj kj+1 for 2 j 7, x1 = k1 b , x2 = k2 , and y1 = k1 . By The-
n n
Suppose that f is an edge of the form (r n+1 , w). Let b and e be two indices with
{b, e} {0, r} = . By Theorem 11.25, there is a Hamiltonian path P of FCCNn+1
joining bn+1 to en+1 . Obviously,
w, bn+1 , P, en+1 , w forms a Hamiltonian cycle for
FCCNn+1 0 f.
12 Optimal 1-Fault-Tolerant
Hamiltonian Graphs
12.1 INTRODUCTION
From previous discussions, we have several methods that recursively construct k-
regular (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs for large k. Thus, we should put
some effort on k-regular (k 2)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs for small k. A lot
of optimal 1-Hamiltonian graphs have been proposed [140,182,256,333,335]. For any
1-Hamiltonian regular graph, it is proved that the graph is optimal if and only if the
graph is 3-regular [183,334]. In this chapter, we are interested only in optimal 1-
Hamiltonian regular graphs. Families of optimal 1-Hamiltonian regular graphs were
proposed by Harary and Hayes [139,140], Mukhopadhyaya and Shani [256], Wang,
Hung, and Hsu [333], and Hung, Hsu, and Sung [183]. From the mathematical point of
view, it would be interesting to characterize all optimal 1-Hamiltonian regular graphs.
One strategy to characterize all optimal 1-Hamiltonian regular graphs is to nd some
basic graphs and construction schemes with the hope that we can construct all optimal
1-Hamiltonian regular graphs. We also hope that these basic graphs and construction
schemes are as simple as possible.
In this chapter, we present some construction schemes for 3-regular 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graphs. Then, we discuss some families of 3-regular 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graphs.
We have also observed that several interconnection networks are recursively con-
structed. Based on the recursive structure, we can use induction to prove that such
networks are not only optimal fault-tolerant Hamiltonian but also optimal fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian-connected. For a while, we were wondering whether any optimal k-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graph is optimal (k 1)-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-connected.
Here, we will concentrate on the special case of k = 1.
Note that a 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph is a Hamiltonian graph such
that G f remains Hamiltonian for any f V (G). There is another family of graph
called the hypohamiltonian graph, which is very close to 1-vertex fault-tolerant hamil-
tonian graph. A hypohamiltonian graph is a non-Hamiltonian graph such that G f is
Hamiltonian for any f V (G). There are numerous studies on hypohamiltonian graphs.
Readers can refer to Ref. 156 for a survey of hypohamiltonian graphs. A graph G is 1-
edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if G e is Hamiltonian for any e E(G). Obviously,
any 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph is Hamiltonian.
Kao et al. [192] show that the concepts of cubic 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
graphs, cubic 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs, and cubic Hamiltonian-
connected graphs are independent of one another even if we restrict our attention
to planar graphs. Let U be the set of cubic planar Hamiltonian graphs, A the set of
227
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12.2 3-JOIN
Wang et al. [334] proposed the operator, 3-join, to combine two cubic graphs. Let
G1 and G2 be two graphs. We assume that V (G1 ) V (G2 ) = . Let x be a vertex of
a graph. We use N(x) to denote an ordered set that consists of all the neighbors of x.
That is, N(x) is an ordering of all of the neighbors of x. Hence, we use N(x) as an
ordered set. The 3-join, as illustrated in Figure 12.1, is dened as follows.
Suppose that x is a vertex of degree 3 in G1 and y a vertex of degree 3 in G2 .
Moreover, assume that N(x) = {x1 , x2 , x3 } and N( y) = {y1 , y2 , y3 }. The 3-join of G1
and G2 at x and y is a graph K given by
y1 y1
x1 x1
x2 x y2 x2 x y2
3 3
y3 y3
(a) (b)
THEOREM 12.1 Suppose that G1 and G2 are two graphs and K is a 3-join of
G1 and G2 . Then K is a 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph if both G1 and G2 are
1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs.
Proof: Assume that K is a 3-join of G1 and G2 at x and y with N(x) = {x1 , x2 , x3 }
and N( y) = {y1 , y2 , y3 }. Let f be any fault, vertex, or edge, of K.
Suppose that f = (xi , yi ) for all 1 i 3. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that f (V (G1 ) {x}) (E(G1 ) {(x, xi ) | 1 i 3}). Since G1 is 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian, it follows that there is a Hamiltonian cycle H1 in G1 f .
Obviously, H1 can be written as
x, xi , P, xj , x, where i, j {1, 2, 3}. Let k be the
unique element in {1, 2, 3} {i, j}. Since G2 is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, there
is a Hamiltonian cycle H2 in G2 ( y, yk ), which can be written as
y, yi , Q, yj , y.
Obviously,
xi , P, xj , yj , Q, yi , xi forms a Hamiltonian cycle of K f .
Suppose that f = (xi , yi ) for some i. Without loss of generality, we may assume
that f = (x1 , y1 ). Let H1 be a Hamiltonian cycle of G1 (x, x1 ), which can be written as
x, x2 , P, x3 , x. Let H2 be a Hamiltonian cycle of G2 ( y, y1 ), which can be written
as
y, y2 , Q, y3 , y. Obviously,
x2 , P, x3 , y3 , Q, y2 , x2 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of
K f . Hence, the theorem is proved.
q5,4
q1,1
x0 p0,3 p0,4 p0,5 p0,6 p
p0,1 p0,2 0,7 p x1
0,8
q5,3 p5,4 p1,1 q1,2
p5,3 p1,2
p5,2 p1,3
q5,2 p5,1 p1,4
q1,3
x p4,2
5 p4,1
p2,1
q5,1 p3,4 p p3,2 p3,1
p2,2 x2
3,3
x4 x3 q1,4
q4,2
q4,1 q2,1
q3,4 q3,3 q3,2 q3,1 q2,2
"
The cycle induced by the vertices 0ik1 {qi, j | 1 j li } is called the extended
cycle of C, denoted by OC . An example of ExtC (G) is illustrated in Figure 12.2, where
C is represented by darkened edges, and OC by dashed edges. Here, we adopt the
following notion:
C =
x0 , x1 , . . . , xk1 , x0
li : an even integer that is the number of vertices in ExtC (G) added between
xi and xi+1
pi, j : a vertex in ExtC (G) added between xi and xi+1
qi, j : the vertex in ExtC (G) that is adjacent to pi, j
Again, we focus our discussion of cycle extensions on cubic graphs only. Hence,
we suppose that G is cubic in the following discussion of cycle extensions.
We use zi to denote the unique neighbor of xi that is not in C. The addition and
subtraction involved in the subscript or index of a vertex in a cycle is taken modulo k,
where k denotes the length of the cycle or k is clear from the context without ambiguity.
For example, (xi , xi+1 ) for i = k 1 in C is simply (xk1 , x0 ), and (qi1,li1 , qi,1 ) in OC
for i = 0 is simply (qk1,lk1 , q0,1 ).
Suppose that H is a cycle of G. Let HC denote the cycle in ExtC (G) obtained from
H by replacing all (xj , xj+1 ) in E(H) E(C) with
xj , pj,1 , pj,2 , . . . , pj,lj , xj+1 .
Moreover, H denotes the cycle obtained from OC by replacing every
qi,1 , qi,2 , qi,3 , . . . , qi,li with
qi,1 , pi,1 , pi,2 , qi,2 , qi,3 , pi,3 , . . . , pi,li , qi,li if
pi,1 , pi,2 , . . . ,
pi,li is not a subpath in HC . Now, we introduce six operations M1 (H, e, j), M2 (H, e),
and Mi (H, x) for 3 i 6 that augment the cycle H of G to a cycle of ExtC (G) with
respect to some edge e = (xi , xi+1 ) or vertex x = xi or x = xi+1 in C and a specic j. We
use M1 (H, e, j), M2 (H, e), and Mi (H, x) to mean the operation and the corresponding
cycle interchangeably.
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 231
M1 (H, e, j) =
pi, j , P, pi, j+1 , qi, j+1 , Q, qi, j , pi, j
qi1,1 qi1,li1 qi,1 qi,2 qi,3 qi,4 qi,5 qi,6 qi,7 qi,8 qi1,1 qi1,li1 qi2,1
qi1,1 qi1,l i1 qi,1 qi,2 qi,3 qi,4 qi,5 q q q qi1,1 qi1,li1 qi2,1
i,6 i,7 i,8
zi zi1 z i2
(b)
qi1,1 qi1,l i1 qi,1 qi,2 qi,3 qi,4 qi,5 qi,6 qi,7 qi,8 qi1,1 qi1,l i1 qi2,1
zi zi1 z i2
(c)
to pi+2,1 . We dene
M3 (H, e) =
pi+2,1 , qi+2,1 , Q, qi,1 , pi,1 , pi,2 , qi,2 , . . . , pi, j1 , qi, j1 , qi, j , qi, j+1 , pi, j+1 ,
pi, j+2 , qi, j+2 , . . . , qi,li , pi,li , xi+1 , pi+1,1 , pi+1 , pi+1,li+1 , xi+2 , P,
pi+2,1
M4 (H, e) =
pi+2,1 , qi+2,1 , Q, qi,1 , pi,1 , pi,2 , qi,2 , . . . , qi, j1 , pi, j1 , pi, j , pi, j+1 , qi, j+1 ,
qi, j+2 , pi, j+2 , . . . , pi,li , xi+1 , pi+1,1 , pi+1 , pi+1,li+1 , xi+2 , P, pi+2,1
M5 (H, x) =
xi1 , pi1,1 , pi1 , pi1,li1 , xi , pi,1 , qi,1 , qi,2 , pi,2 , pi,3 , . . . , pi, j1 , qi, j1 ,
qi, j , qi, j+1 , pi, j+1 , pi, j+2 , qi, j+2 , . . . , qi,li , Q, qi2,li2 , pi2,li2 ,
P, xi1
qi2,l i2 qi1,1 qi1,l i1 qi,1 qi,2 qi,3 qi,4 qi,5 q q q qi1,1
i,6 i,7 i,8
x i1 xi x i1
pi2,l pi1,1 pi1,l pi,1 pi,2 pi,3 pi,4 pi,5 pi,6 pi,7 pi,8 pi1,1
i2 i1
HC* zi z i1
(a)
xi1 xi x i1
p pi1,1 pi1,l pi,1 pi,2 pi,3 pi,4 pi,5 pi,6 pi,7 pi,8 pi1,1
i2,l i2 i1
zi z i1
(b)
xi1 xi x i1
pi2,l i2 pi1,1 pi1,l pi,1 pi,2 pi,3 pi,4 pi,5 pi,6 pi,7 pi,8 pi1,1
i1
zi z i1
(c)
M6 (H, x) =
xi1 , pi1,1 , pi1 , pi1,li1 , xi , pi,1 , qi,1 , qi,2 , pi,2 , pi,3 , . . . , qi, j1 , pi, j1 ,
pi, j , pi, j+1 , qi, j+1 , qi, j+2 , pi, j+2 , . . . , qi,li , Q, qi2,li2 , pi2,li2 , P, xi1
(2,3) (2,0)
(1,0)
(1,1) (1,8)
(1,0) (0,0)
(2,15)
(2,6) (1,2)
(0,1) (0,2) (1,7)
(0,0)
(1,3)
(0,1) (0,2) (1,4) (1,6)
(1,5)
(1,3) (1,6)
(2,9) (2,12)
Eye(1) Eye(2)
One may ask whether ExtC (G) is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if G is cubic 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian. The answer is no, and it can be veried by a counterexample
shown in Figure 12.7. The graphs shown in Figure 12.7 were proposed by Wang et al.
[335]; they are called eye networks and are denoted by Eye(n) for n 1. The graph
Eye(1) shown in Figure 12.7 is a cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph. Let O1
be the cycle indicated by darkened edges in Eye(1) as shown in Figure 12.7. Obvi-
ously, Eye(2) = ExtO1 (Eye(1)). Though Eye(1) is cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian,
Eye(2) is not 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, because there is no Hamiltonian cycle in
Eye(2) ((2, 0), (2, 3)), Eye(2) ((2, 6), (2, 9)), and Eye(2) ((2, 12), (2, 15)).
Thus, that G is cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian does not imply that ExtC (G)
is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. However, we are interested in nding a sufcient
condition on cycle C for ExtC (G) to be 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. To get this goal,
we dene the recoverable set R(C) of cycle C as follows:
The denition of R(C) arises from the given condition for operation M2 to be appli-
cable. A cycle C of G is recoverable with respect to G if no two edges of E(C) R(C)
are adjacent. For example, the cycle C =
x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x0 shown in Figure 12.8 is
recoverable with respect to G, since {(x0 , x1 ), (x2 , x3 )} is the recoverable set of C.
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 236
x0 x1
x3 x2
1
li,j1 si,j
si,j1 si,jm1si,jm si,jm1si,jm2 s l i,j
i,j 1
si,j1
1
si,j1
l i,j1
l i,2
si,2 qi,j si,j1
qi,j1
1
si,2 qi,j1 li,j1
ri,j1 ri,j1 ri,jm1ri,jm ri,jm1ri,jm2 r l i,j 1
qi,3 1
ri,j1 i,j ri,j1 qi,j2
l i,1
si,1 pi,j
li,j+1
ri,j1 qi,l 1
qi,2 pi,j1 i
r l i,2 pi,j1
r 1 i,2 pi,j2 1
si,ll i,lii1
l i,1 i,2 pi,3
1
ri,1
si,1 1 pi,2 pi,l 1 r l i,li1
qi,1 ri,1 pi,1
i
pi,l i
i,l i 1 q
i,l i
Li1
si1,l Li1
ri1,li1 ri,l1 i si,l1 i
i1
xi xi1
pi1,li1 pi1,1
1
ri1,l pi1,2 ri,lLii
i1
pi1,3 1
ri1,1 qi1,1 si,lLii
pi1,1
1 qi1,l i1 pi2,li2 pi1,l
si1,l i1 1
si1,1
i1
xi1 qi1,2
qi1,1 xi2 xi2 qi1,3
qi2,li2 qi1,li1
(qi,li , qi+1,1 ) and (qi ,li , qi +1,1 ) are not adjacent for i = i , R(OC ) is a collection of
(qi, j , qi, j+1 ) for all 0 i k 1 and 1 j li 1 and moreover, OC is recoverable
with respect to ExtC (G). Hence, the theorem is proved.
We can recursively apply the cycle extension operation. Let ExtC0 (G) = G, OC0 = C,
ExtC (G) = ExtC (G), and OC1 = OC . We recursively dene ExtCn (G) for n 2 as
1
ExtCn (G) = ExtOn1 (ExtCn1 (G)) and OCn being the extended cycle of OCn1 in ExtCn (G).
C
Now, we consider in particular ExtC2 (G), which is the cycle extension of ExtC (G)
around OC . Given 0 i k 1 and 1 j li 1, let li, j and Li denote the number
of vertices added between qi, j and qi, j+1 and between qi,li and qi+1,1 , respectively.
These vertices are denoted by ri,mj where 1 m li, j or 1 m Li . The vertex in OC2 ,
which is adjacent to ri,mj , is denoted by si,mj . Note that li, j and Li are even. For ease
of exposition, let L = li, j for 1 j li 1 and L = Li for j = li . To be specic, the
graph ExtC2 (G) is given as follows (see Figure 12.9):
# #
V ExtC2 (G) = V (ExtC (G)) ri,mj , si,mj | 1 m L
0ik1 1jli
E ExtC2 (G) = (E(ExtC (G)) E (OC ))
# #
ri,mj , ri,m+1
j , si,mj , si,m+1
j 1 m L 1
0ik1 1jli
# #
ri,mj , si,mj 1 m L
0ik1 1jli
#
Li Li 1
1
qi,li , ri,l i
, ri,li , qi+1,1 , si,li , si+1,1
0ik1
# #
l l
qi, j , ri,1 j , ri,i,jj , qi,j+1 , si,i, jj , si,1 j+1
0ik1 1jli 1
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 238
Using a proof technique similar to that in Lemma 12.3, we can prove the following
corollary.
E1 = E(G) E(C)
# Li
Li 1
E2 = 1
qi,li , ri,l i
, ri,li , qi+1,1 , s , s
i,li i+1,1
0ik1
# #
l
si,i, jj , si,1 j+1
0ik1 1jli 1
#
E3 = {(xi , pi,1 ), ( pi,li , xi+1 )}
0ik1
# #
l
( pi, j , pi, j+1 ), qi, j , ri,1 j , ri,i,jj , qi, j+1
0ik1 1jli 1
# #
m m+1
ri,mj , ri,m+1
j , si, j , si, j 1 m L 1
0ik1 1jli
# # # #
E4 = {( pi, j , qi, j )} ri,mj , si,mj 1 m L
0ik1 1jli 0ik1 1jli
qi,li , qi+1,1 , qi+1,2 , . . . , qi+1,li+1 , qi+2,1 as a subpath. Thus, M2 (H , (qi+1,1 , qi+1,2 ))
Li Li 1
forms a Hamiltonian cycle in ExtC2 (G) {(ri,l i
, qi+1,1 ), (si,l i
, si+1,1 )}.
Suppose that f E3 . We rst assume that f = (xi , pi,1 ) or ( pi,li , xi+1 ). It follows
from the proof of Lemma 12.2 that there is a Hamiltonian cycle H1 in ExtC (G) f .
Since ExtC (G) is cubic, H1 contains at least an edge (qi ,j , qi ,j+1 ) in OC for some
0 i k 1, i = i , and 1 j li 1. Thus, M1 (H1 , (qi ,j , qi ,j+1 ), m) is a Hamil-
tonian cycle of ExtC2 (G) f , where 1 m li ,j 1. Secondly, we assume that
l
f = ( pi, j , pi, j+1 ), (qi, j , ri,1 j ), or (ri,i,jj , qi, j+1 ). It follows from the proof of Lemma 12.2
that there is a Hamiltonian cycle H2 in ExtC (G) {( pi, j , pi, j+1 ), (qi, j , qi, j+1 )}. Since
ExtC (G) is cubic, H2 contains (qi, j+1 , qi, j+2 ). Hence, M1 (H2 , (qi, j+1 , qi, j+2 ), m)
l
is a Hamiltonian cycle of ExtC2 (G) {( pi, j , pi, j+1 ), (qi, j , ri,1 j ), (ri,i,jj , qi, j+1 )}, where
1 m li, j+1 1. Finally, we assume that f = (ri,mj , ri,m+1 m m+1
j ) or (si, j , si, j ). Similarly,
there is a Hamiltonian cycle H3 in ExtC (G) (qi, j1 , qi, j ). Hence, we can apply oper-
ation M1 to (qi, j , qi, j+1 ) and m with 1 m li, j 1. Then M1 (H3 , (qi, j , qi, j+1 ), m) is
a Hamiltonian cycle of ExtC2 (G) f .
Suppose that f E4 . Since G is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, there is a Hamil-
tonian cycle H of G (xi1 , xi ). Then both (xi2 , xi1 ) and (xi , xi+1 ) are in
H. Therefore, H1 = M1 (H, (xi2 , xi1 ), j) for some 1 j li2 1 is a Hamil-
tonian cycle of ExtC (G), which contains
qi1,li1 , qi,1 , qi,2 , . . . , qi,li , qi+1,1 as a
subpath. Then we apply operation M1 again on H1 and (qi1,li1 , qi,1 ). It fol-
lows that M1 (H1 , (qi1,li1 , qi,1 ), m) with 1 m Li1 1 is a Hamiltonian cycle of
ExtC2 (G) f .
Therefore, ExtC2 (G) is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. The theorem
follows.
THEOREM 12.4
1. Eye(n) = ExtOn1
1
(Eye(1)) for n 2, where O1 is the outermost cycle of
Eye(1), as shown with the darkened edges in Figure 12.7.
2. Eye(n) is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian for n 3.
1. EP(0) is the Petersen graph shown in Figure 12.10a with a specic cycle C
indicated by the darkened edges. Dene OC0 = C.
2. Dene EP(1) = ExtO0 (EP(0)) as shown in Figure 12.10b and OC1 = OC
C
shown with the darkened edges in the gure.
3. For n 2, dene EP(n) = ExtOn1 (EP(n 1)) and OCn as the extended cycle
C
of OCn1 in EP(n). Equivalently, we write EP(n) = ExtCn (EP(0)).
a c u
(G, a, b, c, d )
b d v
a1 c1 a2 c2 a1 c1 a2 c2 a3 c3
u1 u2
C1 C2 C1 C2 C3
v1 v2
b1 d1 b2 d2 b1 d1 b2 d2 b3 d3
(a) (b)
F1 : (a, d), (b, c), and ((a, d), (b, c)) are good in G.
F2 : None of (a, b), (a, c), (b, d), (c, d), ((a, b), (c, d)), and ((a, c), (b, d)) are good
in G.
F3 : For each x V (G), at least one of (a, c), (b, d), ((a, b), (c, d)), and ((a, c),
(b, d)) is good in G x.
Since ip-ops are J-cells, they can be used to construct back to a hypohamiltonian
graph. By the theorem, Chvtal showed that there are innite hypohamiltonian graphs.
And by using some known hypohamiltonian graphs, he constructed the needed ip-
ops to construct new hypohamiltonian graphs with given number of vertices, except
for some small numbers.
Later, Collier and Schmeichel [75] studied those ip-ops with some extra
conditions. They introduced strong ip-ops and a new operation. Since we
will use the operation, we introduce it here. Let C = (G, a, b, c, d) be a cell.
The cell O3 (C) is dened to be the 5-tuple (M3 , a , b , c , d ), where M3 is the
graph obtained from G by adding the vertices a , b , c , d , p, q, r, s, and the edges
(a, p), (b, q), (c, r), (d, s), (a , p), ( p, c ), (c , r), (r, d ), (d , s), (s, b ), (b , q) and (q, a ).
Obviously, O3 (C) is cubic if C is cubic. See Figure 12.13 for illustration.
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 243
a p c
a c
q C r
b d
b s d
a c a c a c a c
b d b d b d b d
Some examples are given in Figure 12.14. Obviously, (G, b, a, d, c), (G, c, d, a, b),
(G, d, b, c, a), (G, a, c, b, d), and (G, d, c, b, a) are H-cells if (G, a, b, c, d) is an
H-cell. In fact, the graphs Or ((G, a, b, c, d)), Or ((G, b, a, d, c)), Or ((G, c, d, a, b)),
Or ((G, d, b, c, a)), Or ((G, a, c, b, d)), and Or ((G, d, c, b, a)) are all isomorphic.
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 244
To obtain more H-cells is our major goal. The more H-cells are found, the more 1-
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs are constructed. However, using the limited number
of operations that we already know, we cannot generate an H-cell by combining
arbitrary two or more known H-cells. There are two strategies to attack this problem:
one is to nd new operations; the other is to select some particular H-cells from the
set of all H-cells. Here, we adopt the latter method; the way we do it is to put some
more restrictions on the selection of the H-cells:
We call the H-cells satisfying all of these properties L-cells. In Figure 12.14, the
last three examples are L-cells; however, the rst example is not.
Now we show that the set of L-cells is closed under O1 ; that is, O1 (C1 , C2 ) is an
L-cell if both C1 and C2 are L-cells. The proof is somewhat tedious. We support some
gures to add readability. In fact, readers may directly check the proof by checking
the gures, when familiar with the style of the proof.
G1 G2
b1 d1 b2 d2
or
or
It is observed that O2 (C1 , C2 , C3 ) is isomorphic to O1 (O4 (O1 (O4 (C1 ), C2 )), C3 )).
Hence, the set of L-cells is also closed under O2 . As a result, using the two operations on
arbitrary two or three known L-cells will generate a new L-cell; that is, we may generate
more and more L-cells. So we may easily generate 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs
innitely.
Although L-cells make the generation of 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs easy,
there is another requirement arising. Someone may ask: is there any particular cell
operating with an arbitrary H-cell resulting in an H-cell?
We introduce two more families of cells; namely, T -cells and U-cells. First, we
introduce T -cells as follows:
a c
u
v
b d
T3 : (a, c), (b, d), (a, b), and (c, d) are good in G.
T4 : For any f V E, either
1. At least two of ((a, b), (c, d)), ((a, c), (b, d)), and ((a, d), (b, c)) are good
in G f or
2. ((a, c) or (b, d) is good in G f ) and ((a, b) or (c, d) is good in G f ).
By this theorem, once we have a T -cell, we may use operation O1 to link the
T -cell to all known H-cells, and then make the amount of H-cells double. Moreover,
we can continue linking the T -cell to the newly generated H-cells to produce new
H-cells. Thus, we can generate H-cells innitely.
However, if a T -cell is difcult to nd, such a method will be useless. Here, we
propose a construction to construct a T -cell as follows. We dene U-cells rst. A
U-cell (G, a, b, c, d) is an H-cell such that at least two of ((a, b), (c, d)), ((a, c), (b, d)),
and ((a, d), (b, c)) are good in G. Such a cell has a bit restriction on H-cells. We even
do not nd an H-cell that is not a U-cell, yet. Obviously, any L-cell is an U-cell.
However, the converse is not true. For example, the cell in Figure 12.14a is an U-cell
but not an L-cell. Moreover, (G, b, a, d, c), (G, c, d, a, b), (G, d, b, c, a), (G, a, c, b, d),
and (G, d, c, b, a) are U-cells if (G, a, b, c, d) is an U-cell. The following theorem can
be proved case by case.
With the previous theorem, we can easily generate a T -cell. In the study of the
T -cells, we nd another interesting operation. Let Ci = (Gi , ai , bi , ci , di ) be cells for
i = 1, 2. O5 (C1 , C2 ) is the graph M5 , which is obtained from the disjoint union of
G1 and G2 by adding edges (a1 , c2 ), (b1 , d2 ), (d1 , a2 ), and (c1 , b2 ). See Figure 12.17.
Obviously, O5 (C1 , C2 ) is a 3-regular graph if C1 and C2 are cubic. The following
result can be proved by the same strategy in the proof of Theorem 12.7.
a1 c1 a2 c2
C1 C2
b1 d1 b2 d2
a1 c1 a1 c1 a2 c2
u
C1 C1 C2
b1 d1 v b1 d1 b2 d2
Why is Theorem 12.12 interesting? Consider Figure 12.18. The T -cell looks like a
substitution of the edge (u, v) in the left graph. Remember that the left graph is just an
optimal 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph. Since we do not add any restriction on the
edge (u, v), the T -cell may be substituted for any edge in the left graph. This is the most
intriguing property. For this reason, we loosen the restriction of T -cells and introduce
another family of cells; namely, S-cells, which have the following properties:
An S-cell is a cubic cell with these properties. It is easy to see that any S-cell is
an L-cell and any T -cell is an S-cell. However, the converse is not true. The cell in
Figure 12.19 is an S-cell but not a T -cell. The following theorem is about S-cells.
It follows from the theorem that we can substitute any edge of an optimal 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian graph with an S-cell, and the graph obtained is also an optimal
1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph.
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a c
b d
The next lemma can easily be obtained from the denition of the generalized
Petersen graphs.
LEMMA 12.6 P(n, k) is bipartite if and only if n is even and k is odd. In particular,
P(n, k) is not 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if n is even and k is odd.
With Lemma 12.6, we may ask whether P(n, k) is not 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
if and only if n is even and k is odd. However, the statement is not true, because of
the following theorem.
0
12
1
0 12
2 1 11
11
0 1 2 3 2
10
3 10
3
9
4 5 6 7 8
4 4 9
8
5 7
9 10 11 12 6
5 8
6 7
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.21 (a) A D(13, 4) and (b) its corresponding Hamiltonian cycle in P(13, 4).
Alspach et al. [11] proposed an interesting model, called the lattice model, to
describe a Hamiltonian cycle of the generalized Petersen graphs. With the lattice
model, a lattice diagram for a Hamiltonian generalized Petersen graph is a labeled
graph in the (x, y)-plane that possesses a closed or an open Eulerian trail. By appro-
priately interpreting the edges in the diagram, the Eulerian trail corresponds to a
Hamiltonian cycle of a generalized Petersen graph.
A lattice diagram D(13, 4) for a generalized Petersen graph P(13, 4), for
example, is shown in Figure 12.21. In this diagram, there is an Eulerian trail
0, 1, 5, 9, 10, 6, 2, 3, 7, 11, 12, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 0. By appropriately interpreting the edges
in the diagram, it corresponds to a Hamiltonian cycle
0, 1, 1 , 5 , 9 , 9, 10, 10 , 6 ,
2 , 2, 3, 3 , 7 , 11 , 11, 12, 12 , 8 , 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 4 , 0 , 0 in P(13, 4).
Alspach et al. [11] introduced this scheme and proved that P(n, k) is Hamiltonian
for all n (4k 1)(4k + 1) if k is even and for all n (2k 1)(3k + 1) if k is an odd
integer with k 3.
The lattice model is described as follows. For more details, see Ref. 11. In a
lattice model, a lattice graph L consists of lattice points in the (x, y)-plane. Two lattice
points (a1 , b1 ) and (a2 , b2 ) in L are adjacent if and only if |a1 a2 | + |b1 b2 | = 1.
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Hence, the degree of each vertex is less than or equal to 4. Suppose that n and k be
positive integers with n 2k + 1. A labeled lattice graph L(n, k) is obtained from the
lattice graph L by labeling the lattice points following this rule: suppose that a lattice
point (a, b) is labeled with an integer i with 0 i n 1. Then (a + 1, b) is labeled
with i 1 and (a, b 1) is labeled with i k. A lattice diagram for P(n, k), denoted as
D(n, k), is a subgraph of L(n, k) induced by the vertices with labels 0, 1, . . . , n 1 such
that it possesses either a closed or an open Eulerian trail. A traversal of the Eulerian
trail in D(n, k) obeys the following rules:
1. The trail does not change the direction when it passes through a vertex of
degree 4.
2. Each label 0, 1, . . . , n 1 is encountered by the traversal once in a vertical
direction and once in a horizontal direction.
3. Suppose that D(n, k) has an open Eulerian trail. Then two vertices of odd
degree must have the same label, and both are not of degree 3.
k k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 2k4 2k3 2k2 2k1 k k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 2k2 2k1 2k
2k 2k1 2k2 2k3 2k4 2k5 3k4 3k3 3k2 3k1 2k1 2k2 2k3 2k4 2k5 3k2 3k1 3k 3k1
3k 3k1 3k2 3k3 3k4 3k5 4k4 4k3 4k2 4k1 3k2 3k3 3k4 3k5 4k2 4k1 4k 4k1
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.22 (a) A D(4k, k), (b) a D(4k + 2, k), and (c) a D(8k + 1, k).
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 9 10 11 12 13
7 8 9 10 11 12
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.23 (a) A D6v (13, 6) and (b) a D1h (14, 6).
of P(13, 6) 6 using the same interpretation described earlier. The reason why
the open Eulerian trail corresponds to the Hamiltonian cycle of P(13, 6) 6 is
because the vertex with label 6 is traversed only in the vertical direction and
all the other vertices are traversed in both directions. Again, the open Eule-
rian trail in Figure 12.23b,
0, 1, 2, 8, 9, 3, 4, 10, 11, 5, 6, 7, 13, 12, 6, 0 corresponds
to the Hamiltonian cycle
0, 1, 2, 2 , 8 , 8, 9, 9 , 3 , 3, 4, 4 , 10 , 10, 11, 11 , 5 , 5, 6, 7,
7 , 13 , 13, 12, 12 , 6 , 0 , 0 in P(14, 6) 1 . In this diagram, the vertex with label 1
is traversed only in the horizontal direction, and all the other vertices are traversed in
both directions.
In other words, nding a lattice diagram Div (n, k) with an Eulerian trail such that
the vertex with label i is traversed only in the vertical direction and all the other vertices
are traversed in both directions is nding a Hamiltonian cycle of P(n, k) i. Similarly,
nding a lattice diagram Dih (n, k) with an Eulerian trail such that the vertex with label i
is traversed only in a horizontal direction and all the other vertices are traversed in both
directions is nding a Hamiltonian cycle of P(n, k) i . Note that the automorphism
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Figure 12.24b. Moreover, a lattice diagram Dkh (3k, k) is shown in Figure 12.24c.
Therefore, P(3k, k) is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
Thus, we have the following theorem.
0 3 4 7 8 k2
k k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6 k7 k8 k9 2k3 2k2
(a)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 k5 k4 k3 k2
k k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6 k7 k8 k9 2k5 2k4 2k3 2k2 2k1
(b)
1 2 3 4 k2 k1
2k
0 1 k1 k k1 k2 k3 k4 2k2 2k1
0
(c)
Suppose that n 11. A lattice diagram D4v (n, 3) is shown in Figure 12.25a and
a lattice diagram D1h (n, 3) is shown in Figure 12.25b. Therefore, P(n, 3) is 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian.
Thus, P(n, 3) is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if and only if n is odd.
n1 0 1 2 3
0
2 4 6 n1 0 1 2 3
5 6 7 8 9 2
4
10 11 5
12 13 6
7
14 15
n5 9
n4 n5
n3 n2 n4
n3 n2
0
0
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.25 (a) A D4v (n, 3) and (b) a D1h (n, 3) for odd n with n 11.
12.26h, we have four lattice diagrams Dn3 h (n, 4) depending on the value of n (mod 4).
With Theorems 12.14, 12.16, and 12.17, we can recognize those 1-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian Petersen graphs P(n, k) with k 4. Now, we consider the case k 5. By
Lemma 12.6, P(n, k) is not 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if n is even and k is odd. We
will prove that P(n, k) is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if (1) k 5 is odd and n is odd
with n sufciently large with respect to k and (2) k is even with k 6 and n is sufciently
large with respect to k. Again, we will use the amalgamating mechanism proposed by
Alspach et al. [11] and described earlier, to obtain suitable lattice diagrams.
We rst consider the case that k is even with k 6. We will use four basic lattice
diagrams. We use D(4k, k) and D(4k + 2, k) to denote the lattice diagrams shown
in Figures 12.22a and 12.22b, respectively. Moreover, we use Dkv (2k + 1, k) and
D1h (2k + 2, k) to denote the lattice diagrams shown in Figures 12.27a and 12.27b,
respectively. For illustration, we amalgamate a D6v (13, 6) and a D(26, 6) to obtain a
D6v (38, 6) in Figure 12.27c. Note that 38 = 13 + 26 1, because a vertex is duplicated
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n3 n2
n8 n7
1 2
n4 n3 n2
n19 n18 n3 n2
0 0 1 2
n14 0 1 2
n15 4 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 n17 n16
n11 4 5 6
n8 n5 n15 n13
n9 n7 n14
n1 n10 n9 n8 n11 n9
n5 n10
3 n3 n2 n4 n6 n5
n1 n6 n5
2 n1 n1
0 n18 1
3
3 3
4 n14 n12 n11
n17
n12 n11 n10 n7 n11 n16
n13 n8 0 1 2 n11 n10n9 n-8
n7 n12
n6 n5 n4 0 1 2 n8 0 1 2 n13
n6 n5 n4
0 0
k2 k3 k4 k5 2k2 2k1 2k 2k1 k1 k2 k3 k4 2k3 2k2 2k1 2k
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.27 (a) A Dkv (2k + 1, k) and (b) a D1h (2k + 2, k).
(a)
0 1 2 3 k3 k2 k1 k
(c) (d)
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 0
12 13 14 15 16
5 6 7 8 9
0 8 9 10 11
10 11 12
13
17 18 19 20 21
14
22 23 24
15 16 17
25
18 19 20 21 22
26
27 28 29
28 29 30 31 32
30 31 32 33 34
23 24 25 26 27
33 34 35 36 0
35 36 37 38 0
(e) (f)
FIGURE 12.28 (a) A D0v (6k 3, k), (b) a D1h (2k + 1, k), (c) a D(2k, k), (d) a D(6k 2, k),
(e) a D0h (27, 5), and (f) a D1h (39, 5).
u copies of D(4k + 2, k) to make a lattice diagram D1h (n, k). Therefore, P(n, k) 1 is
Hamiltonian.
Thus, we have the following theorem.
THEOREM 12.18 [246] Assume that k is even with k 6. Then P(n, k) is 1-fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian if n 2k + 2 + (4k 1)(4k + 1).
Now, we consider both k and n to be odd integers with k 5. We will use four basic
lattice diagrams. We use D0v (6k 3, k) and D1h (2k + 1, k) to denote the lattice diagrams
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 259
shown in Figures 12.28a and 12.28b respectively, and we use D(2k, k) D(6k 2, k) to
denote the lattice diagrams in Figures 12.28c and 12.28d, respectively. For illustration,
we amalgamate a D0h (27, 5) and a D(10, 5) to obtain a D0h (37, 5) in Figure 12.28e.
We observe that 37 = 27 + 10, which is different from the previous case. We note
that the two vertices labeled with 0 in D0h (27, 5) are the terminal vertices of the open
Eulerian trail. We identify one of the vertices labeled with 0 in D0h (27, 5) with one of
the vertices labeled with 0 in D(10, 5) to obtain a D0h (37, 5). Similarly, we amalgamate
a D1h (11, 5) with a D(28, 5) to obtain a D1h (39, 5) in Figure 12.28f.
Suppose that n 6k 3 + (2k)(6k 2) and n is odd. Since gcd (2k, 6k 2) = 2,
there exist nonnegative integers r and s such that n = 6k 3 + r(2k) + s(6k 2).
Moreover, there exist nonnegative integers t and u such that n = 6k 3 + t(2k) +
u(6k 2). We can amalgamate one copy of D0v (6k 3, k), r copies of D(2k, k), and
s copies of D(6k 2, k) to make a lattice diagram D0v (n, k). Similarly, we can
amalgamate one copy of D1h (2k + 1, k), t copies of D(2k, k), and u copies of
D(6k 2, k) to make a lattice diagram D1h (n, k). Therefore, P(n, k) is 1-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian.
THEOREM 12.19 [246] Suppose that k and n are odd integers with k 5. Then
P(n, k) is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if n 6k 3 + (2k)(6k 2).
(0, 5)
(7, 5)
(0, 6)
(7, 6)
(1, 2)
(8, 2)
(0, 0)
(7, 0)
(1,1)
FIGURE 12.32 The honeycomb rectangular disks HReD(5, 6), HReD(5, 7), and HReD(6, 7).
ch012.tex 30/6/2008 11: 27 Page 262
Note that the honeycomb rectangular disk is built from the honeycomb rectangular
mesh by adding a boundary. By Theorem 12.20, the performance of a honeycomb
rectangular disk is better than the performance of a honeycomb rectangular mesh.
Usually, the wireless network stations of a region are settled based on a honeycomb
structure. We believe that the performance of such a honeycomb structure can be
improved by adding a boundary, as we did in this section.
LEMMA 12.8 Suppose that both G1 and G2 are 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian graphs. Then G = J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) is 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
if and only if x is good in G1 and y is good in G2 . Moreover, Good(G) =
(Good(G1 ) Good(G2 )) {x, y} if x is good in G1 and y is good in G2 .
Proof: We prove this lemma through the following steps:
LEMMA 12.9 Let G = J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) with y Good(G2 ). Suppose that a
and b are two distinct vertices of G1 such that a = x and b = x. Then there exists a
Hamiltonian path of G1 joining a to b if and only if there exists a Hamiltonian path
of G joining a to b.
Proof: Suppose that there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of G1 joining a to b. We can
write P1 as
a, P11 , xi , x, xj , P12 , b with {i, j} {1, 2, 3} and i = j. Note that the length of
P11 and the length of P12 could be 0. Let k be the only element in {1, 2, 3} {i, j}. Since
y is good in G2 , there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C2 in G2 ( y, yk ). We can write C2
as
y, yi , P2 , yj , y. Obviously,
a, P11 , xi , yi , P2 , yj , xj , P12 , b forms a Hamiltonian path
of G joining a to b.
Suppose that there exists a Hamiltonian path P of G joining a to b. Since there
are exactly three edgesnamely, (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), and (x3 , y3 )between V (G1 ) {x}
and V (G2 ) {y} in G, P can be written as
a, P1 , xi , yi , P2 , yj , xj , P3 , b for some
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{i, j} {1, 2, 3} with i = j. Note that the length of P1 and the length of P3 could be 0.
Obviously,
a, P1 , xi , x, xj , P3 , b forms a Hamiltonian path in G1 joining a to b.
LEMMA 12.12 Let G = J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)). Suppose that y Good(G2 ). Let
a V (G1 ) such that a = x. Then G1 a is Hamiltonian if and only if G a is
Hamiltonian.
Proof: Suppose that there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C1 in G1 a. We can write
C1 as
x, xi , P, xj , x with i, j {1, 2, 3} and i = j. Let k be the only element in
{1, 2, 3} {i, j}. Since y is good in G2 , there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C2 in
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G2 ( y, yk ). We can write C2 as
y, yj , Q, yi , y. Obviously,
xi , P, xj , yj , Q, yi , xi forms
a Hamiltonian cycle in G a.
Suppose that there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C in G a. Since there are
exactly three edges between V (G1 ) {x} and V (G2 ) {y} in G, C can be written
as
xi , P, xj , yj , Q, yi , xi for some i, j {1, 2, 3} with i = j. Obviously,
x, xi , P, xj , x
forms a Hamiltonian cycle in G1 a.
LEMMA 12.13 Let a V (G1 ) such that a = x, K4 be the complete graph dened on
{y, y1 , y2 , y3 }, and G = J(G1 , N(x); K4 , N( y)). Then G yi is Hamiltonian if and only
if G1 (x, xi ) is Hamiltonian. Moreover, G a is Hamiltonian if and only if G1 a
is Hamiltonian.
Proof: Suppose that there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C in G yi . We can write
C as
xj , yj , yk , xk , P, xj , where {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3}. Obviously,
xj , x, xk , P, xj forms a
Hamiltonian cycle in G1 (x, xi ).
Suppose that there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C1 in G1 (x, xi ). We can write
C1 as
xj , x, xk , P, xj , where {i, j, k} = {1, 2, 3}. Obviously,
xj , yj , yk , xk , P, xj forms
a Hamiltonian cycle in G yi .
Note that Good(K4 ) = V (K4 ). Using Lemma 12.12, G1 a is Hamiltonian if and
only if G a is Hamiltonian.
12.8.1 A B C
Obviously, K4 is the smallest cubic planar Hamiltonian graph. It is easy to check
that K4 is a graph in A B C. Moreover, Nice(K4 ) = V (K4 ). Let x1 be any vertex of
K4 . Using Lemmas 12.7, 12.8, and 12.11, Ex(K4 , x1 ) is a graph in A B C. With
Lemma 12.11, any expanded vertex of K4 at x1 is nice. We can recursively dene
a sequence of graphs as follows: let G1 = K4 and G2 = Ex(K4 , x1 ). Suppose that we
have dened G1 , G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at
xi1 . We set Gi+1 as Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively applying Lemmas 12.7, 12.8, and 12.11,
Gi A B C for every i 1. We have the following theorem.
12.8.2 A B C
Let Q3 be the three-dimensional hypercube shown in Figure 12.33a. Obviously, Q3
is planar. It is easy to check that Q3 is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Since Q3 is
a bipartite graph, there is no cycle of length 7. Therefore, Q3 x is not Hamiltonian
for any vertex x in Q3 . Thus, Q3 is not 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Since
there are four vertices in each partite set, there is no Hamiltonian path joining any two
vertices of the same partite set. Therefore, Q3 is not Hamiltonian-connected. Thus, Q3
is a graph in A B C. Let x1 be any vertex in Q3 . With Lemma 12.7, Ex(Q3 , x1 ) is
1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Applying Lemma 12.13, Ex(Q3 , x1 ) is not 1-vertex
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. By Lemma 12.9, Ex(Q3 , x1 ) is not Hamiltonian-connected.
Therefore, Ex(Q3 , x1 ) is a graph in A B C. We can recursively dene a sequence of
graphs as follows: let G1 = Q3 and G2 = Ex(Q3 , x1 ). Suppose that we have dened G1 ,
G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1
as Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively applying Lemmas 12.7, 12.9, and 12.13, Gi A B C for
every i 1. We have the following theorem.
THEOREM 12.22 There is an innite number of planar graphs that are 1-edge fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian, but neither 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian nor Hamiltonian-
connected.
12.8.3 A B C
Let Q be the graph in Figure 12.33b. Obviously, Q is obtained from the graph Q3
by a sequence of 3-vertex expansions. From Section 12.8.2, Q3 A B C. By
Lemma 12.7, Q is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Applying Lemma 12.13, Q g
is not Hamiltonian. Hence, Q is not 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. By brute
force, we can check whether Q is Hamiltonian-connected. Therefore, Q A B C.
THEOREM 12.23 There is an innite number of planar graphs that are 1-edge
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian-connected but not 1-vertex fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian.
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f1,3 f2,2
g 3,2 g2,3
g3,3 g 2,2
g 3,1 g2,1
f 4,2 f 3,3
(a) (b)
Proof: Let g3,1 be the vertex of Q shown in Figure 12.33b. By brute force, we
can check that g3,1 Nice(Q). Let Y = Ex(Q, g3,1 ). Applying Lemmas 12.7, 12.11,
and 12.13, Y is a graph in A B C. Moreover, by Lemma 12.11, any expanded
vertex of Q at g3,1 is nice. Now, we recursively dene a sequence of graphs as fol-
lows: let G1 = Q, x1 = g3,1 , and G2 = Ex(Q, x1 ). Suppose that we have dened G1 ,
G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1
as Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively applying Lemmas 12.7, 12.11, and 12.13, Gi A B C
for every i 1.
12.8.4 A B C
Let M denote the graph in Figure 12.34a and M0 denote the graph in Figure 12.34b.
Obviously, M is obtained from M0 by a sequence of 3-node expansions.
LEMMA 12.15 The graph M is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian and 1-vertex fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian.
Proof: We rst check that M0 is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. By symmetry,
we only need to prove that M0 e is Hamiltonian where e {(s1 , s2 ), (s1 , r1 ), (r1 , q2 )}.
The corresponding cycles are listed here:
M0 (s1 , s2 )
s1 , r1 , q1 , p1 , p2 , q2 , r2 , s2 , s3 , r3 , q3 , p3 , p4 , q4 , r4 , s4 , s1
M0 (s1 , r1 )
s1 , s2 , r2 , q3 , p3 , p4 , p1 , p2 , q2 , r1 , q1 , r4 , q4 , r3 , s3 , s4 , s1
M0 (r1 , q2 )
s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , r4 , q4 , r3 , q3 , r2 , q2 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p1 , q1 , r1 , s1
s1,2 s 2,3 s1 s2
s1,3 s1,1 q2 s2,1 s 2,2 q2
r1 r2 r1 r2
p2,1
p p2
p1,2 p2,3 2,2
p3,3
q1 p p3,2 q1 p1 p3 q3
p1,3 p3,1 q3
1,1
p4
p4,2 p4,3
p4,1 r4 r3
r4 r3
q4 q4
s4,1 s 3,1 s3,3
s4,3
s4,2 s 3,2 s4 s3
(a) (b)
s1 s2 s1 s2
q2 q2
r1 r2 r1 r2
z
p1,2 p2 p2
p1,2
q1 p1,1 p3 q3 q1 p1 p3 q3
p1,3 p4 p4
r4 r3 r4 r3
q4 q4
s4 s3 s4 s3
(c) (d)
s1 s2 s1 s2
r1 q2 r1 q2
z1 r2 z1 r2
z2 p2 z2 p2
p1,2
q1 p1,1 p3 q3 q1 p1 p3 q3
p4 p4
p1,3
r4 r3 r4 r3
q4 q4
s4 s3 s4 s3
(e) (f)
FIGURE 12.34 Graphs (a) M, (b) M0 , (c) M1 , (d) M2 , (e) M3 , and (f) M4 .
cycle of M0 r1 , and
r1 , q2 , r2 , s2 , s3 , r3 , q3 , p3 , p2 , p1 , p4 , q4 , r4 , s4 , s1 , r1 is a
Hamiltonian cycle of M0 q1 . Hence, M is 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
Case 1. v2 = p2 . Then neither ( p1,1 , p1,2 ) nor ( p1,2 , p1,3 ) is in P. However, both
( p1,1 , p1,3 ) and ( p1,3 , p4 ) are in P. Hence, the graph M2 in Figure 12.34d is Hamilto-
nian. Let H be any Hamiltonian cycle of M2 . Since M2 is a planar graph, M2 and H
satisfy the Grinberg condition [129] of Theorem 10.7.
Thus, 2( f4 f4 ) + 3( f5 f5 ) + 6( f8 f8 ) = 0, where fi is the number of faces
of length i inside H and fi is the number of faces of length i outside H for i = 4, 5, 8.
Thus, 2( f4 f4 ) = 0 (mod 3). Since | f4 f4 | = 1, the equation cannot hold. We arrive
at a contradiction.
Case 2. v2 is either p1,1 or p1,3 . Then the graph M3 shown in Figure 12.34e is
Hamiltonian. By Lemma 12.9, the graph M4 in Figure 12.34f is Hamiltonian. It is
easy to see that M4 is isomorphic to M2 . Therefore, M4 is not Hamiltonian. Again, we
arrive at a contradiction.
THEOREM 12.24 There is an innite number of planar graphs that are 1-edge fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian and 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian but not Hamiltonian-
connected.
Proof: Let Y = Ex(M, q1 ). Applying Lemmas 12.15 and 12.16, M A B C. By
Lemmas 12.7 through 12.9, Y A B C. Let G1 = M, x1 = q1 , and G2 = Ex(M, q1 ).
Suppose that we have dened G1 , G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex
of Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1 as Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively applying Lemmas 12.7
through 12.9, Gi A B C for every i 1.
12.8.5 A B C
Let Eye(2) be the graph in Figure 12.35. By brute force, we can prove that Eye(2) is
1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian but not 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. More
precisely, Eye(2) e is not Hamiltonian for any edge in {(e1 , e2 ), (e3 , e4 ), (e5 , e6 )}.
By brute force, we can also check that Eye(2) is Hamiltonian-connected. Therefore,
Eye(2) is a graph in A B C. Let e16 be the vertex of Eye(2) shown in Figure 12.35.
By brute force, we can check that e16 is a nice vertex of Eye(2). Let Y = Ex(Eye(2), e16 ).
By Lemmas 12.7, 12.8, and 12.11, Y is a graph in A B C. By Lemma 12.11, any
expanded vertex of Eye(2) at e16 is nice in Y . We recursively dene a sequence of
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e16
e15
e14 e7
e3
e13 e2 e8
e4
e18 e1
e6 e5 e9
e12
e11 e10
e17
graphs as follows: let G1 = Eye(2) and G2 = Ex(Eye(2), e16 ). Suppose that we have
dened G1 , G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at xi1 .
We dene Gi+1 as Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively applying Lemma 12.7, Lemma 12.8, and
Lemma 12.11, Gi A B C for every i 1. We have the following theorem.
THEOREM 12.25 There is an innite number of planar graphs that are 1-vertex
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian-connected but not 1-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian.
12.8.6 A B C
Let N = J(Eye(2), N(e16 ); M, N(s4,1 )) be the graph in Figure 12.36. Obviously, N is
a cubic planar graph. Since M is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, s4,1 Good(M).
From Section 12.8.5, we know that e16 Good(Eye(2)). By Lemma 12.8, N is 1-vertex
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Again, we know that Eye(2) A B C. By Lemmas 12.7,
N is not 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Applying Lemma 12.16, there is no Hamil-
tonian path of M joining p1,2 to r1 . By Lemma 12.9, there is no Hamiltonian path of
N joining p1,2 to r1 . Therefore, N is not Hamiltonian-connected. Thus, N is a graph
in A B C.
THEOREM 12.26 There is an innite number of planar graphs that are 1-vertex
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian but neither 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian nor
Hamiltonian-connected.
Proof: Let x be the vertex p3,1 of N shown in Figure 12.36. Since M is 1-edge
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, x Good(M). Using Lemma 12.8, x Good(N). Let
Y = Ex(N, x). By Lemmas 12.7 through 12.9, Y is a graph in A B C. With
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s1,2 s2,3
s1,3 s1,1
q2 s2,2
s2,1
r1 r2
p2,1
p2,3
p2,2
p1,2 p3,3
q1 p 1,1 p
1,3 p3,2 p3,1 q3
p4,2 p4,3
p4,1
r4 r3
e15
e14 q4
e7
e3 e4 s3,1 s3,3
e18e13 e2 e8
e1 e5
s4,3 e9
e12 e6
e11 e10
e17
s4,2 s3,2
12.8.7 A B C
Let R be the graph J(Eye(2), N(e16 ); Q, N(g3,1 )) shown in Figure 12.37. Obviously,
R is a cubic planar graph. In Section 12.8.3, we know that Q A B C, Q g
is not Hamiltonian, and g3,1 is nice in Q. From Section 12.8.5, we know that
Eye(2) A B C and e16 Nice(Eye(2)). By Lemma 12.7, R is not 1-edge fault-
tolerant Hamiltonian. With Lemma 12.12, R g is not Hamiltonian. Hence, R is not
1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. By Lemma 12.10, R is Hamiltonian-connected.
Thus, R is a graph in A B C.
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f1,3 f2,2
g1,2 g
g1,1
g1,3
g3,2 g2,3
g3,3
e17 g2,1
g2,2
e10 e11
e f3,1
6
e9 e
e5 12 f3,2
e1
e18
e8 e3 e2 e
e4 13
e7
e14
e15
f4,1
f4,3
f4,2 f3,3
THEOREM 12.27 There is an innite number of planar graphs that are Hamiltonian-
connected but neither 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian nor 1-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian.
Proof: Let x be the vertex e17 shown in Figure 12.37. By brute force, x Nice(R).
Let Y = Ex(R, x). By Lemmas 12.7, 12.11, and 12.13, Y is a graph in A B C,
and any expanded vertex of R at x is nice. We recursively dene a sequence of
graphs as follows: let G1 = R and G2 = Ex(R, x). Suppose that we have dened G1 ,
G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1 as
Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively applying Lemmas 12.7, 12.11, and 12.13, Gi A B C for
every i 1.
12.8.8 A B C
Let Z = J(Eye(2), N(e16 ); Q3 , N(f4 )) shown in Figure 12.38. Obviously, Z is a
connected planar cubic graph. From Sections 12.8.2 and 12.8.5, we know that
Q3 A B C and Eye(2) A B C. Moreover, Q3 f2 is not Hamiltonian and
there is no Hamiltonian path of Q3 joining f2 to g2 . By Lemma 12.7, Z is not 1-edge
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. From Section 12.8.5, we know that e16 is a good vertex
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f2
f1
g1 g
g3 g2
e15 f3
e7
e14
e3
e4 e8
e2
e13 e1 e5
e14
e9
e12 e6
e11 e10
e17
THEOREM 12.28 There is an innite number of Hamiltonian planar graphs that are
not Hamiltonian-connected, not 1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, and not 1-edge
fault-tolerant Hamiltonian.
Proof: Let x be the vertex g1 in Z shown in Figure 12.38. Let Y = Ex(Z, x). Using
Lemma 12.14, Y is Hamiltonian. By Lemmas 12.7, 12.9, and 12.13, Y is a graph in
U (A B C). We recursively dene a sequence of graphs as follows: let G1 = Z
and G2 = Ex(Z, x). Suppose that we have dened G1 , G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2. Let xi
be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1 as Ex(Gi , xi ). Recursively
applying Lemmas 12.7, 12.9, and 12.13, Gi U (A B C) for every i 1.
s = s1 s2 (mod n)
d = gcd (n, s)
Ti = { j | 0 j < n and j = i (mod d)} for 0 i < d
[m] = m (mod d) for 0 m < n
It can be observed that vertex m is in T[m] . Furthermore, all Ti with 0 i < d form a
partition of {0, 1, . . . , n 1}, and each Ti contains n/d elements.
Suppose that s1 = s2 (mod n). Obviously, G(n; s1 , s2 ) is 1-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian if and only if gcd (n, s1 ) = 1. Thus, we consider only the case s1 = s2
(mod n).
Consider the double loop network G(12; 3, 7) as an example. Thus, s = 8
(mod 12) and d = 4. Let C be a Hamiltonian cycle in G(12; 3, 7) given by
0, 3, 10, 5, 8, 11, 6, 1, 4, 7, 2, 9, 0. It is observed that some 3-edge, say (3,6), and
some 7-edge, say (0,7), are not included in C . Since G(n; s1 , s2 ) is vertex-symmetric,
G(12; 3, 7) is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. We can also observe 3-edge, 7-edge,
7-edge, 3-edge (this sequence is abbreviated as 3, 7, 7, 3) in C , and the previous
sequence repeats in C . In other words, the type of edges in C can be represented by
a periodic sequence of length 4 (= d); that is, 3, 7, 7, 3. We will show in this section
that any Hamiltonian cycle in G(n; n1 , n2 ) has such a periodic property.
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LEMMA 12.17 Let C be any Hamiltonian cycle in G(n; s1 , s2 ). For any two vertices
j and k in Ti with 0 i < d, we have fC ( j) = fC (k).
Proof: Without loss of generality, we assume that fC (i) = s1 . Let m = i + s (mod n).
Suppose that fC (m) = s2 . It follows that (i, i + s1 (mod n)) C and (m, m + s2 (mod n))
C. Equivalently, both (i, i + s1 (mod n)) and (m, i + s1 (mod n)) are in C. There are
two edges in C entering the vertex i + s1 (mod n), which is contradictory to the fact that
C is a Hamiltonian cycle. Thus, fC (m) = s1 . Recursively, any vertex k = i + ts (mod n)
for some integer t also satises fC (k) = s1 . On the other hand, the set {i + ts (mod n) |
t 0 and integer} constitutes Ti for every 0 i < d. Therefore, the lemma
is proved.
In other words, gC (m) denotes the set Ti to which the vertex next to m in C belongs.
It follows from Lemma 12.17 that
Let H be a digraph with the vertex set {Ti | for every 0 i < d} and edge set
{(Ti , gC (Ti )) | for every 0 i < d}. Digraph H is a directed cycle with d vertices, since
otherwise it contradicts that C is a Hamiltonian cycle. For example, in G(12; 3, 7)
we have gC (T0 ) = T3 , gC (T1 ) = T0 , gC (T2 ) = T1 , gC (T3 ) = T2 , and H is given by
(T0 , T3 ), (T3 , T2 ), (T2 , T1 ), (T1 , T0 ), which corresponds to the edge sequence 3, 7, 7, 3
in C .
LEMMA 12.18 Suppose that G(n; s1 , s2 ) is Hamiltonian. Then gcd (d, s1 ) = gcd
(d, s2 ) = 1.
Proof: Let r = gcd (d, s1 ). Obviously, r = gcd (d, s2 ). Suppose that G(n; s1 , s2 ) has
a Hamiltonian cycle C and r > 1. Let H be dened as earlier. It follows that H is a
connected directed cycle. However, gC maps the set {Ti | i is a multiple of r} onto
itself. Thus, H is disconnected, which is a contradiction. Consequently, the lemma is
proved.
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THEOREM 12.29 G(n; s1 , s2 ) is Hamiltonian if and only if (1) gcd (d, s1 ) = 1, and
(2) there exists an integer k, 0 k d, satisfying gcd ((ks1 + (d k)s2 )/d, n/d) = 1.
Proof: To prove the necessity, assume that G(n; s1 , s2 ) is Hamiltonian. It fol-
lows from Lemma 12.18 that gcd (d, s1 ) = 1. Let C =
x0 = 0, x1 , . . . , xn1 , x0 be
a Hamiltonian cycle. We dene a sequence of ordered pairs of nonnegative integers
{(i , i ) | 0 i n 1} as follows:
(0 , 0 ) = (0, 0)
&
(i1 , i1 ) + (1, 0) if xi = xi1 + s1 (mod n)
(i , i ) =
(i1 , i1 ) + (0, 1) otherwise
It follows from the denition of (i , i ) that i = i + i and xi = i s1 + i s2 (mod n).
Since any two pairs (i , i ), (j , j ) with 0 i < j < d satisfy 0 i + i < j + j ,
it follows from Lemma 12.19 that T[xi ] = T[xj ] . By the pigeonhole principle,
{Ti | 0 i < d} = {T[xi ] | 0 i < d}. Since s = 0 (mod d) and xd = ds1 d s (mod d),
we have T[xd ] = T[x0 ] . Furthermore, it follows from Lemma 12.17 that T[xd+1 ] = T[x1 ] .
Recursively, we have T[xj ] = T[xj (mod d) ] . Let k = d = | {i | fC (i) = s1 , 0 i < d} |. It
follows from Lemma 12.17 that xtd = t(ks1 + (d k)s2 ) (mod n) for all 1 t < n/d.
Suppose that gcd (n/d, xd /d) = r > 1. Then n/d = ar, xd /d = br for some integers a, b
with gcd (a, b) = 1. Obviously, a < n/d. We note that axd /d = abr = bn/d is a multi-
ple of n/d. That is, axd is a multiple of n which contradicts xtd = txd = 0 (mod n)
for all 1 t < n/d. Thus, gcd (xd /d, n/d) = gcd ((ks1 + (d k)s2 )/d, n/d) = 1 for
0 k d.
On the other hand, suppose that gcd (d, s1 ) = 1 and gcd ((ks1 + (d k)s2 )/d,
n/d) = 1 for an integer k where 0 k d. We construct a sequence D =
y0 = 0,
y1 , . . . , yn1 as follows:
y0 = 0
&
y + s (mod n) if 1 i (mod d) k
yi = yi1 + s1 (mod n) otherwise
i1 2
G(n; s1 , s2 ), we are required to show yi = yj for all 0 i < j < n. Since gcd (d, s1 ) = 1,
it follows from Lemma 12.19 that {T[yi ] | 0 i < d} = {Ti | 0 i < d}.
Since ks1 + (d k)s2 = 0(mod d), it follows that yj T[yj (mod d) ] . Hence, yi = yj if
i = j (mod d). Since gcd ((ks1 + (d k)s2 )/d, n/d) = 1, it follows that ytd = 0 (mod n)
for all 1 t < n/d. Then we have yi = yj for all i = j (mod d) and 0 i < j < n. Hence,
the theorem is proved.
Using the proof of Lemma 12.19, we can easily obtain the following corollary.
1. gcd (d, s1 ) = 1, and there exists an integer k with 1 k < d such that
gcd ((ks1 + (d k)s2 )/d, n/d) = 1
2. gcd (n, si ) = 1 for i = 1 and 2
a01 = n s2 (mod n)
ai1 = n s2 + is (mod n) if is = 0, s2 (mod n)
a02 = n s1 (mod n)
ai2 = n s1 is (mod n) if is = 0, s1 (mod n)
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LEMMA 12.20 Let G(n; s1 , s2 ) be a double loop network with gcd (n, s) = 1. Let
|N1 | = x and |N2 | = y. Then x and y are the smallest positive integers satisfy-
ing xs = s2 (mod n) and ys = s1 (mod n), respectively. Moreover, x + y = n 1,
N1 N2 = , and N1 N2 = {1, 2, . . . , n 1}.
Proof: Since gcd (n, s) = 1, N1 and N2 terminate when xs = s2 (mod n) and
y s = s1 (mod n) are satised. Therefore, x is the smallest positive integer with
xs = s2 (mod n) and y is the smallest positive integer with ys = s1 (mod n). Obvi-
ously, 1 x < n and 1 y < n. Since (x + y)s = s2 s1 (mod n) and gcd (n, s) = 1, we
have x + y = 1 (mod n). Thus, x + y = n 1 follows from 2 x + y 2n 2.
Suppose N1 N2 = . Let ai1 = aj2 , where 0 i x 1 and 0 j y 1.
It follows that n s2 + is = n s1 js (mod n) and (1 + i + j)s = 0 (mod n).
Since gcd (s, n) = 1, it follows that 1 + i + j = 0 (mod n). It implies that
i + j = n 1, which contradicts i + j x + y 2 and x + y = n 1. Thus,
N1 N2 = . Since x + y = n 1, N1 N2 = , and 0 N1 N2 , it follows that
N1 N2 = {1, 2, . . . , n 1}. The lemma follows.
Proof: Since a01 + s2 = 0 (mod n), it follows that (a01 , a01 + s2 (mod n)) C. Thus,
(a01 , a01 + s1 (mod n)) C and hC (a01 ) = s1 . Assume that hC (ak1
1 ) = s , where k < |N |;
1 1
1 , a1
that is, (ak1 k1 + s1 (mod n)) C. Note that ak
1 + s = (a1
2 k1 + s) + s2 = a 1
k1 + s1
(mod n). Thus, (ak , ak + s2 (mod n)) C. Consequently, (ak , ak + s1 (mod n)) C
1 1 1 1
and hC (ak1 ) = s1 . Therefore, hC (i) = s1 for all i inN1 . Similarly, we can prove
hC (i) = s2 for all vertices i N2 .
1. s1 = s2
2. gcd (n, s) = 1
3. gcd (x, n 1) = 1, where x is the smallest positive integer satisfying
xs = s2 (mod n)
b
i = ai1 = n s2 + is (mod n)
b
i+x = ayi1
2
= n s1 ( y 1 i)s = n + (i + 1)s (mod n)
Thus, b
i + x b
i = s1 (mod n) for 0 i < x.
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For x i < n 1 x
b
i = an2i
2
= n s1 (n 2 i)s (mod n)
b
i+x = an2ix
2
= n s1 (n 2 i x)s = n (n 1 i)s (mod n)
Thus, b
i + x b
i = s2 (mod n) for x i < n 1 x.
For n 1 x i < n 1
b
i = an2i
2
= n s1 (n 2 i)s (mod n)
b
i + x = ai+x(n1)
1
= n s2 + (i + x n + 1)s = n (n 1 i)s (mod n)
Thus, b
i + x b
i = s2 (mod n) for n 1 x i < n 1.
Therefore, (b
jx , b
( j + 1)x ) is an edge for all 0 i < n 1. Since gcd (x, n 1) = 1,
we have {
jx | 0 j < n 1} = {0, 1, . . . , n 2}. Thus {b
jx | 0 j < n 1} =
{1, 2, . . . , n 1}. Therefore, the sequence {b
0 , b
x , b
2x , . . . , b
(n 2)x , b
0 } forms
a Hamiltonian cycle in G(n; s1 , s2 ) 0. Hence, the theorem follows.
It is observed that those double loop networks G(n; s1 , s2 ) with gcd (n, si ) = 1 for
i = 1, 2 have two disjoint Hamiltonian cycles. The classication of all such double
loop networks is stated in the following corollary, which follows from the proof of
Theorem 12.29.
As an example, the double loop network G(15; 5, 2) has two disjoint Hamiltonian
cycles.
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13 Optimal k -Fault-Tolerant
Hamiltonian-Laceable
Graphs
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 11, we have discussed the fault-tolerant Hamiltonian of some families of
interconnection networks. Yet we did not discuss the corresponding results for two
important families of interconnection networks; namely, the hypercube family and the
star graph family. Note that these two families of graphs are bipartite. Any cycle of a
bipartite graph is of even length. Thus, any vertex fault in a Hamiltonian bipartite graph
is not Hamiltonian. However, we can still discuss the edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonicity
for bipartite graphs.
A Hamiltonian graph G is k-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if G F remains
Hamiltonian for every F E(G) with |F| k. The edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonicity,
Hef (G), is dened to be the maximum integer k such that G is k-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian, and undened if otherwise. Obviously, Hfe (G) (G) 2. Moreover, a
regular graph G is optimal edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian if Hfe (G) = (G) 2.
As mentioned in Chapter 11, the counterpart of Hamiltonian-connected graphs
in bipartite graphs is known as Hamiltonian laceable. Obviously, any Hamiltonian-
laceable graphs, except for K1 and K2 , is Hamiltonian and with at least 2k vertices
with k 2. Thus, (G) 2 if G is a Hamiltonian-laceable graph with at least four
vertices. Again, we can discuss the edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian laceability for
bipartite graphs.
Similar to fault-tolerant Hamiltonian connectivity for nonbipartite Hamiltonian-
connected graphs, Tsai et al. [305] proposed the concept of edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian laceability. A Hamiltonian-laceable graph G is k-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian if G F remains Hamiltonian laceable for every F E(G) with |F| k.
The edge fault-tolerant laceability, HeL (G), is dened to be the maximum integer k
such that G is k-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian laceable, and undened if otherwise.
Obviously, HeL (G) Hfe (G) (G) 2 if G has at least four vertices. Moreover, a
regular graph G with at least four vertices is optimal edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
laceability if HeL (G) = (G) 2.
Hsieh et al. [160] further extended the concept of Hamiltonian laceable into
strongly Hamiltonian laceable. A Hamiltonian-laceable graph G = (V0 V1 , E) is
strongly Hamiltonian laceable if there is a simple path of length |V0 V1 | 2 between
any two vertices of the same partite set. Since a strongly Hamiltonian-laceable graph
is Hamiltonian laceable, (G) 2 if G is a strongly Hamiltonian-laceable graph with
285
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 286
at least four vertices. Lewinter et al. [221] also introduced the concept of hyper
Hamiltonian laceable. A Hamiltonian-laceable graph G = (V0 V1 , E) is hyper
Hamiltonian laceable if for any vertex v Vi , i = 0, 1, there is a Hamiltonian path
of G {v} between any two vertices of V1i . Assume that G = (V0 V1 , E) is a bipar-
tite graph with |V0 | = |V1 | 3. Suppose that there exists a vertex x with exactly two
neighbors y and z. Without loss of generality, we may assume that x V0 . Thus, y and
z are in V1 . Let w be any vertex in V0 {x}. Obviously, there is no Hamiltonian path
of G {w} between y and z. Therefore, (G) 3 if G is a hyper Hamiltonian-laceable
graph with at least six vertices.
Similarly, Tsai et al. [305] proposed the following concept. A strongly
Hamiltonian-laceable graph G is k-edge fault-tolerant strongly Hamiltonian lace-
able if G F remains strongly Hamiltonian laceable for every F E(G) with |F| k.
The edge fault-tolerant strongly Hamiltonian laceability, HeSL (G), is dened to be the
maximum integer k such that G is k-edge fault-tolerant strongly Hamiltonian laceable,
and undened if otherwise. Obviously, HeSL (G) HeL (G) (G) 2 if G has at least
four vertices. Moreover, a regular graph G with at least four vertices is optimal edge
fault-tolerant strongly Hamiltonian laceability if HeSL (G) = (G) 2.
Again, the concept of edge fault-tolerant hyper Hamiltonian laceability is
introduced [305]. A hyper Hamiltonian-laceable graph G is k-edge fault-tolerant
hyper Hamiltonian laceable if G F remains hyper Hamiltonian laceable for
every F E(G) with |F| k. The edge fault-tolerant hyper Hamiltonian lace-
ability, HeHL (G), is dened to be the maximum integer k such that G is k-edge
fault-tolerant hyper Hamiltonian laceable, and undened if otherwise. Obviously,
HeHL (G) (G) 3 if G has at least six vertices. Moreover, a regular graph G with
at least six vertices has optimal edge fault-tolerant hyper Hamiltonian laceability if
HeHL (G) = (G) 3.
For simplicity, a k-regular bipartite graph is super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
laceable if HeSL (G) = k 2 and HeHL (G) = k 3. Since HeSL (G) HeL (G) Hfe (G)
(G) 2, HeL (G) = Hfe (G) = k 2 if G is a k-regular super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian-
laceable graph.
LEMMA 13.1 Let G be any bipartite graph with bipartition V0 and V1 such that
|V0 | = |V1 |. Suppose that for any vertex v there exists a Hamiltonian path between any
two different vertices in the partite set not containing v. Then G is hyper Hamiltonian
laceable.
Proof: Let u and v be any two vertices from different partite sets. Let r be any vertex
adjacent to v. Thus, u and r are in the same partite set. By assumption, there exists a
Hamiltonian path P of G {v} joining u to r. Then
u, P, r, v forms the desired path.
Thus, G is Hamiltonian laceable. Based on the assumption, G is hyper Hamiltonian
laceable.
LEMMA 13.3 HeSL (Q3 ) = HeL (Q3 ) = Hfe (Q3 ) = 1 and HeHL (Q3 ) = 0.
Obviously, (E(P0 ) E(P1 ) {(u, u ), (v, v )}) {(u, v)} forms a Hamiltonian path in
Qn F joining x to y. See Figure 13.1a for illustration.
Case 2. Either x V (Qn0 ) and y V (Qn1 ), or x V (Qn1 ) and y V (Qn0 ). Without loss
of generality, we assume that x V (Qn0 ) and y V (Qn1 ). Since |V (Qn0 ) B| = 2n2 and
2n2 > n 2 for n 4, there exists a vertex u in V (Qn0 ) B such that the crossing edge
(u, u )
/ F. Obviously, u W and y B. Since f0 n 3 and f1 n 3, there exists a
Hamiltonian path P0 of Qn0 F0 joining x to u and there exists a Hamiltonian path P1
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 288
0 1 0 1
Qn Qn Qn Qn
y
u u
v v
x y x u u
(a) (b)
FIGURE 13.1 (a) Case 1: x, y V (Qn0 ) and (b) Case 2: x V (Qn0 ) and y V (Qn1 ).
0 1 0 1 0 1
Qn Qn Qn Qn Qn Qn
y x y
w w w
u u u
u
v v v t
v
x y x u u
FIGURE 13.2 (a) Case 1: x, y V (Qn0 ), (b) Case 2: x, y V (Qn1 ), and (c) Case 3: x V (Qn0 )
and y V (Qn1 ).
It is known that Sn is a bipartite graph with one partite set containing all odd per-
mutations and the other partite set containing all even permutations. For convenience,
we refer to an even permutation as a white vertex and an odd permutation as a black
vertex. Moreover, Sn is vertex-transitive and edge-transitive. Let u = u1 u2 . . . un be
{i}
any vertex of Sn . We use (u)i to denote the ith component ui of u and Sn to denote
the ith subgraph of Sn induced by those vertices u with (u)n = i. Obviously, Sn can be
{i} {i}
decomposed into n vertex disjoint subgraphs Sn for 1 i n, such that each Sn is
isomorphic to Sn1 . Thus, the star graph can be constructed recursively. Let H
n.
We use SnH to denote the subgraph of Sn induced by iH V (Sn{i} ). By the denition
of Sn , there is exactly one neighbor v of u such that u and v are adjacent through an
i-dimensional edge with 2 i n. For this reason, we use (u)i to denote the unique
{(u) }
i-neighbor of u. We have ((u)i )i = u and (u)n Sn 1 . For 1 i, j n and i = j, we
i,j {i} {j}
use E to denote the set of edges between Sn and Sn .
Let Ec be the edge set {(u, (u) ) | u V (Sn )}. Let F be the set of faulty edges in Sn .
n
{i}
We set Fi = F E(Sn ) for 1 i n and Fc = F Ec . Also let fi = |Fi | for 1 i n and
fc = |Fc |. Since Sn is edge-symmetric, it sufces to consider only the case where fc 1
{i}
if F = . That means that Sn can be split into Sn for 1 i n using any dimension d
for some d with 2 d n. Therefore, given a nonempty faulty edge set F, Sn can be
{i}
split into Sn for 1 i n such that Fc = .
The following lemmas can be easily obtained.
LEMMA 13.8 Let u and v be any two distinct vertices of Sn with d(u, v) 2. Then
(u)1 = (v)1 . Moreover, {((u)i )1 | 2 i n 1} =
n {(u)1 , (u)n } if n 3.
{k }
Proof: Obviously, Sn i is isomorphic to Sn1 for every 1 i t. By assumption,
{k } {k }
there is a black vertex yi in Sn i with (yi )n Sn i+1 such that (yi , (yi )n ) E ki ,ki+1 F
for every 1 i < t. We set xi+1 = (yi ) for every i
t 1. Obviously, xi is a white
n
{k }
vertex for every i
t. By assumption, there is a Hamiltonian path Hi of Sn i F ki
joining xi to yi for every 1 i t. Then
u = x1 , H1 , y1 , x2 , H2 , y2 , . . . , xt , Ht , yt = v
forms the Hamiltonian path of SnI F joining u to v.
y v (v)n
{r}
x v Sn{s} Sn
Sn{r } x u
(u)n
(a)
(b)
(b)
Sn{s }
x
y y v (v)n
Sn{r }
Sn{r }
z x u
n n
(z) (u)
(a) (b)
joining x to y. Without loss of generality, we may assume that both x and y are black
vertices. Assume that (x)n = r and (y)n = s. Again, we can assume that fi n 4 for
each 1 i n. Since |F| n 3 < [(n 2)!/2] 1 for n 5, there exists an edge in
{i} { j}
E i,j F joining a black vertex of Sn to a white vertex of Sn for 1 i = j n.
Case 1. r = s. Since |F| n 3 < [(n 2)!/2] 1 for n 5, we can choose a black
{r}
vertex z in Sn such that z = x and (z)1 = s. By induction, there exists a path P1
{r}
in Sn F of length (n 1)! 2 joining x to z. Obviously, (z)n is a white vertex.
n{r}
By Lemma 13.9, there is a Hamiltonian path P2 of Sn F joining (z)n to y.
Obviously,
x, P1 , z, (z) , P2 , y is a path of Sn F of length n! 2 joining x to y. See
n
Sn{s}
x
y y
{r }
v (v)n
Sn{r } w Sn
w z x u
n n
(z) (u)
(a) (b)
w x y w x
Sn{t } Sn{r } Sn{t } Sn{r }
g p
z (u)
n u t (z)
n z
n y
n (p) n
(z) (t)
(c) (d)
{i} {j}
exists an edge in E i,j F joining a black vertex of Sn to a white vertex of Sn for
1 i = j n.
Case 1. r = t but r = s. Since |F| n 4 < [(n 2)!/2] 1, we can choose a black
{r}
vertex y1 in Sn such that y1 = x and ((y1 )n )n = (y)n . By induction, there exists a
{k }
Hamiltonian path P1 of Sn 1 F {w} joining x to y1 . Obviously, (y1 )n is a white
n{r}
vertex. By Lemma 13.9, there is a Hamiltonian path P2 of Sn F joining (y1 )n to
y. Obviously,
x, P1 , y1 , (y1 ) , P2 , y is a Hamiltonian path of (Sn F) {w} joining
n
We can divide P into two sections P0 and P1 such that either (P0 is a path joining
x to g and P1 is a path joining p to y) or (P0 is a path joining x to p and P1 is a path
joining g to y). Without loss of generality, we may assume that P0 is a path joining
x to g and P1 is a path joining p to y.
Obviously, u and p are white vertices and d(u, p) = 2. By Lemma 13.8,
{t}
(u)1 = (q)1 . We can choose a black vertex z in Sn such that (z)1 = (p)1 . By induc-
{t}
tion, there exists a Hamiltonian path P2 of (Sn F) {w} joining (u)n to z. By
n{r,t}
Lemma 13.9, there is a Hamiltonian path P3 of Sn F joining (z)n to (p)n .
Obviously,
x, P0 , g, u, (u) , P2 , z, (z) , P3 , (p) , p, P1 , y forms a Hamiltonian path of
n n n
Case 4. r, s, and t are distinct. Again, there exists an edge (z, (z)n ) in E r,t F
{r}
such that z is a white vertex in Sn . Since fr n 5, there exists a Hamiltonian
{r}
path of Sn F joining x to z. Obviously, we cab choose a black vertex t such that
{t}
(t)1
/ {r, s, t}. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P2 of (Sn F) {w}
n{r,t}
joining (z)n to t. By Lemma 13.9, there is a Hamiltonian path P3 of Sn F
joining (t)n to y. Obviously,
x, P1 , z, (z)n , P2 , t, (t)n , P3 , y forms a Hamiltonian path
of (Sn F) {w} joining x to y. See Figure 13.5d for illustration.
Hence, the lemma follows.
THEOREM 13.2 The star graph Sn is super fault-tolerant Hamiltonian laceable for
n 4.
Yet we need the following term for bipartite graph. A bipartite graph
G = (V0 V1 , E) satises property 2H if for any two distinct vertices u and v in V0
and for any two distinct x and y in V1 , there are two disjoint paths P1 and P2 of G such
that (1) P1 joins u to x, (2) P2 joins v to y, and (3) P1 P2 spans G.
LEMMA 13.17 Assume that G0 and G1 satisfy the property 2H. Then the bipartite
graph G0 G1 satises the property 2H.
Proof: Let Bi and Wi be the bipartition of Gi for i {0, 1}. Without loss of generality,
we assume that B0 B1 and W0 W1 are the bipartition of G. Let u and v be any two
distinct vertices in B0 B1 and let x and y be any two distinct vertices in W0 W1 .
We have the following cases:
Case 1. u B0 , v B0 , x W0 , and y W0 . Since G0 satises property 2H, there
are two disjoint paths H1 and H2 of G0 such that (1) H1 joins u to x, (2) H2 joins v
to y, and (3) H1 H2 spans G0 . Without loss of generality, we write H1 =
u, z, Q, x.
By Lemma 13.15, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G1 joining u to z. We set
P1 =
u, u, Q, z, z, R, x and P2 = R2 . Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Case 2. u B0 , v B0 , x W0 , and y W1 . By Lemma 13.15, there is a Hamiltonian
path H of G0 joining v to x. Without loss of generality, we write R =
v, R1 , z, u, R2 , x.
By Lemma 13.15, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining z to y. We set P1 = R2
and P2 =
v, R1 , z, z, Q, v. Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 296
Case 2.3. |F0 | = k 1. Let (p, q) be any edge in F0 with p W0 and q B0 . Since G0
is (k 2)-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian laceable, there is a Hamiltonian laceable
path H of G0 (F0 {(p, q)}) joining u to q. Without loss of generality, we write
H =
u, W , z, q where z = p if (p, q) E(H). Note that z W0 and z B1 . Since G1
is Hamiltonian laceable, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G1 joining z to v. Then
u, W , z, z, R, v forms a path of G with length |V (G)| 2 joining u to v.
Case 3. u G1 and v G1 .
Case 3.1. |F0 | k 2. Since G1 is (k 2)-edge fault-tolerant strongly Hamil-
tonian laceable, there is a path R with length |V (G1 )| 2 of G1 F1 joining u
and v. Since G1 is a k-regular bipartite graph, |V (G1 )| 2k. Since 2k 1 > 2k 2,
there is a edge (p, q) E(R) such that (p, p) / F and (q, q)
/ F. Without loss of
generality, we write R =
u, R1 , p, q, R2 , v. Since G0 is (k 2)-edge fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian laceable, there is a Hamiltonian path H of G0 F0 joining p and
q. Then
u, R1 , p, p, H, q, q, R2 , v forms a path with length |V (G)| 2 of G F
joining u to v.
Case 3.2. |F0 | = k 1. Let (p, q) be any edge in F0 . Without loss of generality, we
assume that p W0 and q B0 . Since G0 is (n 2)-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian
laceable, there is a Hamiltonian path H of G0 F0 joining p to q. Without loss of
generality, we write H =
p, Q, z, q. Since G1 satises the 2H property, there are
two disjoint paths R1 and R2 of G1 such that (1) R1 joins u to p, (2) R2 joins z to
v, and (3) R1 R2 spans G1 . Then
u, R1 , p, p, Q, z, z, R2 , v forms the desired path
of G F.
generality, we write H =
u, H1 , p, v, H2 , q, z. Note that q = v if l(H2 ) = 0. Since
G1 is Hamiltonian laceable, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G1 joining p to q. Then
u, H1 , p, p, R, q, H21 , v forms a Hamiltonian path of G (F {z}) joining u to v.
Case 2. u G0 and v G1 .
13 14
7 8
1 2
18 3 15
6
12 9
5 4
G 11 10
17 16
FIGURE 13.6 The graph G is both 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian and Hamiltonian lace-
able. However, it is neither 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian laceable nor hyper Hamiltonian
laceable.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 302
1. i = k and j = l 1
2. j = l and k = i + 1 if i + j is odd
3. j = l and k = i 1 if i + j is even
(0, 5) (7, 5)
(0, 5)
(0, 0)
(1, 5)
(a) (b)
A spider web network SW(m, n), proposed by Kao and Hsu [190], is the graph
with the vertex set {(i, j) | 0 i < m, 0 j < n} such that (i, j) and (k, l) are adjacent if
they satisfy one of the following conditions:
1. i = k and j = l 1
2. j = l and k = [i + 1]m if i + j is odd or j = n 1
3. j = l and k = [i 1]m if i + j is even or j = 0
Case 1. There is some edge in S E(C). We can pick an edge ((r, n 1), ([r 1]m ,
n 1)) C for some even integer 0 r < m 1. For 0 i m 2, we dene
e = (([r + i]m , n 1), ([r + i + 1]m , n 1)), and Qi as
Qi =
([r + i]m , n + 1), ([r + i + 1]m , n + 1) if [r + i]2 = 0
Qi =
([r + i]m , n + 1), ([r + i + 1]m , n + 1) if [r + i]2 = 1 and e C
Qi =
([r + i]m , n + 1), ([r + i]m , n), ([r + i + 1]m , n), ([r + i + 1]m , n + 1)
if otherwise.
ALGORITHM 3 EXTEND(C)
1. Replace those edges ((i, n 1), ([i 1]m , n 1)) C, where i = r and i is
even, with the path
(i, n 1), (i, n), ([i 1]m , n), ([i 1]m , n 1).
2. Replace the edge ((r, n 1), (r 1, n 1)) with the path
(r, n 1), (r, n),
(r, n + 1), Q, (r 1, n + 1), (r 1, n), (r 1, n 1).
THEOREM 13.9 Assume that F is a faulty subset of V (SW (m, n)) E(SW (m, n))
such that some (i, n 1) with 0 i < m is fault-free. Then SW (m, n + 2) F is
Hamiltonian if SW (m, n) F is Hamiltonian.
pi (k, k + 1) =
(i 1, k), (i 1, k + 1), (i, k + 1), (i, k), (i + 1, k)
qi (k + 1, k) =
(i 1, k + 1), (i 1, k), (i, k), (i, k + 1), (i + 1, k + 1)
(1, 0), (2, 0), p3 , (4, 0), p5 , (6, 0), . . . , (x, 0), (x + 1, 0), px+2 ,
(x + 3, 0), px+4 , . . . , (m 1, 0), (m 1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0)
(0, 1), (1, 1), q2 , (3, 1), q4 , (5, 1), . . . , (x, 1), (x + 1, 1), qx+2 , (x + 3, 1), . . . ,
qm3 , (m 2, 1), (m 2, 0), (m 1, 0), (m 1, 1), (0, 1)
LEMMA 13.19 There exist (m/2) 1 disjoint paths, P1n , P2n , . . . , P(m/2)1
n , that
span SW (m, n) {(0, 0)} such that Pl joins (2l, n 1) to (2l + 1, n 1) for 1 l <
n
+
(0, k + 1), (1, k + 1), (1, k), (2, k), (2, k 1), P1k , (3, k 1), f3 , (5, k 1), f5 ,
(7, k 1), . . . , fm5 , (m 3, k 1), (m 3, k), (m 2, k), (m 2, k 2),
1 ,
Pkm 1 , (0, k 1), (0, k), (m 1, k), (m 1, k + 1), (m 2, k + 1)
2
Plk+2 , 1 l (m/2) 1, satises the requirement of the lemma. Hence, the lemma is
proved. See Figure 13.9a for illustration.
LEMMA 13.20 Assume that r is an even integer, 0 < r m 2. There exist r/2
n , that span SW (m, n) {(r, 0)} such that Qn joins
disjoint paths, Q1n , Q2n , . . . , Qr/2 l
(2l, n 1) to (2l + 1, n 1) for 1 l (r/2) 1 and Qr/2n joins (0, n 1) to (r, n 1).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
T 24 T 14 T 34
(e)
1 1 1
(0, 0), (m 1, 0), (m 1, 1), qm2 , (m 3, 1), qm4 , (m 5, 1), . . . , qr+2 , (r + 1, 1),
(r, 1). Obviously, Ql s satisfy the requirement of the lemma for 1 l r/2. We
2
assume that the lemma holds for n = k where k is even. Then there exist r/2 disjoint
paths, Qlk , 1 l r/2, that span SW (m, k) {(r, 0)} such that Qlk joins (2l, k 1) to
(2l + 1, k 1) for 1 l < r/2 and Qr/2k joins (0, k 1) to (r, k 1).
+
(0, k + 1), (1, k + 1), (1, k), (2, k), (2, k 1), g2 , (4, k 1), g4 , (6, k 1), . . . , gr2 ,
1
1
(r, k 1), Qkr , (0, k 1), (0, k), (m 1, k), (m 1, k + 1), qm2 (k + 1, k),
2 ,
1
(m 3, k + 1), . . . , qr+2 (k + 1, k), (r + 1, k + 1), (r, k + 1)
Obviously, Qlk+2 for 1 l r/2 satises the requirement of the lemma. Hence, the
lemma is proved. See Figure 13.9b for illustration, where r = 4.
LEMMA 13.21 Assume that s is a positive odd integer. There exist (m/2) 1
disjoint paths, Rln , where 1 l < m/2 that span SW (m, n) {(s, 1)} such that
Rln joins (2(l 1), n 1) to (2l 1, n 1) for l = (s + 1)/2 and R(s+1)/2 joins
(s 1, n 1) to (m 2, n 1).
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 308
s1
Rl =
(2(l 1), 1), (2(l 1), 0), (2l 1, 0), (2l 1, 1) for 1 l
2
s+3 m
Rl =
(2(l 1), 1), (2l 1, 1) for l 1
2 2
2
Besides, R(s+1)/2 as
(s 1, 1), (s 1, 0), I0 (s 1, m 1), (m 1, 0), (m 1, 1), (m
2, 1). Obviously, Rl2 satises the requirement of the lemma for 1 l (m/2) 1. Now
assume that the lemma holds for n = k where k is even. Then there exist (m/2) 1
disjoint paths, Rlk s, that span SW (m, k) {(s, 1)} such that Rlk joins (2(l 1), k 1)
to (2l 1, k 1) for 1 l < m/2, l = (s + 1)/2 and R(s+1)/2
k joins (s 1, k 1) to
(m 2, k 1).
Now, we set Rlk+2 as
(2(l 1), k + 1), (2l 1, k + 1) for 1 l < m/2, l =
(s + 1)/2. Dene gi =
(i, k 1), Ri/2k , (i + 1, k 1), (i + 1, k), (i + 2, k), (i + 2, k 1)
k+2
and R(s+1)/2 as:
+
(s 1, k + 1), (s, k + 1), (s, k), (s + 1, k), (s + 1, k 1), gs+1 , (s + 3, k 1), . . . ,
1
1
gm4 , (m 2, k 1), Rks+1 , (s 1, k 1), gs3 , (s 3, k 1), . . . ,
2 ,
g01 , (0, k 1), (0, k), (m 1, k), (m 1, k + 1), (m 2, k + 1)
Since Rlk+2 , for 1 l s/2, satises the requirement of the lemma, the lemma is
proved. See Figure 13.9c, where s = 3.
LEMMA 13.22 There exist (m/2) 1 disjoint paths, Sln , where 1 l < m/2 that
span SW (m, n) {(0, 1)} such that Sln joins (2l + 2, n 1) to (2l + 3, n 1) for
1 l (m/2) 2 and S(m/2)1
n joins (1, n 1) to (3, n 1).
of the lemma for 1 l (m/2) 1. Now assume that the lemma holds for n = k where
k is even. Then there exist (m/2) 1 disjoint paths, Slk s, that span SW (m, k) {(0, 1)}
such that Slk joins (2l + 2, k 1) to (2l + 3, k 1) for 1 l (m/2) 2 and S(m/2)1 k
t2
Tl =
(2l, 1), (2l + 1, 1) for 1 l
2
t+2 m2
Tl =
(2l, 1), (2l, 0), (2l + 1, 0), (2l + 1, 1) for l
2 2
Obviously, Tl2 s satisfy the requirement of the lemma for 1 l (m/2) 1. Now
assume that the lemma holds for n = k where k is even. Then there exist (m/2) 1
disjoint paths, Tlk s, that span SW (m, k) {(t, 1)} such that Tlk joins (2l, k 1)
to (2l + 1, k 1) for 1 l (m/2) 1 and l = t/2, and Tt/2 k joins (1, k 1) to
(t + 1, k 1).
Now, we set Tlk+2 as
(2l, k + 1), (2l + 1, k + 1) for 1 l (m/2) 1 and l = t/2.
Dene hi =
(i, k 1), (i, k), (i + 1, k), (i + 1, k 1), T(i+1)/2
k , (i + 2, k 1) and set
k+2
Tt/2 as:
+
1 1
(1, k + 1), (0, k + 1), (0, k), (m 1, k), (m 1, k 1), hm3 , (m 3, k 1), hm5 ,
1
1
(m 5, k 1), . . . , ht+1 , (t + 1, k 1), T kt , (1, k 1), h1 , (3, k 1), . . . , ht3 ,
2
,
(t 1, k 1), (t 1, k), (t, k), (t, k + 1), (t + 1, k + 1)
(2, n 1), (2, n), (1, n), (1, n + 1), In + 1 (1, m 1), (m 1, n + 1), (m 1, n), (0, n),
(0, n 1) forms a Hamiltonian cycle of SW (m, n + 2) F. See Figure 13.10a.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Case 3.2. F = {(r, 0), (0, n + 1)}. By Lemma 1, there exist r/2 disjoint paths,
n , that span SW (m, n) {(r, 0)} such that Qn joins (2l, n 1) to
Q1n , Q2n , . . . , Qr/2 l
(2l + 1, n 1) for 1 l < r/2 and Qr/2 n joins (0, n 1) to (r, n 1).
Dene C2 (i) =
(i, n 1), (i, n), (i 1, n), (i 1, n 1), (Q(i2)/2 n )1 , (i 2,
n 1), B(i)
(i, n + 1), (i, n), (i + 1, n), (i + 1, n + 1), (i + 2, n + 1). Obviously,
(0, n 1), Qr/2 n , (r, n 1), C (r), (r 2, n 1), . . . , C (4), (2, n 1), (2, n), (1, n), (1,
2 2
n + 1), In+1 (1, r + 1), (r + 1, n + 1), B(r + 1), (r + 3, n + 1), . . . , B(m 3), (m 1, n +
1), (m 1, n), (0, n), (0, n 1) forms a Hamiltonian cycle of SW (m, n + 2) F. See
Figure 13.10b, where r = 4.
Case 3.3. F = {(s, 1), (0, n + 1)}. By Lemma 13.21, there exist (m/2) 1 dis-
joint paths, R1n , R2n , . . . , R(m/2)1
n , that span SW (m, n) {(s, 1)} such that Rln joins
(2l 2, n 1) to (2l 1, n 1) for 1 l < m/2 and l = (s + 1)/2, and R(s+1)/2 n joins
(s 1, n 1) to (m 2, n 1).
Dene C3 (i) =
(i, n 1), (i, n), (i 1, n), (i 1, n 1), (Ri/2 n )1 , (i 2, n 1),
C3 (i)
(i, n 1), R(i+2)/2
n , (i + 1, n 1), (i + 1, n), (i + 1, n + 1), (i + 2, n + 1), (i + 2,
n), (i + 2, n 1). Then
(s 1, n 1), R(s+1)/2 n , (m 2, n 1), C3 (m 2), (m 4,
n 1), C3 (m 4), (m 6, n 1), . . . , C3 (s + 3), (s + 1, n 1), (s + 1, n), (s, n),
(s, n + 1), In+1 (s, m 1), (m 1, n + 1), (m 1, n), (0, n), (0, n 1), C3 (0), (2,
n 1), C3 (2), (4, n 1), . . . , C3 (s 3), (s 1, n 1) forms a Hamiltonian cycle of
SW (m, n + 2) F. See Figure 13.10c, where s = 3.
Case 3.4. F = {(0, 1), (0, n)}. By Lemma 13.22, there exist (m/2) 1 disjoint paths,
S1n , S2n , . . . , S(m/2)1
n , that span SW (m, n) {(0, 1)} such that Sln joins (2l + 2, n 1)
to (2l + 3, n 1) for 1 l (m/2) 2 and S(m/2)1 n joins (1, n 1) to (3, n 1).
Dene C4 (i) =
(i, n 1), (i, n), (i, n + 1), (i + 1, n + 1), (i + 1, n), (i + 1, n 1),
n
S(i1)/2 , (i + 2, n 1). Then
(1, n 1), S(m/2)1
n , (3, n 1), C4 (3), (5, n 1), C4 (5),
(7, n 1), . . . , C4 (m 3), (m 1, n 1), (m 1, n), (m 1, n + 1), (0, n + 1), (1, n + 1),
(2, n + 1), (2, n), (1, n), (1, n 1) forms a Hamiltonian cycle of SW (m, n + 2) F. See
Figure 13.10d.
Case 3.5. F = {(t, 1), (0, n)}. By Lemma 13.23, there exist (m/2) 1 disjoint paths,
T1n , T2n , . . . , Tm/21
n , that span SW (m, n) {(t, 1)} such that Tln joins (2l, n 1)
to (2l + 1, n 1) for 1 l (m/2) 1 and l = t/2, and Tt/2 n joins (1, n 1) to
(t + 1, n 1).
Dene C5 (i) =
(i, n 1), (i, n), (i, n + 1), (i + 1, n + 1), (i + 1, n), (i + 1, n 1),
n
T(i+1)/2 , (i + 2, n 1) and C5 (i) =
(i, n 1), (T(i1)/2
n )1 , (i 1, n 1), (i 1, n),
(i 2, n), (i 2, n 1). Then
(1, n 1), Tt/2 , (t + 1, n 1), C5 (t + 1), (t + 3, n 1),
C5 (t + 3), (t + 5, n 1), . . . , C5 (m 3), (m 1, n 1), (m 1, n), (m 1, n + 1),
(0, n + 1), In+1 (0, t), (t, n + 1), (t, n), (t 1, n), (t 1, n 1), C5 (t 1), (t 3, n 1),
C5 (t 3), (t 5, n 1), . . . , C5 (3), (1, n 1) forms a Hamiltonian cycle of SW (m,
n + 2) F. See Figure 13.10e, where t = 4
The theorem is proved.
Cho and Hsu [63] proved that the honeycomb rectangular torus HReT(m, n) is
1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian and 1p -fault-tolerant Hamiltonian for any even inte-
gers m and n with n 6. It is very easy to see that the diameter of the spider web
network SW (m, n) and the diameter of the honeycomb rectangular torus HReT(m, n)
areO(m + n). By choosing m = O(n), the diameter of these two families of graphs is
O( N), where N = mn is the number of vertices.
BC(2), BC(3), and BC(4) are shown in Figure 13.11. We note that BC 1 (k 1) and
BC 2 (k 1) are isomorphic for k 3. This property is referred to as the symmetrical
property of BC(k). For this reason, we dene the degenerated case, BC(1), as the
5-tuple (G1 , w1 , x1 , y1 , z1 ) as V (G1 ) = {w1 , y1 }, E(G1 ) = {(w1 , y1 )} such that x1 = w1
and y1 = z1 .
z4
x3 x13 x 23
z2 z 12 z 22
t y 12 y3y 22 y 13 y4 y 23
w2 y2
s w3w 12 w 22 w4 w 13 w 23
x2 x 12 x 22
z3 z 13 z 23
x4
(a) (b) (c)
We can also dene the brother cell BC(k) from the complete binary tree B(k),
where V (B(k)) = {1, 2, . . . , 2k 1} and E(B(k)) = {(i, j) | j/2 = i}. Assume that k is
a positive integer with k 2. The kth brother cell BC(k) = (Gk , wk , xk , yk , zk ) can be
constructed by combining two B(k)s, the upper tree B(k)u and the lower tree B(k)l ,
and adding edges between their leaf vertices.
Let n be a positive integer with n 1. The brother tree, BT (n), is composed
of an (n + 1)th brother cell BC(n + 1) = (G1n+1 , w1n+1 , xn+1 1 , y1 , z1 ) and an nth
n+1 n+1
brother cell BC(n) = (Gn , wn , xn , yn , zn ) with V (Gn+1 ) V (G2n ) = . To be specic,
2 2 2 2 2 1
V (BT (n)) = V (G1n+1 ) V (G2n ) and E(BT (n)) = E(G1n+1 ) E(G2n ) {(zn+1
1 , x 2 ), (y1 ,
n n+1
2 1 2 1 2
wn ), (xn+1 , zn ), (wn+1 , yn )}. BT (1) and BT (3) are shown in Figure 13.12. Obviously,
BT (n) is a 3-regular bipartite planar graph with 6 2n 4 vertices. Because the
(n + 1)th brother cell consists of two disjoint nth brother cells and two terminals,
the nth brother tree BT (n) is composed of three disjoint nth brother cells, BC 1 (n),
BC 2 (n), BC 3 (n) and two terminals, {xn+1 1 , z1 }. Moreover, BC 1 (n), BC 2 (n), and
n+1
3
BC (n) are arranged in a cyclic order in BT (n). Thus any two vertices of BT (n) are in
the union of two in the vertex set of BC 1 (n), BC 2 (n), BC 3 (n), and {xn+1 1 , z1 }. For
n+1
this reason, we can assume without loss of generality that any two vertices of BT (n)
are in G1n+1 and any edge of BT (n) is in G1n+1 . This property is referred to as the
symmetrical property of BT (n).
z14
x23
y 14 y23
w14 w 23
z 23
(a) x 14
(b)
and V (B(n + 1)l ) = {1 , 2 , . . . , (2n+1 1) }. Now, join B(n + 1)u and B(n + 1)l with
the edge set {(2n + i, (2n + i) ), ((2n + i) , 2n + i + 1) | 0 i 2n 2} {(2n+1 1,
(2n+1 1) )} to obtain the brother cell (G1n+1 , w1n+1 , xn+1
1 , y1 , z1 ), where x
n+1 n+1 n+1 = 1
and zn+1 = 1 if n is even and xn+1 = 1 and zn+1 = 1 if otherwise. Moreover, wn+1 = 2n
and yn+1 = (2n+1 1) .
Case 1. By symmetry, we may assume that both u and v are in V (B(n + 1)u ).
Suppose that u is labeled i and v is labeled j. Obviously, max{log2 (i + 1),
log2 (j + 1)} n + 1. Since dB(n+1) (i, 1) = log2 (i + 1) 1, there exists a path P1
of length log2 (i + 1) 1 joining u to the root of B(n + 1)u . Similarly, there
exists a path P2 of length log2 (j + 1) 1 joining v to 1. Thus,
u, P1 , 1, P21 , v
forms a path joining u to v in B(n + 1)u . Thus, dBT (n) (u, v) log2 (i + 1) +
log2 (j + 1) 2 2n + 1.
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. It is easy to conrm that the lemma
holds in BC(2). Assume that the lemma holds for BC(n). By denition, BC(n + 1) is
composed of two disjoint copies of nth brother cells BC 1 (n) and BC 2 (n), a white root
xn+1 and a black root zn+1 . By induction, {Pni,1 }8i=1 exists, satisfying the lemma for
BC 1 (n) and {Pni,2 }8i=1 exists, satisfying the lemma for BC 2 (n).
We then set
+ 1
1
Pn+1 = wn+1 = w1n , Pn5,1 , xn1 , zn+1 , xn2 , Pn5,2 , w2n , yn1 , Pn6,1 , zn1 , xn+1 ,
1 2 ,
zn2 , Pn6,2 , yn = yn+1
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 315
+ 1 2 ,
2
Pn+1 = wn+1 = w1n , Pn2,1 , zn1 , xn+1 , zn2 , Pn4,2 , xn , zn+1
+ 1 2 1 3,1 1 1 ,
3
Pn+1 = xn+1 , zn2 , Pn7,2 , wn , yn , Pn , xn , zn+1 , xn2 , Pn8,2 , yn2 = yn+1
+ 1 2 1 3,1 1 1 ,
4
Pn+1 = xn+1 , zn2 , Pn2,2 , wn , yn , Pn , xn , zn+1
- .
5
Pn+1 = wn+1 = w1n , Pn1,1 , yn1 , w2n , Pn7,2 , zn2 , xn+1
+ 1 2 ,
6
Pn+1 = yn+1 = yn2 , Pn8,2 , xn , zn+1
+ ,
7
Pn+1 = wn+1 = w1n , Pn5,1 , xn1 , zn+1
+ 1 1 2 1,2 2 ,
8
Pn+1 = xn+1 , zn1 , Pn6,1 , yn , wn , Pn , yn = yn+1
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. It is easy to conrm that the lemma
holds for BC(2). Assume that the lemma holds for BC(n). By denition, BC(n + 1) is
composed of two disjoint copies of nth brother cells BC 1 (n) and BC 2 (n), a white root
xn+1 and a black root zn+1 . Let e be any edge of BC(n + 1). Using the symmetrical
property of BC(n + 1), we may assume that e is (zn+1 , xn1 ), (zn1 , xn+1 ), (yn1 , w2n ), or
an edge in BC 1 (n). By induction, there exists {Pni,1 }8i=1 , satisfying the lemma for
BC 1 (n) if e
/ E(BC 1 (n)) and there exists {Pni,2 }8i=1 , satisfying the lemma for BC 2 (n) if
e 2
/ E(BC (n)).
Case 1. e = (zn+1 , xn1 ). We set Qn+1
7 (e) as
w
n+1 = wn , Pn , yn , wn , Pn , xn , zn+1
1 1,1 1 2 5,2 2
8 (e) as
x 6,2 1 2
n+1 , zn , (Pn ) , yn = yn+1 .
and Qn+1 2
yn+1 .
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 316
7
1. Qn+1 (e) =
wn+1 = w1n , Qn1,1 (e), yn1 , w2n , Pn5,2 , xn2 , zn+1
8
Qn+1 (e) =
xn+1 , zn2 , (Pn6,2 )1 , yn2 = yn+1
2
2. Qn+1 (e) =
wn+1 = w1n , Qn2,1 (e), zn1 , xn+1 , zn2 , (Pn4,2 )1 , xn2 , zn+1
4
3. Qn+1 (e) =
xn+1 , zn2 , (Pn2,2 )1 , w2n , yn1 , (Qn3,1 (e))1 , xn1 , zn+1
3
4. Qn+1 (e) =
xn+1 , zn1 , (Qn4,1 (e))1 , xn1 , zn+1 , xn2 , Pn3,2 , yn2 = yn+1
7
5. Qn+1 (e) =
wn+1 = w1n , Qn5,1 (e), xn1 , zn+1
8
Qn+1 (e) =
xn+1 , zn1 , (Qn6,1 (e))1 , yn1 , w2n , Pn1,2 , yn2 = yn+1
2
6. Qn+1 (e) =
wn+1 = w1n , Qn7,1 (e), zn1 , xn+1 , zn2 , (Pn2,2 )1 , w2n , yn1 , (Qn8,1 (e))1 ,
xn1 , zn+1
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. It is easy to conrm that the lemma holds
for BC(2). Assume that the lemma holds for BC(n). By denition, BC(n + 1) is com-
posed of two disjoint copies of nth brother cells BC 1 (n) and BC 2 (n), a white root xn+1
and a black root zn+1 . Using the symmetrical property of BC(n + 1), we may assume
that one of the following cases holds: (1) c = xn+1 and d = zn+1 , (2) c = xn+1 and
d V (BC 1 (n)), (3) c V (BC 1 (n)) and d = zn+1 , (4) c V (BC 1 (n)), d V (BC 2 (n)),
or (5) {c, d} V (BC 1 (n)). In the following discussion, we nd the corresponding
path(s) for each case.
1 (c, d) as
w
n+1 = wn , Pn , yn , wn , Pn , yn .
Case 1. We set Sn+1 1 1,1 1 2 1,2 2
1 (c, d) as
w
n+1 = wn , Rn (d), xn , zn+1 , xn ,
Case 2. With Lemma 13.26, we set Sn+1 1 1 1 2
Pn , yn .
3,2 2
3 (c, d) as
x
Case 3. With Lemma 13.26, we set Sn+1 1 1 1 1 2
n+1 , zn , (Rn (c)) , yn , wn ,
Pn , yn .
1,2 2
4 (c, d) as
x
Case 4. With Lemma 13.26, we set Sn+1 1 1 1 1 2
n+1 , zn , (Rn (c)) , yn , wn ,
Rn2 (d), xn2 , zn+1 .
Case 5. By induction hypothesis, one of the six properties of the lemma holds for
BC 1 (n). Note that the endpoints of Sni (c, d) are the same as the endpoints of Qni (e)
stated in Lemma 13.25. With a similar argument for Case 4 in Lemma 13.25, we can
prove that the lemma is true for this case.
Hence, the lemma is proved.
THEOREM 13.13 The brother tree BT (n) is 1p -Hamiltonian for any positive integer
n with n 1.
Proof: Note that BT (1) is isomorphic to the hypercube Q3 . By brute force,
we can check whether BT (1) is 1p -fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. Now we consider
n 2. By denition, BT (n) is composed of an (n + 1)th brother cell, denoted
by BC 1 (n + 1) = (G1n+1 , w1n+1 , xn+1
1 , y1 , z1 ) and an nth brother cell, denoted by
n+1 n+1
BC (n) = (Gn , wn , xn , yn , zn ). Let {c, d} be a pair of vertices in BT (n) from different
2 2 2 2 2 2
partite sets. By the symmetrical property of BT (n), we assume that {c, d} V (G1n+1 ).
Using Lemma 13.24, {Pni,2 }8i=1 exists, satisfying the lemma for BC 2 (n). Obviously,
one of the six properties of Lemma 13.27 holds for BC 1 (n + 1). In the following
discussion, we nd the corresponding Hamiltonian cycle Hc,d of BT (n) e.
1,1
1. Hc,d =
w1n+1 , Sn+1 1 , w2 , P 1,2 , y2 , w1
(c, d), yn+1 n n n n+1
2,1
2. Hc,d =
w1n+1 , Sn+1 (c, d), zn+1
1 , x 2 , P 3,2 , y2 , w1
n n n n+1
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 318
3. Hc,d =
xn+1 1 , S 3,1 (c, d), y1 , w2 , P 2,2 , z2 , x 1
n+1 n+1 n n n n+1
4. Hc,d =
xn+1 1 , S 4,1 (c, d), z1 , x 2 , P 4,2 , z2 , x 1
n+1 n+1 n n n n+1
5. Hc,d =
w1n+1 , Sn+1 5,1 1 , z2 , (P 7,2 )1 , w2 , y1 , S 6,1 (c, d), z1 , x 2 ,
(c, d), xn+1 n n n n+1 n+1 n+1 n
Pn8,2 , yn2 , w1n+1
6. Hc,d =
w1n+1 , Sn+1 7,1 1 , x 2 , (P 5,2 )1 , w2 , y1 , (S 8,1 (c, d))1 , x 1 ,
(c, d), zn+1 n n n n+1 n+1 n+1
zn2 , (Pn6,2 )1 , yn2 , w1n+1
LEMMA 13.28 Qn {x, y} is Hamiltonian if x and y are any two vertices from
different partite sets of Qn with n 3.
Proof: By the symmetric property of Qn , we may assume that x Qn0 and y Qn1 .
Let u and v be any two different vertices in the partite set of Qn0 not containing x.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 319
LEMMA 13.29 Qn {x, y} is Hamiltonian laceable if x and y are any two vertices
from different partite sets of Qn with n 4.
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. The induction basis for n = 4 can be
proved by brute force. Assume that this lemma is true for Qk with 4 k < n. By
the symmetric property of Qn , we can assume that x = e. Thus, w(y) is odd. Let u
and v be any two vertices from different partite sets of Qn {x, y}. Without loss of
generality, we may assume that u is a white vertex. We need to nd a Hamiltonian
path of Qn {x, y} joining u to v.
Case 1. w(y) < n. Without loss of generality, we assume that (y)n = 0. Obviously,
{x, y} Qn0 .
Case 1.1. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 2. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of
Qn0 {x, y} joining u to v. Write P as
u = y1 , y2 , . . . , y2n1 2 = v. Since Qn1 is
Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 joining un to (y2 )n .
Then
u, un , S, (y2 )n , y2 , y3 , . . . , y2n1 2 = v forms the desired path.
Case 1.2. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that u Qn0 . Since
there are 2n2 black vertices in Qn0 , we can choose a black vertex r of Qn0 such that
r = y. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 {x, y} joining u to r.
Since Qn1 is Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 joining rn
to v. Then
u, P, r, rn , S, v forms the desired path.
Case 1.3. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 0. Thus, u and v are in Qn1 .Again, there exists a Hamiltonian
path P of Qn1 between u and v. We write P as
u = x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n 1 = v. Obviously,
there exists some index i with 1 i < 2n 1 such that {(xi )n , (xi+1 )n } {x, y} = .
By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn0 {x, y} between (xi )n and
(xi+1 )n . Then
u = x1 , x2 , . . . , xi , (xi )n , S, (xi+1 )n , xi+1 , xi+2 , . . . , x2n1 2 = v forms
the desired path.
Case 2. w(y) = n. Since w(y) is odd, n is odd. Moreover, w(v) < n because y = v.
Without loss of generality, we assume that (v)n = 0. Therefore, v Qn0 and y Qn1 .
Case 2.1. u Qn0 . Since Qn0 is hyper Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian
path P of Qn0 {v} joining u to e. Write P as
u, S, r, e. Similarly, there exists a
Hamiltonian path R of Qn1 {y} joining rn to vn . Then
u, S, r, rn , R, vn , v forms the
desired path.
Case 2.2. u / Qn0 . Since there are 2n2 black vertices in Qn0 , we can choose a black
vertex r of Qn such that r = v. Since Qn0 is hyper Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a
0
Force Force
Force Force
000 100 0000 1000 0001 1001
Q3 Q4
F Q 0n Q 1n Q 0n Q n1 Q 0n Q n1
F F
u u u
P1 wn
w P1 wn
b1 xn S1 P1 xn
w
x x
n b1
P2 z
w1 S b1 w1 S
z S2
w1 y y
r r r
y yn yn
P3 v yn P2 v P2 v
P S n
Q yn v Q y u
x y S2 y S
r w1 b1 b1 w1 r
xn
P as
u, P1 , x, w1 , y, P2 , v. Note that xn and yn are in the partite set not contain-
ing r. By Lemma 13.6, there is a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 {r} joining xn to
yn . Then
u, P1 , x, xn , S, yn , y, P2 , v forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14c for
illustration.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 323
Case 1.2. r0 n 4.
Case 1.2.1. r Qn0 . By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F0 {r}
joining u to v. Since there are at least 2n1 2(n 4) 1 vertices in P, there exist
adjacent vertices x and y of P such that {xn , yn } F1 = . Write P as
u, P1 , x, y, P2 , v.
Since {b1 , w1 } Qn0 , r1 n 4. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of
Qn1 F1 joining xn to yn . Then
u, P1 , x, xn , S, yn , y, P2 , v forms the desired path. See
Figure 13.14d for illustration.
Case 1.2.2. r Qn1 . Assume that r0 = n 4. Since dQn0 (v) = n 1, there exist two
neighbors x1 and x2 of v such that {x1 , x2 , (x1 )n , (x2 )n } F = . By induction,
there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F0 {v} joining x1 to x2 . Write P as
x1 , P1 , t1 , u, t2 , P2 , x2 . Since r1 = 1, |{(t1 )n , (t2 )n } F1 | 1. Without loss of gener-
ality, we may assume that (t2 )n / F1 . By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of
Qn1 F1 {r} joining (x1 )n to (t2 )n . Then
u, t1 , P11 , x1 , (x1 )n , S, (t2 )n , t2 , P2 , x2 , v
forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14e for illustration. Assume that r0 n 5.
Since dQn0 (v) = n 1, there exists a neighbor x of v such that {x, xn } F = . Since
there are at least 2n2 (n 4) vertices in the partite set of Qn0 F0 {x} not con-
taining u, we can choose a vertex y of Qn0 F0 {x} such that {yn } F1 = . By
induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F0 {v, x} joining u to y.
Since {b1 , w1 } Qn0 , r1 n 4. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of
Qn1 F1 {r} joining yn to xn . Then
u, P, y, yn , S, xn , x, v forms the desired path.
See Figure 13.14f for illustration.
Case 2. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that u Qn0 .
Case 2.1. r0 = n 3.
Case 2.1.1. r Qn0 . Note that u and w1 are in the partite set not containing r. By
induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F {r} joining u to w1 . Suppose
that (b1 , w1 ) E(P). Write P as
u, Q, x, b1 , w1 . Note that xn and v are in different
partite sets. Since every hypercube is Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path S of Qn1 joining xn to v. Then
u, Q, x, xn , S, v forms the desired path.
See Figure 13.14g for illustration. Suppose that (b1 , w1 ) / E(P). We can write P as
u, P1 , x, b1 , y, P2 , z, w1 . Note that xn and yn are in the same partite set. Assume that
zn = v. By Lemma 13.6, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 {v} joining xn to
yn . Then
u, P1 , x, xn , S, yn , y, P2 , z, v forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14h for
illustration. Assume that zn = v. By Lemma 13.17, there exist two disjoint paths S1
and S2 such that (1) S1 joins xn to zn , (2) S2 joins yn to v, and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 .
Then
u, P1 , x, xn , S1 , zn , z, P21 , y, yn , S2 , v forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14i
for illustration.
Case 2.1.2. r Qn1 . Note that u and w1 are in the partite set not containing b1 .
By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F {b1 } joining u to w1 .
Write P as
u, Q, x, w1 . Suppose that xn = v. By Lemma 13.6, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path S of Qn1 {r} joining xn to v. Then
u, Q, x, xn , S, v forms the desired
path. See Figure 13.14j for illustration. Suppose that xn = v. Since there are at least
2n1 2(n 3) vertices in Q, we can choose adjacent vertices y and z of Q such that
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 324
Case 2.2. r0 n 4.
Case 2.2.1. r Qn0 . Let x be a vertex of Qn0 F0 such that (1) x and u are two
different vertices in the same partite set of Qn0 F0 and (2) {xn } F1 = . By induc-
tion, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F0 {r} joining u to x. Since
{b1 , w1 } Qn0 , r1 n 4. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 F1
joining xn to v. Then
u, P, x, xn , S, v forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14l for
illustration.
Case 2.2.2. r Qn1 . Let x be a vertex of Qn0 F0 such that (1) x and u are two
vertices from different partite sets of Qn0 F0 and (2) {xn } F1 = . By induction,
there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F0 joining u to x. Since {b1 , w1 } Qn0 ,
r1 n 4. Again, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 F1 {r} joining xn to v.
Then
u, P, x, xn , S, v forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14m for illustration.
Case 3.1. r0 = n 3.
Case 3.1.1. r Qn0 . Note that r and b1 are in the partite set not containing w1 . By
induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F {w1 } joining r to b1 . Write
P as
r, x, Q, y, b1 . Note that xn and yn are in the partite set not containing u. By
Lemma 13.17, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 joins u to xn ,
(2) S2 joins yn to v, and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . Then
u, S1 , xn , x, Q, y, yn , S2 , v forms
the desired path. See Figure 13.14n for illustration.
Case 3.1.2. r Qn1 . Since dQn1 (v) = n 1, there is a neighbor x of v in Qn1 {r} such
that {xn } F0 = . Note that xn and w1 are in the partite set not containing b1 . By
induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 F {b1 } joining xn to w1 . Write
P as
xn , Q, y, w1 . Suppose that {yn } {u, v} = . By induction, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path S of Qn1 {r, v, x} joining u to yn . Then
u, S, yn , y, Q1 , xn , x, v forms
the desired path. See Figure 13.14o for illustration. Suppose that {yn } {u, v} = .
Assume that yn = v. By Lemma 13.29, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 {r, v}
joining u to x. Then
u, S, x, xn , Q, y, v forms the desired path. See Figure 13.14p for
illustration. Assume that yn = u. By Lemma 13.29, there exists a Hamiltonian path S
of Qn1 {r, u} joining v to x. Then
v, S, x, xn , Q, y, u forms the desired path.
Case 3.2. r0 n 4.
Case 3.2.1. r Qn0 . Since {b1 , w1 } Qn0 , r1 n 4. Since there are at least
2n2 (n 4) vertices in the partite set of Qn1 F1 not containing u, we can choose a
vertex x of Qn1 F1 such that {x, xn } F = . By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian
path P of Qn1 F1 {x} joining u to v. Since dQn1 (x) = n 1, we can choose an edge
(y, w) in E(P) such that (1) w NQn1 F1 (x) and (2) {yn } F0 = . Depending on the
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 325
F Qn0 Qn1 F
Qn0 Qn1 F Qn0 Qn1 F1
v vn
b1 xn y yn
x xn S1
x
P S P2
w1 P1 yn P S
b1 yn y S2
w1 u n
y u x xn
xn . Then
x, P, y, yn , S, xn , x forms the desired cycle. See Figure 13.15a for illustra-
tion. Suppose that (b1 , w1 ) / E(C). We can write C as
b1 , x, P1 , y, w1 , u, P2 , v, b1 .
Note that x and v are in a partite set, and y and u are in the other par-
tite set. By Lemma 13.17, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that
(1) S1 joins yn to vn , (2) S2 joins un to xn , and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . Then
x, P1 , y, yn , S1 , vn , v, P21 , u, un , S2 , xn , x forms the desired cycle. See Figure 13.15b
for illustration.
Case 2. F Qn0 . Obviously, r0 n 3. Since {b1 , w1 } Qn0 , r1 n 3. Since n 5
and r0 + r1 n 2, ri n 4 for some i {0, 1}. Without loss of generality, we
assume that r1 n 4. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian cycle C of Qn0 F0 .
Since there are at least 2n1 2(n 3) vertices in C, we can choose adjacent vertices
x and y of C such that {xn , yn } F1 = . Write C as
x, P, y, x. By Theorem 13.15,
there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 F1 joining yn to xn . Then
x, P, y, yn , S, xn , x
forms the desired cycle. See Figure 13.15c for illustration.
Proof: We prove this theorem by induction. Obviously, the theorem holds for n = 2
and 3. Assume that Qm F contains a path of length at least 2m 2|F| 2 between
any two vertices of Qm F for 3 m < n and |F| m 2. Let F = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk }
be a subset of V (Qn ) with k n 2. Let u and v be any two vertices in Qn F. By the
j j
symmetric property of Qn , we assume that F Qn = for j = 0, 1. Let F Qn = F j
for j = 0, 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that F = {x1 , . . . , xt }. Obviously,
1
t n 3.
j
Case 1. |{u, v} Qn | = 2 for j = 0 or 1. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that {u, v} Qn0 . By induction, there exists a path P of length at least
2n1 2(k t) 2 joining u to v in Qn0 F 0 . Since there are 2n1 2(k t) 1
vertices in P, we can choose a path
r, z, w of P such that (1) r, w, and x1 are in
the same partite set and (2) {rn , wn } F 1 = . Write P as
u, P1 , r, z, w, P2 , v. Since
dQn1 (xi ) = n 1, there exists a neighbor yi of xi such that (1) yi / F 1 and (2) yi = yj
for i = j. Let Fav = {{xi , yi } | 2 i t}. By Theorem 13.15, there exists a Hamiltonian
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 327
path S of Qn1 Fav {x1 } joining rn to wn . Obviously, the length of S is 2n1 2t.
Then
u, P1 , r, rn , S, wn , w, P2 , v forms the desired path.
Case 2. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 1. Without loss of generality, we may assume that u Qn0
and v Qn1 . Since there are at least 2n2 (k t) vertices in Qn0 F 0 , we can choose a
vertex r in the partite set of Qn0 F 0 not containing u such that {rn } {F 1 {v}} = .
Note that u and r are in different partite sets. By induction, there exists a path P of
length at least 2n1 2(k t) 1 joining u to r in Qn0 F 0 . Again, there exists a path
S of length at least 2n1 2t 2 joining rn to v in Qn1 F 1 . Then
u, P, r, rn , S, v
forms the desired path.
The theorem is proved.
LEMMA 13.35 [235] Assume that r and s are any two adjacent vertices of Sn with
n 4. Then, for any white vertex u in Sn {r, s} and for any i
n, there exists a
Hamiltonian path P of Sn {r, s} joining u to some black vertex v of Sn {r, s} with
(v)1 = i.
Proof: Since Sn is vertex-transitive and edge-transitive, we assume that r = e and
{n}
s = (e)2 . Obviously, both e and (e)2 are in Sn . We prove this lemma by induction on n.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 328
Suppose that n = 4. The required Hamiltonian paths of S4 {1234, 2134} are listed
here.
1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243
1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413
1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421
1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231
1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243
1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413
1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214
1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123
2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243
2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413
2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421
2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231
2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432
2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341
2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214
2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312
2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324
2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413
2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421
2431, 3421, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 3241, 4231
3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243
3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341
3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421
3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231
3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324
3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413
3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421
3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231
3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432
3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341
3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142
3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231
4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432
4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341
4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421
4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312
4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243
4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413
4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142
4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 3241, 1243, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231
4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 1243
4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341
4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142
4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3241, 2341, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231
Assume that this result holds in Sk for every 4 k n 1. We have the following
cases:
{n} {n}
Case 1. u Sn . By induction, there is a Hamiltonian path P of Sn {e, (e)2 } join-
{n1}
ing u to a black vertex x with (x)1 = n 1. Note that (x)n is a white vertex of Sn .
n2
We choose a black vertex v in Sn with (v)1 = i. By Lemma 13.9, there is a Hamil-
n1
tonian path Q of Sn joining (x)n to v. Then
u, P, x, (x)n , Q, v forms the desired
Hamiltonian path of Sn {e, (e)2 } joining u to v with (v)1 = i. See Figure 13.16a for
illustration.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 329
{k}
Case 2. u Sn for some k
n 1. By Lemma 13.7, there are (n 2)!/2 3
{k} {n}
edges joining black vertices of Sn to white vertices of Sn . We can choose a white
{n}
vertex x Sn {e, (e)2 } with (x)1 = k. By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian
{k}
path P of Sn joining u to the black vertex (x)n . By induction, there is a Hamilto-
{n}
nian path Q of Sn {e, (e)2 } joining x to a black vertex y with (y)1
n 1 {k}.
n1{k,(y)1 }
We choose a black vertex v in Sn with (v)1 = i. By Lemma 13.9, there
n1{k}
exists a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining the white vertex (y)n to v. Then
u, P, (x)n , x, Q, y, (y)n , R, v forms the desired Hamiltonian path of Sn {e, (e)2 }
joining u to v with (v)1 = i. See Figure 13.16b for illustration.
desired Hamiltonian path of SnI joining u to v. See Figure 13.17a for illustration.
Case 2. (u)n / SnI and (v)n
/ SnI . We can choose a white vertex y with y being a
{a1 }
neighbor of v in Sn and (y)1 = ar . Obviously, y = u. By Lemma 13.35, there is a
{a }
Hamiltonian path P of Sn 1 {v, y} joining u to a black vertex x with (x)1 = a2 . By
I{a }
Lemma 13.9, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn 1 joining the white vertex (x)n to
the black vertex (y)n . Then
u, P, x, (x)n , Q, (y)n , y, v is the desired Hamiltonian path
of SnI joining u to v. See Figure 13.17b for illustration.
Sn{ n } { e, ( e)2 } Sn{ n1 } Sn< n2 > Sn{ k } Sn{ n } { e, ( e)2 } Sn<n1 >{k}
u P x ( x) n Q v u P (x) n
x Q y (y)n R v
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
{i }
|F E ik ,ik+1 | [(n 2)!/2] 1 for every k
t 1. If u is a white vertex of Sn 1 and
{i }
v is a black vertex of Sn t , then there is a Hamiltonian path P of SnI F joining u to v.
Proof: Since Snik is isomorphic to Sn1 for every k
t and Sn1 is hamiltonian
laceable, this statement holds for t = 1. If 2 t n, then we set x1 = u and yt = v.
{i} {j}
Since there are (n 2)!/2 edges joining black vertices of Sn to white vertices of Sn
for every two distinct elements i and j in
n and (n 2)!/2 > [(n 2)!/2] 1 if n 5,
{i } {i }
we can choose a black vertex yk in Sn k such that (yk )n Sn k+1 and (yk , (yk )n) /F
for every k
t 1. Set xk+1 = (yk )n for every k
t 1. Obviously, xk is a white
vertex for every k
t. Since Sk is (k 3)-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian laceable
{i }
for any k 4, there is a Hamiltonian path Hk of Sn k F joining xk to yk for every
k
t. Hence,
u = x1 , H1 , y1 , x2 , H2 , y2 , . . . , xt , Ht , yt = v is a Hamiltonian path of
SnI F joining u to v.
{i}
LEMMA 13.37 Let x, y, p, and q be four distinct vertices of Sn for some i
n
with (x, y) E(Sn ) and (p, q) E(Sn ), for n 5. Then there are two disjoint paths P1
n{i}
and P2 of Sn such that (1) P1 joins (x)n to (y)n , (2) P2 joins (p)n to (q)n , and
n{i}
(3) P1 P2 spans Sn .
{n}
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that {x, y, p, q} Sn . By
Lemma 13.8, (x)1 = (y)1 and (p)1 = (q)1 . We have the following cases depending
{n}
on the location of the neighbors of x, y, p, q outside Sn .
Case 1. |{(x)1 , (y)1 } {(p)1 , (q)1 }| = 0. By Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian
{(x) ,(y) }
path P1 of Sn 1 1 joining (y)n to (x)n . Similarly, there is a Hamiltonian path P2 of
n1{(x)1 ,(y)1 }
Sn joining (p)n to (q)n . Then P1 and P2 are the desired paths.
Case 2. |{(x)1 , (y)1 } {(p)1 , (q)1 }| = 1. By symmetry, we may assume that
(x)1
/ {(p)1 , (q)1 } and (y)1 = (p)1 . Since ((y)n )1 = ((p)n )1 = n, by Lemma 13.8 there
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 331
{(p) }
is a vertex z in Sn 1 such that z is a neighbor of (y)n and (z)1 = (x)1 . By The-
{(x) }
orem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn 1 joining (x)n to (z)n . Let t
be any integer in
n 1 {(x)1 , (p)1 , (q)1 }. By Lemma 13.35, there is a Hamil-
{(p) }
tonian path R of Sn 1 {(y)n , z} joining (p)n to a vertex w such that (w)1 = t.
n1{(x)1 ,(p)1 }
By Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn joining (w)n
to (q) . Then P1 =
(x) , H, (z) , z, (y) and P2 =
(p) , R, w, (w) , Q, (q)n are the
n n n n n n
desired paths.
Case 3. |{(x)1 , (y)1 } {(p)1 , (q)1 }| = 2. By symmetry, we may assume that
(x)1 = (p)1 and (y)1 = (q)1 . Let t and s be any two distinct integers in
n 1 {(p)1 , (q)1 }. Since ((x)n )1 = n and ((p)n )1 = n, by Lemma 13.8 there is a ver-
{(p) }
tex w in Sn 1 such that w is a neighbor of (x)n and (w)1 = t. Similarly, there is a vertex
{(q)1 }
z in Sn such that z is a neighbor of (y)n and (z)1 = t. By Theorem 13.18, there
{t}
is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn joining (w)n to (z)n . By Lemma 13.35, there is a
{(p) }
Hamiltonian path R1 of Sn 1 {(x)n , w} joining (p)n to a vertex u such that (u)1 = s.
{(q) }
By Lemma 13.35, there is a Hamiltonian path R2 of Sn 1 {(y)n , z} joining a ver-
tex v such that (v)1 = s to (q) . By Theorem 15.18 there is a Hamiltonian path Q of
n
n1{t,(p)1 ,(q)1 }
Sn joining (u)n to (v)n . Then P1 =
(x)n , w, (w)n , H, (z)n , z, (y)n and
P2 =
(p) , R1 , u, (u)n , Q, (v)n , v, R2 , (q)n are the desired paths.
n
By Lemma 13.8, the two neighbors of (z)n on C2 have different rst coordinates,
so at least one of them is different from (p)1. Let q be such a vertex. Then
we have C1 =
z, R1 , p, z and C2 =
q, R2 , (z)n , q and (p)n = (q)n . Since n 6,
(n 2)!/2 > n 2. Hence, by Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of
n {a,b}
Sn F joining (p)n to (q)n , and then
z, R1 , p, (p)n , H, (q)n , q, R2 , (z)n , z is
a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F.
{t} {t}
Case 1.1.2. (Sn Ft ) = 1 for some t
n. Let y be the vertex in Sn with
degSn{t} F (y) = 1. Obviously, y is neither u nor v, and (y, (y)n ) / F. Moreover, |A| = 3,
t
and we have identied all but one edge in F.
Suppose rst that y is adjacent to neither u nor v. Then we have identied all edges
of F; hence |Fi | n 4 for every i
n {t}. Since degSn{t} F (y) = 1 and n 6, we
t
can choose an edge (y, z) Ft such that z is neither u nor v. By induction, there is
{t}
a Hamiltonian cycle C of Sn (Ft {(y, z)}). Clearly, edge (y, z) must be in C, so
we can write C =
y, R, z, y. By Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of
n {t}
Sn F joining (z)n to (y)n . Then
y, R, z, (z)n , H, (y)n , y forms a Hamiltonian
cycle of Sn F.
Second, if y is adjacent to either u or v, then without loss of generality we may
{n}
assume that (y, u) E(Sn ), so y Sn . Since all but one edge of F have been iden-
{n}
tied so far, out of the n 3 faulty edges incident to y in Sn , at most one can
go to a vertex z = u such that (z, (z)n ) F. Since n 6, we can choose an edge
(y, z) Fn such that (z, (z)n ) / F. By induction, there is a Hamiltonian cycle C of
{n}
Sn (Fn {(y, z)}). Clearly, edge (y, z) must be in C, so we can write C =
y, R, z, y.
If the as-of-yet unidentied edge of F is not in Fn1 , then |Fn1 | = n 4, and by
n1
Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn F joining (z)n to (y)n ,
hence,
y, R, z, (z) , H, (y) , y forms a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F. On the other
n n
Sn F.
Case 1.2. (u, v) / F for every two distinct vertices u, v A. Counting the edges
of F at each vertex of A, we get |A|(n 3) F 3n 10; hence |A| 2. Thus
|A| = 2, so let A = {u, v}. Since Sn is vertex-transitive and edge-transitive, we may
assume that (u)n = n and (u, (u)n ) F. Now we consider cases depending on the
location of v.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 333
Case 1.2.1. (v)n = n and (v, (v)n ) F. Clearly, 2n 8 |Fn | 3n 12, so there
{n}
can be at most n 4 edges of F outside Sn different from (u, (u)n ) and (v, (v)n ). If
{n}
|Fn | 3n 13, then by induction, there is a Hamiltonian cycle C of Sn Fn . Since
{n}
|V (Sn )| = (n 1)! > 2(n 2), there is an edge (p, q) E(C) such that (p, (p)n ) /F
and (q, (q)n )
/ F. Then we can write C =
p, H, q, p. Since n 4 < (n 2)!/2 for
n1
n 6, Theorem 13.18 implies that there is a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining (q)n
to (p) , and then
p, H, q, (q) , R, (p) , p is a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F.
n n n
On the other hand, if |Fn | = 3n 12, then every edge in F is located. Since
2(n 4) < 3n 12, there is an edge f Fn such that f is incident to neither u nor v.
{n}
By induction, there is a Hamiltonian cycle C of Sn (Fn {f }). However, f may
be not in C. If f C, let f = (p, q); otherwise, pick an edge (p, q) in C such that
{p, q} {u, v} = . Then we can write C =
p, H, q, p. By Theorem 13.18, there is
n1
a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining (q)n to (p)n ; hence,
p, H, q, (q)n , R, (p)n , p
is a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F.
{n}
Case 1.2.2. (v)n = n and (v, (v)n )
/ F. Within Sn , there are n 4 faulty edges inci-
dent to u and n 3 faulty edges incident to v. Since (n 3) + (n 4) > n 2 for
n 6, there must be an integer i
n {1} such that (u, (u)i ) F and (v, (v)i ) F.
Using vertices of having the same ith coordinate instead of the same nth coordinate
{j}
to dene the sets Sn for j
n will change this case to Case 1.2.1.
Case 1.2.3. (v)n = n and (v, (v)n ) F. Without loss of generality, we may assume
{n}
that (v)n = n 1. By induction, there is a Hamiltonian cycle C1 of Sn Fn and
{n1} {n}
there is a Hamiltonian cycle C2 of Sn Fn1 . For every vertex p in Sn with
(p)1 = n 1, we set A(p) = {p} NC1 (p) NC2 ((p) ) and B(p) = {(q, (q) ) | q A(p)}.
n n
{n}
Since |E n1,n | = (n 2)! > n 4 if n 5, there is a vertex z Sn with (z)1 = n 1
such that B(z) F = . Let p be a neighbor of z on C1 . Then by Lemma 13.8, the
two neighbors of (z)n on C2 have different rst coordinates, so at least one of them is
different from (p)1 . Let q be such a vertex. Then we can write C1 =
z, R1 , p, z and
n2
C2 =
q, R2 , (z)n , q. By Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn F
joining (p)n to (q)n , and then
z, R1 , p, (p)n , H, (q)n , q, R2 , (z)n , z is a Hamiltonian
cycle of Sn F.
Case 1.2.4. (v)n = n and (v, (v)n ) / F. There are n 3 faulty edges incident to both
u and v. Since 2(n 3) > n 1 for n 6, there must be an integer i
n {1} such
that (u, (u)i ) F and (v, (v)i ) F. Using vertices of having the same ith coordinate
{j}
instead of the same nth coordinate to dene the sets Sn for j
n will change this
case to either Case 1.2.1 (if u and v have the same ith coordinate) or Case 1.2.3
(if u and v have different ith coordinates).
Case 2.2. |Fn | 3n 13 and |Fn1 | n 4. If |Fi,j | [(n 2)!/2] 1 for every
{n}
distinct i, j
n 1, then by induction, there is a Hamiltonian cycle C of Sn Fn .
{n}
Since |V (Sn )| = (n 1)! > 2(3n 10) if n 6, there is an edge (u, v) C such
that (u, (u) )
n / F and (v, (v)n )
/ F. Then we can write C =
u, H, v, u. By The-
n1
orem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path R of Sn F joining (v)n to (u)n ,
and then
u, H, v, (v) , R, (u) , u is a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F. On the other
n n
a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F.
On the other hand, if both (u, v) and (p, q) are in C, then without loss of generality,
we can write C =
u, R1 , p, q, R2 , v, u. By Lemma 13.37, there are two disjoint paths
n1
Q1 and Q2 of Sn such that (1) Q1 joins (v)n to (u)n , (2) Q2 joins (p)n to (q)n ,
n1
and (3) Q1 Q2 spans Sn . Then
u, R1 , p, (p)n , Q2 , (q)n , q, R2 , v, (v)n , Q1 , (u)n , u
is a Hamiltonian cycle of Sn F.
) *
11
Case 2.5. |Fn | = 3n 11 and degSn F (x) 3. Since 3nn 2 2 if n 6, there is
an integer 2 i n 1 such that there are at least two faulty edges among the edges
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 335
u2 u6
u3 u5
u4
Fault edges
{j}
of dimension i in Sn . Dene the sets Sn for j
n using vertices of having the same
ith coordinate instead of the same nth coordinate. Then degSn F (x) 3 will imply
{j}
that the minimum degree in Sn Fj is at least 2 and |Fj | 3n 12 for every j
n.
Hence, this case reduces to one of Cases 2.1 through 2.3.
This nishes the proof of the theorem.
Case 1. |A| = 2. Let A = {x, y}. By Lemma 13.38, (x, y) F, and F is completely
identied. Since Sn is edge-transitive, we may assume that x = (y)n . Hence, xn = (y)n ,
|Fi | = n 4 for i {(x)n , (y)n }, |Fj | = 0 for j
n {(x)n , (y)n }, and |Fs,t | 1 for every
two distinct s, t
n. Let u be any white vertex in Sn and let v be any black vertex in Sn .
If (u)n = (v)n , then by Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn F joining
u to v. On the other hand, if (u)n = (v)n , then by induction, there is a Hamiltonian path
{(u) }
Q of Sn n F(u)n joining u to v. Since (n 1)! > 8 if n 5, there is an edge (p, q) in
Q such that |{p, q} {x, y, (x)n , (y)n }| = 0. Then we can write Q =
u, Q1 , p, q, Q2 , v.
n {(u)n }
By Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn F joining (p)n to
(q)n . Thus,
u, Q1 , p, (p)n , H, (q)n , q, Q2 , v is a Hamiltonian path of Sn F joining
u to v.
Case 2.1.1. (u)n = (v)n = n and (u, v) / E(C). Then we can write C =
u, p, Q1 , q, v,
{n}
w, Q2 , z, u for some vertices p, q, w, z Sn . Obviously, either {x, (x)n } {p, w} =
or {x, (x) } {q, z} = . By symmetry, we may assume that {x, (x)n } {q, z} = . By
n
n1
Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn joining (q)n to (z)n . Thus
1
u, p, Q1 , q, (q) , H, (z) , z, Q2 , w, v is a Hamiltonian path of Sn F joining u to v.
n n
Case 2.1.2. (u)n = (v)n = n and (u, v) E(C). Choose an edge (p, q) E(C)
{(u, v)} such that neither p nor q is x or (x)n . Then we can write
n1
C =
u, Q1 , p, q, Q2 , v, u. By Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn
joining (p)n to (q)n ; thus
u, Q1 , p, (p)n , H, (q)n , q, Q2 , v is a Hamiltonian path of
Sn F joining u to v.
ch013.tex 24/7/2008 14: 58 Page 337
joining u to v.
u to v.
Lemma 13.8, (p)1 = (q)1 . By symmetry, we may assume that (q)1 = (v)n . By
{(u) }
Theorem 13.18, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn n joining u to (w)n
n1{(u)n }
and there is a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining (q)n to v. Then
u, H, (w)n , w, p, W , q, (q)n , R, v is a Hamiltonian path of Sn F joining u to v.
v1 v2 v3 v4
14 Spanning Connectivity
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Assume that G is a k-connected graph. It follows from Mengers Theorem that there
are k internally vertex-disjoint (abbreviated as disjoint) paths joining any two distinct
vertices u and v. A k-container C(u, v) of G is a set of k disjoint paths joining u to
v. Here, we discuss another type of container, called spanning container. A spanning
k-container, (abbreviated as k -container), C(u, v) is a k-container that contains all
vertices of G. A graph G is k -connected if there exists a k -container between any
two distinct vertices. In particular, a graph G is 1 -connected if and only if it is
Hamiltonian-connected, and a graph G is 2 -connected if and only if it is Hamiltonian.
All 1 -connected graphs except that K1 and K2 are 2 -connected. Thus, we dened
the spanning connectivity of a graph G, (G), to be the largest integer k such that G
is w -connected for all 1 w k if G is a 1 -connected graph. Obviously, spanning
connectivity is a hybrid concept of Hamiltonicity and connectivity. A graph G is
super spanning connected if (G) = (G). Obviously, the complete graph Kn is super
spanning connected if n 2.
A graph G is bipartite if its vertex set can be partitioned into two subsets V1 and
V2 such that every edge joins vertices between V1 and V2 . Let G be a k-connected
bipartite graph with bipartition V1 and V2 such that |V1 | |V2 |. Suppose that there
exists a k -container C(u, v) = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } in a bipartite graph joining u to v with
u, v V1 . Obviously, the number of vertices in Pi is 2ki + 1 for some integer ki . There
are ki 1 vertices of Pi in V1 other than u and v, and ki vertices of Pi in V2 . As a
consequence, |V1 | = ki=1 (ki 1) + 2 and |V2 | = ki=1 ki . Therefore, any bipartite
graph G with (G) 3 is not k -connected for any 3 k (G).
For this reason, a bipartite graph is k -laceable if there exists a k -container
between any two vertices from different partite sets. Obviously, any bipartite k -
laceable graph with k 2 has the equal size of bipartition. A 1 -laceable graph is also
known as a Hamiltonian-laceable graph. Moreover, a graph G is 2 -laceable if and
only if it is Hamiltonian. All 1 -laceable graphs except that K1 and K2 are 2 -laceable.
A bipartite graph G is super spanning laceable if G is i -laceable for all 1 i (G).
339
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LEMMA 14.1 Let k be a positive integer. Suppose that there exist two nonadjacent
vertices u and v with degG (u) + degG (v) n(G) + k. Then for any two distinct vertices
x and y, G has a (k + 2) -container between x and y if and only if G + (u, v) (k + 2) -
container between x and y.
Proof: Suppose that G has a (k + 2) -container between x and y. Obviously,
G + (u, v) has a (k + 2) -container between x and y.
For the other direction, suppose that G + (u, v) has a (k + 2) -container between x
and y. Let x and y be any two different vertices of G. Let C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk+2 }
be a (k + 2) -container of G + (u, v).
Suppose that the edge (u, v) / C(x, y). Then C(x, y) forms a desired (k + 2) -
container of G. Thus, we suppose that (u, v) C(x, y). Without loss of generality, we
assume that (u, v) P1 . We write P1 as
x, H1 , u, v, H2 , y. (Note that l(H1 ) = 0 if x = u,
and l(H2 ) = 0 if y = v.) Let Pi be the path obtained from Pi by deleting x and yi . Thus,
we can write Pi as
x, Pi , y for 1 i k + 2. We set Ci =
x, Pi , y, H21 , v, u, H11 , x
for 2 i k + 2.
Case 1. Ci (u) + Ci (v) n(Ci ) for some 2 i k + 2. Without loss of gener-
ality, we may assume that C2 (u) + C2 (v) n(C2 ). By Theorem 9.4, there is a
Hamiltonian cycle C of the subgraph of G induced by C2 . Let C =
x, R1 , y, R2 , x.
We set Q1 =
x, R1 , y, Q2 =
x, R21 , y, and Qi = Pi for 3 i k + 2. Then
{Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk+2 } forms a (k + 2) -container of G between x and y.
k+2
k+2
(Ci (u) + Ci (v)) = (Pi (u) + P1 (u) + Pi (v) + P1 (v))
i=2 i=2
k+2
= (Pi (u) + Pi (v)) + (k + 1)(P1 (u) + P1 (v))
i=2
k+2
k+2
(n(Ci ) 1) = (n(Pi ) + n(P1 )) (k + 1)
i=2 i=2
k+2
= n(Pi ) + (k + 1)(n(P1 )) (k + 1)
i=2
= n(G) + k(n(P1 )) (k + 1)
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 341
n(G) + k + k(P1 (u) + P1 (v)) n(G) + k(n(P1 )) (k + 1). Therefore, P1 (u) +
P1 (v) n(P1 ) 1/k. Since k 1, P1 (u) + P1 (v) n(P1 ).
We claim that Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 2 for some 2 i k + 2. Suppose that
Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 1 for all 2 i k + 2. Then
k+2
degG (u) + degG (v) = (Pi (u) + Pi (v)) + (P1 (u) + P1 (v))
i=2
k+2
(n(Pi ) + 1) + n(P1 )
i=2
= n(G) + k 1
Note that the statement of Theorem 14.1 is very similar to the statement of
Theorems 9.2 and 9.3. Obviously, we have the following corollary.
COROLLARY 14.1 Assume that k is any positive integer and there exist two
nonadjacent vertices u and v with degG (u) + degG (v) n(G) + k. Then G is (k + 2) -
connected if and only if G + (u, v) is (k + 2) -connected. Moreover, G is i -connected
if and only if G + (u, v) is i -connected for 1 i k + 2.
zj z j1
Q1
Q2
u v
Qk2
x y
Qk1
Qk
THEOREM 14.1 Let k be a positive integer. Assume that degG (u) + degG (v)
n(G) + k for all nonadjacent vertices u and v. Then G is r -connected for every
1 r k + 2.
Proof: By Theorem 9.4, G is 2 -connected. By Theorem 9.12, G is 1 -connected.
Let x and y be two distinct vertices in G. Suppose there exists an r -container
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr } of G between x and y for some 2 r k + 1. We need to construct only
an (r + 1) -container of G between x and y. We claim that degG (y) k + 2. Suppose
not. Let w / NG (y). Then degG (y) + degG (w) (k + 1) + (n(G) 2) = n(G) + k 1,
given a contradiction.
We can choose a vertex u in NG (y) {x} such that (u, y) / E(Pi ). Without loss of
generality, we assume that u Pr . We write Pr as
x, H1 , u, v, H2 , y. We set Qi = Pi for
1 i r 1, Qr =
x, H1 , u, y, and Qr+1 =
x, v, H2 , y. Suppose that (x, v) E(G).
Then {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qr+1 } forms an (r + 1) -container of G between x and y. Suppose
that (x, v) / E(G). Then, {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qr+1 } forms an (r + 1) -container of G + (x, u)
between x and y. By Lemma 14.1, there exists an (r + 1) -container of G between
x and y.
Among those graphs G with (G) (G) n(G) 3, we give the following
examples to illustrate the following cases: (1) (G) = (G) = (G), (2) (G) =
(G) < (G), (3) (G) < (G) = (G), and (4) (G) < (G) < (G).
To verify the spanning connectivity of the following examples, we need the
following lemmas.
LEMMA 14.4 Assume that a is any positive integer with a 3. Let G be the complete
3-partite graph Ka,a,a with the vertex partite sets V1 , V2 , and V3 . Then (G) = a + 2.
Proof: It is easy to see that (G) = 2a and (G) = a + 2. Thus, (G) a + 2. To
prove this lemma, we need to prove that there is no (a + 3) -container between any
two vertices u and v in V1 .
Suppose that there exists an (a + 3) -container C(u, v) = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pa+3 } of G
between u and v. Let A = {i | l(Pi ) = 2 for 1 i a + 3} and B = {1, 2, . . . , a + 3} A.
Obviously, a+3 i=1 |V (Pi ) (V2 V3 )| = 2a.
Let P be any path of G joining u to v. Obviously, |V (P) (V1 {u, v})|
|V (P) (V2 V3 )| 1. Since C(u, v) is an (a + 3) -container of G between
a+3
u and v, i=1 |V (Pi ) (V1 {u, v})| = a 2. Since |V (Pi ) (V2 V3 )| 1 and
a+3
|V (Pi ) (V1
{u, v})| |V (P i ) (V 2 V 3 )| 1
for every i B, i=1 |V (Pi )
(V2 V 3)| = iB |V (P i ) (V 2 V 3 )| + |A| = iB (|V (P i ) (V 2 V3 1) + |B| +
)|
|A| iB |V (Pi ) (V1 {u, v})| + a + 3 = 2a + 1. We obtained a contradiction
because a+3 i=1 |V (Pi ) (V2 V3 )| = 2a.
Recall that the Harary graph H2r,n can be described with V (H2r,n ) = {0, 1, . . . ,
n 1} and E(H2r,n ) = {{i, j} | |i j| {1, 2, . . . , r} mod n}.
P =
0, n 1, n 2, . . . , 1 if v = 1
P =
0, n 1, n 2, . . . , 2t + 1, 2t 1, 2t 3, . . . , 1, 2, 4, . . . , 2t if v = 2t
P =
0, n 1, n 2, . . . , 2t + 2, 2t, 2t 2, . . . , 2, 1, 3, . . . , 2t + 1 if v = 2t + 1
Thus, P forms a Hamiltonian path of H2,n between u and v. Since H2,n is a spanning
subgraph of H2r,n , H2r,n is 1 -spanning connected.
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LEMMA 14.6 Let v and k be any two distinct positive integers with v > k. Let G
be a graph with V (G ) = {0, 1, . . . , v} and E(G ) = {{i, j} | 1 |i j| k}. Then there
is a k -container of G between u = 0 and v.
Proof: Let v 1 = qk + r for some two integers q and r with 0 r k 1. Since
v > k, p 1.
Case 1. r = 0. We set Pi =
0, i, i + k, . . . , i + (q 1)k, v for every i k. Then
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a k -container of G between u and v.
Case 2. r 1. We set Pi =
0, i, i + k, . . . , i + qk, v for every 1 i r and Pj =
0, j, j + k, . . . , j + (q 1)k, v for every r + 1 j k. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a
k -container of G between u and v.
Example 14.1
(G) = (G) = (G). Let G = Ka (Kb + Kb ) with a 4 and b 2. Obviously,
(G) = (G) = a. By Corollary 14.3, (G) = (G) = (G) = a. See Figure 14.2. 2
Example 14.2
(G) = (G) < (G). Let G = Ka,a,a be the complete 3-partite graph with vertex par-
tite set V1 , V2 , and V3 where |V1 | = |V2 | = |V3 | = a 3. Obviously, (G) = 2a and
(G) = a + 2. By Lemma 14.4, (G) = a + 2. 2
Example 14.3
(G) < (G) = (G). Let G be the Harary graph H2s,n where s is a positive integer with
s > 3. In Example 7.2, we know that (G) = (G) = 2s. By Lemma 14.8, (G) = 2s.
Thus, G is super spanning connected. Suppose that we choose n = 4(s 1). Then
(G) = 2(G) n(G) + 2 = 6. Thus, (G) < (G) = (G). 2
Example 14.4
(G) < (G) < (G). Let G = Ka (Kbc + Kc ) for a b + c, b 2, and c 2. Obvi-
ously, (G) = a and (G) = a b c + 2. Since G Ka = Kbc + Kc , G Ka has b + 1
components. By Lemma 14.3, G is not w -connected for all w > a b + 1. Thus,
(G) = a > a b + 1 (G). It is easy to construct a w -container joining any two
vertices u, v in G. Hence, (G) = a b + 1. 2
LEMMA 14.9 Assume that G is a graph with at least four vertices and
(G) (n(G)/2) + 1. Let T be a vertex subset of G with |T | (G) 3. Then the
graph G T is 1 -connected.
Proof: Suppose that G is a complete graph. Obviously, G T is also a complete
graph. Thus, G T is 1 -connected. Thus, we assume that (G) n(G) 2. By The-
orem 9.13, G is 1 -connected if |T | = 0. Thus, we assume that 1 t = |T | (G) 3.
Case 1. n(G) = 2s and (G) = s + r for some 1 r s 2. Since t (G) 3 =
(2(G) n(G) + 2) 3 = (2r + 2) 3, r (t + 1)/2.
The following example shows that the inequality in Theorem 14.3 is tight.
Example 14.5
Assume that a is any positive integer with a 3. Let G be the complete 3-partite graph
Ka,a,a with the vertex partite sets V1 , V2 , and V3 . Obviously, n(G) = 3a, (G) = 2a.
Hence, (G) = 2(G) n(G) + 2 = a + 2. Let T be a vertex subset of V (G) with
|T | = t (G) 3 = a 1. By Theorem 14.3, (G T ) (G) t = a + 2 t.
However, it is possible to nd a vertex subset of V (G) with |T | = t a 1 such that
(G T ) = (G) t = a + 2 t.
Let T be a subset of V2 V3 with |T | = t. Let u and v be any two distinct vertices in
V1 . Suppose that there exists an (a t + 3) -container C(u, v) = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pat+3 }
of G T between u and v. Let A = {i | l(Pi ) = 2 for 1 i a t + 3} and
B = {1, 2, . . . , a t + 3} A. Obviously, a+3 i=1 |V (Pi ) ((V2 V3 ) T )| = 2a t.
Let P be any path of G T joining u to v. Obviously, |V (P) (V1 {u, v})|
|V (P) ((V2 V3 ) T )| 1. Since C(u, v) is an (a t + 3) -container of G between u
and v, at+3 |V (Pi ) (V1 {u, v})| = a 2. Since |V (Pi ) ((V2 V3 ) T )| 1 and
i=1
|V (Pi ) (V1 {u, v})| |V (Pi ) ((V2 V3 ) T )| 1 for every i B, at+3
i = 1 |V (Pi )
((V2 V3 ) T )| = i B |V (Pi ) (V2 V3 )| + |A| = i B (|V (Pi ) (V2 V3 )| 1) +
|B| + |A| i B |V (Pi ) (V1 {u, v})| + a t + 3 = 2a t + 1. We obtained a contra-
diction because at+3 i=1 |V (Pi ) ((V2 V3 ) T )| = 2a t. 2
As noted in Chapter 3, the hypercube does not have the smallest diameter for its
resources. Various networks are proposed by twisting some pairs of links in hypercubes
[1,76,93,94]. Because of the lack of the unied perspective on these variants, results
of one topology are hard to extend to others. To make a unied study of these variants,
Vaidya et al. introduced the class of hypercube-like graphs [322]. We denote these
graphs as H -graphs. The class of H -graphs, consisting of simple, connected, and
undirected graphs, contains most of the hypercube variants.
The hypercube-like graphs are constructed using the operation G0 G1 discussed
in Chapter 7. Here, we recall the denition of G0 G1 . Suppose that G0 = (V0 , E0 ) and
G1 = (V1 , E1 ) are two disjoint graphs with |V0 | = |V1 |. A 1-1 connection between G0
and G1 is dened as an edge set Er = {(v, (v)) | v V0 , (v) V1 and : V0 V1 is a
bijection}. G0 G1 denotes the graph G = (V0 V1 , E0 E1 Er ). Thus, induces a
perfect matching M in G0 G1 . For convenience, G0 and G1 are called components.
Let x be any vertex of G0 G1 . We use x to denote the vertex matched under .
Now, we can dene the set of n-dimensional H -graph, Hn , as follows:
Note that some n-dimensional H -graphs are bipartite. We can dene the set of
bipartite n-dimensional H -graph, Bn , as follows:
1. B1 = {K2 }, where K2 is the complete graph dened on {a, b} with bipartition
V0 = {a} and V1 = {b}.
2. For i = 0, 1, let Gi be a graph in Bn with bipartition V0i and V1i . Then
G = G0 G1 is a graph in Bn+1 where is a perfect matching between
V0 V1 and V0 V1 such that M joining vertices in Vi0 to vertices in V1i
0 0 1 1 1
if v Vi0 .
Every graph in Hn is an n-regular graph with 2n vertices, and every graph in Bn
contains 2n1 vertices in each bipartition. We use Nn to denote the set of nonbipartite
graphs in Hn . Clearly, we have Qn Bn .
By brute force, we can check whether Q1 is the only graph in H1 and Q2 is the
only graph in H2 . Thus, we have the following lemma.
LEMMA 14.12 Every graph in Bn is Hamiltonian laceable and every graph in Bn is
Hamiltonian if n 2.
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THEOREM 14.4 [268] Let n 2. Suppose that G is a graph in Bn with bipartition
V0 and V1 . Suppose that u1 and u2 are two distinct vertices in Vi and that v1 and v2 are
two distinct vertices in V1i with i {0, 1}. Then there are two disjoint paths P1 and
P2 of G such that (1) P1 joins u1 to v1 , (2) P2 joins u2 to v2 , and (3) P1 P2 spans G.
Proof: We prove this theorem by induction on n. Clearly, Q2 is the only graph in B2
and this theorem holds on Q2 . Moreover, Q3 is the only graph in B3 and this theorem
holds on Q3 . Suppose that this theorem holds for every graph in Bn1 with n 4. Let
G = G0 G1 be a graph in Bn . Let V0 and V1 be the bipartition of Gi for i = 0, 1.
i i
Without loss of generality, we assume that V00 V01 and V10 V11 form the bipartition
of G. Suppose that u1 and u2 are two distinct vertices in V00 V01 and v1 and v2 are
two distinct vertices in V10 V11 . Without loss of generality, we assume that u1 is a
vertex in V00 . We have the following cases:
Case 1. u2 in V00 , v1 in V10 , and v2 in V10 . By induction, there are two disjoint
paths R1 and R2 of G0 such that (1) R1 joins u1 to v1 , (2) R2 joins u2 to v2 , and
(3) R1 R2 spans G0 . Without loss of generality, we write R2 =
u2 , z, R, v2 . By
Theorem 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining u2 to z. We set P1 = R1
and P2 =
u2 , u2 , Q, z, z, R, v2 . Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Case 2. u2 in V00 , v1 in V10 , and v2 in V11 . Let z be any vertex in V01 {v1 }. By
induction, there are two disjoint paths R1 and R2 of G0 such that (1) R1 joins u1
to v1 , (2) R2 joins u2 to z, and (3) R1 R2 spans G0 . By Theorem 14.12, there is a
Hamiltonian path Q of G1 joining z to v2 . We set P1 = R1 and P2 =
u2 , R2 , z, z, Q, v2 .
Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Case 3. u2 in V00 , v1 in V11 , and v2 in V11 . Let y and z be any two distinct vertices
in V01 . By induction, there are two disjoint paths R1 and R2 of G0 such that (1) R1
joins u1 to y, (2) R2 joins u2 to z, and (3) R1 R2 spans G0 . Moreover, there are two
disjoint paths Q1 and Q2 of G1 such that (1) Q1 joins y to v1 , (2) Q2 joins z to v2 , and
(3) Q1 Q2 spans G1 . We set P1 =
u1 , R1 , y, y, Q1 , v1 and P2 =
u2 , R2 , z, z, Q2 , v2 .
Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Case 4. u2 in V01 , v1 in V10 , and v2 in V11 . By Theorem 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian
path P1 of G0 joining u1 to v1 . Moreover, there is a Hamiltonian path P2 of G1 joining
u2 to v2 . Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Case 5. u2 in V01 , v1 in V11 , and v2 in V10 . By Theorem 14.12, there is a Hamil-
tonian path P of G0 joining u1 to v2 . We write P =
u1 = z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . , z2n1 = v2 .
Since n 4, 2n1 8. Thus, this is an index t in {1, 2, 3} such that {z2t , z2t+1 }
{u2 , v1 } = . By induction, there are two disjoint paths Q1 and Q2 of G1
such that (1) Q1 joins z2t to v1 , (2) Q2 joins u2 to z2t+1 , and (3) Q1 Q2
spans G1 . We set P1 =
u1 = z1 , z2 , . . . , z2t , z2t , Q1 , v1 and P2 =
u2 , Q2 , z2t+1 , z2t+1 ,
z2t , . . . , z2n1 = v2 . Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Let n be any positive integer. To prove that every graph in Bn is w -laceable for
every w, 1 w n, we need the concept of spanning fan. We note that there is another
Menger-type theorem. Let u be a vertex of G and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be a subset of
V (G) not including u. An (u, S)-fan is a set of disjoint paths {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } of G
such that Pi joins u and vi . By Theorem 7.8, a graph G is k-connected if and only
if there exists a (u, S)-fan between any vertex u and any k-subset of V (G) such that
u / S. Thus, we dene a spanning fan as a fan that spans G. Naturally, we can study
(G) as the largest integer k such that there exists a spanning (u, S)-fan between any
fan
vertex u and any k-vertex subset S with u / S. However, we defer such a study for the
following reasons.
First, let S be a cut set of a graph G. Let u be any vertex of V (G) S. It is easy
to see that there is no spanning (u, S)-fan in G. Thus, fan (G) < (G) if G is not a
complete graph.
Second, let G be a bipartite graph with bipartition V0 and V1 and |V0 | = |V1 |.
Let u be a vertex in Vi , S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be a subset of G not containing u, and
k (G). Suppose that |S V1i | = r. Without loss of generality, we assume that
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } V1i . Let {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } be any spanning (u, S)-fan of G. Then
l(Pi ) is odd if i r, and l(Pi ) is even if r < i k. Let l(Pi ) = 2ti + 1 if i r and
l(Pi ) = 2ti if i > r. For i r, there are ti 1 vertices of Pi in Vi other than u and there
are ti vertices of Pi in V1i . For i > r, there are ri vertices of Pi in Vi other than
u and
there are ti vertices of Pi in V1i . Thus, |Vi | = 1 r + ki=1 ti and |V1i | = ki=1 ti .
Since |Vi | = |V1i |, r = 1. Thus, r = 1 is a requirement as we study the spanning fan
of bipartite graphs with equal size of bipartition.
THEOREM 14.6 Let n and k be any two positive integers with k n. Let G be a
graph in Bn with bipartition V0 and V1 . There exists a spanning (u, S)-fan in G for
any vertex u in Vi and any vertex subset S with |S| n such that |S V1i | = 1 with
i {0, 1}.
Proof: We prove this statement by induction on n. Let G = G0 G1 in Bn such that
V0i and V1i are the bipartition of Gi for every i = 0, 1. Without loss of generality, we
assume that V00 V01 and V10 V11 form the bipartition of G. Let u be any vertex in
V00 V10 and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be any vertex subset in G {u} with v1 being the
unique vertex in (V10 V11 ) S. Without loss of generality, we assume that u V00 .
By Lemma 14.12, this statement holds for k = 1. Thus, we assume that k = 2 and
n 2. By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path P of G joining v1 to v2 . Without
loss of generality, we write P as
v1 , P1 , u, P2 , v2 . Then {P1 , P2 } forms the spanning
(u, S)-fan of G. Thus, this statement holds for k = 2. Moreover, this statement holds
for n = 2. We assume that 3 k n. Suppose that this statement holds for Bn1 , and
Gi Bn1 for i = 0 and 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that u G0 . Let
T = S {v1 }. We have the following cases:
Case 1. |T V00 | = |T |. Then vi V00 for every i, 2 i k.
Case 1.1. v1 V01 . Let H = S {vk }. Obviously, H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and |H| =
k 1. By induction, there is a spanning (u, H)-fan {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of G0 . Without
loss of generality, we assume that Pi is joining u to vi for every i, 1 i k 1.
Suppose that vk V (P1 ). Without loss of generality, we write P1 as
u, Q1 , vk , x, Q2 , v1 . Since vk V00 , x V10 . (Note that x = v1 if l(Q2 ) = 0.) By
Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G1 joining vertex u V11 to ver-
tex x V01 . We set W1 =
u, u, R, x, x, Q2 , v1 , Wi = Pi for every i, 2 i k 1,
and Wk =
u, Q1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of G. See
Figure 14.4a for illustration, where k = 6.
Suppose that vk V (Pi ) for some 2 i k 1. Without loss of generality, we
assume that vk V (Pk1 ) and we write Pk1 as
u, Q1 , vk , x, Q2 , vk1 . Since vk V00 ,
x V10 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G1 joining vertex u V11
to vertex x V01 . We set Wi = Pi for every i
k 2, Wk1 =
u, u, R, x, x, Q2 , vk1 ,
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 352
G0 u u G1 G0 u u G1 G 0 u G1
v6 y y u
v6
x x v6 v1
x x
x
v2 v3 v4 v5 v1 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v2 v3 v4 v5 x
(a) (b) (c)
G0 u v1 G1 G0 u
x
G1 G 0 u
x
v1
x
G1
y y u
v6 x v1 v6
v6
y y y y
v2 v3 v4 v5 x x v2 v3 v4 v5 v2 v3 v4 v5
(d) (e) (f)
and Wk =
u, Q1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of G. See
Figure 14.4b for illustration, where k = 6.
Case 1.2. v1 V11 . We choose a vertex x in V10 . Let H = (T {x}) {vk }. So
H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and |H| = k 1. By induction, there is a spanning (u, H)-
fan {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of G0 . Without loss of generality, we assume that P1 is joining
u to x and Pi is joining u to vi for every 2 i k 1. We have u V11 and x V10 .
Case 1.2.1. vk V (P1 ). Without loss of generality, we write P1 as
u, Q1 , y, vk ,
Q2 , x. Since vk V00 , y V10 and y V01 .
Suppose that v1 = u. By Theorem 14.4, there are two disjoint paths R1 and
R2 in G1 such that (1) R1 joins y to v1 , (2) R2 joins u to x, and (3) R1 R2
spans G1 . We set W1 =
u, Q1 , y, y, R1 , v1 , Wi = Pi for every 2 i k 1, and
Wk =
u, u, R2 , x, x, Q21 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of G.
See Figure 14.4c for illustration, where k = 6.
Suppose that v1 = u. By Theorem 14.5, there is a Hamiltonian path R of
G1 {v1 } joining y to x. We set W1 =
u, u = v1 , Wi = Pi for every 2 i k 1, and
Wk =
u, Q1 , y, y, R, x, x, Q21 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan
of G. See Figure 14.4d for illustration, where k = 6.
Case 1.2.2. vk V (Pi ) for some 2 i k 1. Without loss of generality, we assume
that vk V (Pk1 ) and we write Pk1 as
u, Q1 , vk , y, Q2 , vk1 . Since vk V00 , y V10
and y V10 .
Suppose that v1 = u. By Theorem 14.4, there are two disjoint paths R1 and
R2 in G1 such that (1) R1 joins x to v1 , (2) R2 joins u to y, and (3) R1 R2
spans G1 . We set W1 =
u, P1 , x, x, R1 , v1 , Wi = Pi for every 2 i k 2, Wk1 =
u, u, R2 , y, y, Q2 , vk1 , and Wk =
u, Q1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning
(u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.4e for illustration, where k = 6.
Suppose that v1 = u. By Theorem 14.5, there is a Hamiltonian path R of
G1 {v1 } joining x to y. We set W1 =
u, u = v1 , Wi = Pi for every 2 i k 2,
Wk1 =
u, P1 , x, x, R, y, y, Q2 , vk1 , and Wk =
u, Q1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is
the spanning (u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.4f for illustration, where k = 6.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 353
G0 u u G1 G 0 u u G1
x x
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v1
(a) (b)
G0 u u G1 G0 u u G1 G0 u u G1
v5 v1
y v6 y
v6 y v1 y v5
v1 v2 v3 v4 x v5 v2 v3 v4 x v2 v3 v4 x v6
x x x
(a) (b) (c)
Wk1 =
u, Pk1 , y, y, Q2 , vk1 , and Wk =
u, u, R2 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is
the spanning (u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.6b for illustration, where k = 6.
Case 3.3. v1 V11 and v1 V (R2 ). Without loss of generality, we write R2 as
u, Q1 ,
v1 , y, Q2 , vk . Since v1 V11 , y V01 and y V10 . Let H = (T {x, y}) {vk1 , vk }.
Obviously, H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and |H| = k 1. By induction, there is a
spanning (u, H)-fan {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of G0 . Without loss of generality, we
assume that P1 is joining u to x, Pi is joining u to vi for every 2 i k 2,
and Pk1 is joining u to y. We set W1 =
u, u, Q1 , v1 , Wi = Pi for every
2 i k 2, Wk1 =
u, P1 , x, x, R1 , vk1 , and Wk =
u, Pk1 , y, y, Q2 , vk . Then
{W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.6c for illustration,
where k = 6.
Case 4. |T V01 | 3 and |T V00 | 1. We have n k = |S| 5. Without loss
of generality, we assume that A = T V00 = {v2 , v3 , . . . , vt } and B = T V01 =
{vt+1 , vt+2 , . . . , vk } for some 2 t k 3. Since t k 3 and k n, |A| = t 1
n 4 and |B| n 2. Since n 5, (n1)|A| + |B| (n 1)(n 4) + (n 2) < 2n2 =
|V11 |. Thus, we can choose a vertex x in V10 B such that vi / NG1 (x) for every
2 i t. Since 2 t k 3 and k n, k t + 1 n 1. Let H = B {u}. Obvi-
ously, H G1 , |H V11 | = 1, and |H| = k t + 1. By induction, there is a spanning
(x, H)-fan {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pkt+1 } of G1 . Without loss of generality, we assume that P1
is joining x to u and Pi is joining x to vt+i1 for every 2 i k t + 1. Moreover, we
write P1 =
x, x1 , R1 , u and Pi =
x, xi , Ri , vt+i1 for every 2 i k t + 1. Since
x V10 , xi V11 and x i V00 for every 1 i k t + 1. We set C = {x 2 , x 3 , . . . , x kt }.
Case 4.1. v1 V10 . Let H = A C {v1 }. Obviously, H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and
|H | = k 1. By induction, there is a spanning (u, H )-fan {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of G0 .
Without loss of generality, we assume that Qi is joining u to vi for every 1 i t
and Qj is joining u to x jt+2 for every t + 1 j k 1. We set Wi =
u, Qi , vi for
every 1 i t, Wj =
u, Qj , x it+2 , xit+2 , Rit+2 , vj for every t + 1 j k 1, and
Wk =
u, u, P11 , x, Pkt+1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of
G. See Figure 14.7a for illustration, where k = 6 and t = 3.
Case 4.2. v1 V11 and v1 V (P1 ). Without loss of generality, we write P1 as
x, Z1 , y, v1 , Z2 , u. Since v1 V11 , y V01 and y V10 . Let H = A C {y}. Obvi-
ously, H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and |H | = k 1. By induction, there is a spanning
(u, H )-fan {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of G0 . Without loss of generality, we assume that
Q1 is joining u to y, Qi is joining u to vi for every 2 i t, and Qj is joining
u to x jt+2 for every t + 1 j k 1. We set W1 =
u, u, Z21 , v1 , Wi =
u, Qi , vi
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 355
G0 u u G1 G0 u u G1 G0 u u G1
v1 x
x1
y y y
v1 x x y
x3 x3 x4 x3 x3 x4 x3 x3
x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2
v3 v3 v3
v2 v4 v5 v6 v2 v4 v5 v6 v2 v4 v5 v6
(a) (b) (c)
for every 2 i t, Wj =
u, Qj , x it+2 , xit+2 , Rit+2 , vj for every t + 1 j k 1,
and Wk =
u, Q1 , y, y, Z11 , x, Pkt+1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning
(u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.7b for illustration, where k = 6 and t = 3.
Case 4.3. v1 V11 and v1 V (Pi ) for some 2 i k t + 1. Without loss of gener-
ality, we assume that v1 V (Pkt+1 ) and we write Pkt+1 as
x, Z1 , v1 , y, Z2 , vk .
Since v1 V11 , y V01 and y V10 . Let H = A C {y}. Obviously, H G0 ,
|H V10 | = 1, and |H | = k 1. By induction, there is a spanning (u, H )-fan
{Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of G0 . Without loss of generality, we assume that Q1 is join-
ing u to y, Qi is joining u to vi for every 2 i t, and Qj is joining u to x jt+2
for every t + 1 j k 1. We set W1 =
u, u, P11 , x, Z1 , v1 , Wi =
u, Qi , vi for
every 2 i t, Wj =
u, Qj , x it+2 , xit+2 , Rit+2 , vj for every t + 1 j k 1, and
Wk =
u, Q1 , y, y, Z2 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms the spanning (u, S)-fan of G.
See Figure 14.7c for illustration, where k = 6 and t = 3.
Case 5. |T V01 | = |T | 3. Let H = (T {u}) {vk }. Obviously, H G1 ,
|H V11 | = 1, and |H| = k 1. By induction, there is a spanning (vk , H)-fan
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of G1 . Without loss of generality, we assume that P1 is joining
vk to u and Pi is joining vk to vi for every 2 i k 1. Without loss of generality, we
write P1 =
vk , x1 , R1 , u and write Pi =
vk , xi , Ri , vi for every 2 i k 1. Since
vk V10 , xi V11 and x i V00 for every 1 i k 1. We set C = {x 2 , x 3 , . . . , x kt }.
Case 5.1. v1 V10 . Let H = C {v1 }. Obviously, H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and
|H | = k 1. By induction, there is a spanning (u, H )-fan {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of
G0 . Without loss of generality, we assume that Q1 is joining u to v1 and Qi is
joining u to x i for every 2 i k 1. We set W1 = Q1 , Wi =
u, Qi , x i , xi , Ri , vi for
every 2 i k 1, and Wk =
u, u, P11 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning
(u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.8a for illustration, where k = 6.
Case 5.2. v1 V11 and v1 V (P1 ). Without loss of generality, we write
P1 =
vk , Z1 , y, v1 , Z2 , u. Since v1 V11 , y V01 and y V10 . Let H = C {y}. Obvi-
ously, H G0 , |H V01 | = 1, and |H | = k 1. By induction, there is a span-
ning (u, H )-fan {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of G0 . Without loss of generality, we assume
that Q1 is joining u to y and Qi is joining u to x i for every 2 i k 1.
We set W1 =
u, u, Z21 , v1 , Wi =
u, Qi , x i , xi , Ri , vi for every 2 i k 1, and
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 356
G0 u u G1 G0 u G1 G 0 u G1
u v1 u v6
x1
v6 y y v6 x5 x5 v1
v1
x5 x5 y
x5 x5 y
x4 x4 x4 x4 x4
x4
x3 x3 x3 x3 x3 x3
x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2
v2 v3 v4 v5 v2 v3 v4 v5 v2 v3 v4 v5
(a) (b) (c)
Wk =
u, Q1 , y, y, Z11 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of G.
See Figure 14.8b for illustration, where k = 6.
Case 5.3. v1 V11 and v1 V (Pi ) for some 2 i k 1. Without loss of generality,
we assume that v1 V (Pk1 ) and write Pk1 =
vk , xk1 , Z1 , v1 , y, Z2 , vk1 . Since
v1 V11 , y V01 and y V10 . Let H = C {y}. Obviously, H G0 , |H V10 | = 1, and
|H | = k 1. By induction, there is a (u, H )-fan {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of G0 . Without
loss of generality, we assume that Q1 is joining u to y and Qi is joining u to x i for every
2 i k 1. We set W1 =
u, Qk1 , x k1 , xk1 , Z1 , v1 , Wi =
u, Qi , x i , xi , Ri , vi for
every 2 i k 2, Wk1 =
u, Q1 , y, y, Z2 , vk1 , and Wk =
u, u, P11 , vk . Then
{W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } is the spanning (u, S)-fan of G. See Figure 14.8c for illustration,
where k = 6.
Let n 2. Let G = G0 G1 Nn+1 with G0 Hn and G1 Hn . Depending on
whether G0 and G1 is bipartite, we prove that G = G0 G1 is 3 -connected with the
following lemmas.
LEMMA 14.13 According to isomorphism, there is only one graph in N3 . Moreover,
this graph is 3 -connected.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 357
0
1 7
2 6
3 5
4
Proof: By brute force, we can check whether the graph T in Figure 14.9 is the only
graph in N3 .
Let x and y be two distinct vertices of T . By the symmetric of T , we can assume
that x = 0 and y {1, 2, 3, 4}. The 3 -containers {P1 , P2 , P3 } of T between x and y are
listed here:
y=1 {P1 =
0, 1, P2 =
0, 4, 3, 2, 1, P3 =
0, 7, 6, 5, 1}
y=2 {P1 =
0, 1, 2, P2 =
0, 7, 3, 2, P3 =
0, 4, 5, 6, 2}
y=3 {P1 =
0, 4, 3, P2 =
0, 7, 3, P3 =
0, 1, 5, 6, 2, 3}
y=4 {P1 =
0, 4, P2 =
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, P3 =
0, 7, 6, 5, 4}
Thus, T is 3 -connected.
LEMMA 14.14 Let n 3. Assume that G = G0 G1 in Nn+1 with both G0 and G1
in Nn . Then G is 3 -connected.
Proof: Let u and v be any two distinct vertices of G. We need to construct a 3 -
container of G between u and v.
Case 1. u, v G0 . By Lemma 14.11, there is a 2 -container {P1 , P2 } of G0 between
u and v. By Lemma 14.11 again, there is a Hamiltonian path P of G1 joining u to v.
We set P3 as
u, u, P, v, v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 2. u G0 and v G1 with u = v. Since there are 2n vertices in G0 and 2n > 3
for n 3, we can choose two distinct vertices x and y in G0 {u}. By Lemma 14.11,
there is a Hamiltonian path R of G0 joining x to y. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path
W of G1 joining x to y. We write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , y and W =
x, W1 , v, W2 , y. We set
P1 =
u, R11 , x, x, W1 , v, P2 =
u, R2 , y, y, W21 , v, and P3 =
u, v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 }
is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 3. u G0 and v G1 with u = v. Since there are 2n vertices in G0 , we
choose a vertex x in G0 {u, v}. By Lemma 14.11, there is a Hamiltonian path R
of G0 joining x to v. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path W of G1 joining x to u.
We write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , v and W =
x, W1 , v, W2 , u. We set P1 =
u, u, W21 , v,
P2 =
u, R11 , x, x, W1 , v, and P3 =
u, R2 , v, v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container
of G between u and v.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 358
LEMMA 14.15 Let n 3. Assume that G = G0 G1 in Nn+1 with G0 in Bn and G1
in Nn . Then G is 3 -connected.
Proof: Let V0 and V1 be the bipartition of G0 . Let u and v be any two distinct vertices
of G. We need to construct a 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 1. u, v G0 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a 2 -container {P1 , P2 } of G0 between
u and v. By Lemma 14.11, there is a Hamiltonian path P of G1 joining u to v. We set
P3 =
u, u, P, v, v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 2. u, v G1 . Without loss of generality, we assume that u V0 .
Case 2.1. v V0 . Since there are 2n1 vertices in V1 and 2n1 4 for n 3, we can
choose two distinct vertices x and y in V1 . By Lemma 14.11, there is a Hamiltonian path
R of G1 joining x to y. Without loss of generality, we write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , v, R3 , y.
By Theorem 14.4, there are two disjoint paths T1 and T2 of G0 such that (1) T1
joins u to y, (2) T2 joins x to v, and (3) T1 T2 spans G1 . We set P1 =
u, R2 , v,
P2 =
u, R11 , x, x, T2 , v, v, and P3 =
u, u, T1 , y, y, R31 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the
3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 2.2. v V1 . By Lemma 14.11, there is a 2 -container {P1 , P2 } of G1 between
u and v. By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path P of G0 joining u to v. We set
P3 =
u, u, P, v, v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 3. u G0 and v G1 with u = v. By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian cycle
C of G0 . Without loss of generality, we write C =
u, R1 , v, x, R2 , u. By Lemma 14.11,
there is a Hamiltonian path T of G1 joining u to x. Without loss of generality,
we write T =
u, T1 , v, T2 , x. We set P1 =
u, R1 , v, v, P2 =
u, u, T1 , v, and P3 =
u, R21 , x, x, T21 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 4. u G0 and v G1 with u = v. Without loss of generality, we assume
that u V0 . We can choose a vertex x in V0 {u} and a vertex y in V1 . By
Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G0 joining x to y. By Lemma 14.11,
there is a Hamiltonian path T of G1 joining x to y. Without loss of gener-
ality, we write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , y and T =
x, T1 , v, T2 , y. We set P1 =
u, v,
P2 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v, and P3 =
u, R2 , y, y, T21 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -
container of G between u and v.
LEMMA 14.16 Assume that G = G0 G1 in Nn+1 with both G0 and G1 in Bn for
n 2. Then G is 3 -connected.
Proof: Let V0i and V1i be the bipartition of Gi for i = 0, 1. Let u and v be two distinct
vertices of G. Without loss of generality, we assume that u V00 and u V11 . We need
to construct a 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 1. v V00 V10 and v V01 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a 2 -container {P1 , P2 }
of G0 between u and v. By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path P of G1 joining
u to v. We set P3 =
u, u, P, v, v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between
u and v.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 359
Case 2. v V00 and v V11 . Since u V00 , u V11 , v V00 , and v V11 , we can choose
a vertex x in V10 such that x V01 and choose a vertex y in V00 such that y V01 .
By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G0 joining x to y. Without
loss of generality, we write R =
x, R1 , p, R2 , q, R3 , y where {p, q} = {u, v}. With-
out loss of generality, we assume that p = u and q = v. By Theorem 14.4, there are
two disjoint paths T1 and T2 of G1 such that (1) T1 joins x to v, (2) T2 joins u to
y, and (3) T1 T2 spans G1 . We set P1 =
u, R2 , v, P2 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v, v, and
P3 =
u, u, T2 , y, y, R31 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 3. v V10 and v V11 . Since u V00 and u V11 , v V10 , and v V11 , we can
choose a vertex x in V10 such that x V01 and choose a vertex y in V00 such that
y V01 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G0 joining x to y. Without
loss of generality, we write R =
x, R1 , p, R2 , q, R3 , y where {p, q} = {u, v}. Without
loss of generality, we assume that p = u and q = v. By Theorem 14.4, there are
two disjoint paths T1 and T2 of G1 such that (1) T1 joins x to v, (2) T2 joins u to
y, and (3) T1 T2 spans G1 . We set P1 =
u, R2 , v, P2 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v, v, and
P3 =
u, u, T2 , y, y, R31 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container of G between u and v.
Case 4.1. v V00 . Since u V00 , u V11 , and v V00 , we can choose a vertex x V10
such that x V01 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R of G0 joining
x to v. Again, by Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path T of G1 joining x
to u. Write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , v and T =
x, T1 , v, T2 , u. We set P1 =
u, u, T21 , v,
P2 =
u, R2 , v, v, and P3 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container
of G between u and v.
Case 4.2. v V10 and v V01 . Since u V00 , u V11 , v V01 , and v V10 , we can
choose a vertex x V00 such that x V01 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian
path R of G0 joining x to v, and there is a Hamiltonian path T of G1 joining x to
u. We write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , v and T =
x, T1 , v, T2 , u. We set P1 =
u, u, T21 , v,
P2 =
u, R2 , v, v, and P3 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container
of G between u and v.
Case 4.3. v V10 and v V11 . Since u V00 , u V11 , and v V11 , we can choose
a vertex x V00 such that x V01 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamiltonian path
R of G0 joining x to v, and there is a Hamiltonian path T of G1 joining x to
u. We write R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , v and T =
x, T1 , v, T2 , u. We set P1 =
u, u, T21 , v,
P2 =
u, R2 , v, v, and P3 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 } is the 3 -container
of G between u and v.
Case 5. v = u. Since u V00 and u V11 , we can choose a vertex x V00 such that
x V01 and choose a vertex y V10 such that y V11 . By Lemma 14.12, there is a Hamil-
tonian path R of G0 joining x to y, and there is a Hamiltonian path T of G1 joining x to y.
Without loss of generality, we write that R =
x, R1 , u, R2 , y and T =
x, T1 , v, T2 , y.
We set P1 =
u, v, P2 =
u, R11 , x, x, T1 , v, and Pi s =
u, R2 , y, y, T21 , v. Then
{P1 , P2 , P3 } forms the 3 -container of G between u and v.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 360
vertex 0un2 . . . u0 V (CQn1 ) and the vertex 1vn2 . . . v0 V (CQn1 ) are adjacent
0 1
According to the denition of the n-dimensional crossed cube, two distinct vertices
u = un1 un2 . . . u0 and v = vn1 vn2 . . . v0 are adjacent in CQn if and only if there
is an integer i such that
1. uj = vj if j > i
2. ui = 1 vi
3. ui1 = vi1 if i is odd
4. (u2j+1 u2j , v2j+1 v2j ) {(00, 00), (10, 10), (01, 11), (11, 01)} for every 0 j <
i1
2
1. uj = vj if j > i
2. ui = 1 vi
3. ui1 = vi1 if i is odd
4. (u2j+1 u2j , v2j+1 v2j ) {(00, 00), (01, 01), (10, 11), (11, 10)} for every 0 j <
i1
2
CQ3
CQ4
ij
0 j 1. We set CQn2 as a subgraph of CQn induced by {x | x V (CQn ), (x)n = i and
ij
(x)n1 = j}. Obviously, CQn2 is isomorphic to CQn2 . Moreover, CQn2 00 CQ01 ,
n2
CQn2 CQn2 , CQn2 CQn2 , and CQn2 CQn2 are isomorphic to CQn1 .
00 10 01 11 10 11
THEOREM 14.11 [271] Suppose that u1 , u2 , v1 , and v2 are four distinct vertices
of CQn for n 5. Then there are two disjoint paths P1 and P2 of CQn such that (1) P1
joins u1 to v1 , (2) P2 joins u2 to v2 , and (3) P1 P2 contains all the vertices in CQn .
Proof: We have the following cases:
Case 1. {u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 } V (CQn1 t ) for some t {0, 1}. By Theorem 14.10, there is
t
a Hamiltonian path R of CQn1 joining u1 to v1 . Without loss of generality, we write
R =
u1 , R1 , x, p, R2 , q, y, R3 , v1 where {p, q} = {u2 , v2 }. By Theorem 14.10, there is
1t
a Hamiltonian path Q of CQn1 joining (x)n to (y)n . We set P1 =
u1 , R1 , x, (x)n , Q,
(y) , y, R3 , v1 and P2 = R2 . Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
n
1t
Case 2. {u1 , u2 , v1 } V (CQn1
t ) and {v2 } V (CQn1 ) for some t {0, 1}. By
t
Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian path R of CQn1 joining u2 to v1 . Without loss
of generality, we write R =
u2 , R1 , x, u1 , y, R2 , v1 .
Suppose that (x)n = v2 . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of
1t
CQn1 joining (x)n to v2 . We set P1 =
u1 , y, R2 , v1 and P2 =
u2 , R1 , x, (x)n , Q, v2 .
Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 364
v2 . We set Pi =
ui , (ui )n , Ri , vi for every i {1, 2}. Then P1 and P2 form the desired
paths.
Case 4.2.2. u1 = (u2 )n or v2 = (v1 )n .
Case 4.2. Either u1 = (v1 )n and v2 = (u2 )n or u1 = (v1 )n and v2 = (u2 )n . Without
loss of generality, we assume that u1 = (v1 )n and v2 = (u2 )n . By Theorem 14.10,
there is a Hamiltonian path R of CQn {u1 , v1 } joining u2 to v2 . Moreover, there is
t
a Hamiltonian path R2 of CQn1 {u1 } joining (u2 )n to v2 . We set P1 =
u, v1 and
P2 = R. Then P1 and P2 form the desired paths.
Case 4.3. u1 = (v1 )n and v2 = (u2 )n .
Suppose that {u1 , v2 } V (CQn2 ts ) for some s {0, 1}. We have {u , v }
2 1
(1t)s (1t)s
V (CQn2 ). Since CQn2 CQn2 is isomorphic to CQn1 , by Theorem 14.10,
ts
desired paths.
Suppose that u1 V (CQn2 ts ) and v V (CQt(1s) ) for some s {0, 1}. We have
2 n2
(1t)s (1t)(1s)
u2 V (CQn2 ) and v1 V (CQn2 ). Let x and y be two distinct vertices
of CQn2ts {u , (v )n1 }. By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian path R of
1 2 1
ts t(1s)
CQn2 joining x to y. Moreover, there is a Hamiltonian path R2 of CQn2 join-
ing (y)n1 to (x)n1 . Without loss of generality, we write R1 =
x, Q1 , p, u1 , Q2 , y
and R2 =
(y)n1 , Q3 , q, v2 , Q2 , (x)n1 . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian
(1t)(1s)
path W1 of CQn2 joining (q)n to v1 . Moreover, there is a Hamiltonian path
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 365
(1t)s
W2 of CQn2 joining u2 to (p)n . We set P1 =
u1 , Q2 , y, (y)n1 , Q3 , q, (q)n , W1 , v1
and P2 =
u2 , W2 , (p)n , p, Q11 , x, (x)n1 , Q21 , v1 . Then P1 and P2 form the desired
paths.
Wk =
u, Rk1 , (zk1 )n , zk1 , Q1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms a desired set
of paths of CQn .
Case 2.2. (u)n = vi for every 1 i k 1. We write Pk1 =
vk , Q, x, vk1 . By
induction, there is a set of k 1 disjoint paths {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rk1 } of CQn1
0 such that
" k1
Ri joins u to (zi )n for every 1 i k 1 and i=1 Ri contains all the vertices in
0 . We set W =
u, R , (z )n , z , P , v for every 1 i k 2, W
CQn1 i i i i i i k1 =
u, vk1 ,
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 366
and Wk =
u, Rk1 , (zk1 )n , zk1 , Q1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms a desired
set of paths of CQn .
Case 3. |S0 | + |F0 | < |S| + |F| and |S1 | = 0. By induction, there is a set of k dis-
joint paths {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } of CQn1
0 such that Pi joins u to vi for every 1 i k
"k 0 . Since (2n1 (n 2))/(n 2) >
and i=1 Pi contains all the vertices in CQn1
2(n 3), there are two adjacent vertices x and y in some path Pi such that {(x)n , (y)n ,
(x, (x)n ), (y, (y)n )} F = . Without loss of generality, we assume that both x and y
are in Pk , and we write Pk =
u, R1 , x, y, R2 , vk . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamil-
tonian path Q of CQn1 1 joining (x)n to (y)n . We set Wi = Pi for every 1 i k 1 and
Wk =
u, R1 , x, (x) , Q, (y)n , y, R2 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms a desired set of
n
paths of CQn .
of CQn .
Case 4.2. |F0 | = |F|. Without loss of generality, we assume that S1 = {vt , vt +
1, . . . , vk } for some 1 t k.
Case 4.2.1. t = k. By induction, there is a set of k disjoint paths" {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } of
0
CQn1 such that Pi joins u to vi for every 1 i k 1 and k1 i=1 Pi contains all the
0
vertices in CQn1 .
Suppose that (u)n = vk . Since 2n1 > n 1, we assume that l(Pk1 ) > 1 and
we write Pk1 =
u, R, x, vk1 . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian path Q
1
of CQn1 {vk } joining (x)n to (vk1 )n . We set Wi = Pi for every 1 i k 2,
Wk1 =
u, R, x, (x)n , Q, (vk1 )n , vk1 , and Wk =
u, vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk }
forms a desired set of paths of CQn .
Suppose that (u)n = vk . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian path
Q of CQn1 1 joining (u)n to vk . We set Wi = Pi for every 1 i k 1 and
Wk =
u, (u) , Q, vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms a desired set of paths of CQn .
n
every 1 i t 1, Wj =
u, Qj , (ytj+1 )n , ytj+1 , Rtj+1 , vj for every t j k 1,
and Wk =
u, (u)n , Pkt+1 , vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms a desired set of paths
of CQn .
Case 4.2.3. t = 1. Suppose that (u)n S1 . Without loss of generality, we assume that
(u)n = vk . By induction, there is a set of (k 1) disjoint paths " {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of
1
CQn1 such that Pi joins vk to vi for every 1 i k 1 and k1 i=1 Pi contains all the
vertices in CQn1 1 . Without loss of generality, we write P =
v , y , R , v for every
i k i i i
1 i k 1. By induction, there is a set of k 1 disjoint paths {Q1 , Q2 , . ." . , Qk1 }
of CQn10 F0 such that Qi joins u to (yi )n for every 1 i k 1 and k1 i=1 Qi
contains all the vertices in CQn1 F0 . We set Wi =
u, Qi , (yi ) , yi , Ri , vi for every
0 n
1 i k 1 and Wk =
u, vk . Then {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wk } forms a desired set of paths
of CQn .
Suppose that (u)n / S1 . By induction, there is a set of k 1 disjoint paths
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of CQn1 1 such that Pi joins vk to vi for every 1 i k 1
"k1 1 . Without loss of generality, we
and i=1 Pi contains all the vertices in CQn1
assume that (u) Pk1 , and we write Pi =
vk , yi , Ri , vi for every 1 i k 2
n
and Pk1 =
vk , Rk , (u)n , yk1 , Rk1 , vk1 . By induction, there is a set of k 1
disjoint paths {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qk1 } of CQn1 0 F0 such that Qi joins u to (yi )n for
"k1
every 1 i k 1 and i=1 Qi contains all the vertices in CQn1 0 F0 . We set
Wi =
u, Qi , (yi ) , yi , Ri , vi for every 1 i k 1 and Wk =
u, (u)n , Rk1 , vk . Then
n
LEMMA 14.18 Suppose that u and v are two distinct vertices of CQn with
(u)n1 = (v)n1 for n 7. Then there is an n -container of CQn between u
and v.
Proof: Let (u)n1 = (v)n1 = 0. Since CQn1 0 is isomorphic to CQn1 , by
Lemma 14.17, there is an (n 2) -container {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn2 } of CQn1
0 between
u and v. Since degCQ0 (u) = n 1, there is a vertex x in CQn1 such that 0
n1 "
0 ) and (x, u)
(x, u) E(CQn1 / n2i=1 E(Ri ). Similarly, there is a vertex y in
"
0 0 / n2
CQn1 such that (y, v) E(CQn1 ) and (y, v) i=1 E(Ri ). We have the following
cases:
Case 1. Suppose that x = v. Since x = v, y = u. By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamil-
1
tonian path H of CQn1 joining (u)n to (v)n . We set Pi = Ri for every 1 i n 2,
Pn1 =
u, v, and Pn =
u, (u)n , H, (v)n , v. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } is the n -container
of CQn between u and v. See Figure 14.11a for illustration.
Case 2. Suppose that x = v. Since x = v, we have y = u.
0 1
CQ 0n1 u 1
( u) n CQn1 CQ n1 u ( u) n CQ n1
W1 q 1 ( q 1) n
P1 P2 Pn2 Pn1 Pn P1 P2 Pn3 Q 2 Q1
W2 x
y ( q 2) n
W q2 3
v (v)n v (v)n
(a) (b)
CQ 0n1 u ( u) n 1
CQ n1 CQ 0n1 u ( u)n CQn1
1
H1 z ( y )n
P y
P1 P2 Pn3 y P1 P2 Pn3
Q q Q2 Q1
x x ( q)n
H3 W3
v ( v) n v ( v )n
(c) (d)
CQ 0n1 u ( u) n CQ n1
1 0
CQ n1 u 1
( u)n CQn1
y n y ( q) n
Z1 (z ) Q2 q
P1 Pn4 z Q1 P1 P2 Pn3
w x Q2 Q1
q ( q) n
Z2 Z1
W2 x Z2
wz ( z )n
v (v)n v ( v )n
(e) (f)
CQ 0n1 u ( u) n 1
CQn1 CQ 0n1 u ( u)n CQ n1
1
W1 q ( q 1) n
H1 W1
P1 P2 Pn3 y 1 Q1 P1 Pn4 ( q)n
W2 q y Q2 Q1
H2 x
x q2 ( q ) n Q2 W2 z ( z )n
W3 2
v (v)n v ( v )n
(g) (h)
P i = Ri for every 1 i n 3
Pn2 =
u, x, W2 , y, v
Pn1 =
u, W1 , q1 , (q1 )n , Q2 , (q2 )n , q2 , W3 , v
Pn =
u, (u)n , Q1 , (v)n , v
Pi = Ri for every 1 i n 3
Pn2 =
u, x, H3 , v
Pn1 =
u, H1 , y, v
Pn =
u, (u)n , Q, (v)n , v
P i = Ri for every 1 i n 3
Pn2 =
u, x, W2 , v
Pn1 =
u, (u)n , Q1 , (v)n , v
Pn =
u, P, z, (z)n , Q2 , (q)n , q, y, v
Pi = Ri for every 1 i n 4
Pn3 =
u, x, W2 , v
Pn2 =
u, (u)n , Q1 , (v)n , v
Pn1 =
u, Z1 , z, (z)n , Q2 , (q)n , q, w, Z2 , v
Pn =
u, y, v
P i = Ri for every 1 i n 3
Pn2 =
u, x, Z1 , z, (z)n , Q2 , (q)n , q, w, Z2 , v
Pn1 =
u, (u)n , Q1 , (v)n , v
Pn =
u, y, v
P i = Ri for every 1 i n 3
Pn2 =
u, x, W3 , v
Pn1 =
u, W1 , y, v
Pn =
u, (u)n , Q1 , (q1 )n , q1 , W2 , q2 , (q2 )n , Q2 , (v)n , v
Pi = Ri for every 1 i n 4
Pn3 =
u, x, H2 , v
Pn2 =
u, W1 , y, v
Pn1 =
u, H1 , q, (q)n , Q2 , (z)n , z, W2 , v
Pn =
u, (u)n , Q1 , (v)n , v
Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } is the n -container of CQn between u and v. See Figure 14.11h
for illustration.
Thus, this lemma is proved.
LEMMA 14.19 Suppose that u and v are two distinct vertices of CQn with
(u)n2 = (v)n2 and (u)n1 = (v)n1 for n 7. Then there is an n -container of CQn
between u and v.
Proof: We assume that (u)n2 = 0 and (u)n1 = 0. Thus, we have u CQn2 00 and
v CQn2
10 . Since CQ00 CQ10 is isomorphic to CQ
n2 n2 n1 , by Lemma 14.18, there
is an n -container of CQn between u and v. Hence, this lemma is proved.
LEMMA 14.20 Let n 7. Suppose that u and v are two distinct vertices of CQn with
(u)n2 = (v)n2 and (u)n1 = (v)n1 . Then there is an n -container of CQn between
u and v.
Proof: Assume that (u)n2 = 0 and (u)n1 = 0. Thus, u CQn2
00 and v CQ11 .
n2
We have the following cases:
Case 1. u = ((v)n )n1 . Since |V (CQn2 01 )| = 2n2 2n 6 if n 7, there is a set of
Since degCQ00 (u) = n 2, there is a vertex p in CQn2 00 such that (p, u) E(CQ00 )
n2
"n3
n2
and (p, u) / i=1 E(Hi ).
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 372
Ti =
u, Hi , (xi )n1 , xi , Si , yi , (yi )n , Wi , v for every 1 i n 4
Tn3 =
u, (u) = (v)
n n1
, v
Tn2 =
u, (u) n1
= (v) , v
n
To construct two paths Tn1 and Tn , the following two sub cases are considered:
Case 1.1.1. Suppose that (w)n = (z)n1 . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamiltonian
10 {(u)n } joining (w)n to (z)n1 . We set
path Z of CQn2
Tn1 =
u, P1 , w, (w)n , Z, (z)n1 , z, Q2 , v
Tn =
u, p, r, P2 , (xn3 )n1, xn3 , Sn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n, Q1 , q, v
Tn1 =
u, P1 , w, (w)n = (z)n1 , z, Q2 , v
Tn =
u, p, (p)n , Z, (r)n , r, P2 , (xn3 )n1 , xn3 , Sn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , Q1 , q, v
Q1 , q, v and Tn =
u, p, r, P2 , (xn3 )n1 , xn3 , Sn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , Wn3 , v. Then
the n -container of CQn between u and v is composed of {T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn }.
Case 1.2.2. Suppose that (w)n = (z)n1 . By Theorem 14.10, there is a Hamilto-
nian path Z of CQn2 10 {(u)n , wn } joining (p)n to (r)n . Two paths T
n2 and Tn1
are the same as Tn2 and Tn in Case 1.2.1, respectively. We set Tn =
u, p, (p)n , Z,
(r)n , r, P2 , (xn3 )n1 , xn3 , Sn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , Wn3 , v. Then we have constructed
the n -container {T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn } of CQn between u and v.
Case 2. Suppose that u = ((v)n )n1 . Since |V (CQn2
01 )| = 2n2 2n 6 if
Tn2 =
u, P1 , w, (w)n , Z2 , (z)n1 , z, Q2 , v
Tn1 =
u, (u)n , Z1 , (v)n1 , v
Tn =
u, p, r, P2 , (xn3 )n1 , xn3 , Sn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , Q1 , q, v
Tn =
u, p, (p)n , Z, (r)n , r, P2 , (xn3 )n1 , xn3 , Sn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , Q1 , q, v. Then the
n -container of CQn between u and v is composed of {T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn }.
Case 2.2. Suppose that t = n 4. We set Ti =
u, Hi , (xi )n1 , xi , Si , yi , (yi )n , Wi , v
for every 1 i n 5 and Tn4 =
u, (u)n1 , S 1 , (v)n , v.
Case 2.2.1. Suppose that (u)n = (z)n1 and (v)n1 = (w)n . By Theorem 14.11, there
10 such that (1) Z joins (u)n to (v)n1 , (2) Z
are two disjoint paths Z1 and Z2 of CQn2 1 2
joins (w) to (z) , and (3) Z1 Z2 contains all the vertices in CQn2
n n1 10 . Two paths T
n3
and Tn2 are the same as Tn2 and Tn1 in Case 2.1.1, respectively. Two paths Tn1
and Tn are the same as Tn1 and Tn in Case 1.2.1, respectively. Then {T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn }
is the n -container of CQn between u and v.
Case 2.2.2. Suppose that (u)n = (z)n1 and (v)n1 = (w)n . By Theorem 14.10, there
is a Hamiltonian path Z of CQn2 10 {(u)n } joining (w)n to (v)n1 . The two paths T
n3
and Tn2 are the same as Tn1 and Tn in Case 2.1.2, respectively. Also, the two paths
Tn1 and Tn are the same as Tn1 and Tn in Case 1.2.1, respectively. We say that
{T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn } forms the n -container of CQn between u and v.
Case 2.2.3. Suppose that (u)n = (z)n1 and (v)n1 = (w)n . The proof of this case is
similar to that of Case 2.2.2.
Case 2.2.4. Suppose that (u)n = (z)n1 and (v)n1 = (w)n . By Theorem 14.10, there
is a Hamiltonian path Z of CQn2 10 {(u)n , (v)n1 } joining (p)n to (r)n . The path T
n3
is the same as Tn1 in Case 1.2.1. Also, the path Tn2 is the same as Tn in Case 2.1.2.
Two paths Tn2 and Tn1 are the same as Tn1 and Tn in Case 2.1.4, respectively.
Then {T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn } is the n -container of CQn between u and v.
Thus, this lemma is proved.
Chang et al. [44] prove that the folded hypercube FQn is super spanning laceable
if n is an odd integer and super spanning connected if otherwise. Moreover, Chang
et al. prove that the enhanced hypercube Qn,m is super spanning laceable if m is an
odd integer and super spanning connected if otherwise.
Let x be a vertex of Qn and U = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yk } be a subset of V (Qn ) {x}. If there
exist k paths {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } of Qn such that (1) Pi joining x to yi for 1 i k, (2) x is
the only common vertex of Pi and Pj for any 1 i = j k. We called {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } a
k-container joining x to U, denoted by C(x, U). A k-container C(x, U) is a k -container
of Qn if it contains all vertices of Qn .
Pk2 =
x, (x)n , W , (z)n , z, H2 , yk2 , Pk1 =
x, H1 , yk1 , and Pk = Rk1 . Then
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a set of required paths of Qn . See Figure 14.12a for illustration,
for k = 6.
Suppose that yk1 Rk1 . We can write Rk1 as
x, H1 , yk1 , z, H2 , yk . (Note
that z = yk if l(H2 ) = 0.) By Theorem 14.7, there is a Hamiltonian path W of Qn1 1
Pk =
x, (x)n , W , (z)n , z, H2 , yk . Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a set of required paths
of Qn . See Figure 14.12b for illustration, for k = 6.
Case 1.2. m = 1. Thus, y1 Qn1 1 . By induction, there are (k 1) disjoint paths
0 0 0 0 0 1
Qn1 Qn1 Qn1 Qn1 Qn1 Q n1
x x x
R5 (x)n (x)n (x)n
R1 y6 H1 R1
H1 y W R1 y5
5
W
R2 z R 2 R3 R 4 R5 W
R3 H2 z (z)n R2 R (z)n
3 R H2
4
y1 y2 y3 y4 y1 y2 y3 y4 y6 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y1
(a) (b) (c)
1
0
Qn1 0
Qn1 0
Qn1 0
Q n1 (x)n
0
Qn1 Q n1 (x)n y1
x x x
R1 (x) n W4 u R5 W1 v5
R3 R2 R1
R5 (u)n R4 (v5)
n
R1 (v2) n v2 W3 v4
R2 R3 u R4 v1 R3 (v4)n v3
R5
R4 S1 S 2 (v1)n v2 W2
W1 W2 R2 (v )n
3 , W3 W4
W1
y3 y4 y5 ya y1 y2 y4 y5 y6 y1 y2 y3 y6 (v2)n y2 y3 y4 y5
(d) (e) (f)
0 1 0 1 0 1
Q n1 Q n1 Q n1 Q n1 Q n1 Q n1 (x)n
x n
x n
x
R1 (x) R1 (z) n (x) R1 H1 y
R5 R5 6
R5 z u
u R2 H1
R2 n R4 y 6 S2 R2 (u)n
R3 R4 (u) H1 H2 R3 u R3 R4 (z)n H2
(u)n H2 z S1
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
(g) (h) (i)
0 1 n 0 1 n
Q n1 Q (x) H 2 y 6 Q
n1 Q (x) u v
n1 n1
x x 5
R5 z R W6 H 1
R1 n H1 1 R5 y6
R2 R (z)
4 v4 u R2 R4 n z
v5 (z) v4
(v4)n v3 v3
R3 (v4)
n H2
R3 W3 W 4 W5
W3 W4
y1 y2 (v3)n y3 y4 y5 y1 y2 (v3)n
y3 y4 y5
(j) (k)
P1 =
x, Rk1 , u, (u) , S1 , y1 , P2 =
x, (x) , S2 , y2 , and Pi = Ri2 for every 3 i k.
n n
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 377
Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a set of required paths of Qn . See Figure 14.12d for
illustrations, for k = 6.
Case 1.4. 3 m k 2. We have k 5. Hence, n 5. Since m 3 and k n, |U0
{yk }| = k m 1 k 4 n 4.
We claim that there exists an even vertex u in Qn1 1 U1 such that
(yi )
n / NQ1 (u) for every m + 1 i k 1. Such a claim holds, because
n1
(n 1)|U0 {yk }| + |U1 | (n 1)(n 4) + (n 2) (n 1)(n 3) 1 < 2n2 for
all n 5.
Since m k 2 and k n, m + 1 n 1. By induction, there are (m + 1) disjoint
paths {W1 , W2 , . . . , Wm+1 } of Qn1
1 joining u to U1 {(x)n } such that (1) Wi joins u
"
to yi for every 1 i m, (2) Wm+1 joins u to (x)n , and (3) m+1 1
i=1 Wi spans Qn1 . We
write Wi as
u, vi , Wi , yi for every 1 i m 1. Since u is an even vertex in Qn1 1 ,
tex in Qn1 1 and (vi )n is an even vertex in Qn1 0 for every 2 i k 1. Let
U0 = {yk } {(vi ) | 2 i k 1}. Obviously, |U0 | = k 1. By induction, there are
n
1 i k 2, Pk1 =
x, Rk1 , (u)n , u, H11 , yk1 , and Pk =
x, (x)n , H2 , yk . Then
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a set of required paths of Qn . See Figure 14.12g for illustration,
for k = 6.
Case 2.2. m = k 3. We have n 5 and {yk2 , yk1 , yk } Qn1 1 . Since
{x}). By Theorem 14.4, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 of Qn1 1 such that (1)
S1 joins (z) to yk2 , (2) S2 joins (x) to yk1 , and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . Obviously,
n n 1
yk Si for some 1 i 2.
Suppose that yk S1 . We write S1 as
(z)n , H1 , yk , u, H2 , yk2 . Obviously, u
is an even vertex and (u)n is an odd vertex in Qn1 0 . (Note that (x)n = y if
k
l(H1 ) = 0 or u = yk2 if l(H2 ) = 0.) Let U0 = U0 {z, (u)n }. Obviously, |U0 | = k 1.
By induction, there are (k 1) disjoint paths R1 , R2 , . . . , Rk1 in Qn1 0 join-
ing x to U0 such that (1) Ri joins x to y"i for 1 i k 3, (2) Rk2 joins x
to z, (3) Rk1 joins x to (u)n , and (4) k1 i=1 Ri spans Qn1 . We set Pi = Ri
0
for 1 i k 3, Pk2 =
x, Rk1 , (u) , u, H2 , yk2 , Pk1 =
x, (x)n , S2 , yk1 , and
n
Pk =
x, Rk2 , z, (z)n , H1 , yk . Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a set of required paths of
Qn . See Figure 14.12h for illustration, for k = 6.
Suppose that yk S2 . We write S2 as
(x)n , H1 , yk , u, H2 , yk1 . Obviously, u is
an even vertex in Qn1 1 and (u)n is an odd vertex in Qn1 0 . (Note that (x)n = y if
k
l(H1 ) = 0 or u = yk1 if l(H2 ) = 0.) Let U0 = U0 {z, (u)n }. Obviously, |U0 | = k 1.
By induction, there are (k 1) disjoint paths R1 , R2 , . . . , Rk1 in Qn1 0 joining
x to U0 such that (1) Ri joins x to " yi for 1 i k 3, (2) Rk2 joins x to
z, (3) Rk1 joins x to (u)n , and (4) k1 i=1 Ri spans Qn1 . We set Pi = Ri for
0
1 i k 3, Pk2 =
x, Rk2 , z, (z) , S1 , yk2 , Pk1 =
x, Rk1 , (u)n , u, H2 , yk1 ,
n
and Pk =
x, (x)n , H1 , yk . Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a set of required paths of Qn .
See Figure 14.12i for illustration, for k = 6.
Case 2.3. 1 m k 4. We have k 5. Moreover, n 5. Since m k 4 and k n,
|U0 | = m k 4 n 4.
1
We claim that there exists an even vertex u in Qn1 U1 such that (yi )n
/ NQ1 (u)
n1
for every 1 i m. Such a claim holds, because (n 1)|U0 | + |U1 {yk }| = (n 1)
m + (k m) 1 = (n 2)m + k 1 (n 2)(n 4) + n 1 = (n 1)(n 4) + 3 <
2n2 for all n 5.
Let U1 = (U1 {yk }) {(x)n }. Obviously, |U1 | = k m. By induction, there are
(k m) disjoint paths {Wm+1 , Wm+2 , . . . , Wk } of Qn11 joining u to U1 such that (1)
Wi joins u to yi for every m + 1 i k 1, (2) Wk joins u to (x)n , and (3) ki=m+1 Wi
spans Qn11 . We write W as
u, v , W , y for every m + 1 i k 1. Since u is an
i i i i
even vertex in Qn11 , v is an odd vertex in Q1 n 0
i n1 and (vi ) is an even vertex in Qn1
for every m + 1 i k 2.
Suppose that yk Wk . We write Wk as
u, H1 , z, yk , H2 , (x)n . (Note
that u = z if l(H1 ) = 0 or yk = (x)n if l(H2 ) = 0.) Since yk is an odd
vertex in Qn1 1 , z is an even vertex in Qn1 1 , and (z)n is an odd
vertex in Qn1 . Let U0 = U0 {(vi ) | m + 1 i k 2} {(z)n }. Obviously,
0 n
every 1 i m, Pi =
x, Ri , (vi )n , vi , Wi , yi for every m + 1 i k 2, Pk1 =
x, Rk1 , (z)n , z, H2 , yk1 , and Pk =
x, (x)n , Wk1 , u, vk1 , H1 , yk . Then {P1 , P2 , . . . ,
Pk } forms a set of required paths of Qn . See Figure 14.12k for illustration, for k = 6
and m = 2.
j
Let FQn1 be the subgraph of FQn induced by {v V (FQn ) | (v)n = j} for
j
0 j 1. Obviously, FQn1 is isomorphic to Qn1 for 0 j 1.
LEMMA 14.21 Let x be an even vertex and y be an odd vertex of FQn for any
positive integer n 2. Then there exists a k -container of FQn between x and y for
every 1 k n + 1.
Proof: Since FQ2 is isomorphic to the complete graph K4 , this statement holds for
n = 2. Suppose that n 3. Since Qn is a spanning subgraph of FQn , by Theorem 14.7,
there exists a k -container between x and y for every 1 k n. Thus, we need only to
construct an (n + 1) -container of FQn between x and y. Since FQn is vertex-transitive,
we assume that x = 0n FQn1 0 .
Case 1. y FQn1
0 . We have the following sub cases:
P4 =
000, 111, 011, 100. Then {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } forms a 4 -container of FQ3 between
x and y.
Case 1.2. n 4 and (x)c = (y)n . Since FQn1 0 is isomorphic to Qn1 , by Theorem
14.7, there is an (n 1) -container {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } of FQn1
0 between x and y.
c c 1
Obviously, (x) and (y) are of different parity. Since FQn1 is isomorphic to Qn1 ,
by Theorem 14.4, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 of FQn1 1 such that (1)
S1 joins (x) to (y) , (2) S2 joins (x) to (y) , and (3) S1 S2 spans FQn1
n n c c 1 . We
set Pn =
x, (x) , S1 , (y) , y and Pn+1 =
x, (x) , S2 , (y) , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 }
n n c c
forms an (n + 1) -container of FQn between x and y. See Figure 14.13a for illustration,
for n = 5.
Case 1.3. n 4 and (x)c = (y)n . Then (y)c = (x)n and n is even.
Suppose that n = 4. We have x = 0000 and y = 1110. We set P1 =
0000, 0001,
1110, P2 =
0000, 0010, 0110, 1110, P3 =
0000, 0100, 0101, 0111, 0011, 1011,
1001, 1101, 1100, 1110, P4 =
0000, 1000, 1010, 1110, and P5 =
0000, 1111, 1110.
Then {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , P5 } forms a 5 -container of FQ4 between x and y.
Suppose that n 6. By Theorem 14.7, there is an (n 1) -container
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } of FQn1
0 between x and y. Since 2n1 2 3(n 1) for
n 6, there is one path Pi in {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } such that I(Pi ) 3. With-
out loss of generality, we may assume that I(Pn1 ) 3. We write Pn1
as
x, u, v, H, y where u is an odd vertex and v is an even vertex. By
Lemma 18.6, there is a Hamiltonian path W of Qn1 1 {(x)n , (y)n } joining (u)n
n
to (v) . We set Pn1 =
x, u, (u) , W , (v) , v, H, y, Pn =
x, (x)n = (y)c , y, and
n n
Pn+1 =
x, (x)c = (y)n , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 , Pn1 , Pn , Pn+1 } forms an (n + 1) -
container of FQn between x and y. See Figure 14.13b for illustration, for n = 6.
Case 2. y FQn1
1 . We have the following sub cases:
F Q 04 x F Q 14 F Q 05 x (x)6 F Q 15 F Q 4
0
(x)c F Q 14
5 6 x y
(x) (x) P1
c
u
(u)
R1 H1
R3 H3
P1 P2 P3 P4 S2 S1 P2 P3 P4 W R 2 R 4 (y)
5
H4
v 6 (x) 5
(v)
c
(y) H c
(y)5 c u1(y) v (v) 5 (u ) 5
y y (x)(y)6 1
(d) (e)
Case 2.1. n is odd and y {(x)n , (x)c }. By Theorem 14.15, we consider only that
y = (x)c . By Theorem 14.7, there is an n -container {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } of Qn between x
and y. We set Pn+1 =
x, y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 } forms an (n + 1) -container of
FQn between x and y.
Case 2.2. n is odd and y / {(x)c , (x)n }. Since y FQn1
1 and y is an odd vertex, we
have y = (x) or y = (x) if n = 3. Thus, n 5. Since there are 2n2 even vertices in
c n
FQn10 and 2n2 n 1 for n 5, we can choose (n 4) distinct even vertices {u1 ,
u2 , . . . , un4 } of FQn1
0 {x, (y)c , (y)n } such that (ui )n = (x)c for 1 i n 4. Let v
be an odd vertex of FQn1 0 and let U0 = {ui | 1 i n 4} {(y)c , (y)n , v}. Obviously,
|U0 | = n 1. By Theorem 14.14, there are (n 1) disjoint paths {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn1 }
of FQn1 0 joining x to U0 such that (1) Ri joins x to ui for 1 i n 4, (2) Rn3
"
joins x to (y)c , (3) Rn2 joins x to (y)n , (4) Rn1 joins x to v, and (5) n1 i=1 Ri spans
FQn10 . Let U = {(u )n | 1 i n 4} {(x)c , (x)n , (v)n }. Obviously, |U | = n 1.
1 i 1
By Theorem 14.14, there are (n 1) disjoint paths {H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn1 } of FQn1 1
and Pn+1 =
x, (x)n , Hn2 , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 } forms an (n + 1) -container
of FQn between x and y. See Figure 14.13c for illustration, for n = 5.
Case 2.3. n is even with n 4 and y = (x)n . Since there are 2n2 even ver-
tices in FQn1 0 and 2n2 n 1 for n 4, we can choose (n 2) distinct even
vertices {u1 , u2 , . . . , un2 } of FQn1
0 {x}. Let U0 = {ui | 1 i n 2} {(y)c }.
Obviously, |U0 | = n 1. By Theorem 14.14, there are (n 1) disjoint paths {R1 ,
R2 , . . . , Rn1 } of FQn10 joining x to U0 such that (1) Ri joins x to ui for 1
"
i n 2, (2) Rn1 joins x to (y)c , and (3) n1 i=1 Ri spans FQn1 . Let U1 =
0
(n + 1) -container of FQn between x and y. See Figure 14.13d for illustration, for
n = 6.
Case 2.4. n is even with n 4 and y = (x)n . Since there are 2n2 even vertices
0
in FQn1 and 2n2 n 1 for n 4, we can choose (n 3) distinct even vertices
{u1 , u2 , . . . , un3 } of FQn1
0 {x, (y)n } such that (ui )n = (x)n for 1 i n 3. Let
U0 = {ui | 1 i n 3} {(y)n , (y)c }. Obviously, |U0 | = n 1. By Theorem 14.14,
there are (n 1) disjoint paths {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn1 } of FQn1 0 such that (1) Ri joins
x to"ui for 1 i n 3, (2) Rn2 joins x to (y) , (3) Rn1 joins x to (y)c , and
n
1 . We set P =
x, R , u , (u )n , H , y for 1 i n 3, P
n2 =
x, Rn2 , (y) , y,
FQn1 n
i i i i i
Pn1 =
x, Rn1 , (y) , y, Pn =
x, (x) , Hn2 , y, and Pn+1 =
x, (x) , Hn1 , y. Then
c n c
THEOREM 14.16 FQn is super spanning laceable if n is an odd integer and FQn is
super spanning connected if n is an even integer.
Proof: Since FQ1 is isomorphic to Q1 , this statement holds for n = 1. By Lemma
14.21, this statement holds if n is odd and n 3. Thus, we assume that n is even.
Let x and y be any two different vertices of FQn . We need to nd a k -container of
FQn between x and y for 1 k n + 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that
x is an even vertex. By Lemma 14.21, this statement holds if y is an odd vertex.
Thus, we assume that y is an even vertex. Without loss of generality, we assume that
(x)n = 0 and (y)n = 1. Let f be the function on V (FQn ) dened by f (u) = u if (u)n = 0
and f (u) = ((u)c )n if otherwise. By Theorem 14.15, f is an isomorphism from FQn
into itself. In other words, we still get FQn if we relabel all the vertices u with f (u).
However, f (x) = x is an even vertex and f (y) = ((y)c )n is an odd vertex. By Lemma
14.21, there exists a k -container of FQn between f (x) and f (y) for every 1 k n + 1.
Thus, there exists a k -container of FQn between x and y for every 1 k n + 1. This
theorem is proved.
j
LEMMA 14.22 Let x and y be any two distinct vertices of Qn,m with n m 1 for
some j. Suppose that there is a k -container of Qn,m between x and y and there is
j
1 -container of Qn,m between (x)n and (y)n . Then there is a (k + 1) -container of Qn,m
1j
between x and y.
Proof: Let {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } be a k -container of Qn,m between x and y and W be a
j
1j
Hamiltonian path of Qn,m joining (x)n to (y)n . Set Pk+1 =
x, (x)n , W , (y)n , y. Then
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk+1 } forms a (k + 1) -container of Qn,m between x and y.
LEMMA 14.23 Let x be an even vertex and y be an odd vertex of Qn,n1 for any
positive integer n 3. Then there exists a k -container of Qn,n1 between x and y for
every 1 k n + 1.
Proof: Since Qn is a spanning subgraph of Qn,n1 , by Theorem 14.7, there exists
a k -container of Qn,n1 between x and y for every 1 k n. Thus, we need only to
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 383
Case 1. y Qn,n1
00 Qn,n1
10 00
. Since Qn,n1 Qn,n1
10 = Qn,n1
0 is isomorphic to
0
FQn1 , by Lemma 14.21, there exists an n -container of Qn,n1 between x and y.
01
Since Qn,n1 Qn,n1
11 = Qn,n1
1 is isomorphic to FQn1 , by Lemma 14.21, there exists
1
a Hamiltonian path of Qn,n1 joining (x)n to (y)n . By Lemma 14.22, there exists an
(n + 1) -container of Qn,n1 between x and y.
Pn2 =
x, Rn2 , (y)n , y.
Suppose that (n 1) is an odd integer. We set Pn1 =
x, Rn1 , (v)c , v, z, Hn2 , y.
01
Since Qn,n1 is isomorphic to Qn2 , by Theorem 14.4, there exist two disjoint paths
01
S1 and S2 of Qn,n1 such that (1) S1 joins ((v)n1 )n to (y)c , (2) S2 joins (x)n to (y)n1 ,
and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn,n1 01 . Let Pn =
x, Rn , (v)n1 , ((v)n1 )n , S1 , (y)c , y, and
Pn+1 =
x, (x)n , S2 , (y)n1 , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 } forms an (n + 1) -container
of Qn,n1 between x and y. See Figure 14.14b for illustration.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 384
00 01 00 01
Qn,m P1 Qn,m Qn,m Q n,m
P2 x (x) n
(v)n1 n1
x y ((v)n1)n (y)
Pn1
(v)c (y)c
S1 v (z)n z
y
(y)n
(x)n1 (y) n1 un3 (un3) n
(x)c (y)c
u2 (u2)n
11 10 11
10
Q n,m S2 Qn,m Qn,m u1 (u1)nQ n,m
(a) (b)
00 01 00 01
Qn,m Qn,m Qn,m Qn,m
x (x)n (y)c x (x)n
(v)c (v)c (y)n1
((v)c )n ((v)c )n
v(z)n z v(z)n z
y y
(y)n (y) n
n n
un3 (un3) un3 (un3)
u2 (u2)n u2 (u2)n
10 u 10 u
Qn,m 1
11
(u1)n Qn,m Qn,m 1
11
(u1)n Qn,m
(c) (d)
of Qn,n1 between x and y. See Figure 14.14c for illustration. Thus, we assume that
(y)c = (x)n . By Theorem 14.4, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 of Qn,n1 01 such
that (1) S1 joins ((v) ) to (y) , (2) S2 joins (x) to (y) , and (3) S1 S2 spans
c n c n n1
01
Qn,n1
. Let Pn =
x, Rn1 , (v)c , ((v)c )n , S1 , (y)c , y and Pn+1 =
x, (x)n , S2 , (y)n1 , y.
Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 } forms an (n + 1) -container of Qn,n1 between x and y. See
Figure 14.14d for illustration.
LEMMA 14.24 Let x be an even vertex and y be an odd vertex of Qn,m for any two
positive integers n m 2. Then there exists a k -container of Qn,m between x and y
for every 1 k n + 1.
Proof: Since Q2,2 is isomorphic to complete graph K4 , this statement holds for n = 2.
Suppose that n 3.
Since Qn is a spanning subgraph of Qn,m , by Theorem 14.7, there exists a k -
container of Qn,m between x and y for every 1 k n. Thus, we need only to construct
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 385
t = 0 and 1. By Lemma 14.21, our claim holds for t = 0. With Lemma 14.23, our
claim holds for t = 1. Consider t 2 and assume that our claim holds for (t 1). We
have the following cases:
Case 1. y Qn,m 00 Q10 . Since Q00 Q10 is isomorphic to Q
n,m n,m n,m n1,m , by induction,
there exists an n -container of Qn,m Qn,m between x and y. Since Qn,m
00 10 01 Q11 is
n,m
isomorphic to Qn1,m , by induction, there is a Hamiltonian path of Qn,m Qn,m
01 11 joining
(x)n to (y)n . Thus, by Lemma 14.22, there exists an (n + 1) -container of Qn,m between
x and y.
Case 2. y Qn,m01 . Note that Q01 and Q10 are symmetric with respect to Q
n,m n,m n,m and
00 01
Qn,m Qn,m is isomorphic to Qn1,m . Similar to Case 1, there is an (n + 1) -container
of Qn,m between x and y.
Case 3. y Qn,m 11 . Since y is adjacent to (n 1) vertices in Q11 , we can choose
n,m
a neighbor z of y in Qn,m 11 such that z = (y)c and (z)n = (x)n1 . Let v = (z)n .
00 01
Q n,m Q n,m
n
x ( x)
( y)n1
(v)n1
n
v(z) z
n
y
(y)
un2 ( un2)n
u2 ( u2)n
10 11
Q n,m u1 ( u1)n Q n,m
0 0 0 0
Q n,n1 Q n,n1 Q n,n1 Q n,n1
X (X)n x (z)n
v
H R H
R
y ((v)n
z y
(a) (b)
R =
x, v, R , y in Qn,n1
0 1
joining x to y and there exists a Hamiltonian path H in Qn,n1
n n n
joining (x) to (v) . Set P =
x, (x) , H, (v) , v, R , y. Thus, P forms a Hamiltonian
n
Theorem 14.16, there exists a Hamiltonian path R in Qn,n1 0 joining x to z and there
exists a Hamiltonian path H in Qn,n1 joining (z) to y. Set P =
x, R, z, (z)n , H, y.
1 n
Thus, P forms a Hamiltonian path in Qn,n1 joining x to y. See Figure 14.16b for
illustration.
y 3 -container 4 -container
000, 010, 110
000, 010, 110
110
000, 100, 110
000, 100, 110
000, 001, 011, 101, 111, 110
000, 001, 011, 101, 111, 110
000, 110
000, 010, 011
000, 001, 011
011
000, 100, 101, 001, 011
000, 010, 011
000, 110, 111, 011
000, 100, 101, 011
000, 110, 111, 011
000, 001, 011, 101
000, 001, 101
101
000, 010, 110, 111, 101
000, 010, 011, 101
000, 100, 101
000, 100, 101
000, 110, 111, 101
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 387
LEMMA 14.27 Suppose that n 3 is an odd integer. Let x and y be any two different
even vertices of Qn,n1 . Then there exists a k -container of Qn,n1 between x and y
for every 1 k n + 1.
Proof: By Lemma 14.26, this statement holds for Q3,2 . Thus, we assume that
n 5. By Lemma 14.25, Qn,n1 is 1 -connected and 2 -connected. Thus, we need
to construct a k -container between x and y for every 3 k n + 1. Without loss of
generality, we assume that x Qn,n1
00 .
Case 2. (y)n = 1. Since y is an even vertex, |{i | i = n and (y)i = 1}| is odd. Without
loss of generality, we assume that (y)n1 = 1. Thus, y Qn,n1
11 . We have the following
cases.
Case 2.1. n k n + 1. Since y is adjacent to (n 2) vertices in Qn,n1 11 , we can
choose a neighbor z of y in Qn,n1 such that (z) = (x) . Let v = (z) . Obviously, v
11 n n1 n
00
is an even vertex. Since Qn,n1 Qn,n1
10 is isomorphic to FQn1 , by Theorem 14.16,
there exists an n -container {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn } of Qn,n1
00 Qn,n1
10 between x and v. Since
v is adjacent to n vertices in Qn,m Qn,m , by relabeling, we can write Ri as
x, Ri , ui , v
00 10
A {z} such
"n2that (1) Hi joins (ui )n to y for 1 i n 3, (2) Hn2 joins z to y,
and (3) i=1 Hi spans Qn,n1 . We set Pi =
x, Ri , ui , (ui )n , Hi , y for 1 i n 3,
11
Pn2 =
x, Rn2
, (v)c , v, z, Hn2 , y, and Pn1 =
x, Rn1 , (y)n , y.
Suppose that (y)n1 = (x)n . Note that Qn2 is a spanning subgraph of Qn,n1 01 .
Since Qn2 is hyper Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of
01
Qn,n1 {(x)n } joining ((v)n1 )n to (y)c . Set Pn =
x, Rn , (v)n1 , ((v)n1 )n , S, (y)c , y
and Pn+1 =
x, (x)n = (y)n1 , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 } forms an (n + 1) -container
of Qn,n1 between x and y. See Figure 14.17a for illustration.
Now, we consider (y)n1 = (x)n . Since Qn2 is a spanning subgraph of Qn,n1 01 , by
Lemmas 13.16 and 13.17, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 of Qn,n1 such that 01
(1) S1 joins ((v)n1 )n to (y)n1 , (2) S2 joins (x)n to (y)c , and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn,n1 01 .
Let Pn =
x, Rn , (v) , ((v) ) , S1 , (y) , y and Pn+1 =
x, (x) , S2 , (y) , y. Then
n1 n1 n n1 n c
00 01 00 01
Qn,n1 Qn,n1 Qn,n1 Q n,n1
n
x (x)n (y)n1 x (x)
01
Qn,n1 Qn,n1
11 joining y to A {z, ((v)n1 )n } such that (1) Hi joins (ui )n to
y for 1 "in1 n 3, (2) Hn2 joins z to y, (3) Hn1 joins ((v)n1 )n to y,
i=1 Hi spans Qn,n1 Qn,n1 . We set Pi =
x, Ri , ui , (ui ) , Hi , y for
and (4) 01 11 n
1 i n 3, Pn2 =
x, Rn2 , (v) , v, z, Hn2 , y, Pn1 =
x, Rn1 , (y)n , y, and
c
Pn =
x, Rn , (v)n1 , ((v)n1 )n , Hn1 , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } forms an n -container
of Qn,n1 between x and y. See Figure 14.17c for illustration.
Case 2.2. 3 k n 1. Let v be an even vertex of Qn,n1 00 Qn,n1
10 such that v = x
and (y) is not a neighbor of v. Since Qn,n1 Qn,n1 is isomorphic to FQn1 ,
n 00 10
LEMMA 14.28 Suppose that n 3 and m is even. Let x and y be any two different
even vertices of Qn,m . Then there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn,m between x and y.
Proof: For the xed number m, we prove this statement by induction on t = n m.
Suppose that x and y are any two different even vertices of Qn,m . By Lemma 14.26,
this statement holds for t = 1. Consider t 2 and assume that our claim holds for
(t 1). Without loss of generality, we assume that x Qn,m
0 .
LEMMA 14.29 Suppose that n 3 and m is even. Let x and y be any two different
even vertices of Qn,m . Then there exists a k -container of Qn,m between x and y for
every 1 k n + 1.
Proof: By Lemma 14.26, this statement holds for n = 3. Suppose that n 4. We
claim that there exists a k -container between x and y for every 1 k n + 1. By
Lemma 14.28, this statement holds for k = 1. Note that Qn is a spanning subgraph
of Qn,m and Qn is Hamiltonian. So, this statement holds for k = 2. We claim that
there exists a k -container between x and y for every 3 k n + 1. Without loss of
generality, we assume that x Qn,m00 . We prove our claim by induction on t = n m.
The induction bases are t = 0 and 1. By Theorem 14.16, our claim holds for t = 0.
With Lemma 14.27, this statement holds for t = 1. Consider t 2 and assume that this
statement holds for (t 1). We have the following cases:
Case 1. y Qn,m 00 Q10 . Since Q00 Q10 is isomorphic to Q
n,m n,m n,m n1,m , by induction,
there exists a (k 1) -container {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk1 } of Qn,m
00 Q10 between x and y
n,m
for every 2 k 1 n. By Lemma 14.22, there exists a k -container of Qn,m between
x and y.
Case 2. y Qn,m01 . Note that Q01 and Q10 are symmetric with respect to Q
n,m n,m n,m and
Qn,m Qn,m is isomorphic to Qn1,m . Similar to Case 1, there is a k -container of Qn,m
00 01
choose a neighbor z of y in Qn,m11 such that z = (y)c and (z)n = (x)n1 . Let v = (z)n .
n1
Obviously, both v and ((v) )n are even vertices. Since Qn,m 00 Q10 is isomorphic
n,m
to Qn1,m , by induction, there exists an n -container {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn } of Qn,m
00 Q10
n,m
00 Q10 , by relabeling, we can
between x and v. Since v is adjacent to n vertices in Qn,m n,m
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 390
write Ri as
x, Ri , ui , v for 1 i n 3, write Rn2 as
x, Rn2
, (v)c , v, write Rn1
as
x, Rn1 , (y) , v, and write Rn as
x, Rn , (v) , v. Let A = {(ui )n | 1 i n 3}.
n n1
Suppose that (y)n1 = (x)n . Note that Qn2 is a spanning subgraph of Qn,n1 01 . Since
Qn2 is hyper Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn,m {(x)n }
01
00 00 00 01
Q n,m Q n,m Q n,m Q n,m
x (x)n (y)n1 x (x)n
((v)n1)n ((v)n1)n
n1
(v) n1
(v) (w)n1
n1
(w) (y)n1
c w c w
(v) (v)
(y)n (y)n
v(z)n z y v(z)n z y
un3 (un3)n (y)c un3 (un3)n (y)c
(a) (b)
Pn =
x, Rn , (v)n1 , ((v)n1 )n , Hn1 , y. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } forms an n -container
of Qn,m between x and y.
Case 3.2. 3 k n 1. Let v be an even vertex of Qn,m 00 Q10 such that v = x and
n,m
(y) is not a neighbor of v. Since Qn,m Qn,m is isomorphic to Qn1,m , by induc-
n 00 10
Pi =
x, Ri , ui , (ui )n , Hi , y for 1 i k 1 and Pk =
x, Rk , uk , v, (v)n , Hk , y. Then
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pk } forms a k -container of Qn,m between x and y.
{(u) }
(u)i to denote the unique i-neighbor of u. We have ((u)i )i = u and (u)n Pn 1 . For
{i} {j}
1 i, j n and i = j, we use E i,j to denote the set of edges between Pn and Pn .
The following lemma follows from Theorem 11.15.
(a) (b)
R1 H1
{( y k2 ) 1 , ( zk2) 1 }
u Pn v
Rk2 Hk2
yk2 ( yk2 )n Tk2 (z k2 )n zk2
zk1
Rk1 yk1 y z
< n >X
Pn Hk1
yk ( yk1 )n Tk1 (z k )n zk
Rk Hk
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i k 2
Qk1 =
u, Rk1 , yk1 , (yk1 )n , Tk1 , (zk )n , zk , Hk , v
Qk =
u, Rk , yk , y, z, zk1 , Hk1
, v
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (4231), (2431), (3421), (4321)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (4132), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (4123),
(1423), (3241), (2341), (4321)
(1234), (4321)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (4231), (2431)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (4132), (3142), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (4123), (1423), (3241), (2341), (1432), (3412), (4312),
(1342), (2431)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (4213), (1243), (2143), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (2413), (1423)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (1423)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431), (4231), (1324), (2314), (4132), (1432), (2341), (3241), (1423)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (4213), (2413), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (1432), (4132), (2314), (1324), (4231), (2431), (3421),
(1243), (2143), (4123)
(1234), (3214), (4123)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (3241), (1423), (4123)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (4213), (2413), (1423), (3241), (4231)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (2143), (1243), (3421), (2431), (4231)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (4132), (2314), (1324), (4231)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (1432), (2341), (3241)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (2143), (1243), (4213), (2413), (1423), (3241)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431), (4231), (3241)
(1234), (2134), (4312), (1342), (2431), (3421), (1243), (4213), (3124), (1324), (4231), (3241), (2341)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (4132), (3142), (2413), (1423), (4123), (2143), (3412), (1432), (2341)
(1234), (4321), (2341)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (4213), (2413)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (2143), (1243), (3421), (2431), (4231), (1324), (2314), (4132), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142),
(2413)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (3241), (1423), (2413)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (4231), (2431), (3421), (1243)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (4132), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (2413), (4213), (1243)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (3241), (1423), (4123), (2143), (1243)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (3214)
(1234), (3214)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431), (4231), (3241), (2341), (1432), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (2143), (1243), (4213),
(2413), (1423), (4123), (3214)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (4213), (2413), (3142), (4132), (2314)
(1234), (3214), (2314)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (1243), (2143), (4123), (1423), (3241), (2341), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (2431), (4231), (1324),
(2314)
(1234), (2134), (4312), (3412), (1432), (4132), (3142), (1342), (2431), (3421), (1243), (2143), (4123), (1423), (2413), (4213),
(3124), (1324)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (3241), (4231), (1324)
(1234), (2134), (3124)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (1423), (3241), (4231), (2431), (3421), (1243), (2143), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (2413), (4213),
(3124)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (1432), (4132), (2314), (1324), (3124)
(1234), (2134)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (2134)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (3241), (4231), (2431), (3421), (1243), (4213), (2413), (1423), (4123), (2143), (3412), (1432), (4132),
(3142), (1342), (4312), (2134)
(1234), (2134), (4312), (1342), (3142)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (1423), (2413), (3142)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431), (4231), (3241), (2341), (1432), (3412), (2143), (1243), (4213), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4132),
(3142)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4132)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (1423), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (4132)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431), (4231), (3241), (2341), (1432), (4132)
(1234), (2134), (4312), (1342), (3142), (2413), (1423), (3241), (4231), (2431), (3421), (1243), (4213), (3124), (1324), (2314),
(4132), (1432)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (2143), (3412), (1432)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (1432)
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 395
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (1423), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (3412)
(1234), (4321), (3412), (2431), (4231), (3241), (2341), (1432), (3412)
(1234), (2134), (4312), (1342), (3142), (4132), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4213)
(1234), (3214), (4123), (1423), (2413), (4213)
(1234), (4321), (3421), (2431), (4231), (3241), (2341), (1432), (3412), (2143), (1243), (4213)
(1234), (2134), (4312), (1342), (3142), (4132), (1432), (3412), (2143)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4213), (2413), (1423), (4123), (2143)
(1234), (4321), (2341), (3241), (4231), (2431), (3421), (1243), (2143)
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i n 4
Qn3 =
u, Rn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , Tn3 , (zn2 )n , zn2 , Hn2 , v
Qn2 =
u, z, zn3 , Hn3 , v
Qn1 =
u, Rn2 , yn2 , y, v
and Hi =
z, zi , Hi , v. We have {(yi )1 | 1 i n 2} = {(y)i | 2 i n 1}. By
Lemma 11.12, {(yi )1 | 1 i n 2} =
n {s, q}. Similarly, {(zi )1 | 1 i n 2} =
n {s, t}. Without loss of generality, we assume that (yi )1 = (zi )1 for every
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 396
R1 H1
R1 H1
{( yn4 )1} {( yn3 )1}
u Pn v Pn
Rn4 Hn4
yn4 ( yn4)n Tn4 (zn4)n z n4 yn3 ( y n3)n Tn3 (zn3)n
Rn3 zn3
u Hn3 v
yn3 z n3 z
Rn3 y {(yn3)1,( yn2 )1} z Rn2 yn2 zn2 Hn2
{q}
Pn Hn3 Pn
yn2 ( yn3 )n Tn3 (zn2 )n z n2 y (y) n Tn2 ( v )n
Rn2 Hn2
(a) (b)
{( yn3)1} { (yn4)1}
Pn Pn
n
yn3 ( yn3) n Tn3(zn3)n zn3 H
( y n4 ) Tn4( zn4)n
u
R 'n3 n3 yn4 zn4
v Rn4
u Hn4 v
R 'n2 yn2 y {p} z zn2 Hn2 y {q } z
Hn3
P Rn3 yn3 P z n3
n n
n
( u)n Tn2 (v) n Rn2 ( yn3) Tn3 (v)n
yn2
zn2
Hn2
(c) Pn
{p}
n
(u)n Tn2 ( z n2 )
(d)
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i n 3
Qn2 =
u, Rn2 , yn2 , y, (y)n , Tn2 , (v)n , v
Qn1 =
u, z, zn2 , Hn2 , v
J =
n {s, t}. We have I = J. Without loss of generality, we assume that (yi )1 = (zi )1
for every 1 i n 2 with (yn2 )1 = p.
{(y ) }
Case 3.1. p = q. By Lemma 11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path Ti of Pn i 1 joining
{p}
(yi )n to (zi )n for every i
n 3, and there is a Hamiltonian path Tn2 in Pn joining
n n
(u) to (v) . We set
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i n 3
Qn2 =
u, Rn2 , yn2 , y, z, zn2 , Hn2 , v
Qn1 =
u, (u)n , Tn2 , (v)n , v
Lin et al. further discuss the spanning connectivity of the faulty pancake
graphs [229]. Let F be any subset of V (Pn ) E(Pn ). We use F i to denote the set
{i} {i} "
F (V (Pn ) E(Pn )). Then we set F 0 to denote the set F ni= 1 F i .
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 398
{r}
{R1 , R2 , . . . , Rk } of Pn F r joining u to x, and {H1 , H2 , . . . , Hk } is a k -container of
{s}
Pn F s joining y to v.
Without loss of generality, we write Ri =
u, Ri , xi , x and Hi =
y, yi , Hi , v
for every 1 i k. (Note that u = xi is l(Ri ) = 0 and v = yi is l(Hi ) = 0.) We
set A = {(xi )1 | (x, xi ) E(Ri ) and i
k} and B = {(yi )1 | (y, yi ) E(Hi ) and i
k}.
By Lemma 11.12, (xi )1 = (xj )1 for every i, j
k with i = j, and A
n {r, s}.
Similarly, (yi )1 = (yj )1 for every i, j
k with i = j, and B
n {r, s}.
Let I = {xi | xi A, and there exists an element yj B such that (xi )1 = (yj )1 }.
Let |I| = m. (Note that |I| = 0 if I = .) Then we relabel the indices of A and B
such that (xi )1 = (yi )1 for all i m. By Lemma 11.13, there is a Hamilto-
{(x ) ,(y ) }
nian path Wi of Pn i 1 i 1 F joining the vertex (xi )n to the vertex (yi )n
for every 1 i k 2. (Note that {(xi )1 , (yi )1 } = {(xi )1 } if (xi )1 = (yi )1 .) We set
J =
n (A B {r, s} {yk1 , yk }). By Lemma 11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path
Wk1 of PnJ F joining the vertex (xk1 )n to the vertex (yk )n . We set
Ti =
u, Ri , xi , (xi )n , Ti , (yi )n , yi , Hi , v for every 1 i k 2
Tk1 =
u, Rk1 , xk1 , (xk1 )n , Wk1 , (yk )n , yk , Hk , v
Tk =
u, Rk , xk , x, y, yk1 , Hk1
, v
Lemma 11.12, (y)1 = n, (x)1 = n, and (x)1 = (y)1 . By Lemma 11.13, there is a
n1 {(u)1 }
Hamiltonian path W of Pn joining the vertex (x)n to the vertex (y)n .
We set Rk =
u, (u) , x, (x) , W , (y) , y, Q , (v)n , v. Then {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rk } forms the
n n n
T1 =
u, R1 , x1 , (x1 )n , W , (y2 )n , y2 , H2 , v
T2 =
u, R2 , x2 , x, y, y1 , H1 , v
T3 =
u, v
Then {T1 , T2 , T3 } forms the 3 -container of Pn F between u and v. See Figure 14.25a
for illustration.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 401
x1 ( x1) n ( y2)n y1
Pn{ ( x k3 )1}
W Rk3 xk3 (xk3)nW (y ) n
yk3
k3 k3 Hk3
R1 x2 y2 H1 yk2
x k2 x y
x y Rk2 PnJ H k2
H3 (xk2)nW (yk1)n yk1
R2 Rk1 xk1 k2
Hk1
u v u v
(a) (b)
Pn{ n }F n Pn{(x1)1} Pn{n }F Pn{n }F n Pn{ ( x 1)1} Pn{n } F
x1 ( x1)n W1 ( y1)n y1 R1 x1 ( x1) n W1 ( y1) n y1
R1 H1 H1
(c) (d)
Ti =
u, Ri , xi , (xi )n , Wi , (yi )n , yi , Hi , v for every 1 i k 3
Tk2 =
u, Rk2 , xk2 , (xk2 )n , Wk2 , (yk1 )n , yk1 , Hk1 , v
Tk1 =
u, Rk1 , xk1 , x, y, yk2 , Hk2 , v
Tk =
u, v
Tk =
u, Rk1 , xk1 , x, y, yk1 , Hk1 , v
write C as
(x)n , y, Q, z, (x)n . By Lemma 11.12, (y)1 = (x)1 , (z)1 = (x)1 , and
(y)1 = (z)1 . Without loss of generality, we assume that (z)1
n 1 {r, s}.
Let {q1 , q2 , . . . , qk1 } be a (k 1) subset of NPn{r} (w) with (qk1 )1 = (z)1 . We
set F = {(w, z) | z NPn{r} (w) {x, q1 , q2 , . . . , qk1 }. By induction, there is a k -
{r}
container {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rk } of Pn F joining u to x. Without loss of generality,
we write Ri as
u, Ri , qi , w for every 1 i k 1 and Rk as
u, Rk , x, w.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 403
Ti =
u, Ri , qi , (qi )n , Wi , (pi )n , pi , Hi , v for every 1 i n 4
Tn3 =
u, Rn2 , x, y, Q, z, (z)n , Wn3 , (pn3 )n , pn3 , Hn3 , v
Tn2 =
u, Rn3 , qn3 , w, (w) , pn2 , Hn2 , v
n
Pn{(qn4)1}
Rn4 qn4 ( qn4) n Wnn4 ( pn4) n pn4
Hn4
(w) n
Rn3 w pn3Hn3
u qn3 Pn{n } F n Pn{ ( z )1 } v
Rn2 x (x ) n y Q z ( z )n Wn3( pn3)n Hn2
pn2
(a)
Pn{( q k2)1}
Rk2 qk2 ( qk2 ) n Wk2 ( pk2)n pk2
Hk2
(w)n
Rk1 w pk1
Hk1 v
u qk1 Pn{n } F n PnJ
Rk x (x ) n y Q z ( z )n Wk1 (p k)n Hk
pk
(b)
{s}
vertex (w)n in Pn with (pi )1 = (qi )1 for every 1 i k 1 and (pk )1 = t.
We set F = {((w)n , z) | z NPn{s} ((w)n ) {pi | 1 i k}. By induction, there is
{s}
a k -container {H1 , H2 , . . . , Hk } of Pn F joining (w)n to v. Without loss
of generality, we write Ri as
(w)n , pi , Hi , v for every 1 i k. We set
J =
n 1 ({(qi )1 | 1 i k 2} {r, s}). By Lemma 11.13, there is a Hamilto-
{(q ) }
nian path Wi of Pn i 1 joining the vertex (qi )n to the vertex (pi )n for every i k 2.
{J}
Again, there is a Hamiltonian path Wk 1 of Pn joining the vertex (z)n to the vertex
(pk )n . We set
Ti =
u, Ri , qi , (qi )n , Wi , (pi )n , pi , Hi , v for every 1 i k 2
Tk1 =
u, Rk , x, y, Q, z, (z)n , Wk1 , (pk )n , pk , Hk , v
Tk =
u, Rk1 , qk1 , w, (w)n , pk1 , Hk1 , v
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i k 2
Qk1 =
u, Rk1 , yk1 , (yk1 )n , Tk1 , (zk )n , zk , Hk , v
Qk =
u, Rk , yk , y, z, zk1 , Hk1
, v
(1234), (2134)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (4312), (1342), (2341), (4321), (1324), (3124), (2134)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (1243), (4213), (2413), (3412), (1432), (2431), (3421), (1423), (4123), (2143), (3142), (4132), (2134)
(1234), (3214)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (2341), (1342), (3142), (2143), (1243), (4213), (3214)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (1432), (2431), (3421), (4321), (1324), (3124), (4123), (1423), (2413), (3412), (4312), (2314), (3214)
(1234), (4231)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (1432), (2431), (4231)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4123), (2143), (1243), (4213), (2413), (1423), (3421), (4321), (2341), (3241), (4231)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4312), (1342), (3142), (4132), (1432), (3412), (2413), (1423), (4123), (2143), (1243)
(1234), (3214), (4213), (1243)
(1234), (4231), (2431), (3421), (4321), (2341), (3241), (1243)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (1432)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4123), (1423), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (1432)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (2341), (4321), (3421), (2431), (1432)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (1432), (2431), (3421), (1423), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (4123),
(3124), (1324)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (2341), (4321), (1324)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4312), (3412), (1432), (4132), (3142), (1342), (2341)
(1234), (3214), (4213), (1423), (2413), (4123), (2143), (1243), (3241), (2341)
(1234), (4231), (2431), (3421), (4321), (2341)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312), (3412), (1432), (2431), (3421)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4123), (2143), (1243), (4213), (2413), (1423), (3421)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (2341), (4321), (3421)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4312)
(1234), (3214), (4213), (1243), (2143), (4123), (1423), (2413), (3412), (4312)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (2341), (4321), (3421), (2431), (1432), (4132), (3142), (1342), (4312)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142), (2143), (4123)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4123)
(1234), (4231), (2431), (3421), (4321), (2341), (3241), (1243), (4213), (2413), (1423), (4123)
(1234), (2134), (4132), (3142)
(1234), (3214), (2314), (1324), (3124), (4123), (1423), (2413), (4213), (1243), (2143), (3142)
(1234), (4231), (3241), (2341), (4321), (3421), (2431), (1432), (3412), (4312), (1342), (3142)
(1234), (2134), (3124), (1324), (2314), (4312), (1342), (3142), (4132), (1432), (3412), (2413)
(1234), (3214), (4213), (2413)
(1234), (4231), (2431), (3421), (4321), (2341), (3241), (1243), (2143), (4123), (1423), (2413)
{n1}
white vertices of Sn . We can choose an edge (y, z) E n1,n where y is a black
{n} {n1}
vertex in Sn and z is a white vertex in Sn . Let {R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn2 } be an (n 2) -
{n}
container of Sn joining u to y, and let {H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn2 } be an (n 2) -container
{n1}
of Sn joining z to v. We write Ri =
u, Ri , yi , y and Hi =
z, zi , Hi , v. Note
that yi is a white vertex and zi is a black vertex for every 1 i n 2. We have
{(yi )1 | 1 i n 2} = {(zi )1 | 1 i n 2} =
n 2. Without loss of generality, we
assume that (yi )1 = (zi )1 for every 1 i n 2 with (yn2 )1 = (u)1 .
{(y ) }
Case 2.1. (u)1 = (v)1 . By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path Ti of Sn i 1
joining the black vertex (yi )n to the white vertex (zi )n for every i
n 3, and there
{(y ) }
is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn n2 1 joining the black vertex (u)n to the white vertex
n
(v) . We set
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i n 3
Qn1 =
u, Rn2 , yn2 , y, z, zn2 , Hn2 , v
Qn2 =
u, (u) , H, (v) , v,
n n
Qi =
u, Ri , yi , (yi )n , Ti , (zi )n , zi , Hi , v for 1 i n 4
Qn3 =
u, Rn3 , yn3 , (yn3 )n , H, (v)n , v,
Qn2 =
u, (u)n , P, (zn2 )n , zn2 , Hn2 , v,
Qn1 =
u, Rn2 , yn2 , y, z, zn3 , Hn3 , v
Again, Chang et al. [43] discuss the spanning connectivity of a bipartite graph
with faults. However, we should only discuss the edge fault. Suppose that a bipar-
tite graph G is a super spanning laceable graph with (G) = k. Let F be any subset
of E(G) with |F| = f k 1. Obviously, (G F) k f . We say that G is f -
fault-tolerant spanning laceable if G F is i -connected for any 1 i k f and
F E(Sn ) with |F| = f . The fault-tolerance spanning laceability of a bipartite graph G,
f,L (G), is dened as the maximum integer f such that G is f -fault-tolerance spanning
laceable.
Ti =
u, Ri , xi , (xi )n , Ti , (yi )n , yi , Hi , v for every 1 i k 2
Tk1 =
u, Rk1 , xk1 , (xk1 )n , Wk1 , (yk )n , yk , Hk , v
Tk =
u, Rk , xk , x, y, yk1 , Hk1
, v
There are some studies of other families of interconnection networks. For example,
Tsai et al. [304] study the spanning connectivity of the recursive circulant graphs
RCG(2m , 4). Ho et al. [152] study the spanning connectivity of the augmented cubes.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 410
THEOREM 14.26 fan (G) (G) (G) for any 1 -connected graph. Moreover,
fan
fan (G) = (G) = (G) = n(G) 1 if and only if G is a complete graph.
Proof: Obviously, (G) (G). Now, we prove that fan (G) (G). Assume that
fan (G) = k. Let x and y be any two vertices of G. We need to show that there is a
k -container of G between x and y.
Suppose that k = 1. Since G is 1fan -connected, there is a spanning 1 (x, {y})-fan,
{P1 }, of G. Then {P1 } forms a spanning container of G between x and y.
Suppose that k 2. Let U = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yk1 } be a set of (k 1) neighbors of
y not containing x. We set U = U {y}. By assumption, there exists a spanning k-
(x, U)-fan. Obviously, we can extend the spanning k-(x, U)-fan by adding the edges
{(yi , y) | yi U } to obtain a k -container between x to y. Hence, G is k -connected.
Therefore, fan (G) (G) for every 1 -connected graph.
fan
Suppose that G is not a complete graph. There exists a vertex cut S of size (G). Let
x and y be any two vertices in different connected components of G S. Obviously,
y is not in any (x, S)-fan of G. Thus, fan (G) < (G)
THEOREM 14.27 pipe (G) (G) (G) (G) for any 1 -connected
fan pipe
(G) = (G) = (G) = (G) if and only if G is a complete
graph. Moreover, pipe fan
graph.
-
Lin et al. [240] also discuss some sufcient conditions for a graph to be fan
connected and pipe -connected. Let H be a subgraph of G. The neighborhood of u
with respect to H, denoted by NbdH (u), is {v V (H) | (u, v) E(G)}. We use H (u)
to denote |NbdH (u)|. Obviously, G (u) = deg (u) for every u V (G). The following
theorem on spanning fan-connectivity is analogous to that on spanning connectivity
in Lemma 14.1.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 412
v
u y1
P1
y2
w2
P2
x w3 P3 y3
wt
P t yt
THEOREM 14.28 Assume that k is a positive integer. Let u and v be two nonadjacent
(G) k + 1 if and only if
vertices of G with degG (u) + degG (v) n(G) + k. Then fan
fan (G + (u, v)) k + 1.
Proof: Obviously, fan (G + (u, v)) k + 1 if (G) k + 1. Suppose that
fan
fan (G + (u, v)) k + 1. Let x be any vertex of G and U = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yt } be any
subset of V (G) such that x / U and t k + 1. We need to nd a spanning t-(x, U)-fan
of G.
Since G + (u, v) is (k + 1)fan -connected, there exists a spanning t-(x, U)-fan
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pt } of G + (u, v) with Pi joining x to yi for " 1 i t. Obviously,
spanning t-(x, U)-fan of G if (u, v) is not in ti=1 E(Pi ). Thus, we
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pt } is a"
consider (u, v) is in ti=1 E(Pi ). By Theorems 19.3 and 19.11, we can nd a spanning
(x, U)-fan of G if t = 1, 2. Thus, we consider the case t 3. Without loss of generality,
we may assume that (u, v) P1 . Thus, we can write P1 as
x, H1 , u, v, H2 , y1 . Let Pi
be the path obtained from Pi by deleting x. Thus, we can write Pi as
x, wi , Pi , yi for
1 i t. Note that x = wi and Pi =
yi if wi = yi for every 2 i t.
Case 1. Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 2 for some 2 i t. Without loss of generality,
we may assume that P2 (u) + P2 (v) n(P2 ) + 2. Obviously, n(P2 ) 2. We write
P2 =
w2 = z1 , z2 , . . . , zr = y2 . We claim that there exists an index j in {1, 2, . . . , r 1}
such that (zj , v) E(G) and (zj+1 , u) E(G). Suppose that this is not the case. Then
P2 (u) + P2 (v) r + r (r 1) = r + 1 = n(P2 ) + 1. We get a contradiction.
We set Q1 =
x, w2 = z1 , z2 , . . . , zj , v, H2 , y1 , Q2 =
x, H1 , u, zj+1 , zj+2 , . . . ,
zr = y2 , and Qi = Pi for 3 i t. Then {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qt } forms a spanning t-(x, U)-fan
of G. See Figure 14.27 for illustration.
Case 2. Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 1 for every 2 i t.
Case 2.1. Pi (u) + Pi (v) < n(Pi ) + 1 for some 2 i t. Without loss of generality,
we may assume that P2 (u) + P2 (v) n(P2 ). Thus,
t
P1 (u) + P1 (v) = degG (u) + degG (v) (Pi (u) + Pi (v))
i=2
t
= degG (u) + degG (v) (P2 (u) + P2 (v)) (Pi (u) + Pi (v))
i=3
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 413
v P1
y1
u
y2
P 2
y3
x w2
P 3
w3
yt
wt P t
t
n(G) + k n(P2 ) (n(Pi ) + 1)
i=3
= n(P1 ) + k (t 2)
n(P1 ) + 1
t
P1 (u) + P1 (v) = degG (u) + degG (v) (Pi (u) + Pi (v))
i=2
t
= n(G) + k (n(Pi ) + 1)
i=2
= n(P1 ) + k (t 1)
n(P1 )
We set R =
y1 , H21 , v, u, H11 , x, w2 , P2 , y2 . Then
R (u) + R (v) = P1 (u) + P1 (v) + P2 (u) + P2 (v)
n(P1 ) + n(P2 ) + 1
= n(R) + 1
degG (u) + degG (v) n(G) + k for all nonadjacent vertices u and v.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 414
THEOREM 14.31 Assume that k is a positive integer. Let u and v be two nonadjacent
(G) k if and
vertices of G. Suppose that degG (u) + degG (v) n(G) + k. Then pipe
(G + (u, v)) k.
only if pipe
Case 1.1. P1 (u) + P1 (v) n(P1 ) + 1. By Theorem X, there is a Hamiltonian path
Q1 of G[P1 ] joining x1 to y1 . We set Qi = Pi for 2 i t. Then {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qt } forms
a spanning (U, W )-pipeline of G. See Figure 14.29 for illustration.
Case 1.2. P1 (u) + P1 (v) n(P1 ). We claim that Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 2 for
some 2 i t.
ch014.tex 25/7/2008 14: 27 Page 415
Suppose that Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 1 for every 2 i t. Then
t
degG (u) + degG (v) = P1 (u) + P1 (v) + (Pi (u) + Pi (v))
i=2
t
n(P1 ) + (n(Pi ) + 1)
i=2
= n(G) + t 1
n(G) + k 1
We obtain a contradiction. Thus, Pi (u) + Pi (v) n(Pi ) + 2 for some 2 i t.
Without loss of generality, we assume that P2 (u) + P2 (v) n(P2 ) + 2. Obviously,
n(P2 ) 2. We write P2 =
x2 = z1 , z2 , . . . , zr = y2 . We claim that there exists an index
j in {1, 2, . . . , r 1} such that (zj , v) E(G) and (zj+1 , u) E(G). Suppose this is
not the case. Then P2 (u) + P2 (v) r + r (r 1) = r + 1 = n(P2 ) + 1. We get a
contradiction.
We set Q1 =
x2 = z1 , z2 , . . . , zj , v, H2 , y1 , Q2 =
x1 , H1 , u, zj+1 , zj+2 , . . . , zr = y2 ,
and Qi = Pi for 3 i t. Then {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qt } forms a spanning (U, W )-pipeline of
G. See Figure 14.30 for illustration.
Case 2. U W = . Let |U W | = r. Without loss of generality, we assume
that xi = yi for t r + 1 i t. Let G = G[V (G) (U W )], U = U W , and
W = W U. Obviously, dG (u) + dG (v) degG (u) + degG (v) 2r n(G) + k 2r
= n(G ) + k r, |U | = |W | = t r k r, and U W = . By Case 1, there
exists a spanning (U , W )-pipeline {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qtr } of G . We set Qi =
xi for
t r + 1 i t. Then {Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qt } forms a spanning (U, W )-pipeline of G.
P1 u v
x1 y1
x2 y2
P2
xt Pt yt
x1 P1 u v y1
x2 y2
P2
xt Pt yt
THEOREM 14.32 Let k be a positive integer. Then pipe (G) k if deg (u) +
G
degG (v) n(G) + k for all nonadjacent vertices u and v.
Example 14.6
Suppose that n is a positive integer with n 2. Let H(n) be the complete 3-partite
graph K2n,2n,n1 with vertex partite sets V1 = {x1 , x2 , . . . x2n }, V2 = {y1 , y2 , . . . , y2n },
and V3 = {z1 , z2 , . . . , zn1 }. Let G(n) be the graph obtained from H(n) by adding the
edge set {(zi , zj ) | 1 i = j < n}. Thus, G[V3 ] is the complete graph Kn1 . Obviously,
n(G(n)) = 5n 1, (G(n)) = 2n + (n 1) = 3n 1, and (G(n)) = (G(n)). In the follow-
ing discussion, we show that (G(n)) = n + 1, fan (G(n)) = n, and pipe (G(n)) = n 1.
By Theorem 14.2, (G(n)) 2(G(n)) n(G(n)) + 2 = n + 1. To show
(G(n)) = n + 1, we claim that there is no (n + 2) -container of G(n) between x1 and
x2 . Suppose this is not the case. Let {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+2 } be an (n + 2) -container of G(n)
between x1 and x2 . Obviously, |V (Pi ) (V1 {x1 , x2 })| |V (Pi ) (V2 V3 )| 1 for 1
i n + 2. Thus n+2 i=1 |V (Pi ) (V1 {x1 , y1 })| = (
n+2
i=1 |(V2 V3 ) V (Pi )|) (n + 2).
Therefore, |V1 {x1 , y1 }| |V2 V3 | (n + 2). However, |V1 {x1 , y1 }| = 2n 2 but
|V2 V3 | (n + 2) = 2n 3. This leads to a contradiction.
By Theorem 14.30, fan (G(n)) 2(G(n)) n(G(n)) + 1 = n. To show fan (G(n)) = n,
we claim that there is no spanning (x1 , U)-fan of G(n), where U = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yn+1 }.
Suppose not. Let {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn+1 } be a spanning (x1 , U)-fan of G(n). With-
out loss of generality, we assume that Pi is a path joining x1 to yi for
1 i n + 1. Obviously, |(V 1n+1 {x1 }) V (Pi )| |((V2 V3 ) {yi }) V (Pi )|. Thus,
n+1
i=1 |(V1 {x1 }) V (Pi )| i=1 |((V2 V3 ) {yi }) V (Pi )|. Therefore, |V1 {x1 }|
|(V2 V3 ) U|. However, |V1 {x1 }| = 2n 1 but |(V2 V3 ) U| = 2n 2. We get a
contradiction.
By Theorem 14.33, pipe (G(n)) 2(G(n)) n(G(n)) = n 1. To prove that
pipe (G(n)) = n 1, we claim that there is no spanning (U, W )-pipeline, where
U = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } and W = {xn+1 , xn+2 , . . . , x2n }. Suppose that there exists a span-
ning (U, W )-pipeline {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn }. Obviously,
|V2 V (Pi )| 1 |V3 V (P i )| for
1 i n. Then ni=1 (|V2 V (Pi )| 1) ni=1|V3 V (Pi )|. Therefore, ( ni=1 |
V2 V (Pi )|) n ni=1 |V3 V (Pi )|. However, ( ni=1 |V2 V (Pi )|) n = |V2 | n = n
but ni=1 |V3 V (Pi )| = |V3 | = n 1. We get a contradiction.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 417
Cubic 3-Connected
15 Graphs and Cubic
3-Laceable Graphs
THEOREM 15.1 [7] Assume that both G1 and G2 are cubic graphs, x is a vertex in
G1 , and y is a vertex in G2 . Then J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) is 3 -connected if and only if
both G1 and G2 are 3 -connected.
Proof: Assume that both G1 and G2 are 3 -connected. We claim that J(G1 , N(x);
G2 , N( y)) is 3 -connected. Let u and v be any two different vertices of J(G1 , N(x);
G2 , N( y)). Without loss of generality, we have the following two cases:
Case 1. Both u and v are in G1 . Since G1 is 3 -connected, there are three disjoint
paths P1 , P2 , and P3 of G1 joining u to v such that P1 P2 P3 spans G1 . Obviously,
x is in exactly one of the paths of P1 , P2 , and P3 . Without loss of generality, we
may assume that x is in P3 . Thus, P3 can be written as
u, Q1 , x1 , x, x2 , Q2 , v where
{x1 , x2 , x3 } are neighborhoods of x and {y1 , y2 , y3 } are neighborhoods of y with xt
joining with yt in J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) for t {1, 2, 3}. By Theorem 15.2, there exists
a Hamiltonian cycle of G2 ( y, y3 ). Obviously, R can be written as
y, y1 , Q3 , y2 , y.
We set P3 =
u, Q1 , x1 , y1 , Q3 , y2 , x2 , Q2 , v. Obviously, P1 , P2 , and P3 form three
disjoint paths joining u and v such that P1 P2 P3 spans J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)).
417
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 418
On the other hand, suppose that J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) is 3 -connected. We need
to prove that both G1 and G2 are 3 -connected. By symmetry, it is sufcient to prove
that G1 is 3 -connected. Let u and v be any two different vertices of G1 . Without loss
of generality, we have the following two cases:
Case 1. x / {u, v}. Thus, u and v are vertices of J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)). Note that
J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) is 3 -connected. There are three disjoint paths P1 , P2 , and
P3 of J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) joining u to v such that P1 P2 P3 spans J(G1 ,
N(x); G2 , N( y)). Let N(x) = {x1 , x2 , x3 } and N( y) = {y1 , y2 , y3 }. Obviously, {(xi , yi )
| i {1, 2, 3}} are all the edges joining vertices of G1 to vertices of G2 . Thus, exactly
one of P1 , P2 , and P3 , say P1 , is of the form
u, Q1 , xi , yi , R, yj , Q2 , v. Moreover, P2
and P3 are paths in G1 . We set P1 as
u, Q1 , xi , x, xj , Q2 , v. Obviously, P1 , P2 , and P3
form three disjoint paths joining u and v such that P1 P2 P3 spans G1 .
Case 2. u V (G1 ) {x} and v = x. Let w be any vertex in V (G2 ) {y}. Thus, u and
v are vertices of J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)). Since J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) is 3 -connected,
there are three disjoint paths P1 , P2 , and P3 of J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)) joining u to v
such that P1 P2 P3 spans J(G1 , N(x); G2 , N( y)). Obviously, {(xi , yi ) | i {1, 2, 3}}
are all the edges joining vertices of G1 to vertices of G2 . Without loss of generality, we
can assume that Pi =
u, Qi , xi , yi , Ri , v for i {1, 2, 3}. We set Pi as
u, Qi , xi , x. Obvi-
ously, P1 , P2 , and P3 form three disjoint paths joining u and v such that P1 P2 P3
spans G1 .
Thus, G1 is 3 -connected. The theorem is proved.
LEMMA 15.1 Assume that G is a cubic 1 -connected graph. Let u and v be two
distinct vertices in G with d(u, v) = 2. Then either G u or G v is Hamiltonian.
Proof: Let w be the common neighbor of u and v. Since G is 1 -connected, there
exists a Hamiltonian path P between u and v. Then P can be written as either
u, w,
P1 , v or
u, P2 , w, v. If P =
u, w, P1 , v, then
w, P1 , v, w forms a Hamiltonian
cycle of G u. If P =
u, P2 , w, v, then
u, P2 , w, u forms a Hamiltonian cycle of
G v.
LEMMA 15.2 Every H(n) is Hamiltonian-connected for every even integer with
n 4.
THEOREM 15.3 Every H(n) is super 3 -connected for every even integer with
n 4.
Proof: In Section 11.2, we saw that H(n) can be obtained form K4 by a sequence
of node expansion. By Theorem 15.1, every H(n) is 3 -connected. Hence, it is 2 -
connected. Combined with Lemma 15.2, H(n) is super 3 -connected.
Assume that n and k are two positive integers with n = 2k and k 2. The
projective cycle graph PJ(k) is the graph with vertex set {0, 1, . . . , 2k 1} and edge
set {(i, k + i) | 0 i < k} {(i, i 1)|0 i < 2k}. The projective cycle graphs PJ(3)
and PJ(4) are shown in Figure 15.1. The following theorem is proved by Kao et al.
[194].
Kao et al. [194] also prove that the generalized Petersen graph P(n, 1) is super
3 -connected if and only if n is odd. Now, we try to classify the super 3 -connected
generalized Petersen graph P(n, 2).
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 420
0 5 0
1 7
1 4 2 6
3 5
2 3 4
(a) (b)
FIGURE 15.1 The projective cycle graphs (a) PJ(3) and (b) PJ(4).
Kao et al. [194] also prove that the generalized Petersen graph P(n, 2) is 1 -
connected if and only if n = 1, 3 (mod 6) and n > 6. We present this fact as depending
on the value of n (mod 6). However, we rst observe the symmetric property of
P(n, 2). For any i Zn , let i be the function from V (P(n, 2)) to V (P(n, 2)) dened by
i (x) = x + i, and i (x ) = (x + i) . It is easy to see that i is an automorphism of P(n, 2)
for any i Zn . Assume that n is an odd integer. Let be the function from V (P(n, 2))
to V (P(n, 2)) dened by (0) = 0, (0 ) = 0 , (i) = n i + 1, and (i ) = (n i + 1)
if i = 0. It is easy to see that is also an automorphism of P(n, 2). With functions
0 and , we have the following observation: for any i Zn {0}, there exists an
automorphism such that (0) = 0, (i) = k, and (i ) = k for some even k Zn .
8
0 10
11 7 6 9 8
10 0
6 7
1 9 0
11 7 9 7
1 9 8 6
2 8 1 1 5 5 1 1 6
2 3 7 3 5
5 3
3 7
4 5
2
6 2
4 2 4
5 3 4 3
2
4 6
4
FIGURE 15.2 The graphs (a) P(12, 2) 0, (b) P(8, 2) 0 , and (c) P(10, 2) 0 .
i = 5, 3k + 1, 3k + 5. Obviously, f3k+1 f3k+1
= 0 (mod 3). Since f3k+1 f3k+1 = 1,
the equation cannot hold. Hence, P(n, 2) 0 is not Hamiltonian. We get a
contradiction. See Figure 15.2b for illustration.
Case 3. n = 4 (mod 6). Then n = 6k + 4 with k 1. Suppose that P(n, 2) is
Hamiltonian-connected. Note that dP(n,2) (0 , (n 4) ) = 2. By Lemma 15.1, either
P(n, 2) 0 or P(n, 2) (n 4) is Hamiltonian. With the symmetric property of
P(n, 2), P(n, 2) 0 is Hamiltonian. Let C be a Hamiltonian cycle of P(n, 2) 0 .
Obviously, P(n, 2) 0 and C satisfy the Grinberg condition. Thus, 3( f5 f5 ) +
3k( f3k+2 f3k+2
) + (3k + 4)( f3k+6 f3k+6 ) = 0 where fi is the number of the faces
of length i inside C and fi is the number of the faces of length i outside C for
i = 5, 3k + 2, 3k + 6. Obviously, f3k+6 f3k+6
= 0 (mod 3). Since f3k+6 f3k+6 = 1,
the equation cannot hold. Hence, P(n, 2) 0 is not Hamiltonian. We get a contradic-
tion. See Figure 15.2c for illustration.
Now, we consider that n is odd.
Case 4. n = 5 (mod 6). It is proved by Bondy [29] that P(n, 2) is Hamiltonian if and
only if n = 5 (mod 6). Thus, P(n, 2) is not 1 -connected if n = 5 (mod 6). Finally, we
consider n = 1 and 3 (mod 6). To prove that P(n, 2) is 1 -connected, we need to nd
a Hamiltonian path of P(n, 2) between any two different vertices a and b. With the
symmetric property of P(n, 2), we have the following three cases: (1) a = 0 and b = i
for all odd i Zn , (2) a = 0 and b = i for all odd i Zn , and (3) a = 0 and b = i for
all odd i Zn . To describe the required Hamiltonian paths, we dene ve basic path
patterns. Each path pattern is associated with its beginning vertex and end vertex. The
path patterns are as follows:
P(i, i t) =
i, i 1, i 2, . . . , i (t 1), i t
Q(i , (i 2t) ) =
i , (i 2) , (i 4) , . . . , (i 2(t 1)) , (i 2t)
D(i , (i 6) ) =
i , i, i 1, i 2, (i 2) , (i 4) , (i 6)
E(i, i 6) =
i, i 1, (i 1) , (i 3) , (i 5) , i 5, i 6
F(i , (i 6) ) =
i , (i 2) , i 2, i 3, i 4, (i 4) , (i 6)
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 422
Then we dene the path pattern Dt for any positive integer t by executing the path
pattern D t times. Similarly, we dene E t and F t . More precisely,
Dt (i , (i 6t) ) =
i , D(i , (i 6) ), (i 6) , D((i 6) , (i 12) ), (i 12) , . . . ,
(i 6(t 1)) , D((i 6(t 1)) , (i 6t) ), (i 6t)
E t (i, i 6t) =
i, E(i, i 6), i 6, E(i 6, i 12), i 12, . . . ,
i 6(t 1), E(i 6(t 1), i 6t), i 6t
F (i , (i 6t) ) =
i , F(i , (i 6) ), (i 6) , F((i 6) , (i 12) ), (i 12) , . . . ,
t
P1 (i, i # t) =
i, i # 1, i # 2, . . . , i # (t 1), i # t
Q1 (i , (i # 2t) ) =
i , (i # 2) , (i # 4) , . . . , (i # 2(t # 1)) , (i # 2t)
D1 (i , (i # 6) ) =
i , i, i # 1, i # 2, (i # 2) , (i # 4) , (i # 6)
E 1 (i, i # 6) =
i, i # 1, (i # 1) , (i # 3) , (i # 5) , i # 5, i # 6
F 1 (i , (i # 6) ) =
i , (i # 2) , i # 2, i # 3, i # 4, (i # 4) , (i # 6)
Similarly, we can dene the path patterns Dt (i, i # 6t), E t (i, i # 6t), and
F t (i , (i # 6t) ).
See Figure 15.3 for illustrations of these path patterns.
Case 5. n = 1 (mod 6).
The following three sub cases consider the situation a = 0 and b = i with i
being odd.
Case 5.1. i = 1 (mod 6). Obviously,
0, 0 , Q(0 , (i # 1) ), (i # 1) , F 6 ((i # 1) ,
ni
Q1 ((i 2) , 1 ), 1 , 1, P(1, i), i forms a Hamiltonian path of P(n, 2) between a and b.
Case 5.2. i = 3 (mod 6). Obviously,
0, 0 , Q1 (0 , (i # 2) ), (i # 2) , F 6
i3
(n # 1) ), (n # 1) , Q((n # 1) , (i 2) ), (i 2) , F 6 ((i 2) , (n # 4) ), (n # 4) ,
ni6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
i
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
(k) F 2 (12,0)
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1
Q ((i 2) , (n # 1) ), (n # 1) , n # 1, P(n # 1, i), i forms a Hamiltonian path of
P(n, 2) between a and b.
Case 5.6. i = 5 (mod 6). Obviously,
0 , F 6 (0 , (i 2) ), (i 2) , Q1
ni2
((i 2) , 3 ), 3 , F 6 (3 , (i # 1) ), (i # 1) , Q1 ((i # 1) , 2 ), 2 , 2, P(2, i), i forms a
4#i
The following three sub cases consider the situation a = 0 and b = i with i
being odd.
Case 5.7. i = 1 (mod 6). Obviously,
0 , Q(0 , (i 1) ), (i 1) , i 1, P1 (i 1,
n # 2), n # 2, (n # 2) , (n # 4) , F 6 ((n # 4) , (i 2) ), (i 2) , i 2, i 3, (i 3) ,
ni6
Case 6. n = 3 (mod 6). The corresponding Hamiltonian paths are listed here.
The following three sub cases consider the situation a = 0 and b = i with i
being odd.
The following three sub cases consider the situation a = 0 and b = i with i
being odd.
(i 1) ), (i 1) , i 1, P(i 1, 1), 1, E 6 (1, i), i forms a Hamiltonian path of P(n, 2)
i1
between a and b.
Case 6.5. i = 3 (mod 6) Obviously,
0 , Q(0 , (i # 1) ), (i # 1) , F 6 ((i # 1) ,
ni
(n # 1) ), (n # 1) , Q((n # 1) , (i 2) ), (i 2) , F 6 ((i 2) , (n # 4) ), (n # 4) ,
ni6
between a and b.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 425
0 1 b n2 n1
0 1 2 b n1
0 b n2 n1
(c)
0 3 6 (b2) (b1) (n1)
0
(n2)
0 b n2 n1
n1 0
(d)
0 1 (b1) (b2) (n4) (n2) (n1)
(n1)
1
0
0 2 b n1
n1
(n2) 0
0 n2 n1
n1 0
(h)
(n1) 0 1 (b3) (b2) b (n4) (n2)(n1)
1
(i)
0 1 2 3 4 (b2) (b1) b (n2) (n1)
FIGURE 15.4 Illustrations of the Hamiltonian paths of P(n, 2), where n = 1 (mod 6) in Case
5 of Theorem 15.5.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 426
The following three sub cases consider the situation a = 0 and b = i with i
being odd.
Case 6.7. i = 1 (mod 6). Obviously,
0 , Q1 (0 , (i 2) ), (i 2) , i 2, P(i 2,
2), 2, 2 , 4 , F 6 (4 , (i 3) ), (i 3) , Q((i 3) , 1 ), 1 , F 6 (1 , i ), i forms a
i1 i1
Example 15.1
(Cubic 1-fault-tolerant hamiltonian graphs that are 3 -connected but not 1 -
connected.)
Let T be the graph in Figure 15.7. Obviously, T is obtained from PJ(4) by a sequence
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 427
0 b n1 0
n1
0 1 2 b n1
0 1 b n1
0 1 b n1
n1 0
(m)
(n1) 0 1 b (b1) (n2) (n1) 0 1
(n2)
0 b n1
n1 0
(n) (n1) 0
1 (b1) (b2) (n1)
1
0 b n2 n1
0
n1
(o)
(n1) 0 1 (b1) (n1) 1
0 2 n1
n1 0
(p) 0 1 2 4 b (n2) (n1)0
(n1) 1
(n2)
0 b2 n2 n1
n1 0
(q) (n1)' 0
1 b (b1) (b2) (b4) (n5) (n3)(n2)
(n1) 1
0 2 b2
n1 0
(r) 0 3 b (b2) (b4) (n2)(n1)0
(n2)
FIGURE 15.5 Illustrations of the Hamiltonian paths of P(n, 2), where n = 3(mod 6) in Case
6 of Theorem 15.5.
Cubic 1-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graphs
6 3 1 2 4 5
FIGURE 15.6 Venn diagram of relations among cubic 1 -connected graphs, cubic
2 -connected graphs, cubic 3 -connected graphs, and cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs.
z y
s
x
w1
w3
t
u1
u2 w2
u3 v
We dene Gi+1 as J(Gi , N(xi ); K4 , N( y)). Recursively applying Theorems 12.9 and 15.1,
Gi is 3 -connected but not Hamiltonian-connected for i 2. With Theorem 15.2, Gi is
1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian for i 2. Hence, we have the following theorem.
THEOREM 15.8 There are innite cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs that
are 3 -connected but not 1 -connected.
Example 15.2
(Cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs that are 1 -connected but not 3 -
connected.)
Let Q be the graph in Figure 15.8a. Let Q3 be the three-dimensional hypercube. Obvi-
ously, Q is obtained from Q3 by a sequence of node-expansions at every vertex of Q3 .
Note that Q3 is 1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. By Theorem 11.4, Q is 1-fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian. By brute force, we can check whether Q is 1 -connected. Note that Q3 is
bipartite. By Lemma 1.2, Q3 is not 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. By Theorem 15.2, Q3
is not 3 -connected. With Theorem 15.1, Q is not 3 -connected.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 429
1 11
2 3
22 10
12
13
15 24
23
14
17 20
18
6 9
4 16 21 19 8
5 7
(a) (b)
Let x be the vertex 1 of Q shown in Figure 15.8a. By brute force, we can check
whether x is nice in Q. Moreover, by Theorem 12.11, any expanded vertex of Q at 1 is
nice. Now, we recursively dene a sequence of graphs as follows: let G1 = Q, x1 = x,
and G2 = J(G1 , N(x1 ); K4 , N( y)). Suppose that we have dened G1 , G2 , . . . , Gi with i 2.
Let xi be any expanded vertex of Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1 as J(Gi , N(xi ); K4 , N( y)).
Recursively applying Theorems 12.1, 12.11, and 15.1, Gi is 1-fault-tolerant Hamilto-
nian and 1 -connected but not 3 -connected for i 2. Hence, we have the following
theorem.
THEOREM 15.9 There are innite cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs that
are 1 -connected but not 3 -connected.
Example 15.3
(Examples of cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs that are not 1 -connected
or 3 -connected.)
Let M be the graph in Figure 15.9a. Obviously, M can be obtained from P(8, 2), shown
in Figure 15.9b, by a sequence of 3-vertex expansions of P(8, 2). With Theorem 15.6,
P(8, 2) is not 3 -connected. Using Theorem 15.1, M is not 3 -connected. Yet, it is proved
in Lemmas 12.15 and 12.16 that M is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian but not 1 -connected.
Let x, a, and b be three distinct vertices of M shown in Figure 15.9a. By Lemma 14.9,
there is no Hamiltonian path between a and b in J(M, N(x); K4 , N( y)). Thus, J(M, N(x);
K4 , N( y)) is not 1 -connected. Let G1 = M, x1 = x, and G2 = J(G1 , N(x1 ); K4 , N( y)).
Suppose that we have dened G1 , G2 ,, Gi with i 2. Let xi be any expanded vertex of
Gi1 at xi1 . We dene Gi+1 as J(Gi , N(xi ); K4 , N( y)). Recursively applying Theorems
12.1 and 15.1, and Lemma 12.9, Gi is a 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graph that is not
1 -connected or 3 -connected for every i 2. Hence, we have the following theorem.
THEOREM 15.10 There are innite cubic 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian graphs that
are not 1 -connected or 3 -connected.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 430
a
b
(a) (b)
1. i = k and j = [l 1]n
2. j = l and k = [i + 1]m if i + j is odd
3. j = l and k = [i 1]m if i + j is even
Teng et al. [299] prove that any honeycomb rectangular torus HReT(m, n) is
strongly 3 -laceable. Moreover, HReT(m, n) is hyper 3 -laceable if and only if n 6
or m = 2.
We rst present an algorithm. The purpose of this algorithm is to extend a
3-container C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } of HReT(m, n) to a 3-container of HReT(m + 2, n).
(i, [kj ]n ), ([i + 1]m+2 , [kj ]n ), Q[i+1]m+2 ([kj ]n , [kj 1]n ), ([i + 1]m+2 , [kj 1]n ),
1
([i + 2]m+2 , [kj 1]n ), Q[i+2]m+2
([kj ]n , [kj 1]n ), ([i + 2]m+2 ,
[kj ]n ), ([i + 3]m+2 , [kj ]n )
(a) (b)
Ci (x, y) forms a 3-container of HReT(m + 2, n) containing at least one edge joining the
vertices of column l to the vertices of column [l + 1]m for any l {i, [i + 1]m , [i + 2]m }.
Moreover, Ci (x, y) is a 3 -container of HReT(m + 2, n) if C(x, y) is a 3 -container of
HReT(m, n). Furthermore, Ci (x, y) is a 3 -container of HReT(m + 2, n) {fi (z)} if
C(x, y) is a 3 -container of HReT(m, n) {z}.
With Lemmas 15.3 and 15.4, we say that a 3-container C(x, y) of HReT(2, n)
is regular if C(x, y) contains at least one edge in {((0, j), (1, j)) | j is odd} and at
least one edge in {((0, j), (1, j)) | j is even}. Assume that m 4. We say a 3-container
C(x, y) of HReT(m, n) is regular if C(x, y) contains at least one edge joining vertices
in column i to vertices in column [i + 1]m for 0 i m 1. We have the following
lemma.
LEMMA 15.5 Suppose that C(x, y) is a regular 3 -container for HReT(m, n). Then
Ci (x, y) is a regular 3 -container for HReT(m + 2, n) for every 0 i < m. Moreover,
suppose that C(x, y) is a regular 3 -container for HReT(m, n) {z}. Then Ci (x, y) is a
regular 3 -container for HReT(m + 2, n) {fi (z)} for every 0 i < m.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 433
LEMMA 15.6 Let x and y be any two vertices of HReT(2, n) = (V0 V1 , E) with
x V0 and y V1 . Then there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) of HReT(2, n).
Hence, HReT(2, n) is 3 -laceable.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that x = (0, 0) and y = (i, j). In
order to prove this lemma, we will construct a regular 3 -container C(x, y) =
{P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(2, n). We have the following cases:
Case 1. i = 0 and j is odd. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j)
P2 =
(0, j), R0 ( j, 0), (0, 0)
P3 =
(0, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, j), (1, j), (0, j)
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, n 2), (0, n 2), (1, n 2), Q11 (0, n 2), (1, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), (1, 0)
P3 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), (1, 0)
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j), (1, j)
P2 =
(1, j), (1, j + 1), (0, j + 1), R0 ( j + 1, 0), (0, 0)
P3 =
(0, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, j), (1, j)
x x y x
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 15.11 Illustrations for Lemma 15.6: (a) Case 1, (b) Case 2.1, and (c) Case 2.2.
Case 1.1. k = 0. Then l is even. By the symmetric property of HReT(2, n), we may
assume that l < j. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, j), Q0 ( j, 0), (0, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), R0 (0, l 1), (0, l 1), (1, l 1), (1, l), (1, l + 1), (0, l + 1),
R0 (l + 1, j), (0, j)
P3 =
(0, j), (1, j), Q1 ( j, 0), (1, 0), (0, 0)
Case 1.2. k = 1. Then l is odd. By the symmetric property of HReT(2, n), we may
assume that l < j. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, j), Q0 ( j, 0), (0, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), R0 (0, l), (0, l), R0 (l, j), (0, j)
P3 =
(0, j), (1, j), Q1 ( j, 0), (1, 0), (0, 0)
P1 =
(1, j), (0, j), Q0 ( j, 0), (0, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), R0 (0, l 1), (0, l 1), (1, l 1), (1, l), (1, l + 1), (0, l + 1),
R0 (l + 1, j 1), (0, j 1), (1, j 1), (1, j)
P3 =
(1, j), Q1 ( j, 0), (1, 0), (0, 0)
y y
x x x
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 15.12 Illustrations for Lemma 15.7: (a) Case 1.1, (b) Case 1.2, and (c) Case 2.
Now, we discuss the 3 -laceability for HReT(4, n). We need the following path
patterns. For 0 i m 1 and 0 j, k n 1, we set
SiL ( j) =
([i]m , [ j]n ), ([i 1]m , [ j]n ), ([i 1]m , [ j + 1]n ), ([i 2]m , [ j + 1]n ),
([i 2]m , [ j + 2]n ), ([i 3]m , [ j + 2]n ), ([i 3]m , [ j + 3]n ),
([i 4]m , [ j + 3]n ), ([i 4]m , [ j + 2]n )
SiR ( j) =
([i]m , [ j]n ), ([i + 1]m , [ j]n ), ([i + 1]m , [ j + 1]n ), ([i + 2]m , [ j + 1]n ),
([i + 2]m , [ j + 2]n ), ([i + 3]m , [ j + 2]n ), ([i + 3]m , [ j + 3]n ),
([i + 4]m , [ j + 3]n ), ([i + 4]m , [ j + 2]n )
SiL ( j, k) =
([i]m , [ j]n ), S[i]
L
m
( j), ([i 4]m , [ j + 2]n ), S[i4]
L
m
([ j + 2]n ),
([i 8]m , [ j + 4]n ), . . . , ([i 2(k j 2)]m , [k 2]n ),
L
S[i2(kj2)] m
([k 2]n ), ([i 2(k j)]m , [k]n )
SiR ( j, k) =
([i]m , [ j]n ), S[i]
R
m
( j), ([i + 4]m , [ j + 2]n ), S[i+4]
R
m
([ j + 2]n ),
([i + 8]m , [ j + 4]n ), . . . , ([i + 2(k j 2)]m , [k 2]n ),
R
S[i+2(kj2)] m
([k 2]n ), ([i + 2(k j)]m , [k]n )
LEMMA 15.8 Let x and y be any two vertices of HReT(4, n) = (V0 V1 , E) with
x V0 and y V1 . Then there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) of HReT(4, n).
Hence, HReT(4, n) is 3 -laceable.
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 436
FIGURE 15.13 The path patterns (a) Q0 (4, 2), (b) R0 (4, 1), (c) S1L (3), (d) S2L (0, 4), (e) S3R (2),
and (f) S2R (1, 5).
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that x = (0, 0) and y = (i, j).
In order to prove this lemma, we will construct a regular 3 -container C(x, y) =
{P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(4, n). By the symmetric property of HReT(4, n), we may assume
that i {0, 1, 2}. Hence, we have the following cases:
Case 1. Suppose that i {0, 1}. By Lemma 15.6, there exists a regular 3 -container
C((0, 0), (i, j)) of HReT(2, n). By Lemma 15.5, C1((0, 0), (i, j)) forms a 3 -container
of HReT(4, n).
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), Q11 (0, n 1), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1)
P2 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, n 2), (0, n 2), (3, n 2), Q31 (1, n 2), (3, 1), (2, 1)
P3 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, n 1), (2, n 1), Q21 (1, n 1), (2, 1)
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j 1), (0, j 1), (3, j 1), (3, j), (2, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j 2), (3, j 2), (2, j 2), Q21 (0, j 2), (2, 0), (1, 0),
P3 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), SL1 ( j + 3, n 1), (0, j + 3), (0, j + 2), (1, j + 2), (1, j + 1),
(1, j), (0, j), (0, j + 1), (3, j + 1), (3, j + 2), (2, j + 2), (2, j + 1), (2, j)
y
x x
(a) (b)
FIGURE 15.14 Illustrations for Lemma 15.8: (a) Case 2.1 and (b) Case 2.2.
LEMMA 15.9 Let x, y, and z be any three different vertices of HReT(4, 6) = (V0
V1 , E) in V0 . Then there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) of HReT(4, 6) {z}.
Hence, HReT(4, 6) is hyper 3 -laceable.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that x = (0, 0), y = (i, j),
and z = (k, l). The corresponding regular 3 -container C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in
HReT(4, 6) {z} are listed as follows:
y z C(x,y)
(0, 2) (2, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 0), Q1 (0, 4), (1, 4), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (0, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0), (2, 5), (3, 5), (3, 4), (0, 4), (0, 3), (0, 2)
(0, 2) (2, 4)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2)
(0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, 5), (1, 5), (0, 5), (0, 0)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (0, 2)
(0, 4) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (0, 4)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 5), (3, 4), (0, 4)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 5), (1, 4), (1, 3), (0, 3), (0, 4)
(0, 4) (1, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (0, 4)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3), (0, 3), (0, 4)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 5), (1, 4), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 5), (3, 4), (0, 4)
(1, 3) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (0, 4), (0, 3), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 5), (3, 5), (2, 5), Q21 (0, 5), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 5), (1, 4), (1, 3)
(1, 5) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 4), (1, 4), (1, 5)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), Q21 (0, 3), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 5)
(Continued)
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 438
y z C(x,y)
(1, 1) (2, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
(1, 0), (1, 1)
(1, 1) (2, 2)
(1, 1), Q1 (1, 4), (1, 4), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1),
(3, 0), (0, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 0), (1, 1)
(1, 1) (2, 4)
(1, 1), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 5), (3, 5), (3, 4), (0, 4), (0, 3), (0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 0), (0, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), Q11 (1, 5), (1, 1)
(1, 3) (2, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (1, 5), (1, 4), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 3)
(1, 3) (2, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 4), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 4), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (0, 4), (0, 3), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, 3), (1, 3)
(1, 3) (2, 4)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 4), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, 3), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 4), (0, 4), (0, 3), (1, 3)
(2, 0) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 4), (1, 4), (1, 3), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 0), (2, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1), (2, 0)
(2, 2) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 4), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 5), (3, 4), (0, 4), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, 2)
(2, 2) (0, 4)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 5), (3, 5), Q31 (2, 5), (3, 2), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 4), (2, 3), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2)
(2, 2) (1, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 5), (1, 5), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 2)
(0, 0), Q0 (0, 4), (0, 4), (3, 4), (3, 5), (2, 5), (2, 4), (1, 4), (1, 3), (1, 2), (2, 2)
LEMMA 15.10 Assume that n 8. Let x, y, and z be any three different vertices of
HReT(4, n) = (V0 V1 , E) in V0 . Then there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) of
HReT(4, n) {z}. Hence, HReT(4, n) is hyper 3 -laceable.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that x = (0, 0), y = (i, j), and
z = (k, l). In order to prove this lemma, we will construct a regular 3 -container
C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(4, n) {z}. By the symmetric property of HReT(4, n),
we may assume that i {0, 1, 2}. We have the following cases:
Case 1. Suppose that i {0, 1} and z {0, 1}. By Lemma 15.7, there exists a regular
3 -container C((0, 0), (i, j)) of HReT(2, n) {(k, l)}. By Lemma 15.5, C1 ((0, 0), (i, j))
forms a 3 -container of HReT(4, n) {(k, l)}.
Case 2. i = 0 and k = 2. Then j and l are even. By the symmetric property, we have
the following subcases:
Case 2.1. Suppose that j = 4 and l = 2. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, 4), (0, 4)
P2 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (0, n 2), (3, n 2), Q31 (4, n 2), (3, 4), (0, 4)
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 439
P3 =
(0, 4), Q0 (4, n 3), (0, n 3), (1, n 3), Q11 (0, n 3), (1, 0), (1, n 1),
(1, n 2), (2, n 2), Q21 (3, n 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0),
(2, n 1), (3, n 1), (3, 0), (0, 0)
Case 2.2. Suppose that n 4 > j 2 and l = j + 2. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j), (3, j), (0, j)
P3 =
(0, j), Q0 ( j, j + 4), (0, j + 4), (3, j + 4), (3, j + 5), (2, j + 5), (2, j + 4),
(2, j + 3), (3, j + 3), (3, j + 2), (3, j + 1), (2, j + 1), Q21 (0, j + 1), (2, 0), (1, 0),
Q1 (0, j + 5), (1, j + 5), (0, j + 5), (0, j + 6), (3, j + 6), (3, j + 7), (2, j + 7),
(2, j + 6), S2L ( j + 6, n 2), (2, n 2), (1, n 2), (1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
Case 2.3. Suppose that n 6 > j 2 and n 4 > l > j + 2. The corresponding
paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j), (3, j), (0, j)
P3 =
(1, j), (1, j + 1), (1, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (3, j + 1), (2, j + 1), Q21 (0, j + 1), (2, 0),
(1, 0), Q1 (0, j + 2), (1, j + 2), (2, j + 2), (2, j + 3), (3, j + 3), (3, j + 4),
(0, j + 4), (0, j + 3), S0R ( j + 3, l 3), (0, l 3), (1, l 3), (1, l 2), (2, l 2),
(2, l 1), (3, l 1), (3, l), (3, l + 1), (2, l + 1), (2, l + 2), (2, l + 3), (3, l + 3),
(3, l + 2), (0, l + 2), Q01 (l 1, l + 2), (0, l 1), (1, l 1), Q1 (l 1, l + 3),
(1, l + 3), (0, l + 3), (0, l + 4), (3, l + 4), S2L (l + 4, n 2), (2, n 2), (1, n 2),
(1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
Case 2.4. Suppose that n > 8 and j = l 2. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j 1), (3, j 1), (2, j 1), Q21 (0, j 1), (2, 0), (1, 0),
Q1 (0, j + 1), (1, j + 1), (0, j + 1), (0, j)
P3 =
(0, j), (3, j), (3, j + 1), (2, j + 1), (2, j + 2), (1, j + 2), (1, j + 3), (1, j + 4),
(2, j + 4), (2, j + 3), (3, j + 3), (3, j + 2), (0, j + 2), (0, j + 3), (0, j + 4),
(3, j + 4), (3, j + 5), (2, j + 5), (2, j + 6), (1, j + 6), (1, j + 5), S1L ( j + 5, n 5),
(1, n 5), (0, n 5), (0, n 4), (3, n 4), (3, n 3), (2, n 3), (2, n 2),
(2, n 1), (3, n 1), (3, n 2), (0, n 2), (0, n 3), (1, n 3), (1, n 2),
(1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 440
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2)
P2 =
(0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (3, 4), Q3 (4, 7), (3, 7), (2, 7), (2, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 0),
(0, 0)
P3 =
(0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), Q2 (3, 6), (2, 6), (1, 6), (1, 7), (1, 0), Q1 (0, 5), (1, 5),
(0, 5), (0, 6), (0, 7), (0, 0)
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, 4), (0, 4)
P2 =
(0, 0), (0, 7), (1, 7), (1, 0), Q1 (0, 6), (1, 6), (2, 6), (2, 5), (3, 5), (3, 4), (0, 4)
P3 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), Q21 (0, 3), (2, 0), (2, 7), (3, 7), (3, 6), (0, 6),
(0, 5), (0, 4)
Case 3.1. Suppose that n 5 > j 1 and n 4 > l > j + 2. The corresponding
paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j), (1, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j), (3, j), (2, j), Q21 (0, j), (2, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, j), (1, j)
P3 =
(1, j), (1, j + 1), (2, j + 1), (2, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (3, j + 1), S3L ( j + 1, l 2),
(3, l 2), (0, l 2), (0, l 1), (1, l 1), (1, l), (1, l + 1), (1, l + 2), (2, l + 2),
(2, l + 1), (3, l + 1), (3, l), (0, l), (0, l + 1), (0, l + 2), (3, l + 2), (3, l + 3),
(2, l + 3), (2, l + 4), (1, l + 4), (1, l + 3), S1L (l + 3, n 5), (1, n 5), (0, n 5),
(0, n 4), (3, n 4), (3, n 3), (2, n 3), (2, n 2), (2, n 1), (3, n 1),
(3, n 2), (0, n 2), (0, n 3), (1, n 3), (1, n 2), (1, n 1), (0, n 1),
(0, 0)
Case 3.2. Suppose that n 5 > j 1 and l = j + 1. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j), (1, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j), (3, j), (2, j), Q21 (0, j), (2, 0), (1, 0),
Q1 (0, j), (1, j)
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 441
P3 =
(1, j), Q1 ( j, j + 3), (1, j + 3), (2, j + 3), (2, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (3, j + 1),
(0, j + 1), (0, j + 2), (0, j + 3), (3, j + 3), (3, j + 4), (2, j + 4), (2, j + 5),
(1, j + 5), (1, j + 4), S1L ( j + 4, n 5), (1, n 5), (0, n 5), (0, n 4),
(3, n 4), (3, n 3), (2, n 3), (2, n 2), (2, n 1), (3, n 1), (3, n 2),
(0, n 2), (0, n 3), (1, n 3), (1, n 2), (1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
Case 3.3. Suppose that n 5 > j 1 and l = n 4. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j), (1, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), (1, 0), Q1 (0, j), (1, j)
P3 =
(1, j), (1, j + 1), (2, j + 1), (2, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (3, j + 1), S3L ( j + 1, n 6),
(0, n 6), (0, n 5), (1, n 5), Q1 (n 5, n 2), (1, n 2), (2, n 2),
(2, n 3), (3, n 3), (3, n 4), (0, n 4), (0, n 3), (0, n 2), (3, n 2),
(3, n 1), (2, n 1), (2, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 0), (0, 0)
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, n 5), (0, n 5), (1, n 5)
P2 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), (1, 0), Q1 (0, n 5), (1, n 5)
P3 =
(1, n 5), Q1 (n 5, n 2), (1, n 2), (2, n 2), (2, n 3), (3, n 3),
(3, n 4), (0, n 4), (0, n 3), (0, n 2), (3, n 2), (3, n 1), (2, n 1),
(2, 0), Q2 (0, n 5), (2, n 5), (3, n 5), Q31 (0, n 5), (3, 0), (0, 0)
Case 3.5. Suppose that n 5 > j 1 and l = n 2. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j), (0, j), (1, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, n 1), (2, n 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, j), (1, j)
P3 =
(1, j), (1, j + 1), (1, j + 2), (0, j + 2), (0, j + 1), (3, j + 1), Q31 (1, j + 1), (3, 1),
(2, 1), Q2 (1, j + 2), (2, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (3, j + 3), (0, j + 3), (0, j + 4),
(1, j + 4), (1, j + 3), S1R ( j + 3, n 6), (1, n 6), (2, n 6), (2, n 5),
(3, n 5), (3, n 4), (0, n 4), (0, n 3), (0, n 2), (3, n 2), (3, n 3),
(2, n 3), (2, n 4), (1, n 4), Q1 (n 4, n 1), (1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
Case 4. i = 2 and k = 0. Then j and l are even. By the symmetric property, we have
the following subcases:
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 442
Case 4.1. Suppose that j = 0 and l > 0. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), (1, 0), (2, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 1), (2, 0)
P3 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 4), (2, 3),
S2R (3, j 1), (2, j 1), (3, j 1), (3, j), (3, j + 1), (2, j + 1), (2, j + 2), (1, j + 2),
(1, j + 1), S1L ( j + 1, n 3), (1, n 3), (0, n 3), (0, n 2), (3, n 2),
(3, n 1), (2, n 1), (2, 0)
Case 4.2. Suppose that l > j > 0. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), Q1 (1, j), (1, j), (2, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), Q2 (1, j), (2, j)
P3 =
(2, j), (2, j + 1), (2, j + 2), (1, j + 2), (1, j + 1), (0, j + 1), Q01 (2, j + 1),
(0, 2), (3, 2), Q3 (2, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (0, j + 2), (0, j + 3), (1, j + 3), (1, j + 4),
(2, j + 4), (2, j + 3), S2R ( j + 3, l 1), (2, l 1), (3, l 1), (3, l), (3, l + 1),
(2, l + 1), (2, l + 2), (1, l + 2), (1, l + 1), S1L (l + 1, n 1), (1, n 1), (0, n 1),
(0, 0)
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j 1), (0, j 1), (1, j 1), Q11 (0, j 1), (1, 0), (2, 0), Q2 (0, j),
(2, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, j + 1), (3, j + 1), (2, j + 1), (2, j)
P3 =
(2, j), S2L ( j, n 1), (2, n 2), (1, n 2), (1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), (1, 0), (2, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0)
P3 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, n 1), (3, n 2), (0, n 2), Q01 (3, n 2), (0, 3), (1, 3),
(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), Q3 (3, n 3), (3, n 3), (2, n 3), Q21 (4, n 3),
(2, 4), (1, 4), Q1 (4, n 2), (1, n 2), (2, n 2), (2, n 1), (2, 0)
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 443
Case 5.2. Suppose that j = 0 and n 1 > l > 1. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (1, n 1), (1, 0), (2, 0)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0)
P3 =
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), S3L (2, j 3), (3, j 3),
(0, j 3), (0, j 2), (1, j 2), (1, j 1), (2, j 1), (2, j), (2, j + 1), (1, j + 1),
(1, j + 2), (1, j + 3), (2, j + 3), (2, j + 2), (3, j + 2), Q31 ( j 1, j + 2), (3, j 1),
(0, j 1), Q0 ( j 1, j + 3), (0, j + 3), (3, j + 3), (3, j + 4), (2, j + 4), (2, j + 5),
(1, j + 5), (1, j + 4), S1L ( j + 4, n 3), (1, n 3), (0, n 3), (0, n 2),
(3, n 2), (3, n 1), (2, n 1), (2, 0)
Case 5.3. Suppose that n 1 > l > j + 2 and j > 0. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), Q1 (1, j), (1, j), (2, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), Q2 (1, j), (2, j)
P3 =
(2, j), (2, j + 1), (3, j + 1), (3, j), S3L ( j, l 3), (3, l 3), (0, l 3), (0, l 2),
(1, l 2), (1, l 1), (2, l 1), (2, l), (2, l + 1), (1, l + 1), (1, l + 2), (1, l + 3),
(2, l + 3), (2, l + 2), (3, l + 2), (3, l + 1), (3, l), (3, l 1), (0, l 1),
Q0 (l 1, l + 3), (0, l + 3), (3, l + 3), (3, l + 4), (2, l + 4), (2, l + 5), (1, l + 5),
(1, l + 4), S1L (l + 4, n 1), (1, n 1), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
Case 5.4. Suppose that n 2 > j and l = n 1. The corresponding paths are
P1 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, j + 1), (0, j + 1), (1, j + 1), (1, j + 2), (2, j + 2), (2, j + 1), (2, j)
P2 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, n 1), (2, n 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), Q1 (0, j), (1, j), (2, j)
P3 =
(2, j), Q21 (1, j), (2, 1), (3, 1), Q3 (1, j + 2), (3, j + 2), (0, j + 2), (0, j + 3),
(1, j + 3), (1, j + 4), (2, j + 4), (2, j + 3), S2R ( j + 3, n 3), (2, n 3), (3, n 3),
(3, n 2), (0, n 2), (0, n 1), (0, 0)
P1 =
(0, 0), (0, n 1), (0, n 2), (0, n 3), (1, n 3), (1, n 2), (2, n 2)
P2 =
(0, 0), Q0 (0, n 4), (3, n 4), Q3 (n 4, n 1), (2, n 1), (2, n 2)
P3 =
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, n 5), (3, n 5), (2, n 5), Q21 (0, n 5), (2, 0),
Q1 (0, n 4), (1, n 4), (2, n 4), (2, n 3), (2, n 2)
y z y z z
y z y z
y
z y x x
y
x x x x x
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
z z
y
z z
z y
y y y
y
x x x x x x
(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)
z z
y
z z
z y
y y
z
x y y x
x x x x
FIGURE 15.15 Illustrations for Lemma 15.10: (a) Case 2.1, (b) Case 2.2, (c) Case 2.3,
(d) Case 2.4, (e) Case 2.5, (f) Case 2.6, (g) Case 3.1, (h) Case 3.2, (i) Case 3.3, (j) Case 3.4,
(k) Case 3.5, (l) Case 4.1, (m) Case 4.2, (n) Case 4.3, (o) Case 5.1, (p) Case 5.2, (q) Case 5.3,
(r) Case 5.4, and (s) Case 5.5.
LEMMA 15.11 Assume that m and n are positive even integers with m, n 4. Let x
and y be any two vertices of HReT(m, n) = (V0 V1 , E) with x V0 and y V1 . Then
there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) of HReT(m, n).
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 445
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that x = (0, 0) and y = (i, j).
In order to prove this lemma, we will construct a regular 3 -container
C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m, n). We prove the lemma by induction on m. With
Lemma 15.8, our theorem holds for m = 4. Now, we consider the case where m 6.
Suppose that i < m 2. By induction, there exists a regular 3 -container
C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m 2, n). By Lemma 15.5, Cm 3((0, 0), (i, j)) forms
a 3 -container of HReT(m, n). Suppose that i m 2. By induction, there exists a reg-
ular C(x, (i 2, j)) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m 2, n). By Lemma 15.5, C1 ((0, 0), (i, j))
forms a 3 -container of HReT(m, n).
LEMMA 15.12 Assume that m and n are positive even integers with m 4 and n 6.
Let x, y, and z be any three different vertices of HReT(m, n) = (V0 V1 , E) in V0 . Then
there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) of HReT(m, n) {z}.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we may assume that x = (0, 0), y = (i, j), and
z = (k, l). In order to prove this lemma, we will construct a regular 3 -container
C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m, n) {z}. We prove the lemma by induction on m.
With Lemmas 15.9 and 15.10, our theorem holds for m = 4. Now, we consider the
case that m 6.
Suppose that i < m 2 and k < m 2. By induction, there exists a regu-
lar 3 -container C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m 2, n) {z}. By Lemma 15.5,
Cm3 ((0, 0), (i, j)) forms a 3 -container of HReT(m, n) {z}. Suppose that i < m 2
and k m 2. By induction, there exists a regular 3 -container C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 }
in HReT(m 2, n) (k 2, l). By Lemma 15.5, Ci ((0, 0), (i, j)) forms a 3 -container
of HReT(m, n) {z}. Suppose that i m 2 and k < m 2. By induction, there
exists a regular 3 -container C(x, (i 2, j)) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m 2, n) {z}.
By Lemma 15.5, Ck ((0, 0), (i, j)) forms a 3 -container of HReT(m, n) {z}. Sup-
pose that i m 2 and k m 2. By induction, there exists a regular 3 -
container C(x, (i 2, j)) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } in HReT(m 2, n) (k 2, l). By Lemma
15.5, C1((0, 0), (i, j)) forms a 3 -container of HReT(m, n) {z}.
THEOREM 15.13 Assume that m and n are positive even integers with n 4. Then
HReT(m, n) is strongly 3 -laceable. Moreover, HReT(m, n) is hyper 3 -laceable if and
only if n 6 or m = 2.
Proof: With Lemmas 15.6 and 15.11, HReT(m, n) is 3 -laceable if m, n are even
integers with n 4.
By Lemmas 15.7 and 15.12, HReT(m, n) is hyper 3 -laceable if m, n are even
integers with n 6 or m = 2.
Now we consider the case HReT(m, 4) with m being an even integer and m 4.
We rst prove that HReT(m, 4) is not hyper 3 -laceable.
To prove this fact, let x = (1, 1), y = (1, 3), and z = (0, 2). Suppose that
there exists a 3 -container C(x, y) = {P1 , P2 , P3 } of HReT(m, 4) {z}. Since
degHReT(m,4) z (v) = 2 for v {(0, 1), (0, 3), (3, 2)},
(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3) and
(1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3) are two paths in C3 (x, y). Without loss of generality,
we assume that P1 =
(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3) and P2 =
(1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3).
Since degHReT(m,4)z ((1, 1)) = degHReT(m,4)z ((1, 3)) = 3, ((1, 3), (1, 0)) and ((1, 0),
ch015.tex 30/6/2008 12: 4 Page 446
y z C(x,y)
(0, 2) (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 3), (0, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (0, 2)
(1, 1) (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1),
(0, 0), (0, 3), (0, 2), (3, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 1)
(1, 3) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), Q21 (0, 3), (2, 0), (1, 0), (1, 3)
(2, 0) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 0), (2, 0)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1), (2, 0)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 0)
(2, 2) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), Q3 (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, 3), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2)
(3, 1) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (3, 2), (3, 1)
(3, 3) (0, 2)
(0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 3), (1, 3), (1, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)
(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)
THEOREM 15.14 Assume that m and n are positive even integers with n 4.
Then HReT(m, n) is strongly Hamiltonian laceable. Moreover, HReT(m, n) is hyper
Hamiltonian laceable if and only if n 6 or m = 2.
Combining Theorems 15.11, 15.13, and 15.14, we have the following theorem.
THEOREM 15.15 Assume that m and n are positive even integers with n 4. Then
HReT(m, n) is super 3 -laceable if and only if n 6 or m = 2.
In Ref. 193, Kao et al. proved that PJ(k) is hyper 3 -laceable if and only if k is
an odd integer with k 3. Moreover, P(n, 1) is hyper 3 -laceable if and only if n is
even and n 4. Furthermore, Kao and Hsu [191] prove that every spider web network
SW (m, n) is hyper bi-3 -connected for m 4 and n 2.
THEOREM 15.16 Let G1 and G2 be two cubic 3 -laceable graphs. Let u V (G1 )
and v V (G2 ). Then J(G1 , N(u); G2 , N(v)) is 1-edge Hamiltonian, but not 3 -laceable.
With Theorem 15.16, we can easily construct cubic 1-edge Hamiltonian graphs
that are not 3 -laceable.
With Theorem 15.12, every cubic hyper 3 -laceable graph is 1p -fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian. However, we have difculty in nding a cubic 1p -fault-tolerant
Hamiltonian graph that is not hyper 3 -laceable.
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 449
16 Spanning Diameter
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Graph containers do exist in engineering designed information and telecommunication
networks and in biological and neural systems. See [3,164] and their references. The
study of w-container, w-wide distance, and their w -versions plays a pivotal role in
design and implementation of parallel routing and efcient information transmission
in large-scale networking systems. In biological informatics and neuroinformatics,
the existence and structure of a w -container signies the cascade effect in the signal
transduction system and the reaction in a metabolic pathway.
Let G be a w -connected graph. We can dene the w -connected distance between
any two vertices u and v, dw (u, v), as min{l(C(u, v)) | C(u, v) is a w -container}. The
w -diameter of G, denoted by Dw s (G), is dened as max{d s (u, v) | u and v are two
w
different vertices of G}. In particular, the spanning wide diameter of G is D(G) s (G).
Similarly, let G be a w -laceable bipartite graph with bipartite vertex sets V1 and V2
and |V1 V2 | 2. From the previous discussion, |V1 | = |V2 |. Similarly, we can dene
the w -laceable distance between any two vertices u and v from different partite
sets, dwsL (u, v), as min{l(C(u, v)) | C(u, v) is a w -container}. The wL -diameter of G,
denoted by Dw sL (G), is dened as max{d sL (u, v) | u and v are vertices from different
w
sL
partite sets}. In particular, the spanning wide diameter of G is D(G) (G).
In this chapter, we evaluate the spanning wide diameter and the 2L -diameter of the
star graph Sn . We also discuss the wL -diameter for hypercube Qn with 1 w n 4.
Then, we evaluate the spanning wide diameter of some (n, k)-star graph Sn,k .
THEOREM 16.1 Assume that r and s are two adjacent vertices of Sn with n 5.
Then Sn {r, s} is Hamiltonian laceable.
Proof: Since Sn is vertex-transitive and edge-transitive, we assume that r = e and
{n}
s = (e)2 . Obviously, both e and (e)2 are in Sn . Let u be a white vertex and v be a black
vertex of Sn {e, (e) }. We want to nd a Hamiltonian path of Sn {e, (e)2 } joining
2
u to v.
{n} {n}
Case 1. u, v Sn . By Lemma 13.35, there is a Hamiltonian path P of Sn {e, (e)2 }
joining u to a black vertex y with (y)1 = 1. We write P as
u, Q1 , x, v, Q2 , y.
(Note that l(Q1 ) = 0 if u = x and l(Q2 ) = 0 if v = y.) By Theorem 13.17, there is
449
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 450
{n} 2 {n}
Sn {e , (e) } Sn{ k } Sn {e , (e)2 }
n
u Q1 x v Q2 y u Q1 x (x) R z
Sn< n1> { k }
< n1>
Sn
n n n n
( x) R (y) v Q2 y (y) T (z)
(a) (b)
{ n} 2 {k} {n } 2
S n { e , (e ) } Sn Sn {e , (e) }
n
u P x u P x ( x) Q y
(c) (d)
n 1
a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining the black vertex (x)n to the white vertex
(y) . Then
u, Q1 , x, (x) , R, (y) , y, (Q2 )1 , v is the desired Hamiltonian path of
n n n
n 1 {k}
Sn joining the white vertex (y)n to v. Then
u, P, x, (x)n , Q, y, (y)n , R, v is
the desired Hamiltonian path of Sn {e, (e)2 } joining u to v. See Figure 16.1d for
illustration.
LEMMA 16.1 Assume that n 5. Suppose that p and q are two different white
vertices of Sn , and r and s are two different black vertices of Sn . Then there exist
two disjoint paths P1 and P2 such that (1) P1 joins p to r, (2) P2 joins q to s, and
(3) P1 P2 spans Sn .
{n} {n1}
Proof: Since Sn is edge-transitive, we assume that p Sn and q Sn . Suppose
{i} { j}
that r Sn and s Sn .
Case 1. i, j
n 2 with i = j. By Theorem 13.17, there is a Hamiltonian path P1
{i,n}
n1{i}
of Sn joining p to r. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path P2 of Sn joining q
to s. Then P1 and P2 are the desired paths.
Case 2. i, j
n 2 with i = j. We can choose a white vertex x with x being a
{i}
neighbor of s in Sn and (x)1
n 1 {i}. By Lemma 13.35, there is a Hamiltonian
{i}
path Q of Sn {s, x} joining r to a white vertex y with (y)1 = n. By Theorem 13.17,
{n}
there is a Hamiltonian path P of Sn joining p to the black vertex (y)n . Moreover,
n1{i}
there is a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining q to the black vertex (x)n . Then
1
P1 =
p, P, (y) , y, Q , r and P2 =
q, R, (x)n , x, s are the desired paths.
n
Assume that this statement holds for any Sk for every 4 k n 1. We have
Fn (e) = Fn1 (e) {(e)n , ((e)n )n1 }. By induction, there is a Hamiltonian path P of
{n}
Sn Fn1 (e) joining e to a black vertex x with (x)1 = 1. By Lemma 13.35, there is a
{1}
Hamiltonian path Q of Sn {(e)n , ((e)n )n1 } joining the white vertex (x)n to a black
n1{1}
vertex y with (y)1 = 2. We can choose a black vertex z of Sn with (z)1 = j.
n1{1}
By Theorem 13.17, there exists a Hamiltonian path R of Sn joining the white
vertex (y)n to z. Then
e, P, x, (x)n , Q, y, (y)n , R, z is a desired Hamiltonian path.
LEMMA 16.3 Let u = u1 u2 u3 u4 be any white vertex of S4 . There exist three paths
P1 , P2 , and P3 such that (1) P1 joins u to the black vertex u2 u4 u1 u3 with l(P1 ) = 7,
(2) P2 joins u to the white vertex u3 u4 u1 u2 with l(P2 ) = 8, (3) P3 joins u to the white
vertex u4 u1 u3 u2 with l(P3 ) = 8, and (4) P1 P2 P3 spans S4 .
Proof: Since S4 is vertex-transitive, we assume that u = 1234. Then we set
P1 =
1234, 3214, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413
P2 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432, 3412
P3 =
1234, 2134, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132
Obviously, P1 , P2 , and P3 are the desired paths.
i1 = 2 P1 =
1234, 4231, 2431
i2 = 3 P2 =
1234, 2134, 3124
i3 = 4 P3 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 4213, 1243,
3241, 2341, 1342, 4312
P4 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432,
4132, 3142, 2143, 4123
i1 = 2 P1 =
1234, 4231, 2431
i2 = 4 P2 =
1234, 3214, 4213
i3 = 3 P3 =
1234, 2134, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3214, 2314, 1342, 4312, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413,
3412, 1432, 4132, 3142
P4 =
1234, 2134, 3142, 1324, 2314, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243,
3241, 2341, 4321, 3421
i1 = 3 P1 =
1234, 2134, 3124
i2 = 4 P2 =
1234, 3214, 4213
i3 = 2 P3 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432,
4132, 3142, 1342, 2341
P4 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3421, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324,
2314, 4312, 3412, 2413
Proof: The proof of this lemma is rather tedious. The authors strongly suggest that
the reader skim over the proof rst and examine the details later.
Since Sn is vertex-transitive, we assume that u = e. Without loss of generality, we
suppose that i2 < i3 < < in1 .
Case 1. n = 5. Hence, n(n 2)! = 30. We have i2 = 4, i3 2, and i4 3. We set
x1 = (e)5 and xi = ((xi1 )i )5 for every 2 i 4, and x5 = ((x4 )3 )5 . Note that xi is a
{i} {1}
black vertex in Sn for every i
4 and x5 is a black vertex in Sn . Obviously, x1 = x5 .
We set H =
e, x1 , (x1 ) , x2 , (x2 ) , x3 , (x3 ) , x4 , (x4 ) , x5 .
2 3 4 3
W1 =
e = 12345, 32145, 42135, 12435, 21435, 41235, 14235, 24135 = u1
W2 =
e = 12345, 21345, 31245, 13245, 23145, 43125, 13425, 31425, 41325 = u2
W3 =
e = 12345, 42315, 32415, 23415, 43215, 34215, 24315, 14325, 34125 = u3
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 454
{5}
Obviously, W1 W2 W3 spans S5 and V (Wi ) V (Wj ) = {e} for every i, j
3 with
{2}
i = j. By Lemma 13.35, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q1 of S5 {x2 , (x2 )3 } joining
the white vertex (u1 )5 to a black vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = i1 . Again, there exists a Hamil-
{4}
tonian path Q2 of S5 {x4 , (x4 )3 } joining the black vertex (u2 )5 to a white vertex
{3}
y2 with (y2 )1 = i2 . Moreover, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q3 of S5 {x3 , (x3 )4 }
joining the black vertex (u3 ) to a white vertex y3 with (y3 )1 = i3 . Similarly, there
5
{1}
exists a Hamiltonian path Q4 of S5 {x1 , (x1 )2 } joining the black vertex x5 to a
white vertex y4 with (y4 )1 = i4 . We set
P1 =
e, W1 , u1 , (u1 )5 , Q1 , y1
P2 =
e, W2 , u2 , (u2 )5 , Q2 , y2
P3 =
e, W3 , u3 , (u3 )5 , Q3 , y3
P4 =
e, H, x5 , Q4 , y4
W1 =
e = 12345, 21345, 41325, 14325, 34125, 43125, 13425, 31425 = u1
W2 =
e = 12345, 32145, 23145, 13245, 31245, 41235, 14235, 24135, 42135 = u2
W3 =
e = 12345, 42315, 24315, 34215, 43215, 23415, 32415, 12435, 21435 = u3
{5}
Obviously, W1 W2 W3 spans S5 and V (Wi ) V (Wj ) = {e} for every i, j
3 with
{3}
i = j. By Lemma 13.35, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q1 of S5 {x3 , (x3 )4 } joining
3 4
S 5{ 2 }{ x 2, ( x 2) } S 5 {x 3 , ( x 3 ) }
{ 3}
S5{ 5 } S 5{ 5}
u1 (u1 )5 Q1 y1 u1 ( u1)5 Q 1 y1
W1 3 W1 3
S 5 {x4 , ( x4 ) } S 5 { x 4 , ( x 4 ) }
{ 4} { 4}
5 5
e W2 u2 (u2) Q2 y2 e W2 u2 ( u2) Q 2 y2
W3 4 W3 3
S 5 { x3, ( x3) } S 5 { x 2 , ( x 2 ) }
{ 3} { 2}
5
u3 ( u3) Q3 y3 u3 ( u3)5 Q 4 y4
2 2
H S5{ 1}{ x1 , (x1 ) } S 5{1} { x1, (x1) }
H
x5 Q4 y4 x5 Q 3 y3
(a) (b)
the white vertex (u1 )5 to a black vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = i1 . Again, there exists a Hamil-
{4}
tonian path Q2 of S5 {x4 , (x4 )3 } joining the black vertex (u2 )5 to a white vertex
{1}
y2 with (y2 )1 = i2 . Moreover, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q3 of S5 {x1 , (x1 )2 }
joining the black vertex x5 to a white vertex y3 with (y3 )1 = i3 . Similarly, there exists
{2}
a Hamiltonian path Q4 of S5 {x2 , (x2 )3 } joining the black vertex (u3 )5 to a white
vertex y4 with (y4 )1 = i4 . We set
P1 =
e, W1 , u1 , (u1 )5 , Q1 , y1
P2 =
e, W2 , u2 , (u2 )5 , Q2 , y2
P3 =
e, H, x5 , Q3 , y3
P4 =
e, W3 , u3 , (u3 )5 , Q4 , y4
1. j
n 4 {1}. By Lemma 13.35, there is a Hamiltonian path Tj of
{( j+1,n)}
Sn {(xj )n1 , xj+1 } joining the black vertex (vj )n1 to a white ver-
{ j+2}
tex zj with (zj )1 = j + 2. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path Tj of Sn
joining the black vertex (zj )n to a white vertex yj with (yj )1 = ij . Then we set
Pj as
e, uj , vj , (vj )n1 , Tj , zj , (zj )n , Tj , yj . Obviously, l(Pj ) = n(n 2)!.
{1}
2. j = n 3. We choose a white vertex yn3 in Sn with (yn3 )1 = in3 . Note
{(n2,n)}
that there are ((n 3)!/2) edges joining some black vertices of Sn to
{1}
some white vertices of Sn and there are ((n 3)!/2) edges joining some
{(n2,n)} {1}
white vertices of Sn to some black vertices of Sn . We choose a white
{1} n {(n2,n)}
vertex r in Sn with (r) being a black vertex in Sn and choose a black
{1} n {(n2,n)}
vertex s in Sn with (s) being a white vertex in Sn . By Lemma 16.1,
{1}
there exist two disjoint paths H1 and H2 of Sn such that (1) H1 joins (e)n to
{1}
r, (2) H2 joins s to yn3 , and (3) H1 H2 spans Sn . By Theorem 13.17,
{(n2,n)}
there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn joining the black vertex (r)n to
the white vertex (s) . We set Pn3 as
e, (e) , H1 , r, (r)n , H, (s)n , s, H2 , yn3 .
n n
{(2,n)}
3. j = n 1. By Lemma 13.35, there is a Hamiltonian path Q1 of Sn
{(x1 )n1 , x2 } joining the black vertex (v1 )n1 to a white vertex q with
{3}
(q)1 = 3. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path Q2 of Sn joining the black
vertex (q) to a white vertex yn1 with (yn1 )1 = in1 . We set Pn1 as
n
e, u1 , v1 , (v1 )n1 , Q1 , q, (q)n , Q2 , yn1 . Obviously, l(Pn1 ) = n(n 2)!.
4. We construct P1 and Pn2 dependent on whether i1 = n 1. We set
L as
x1 , (x1 )n1 , x2 , (x2 )n1 , . . . , xn4 , (xn4 )n1 , xn3 , (xn3 )n . By
{(1,n)}
Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path W of Sn joining the black
vertex (e)n1 to a white vertex p with (p)1 = 2.
e r s e r s
P4 7 P4 7
( e) ( e)
(a) (b)
TABLE 16.1
All Hamiltonian Cycles in S4
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3412, 1432, 2431, 3421, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 1234
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 2134, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 4213, 3214, 1234
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 2134, 4132, 3142, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 1234
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 3142, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 4231, 2431, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3241, 2341, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3142, 1342, 2341, 3241, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 3214, 1234
1234, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 1243, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2413, 4213, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 4123, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 2134, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 1342, 4312, 2314, 1324, 4321, 2341, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 1234
1234, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 3241, 1243, 2143, 3142, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 4213, 2413, 3412, 1432, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 4231, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 2134, 3124, 1324, 2314, 3214, 1234
1234, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 3142, 2143, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2134, 1234
of (p)n with (t)1 = n 1. Since (p)n1 = 1 and (p)n = n, we have ((p)n )n1 = 1
and ((p)n )1 = n. Since ((p)n )n1 = 1, we have (t)n1 = 1. Since ((z)n )n1 = n 3
and (t)n1 = 1, we have (z)n = t. By Theorem 16.1, there is a Hamiltonian path
{2}
W1 of Sn {(p)n , t} joining (z)n to a black vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = i1 . Again,
{n1}
there is a Hamiltonian path W2 of Sn {(xn3 )n , z} joining (t)n to a white
vertex yn2 with (yn2 )1 = in2 . We set P1 as
e, P, x1 , L, (xn3 )n , z, (z)n , W1 , y1
and Pn2 as
e, (e)n1 , W , p, (p)n , t, (t)n , W2 , yn2 . Obviously, l(P1 ) = n(n 2)! 1
and l(Pn2 ) = n(n 2)!. Apparently, P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 are the desired paths. See
Figure 16.3b for illustration for the case where n = 7.
P1 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324
C(1234, 1324) P2 =
1234, 2134, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 1324
P3 =
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324
P1 =
1234, 2134, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 4213, 1243
C(1234, 1243) P2 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 3142, 2143, 1243
P3 =
1234, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 3241, 1243
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 458
P1 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432
C(1234, 1432) P2 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432
P3 =
1234, 2134, 3124, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432
P1 =
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413
C(1234, 2413) P2 =
1234, 4231, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413
P3 =
1234, 2134, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413
P1 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341
C(1234, 2341) P2 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 4312, 3412, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3142, 1342, 2341
P3 =
1234, 2134, 4132, 1432, 2431, 3421, 1423, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341
P1 =
1234, 2134, 4132, 3142
C(1234, 3142) P2 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 3142
P3 =
1234, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3412
P1 =
1234, 2134, 3124, 4123
C(1234, 4123) P2 =
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 1423, 4123
P3 =
1234, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 3241, 1243, 2143, 4213
P1 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 4312
C(1234, 4312) P2 =
1234, 2134, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312
P3 =
1234, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 2431, 1432, 3412, 4312
P1 =
1234, 4231, 2431, 3421
C(1234, 3421) P2 =
1234, 2134, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421
P3 =
1234, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421
From this table, d3sL (u, v) 15 if d(u, v) = 1. Hence, D3sL (S4 ) = 15.
sL
LEMMA 16.7 Dn1 (Sn ) n!/(n 2) + 1 = (n 1)! + 2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! + 1 if
n 5.
Proof: Let u and v be two adjacent vertices of Sn . Obviously, u and v are in
different partite sets. Let {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } be any (n 1) -container of Sn
joining u)to v. *Obviously,
) one of these * paths is
u, v. Thus, max{l(Pi ) | 1 i
n 1} n!n 22 + 1 = n n!2 sL
n 2 + 1 = n!/(n 2) + 1. Hence, dn1 (u, v)
2
sL
n!/(n 2) + 1 and Dn1 (Sn ) n!/(n 2) + 1.
joining the white vertex 54132 to the black vertex 14532, there is a Hamiltonian path
{3}
R2 of S5 joining the black vertex 54123 to the white vertex 14523, and there is a
{4}
Hamiltonian path R3 of S5 joining the black vertex 51324 to the white vertex 15324.
Then we set
T1 =
e = 12345, P1 , 24135, 54132, R1 , 14532, 24531, (Q1 )1 , 52341 = (e)5
T2 =
e = 12345, P2 , 34125, 54123, R2 , 14523, 34521, (Q2 )1 , 52341 = (e)5
T3 =
e = 12345, P3 , 41325, 51324, R3 , 15324, 45321, (Q3 )1 , 52341 = (e)5
T4 =
e = 12345, 52341 = (e)5
H1 =
u, (u)5 , T1 , (v)5 , v
H2 =
u, P1 , w, (w)5 , T2 , (p)5 , p, Q11 , v
H3 =
u, P2 , x, (x)5 , T3 , (q)5 , q, Q21 , v
H4 =
u, P3 , y, r, Q31 , v
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 460
H1 =
u, (u)5 , T1 , (p)5 , p, Q11 , v
H2 =
u, P1 , w, (w)5 , T2 , (v)5 , v
H3 =
u, P2 , x, (x)5 , T3 , (q)5 , q, Q21 , v
H4 =
u, P3 , y, r, Q31 , v
sL
LEMMA 16.9 dn1 (u, v) (n 1)! + 2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! + 1 = n!/(n 2) + 1 for
every n 6.
Proof: Let u be any white vertex and v be any black vertex of Sn . Obviously, d(u, v)
is odd.
Case 1. d(u, v) = 1. Since the star graph is vertex-transitive and edge-transitive, we
may assume that u = e and v = (e)n .
{n}
By Lemma 16.5, there exist (n 2) paths P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 of Sn such that
(1) P1 joins e to a black vertex x1 with (x1 )1 = 2 and l(P1 ) = (n 1)(n 3)! 1,
(2) Pi joins e to a white vertex xi with (xi )1 = i + 1 and l(Pi ) = (n 1)(n 3)! for
" {n} /
2 i n 2, (3) ni =12 Pi spans Sn , and (4) n2i=1 V (Pi ) = {e}. Again, there exist
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 461
{1}
n 2 paths Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qn2 of Sn such that (1) Q1 joins (e)n to a white vertex y1
with (y1 )1 = 2 and l(Q1 ) = (n 1)(n 3)! 1, (2) Qi joins (e)n to a black vertex yi
" {1}
with (yi )1 = i + 1 and l(Qi ) = (n 1)(n 3)! for 2 i n2, (3) n2 i = 1 Qi spans Sn ,
/n2
and (4) i=1 V (Qi ) = {v}.
{2}
By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path R1 of Sn joining the white vertex
{i+1}
(x1 )n to the black vertex (y1 )n . Again, there is a Hamiltonian path Ri of Sn joining
the black vertex (xi )n to the black vertex (yi )n for every 2 i n 2.
We set Hi =
e, Pi , xi , (xi )n , Ri , (yi )n , yi , Qi1 , (e)n for every 1 i n 2 and
Hn1 =
e, (e)n . Then {H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn1 } is an (n 1) -container between e
and (e)n . Obviously, l(H1 ) = (n 1)! + 2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! 1, l(Hi ) = (n 1)! +
sL
2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! + 1 for 2 i n 2, and l(Hn1 ) = 1. Hence, dn1 (e, (e)n )
(n 1)! + 2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! + 1.
Case 2. d(u, v) 3. Since d(u, v) 3, there is i
n {1} such that (u)i = (v)i and
{(u)i , (v)i } {(u)1 , (v)1 } = . Without loss of generality, we assume that (u)n = (v)n
and {(u)n , (v)n } {(u)1 , (v)1 } = . Moreover, we assume that (u)n = n, (v)n = n 1,
(u)1 = 1, and (v)1 = 5.
Case 2.1. (v)1 = 1. By Lemma 16.5, there are (n 2) paths P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2
{n}
of Sn such that (1) P1 joins u to a black vertex x1 with (x1 )1 = 1 and
l(P1 ) = (n 1)(n 3)! 1, (2) Pi joins u to a white vertex xi with (xi )1 = i and
" {n} /n2
l(Pi ) = (n 1)(n 3)! for 2 i n 2, (3) n2
i = 1 Pi spans Sn , and (4) i=1 V (Pi ) =
{n1}
{u}. Again, there are (n 2) paths Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qn2 of Sn such that (1) Q1 joins
v to a white vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = 1 and l(Q1 ) = (n 1)(n 3)! 1, (2) Qi joins v
to a black vertex yi with (yi )1 = i and l(Qi ) = (n 1)(n 3)! for 2 i n 2, (3)
"n2 {n1} /
i = 1 Qi spans Sn , and (4) n2
i=1 V (Qi ) = {v}.
{1}
By Lemma 16.1, there are two disjoint paths H1 and H2 of Sn such that (1) H1
n n
joins the white vertex (x1 ) to the black vertex (y1 ) , (2) H2 joins the black vertex
{1}
(u)n to the white vertex (v)n , and (3) H1 H2 spans Sn . By Theorem 13.2, there is a
{i}
Hamiltonian path Ri of Sn joining the black vertex (xi )n to the white vertex (yi )n for
every 2 i n 2. We set
T1 =
u, P1 , x1 , (x1 )n , H1 , (y1 )n , y1 , Q11 , v
Ti =
u, Pi , xi , (xi )n , Ri , (yi )n , yi , Qi1 , v for 2 i n 2
Tn1 =
u, (u)n , H2 , (v)n , v
that (1) Q1 joins v to a white vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = 1 and l(Q1 ) = (n 1)(n 3)! 1,
(2) Qi joins v to a black vertex yi with (yi )1 = i and l(Qi ) = (n 1)(n 3)! for
{n1}
2 i n 2, (3) n2
i = 1 Qi spans Sn , and (4) n2
i=1 V (Qi ) = {v}.
{t}
Since (v) is a white vertex in Sn with ((v)n )1 = (v)n = n 1 and
n
((v) )n = (v)1 = t = 1, we can choose a black vertex w in NSn{t} ((v)n ) with (w)1 = 1. By
n
{1}
Lemma 16.1, there exist two disjoint paths H1 and H2 of Sn such that (1) H1 joins
the white vertex (x1 )n to the black vertex (y1 )n , (2) H2 joins the black vertex (u)n to
{1}
the white vertex (w)n , and (3) H1 H2 spans Sn .
{t}
By Theorem 16.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path Rt of Sn {(v)n , w} joining
the black vertex (xt )n to the white vertex (yt )n . By Theorem 13.2, there exists a
{i}
Hamiltonian path Ri of Sn joining the black vertex (xi )n to the white vertex (yi )n for
every 2 i n 2 with i = t. We set
T1 =
u, P1 , x1 , (x1 )n , H1 , (y1 )n , y1 , Q11 , v
Ti =
u, Pi , xi , (xi )n , Ri , (yi )n , yi , Qi1 , v for 2 i n 2
Tn1 =
u, (u)n , H2 , (w)n , w, (v)n , v
THEOREM 16.2
1 if n = 2
sL 5 if n = 3
Dn1 (Sn ) =
15 if n = 4
(n 1)! + 2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! + 1 if n 5
Proof: It is easy to check whether D1sL (S2 ) = 1 and D2sL (S3 ) = 5. By Lemma
16.6, D3sL (S4 ) = 15. By Lemmas 16.7 through 16.9, we have Dn1 sL
(Sn ) = (n 1)! +
2(n 2)! + 2(n 3)! + 1 if n 5. Hence, this statement is proved.
LEMMA 16.11 Assume that a and b are any two distinct elements of
4 and u is
any white vertex of S4 . There exist two paths P1 and P2 of S4 such that (1) P1 joins u
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 463
to a black vertex x with (x)1 = a and l(P1 ) = 5, (2) P2 joins u to a white vertex y with
(y)1 = b and l(P2 ) = 18, and (3) P1 P2 spans S4 .
THEOREM 16.3
5 if n = 3
sL
D2 (Sn ) = 15 if n = 4
n!
2 +1 if n 5
u H1 x (x) R ( p) p T1 v u x (x) R ( q) q
Q
S5{ 3} 5 5 Sn< n 2> H
n n
H2 y ( y) Z (q) q T2 P p (p) W ( z) z y v
(a) (b)
(c)
{4} {1,2}
(3) T1 T2 spans S5 . By Theorem 13.17, there is a Hamiltonian path R of S5
joining the white vertex (x)5 to the black vertex (p)5 . Again, there is a Hamiltonian
{3}
path Z of S5 joining the black vertex (y)5 to the white vertex (q)5 . We set
L1 =
u, H1 , x, (x)5 , R, (p)5 , p, T11 , v
L2 =
u, H2 , y, (y)5 , Z, (q)5 , q, T21 , v
L1 =
u, x, (x)n , R, (q)n , q, Q, v
L2 =
u, P, p, (p)n , W , (z)n , z, y, v
L1 =
u, x, (x)n , R, (s)n , s, L, (q)n , q, Q, v
L2 =
u, P, p, (p)n , M, t, (t)n , W , (z)n , z, y, v
Actually, we prove that d2sL (u, v) = (n!/2) + 1 for any two vertices u and v from
different bipartite sets of Sn .
Q 0n Q 1n
u0
u1 ^ ^
x x en
H1
P1 R
x x en H
0
v1
v0
Q 0n Q 1n
u0
u1 ^e ^
x n x
R1
H P0
R2
x en x
v1
v0
By induction hypothesis, there exist two vertex disjoint paths H and P0 in Qn1
such that (1) H joins x to x with |V (H)| = a1 2n1 and (2) P0 joins u0 to v0 with
|V (P0 )| = a0 .
By Lemma 13.17, there exist two vertex disjoint paths R1 and R2 in Qn0 such that
(1) R1 joins u1 to x + en , (2) R2 joins x + en to v1 , and (3) R1 R2 spans Qn0 .
Set P1 =
u1 , R1 , x + en , x, H, x, x + en , R2 , v1 . Then {P0 , P1 } satises the
requirement of Lemma 16.14. See Figure 16.6 for illustration.
Case 1.3. a1 = 2n1 . Since a hypercube is hyper Hamiltonian laceable, we set P0 , P1
to be Hamiltonian paths joining u0 to v0 and u1 to v1 in Qn1 , Qn0 , respectively.
Case 2. u0 Qn0 .
Case 2.1. a1 < 2n1 . By Lemma 16.12, there exist two vertex disjoint paths P1 and
R in Qn0 such that (1) P1 is joining u1 to v1 with |V (P1 )| = a1 , (2) R is joining u0 to
u0 with |V (R)| = 2n1 a1 , and (3) R contains an edge parallel to e1 .
Since Qn1 is Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path H in Qn1 join-
ing u0 + en to v0 . Set P0 =
u0 , R, u0 , u0 + en , H, v0 . Thus, {P0 , P1 } satises the
requirement of Lemma 16.14. See Figure 16.7 for illustration.
Case 2.2. a1 2n1 . By Lemma 16.12, there exist two vertex disjoint paths
R0 =
u0 , u0 and R1 in Qn0 such that (1) R0 is joining u0 to u0 with |V (R0 )| = 2
and (2) R1 is joining u1 to v1 with |V (R1 )| = 2n1 2.
ch016.tex 25/7/2008 12: 29 Page 468
Q 0n Q 1n
u0 v0
u1
H
R
P1
^
u ^ e
u
0 0 n
v1
Q 0n Q 1n
u0
v0
H0
^
u
u1 0
x x en
R11
H1
v1 R12 ^ ^
x x en
i = 0, 1. By Lemma 16.12, there exist three vertex disjoint paths H0 , H1 , and P2 in Qn1
such that (1) Hi is joining xi + e2 to xi + e2 of order ai ai for i = 0, 1 and (2) P2 is
joining u2 to v2 of order a2 .
Set Pi =
ui , Ri1 , xi , xi + e2 , Hi , xi + e2 , xi , Ri2 , vi for i = 0, 1. Thus, C3 ((u0 , u1 ,
u2 ), (v0 , v1 , v2 )) = {P0 , P1 , P2 } is the required 3 -container. See Figure 16.9 for
illustration.
REMARK: P1 =
u1 , R11 , x1 , x1 , R12 , v1 in case a1 a1 = 0.
Qn Qn
u2
u1 u0 R01
x0 e2 P2
R11 x0
x1 x1 e2
v2
H1
^
x ^
x1 e2
R12 1 R02 H0
v1 ^
v0 ^
x x0 e2
0
Q 0n Q 1n
u0 u2
u1 R11
P2
x1 x1 e2
H1
^ H0
R12
x1 x^1 e2
R0
v2
^
u ^ e
u
v1 0 0 2
v0
Qn Qn
u1 u0 R01 u3
x0 e3
R11 x0
x1 x1 e3
u2
H1
^
R12 x 1 x^1 e3
R2 H0
v1 ^
x x^0 e3
R02 0
v2
v0
Case 2. u0 Qn1 .
Case 2.1. u0 + e3 = u2 . Obviously, u0 + e3 is a white vertex in Qn0 . Note that
v3 + e3 = u1 and u0 + e3 = u1 .
By induction hypothesis, there exist three vertex disjoint paths R0 , R1 , R2 in Qn0
such that (1) Ri is joining ui to vi of order ai for i = 1, 2 and (2) R0 is joining u0 + e3
to v0 of order a0 , which contains an edge parallel to e1 . Let {x1 , x1 } be an edge on the
paths R1 parallel to e1 . We can write R1 =
u1 , R11 , x1 , x1 , R12 , v1 . By Lemma 16.12,
there exist three vertex disjoint paths H0 , H1 , and P3 in Qn1 such that (1) H0 is joining
u0 to u0 of order a0 a0 , (2) H1 is joining x1 + e3 to x1 + e3 of order a1 a1 , and
(3) P3 is joining u3 to v3 of order a3 .
We set {P0 , P1 , P2 } as
P0 =
u0 , H0 , u0 , u0 + e3 , R0 , v0
P1 =
u1 , R11 , x1 , x1 + e3 , H1 , x1 + e3 , x1 , R12 , v1
P2 = R2
Thus,
C4 ((u0 , u1 , u2 , u3 ), (v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 )) = {P0 , P1 , P2 , P3 }
is the required
4 -container. See Figure 16.12 for an illustration of Case 2.1, where k = 3.
Case 2.2. u0 + e3 = u2 . Set z = u0 + e4 . Obviously, z = u0 + e4 and z + e3 is a white
vertex in Qn0 .
By induction hypothesis, there exist three vertex disjoint paths R0 , R1 , R2 in Qn0
such that (1) Ri is joining ui to vi of order ai , for i = 1, 2 and (2) R0 is joining z + e3
to v0 of order a0 , which contains an edge parallel to e1 .
Let {x1 , x1 } be an edge on the path R1 parallel to e1 . We can write R1 =
u1 , R11 , x1 , x1 , R12 , v1 . By Lemma 16.12, there exists a C4 ((u0 , x1 + e3 , z, u3 ),
(u0 , x1 + e3 , z, v3 )) = {
u0 , u0 , H1 , H2 , P3 } of order 2, a1 a1 , a0 2 a0 , and a3 ,
respectively. We set {P0 , P1 , P2 } as
P0 =
u0 , u0 , z, H2 , z, z + e3 , R0 , v0
P1 =
u1 , R11 , x1 , x1 + e3 , H1 , x1 + e3 , x1 , R12 , v1
P2 = R2
Qn Qn
u1 u3
u0
u2 R11 H0
x1 x1 e3
H1 P3
^
R2 R12 x 1 x^1 e3
v1 ^
R0 ^ e u0 v3
u0 3
v2 v0
Qn Qn
u1 u0 H 0 ^
u0 u3
R11 ^
z
u2 x1 x1 e3
H1 P3
^
R2 R12 x 1 x^1 e3 H2
R0 z0 e3
v1 z v3
v2
v0
and Qn1 = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) | xj = 1}. Clearly, edge {ui , vi } Qn0 , for 0 i = j k and
{uj , vj } Qn1 . The proof is similar to that of Case 1.
Let x to be the any real number. We dene x to be the largest even integer
smaller or equal to x.
u1 v0 en
Rk1 Hk
wk1 vk1
R2
Hk1 uk1
w2 v2 u0
H2
R1 u2
w1 z u1
v v1
H1
P1 =
0, T1 , w1 , z, u1 , H1 , v
Pi =
0, Ti , wi , vi , Hi , ui , v for 2i k1
Pk =
0, v0 , Hk , u0 , v
The (n, k)-star graph is an attractive alternative to the n-star graph [3]. However,
the growth of vertices is n! for an n-star graph. To remedy this drawback, the (n, k)-star
graph is proposed by Chiang and Chen [60]. The (n, k)-star graph is a generalization
of the n-star graph. It has two parameters n and k. When k = n 1, an (n, n 1)-
star graph is isomorphic to an n-star graph, and when k = 1, an (n, 1)-star graph is
isomorphic to a complete graph Kn .
Assume that n and k are two positive integers with n > k. We use
n to
denote the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. The (n, k)-star graph, Sn,k , is a graph with the node
set V (Sn,k ) = {u1 u2 . . . uk | ui
n and ui = uj for i = j}. Adjacency is dened as fol-
lows: a node u1 u2 . . . ui . . . uk is adjacent to (1) the node ui u2 u3 . . . ui1 u1 ui+1 . . . uk ,
where 2 i k (i.e., swap ui with u1 ) and (2) the node xu2 u3 . . . uk where x
n
{ui | 1 i k}. The edges of type (1) are referred to as i-edges and the edges of type
(2) are referred to as 1-edges.
By denition, Sn,k is an (n 1)-regular graph with n!/(n k)! nodes. Moreover, it
is node-transitive [60]. We use boldface to denote nodes in Sn,k . Hence, u1 , u2 , . . . , um
denotes a sequence of nodes in Sn,k . Let u = u1 u2 . . . uk be any node of Sn,k . We say
that ui is the ith coordinate of u, denoted by (u)i , for 1 i k. By the denition of
Sn,k , there is exactly one neighbor v of u such that u and v are adjacent through an
i-edge with 2 i k. For this reason, we use (u)i to denote the unique i-neighbor of
{i}
u. Obviously, ((u)i )i = u. For 1 i n, let Sn,k denote the subgraph of Sn,k induced by
those nodes u with (u)k = i. In Ref. 60, it is showed that Sn,k can be decomposed into
{i} {i}
n subgraphs Sn,k , 1 i n, such that each subgraph Sn,k is isomorphic to Sn1,k1 .
{(u) }
Thus, the (n, k)-star graph can be constructed recursively. Obviously, u Sn,k k . Let
I
n. We use Sn,k
I to denote the subgraph of S
n,k induced by those nodes u with
i, j
(u)k I. For 1 i n and 1 j n with i = j, we use En,k to denote the set of edges
{i} {j}
between Sn,k and Sn,k . S3,1 , S4,1 , S4,2 , and S5,2 are shown in Figure 16.15.
Owing to the nice structure of (n, k)-star graphs, there are a lot of studies on its
topological properties. In particular, Chang and Kim [41] studied the cycles embed-
ding in faulty (n, k)-star graphs. Hsu et al. [172] are studied the fault Hamiltonicity and
fault Hamiltonian connectivity of the (n, k)-star graphs. Chang et al. study the embed-
ding of mutually independent hamiltonian paths between any two vertices [40]. In
this section, we discuss only the spanning diameter of some (n, k)-star graphs. Yet we
need some background about (n, k)-star graphs. The following lemma can easily be
obtained from the denition of (n, k)-star graphs.
i,j
LEMMA 16.17 |En,k | = (n 2)!/(n k)! if k 2.
Since, Sn,1 is isomorphic to the complete graph Kn with n vertices, we have the
following result.
1 1 4
2 3 2 3
S3,1 S4,1
b {1} {4} a
S5,2 S5,2
21 {1} 31 31 41 14 24
S4,2
41 51 54 34
21 {5}
S5,2
14 15 45
{4}
S4,2 25 35
24 34 {2} {3}
12 13 S5,2 S5,2
{2} 42 43 {3} 12 52 53 43
S4,2 S4,2
32 23 42 32 23 13
S4,2 a S5,2 b
FIGURE 16.15 Some examples of the (n, k)-star graphs: S3,1 , S4,1 , S4,2 , and S5,2 .
THEOREM 16.6 Let n and k be any two positive integers with n k 2, and
let F V (Sn,k ) E(Sn,k ). Then Sn,k F is Hamiltonian-connected if |F| n 4 and
Sn,k F is Hamiltonian if |F| n 3.
THEOREM 16.7 Let n and k be any two integers with n k 2 and k 3. Let
I = {i1 , i2 , . . . , ir } be any subset of
n for 1 r n. Assume that u and v are two
{i } {i }
distinct vertices of Sn,k with u Sn,k1 and v Sn,kr . Then there is a Hamiltonian path
H =
u = x1 , H1 , y1 , x2 , H2 , y2 , . . . , xr , Hr , yr = v of Sn,k
I joining u to v such that H
j
{i }
is a Hamiltonian path of Sn,kj joining xj to yj for every 1 j r.
{i }
Proof: Let x1 = u and yr = v. Since Sn,kj is isomorphic to Sn1,k1 for every j
r,
by Theorem 16.6, this statement holds for r = 1. Thus, we assume that r 2.
ij ,ij+1
Since k 3 and n k 2, by Lemma 16.17, |En,k | = (n 2)!/(n k)! 3
i ,i
for every j
r 1. We can choose (yj , xj+1 ) En,k
j j+1
for every j
r 1 with
{i } {i }
yj Sn,kj , xj+1 Sn,kj+1 , y1 = u, and xr = v. By Theorem 16.6, there is a Hamilto-
{i }
nian path Hj of Sn,kj joining xj to yj for every j
r. Then H =
u = x1 , H1 , y1 , x2 ,
H2 , y2 , . . . , xr , Hr , yr = v forms a desired path. See Figure 16.16 for illustration.
{i } {i 2 } {i r }
S n,1k S n, k S n, k
u x 1 H 1 y1 x2 H2 y2 xr H r yr v
{i+1}
By Theorem 16.7, there is a Hamiltonian path Ri of Sn,2 joining (xi )2 to (yi+1 )2
{t}
for every i
n 2 {s 1, t 1}, there is a Hamiltonian path Rt1 of Sn,2 join-
{1}
ing (xt1 )2 to (v)2 , and there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn,2 joining (u)2 to
(y1 ) . We set Pi =
u, xi , (xi ) , Ri , (yi ) , yi , v for every i
n 2 {s 1, t 1},
2 2 2
Pt1 =
u, xt1 , (xt1 )2 , Rt1 , (v)2 , v, Ps1 =
u, xs1 , (xs1 )k = ys , v, and Pn1 =
u, (u)2 , Q, (y1 )2 , y1 , v. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } forms a (n 1) -container of Sn,2
between u and v. Moreover, l(Pi ) = 4 for every for every i
n 2 {s 1, t 1},
l(Pt1 ) = 4, l(Ps1 ) = 3, and l(Pn1 ) = 4.
Hence, we have w (Sn,2 ) n2 2n. By Theorem 16.8, w (Sn,2 ) = n2 2n.
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 479
17 Pancyclic and
Panconnected Property
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The graph embedding problem is a central issue in evaluating a network. The graph
embedding problem asks whether the quest graph is a subgraph of a host graph,
and an important benet of the graph embeddings is that we can apply an exist-
ing algorithm for guest graphs to host graphs. This problem has attracted a burst of
studies in recent years. Cycle networks and path networks are suitable for design-
ing simple algorithms with low communication costs. The cycle embedding problem,
which deals with all possible length of the cycles in a given graph, is investigated
in a lot of interconnection networks [84,123,176,185,187,225,243]. The path embed-
ding problem, which deals with all possible lengths of the paths between given two
vertices in a given graph, is also investigated in a lot of interconnection networks
[48,104106,159,161,162,225,243,244,247]. In graph theory, we use the term pan-
cyclic property to discuss the cycle embedding problem and the term panconnected
property to discuss the path embedding problem.
A graph is pancyclic if it contains a cycle of every length from 3 to |V (G)| inclusive.
The concept of pancyclic graphs is proposed by Bondy [28] and is used in intercon-
nection network for embedding all the possible lengths of the cycles in a given graph
[84,123,184]. The pancyclic property has been extended to vertex-pancyclic [155]
and edge-pancyclic [10]. It is known that there is no odd cycle in any bipartite graph.
Hence, any bipartite graph is not pancyclic. For this reason, the concept of bipan-
cyclicity is proposed [254]. A bipartite graph is bipancyclic if it contains a cycle of
every even length from 4 to |V (G)| inclusive. It is proved that the hypercube is bipan-
cyclic [225,279]. A bipartite graph is vertex-bipancyclic [254] if every vertex lies on
a cycle of every even length from 4 to |V (G)| inclusive. Similarly, a bipartite graph is
edge-bipancyclic if every edge lies on a cycle of every even length from 4 to |V (G)|
inclusive. Obviously, every edge-bipancyclic graph is vertex-bipancyclic.
A graph G is panconnected if there exists a path of length l joining any two different
vertices x and y with dG (x, y) l |V (G)| 1. Obviously, every panconnected graph
is pancyclic. The concept of panconnected graphs is proposed by Alavi and Williamson
[5]. It is obvious that any bipartite graph with at least three vertices is not panconnected.
For this reason, we say a bipartite graph is bipanconnected if there exists a path of
length l joining any two different vertices x and y with dG (x, y) l |V (G)| 1 and
(l dG (x, y)) is even.
479
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 480
THEOREM 17.1 [218] The hypercube Qn satises the 2RH property if and only if
n = 3.
Proof: Let u = 000, v = 001, x = 010, and y = 101. There are just two paths
P1 =
u = 000, 010, 011, 001 = v and P2 =
u = 000, 100, 101, 001 = v between u
and v with length 3. However, there is not another path of length 3 between u and v
such that the path does not contain x or y. Thus, Q3 is not satises the 2RH. It is easy
to see that Q2 satises the 2RH. For n 4, we show that the Qn satises the 2RH by
induction. By brute force, we can check whether the theorem holds for n = 4. Assume
that the theorem holds for any Qk with 4 k < n. Without loss of generality, we can
assume that l1 l2 . Thus, l2 2n1 1. Since Qn is edge-symmetric, we can assume
that u V (Qn0 ) and x V (Qn1 ). We have the following cases:
Case 1. v V (Qn0 ) and y V (Qn1 ).
Suppose that l2 < 2n1 1. Since Qn is Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path R of Qn0 joining u and v. Since the length of R is 2n1 1, we can write
R as
u, R1 , p, q, R2 , v for some black vertex p with pn = x and some white ver-
tex q with qn = y. Obviously, h(pn , qn ) = 1. By induction, there exist two disjoint
paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining pn to qn with l(S1 ) = l1 2n1 ,
(2) S2 is a path joining x to y with l(S2 ) = l2 , and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . We set P1
as
u, R1 , p, pn , S1 , qn , q, R2 , v and P2 as S2 . Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required
paths. See Figure 17.1a for illustration.
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 481
u x u x
v v
y y
q qn
p pn
(a) (b)
u x u x
rn r
sn s
y y
v
p
p
pn pn v
(a) (b)
u u
q
qn
v
q qn v x
p pn p
y x y pn
(a) (b)
x, S21 , r, rn , sn , s, S22 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths. See Figure 17.2b
for illustration.
Case 3. y V (Qn0 ) and v V (Qn1 ).
Suppose that l2 = 1. Obviously, x = yn . Let p be a neighbor of y in Qn0 such that
y = v and let q be a neighbor of p in Qn0 such that p = y. By induction, there exist two
n
disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path joining u to q and l(R1 ) = 2n1 3,
(2) R2 is a path joining p to y and l(R2 ) = 1, and (3) R1 R2 spans Qn0 . Obviously,
pn is a black vertex and qn is a white vertex. Again, by induction, there exist two
disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining qn to v with l(S1 ) = 2n1 3,
(2) S2 is a path joining x to pn with l(S2 ) = 1, and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . We set P1
as
u, R1 , q, p, pn , qn , S1 , v and P2 as
x, y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required
paths. See Figure 17.3a for illustration.
Suppose that l2 3. We set p be a neighbor in Qn0 of y with p = u if h(x, y) = 1 and
p be a neighbor of y in Qn0 with p = u and h(p, y) = h(x, y) 1 if h(x, y) 3. Let q be
a neighbor of vn in Qn0 such that q = y and qn = x. Thus, h(qn , v) = 1. By induction,
there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path joining u to p with
l(R1 ) = 2n1 3, (2) R2 is a path joining q to y with l(R2 ) = 1, and (3) R1 R2 spans
Qn0 . Again, by induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a
path joining qn to v with l(S1 ) = l1 2n1 + 2, (2) S2 is a path joining x to pn with
l(S2 ) = l2 2, and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . We set P1 as
u, R1 , q, qn , S1 , v and P2 as
x, S2 , pn , p, y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths. See Figure 17.3b for
illustration.
Case 4. {v, y} V (Qn0 ).
Suppose that l2 = 1. Obviously, y = xn . Since Qn is Hamiltonian laceable, there
exists a Hamiltonian path R of Qn0 joining u to v. Obviously, R can be written as
u, R1 , p, y, q, R2 , v. Note that u = p if l(R1 ) = 0. Obviously, p and q are white ver-
tices. Thus, pn and qn are black vertices. Let r be a neighbor of qn in Qn1 such that
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 483
u u
v v
tn
t
r s
sn
q qn x
y x p
pn
pn y
p
(a) (b)
r = x. By induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path
joining pn to r with l(S1 ) = 2n1 3, (2) S2 is a path joining qn to x with l(S2 ) = 1,
and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . We set P1 as
u, R1 , p, pn , S1 , r, qn , q, R2 , v and P2 as
x, y.
Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths. See Figure 17.4a for illustration.
Suppose that l2 3. We set p be a neighbor of y in Qn0 with p = u if h(x, y) = 1
and p be a neighbor of y in Qn0 with p = u and h(p, y) = h(x, y) 1 if h(x, y) 3. By
induction, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path joining u to
v with l(R1 ) = 2n1 3, (2) R2 is a path joining p to y with l(R2 ) = 1, and (3) R1 R2
spans Qn0 . Obviously, we can write R1 as
u, R11 , s, t, R12 , v for some black vertex s
such that sn = x. By induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1
is a path joining sn to tn with l(S1 ) = l1 2n1 2, (2) S2 is a path joining x to pn with
l(S2 ) = l2 2, and (3) S1 S2 spans Qn1 . We set P1 as
u, R11 , s, sn , S1 , tn , t, R12 , v and
P2 as
x, S2 , pn , p, y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths. See Figure 17.4b
for illustration.
The theorem is proved.
By changing the roles of the vertices in bipartite sets in Theorem 17.1, we have
the following theorem. The proof is similar to the proof of Theorem 17.1.
THEOREM 17.2 Assume that n is a positive integer with n 4. Let u and x be two
distinct white vertices of Qn and v and y be two distinct black vertices of Qn . Let l1
and l2 be even integers with l1 h(u, x), l2 h(v, y), and l1 + l2 = 2n 2. There exist
two disjoint paths P1 and P2 such that (1) P1 is a path joining u to x and l(P1 ) = l1 ,
(2) P2 is a path joining v to y and l(P2 ) = l2 , and (3) P1 P2 spans Qn .
It is easy to conrm that the theorem does not hold for n = 2. Suppose that
n = 3. Let u = 000, v = 001, x = 011, and y = 010. There are just two paths
P1 =
u = 000, 001, 011 = x and P2 =
u = 000, 010, 011 = x of Q3 with length 2
between u and v. Moreover, there is not another path of Q3 with length 2 between u
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 484
and x where the path does not contain v and y. Thus, the previous theorem does not
hold for n = 3.
With the bipanconnected property of Qn , for any two different vertices x and y
of Qn there exists a path Pl (x, y) of length l for any l with h(x, y) l 2n 1 and
2 | (l h(x, y)). We expect such a path Pl (x, y) can be further extended by including
the vertices not in Pl (x, y) into a Hamiltonian path from x to a xed vertex z or a
Hamiltonian cycle.
THEOREM 17.4 Assume that n be any positive integer with n 2. Let x and z be
two vertices from different partite set of Qn and y be a vertex of Qn that is not in {x, z}.
For any integer l with h(x, y) l 2n 1 h(y, z) and 2 | (l h(x, y)), there exists a
Hamiltonian path R(x, y, z; l) from x to z such that dR(x,y,z;l) (x, y) = l.
Proof: By brute force, we can conrm that the theorem holds for n = 2, 3. Now, we
consider n 4. Without loss of generality, we assume that x is a white vertex and z is
a black vertex.
Suppose that y is a black vertex. Obviously, h(y, z) 2. There exists a neighbor
w of y such that w = x and h(w, z) = h(y, z) 1. Obviously, w is a white vertex. By
Theorem 17.1, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path
joining x to y with l(R1 ) = l, (2) R2 is a path joining w to z with l(R2 ) = 2n l 2,
and (3) R1 R2 spans Qn . We set R as
x, R1 , y, w, R2 , z. Obviously, R is the required
Hamiltonian path.
Suppose that y is a white vertex. Obviously, h(x, y) 2. There exists a neighbor
w of y such that w = z and h(x, w) = h(x, y) 1. Obviously, w is a black vertex.
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 485
By Theorem 17.1, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path
joining x to w with l(R1 ) = l 1, (2) R2 is a path joining y to z with l(R2 ) = 2n l 1,
and (3) R1 R2 spans Qn . We set R as
x, R1 , w, y, R2 , z. Obviously, R is the required
Hamiltonian path.
e un e un1
u u
v v
vn vn1
(a) (b)
u e un
u e un
x xn x xn
(c) (d)
Case 2. e is of dimension n.
0
Case 2.1. |Fn | < n 2. Let Qn denote the subgraph of Qn induced by
1
{x V (Qn ) | xn1 = 0} and Qn denote the subgraph of Qn induced by {x
0 1
V (Qn ) | xn1 = 1}. Thus, Qn and Qn are isomorphic to Qn . Without loss of generality,
0 0 1
we may assume that e E(Qn ). We claim that |E(Qn ) F| + |E(Qn ) F| n 3.
0 1
Suppose that |F| n 3. Obviously, |E(Qn ) F| + |E(Qn ) F| n 3. Sup-
0 1
pose that |F| = n 2. Then, |Fn1 | 1. Again, |E(Qn ) F| + |E(Qn ) F| n 3.
0 1
Accordingly, |E(Qn ) F| + |E(Qn ) F| n 3.
0
Suppose that 4 l 2n1 . Since |E(Qn ) F| n 3, by induction hypothesis
0
there exists a cycle of length l in Qn F containing e. In particular, we use C0 to
denote such a cycle of length 2n1 .
Suppose that 2n1 + 2 l 2n . Let l1 = l 2n1 . Then 2 l1 2n1 . Since
|E(C0 ) {e}| = 2n1 1 > 2(n 2) = 2|F| for n 3, there exists an edge (u, v) on C0
such that (u, v) = e and {(u, un1 ), (v, vn1 ), (un1 , vn1 )} F = . We may write C0
1
as
u, P0 , v, u. Obviously, e is on P0 , h(un1 , vn1 ) = 1 and {un1 , vn1 } V (Qn ).
Suppose that l1 = 2. Then
u, P0 , v, v , u , u is a cycle of length l in Qn F.
n1 n1
1
Suppose that l1 4. Since |E(Qn ) F| n 3, by induction hypothesis there exists
1
a cycle C1 of length l1 in Qn F containing (un1 , vn1 ). We can write C1 as
u , v , P1 , u . Then
u, P0 , v, vn1 , P1 , un1 , u is a cycle of length l in
n1 n1 n1
1. There is only one vertex incident with n 2 faulty edges. Without loss
of generality, we may assume that one of these n 2 faulty edges is an
n-dimensional edge.
2. There are two vertices that share a faulty edge and are both incident with
n 2 faulty edges. Without loss of generality, we may assume that the faulty
edge they share is an n-dimensional edge.
3. Every vertex is incident with less than n 2 faulty edges. We may assume
without loss of generality that one of them is an n-dimensional edge.
Note that there cannot be more than two vertices that are incident with n 2 faulty
edges for n 3. Then, we can divide Qn into Qn0 and Qn1 along dimension n. So both of
Qn0 and Qn1 satisfy the condition that every vertex is incident with at least two nonfaulty
edges. Let F 0 = F E(Qn0 ) and F 1 = F E(Qn1 ). Without loss of generality, we may
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 488
q (u i) n q (u i )n
ui ui
x ui1
xn
uj (u j )n uj (u j) n
u 2n1
(a) (b)
not exist such ui and uj . Then there are at least 2n1 /2 = 2n2 n-dimensional faulty
edges. However, 2n2 > 2n 5 for n 4. We obtain a contradiction. Thus, there exist
such ui and uj . By Theorem 13.1, Qn1 is (n 3) fault-Hamiltonian laceable. Since
|F 1 | n 3, Qn1 F 1 is still Hamiltonian laceable. Since ui and uj are in different
partite sets, (ui )n and (uj )n are also in different partite sets. There is a Hamiltonian
path P in Qn1 F 1 between (uj )n and (ui )n . Then
ui , ui + 1 , . . . , uj , (uj )n , P, (ui )n , ui
forms a cycle of length 2n1 + l. See Figure 17.6b for illustration.
The theorem is proved.
The augmented cubes AQ1 , AQ2 , AQ3 , and AQ4 are illustrated in Figure 17.7. It
is proved in Ref. 66 that AQn is a vertex-transitive, (2n 1)-regular, and (2n 1)-
connected graph with 2n vertices for any positive integer n. Let i be any
index with 1 i n and u = u1 u2 u3 . . . un be a vertex of AQn . We use ui to
denote the vertex v = v1 v2 v3 . . . vn such that uj = vj with 1 j = i n and ui = vi .
Moreover, we use ui to denote the vertex v = v1 v2 v3 . . . vn such that uj = vi
for j < i and uj = vj for i j n. Obviously, un = un , u1 = uh , uc = u1 , and
NbdAQn (u) = {ui | 1 i n} {ui | 1 i < n}.
00 01
0000 0001 0100 0101
0 1
(a) AQ1
0010 0011 0110 0111
10 11
(b) AQ2
FIGURE 17.7 The augmented cubes AQ1 , AQ2 , AQ3 , and AQ4 .
holds for 2 k < n. Suppose that {u, v} V (AQn1 i ) for some i {0, 1}. By
induction, |NbdAQn (u) NbdAQn (v)| 2. Thus, consider the case that either
v = uh or v = uc . Obviously, {u2 , uc } NbdAQn (u) NbdAQn (v) if v = uh ; and
{u2 , uh } NbdAQn (u) NbdAQn (v) if v = uc . Then the statement holds.
The following lemma can easily obtained from the denition of AQn .
LEMMA 17.2 Assume that n 3. For any two different vertices u and v of AQn ,
there exist two other vertices x and y of AQn such that the subgraph of {u, v, x, y}
contains a 4-cycle.
LEMMA 17.3 Let F be a subset of V (AQn ). Then there exists a Hamiltonian path
between any two vertices of V (AQn ) F if |F| 2n 4 for n 4 and |F| 1 for
n = 3.
LEMMA 17.4 [66] Let u and v be any two vertices in AQn with n 2. Suppose
i
that both u and v are in AQn1 for i = 0, 1. Then dAQn (u, v) = dAQi (u, v). Suppose
n1
i 1i
that u is a vertex in AQn1 and v is a vertex in AQn1 . Then there exist two short-
1i
est paths P1 and P2 of AQn joining u to v such that (V (P1 ) {u}) V (AQn1 ) and
(V (P2 ) {v}) V (AQn1 ).
i
LEMMA 17.5 [171] Let {u, v, x, y} be any four distinct vertices of AQn with n 2.
Then there exist two disjoint paths P1 and P2 such that (1) P1 is a path joining u and
v, (2) P2 is a path joining x and y, and (3) P1 P2 spans AQn .
THEOREM 17.7 [219] Assume that n is a positive integer with n 2. Then AQn
satises the 2RH property.
Proof: We prove this theorem by induction. By brute force, we check whether
the theorem holds for n = 2, 3, 4. Assume that the theorem holds for any AQk with
4 k < n. Without loss of generality, we can assume that l1 l2 . Thus, l2 2n1 1.
By the symmetric property of AQn , we can assume that at least one of u and v, say u,
0 ). Thus we have the following cases:
is in V (AQn1
Case 1. v V (AQn1
0 ) and {x, y} V (AQ1 ).
n1
Case 1.1. dAQn (x, y) l2 2n1 3 except that (1) l2 = 2n1 4 and (2) l2 = 2 if
dAQn (x, y) = 1 or 2 with {u, v} = NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y). By Lemma 17.3, there exists
a Hamiltonian path R of AQn1 0 joining u and v. Since l(R) = 2n1 1, we can write
R as
u, R1 , p, q, R2 , v for some vertices p and q such that {ph , qh } {x, y} = . By
induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining
ph to qh with l(S1 ) = 2n1 l2 2, (2) S2 is a path joining x to y with l(S2 ) = l2 ,
and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn1 1 . We set P as
u, R , p, ph , S , qh , q, R , v and P as S .
1 1 1 2 2 2
Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths.
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 493
Case 1.2. l2 = 2 if dAQn (x, y) = 1 or 2 with {u, v} = NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y). Obvi-
ously, there exists a path P2 of length 2 in AQn {u, v} joining x to y. By Lemma 17.3,
there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of AQn V (P2 ) joining u to v. Obviously, P1 and
P2 are the required paths.
1 ) {x, y, uh ,
Case 1.3. l2 = 2n1 4. Obviously, there exists a vertex p in V (AQn1
v }, a vertex q in NbdAQ1 (p) {x, y}, and a vertex r in NbdAQ1 (q) {x, y, p}. Sup-
h
n1 n1
pose that rh
/ {u, v}. By induction, there exist two disjoint paths Q1 and Q2 such that
(1) Q1 is a path joining u to ph , (2) Q2 is a path joining rh to v, and (3) Q1 Q2 spans
n1 {p, q, r} join-
0 . By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of AQ1
AQn1 2
ing x to y. We set P1 as
u, Q1 , ph , p, q, r, rh , Q2 , v. Suppose that rh {u, v}. Without
loss of generality, we assume that rh = v. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamilto-
nian path R of AQn10 {v} joining u to ph . We set P1 as
u, R, ph , p, q, r, rh = v.
Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths.
Case 1.4. l2 = 2n1 2. Obviously, there exists a vertex p V (AQn1 1 ) {x, y, uh ,
uc , vh , vc }. By Lemma 17.5, there exist two disjoint paths Q1 and Q2 such that (1) Q1
is a path joining u and ph , (2) Q2 is a path joining pc and v, and (3) Q1 Q2 spans
n1 {p} joining
AQn10 . By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of AQ0
2
x to y. We set P1 as
u, Q1 , ph , p, pc , Q2 , v. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required
paths.
Case 1.5. l2 = 2n1 1. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of
0
AQn1 1
joining u and v and there exists a Hamiltonian path P2 of AQn1 joining x and y.
Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths.
Case 2. v V (AQn1
0 ) and exactly one of x and y is in V (AQ0 ). Without loss of
n1
generality, we assume that x V (AQn1
0 ).
q NbdAQ1 (p) NbdAQ1 (y). By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path P1
n1 n1
of AQn {x, y, p, q} joining u to v. We set P2 as
x, p, q, y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are
the required paths.
Suppose that dAQn (x, y) = 3. By Lemma 17.4, there exists a path P2 from x to y
such that (V (P2 ) {x}) V (AQn1
1 ). By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path
Obviously, p satises our claim. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path R of
0
AQn1 {x} joining u to v. Since l(R) = 2n1 3, we can write R as
u, R1 , s, t, R2 , v
such that {sh , th } {p, y} = . By induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and
S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining sh to th with l(S1 ) = 2n1 1 l2 , (2) S2 is
a path joining p to y with l(S2 ) = l2 1, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn1 1 . We set P
1
as
u, R1 , s, s , S1 , t , t, R2 , v and P2 as
x, p, S2 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the
h h
required paths.
Suppose that dAQn (x, y) 3. By Lemma 17.4, there exists a vertex p in V (AQn1 1 )
such that dAQn (p, y) = dAQn (x, y) 1. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian
path R of AQn1 0 {x} joining u to v. We can write R as
u, R1 , s, t, R2 , v such
that {s , t } {p, y} = . By induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1 and S2
h h
required paths.
Case 2.5. l2 = 2n1 3 or l2 = 2n1 1. Let k = 3 if l2 = 2n1 3 and k = 1 if
l2 = 2n1 1. There exists a vertex p in NbdAQ0 (x) {u, v, yn }. By Lemma 17.3,
n1
there exists a Hamiltonian path R of AQn1 0 {x, p} joining u to v. We can write R as
u, R1 , s, t, R2 , v such that {s, t} {p, y } = . By induction, there exist two disjoint
n
paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining sn to tn with l(S1 ) = k, (2) S2 is a
path joining pn to y with l(S2 ) = 2n1 k 2, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn1 1 . We set
P1 as
u, R1 , s, s , S1 , t , t, R2 , v and P2 as
x, p, p , S2 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are
n n n
joining ph to qh . We set P1 as
u, R3 , p, ph , S, qh , q, R4 , v and P2 as R2 . Obviously,
P1 and P2 are the required paths.
Case 3.4. 2n2 + 1 l2 2n1 1 except l2 = 2n2 + 2. By induction, there exist
two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path joining u to v with
l(R1 ) = 2n2 1, (2) R2 is a path joining x to y with l(R2 ) = 2n2 1, and
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 495
Case 4.1. dAQn (x, y) l2 2n1 3 except that (1) l2 = 2n1 4 and (2) l2 = 2 if
dAQn (x, y) = 1 or 2 with {u, v} = NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y). Obviously, there exists a
vertex p in NbdAQ1 (v) {x, y, uh }. By induction, there exist two disjoint paths S1
n1
and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining p to v with l(S1 ) = l1 2n1 , (2) S2 is a path
joining x to y with l(S2 ) = l2 , and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn1
1 . By Lemma 17.3, there
Case 5. v V (AQn1
1 ) and exactly one of x and y is in V (AQ0 ). Without loss of
n1
generality, we assume that x V (AQn1
0 ).
q in (NbdAQ0 (p) NbdAQ0 (x)) {u}. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian
n1 n1
path P1 of AQn {x, q, p, y} joining u to v. We set P2 as
x, q, p, y. Obviously, P1
and P2 are the required paths.
Suppose that dAQn (x, y) = 3. By Lemma 17.4, there are two shortest paths R1
and R2 of AQn joining x and y such that R1 can be written as
x, r1 , r2 , y with
{r1 , r2 } V (AQn1
0 ) and R can be written as
x, s , s , y with {s , s } V (AQ1 ).
2 1 2 1 2 n1
Suppose that u = r2 or v = s1 . Without loss of generality, we assume that u = r2 .
By Corollary 17.2, there exist a vertex t NbdAQ0 (x) NbdAQ0 (r2 ) {u}. We
n1 n1
set P2 as
x, t, r2 , y. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of
AQn V (P2 ) joining u to v. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths. Thus,
we consider u = r2 and v = s1 . By Corollary 17.2, there exists a vertex p in
NbdAQ0 (x) NbdAQ0 (u). Obviously, dAQn (p, y) = 2. By Lemma 17.4, there
n1 n1
1 ) Nbd
exists a vertex q in V (AQn1 AQn (p) NbdAQn (y). Since dAQn (q, y) = 1 and
dAQn (v, y) = 2, q = v. We set P2 as
x, p, q, y. By Lemma 17.3, there exists a
Hamiltonian path P1 of AQn V (P2 ) joining u to v. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the
required paths.
By induction, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path join-
ing u to s with l(R1 ) = 2n2 , (2) R2 is a path joining p to x with l(R2 ) = 2n2 2,
(3) R1 R2 spans AQn1 0 . Similarly, there exist two disjoint paths S and S such that
1 2
(1) S1 is a path joining sh to v with l(S1 ) = 2n2 1, (2) S2 is a path joining ph to y
with l(S2 ) = 2n2 1, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn1 1 . We set P as
u, R , s, sh , S , v
1 1 1
and P2 as
x, R2 , p, ph , S2 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths.
Case 5.5. 4 l2 2n1 1 except l2 = 2n1 3 with dAQn (x, y) 2.
Suppose that dAQn (x, y) = 2 with {u, v} = NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y). Thus, we
have either v = xh or v = xc . Moreover, u = x and y = (xh ) for some
{i | 2 i n} {i | 2 i n 1}. Obviously, there exists a vertex t in
NbdAQ1 (v) {xh , y, xc , uh }. By induction, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2
n1
such that (1) R1 is a path joining t to v with l(R1 ) = 2n1 1 l2 , (2) R2 is a path
joining xc to y with l(R2 ) = l2 1 in the case of v = xh ; otherwise R2 is a path joining
xh to y with l(R2 ) = l2 1, and (3) R1 R2 spans AQn1
1 . By Lemma 17.3, there exists
NbdAQ1 (v) {y, p, u , x }. By induction, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2
h h
n1
such that (1) R1 is a path joining t to v with l(R1 ) = 2n1 1 l2 , (2) R2 is a path
joining p to y with l(R2 ) = l2 1, and (3) R1 R2 spans AQn1 1 . By Lemma 17.3,
u, S, th , t, R1 , v and P2 as
x, p, R2 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required paths.
Suppose that dAQn (x, y) = k 3. By Lemma 17.4, there are two shortest paths S1
and S2 of AQn joining x and y such that S1 can be written as
x = r0 , r1 , r2 , . . . , rk1 , y
with (V (S1 ) {y}) V (AQn1 0 ) and S can be written as
x, s , s , . . . , s
2 1 2 k1 , y with
(V (S2 ) {x}) V (AQn1 ). Suppose that u = rk1 . We set p = rk1 . Again, there
1
exists a vertex s in NbdAQ0 (u) {x, p, yh , vh }. By induction, there exist two disjoint
n1
paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path joining u to s with l(R1 ) = 2n1 1 l2 ,
(2) R2 is a path joining p to x with l(R2 ) = l2 1, and (3) R1 R2 spans AQn1 0 . By
Lemma 17.3, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of AQn1 1 {y} joining sh to v. We set
P1 as
u, R1 , s, s , S, v and P2 as
x, R2 , p, y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the required
h
paths.
Now we assume that rk1 = u and s1 = v. Since dAQn (rk2 , y) = 2, by
Lemma 17.4, there exists a vertex p NbdAQn (rk2 ) in V (AQn1 1 ) such that
are the required paths. Suppose that 2n2 + 1 l2 < 2n1 1 except 2n1 3 with
dAQn (x, y) 3. Obviously, there exists a vertex s in NbdAQ0 (u) {x, rk2 , yh , vh }. By
n1
induction, there exist two disjoint paths R1 and R2 such that (1) R1 is a path joining u
to s with l(R1 ) = 2n2 + 1, (2) R2 is a path joining rk2 to x with l(R2 ) = 2n2 3, and
(3) R1 R2 spans AQn1 0 . Again, by induction, there exist two disjoint paths S and S
1 2
such that (1) S1 is a path joining sh to v with l(S1 ) = 2n1 l2 + 2n2 4, (2) S2 is
a path joining p to y with l(S2 ) = l2 2n2 + 2, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn1 1 . We set
P1 as
u, R1 , s, sh , S1 , v and P2 as
x, R2 , rk2 , p, S2 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2 are the
required paths.
disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining sn to v with l(S1 ) = 2n2 t,
(2) S2 is a path joining pn to y with l(S2 ) = 2n2 + t 2, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn11 .
We set P1 as
u, R1 , s, s , S1 , v and P2 as
x, R2 , p, p , S2 , y. Obviously, P1 and P2
n n
paths P1 and P2 such that (1) P1 is a path joining x to y with l(P1 ) = 2n 3, (2) P2 is a
path joining u to v with l(P2 ) = 1, and (3) P1 P2 spans AQn . Obviously, P1 is a path
of length 2n 3 joining x to y. Suppose that l 2n 4. By Lemma 17.2, there exist
two vertices u and v such that dAQn (u, v) = 2, {x, y} = NbdAQn (u) NbdAQn (v), and
{u, v} = NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y). By Theorem 17.7, there exist two disjoint paths P1
and P2 such that (1) P1 is a path joining x to y with l(P1 ) = l, (2) P2 is a path joining
u to v with l(P2 ) = 2n 2 l, and (3) P1 P2 spans AQn . Obviously, P1 is a path of
length l joining x to y. Thus, AQn is panconnected.
With the panconnected property of AQn , there exists a path Pl (x, y) of length l
if dAQn (x, y) l 2n 1 between any two distinct vertices x and y of AQn . Again,
we expect such path Pl (x, y) can be further extended by including the vertices not in
Pl (x, y) into a Hamiltonian path from x to a xed vertex z or a Hamiltonian cycle.
THEOREM 17.8 Assume that n is a positive integer with n 2. For any three distinct
vertices x, y and z of AQn and for any dAQn (x, y) l 2n 1 dAQn (y, z), there exists
a Hamiltonian path R(x, y, z; l) from x to z such that dR(x,y,z;l) (x, y) = l.
Proof: Obviously, the theorem holds for n = 2. Thus, we consider that n 3. We
have the following cases:
Case 1. dAQn (x, y) = 1 and dAQn (y, z) = 1. By Lemma 17.1, there exists a ver-
tex w in (NbdAQn (y) NbdAQn (z)) {x}. Similarly, there exists a vertex p in
(NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y)) {z}. Suppose that l = 2. By Theorem 17.7, there exist
two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining x to p with l(S1 ) = 1,
(2) S2 is a path joining y to z with l(S2 ) = 2n 3, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn . We
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 500
set R as
x, p, y, S2 , z. Obviously, R forms a Hamiltonian path from x to z such that
dR (x, y) = l. Suppose that l = 2n 3. By Theorem 17.7, there exist two disjoint paths
Q1 and Q2 such that (1) Q1 is a path joining x to y with l(Q1 ) = 2n 3, (2) Q2 is a path
joining w to z with l(Q2 ) = 1, and (3) Q1 Q2 spans AQn . We set R as
x, Q1 , y, w, z.
Obviously, R forms a Hamiltonian path from x to z such that dR (x, y) = l. Suppose that
1 l 2n 2 with l / {2, 2n 3}. By Theorem 17.7, there exist two disjoint paths P1
and P2 such that (1) P1 is a path joining x to y with l(P1 ) = l, (2) P2 is a path joining w
to z with l(P2 ) = 2n 2 l, and (3) P1 P2 spans AQn . We set R as
x, P1 , y, w, P2 , z.
Obviously, R forms a Hamiltonian path from x to z such that dR (x, y) = l.
Case 2. dAQn (x, y) = 1 and dAQn (y, z) = 1. By Lemma 17.1, there exists a vertex p in
NbdAQn (x) NbdAQn (y). Suppose that l = 2. By Theorem 17.7, there exist two disjoint
paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining x to p with l(S1 ) = 1, (2) S2 is a path
joining y to z with l(S2 ) = 2n 3, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn . We set R as
x, p, y, S2 , z.
Obviously, R forms a Hamiltonian path from x to z such that dR (x, y) = l. Suppose that
1 l 2n 1 dAQn (y, z) with l = 2. By Corollary 17.2, there exists a vertex w in
NbdAQn (y) {x} such that dAQn (w, z) = dAQn (y, z) 1. By Theorem 17.7, there exist
two disjoint paths P1 and P2 such that (1) P1 is a path joining x to y with l(P1 ) = l,
(2) S2 is a path joining w to z with l(P2 ) = 2n 2 l, and (3) P1 P2 spans AQn . We
set R as
x, P1 , y, w, P2 , z. Obviously, R forms a Hamiltonian path from x to z such
that dR (x, y) = l.
Case 3. dAQn (x, y) = 1 and dAQn (y, z) = 1. This case is similar to Case 2, but
interchanging the roles of x and z.
Case 4. dAQn (x, y) = 1 and dAQn (y, z) = 1. Let l be any integer with dAQn (x, y)
l 2n 1 dAQn (y, z). Let w be a vertex in NbdAQn (y). By Theorem 17.7, there exist
two disjoint paths S1 and S2 such that (1) S1 is a path joining x to y with l(S1 ) = l,
(2) S2 is a path joining w to z with l(S2 ) = 2n 2 l, and (3) S1 S2 spans AQn . We
set R as
x, S1 , y, w, S2 , z. Obviously, R forms a Hamiltonian path from x to z such
that dR (x, y) = l.
The theorem is proved.
COROLLARY 17.5 Assume that n is a positive integer with n 2. For any two
distinct vertices x and y and for any dAQn (x, y) l 2n1 , there exists a Hamiltonian
cycle S(x, y; l) such that dS(x,y;l) (x, y) = l.
Proof: Let z be a vertex in NbdAQn (x) {y}. By Theorem 17.8, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path R joining x to z such that dR(x,y,z;l) (x, y) = l. We set S as
x, R, z, x.
Obviously, S forms the required Hamiltonian cycle.
In the following, we will prove that every Harary graph H2,n is panconnected.
Moreover, H2,n is panpositionable Hamiltonian if and only if n {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11}.
ch017.tex 30/6/2008 12: 32 Page 502
THEOREM 17.10 Let n be an integer with n 5. Then the Harary graph H2,n is a
panconnected graph.
Proof: Let G = H2,n . To show that G is panconnected, we prove that there exists a
path of length l for dG (x, y) l n 1 between
any two distinct vertices x, y of G.
Without loss of generality, let x = 0 and y n2 . We dene some paths as follows:
I(i, j) =
i, i + 1, i + 2, . . . , j 1, j
S(i) =
i, i + 2
S t (i) =
i, i + 2, i + 4, . . . , i + 2(t 1), i + 2t
S t (i) =
i, i 2, i 4, . . . , i 2(t 1), i 2t
4 5
yk
Suppose that l y. Let k = 2(l dG (0, y)). )Then*
0, I(0, k), S (k), y is 2
ly
the required path. Suppose that l > y. Let k = 2 . Then the required path
is
0, I(0, y 1), S k (y 1), y + 2k 1, y + 2k, S k (y + 2k), y if l y is even and
0, I(0, y 1), S k (y 1), y + 2k 1, y + 2k 2, S (k1) (y + 2k 2), y if otherwise.
The theorem is proved.
0, n 1, 1, 3, 2, 4, p(4, n 2), n 2, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such
that dC (0, u) = 4 with n {9, 11}; and
0, 9, q1 (9, 3), 3, 2, q(2, 10), 10, 1, 0 forms a
Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 5 with n = 11.
Suppose u = 3. Then dH2,n (0, u) = 2 and n {7, 9, 11}. Then
0, 2, p(2, n 1),
n 1, 1, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 2;
0, p(0, n 1),
n 1, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 3;
0, 1, 2, 4, 3,
5, p(5, n 1), n 1, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 4 with
n {9, 11}; and
0, 10, 1, 2, 4, 3, 5, p(5, 9), 9, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such
that dC (0, u) = 5 with n = 11.
Suppose that u = 4. Then
0, q(0, n 1), n 1, 1, q(1, n 2), n 2, 0 forms a
Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 2;
0, 2, p(2, n 1), n 1, 1, 0 forms
a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 3;
0, p(0, n 1), n 1, 0 forms a
Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 4; and
0, p(0, 3), 3, 5, 4, 6, p(6, 10),
10, 0 forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 5 with n = 11.
Suppose u = 5. Obviously, n = 11. Then
0, 1, q(1, 9), 9, 10, q1 (10, 0), 0 forms
a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 3;
0, 10, 1, q(1, 9), 9, 8, q1 (8, 0), 0
forms a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 4; and
0, p(0, 10), 10, 0 forms
a Hamiltonian cycle of H2,n such that dC (0, u) = 5.
Suppose that C contains P2 or P3 . Then (2, 1) and (2, 3) are not in C. Thus, C contains
0, 2, 4. This means that C contains a cycle
0, P2 , 2, 0 or
0, P3 , 2, 0, which is
impossible. The theorem is proved.
Thus, we have some examples of pancyclic graphs that are neither panconnected
nor panpositionable Hamiltonian, some examples of panconnected graphs that are not
panpositionable Hamiltonian, and some examples of graphs that are panconnected and
panpositionable Hamiltonian. The existence of panpositionable Hamiltonian graphs
that are not panconnected is still an open problem.
y1 y8
y2
x1 x8 y7
x2 x7
x3 x6
x4 x5
y3 y6
y4 y5
18 Mutually Independent
Hamiltonian Cycles
18.1 INTRODUCTION
In Section 9.5, we discussed the concept of mutually independent Hamiltonian paths.
Obviously, we can extend this concept into mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles.
A Hamiltonian cycle C of graph G is described as
u1 , u2 , . . . , un(G) , u1 to emphasize
the order of vertices in C. Thus, u1 is the beginning vertex and ui is the ith vertex in
C. Two Hamiltonian cycles of G beginning at a vertex x, C1 =
u1 , u2 , . . . , un(G) , u1
and C2 =
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn(G) , v1 , are independent if x = u1 = v1 and ui = vi for every
i, 2 i n(G). A set of Hamiltonian cycles {C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck } of G are mutually
independent if any two different Hamiltonian cycles are independent. The mutually
independent Hamiltonianicity of graph G, IHC(G), is the maximum integer k such
that for any vertex u of G there exist k mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles of
G starting at u. Obviously, IHC(G) (G) if G is a Hamiltonian graph.
Assume that K5 is the complete graph with vertex set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Let
C1 =
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, C2 =
0, 2, 3, 4, 1, 0, C3 =
0, 3, 4, 1, 2, 0, and C4 =
0, 4, 1, 2,
3, 0. Obviously, C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 are mutually independent. Thus, IHC(K5 ) = 4.
However, we rewrite C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 into the following Latin square:
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1
3 4 1 2
4 1 2 3
509
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LEMMA 18.2 Let x be a vertex of a graph G such that degG (x) n(G)/2 and
G {x} is Hamiltonian. Then there are (2 degG (x) n(G) + 1) mutually independent
Hamiltonian cycles of G beginning at x.
Proof: Assume that C =
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn(G)1 , v1 is a Hamiltonian cycle of G {x}.
Suppose that degG (x) = n(G) 1. We set Ci =
x, vi , vi+1 , . . . , vn(G)1 , v1 , v2 , . . . ,
vi1 , x for every 1 i n(G) 1. Then {C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn(G)1 } forms a set of
(n(G) 1) mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles of G beginning at x. Note that
n(G) 1 = 2 degG (x) n(G) + 1.
Suppose that degG (x) n(G) 2. Without loss of generality, we may assume that
(x, v1 ) E(G) and (x, vn(G)1 )
/ E(G). Let S = {vi | (x, vi ) E(G) and (x, vi+1 ) E(G)
for 1 i n(G) 2}, and let H = {vi | (x, vi ) E(G) and (x, vi+1 ) / E(G) for
1 i n(G) 2}. We have |H| = degG (x) |S|.
Suppose that |S| 2 degG (x) n(G). Then we have
THEOREM 18.1 Assume that G is a graph with (G) n(G)/2. Then IHC(G)
2(G) n(G) + 1.
Proof: Since (G) n(G)/2, n(G) 3.
Case 1. n(G) = 3. Then G = K3 . Obviously, IHC(G) = 2 = 2(G) n(G) + 1.
Case 2. n(G) = 2k for some positive integer k with k 2.
Suppose that (G) = n(G)/2. By Diracs Theorem, G is Hamiltonian. Thus,
IHC(G) 1.
Suppose that (G) (n(G)/2) + 1. We have n(G) 4. Let x be an arbi-
trary vertex of G. Obviously, (G {x}) (G) 1 n(G)/2 > n(G {x})/2 and
n(G {x}) = n(G) 1 3. By Diracs Theorem, G {x} is Hamiltonian. Then by
Lemma 18.2, there exist (2 degG (x) n(G) + 1) mutually independent Hamiltonian
cycles of G beginning at x. Since degG (x) (G), IHC(G) 2(G) n(G) + 1.
Case 3. n(G) = 2k + 1 for some positive integer k with k 2.
Obviously, n(G) 5. Let x be an arbitrary vertex of G. Obviously, (G {x})
(G) 1 k = n(G {x})/2 and n(G {x}) = n(G) 1 4. By Diracs Theorem,
G {x} is Hamiltonian. Then by Lemma 18.2, there exist (2 degG (x) n(G) + 1)
mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles of G beginning at x. Since degG (x) (G),
IHC(G) 2(G) n(G) + 1.
The theorem is proved.
In the following sections, we present some graphs that meet the bound mentioned
previously.
LEMMA 18.3 Assume that 1 n 3. Let {bi | 1 i n} be any n-sets of black nodes
of Qn and {wi | 1 i n} be any n-sets of white nodes of Qn such that (bi , wi ) is an
edge of Qn . Then there exist n Hamiltonian paths P1 , . . . , Pn of Qn such that (1) Pi
joins from bi to wi for 1 i n and (2) Pi (k) = Pj (k) for 1 k 2n and 1 i < j n.
Proof: It is obvious that the theorem holds for n = 1. Assume that n = 2. Without
loss of generality, we may assume that (b1 , w1 ) = (10, 00) and (b2 , w2 ) = (01, 11).
Then
10, 11, 01, 00 and
01, 00, 10, 11 are the desired paths.
Assume that n = 3. Let tj = | {(bi , wi ) | (bi , wi ) is a j-dimensional edge with
1 i 3} | . Without loss of generality, we assume that t1 t2 t3 .
j
Suppose that t3 = 0. Let rj = | {bi | bi Q3 , 1 i 3} | for j = 0, 1. Without loss
of generality, we assume that r0 r1 . Obviously, r0 + r1 = 3. Since there are only
four nodes in Q2 , we may assume that {(bi , wi ) | 1 i 2} Q30 and (b3 , w3 ) Q31 .
Since the theorem holds for n = 2, there exist two Hamiltonian paths P1 and P2 of Q30
such that (1) Pi joins from bi to wi for 1 i 2 and (2) P1 (k) = P2 (k) for 1 k 22 .
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 513
LEMMA 18.5 Q4 {x, y} is Hamiltonian laceable if x and y are any two nodes from
different partite sets of Q4 .
Proof: Without loss of generality, we can assume that x = 0000. Then the Hamming
weight of y, w(y), is either 1 or 3. Thus, we can assume that y = 1000 or 1110.
Case 1. y = 1000. Obviously,
0010, 1010, 1110, 1100, 0100, 0110, 0010 forms a
Hamiltonian cycle C of Q40 {x, y}. Let u and v be any two nodes from different
partite sets of Q4 {x, y}. Without loss of generality, we assume that u is a white node.
Case 1.1. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 2. Write C beginning at u as
u = x1 , x2 , . . . , x6 , x1 .
Since C can be traversed backward and forward, v is either x2 or x4 . By The-
orem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path P1 of Qn1 joining (x3 )4 to (x2 )4 , and
there exists a Hamiltonian path P2 of Qn1 joining (x3 )4 to (x6 )4 in Qn1 . Then
u = x1 , x6 , x5 , x4 , x3 , (x3 )4 , P1 , (x2 )4 , x2 is a Hamiltonian path of Q4 {x, y} from
u to x2 and
u = x1 , x2 , x3 , (x3 )4 , P2 , (x6 )4 , x6 , x5 , x4 is a Hamiltonian path of
Q4 {x, y} from u to x4 .
Case 1.2. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that u Qn0 . Write
C as
u = x1 , x2 , . . . , x6 , x1 . By Theorem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of
Qn1 from (x6 )4 to v. Then
u, x2 , x3 , . . . , x6 , (x6 )4 , P, v forms the desired path.
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 514
Case 1.3. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 0. Thus, u and v are in Qn1 . Suppose that u = 1001. Write
C as
u4 = x1 , x2 , . . . , x6 , x1 . Since C can be traversed backward and forward, we
assume that (x6 )4 = v. By Theorem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Q41 {u}
joining (x6 )4 to v. Then
u, (u)4 , x2 , . . . , x6 , (x6 )4 , P, v forms the desired path. Sup-
pose that v = 0001. Write C as
v4 = x1 , x2 , . . . , x6 , x1 . Since C can be traversed
backward and forward, we can assume that (x6 )4 = u. By Theorem 13.1, there exists a
Hamiltonian path S of Q41 {v} joining (x6 )4 to u. Then
v, v4 , x2 , . . . , x6 , (x6 )4 , S, u
forms the desired path. Finally, we assume that v = 0001 and u = 1001. Then
0001, 0101, 1101, 1111, 0111, 0011, 0010, 0110, 0100, 1100, 1110, 1010, 1011, 1001
forms the desired path.
LEMMA 18.6 Qn {x, y} is Hamiltonian laceable if x and y are any two nodes from
different partite sets of Qn with n 4.
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. The induction basis is proved in Lemma
18.5. Assume that this lemma is true for Qk with 4 k < n. By the symmetric property
of Qn , we can assume that x = e. Thus, w(y) is odd. Let u and v be any two nodes
from different partite sets of Qn {x, y}. Without loss of generality, we may assume
that u is a white node.
Case 1. w(y) < n. Without loss of generality, we assume that (y)n = 0. Obviously,
{x, y} Qn0 .
Case 1.1. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 2. By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P
of Qn {x, y} joining u to v. Write P as
u = y1 , y2 , . . . , y2n1 2 = v. By
Theorem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path S joining un to (y2 )n . Then
u, un , S, (y2 )n , y2 , y3 , . . . , y2n1 2 = v forms the desired path.
Case 1.2. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 1. Without loss of generality, we assume that u Qn0 . Since
there are 2n2 black nodes in Qn0 , we can choose a black node r of Qn0 such that r = y.
By induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 {x, y} joining u to r. Since
every hypercube is Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1
joining rn to v. Then
u, P, r, rn , S, v forms the desired path.
Case 1.3. |{u, v} Qn0 | = 0. Thus, u and v are in Qn1 . Since every hypercube is
Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn1 between u and
v. We write P as
u = x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n1 = v. Obviously, there exists some index
i with 1 i < 2n1 such that {(xi )n , (xi+1 )n } {x, y} = . By induction, there
exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn0 {x, y} between (xi )n and (xi+1 )n . Then
u = x1 , x2 , . . . , xi , (xi )n , S, (xi+1 )n , xi+1 , xi+2 , . . . , x2n1 2 = v forms the desired
path.
Case 2. w(y) = n. Since w(y) is odd, n is odd. Moreover, w(v) < n because y = v.
Without loss of generality, we assume that (v)n = 0. Therefore, v Qn0 and y Qn1 .
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 515
Case 2.1. u Qn0 . Since every hypercube is hyper Hamiltonian laceable, there exists
a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 {v} joining u to e. Write P as
u, S, r, e. Similarly, there
exists a Hamiltonian path R of Qn1 {y} joining rn to vn . Then
u, S, r, rn , R, vn , v
forms the desired path.
Case 2.2. u / Qn0 . Since there are 2n2 black nodes in Qn0 , we can choose a black
node r of Qn such that r = v. Since every hypercube is hyper Hamiltonian laceable,
0
there exists a Hamiltonian path P of Qn0 {e} joining r to v. Similarly, there exists
a Hamiltonian path S of Qn0 {y} joining u to rn . Then
u, S, rn , r, P, v forms the
desired path.
Q n1 Q n0 {b i }
( b n1 )n ( wn1)n
0000, 0010, 0110, 0100, 1100, 1000, 1010, 1110, 1111, 1101, 1001, 1011, 0011, 0111, 0101, 0001, 0000
0000, 0100, 0101, 0001, 0011, 0111, 0110, 0010, 1010, 1110, 1100, 1101, 1111, 1011, 1001, 1000, 0000
0000, 0001, 1001, 1011, 1111, 1101, 0101, 0111, 0011, 0010, 0110, 1110, 1010, 1000, 1100, 0100, 0000
0000, 1000, 1100, 1110, 1010, 1011, 1111, 1101, 1001, 0001, 0011, 0111, 0101, 0100, 0110, 0010, 0000
00000, 00001, 01001, 01101, 01100, 01000, 01010, 01011, 01111, 01110, 11110, 11111, 11011, 11010, 11000, 11100,
11101, 11001, 10001, 10000, 10010, 10011, 10111, 10110, 10100, 10101, 00101, 00111, 00011, 00010, 00110, 00100
00000, 00010, 10010, 10110, 10100, 10000, 10001, 10011, 10111, 10101, 11101, 11001, 11000, 11100, 11110, 11010,
11011, 11111, 01111, 01101, 01001, 01011, 01010, 01000, 01100, 01110, 00110, 00100, 00101, 00111, 00011, 00001
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 517
00000, 00100, 00101, 00001, 00011, 00111, 00110, 01110, 01010, 01000, 01100, 01101, 01111, 01011, 01001, 11001,
11000, 11010, 11110, 11100, 11101, 11111, 11011, 10011, 10111, 10110, 10100, 10101, 10001, 10000, 10010, 00010
00000, 10000, 10001, 10101, 10111, 10011, 10010, 10110, 10100, 00100, 00101, 00111, 00110, 00010, 00011, 00001,
01001, 01011, 01010, 01110, 01111, 01101, 01100, 11100, 11101, 11111, 11110, 11010, 11011, 11001, 11000, 01000
00000, 01000, 11000, 11100, 11110, 11111, 11101, 11001, 11011, 11010, 10010, 10011, 10001, 10101, 10111, 10110,
00110, 00010, 00011, 00111, 00101, 00001, 01001, 01101, 01111, 01011, 01010, 01110, 01100, 00100, 10100, 10000
(2) z3 is not in {P10 i (2) | 1 i n 3} {(en2 )n1 }. By Lemma 18.6, there exists
a Hamiltonian path S01 of Qn01 {y1 , z1 } from en to x1 . Again, there exists a Hamil-
tonian path S11 of Qn11 {y2 , z2 } from (z1 )n1 to x2 . Moreover, there exists a
Hamiltonian path S10 of Qn10 {y3 , z3 } from (z2 )n to x3 . By Theorem 13.1, there
exists a Hamiltonian path S00 of Qn00 {e} from (z3 )n1 to en2 . We set Cn2 as
e, en , S01 , x1 , y1 , z1 , (z1 )n1 , S11 , x2 , y2 , z2 , (z2 )n , S10 , x3 , y3 , z3 , (z3 )n1 , S00 , en2 , e.
Let v be the only node in {ei | 1 i n 2} {P00 i (2) | 1 i n 3}, let r
1
be any white node of Qn10 such that r1 = vn1 , let r2 be any white node of Qn00
such that r2 = e, and let r3 be any white node of Qn01 . By Theorem 13.1, there
exists a Hamiltonian path R10 of Qn10 {en1 } from vn1 to r1 . By Lemma 18.6,
there exists a Hamiltonian path R00 of Qn00 {e, v} from (r1 )n1 to r2 . By Theo-
rem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path R01 of Qn01 from (r2 )n to r3 and there
exists a Hamiltonian path R11 of Qn11 from (r3 )n1 to (en1 )n . We set Cn1 as
e, v, vn1 , R10 , r1 , (r1 )n1 , R00 , r2 , (r2 )n , R01 , r3 , (r3 )n1 , R11 , (en1 )n , en1 , e.
Let q be any black node of Qn11 such that q = (z1 )n1 , let s be any white
node of Qn10 such that s = qn , and let w be any black node of Qn00 such that
w = sn1 . By Theorem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path T11 of Qn11 from
(en1 )n to q and there exists a Hamiltonian path T01 of Qn01 from wn to en . By
Theorem 13.1, there exists a Hamiltonian path T10 of Qn10 {en1 } from qn to s
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 518
n {e
Q10 n1
} Qn00{e,v} Qn01 Qn11
e v v
n1
R10 r1 (r1)n1 r (r2)n R01 r3 (r2)n1 R (en1)n e
R00 2 11
n1
e
Qn11 n {e
Q10 n1
} Qn00{e} Qn01
and there exists a Hamiltonian path T00 of Qn00 {e} from sn1 to w. We set Cn
as
e, en1 , (en1 )n , T11 , q, qn , T10 , s, sn1 , T00 , w, wn , T01 , en , e. Then {Ci | 1 i n}
forms a set of desired cycles. See Figure 18.3 for illustration.
k=1
4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 2143, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 2143,
3412, 1432, 2341, 3241, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243
k=2
4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3412,
1432, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341
k=3
4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 1423,
2413, 4213, 1342, 2143, 3412, 1432, 2341, 3241
k=4
4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3241,
2341, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4231
With Theorem 11.14, we can nd the required Hamiltonian path in Pn for every
n, n 5.
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 519
a = 1 and b = 2
1423, 4123, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4213, 2413, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2143, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431,
1342, 4312, 2134
a = 1 and b = 3
1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 1432,
4132, 2314, 3214
a = 1 and b = 4
1423, 2413, 3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3124, 2134, 4312,
3412, 1432, 4132
a = 2 and b = 3
2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3412, 1432, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431,
4231, 1324, 3124
a = 2 and b = 4
2134, 3124, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1432, 3412, 4312,
1342, 3142, 4132
a = 3 and b = 4
3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 2413, 1423, 3241, 4231,
1324, 2314, 4132
With Theorem 11.14, we can nd the required Hamiltonian path on Pn for every
n, n 5.
y = 2134
a = 1 and b = 2
1432, 2413, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 1324, 3124, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3214, 2314
a = 1 and b = 3
1432, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2413, 4213, 3124, 1324, 2314, 3214
a = 1 and b = 4
1432, 4123, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4213, 2413, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2143, 1243, 3421, 4321
a = 2 and b = 3
2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3124, 1324, 4231, 2431, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2413, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421
a = 2 and b = 4
2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2431, 3421, 1243, 4213, 3124, 1324, 4231, 3241, 1423, 2413, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2341, 4321
a = 3 and b = 4
3214, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1423, 2413, 4213, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 520
y = 3214
a = 1 and b = 2
1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134
a = 1 and b = 3
1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 1324, 2314, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124
a = 1 and b = 4
1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 2314, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321
a = 2 and b = 3
2134, 4312, 1342, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1423, 4123, 2143, 3412, 1432, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 4132, 2314, 1324, 3124
a = 2 and b = 4
2134, 3124, 4213, 2413, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 2314, 1324, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321
a = 3 and b = 4
3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 2314, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3241, 2341, 4321
y = 4321
a = 1 and b = 2
1423, 4123, 3214, 2314, 4132, 3142, 2413, 4213, 3124, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1432, 3412, 2143, 1243, 3421, 2431, 1342, 4312, 2134
a = 1 and b = 3
1423, 4123, 2143, 3412, 1432, 2341, 3241, 4231, 1324, 3124, 2134, 4312, 1342, 2431, 2431, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3142, 4132, 2314, 3214
a = 1 and b = 4
1423, 2413, 4213, 3124, 2134, 4312, 3412, 2143, 1243, 3421, 2431, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 2341, 3241, 4231, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4123
a = 2 and b = 3
2134, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 2143, 3412, 1432, 2341, 3241, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 3124
a = 2 and b = 4
2134, 3124, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3241, 2341, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 2143, 1243, 3421, 2431, 4231, 1324, 2314, 3214, 4123
a = 3 and b = 4
3214, 2314, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 1243, 2143, 3412, 4312, 2134, 3124, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123
Suppose that this statement holds for Pk for every k, 4 k < n. We have the
following cases:
{n}
Case 1. y = (e)i for some i = 1 and i = n, that is, y Pn . Let c
n 1 {a}.
{n}
By induction, there is a Hamiltonian path R of Pn {e, (e)i } joining a vertex u with
n1{c}
(u)1 = a to a vertex z with (z)1 = c. We choose a vertex v in Pn with (v)1 = b.
n1
By Theorem 11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Pn joining the vertex (z)n to
v. Then
u, R, z, (z)n , H, v is the desired path.
{1}
Case 2. y = (e)n , that is, y Pn . Let c
n 1 {1, a} and d
n 1 {1, b, c}.
{n}
By Lemma 18.9, there is a Hamiltonian path R of Pn {e} joining a vertex u
with (u)1 = a to a vertex w with (w)1 = c. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path H
{1}
of Pn {(e)n } joining a vertex z with (z)1 = d to a vertex v with (v)1 = b. By Theo-
n1{1}
rem 11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Pn joining the vertex (w)n to the
vertex (z) . Then
u, R, w, (w) , Q, (z) , z, H, v is the desired path.
n n n
Suppose that this statement holds for Pk for every k, 4 k < n. We have the
following cases.
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 522
{n} {n}
Case 1. j = n; that is, x1 Pn and x2 Pn . Let c
n 1 {1, a}. By induction,
{n}
there is a Hamiltonian path R of Pn {e, x1 , x2 } joining a vertex u with (u)1 = a
{1}
to a vertex z with (z)1 = c. We choose a vertex v in Pn with (v)1 = b. By Theorem
n 1
11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Pn joining the vertex (z)n to v. We set
P =
u, R, z, (z) , H, v. Then P is the desired path.
n
{n} {1}
Case 2. j = n; that is, x1 Pn and x2 Pn . Let c
n 1 {1, a} and
{n}
d
n 1 {1, b, c}. By Lemma 18.10, there is a Hamiltonian path R of Pn {e, x1 }
joining a vertex u with (u)1 = a to a vertex z with (z)1 = c. By Lemma 18.9, there is
{1}
a Hamiltonian path H of Pn {x2 } joining a vertex w with (w)1 = d to a vertex v
n1 {1}
with (v)1 = b. By Theorem 11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Pn joining
the vertex (z)n to the vertex (w)n . We set P =
u, R, z, (z)n , Q, (w)n , w, H, v. Then P
is the desired path.
C1 =
1234, 2134, 4312, 3412, 2143, 1243, 4213, 3124, 1324, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1432, 4132, 2314, 3214, 4123, 1423, 2413,
3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 4321, 1234
C2 =
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1342, 3142,
4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2134, 1234
C3 =
1234, 4321, 2341, 1432, 4132, 2314, 1324, 4231, 3241, 1423, 2413, 3142, 1342, 2431, 3421, 1243, 4213, 3124, 2134,
4312, 3412, 2143, 4123, 3214, 1234
More precisely,
1 2 3 4 n1 n
2 3 4 5 n 1
B=
... .. .. .. .. .. .. .
. . . . . .
n1 n 1 2 n3 n2
It is not hard to see that bi,1 bi,2 . . . bi,n forms a permutation of {1, 2, . . . , n} for every
i with 1 i n 1. Moreover, bi, j = bi , j for any 1 i < i n 1 and 1 j n. In
other words, B forms a Latin rectangle with entries in {1, 2, . . . , n}.
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 523
Example 18.1
We illustrate the proof of Theorem 18.6 with n = 5 as follows.
We set
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 1
B=
3
4 5 1 2
4 5 1 2 3
{b2,t }
a Hamiltonian path Q2 of 3t=1 P5 joining the vertex ((e)2 )5 to the vertex (y)5 such
{b }
that Q2 (i + 24( j 1)) P5 2,j for every i
24 and for every j
3. By Theorem
{b }
11.14, there is a Hamiltonian path Q3 of P5 2,5 joining the vertex (z)5 to the vertex
(e)5 . We set C2 =
e, (e)2 , ((e)2 )5 , Q2 , (y)5 , y, Q1 , z, (z)5 , Q3 , (e)5 , e.
(3) 3 k 4. By Lemma 18.11, there is a Hamiltonian path R1k of
{bk,6k }
P5 {e, (e)k1 , (e)k } joining a vertex wk with (wk )1 = 4 to a vertex vk with
{bk,t }
(vk )1 = 1. By Theorem 11.13, there is a Hamiltonian path R2k of 5k t = 1 P5
{b }
joining the vertex ((e)k )5 to the vertex (wk )5 such that R2k (i + 24( j 1)) P5 k,j
for every i
24 and for every j
5 k. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path
{b }
R3k of 5t=7k P5 k,t joining the vertex (vk )5 to the vertex ((e)k1 )5 such that
{b }
R3k (i + 24( j 1)) P5 k,6k+j for every i
24 and for every j
k 1. We set
Ck =
e, (e)k , ((e)k )5 , R2k , (wk )5 , wk , R1k , vk , (vk )5 , R3k , ((e)k1 )5 , (e)k1 , e.
Then {C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 } forms a set of four mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles
of P5 starting from the vertex e. See Figure 18.4 for illustration.
a = 1 and b = 2
1324, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413,
1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431
a = 1 and b = 3
1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142,
1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241
a = 1 and b = 4
1324, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413,
1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321
a = 2 and b = 3
2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231,
2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412
a = 2 and b = 4
2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231,
2431, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132
a = 3 and b = 4
3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231,
3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213
The following theorem is our main result for the star graph Sn :
{b2,t }
Q2 of n2
t=1 Sn joining the white vertex ((e)2 )n to the black vertex (y)n such that
{b }
Q2 (i + ( j 1)(n 1)!) Sn 2,j for every i
(n 1)! and for every j
n 2. Again,
{b }
there is a Hamiltonian path Q3 of Sn 2,n joining the white vertex (z)n to the black vertex
(e)n . We set C2 =
e, (e)2 , ((e)2 )n , Q2 , (y)n , y, Q1 , z, (z)n , Q3 , (e)n , e.
(3) 3 k n 1. By Lemma 18.12, there is a Hamiltonian path R1k of
{bk,nk+1 }
Sn {e, (e)k1 , (e)k } joining a white vertex wk with (wk )1 = n 1 to
a white vertex vk with (vk )1 = 1. By Theorem 14.33, there is a Hamil-
{bk,t }
tonian path R2k of nk t=1 Sn joining the white vertex ((e)k )n to the black
{b }
vertex (wk )n such that R2k (i + ( j 1)(n 1)!) Sn k,j for every i
(n 1)!
and for every j
n k 1. Again, there is a Hamiltonian path R3k of
{b }
nt=nk+2 Sn k,t joining the black vertex (vk )n to the black vertex ((e)k1 )n such that
{b }
R3k (i + ( j 1)(n 1)!) Sn k,nk+j+1 for every i
(n 1)! and for every j
k 1.
We set Ck =
e, (e)k , ((e)k )n , R2k , (wk )n , wk , R1k , vk , (vk )n , R3k , ((e)k1 )n , (e)k1 , e.
Then {C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn1 } forms a set of (n 1) mutually independent Hamiltonian
cycles of Sn starting form the vertex e.
Thus, each (wi , bi ) is either in Qn0 or in Qn1 . Let r0 = |{(wi , bi ) E(Qn0 ) | 1 i }| and
r1 = |{(wi , bi ) E(Qn1 ) | 1 i }|. Clearly, r0 + r1 = . Without loss of generality,
we assume that {(w1 , b1 ), . . . , (wr0 , br0 )} E(Qn0 ) and {(wr0 +1 , br0 +1 ), . . . , (w , b )}
E(Qn1 ). Moreover, we have that r0 + |F0 | + |F| = n 1 and r1 + |F1 | + |F| =
n 1. With symmetry, we assume that r0 + |F0 | r1 + |F1 |. Then we have to take the
following cases into account.
Case 1. Suppose that ri + |Fj | n 2 for all i, j {0, 1}. Since r0 + |F0 | n 2,
r0 n 2 |F0 | = (n 1) 1 |F0 |. By the induction hypothesis, there exist r0
mutually fully independent Hamiltonian paths Hi =
wi , Hi , ui , bi joining wi to bi ,
1 i r0 , with some vertex ui adjacent to bi in Qn0 F0 . Similarly, there exist r1
mutually fully independent Hamiltonian paths Hi =
wi , Hi , ui , bi joining wi to bi ,
r0 + 1 i , with some ui adjacent to bi in Qn1 F1 .
Next, we construct r0 paths in Qn1 F1 to incorporate the previously estab-
lished r0 paths of Qn0 F0 . Since r0 + |F1 | n 2, we have r0 n 2 |F1 |.
By the induction hypothesis, Qn1 F1 also contains r0 mutually fully indepen-
dent Hamiltonian paths R1 , R2 , . . . , Rr0 where Ri joining (ui )n to (bi )n for every
i
{1, 2, . . . , r0 }. Similarly, Qn0 F0 also contains r1 mutually fully independent
Hamiltonian paths Rr0 +1 , Rr0 +2 , . . . , R where Ri joining (ui )n to (bi )n for every
i
{r0 + 1, r0 + 2, . . . , }. Accordingly, we set Pi =
wi , Hi , ui , (ui )n , Ri , (bi )n , bi for
every 1 i . Thus, {P1 , P2 , . . . , P } forms a set of mutually fully independent
Hamiltonian paths in Qn . See Figure 18.5a for illustration.
Case 2. Suppose that ri + |Fi | = n 1 for some i {0, 1}. Without loss of generality,
we assume that r0 + |F0 | = n 1. Since r0 = n 1 |F0 | n 1 |F| = , we must
have r0 = and |F0 | = |F| n 3. By Theorem 13.1, there is a Hamiltonian path
H1 =
w1 , u1 , H1 , (b1 ) j , b1 joining w1 to b1 with some 1 j n 1 and with some u1
adjacent to w1 in Qn0 F0 . Note that r0 1 = 1 = n 2 |F| = (n 1) 1 |F0 |.
By induction hypothesis, there are (r0 1) mutually fully independent Hamiltonian
paths Hi =
wi , Hi , ui , bi joining wi to bi , 2 i r0 , with some ui adjacent to bi in
Qn0 F0 .
For 1 i r1 1, we set Pi =
wi , Hi , ui , (ui )n , Ri , (bi )n , bi . Next, we have to choose
a vertex v of V0 (Qn0 ) and construct a Hamiltonian path Rr1 joining (wr1 )n to v in
Qn0 F0 such that v = Ri (2) and Rr1 (2n1 1) = (ui )n for every 1 i r1 1. This
leads to the following cases.
Case 3.1. Suppose that n = 5 or |F| > 1. One can see that (u1 )n , (u2 )n , . . . , (ur1 1 )n
have at most (r1 1)(n 1) neighbors in V0 (Qn0 ). Since 2n2 > (r1 1)(n 1) =
(n 2 |F|)(n 1) for all n 3, we can choose v other than all neighbors
of (u1 )n , (u2 )n , . . . , (ur1 1 )n . Obviously, v = Ri (2) for 1 i r1 1. By Theo-
rem 13.1, there is a Hamiltonian path Rr1 joining (wr1 )n to v of Qn0 F0
such that Rr1 (2n1 1) = (ui )n for every 1 i r1 1. By Theorem 13.1, there
is a Hamiltonian path Hr1 joining (v)n to br1 in Qn1 {wr1 }. Then we set
Pr1 =
wr1 , (wr1 )n , Rr1 , v, (v)n , Hr1 , br1 . Consequently, {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr1 } forms a set
of r1 mutually fully independent Hamiltonian paths in Qn . See Figure 18.5d for
illustration.
Case 3.2. Suppose that n = 5, |F| = 1, and (u1 )n , (u)2 )n , . . . , (ur1 1 )n have at least
one common neighbor. Thus, r1 = 3. Since 2n2 = 8 > 7 = (r1 1)(n 1) 1, we
still can choose v other than all neighbors of (u1 )n , (u2 )n , . . . , (ur1 1 )n . Obviously,
v = Ri (2) for 1 i r1 1. By Theorem 13.1, there is a Hamiltonian path Rr1 joining
(wr1 )n to v of Qn0 F0 such that Rr1 (2n1 1) = (ui )n for every 1 i r1 1. By
Theorem 13.1, there is a Hamiltonian path Hr1 joining (v)n to br1 in Qn1 {wr1 }. Sim-
ilarly, we set Pr1 =
wr1 , (wr1 )n , Rr1 , v, (v)n , Hr1 , br1 . Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr1 } forms a
set of r1 mutually fully independent Hamiltonian paths in Qn .
Case 3.3. Suppose that n = 5, |F| = 1, and (u1 )n , (u2 )n , . . . , (ur1 1 )n have no com-
mon neighbors. Then we choose v as the vertex that is adjacent to (u1 )n but is
not identical to R1 (2). Obviously, v = Ri (2) for 1 i r1 1. By Theorem 13.1,
Qn0 (F0 {(v, (u1 )n )}) remains Hamiltonian laceable. Thus, there is a Hamiltonian
path Rr1 joining (wr1 )n to v of Qn0 (F0 {(v, (u1 )n )}) such that Rr1 (2n1 1) = (ui )n
for every 1 i r1 1. By Theorem 13.1, there is a Hamiltonian path Hr1 joining
(v)n to br1 in Qn1 {wr1 }. Similarly, we set Pr1 =
wr1 , (wr1 )n , Rr1 , v, (v)n , Hr1 , br1 .
Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pr1 } forms a set of r1 mutually fully independent Hamiltonian
paths in Qn .
Q 0n Q 1n
Pi
ai (ai)d
Ri
Ci
(bi)d
Hi bi
LEMMA 18.14 Let n 5. Assume that F E(Sn ) with |F| n 4 and assume
that I = {a1 , . . . , ar } is a subset of r elements of
n for some r
n. Sup-
{a } {a }
pose that u V0 (Sn 1 ) and v V1 (Sn r ). Then there is a Hamiltonian path
H =
u = x1 , P1 , y1 , x2 , P2 , y2 , . . . , xr , Pr , yr = v of SnI F joining u to v such that
{a }
x1 = u, yr = v, and Pi is a Hamiltonian path of Sn i F joining xi to yi for every
1 i r.
Proof: By Theorem 13.2, this statement holds for r = 1. Thus, suppose that r 2 and
we set x1 = u and yr = v. By Lemma 13.7, there are (n 2)!/2 > n 4 edges joining
ch018.tex 11/8/2008 17: 8 Page 531
{a } {a }
vertices of V1 (Sn i ) to vertices of V0 (Sn i+1 ) for every i
r 1. Therefore, we
{a } {a }
choose (yi , xi+1 ) E ai ,ai+1 F with yi V1 (Sn i ) and xi+1 V0 (Sn i+1 ) for i
r 1.
{a }
By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path Pi of Sn i F joining xi to yi for every
i
r. As a result,
u = x1 , P1 , y1 , x2 , P2 , y2 , . . . , xr , Pr , yr = v forms the desired
Hamiltonian path of SnI F joining u to v.
{k}
Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn Fk joining u to y. We
choose an integer r of
n 1 {k} such that |F E r,n | = 0. By induction hypoth-
{n}
esis, there is a Hamiltonian path P of Sn (Fn {e, (e)j }) joining (y)n to a vertex x
{n}
n1{k,r}
of V1 (Sn ) {(e)j } with (x)1 = r. Besides, we choose a vertex v of V1 (Sn )
n1{k}
with (v)1 = i. By Lemma 18.14, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn F
joining (x)n to v. Then
u, H, y, (y)n , P, x, (x)n , Q, v forms the desired path.
Case 2. Every edge of F has the same dimension j. Without loss of generality, we
may assume that j = n. Thus, |Ft | = 0 for every t
n.
{k}
Case 2.1. Suppose that u V0 (Sn ) for some k
n 1 {1}. By Lemma 13.7,
{k} {1}
there are (n 2)!/2 > n 4 edges joining vertices of V1 (Sn ) to vertices of V0 (Sn ).
{k}
Thus, we can choose a vertex x of V1 (Sn ) with (x)1 = 1 and (x, (x)n ) / F. By Theo-
{k}
rem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn joining u to x. Similarly, we can choose a
{1}
vertex y of V0 (Sn ) with (y)1 = n and (y, (y)n ) / F. By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamil-
{1}
n1{1,k}
tonian path P of Sn {(e)n } joining (x)n to y. Let v be a vertex in V1 (Sn )
n{1,k}
with (v)1 = i. By Lemma 18.15, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn (F {e})
joining (y)n to v. Then
u, H, x, (x)n , P, y, (y)n , Q, v forms the desired path.
{1}
Case 2.2. Suppose that u V0 (Sn ). By Lemma 13.7, there are (n 2)!/2 > n 4
{1} {n}
edges joining vertices of V0 (Sn ) to vertices of V1 (Sn ). Thus, we can choose
{1}
a vertex x of V0 (Sn ) {u} with (x)1 = n and (x, (x)n ) / F. By Theorem 13.2,
{1}
there is a Hamiltonian path H of Sn {(e)n } joining u to x. We choose a ver-
n1{1}
tex v of V1 (Sn ) with (v)1 = i. By Lemma 18.15, there is a Hamiltonian
n{1}
path Q of Sn (F {e}) joining (x)n to v. Then
u, H, x, (x)n , Q, v forms the
desired path.
{n}
Case 2.3. Suppose that u V0 (Sn ). Since |F| n 4, we can choose two inte-
gers k1 and k2 in
n 1 {1} such that ((e)k1 , ((e)k1 )n ) / F and ((e)k2 , ((e)k2 )n )
/ F.
Let X = {(e, (e) ) | t
n 1 {1, k1 , k2 }}. Obviously, |X| = n 4. Moreover, we can
t
{n}
choose a vertex x V1 (Sn ) such that (x)1
n 1 {1, k1 , k2 } and (x, (x)n ) / F.
Since (x)1 = k1 and (x)1 = k2 , we have x = (e)k1 and x = (e)k2 . By Theorem 13.2,
{n}
there is a Hamiltonian path H =
u, H1 , (e)k1 , e, (e)k2 , H2 , x of Sn X joining u to
x. Let y = (e) . Since (y)1 = (x)1 , we have i = (x)1 or i = (y)1 .
k 2
{k }
Case 2.3.1. Suppose that i = (x)1 . Let k3 = (x)1 . We choose a vertex v of V1 (Sn 3 )
with (v)1 = i. By Lemma 13.7, there are (n 2)!/2 > n 4 edges joining vertices of
{k } {1} {k }
V1 (Sn 1 ) to vertices of V0 (Sn ). Thus, we can choose a vertex z of V1 (Sn 1 ) with
{k }
(z)1 = 1 and (z, (z)n )
/ F. By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path T of Sn 3
n {k1 } k n
joining (x) to v. Similarly, there is a Hamiltonian path P of Sn joining ((e) 1 ) to z.
n 1{k1 ,k3 }
By Lemma 18.15, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn (F {(e)n })
joining (z) to (y) . Then
u, H1 , (e) , ((e) ) , P, z, (z) , Q, (y) , y, H2 , x, (x)n , T , v
n n k 1 k 1 n n n
TABLE 18.1
The Required Hamiltonian Path of S4 {1234, 2134, 3214}
a = 1 and b = 2
1324, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413,
1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431
a = 1 and b = 3
1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142,
1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241
a = 1 and b = 4
1324, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413,
1423, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321
a = 2 and b = 3
2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231,
2431, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412
a = 2 and b = 4
2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231,
2431, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132
a = 3 and b = 4
3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231,
3241, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213
TABLE 18.2
All Hamiltonian Cycles of S4 {(1234, 4231)}, Beginning from 1234
1234, 2134, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241,
1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 3214, 1234
1234, 2134, 3124, 1324, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 3412,
1432, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 2314, 3214, 1234
1234, 2134, 3124, 4123, 1423, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 2341, 3241,
4231, 2431, 3421, 4321, 1324, 2314, 3214, 1234
1234, 2134, 4132, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 2143, 3142, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 4123, 3124,
1324, 2314, 4312, 3412, 2413, 4213, 3214, 1234
1234, 2134, 4132, 3142, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 4213,
1243, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 2314, 3214, 1234
1234, 2134, 4132, 3142, 2143, 4123, 3124, 1324, 2314, 4312, 1342, 2341, 4321, 3421, 1423, 2413, 3412,
1432, 2431, 4231, 3241, 1243, 4213, 3214, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 3241, 4231, 2431,
1432, 3412, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 1324, 4321, 3421, 2431, 4231, 3241, 2341, 1342, 4312, 3412, 1432, 4132, 3142, 2143,
1243, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 2314, 4312, 1342, 3142, 4132, 1432, 3412, 2413, 4213, 1243, 2143, 4123, 1423, 3421, 2431,
4231, 3241, 2341, 4321, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413, 1423, 4123, 2143, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 3142, 4132,
1432, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 4213, 2413, 3412, 4312, 2314, 1324, 3124, 4123, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 3142, 2143,
1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 4132, 2134, 1234
1234, 3214, 4213, 1243, 3241, 4231, 2431, 1432, 3412, 2413, 1423, 3421, 4321, 2341, 1342, 4312, 2314,
1324, 3124, 4123, 2143, 3142, 4132, 2134, 1234
LEMMA 18.19 Suppose that n 5 and F E(Sn ) with |F| = n 3. Let u V (Sn ).
Then there exist two mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles of Sn F beginning
from u.
Proof: Since Sn is vertex-transitive and edge-transitive, we assume that u = e and
{k}
also that F contains at least one edge in dimension n. Let Fk = F E(Sn ) for every
k
n. As a result, |Fk | n 4 for every k
n.
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j if i=1
n if i = 2 and j = 1
bi, j = j+1 if i = 2 and 2 j n 2
2 if i = 2 and j = n 1
1 if i = 2 and j = n
"
n {b1,j }
By Lemma 18.14, there is a Hamiltonian path P of j=1 S n F joining (e)n
"
n {b2,j }
to e. Similarly, there is a Hamiltonian path H of j=1 Sn F joining e to (e)n .
Then we set C1 =
e, (e) , P, e and C2 =
e, H, (e) , e. Obviously, {C1 , C2 } forms a
n n
Case 2. Suppose that (e, (e)n ) F and |Fn | = n 4. Obviously, |Fk | = 0 for every
k
n 1. By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian cycle H =
e, R, q, p, e of
{n}
Sn Fn . Accordingly, we have (p, (p)n ) / F and (q, (q)n ) / F. By Lemma 13.8,
(p)1 = (q)1 . We set (p)1 = in1 and (q)1 = i1 . Let i2 i3 . . . in2 be an arbitrary
permutation of
n 1 {i1 , in1 }.
{i }
For 1 k n 2, let xk be a vertex of V0 (Sn k ) such that (xk )1 = ik+1 and
{i }
(xk , (xk ) )
n / F. By Theorem 13.2, there is a Hamiltonian path P1 of Sn 1 joining
{i }
(q)n to x1 . Similarly, there is a Hamiltonian path Pk of Sn k joining (xk1 )n to xk for
{i }
2 k n 2 and there is a Hamiltonian path Pn1 of Sn n1 joining (xn2 )n to (p)n .
Then we set C1 =
e, R, q, (q) , P1 , x1 , (x1 ) , P2 , x2 , (x2 )n , . . . , xn2 , (xn2 )n , Pn1 ,
n n
(p)n , p, e.
{i }
Obviously, we can choose a vertex yn1 of V1 (Sn n1 ) such that (yn1 )1 = i2
{i }
and (yn1 , (yn1 )n ) / F. For 2 k n 3, |{u V1 (Sn k )|(u)1 = ik+1 and d(u,
{i }
(xk1 )n ) = 2}| = n 3 < (n 2)!/2 if n 5. Thus, we choose a vertex yk of V1 (Sn k )
such that d(yk , (xk1 ) ) > 2, (yk )1 = ik+1 , and (yk , (yk ) )
n n / F for 2 k n 3. Since
{i }
|{u V1 (Sn n2 )|(u)1 = i1 and d(u, (xn3 )n ) = 2}| = n 3 < (n 2)!/2 if n 5, we
{i }
choose a vertex yn2 of V1 (Sn n2 ) such that d(yn2 , (xn3 )n ) > 2, (yn2 )1 = i1 ,
and (yn2 , (yn2 )n ) / F. By Theorem 13.2, there exists a Hamiltonian path Q1
{i1 } {i }
of Sn joining (yn2 )n to (q)n . Again, there is a Hamiltonian path Q2 of Sn 2
{i }
joining (yn1 )n to y2 , there is a Hamiltonian path Qn1 of Sn n1 joining (p)n
{ik }
to yn1 , and there is a Hamiltonian path Qk of Sn joining (yk1 )n to yk for
3 k n 2. Then we set C2 =
e, p, (p)n , Qn1 , yn1 , (yn1 )n , Q2 , y2 , (y2 )n , Q3 , y3 ,
(y3 )n , . . . , (yn2 )n , Q1 , (q)n , q, R1 , e.
In summary, {C1 , C2 } forms a set of two mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles
of Sn F beginning from e. Figure 18.7b illustrates C1 and C2 in S5 .
Case 3. Suppose that (e, (e)n ) F and |Fn | n 5. Since |F| = n 3, there must
exist an integer in1 of
n 1 {1} such that |F E in1 ,n | = 0. Assume that
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FIGURE 18.7 The two mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles in S5 F for Lemma 18.19.
Graph Theory and Interconnection Networks
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(e)in1 , e.
{i }
Obviously, we can choose a vertex yn1 of V1 (Sn n1 ) such that
{i }
(yn1 )1 = i2 and (yn1 , (yn1 )n ) / F. For 2 k n 3, |{u V1 (Sn k )|(u)1 = ik+1
and d(u, (xk1 )n ) = 2}| = n 3. By Lemma 13.7, there are (n 2)!/2 edges
{i } {i }
joining vertices of V1 (Sn k ) to vertices of V0 (Sn k+1 ). We emphasize that
(n 2)!/2 > (n 3) + (n 5) = 2n 8 if n 5. Thus, we choose a vertex yk
{i }
of V1 (Sn k ) such that d(yk , (xk1 )n ) > 2, (yk )1 = ik+1 , and (yk , (yk )n ) / F for
{in2 }
2 k n 3. Since (n 2)!/2 > |{u V1 (Sn )|(u)1 = i1 and d(u, (xn3 ) ) = 2}| +
n
{i }
(n 5) = (n 3) + (n 5) = 2n 8 if n 5, we choose a vertex yn2 of V1 (Sn n2 )
such that d(yn2 , (xn3 ) ) > 2, (yn2 )1 = i1 , and (yn2 , (yn2 ) )
n n / F. Again, there
{i }
exists a Hamiltonian path Q1 of Sn 1 Fi1 joining (yn2 )n to (w)n . Again, there is a
{i }
Hamiltonian path Q2 of Sn 2 Fi2 joining (yn1 )n to y2 , there is a Hamiltonian path
{i }
Qn1 of Sn n1 Fin1 joining ((e)in1 )n to yn1 , and there is a Hamiltonian path Qk
{ik }
of Sn Fik joining (yk1 )n to yk for 3 k n 2. We set C2 =
e, (e)in1 , ((e)in1 )n ,
Qn1 , yn1 , (yn1 )n , Q2 , y2 , (y2 )n , Q3 , y3 , (y3 )n , . . . , (yn2 )n , Q1 , (w)n , w, R1 , e.
As a result, {C1 , C2 } forms a set of two mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles
of Sn F beginning from e. Figure 18.7c illustrates C1 and C2 in S5 .
Case 1. Suppose that (e, (e)n ) F. We emphasize that there are at least n 1 f
elements of {|F A2 |, |F A3 |, . . . , |F An1 |} equal to 0. Without loss of generality,
we assume that |F (n1 i=f +1 Ai )| = 0. Thus, at least one of {|F A1 |, . . . , |F Af |}
equals to 0.
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FIGURE 18.8 Mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles in S6 F with |F| = 1 for Case 1.1 of Lemma 18.20.
539
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and for n 6,
j if i=1
f +i+j if 2 i n 2 f and f + i + j n
+i+jn 2 i n 2 f and f + i + j > n
f if
n if i = n 1 f and j = 1
bi, j = 3 if i = n 1 f and j = 2
2
if i = n 1 f and j = 3
n1 if i = n 1 f and j = 4
j1 if i = n 1 f and 5 j n 1
1 if i = n 1 f and j = n
n if i = 1 and j = 1
j+1 if i = 1 and 2 j n 2
i = 1 and j = n 1
2 if
1 if i = 1 and j = n
bi, j = f +i+j if 2 i n 2 f and f + i + j n
2
if 2 i n 2 f and f + i + j =n+1
1 if 2 i n 2 f and f + i + j =n+2
f +i+jn if 2 i n 2 f and f + i + j n+3
j if i =n1f
According to Lemmas 18.18 through 18.20, and the result in Ref. 211, we
summarize the main result as follows.
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FIGURE 18.9 Mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles in S6 F with |F| = 1 for Case 2 of Lemma 18.20.
Graph Theory and Interconnection Networks
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THEOREM 18.9 Let F E(Sn ) with |F| n 3 for n 3 and let u V (Sn ). Then
there exist (n 2 |F|) mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles of Sn F begin-
ning from u if n {3, 4} and also that there exist (n 1 |F|) mutually independent
Hamiltonian cycles of Sn F beginning from u if n 5.
2134,4312,1342,2431,3421,1243,4213,3124,1324,4231,3241,1423,2413,3142,4132,2314,3214,4123,2143,3412,1432,2341,4321
3214,2314,4132,1432,3412,4312,1342,3142,2413,4213,1243,2143,4123,1423,3241,2341,4321,3421,2431,4231,1324,3124,2134
4321,2341,1432,3412,2143,4123,1423,3241,4231,1324,3124,2134,4312,1342,2431,3421,1243,4213,2413,3142,4132,2314,3214
Yet the following Latin rectangle also represents three mutually independent
Hamiltonian cycles beginning at 1234:
2134,3124,4213,1243,2143,4123,1423,2413,3142,4132,1432,3412,4312,1342,2431,3421,4321,2341,3241,4231,1324,2314,3214
3214,2314,4132,3142,2413,4213,1243,3421,2431,1342,4312,2134,3124,1324,4231,3241,1423,4123,2143,3412,1432,2341,4321
4321,3421,1243,2143,3412,4312,1342,2431,4231,1324,2314,3214,4123,1423,3241,2341,1432,4132,3142,2413,4213,3124,2134
We can conrm that these two Latin rectangles are orthogonal. Thus, we have two
sets of three mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles that are orthogonal. With this
example in mind, we can consider the following problem. Let G be any Hamiltonian
graph. We can dene MOMH(G) as the largest integer k such that there exist k sets
of mutually independent Hamiltonian cycles of G beginning from any vertex x such
that each set contains exactly IHC(G) Hamiltonian cycles and any two different sets
are orthogonal. It would be interesting to study the value of MOMH(G) for some
Hamiltonian graph G.
Recently, people have become interested in a mathematical puzzle called Sudoku
[341]. Sudoku can be viewed as a 9 9 Latin square with some constraints. There
are several Sudoku variations that are presented. Mutually independent Hamiltonian
cycles can also be considered a variation of Sudoku.
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19 Mutually Independent
Hamiltonian Paths
19.1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 18, we discussed the mutually independent hamiltonicity of graph G.
Similarly, we can discuss the mutually independent Hamiltonian connectivity of
graph G. A graph is k mutually independent Hamiltonian connected if there exist k
mutually independent Hamiltonian paths between any two distinct vertices. More-
over, the mutually independent Hamiltonian connectivity of a graph G, IHP(G),
is the maximum integer k such that G is k mutually independent Hamiltonian
connected.
545
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1110, 1010, 0010, 0110, 0111, 1111, 1011, 0011, 0001, 1001, 1101, 0101, 0100
1110, 0110, 0100, 0101, 1101, 1111, 0111, 0011, 0001, 1001, 1011, 1010, 0010
0100, 0110, 1110, 1010, 1011, 1111, 1101, 1001, 0001, 0101, 0111, 0011, 0010
0001, 1001, 1101, 0101, 0100, 0110, 1110, 1010, 0010, 0011, 0111, 1111, 1011
0001, 1001, 1101, 0101, 0100, 0110, 1110, 1010, 0010, 0011, 1011, 1111, 0111
0001, 1001, 1011, 0011, 0111, 0101, 0100, 0110, 0010, 1010, 1110, 1111, 1101
1011, 0011, 0010, 1010, 1110, 0110, 0100, 0101, 0001, 1001, 1101, 1111, 0111
1011, 1111, 1110, 1010, 0010, 0110, 0100, 0101, 0111, 0011, 0001, 1001, 1101
0111, 0011, 0010, 1010, 1110, 0110, 0100, 0101, 0001, 1001, 1011, 1111, 1101
Case 2. u Qn0 and v Qn1 . Let y be any black vertex of Qn0 not in {x2 , u}. By
induction, there exists a Hamiltonian path R of Qn0 {x1 , x2 , x3 } from u to y. Since
every hypercube is Hamiltonian laceable, there exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn1 from
yn to v. Then
u, R, y, yn , S, v forms the desired path.
Case 3. u, v Qn1 . Since degQn1 (u) 4, there exists a neighbor r of u in Qn1 such
that rn = x2 . Let t be a black vertex of Qn0 not in {x2 , rn }. By induction, there
exists a Hamiltonian path S of Qn0 from rn to t. By Lemma 18.6, there exists a
Hamiltonian path R of Qn1 {u, r} from tn to v. Then
u, r, rn , S, t, tn , R, v forms the
desired path.
In the following, we use e to denote the vertex in Qn which (e)i = 1 for every
1 i n.
LEMMA 19.3 Assume that n is even and n 4. There exists a Hamiltonian path
P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn of Qn such that (1) Pi joins from e to (e)i and (2) Pi (k) = Pj (k) for
1 i < j n and 2 k 2n .
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction. Suppose that n = 4. The required
Hamiltonian paths joining e to (e)i in Q4 are:
0000, 0100, 0110, 0010, 0011, 0001, 0101, 0111, 1111, 1101, 1001, 1011, 1010, 1000, 1100, 1110
0000, 0001, 0101, 0100, 0110, 0111, 0011, 0010, 1010, 1000, 1100, 1110, 1111, 1101, 1001, 1011
0000, 0010, 0011, 0001, 1001, 1011, 1010, 1000, 1100, 1110, 1111, 1101, 0101, 0100, 0110, 0111
0000, 1000, 1100, 1110, 1010, 0010, 0110, 0100, 0101, 0111, 0011, 0001, 1001, 1011, 1111, 1101
Thus, we assume that the lemma is true for Qk with 4 k < n. By induction,
there exist (n 2) Hamiltonian paths P00 1 , P 2 , . . . , P n2 of Q00 such that (1) P i
00 00 n 00
joins from e to (e)i for 1 i n 2 and (2) P00 i (k) = P j (k) for 1 i < j n 2 and
00
2 k 2n2 . However, we pick any (n 3) Hamiltonian paths P00 1 , P 2 , . . . , P n3 of
00 00
Qn . We write P00 as
e, M00 , ai , (((e) ) ) for 1 i n 3. By Lemma 18.7, there
00 i i i n1 n
exist (n 3) Hamiltonian paths {P01 1 , P 2 , . . . , P n3 } of Q01 such that (1) P i joins from
01 01 n 01
i
((e) ) n1 to (ai ) for 1 i n 3 and (2) P01
n i (k) = P j (k) for 1 i < j n 3 and
01
1 k 2n2 . Again, there exist (n 3) Hamiltonian paths {Y11 1 , Y 2 , . . . , Y n3 } of Q11
11 11 n
such that (1) Y11 i joins from ((a )n )n1 to (e)i for 1 i n 3 and (2) Y i (k) = Y j (k)
i 11 11
for 1 i < j n 3 and 1 k 2n2 . Write Y11 i as
((ai )n )n1 , P11 i , b , (e)i
i
for 1 i n 3. By Lemma 18.7, there exist (n 3) Hamiltonian paths
1 , P 2 , . . . , P n3 } of Q10 such that (1) P i
{P10 n i n
10 10 n 10 joins from (bi ) to ((e) ) for
j
1 i n 3 and (2) P10 i (k) = P (k) for 1 i < j n 3 and 1 k 2n2 . Set P as
10 i
e, P00 , (((e) ) ) , ((e)i )n1 , P01
i i n1 n i , (a )n , ((a )n )n1 , P i , b , (b )n , P i , ((e)i )n , (e)i for
i i 11 i i 10
1 i n 3.
Since there are 2n2 vertices in Qn01 , we can choose an edge (y1 , z1 ) E(Qn01 ) such
that (1) z1 is a white vertex not in {((e)i )n1 |1 i n 3} and (2) y1 = en . Again,
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 548
we can choose an edge (y2 , z2 ) E(Qn11 ) such that (1) z2 is a white vertex not in
{((ai )n )n1 |1 i n 3} {e} and (2) y2 = (z1 )n1 . Let b be any black vertex of Qn00
such that b = (((e)n2 )n )n1 . Since every hypercube is hyper Hamiltonian laceable,
there exists a Hamiltonian path S01 of Qn01 {z1 } from en to y1 . Again, there exists
a Hamiltonian path S11 of Qn11 {z2 } from (z1 )n1 to y2 . Moreover, there exists a
Hamiltonian path S00 of Qn00 {e} from b to (((e)n2 )n )n1 . By Lemma 18.6, there
exists a Hamiltonian path S10 of Qn10 {((e)n2 )n , (e)n } from (z2 )n to bn1 . We set
Pn2 as
e, en , S01 , y1 , z1 , (z1 )n1 , S11 , y2 , z2 , (z2 )n , S10 , bn1 , b, S00 , (((e)n2 )n )n1 ,
((e)n2 )n ), (e)n .
Let x be the only vertex in {ei |1 i n 2} {P00 i (2)|1 i n 3}, let r
1
be any black vertex of Qn such that r1 = e , and let r2 be any black vertex
10 n1
0000, 0010, 0110, 0100, 1100, 1110, 1010, 1011, 0011, 0001, 0101, 0111, 1111, 1101, 1001, 1000
v = 1000 0000, 0100, 1100, 1110, 0110, 0010, 0011, 0001, 0101, 0111, 1111, 1101, 1001, 1011, 1010, 1000
0000, 0001, 0011, 1011, 1001, 1101, 0101, 0111, 1111, 1110, 1010, 0010, 0110, 0100, 1100, 1000
0000, 1000, 1100, 0100, 0110, 0010, 1010, 1011, 1001, 1101, 0101, 0001, 0011, 0111, 1111, 1110
v = 1110 0000, 0010, 1010, 1000, 1100, 1101, 1001, 0001, 0011, 1011, 1111, 0111, 0101, 0100, 0110, 1110
0000, 0001, 1001, 1011, 0011, 0111, 1111, 1101, 0101, 0100, 0110, 0010, 1010, 1000, 1100, 1110
Suppose that the theorem holds for Qk with 4 k < n. We need to construct (n 1)
mutually independent Hamiltonian paths of Qn from e to v. We have the following
cases.
Case 1. w(v) < n. Without loss of generality, we assume that (v)n = 0. By
induction, there exist (n 2) mutually independent Hamiltonian paths R1 ,
R2 , . . . , Rn2 of Qn0 from e to v. By Lemma 18.7, there exist (n 2) Ham-
iltonian paths S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn2 of Qn1 such that (1) Si joins from (Ri (3))n to
(Ri (4))n and (2) Si (k) = Sj (k) for 1 i < j n 2 and 1 k 2n1 . Set Pi
as
e, Ri (2), Ri (3), (Ri (3))n , Si , (Ri (4))n , Ri (4), Ri (5), . . . , Ri (2n1 1), v for 1 i
n 2.
Let X = {x|dQn1 (x, en ) = 2, x Qn1 }. Obviously, |X| = n1 2 . We can choose r2 in
X ({en } {Si (1)|1 i n 2}) such that path R =
en , r1 , r2 of Qn1 . Since there
are 2n2 white vertices in Qn1 , we can choose a white vertex z of Qn1 not in
{(Ri (4))n |1 i n 2} {r1 , vn }. By Lemma 18.6, there exists a Hamiltonian path T0
of Qn0 {e, v} from (r2 )n to (z)n . By Lemma 19.2, there exists a Hamiltonian path T1
of Qn1 {en , r1 , r2 } from z to vn . Set Pn1 as
e, en , r1 , r2 , (r2 )n , T0 , (z)n , z, T1 , vn , v.
Then {Pi |1 i n 1} forms a set of desired paths. See Figure 19.2a for
illustration.
Qn0 Qn1
Qn1 Qn0 {e,Ri (2),Ri (3)} ~1n ~1
e S1 ((e) ) (e) T1 ~
e
e Ri (3) Si (Ri (4))n Ri (5) v
(1 i n 2)
(Ri (3))tn Ri (4)
Ri (2)
Qn0 {e,v} Qn1 {e,r1,r1}
Q n0 Qn1
e en r1 T0 zn z T1 vn v ~
e S n1 ~ n 1T e
(e) n1
(r2)n
((e)n 1)n
(a) (b)
THEOREM 19.3 Let u be any white vertex of Sn with n 4 and {a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 }
be an n 1 subset of
n. Then there exist Hamiltonian paths P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 of Sn
such that Pi is a path joining u to a black vertex zi with
{a1 , a2 , a3 } = {1, 2, 3}
(1234)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)
(4312)(3412)(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(3142)(4132)(1432)
(1234)(3214)(2314)(4312)(1342)(3142)(4132)(1432)(3412)(2413)(4213)(1243)(2143)(4123)(1423)
(3421)(2431)(4231)(3241)(2341)(4321)(1324)(3124)(2134)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(1432)(3412)(4312)(1342)(3142)(4132)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)
(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(1243)(3241)(2341)(4321)(3421)
{a1 , a2 , a3 } = {1, 2, 4}
(1234)(4231)(2431)(3421)(4321)(2341)(3241)(1243)(2143)(3142)(1342)(4312)(3412)(1432)(4132)
(2134)(3124)(4123)(1423)(2413)(4213)(3214)(2314)(1324)
(1234)(3214)(4213)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(1432)(3412)(2413)(1423)(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)
(4312)(2314)(1324)(3124)(4123)(2143)(3142)(4132)(2143)
(1234)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)
(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)(3142)(4132)(1432)(3412)(4312)
{a1 , a2 , a3 } = {1, 3, 4}
(1234)(4231)(3241)(1243)(4213)(3214)(2314)(4312)(1342)(2341)(4321)(3421)(2431)(1432)(3412)
(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(3142)(4132)(2134)(3124)(1324)
(1234)(3214)(4213)(2413)(1423)(3421)(2431)(4231)(3241)(1243)(2143)(4123)(3124)(2134)(4132)
(1432)(3412)(4312)(2314)(1324)(4321)(2341)(1342)(3142)
(1234)(2134)(4132)(1432)(3412)(2413)(4213)(3214)(2314)(4312)(1342)(3142)(2143)(1243)(3241)
(2341)(4321)(1324)(3124)(4123)(1423)(3421)(2431)(4231)
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 551
{a1 , a2 , a3 } = {2, 3, 4}
(1234)(3214)(4213)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(1432)(3412)(2413)(1423)(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)
(4312)(2314)(1324)(3124)(4123)(2143)(3142)(4132)(2143)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(1432)(3412)(4312)(1342)(3142)(4132)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)
(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(1243)(3241)(2341)(4321)(3421)
(1234)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)
(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)(3142)(4132)(1432)(3412)(4312)
Assume that the theorem holds on Sk for every 4 k < n. Without loss of gen-
erality, we suppose that a1 < a2 < < an3 < an1 < an2 . Obviously, ai = i + 2
for 1 i n 3, an2 = 2, and an1 = n. By the induction hypothesis, there exist
Hamiltonian paths H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn2 of Snn such that Hi is a path joining e to a black
vertex vi with
For any i, j
n with i = j, |{v Sni |v is a black vertex with (v)1 = j}|= (n2)!
2 2.
We choose a black vertex zi Sni+2 with (zi )1 = ai for 1 i n 3, a black vertex
zn2 Sn2 with (zn2 )1 = an2 , and a black vertex zn1 Snn with (zn1 )1 = an1 . We
let B be the (n 2) (n 1) matrix with
i+j+2 if i n 3 and i + j + 2 n 1
i + j n + 3 if i n 3 and n 1 < i + j + 2
bi, j =
j+2
if i = n 2 and j n 3
jn+3 if i = n 2 and n 2 j n 1
More precisely,
4 5 n2 n1 1 2 3
5 6 n1 1 2 3 4
..
B = ... ..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
. .
1 2 n5 n4 n3 n2 n 1
3 4 n3 n2 n1 1 2
xin1 to yin1 for 1 i n 1. Since Snn is isomorphic to Sn1 , by Theorem 13.2, there
exists a Hamiltonian path R of Snn {e} joining the black vertex (e)n1 to zn1 .
We set Pi =
e, Hi , vi , (vi )n , Wi , zi for every 1 i n 2 and Pn1 =
e, W ,
((e) )n , (e)n1 , R, zn1 . Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } form the desired paths.
n1
Example 19.1
We illustrate the proof of Theorem 19.3 with n = 5 as follows.
Since a1 < a2 < a4 < a3 , a1 = 3, a2 = 4, a3 = 2, and a4 = 5. By the induction hypoth-
esis, there exist Hamiltonian paths H1 , H2 , and H3 of S55 such that Hi is a path joining e to a
black vertex vi with (v1 )1 = (H1 (24))1 = 4, (v2 )1 = (H2 (24))1 = 1, (v3 )1 = (H3 (24))1 = 3
and |{H1 (i), H2 (i), H3 (i)}| = 3 for 2 i 24.
We choose a black vertex z1 in S53 with (z1 )1 = a1 , a black vertex z2 in S54
with (z2 )1 = a2 , a black vertex z3 in S52 with (z3 )1 = a3 , and a black vertex z4 in S52
with (z4 )1 = a4 . We set
4 1 2 3
B=1 2 3 4
3 4 1 2
vertex (v2 )5 to the black vertex z2 such that x12 = (v2 )5 , y42 = z2 , and Tj2 is a
b
Hamiltonian path of S5 2j for every 1 j 4. Furthermore, there exists a path
W3 =
x1 , T3 , y1 , x2 , T4 , y2 , x3 , T13 , y33 , x43 , T23 , y43 joining the white vertex (v3 )5 to the
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
b
black vertex z3 such that x13 = (v3 )5 , y43 = z3 , and Tj3 is a Hamiltonian path of S5 3j for every
1 j 4. Moreover, there exists a path W =
x14 , T14 , y14 , x24 , T24 , y24 , x34 , T34 , y34 , x44 , T44 , y44
joining the black vertex (e)5 to the white vertex ((e)4 )5 such that x14 = (e)5 , y44 = ((e)4 )5 ,
and Ti4 is a Hamiltonian path of S5i for 1 i 4. Since S55 is isomorphic to S4 , by
Theorem 13.2, there exists a Hamiltonian path R of S55 {e} joining the black vertex
(e)4 to z4 .
Let Pi =
e, Hi , vi , (vi )n , Wi , zi for every 1 i 3 and P4 =
e, W , ((e)4 )5 , (e)4 ,
R, z4 . Thus, {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } form the desired paths. See Figure 19.3 for
illustration.
4 3
S 55 S5 S 51 S 52 S5
e H1 v1 x11 T 11 y11 x12 T 12 y12 x13 T13 y13 x41 T41 z1
P1
1
S 55 S5 S 52 S 53 S 54
P2 e H2 v2 x2 T 21 y21 x22 T 2
2 y22 x23 T 23 y23 x42 T 42 z2
3 2
S 55 S5 S 54 S 51 S5
1 2 3 5
S5 S5 S5 S 54 S 5 {e}
P4 e (e)5 T14 y41 x24 T24 y24 x34 T 34 y44 x34 T 44 ((e)4)5 (e)4R z4
v = (2134)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(1432)(4132)(3142)(2143)(1243)(3241)(2341)(1342)(4312)(3412)(2413)(4213)
(3214)(2314)(1324)(4321)(3421)(1423)(4123)(3124)(2134)
(1234)(3214)(4213)(2413)(3412)(4312)(2314)(1324)(3124)(4123)(1423)(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)
(3142)(2143)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(1432)(4132)(2134)
v = (3214)
(1234)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(4312)(3412)(1432)(4132)(3142)(1342)(2341)(4321)(3421)(2431)
(4231)(3241)(1243)(2143)(4123)(1423)(2413)(4213)(3214)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(3421)(4321)(2341)(3241)(1243)(4213)(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(3142)(1342)
(4312)(3412)(1432)(4132)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)
v = (4231)
(1234)(2134)(4132)(1432)(2431)(3421)(4321)(1324)(3124)(4123)(1423)(2413)(3412)(4312)(2314)
(3214)(4213)(1243)(2143)(3142)(1342)(2341)(3241)(4231)
(1234)(3214)(2314)(4312)(3412)(2413)(4213)(1243)(3241)(2341)(1342)(3142)(2143)(4123)(1423)
(3421)(4321)(1324)(3124)(2134)(4132)(1432)(2431)(4231)
v = (1432)
(1234)(2134)(4132)(3142)(1342)(2341)(4321)(1324)(3124)(4123)(2143)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)
(3421)(1423)(2413)(4213)(3214)(2314)(4312)(3412)(1432)
(1234)(3214)(2314)(4312)(3412)(2413)(4213)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(3421)(1423)(4123)(2143)
(3142)(1342)(2341)(4321)(1324)(3124)(2134)(4132)(1432)
v = (1243)
(1234)(4231)(3241)(2341)(1342)(4312)(3412)(1432)(2431)(3421)(4321)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)
(2413)(1423)(4123)(3124)(2134)(4132)(3142)(2143)(1243)
(1234)(2134)(4132)(3142)(2143)(4123)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)(2413)(1423)(3421)(4321)
(2341)(1342)(4312)(3412)(1432)(2431)(4231)(3241)(1243)
v = (1324)
(1234)(2134)(3124)(4123)(1423)(2413)(3412)(1432)(4132)(3142)(2143)(1243)(4213)(3214)(2314)
(4312)(1342)(2341)(3241)(4231)(2431)(3421)(4321)(1324)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(3421)(4321)(2341)(3241)(1243)(4213)(3214)(2314)(4312)(1342)(3142)(2143)
(4123)(1423)(2413)(3412)(1432)(4132)(2134)(3124)(1324)
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 554
v = (2341)
(1234)(2134)(4132)(3142)(1342)(4312)(2314)(3214)(4213)(1243)(2143)(4123)(3124)(1324)(4321)
(3421)(1423)(2413)(3412)(1432)(2431)(4231)(3241)(2341)
(1234)(3214)(4213)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(3421)(1423)(2413)(3412)(1432)
(4132)(2134)(3124)(4123)(2143)(3142)(1342)(4312)(2314)(1324)(4321)(2341)
v = (3142)
(1234)(3214)(2314)(4312)(1342)(2341)(3241)(4231)(2431)(1432)(3412)(2413)(4213)(1243)(2143)
(4123)(1423)(3421)(4321)(1324)(3124)(2134)(4132)(3142)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(1432)(4132)(2134)(3124)(4123)(1423)(3421)(4321)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)
(2413)(3412)(4312)(1342)(2341)(3241)(1243)(2143)(3142)
v = (4123)
(1234)(4231)(2431)(3421)(1423)(2413)(4213)(3214)(2314)(1324)(4321)(2341)(3241)(1243)(2143)
(3142)(1342)(4312)(3412)(1432)(4132)(2134)(3124)(4123)
(1234)(3214)(2314)(1324)(3124)(2134)(4132)(3142)(1342)(4312)(3412)(1432)(2431)(4231)(3241)
(2341)(4321)(3421)(1423)(2413)(4213)(1243)(2143)(4123)
v = (4312)
(1234)(4231)(3241)(2341)(1342)(3142)(4132)(2134)(3124)(1324)(4321)(3421)(2431)(1432)(3412)
(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(1243)(4213)(3214)(2314)(4312)
(1234)(2134)(3124)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)(2413)(1423)(4123)(2143)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)
(3421)(4321)(2341)(1342)(3142)(4132)(1432)(3412)(4312)
v = (2413)
(1234)(2134)(3124)(4123)(1423)(3421)(2431)(4231)(3241)(1243)(2143)(3142)(4132)(1432)(3412)
(4312)(1342)(2341)(4321)(1324)(2314)(3214)(4213)(2413)
(1234)(4231)(3241)(1243)(4213)(3214)(2314)(4312)(1342)(2341)(4321)(1324)(3124)(2134)(4132)
(3142)(2143)(4123)(1423)(3421)(2431)(1432)(3412)(2413)
v = (3421)
(1234)(3214)(4213)(2413)(1423)(4123)(3124)(2134)(4132)(1432)(3412)(4312)(2314)(1324)(4321)
(2341)(1342)(3142)(2143)(1243)(3241)(4231)(2431)(3421)
(1234)(2134)(4132)(1432)(2431)(4231)(3241)(2341)(1342)(3142)(2143)(1243)(4213)(3214)(2314)
(4312)(3412)(2413)(1423)(4123)(3124)(1324)(4321)(3421)
Suppose that the theorem holds on Sk for every 4 k < n. Without loss of gen-
erality, we assume that (u)n = n and (v)n = n 1. We let C be the (n 2) (n 2)
matrix with
'
i+j1 if i + j 1 n 2
cij =
i + j n + 1 if n 2 < i + j 1
More precisely,
1 2 3 ... n 2
1
2 3 4 ...
C=
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
n2 1 2 ... n3
5 1 2 3 4
S5 S5 S5 S5 S5
u Q1 s1 (s1 ) 5 W1 5
( t1 ) t1 R1 v
P1
5
S5 S 25 S 35 S51 S54
u Q2 s2 (s2)5 W2 ( t2 )5
t2 R2 v
P2
5
S5 S 35 S 15 S52 S54
5
u Q3 s3 ( s3) W3 ( t 3 )5 t3 R3 v
P3
(si )1 = ci1 for every 1 i n 2 and (2) |{Q1 (i), Q2 (i), . . . , Qn2 (i)}| = n 2 for
every 2 i (n 1)!. Again, there exist Hamiltonian paths R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn2
of Snn1 such that Ri is a path joining v to a white vertex ti with (1)
(ti )1 = ci(n2) for every 1 i n 2 and (2) |{R1 (i), R2 (i), . . . , Rn2 (i)}| = n 2 for
every 2 i (n 1)!. For every 1 i n 2 by Theorem 13.9, there exists a path
Wi =
x1i , T1i , y1i , x2i , T2i , y2i , . . . , xn2
i
n2 joining the white vertex x1 to the
i , yi
, Tn2 i
black vertex yn2 n such that x1i = (si )n , yn2 i = (ti )n , and Tji is a Hamiltonian path of
b
Sn i+j1 joining xji to yji for every 1 j n 1. Hence, {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 } form the
desired paths. See Figure 19.4 for illustration of the case n = 5.
Hence, the theorem is proved.
TABLE 19.1
The Desired Hamiltonian Paths for S4,2 {14} of Lemma 19.4
{i = 1}
x = 41, 21, 31, 13, 23, 43, 34, 24, 42, 32, 12 = y
{i = 2}
x = 41, 21, 31, 13, 43, 34, 24, 42, 12, 32, 23 = y
{i = 3}
x = 41, 21, 31, 13, 23, 43, 34, 24, 42, 12, 32 = y
{i = 4}
x = 41, 21, 31, 13, 23, 32, 12, 42, 24, 34, 43 = y
I
n. We use Sn,k
I to denote the subgraph of S
n,k induced by those nodes u with
i,j
(u)k I. For 1 i n and 1 j n with i = j, we use En,k to denote the set of edges
{i} {j}
between Sn,k and Sn,k . S3,1 , S4,1 , S4,2 , and S5,2 are shown in Figure 16.15.
Now, we need some properties concerning the (n, k)-star graphs.
LEMMA 19.4 Let n and k be any two integers with k 2 and n k 2. Let u be
any vertex of Sn,k and let i be any positive integer with 1 i n. Then there is a
Hamiltonian path P of Sn,k {u} joining a vertex x to a vertex y where (x)1 = (u)k
and (y)1 = i.
Proof: By Theorem 16.6, this statement holds for n 5. Thus, we assume that
n = 4. Therefore, k = 2. Since S4,2 is vertex-transitive, we assume that u = 14. Note
that (u)2 = 4. We list all of the desired x, y, and Hamiltonian paths of S4,2 {u = 14}
in Table 19.1. Thus, this statement is proved.
LEMMA 19.5 Let n and k be any two integers with n 5, k 2, and n k 2. Let
u and v be any two distinct vertices of Sn,k with (u)t = (v)t for every 2 t k, and
let i and j be two integers in
n with i < j. Then there is a Hamiltonian path P of
Sn,k {u, v} joining a vertex x to a vertex y with (x)1 = i and (y)1 = j.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we assume that (u)1 = 1, (v)1 = 2, and
(u)t = (v)t = n k + t for every 2 t k. Since i < j, i = n, and j = 1. We have the
following cases.
Case 1. n = 5 and k = 2. Since (u)1 = 1, (v)1 = 2, and (u)2 = (v)2 = 5, we have
u = 15 and v = 25. We list all of the desired Hamiltonian paths of S5,2 {u, v} in
Table 19.2.
Case 2. n = 5 and k = 3. Since (u)1 = 1, (v)1 = 2, and (u)t = (v)t = t + 2 for every
2 t 3, we have u = 145 and v = 245. Let x1 = 135, x2 = 235, x3 = 325, x4 = 425,
and p0 = 345. Depending on the value i, we set x and R as
x = x1 and R =
135, 315, 415, 215, 125, 425, 325, 235, 435, 345 = p0 if i = 1
x = x2 and R =
235, 325, 425, 125, 215, 415, 315, 135, 435, 345 = p0 if i = 2
x = x3 and R =
325, 425, 125, 215, 415, 315, 135, 235, 435, 345 = p0 if i = 3
and
x = x4 and R =
425, 325, 125, 215, 415, 315, 135, 235, 435, 345 = p0 if i = 4
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 557
TABLE 19.2
The Desired Hamiltonian Paths for Case 1 of Lemma 19.5
{i = 1, j = 2}
12, 42, 52, 32, 23, 13, 43, 53, 35, 45, 54, 34, 24, 14, 41, 31, 51, 21
{i = 1, j = 3}
12, 42, 52, 32, 23, 13, 43, 53, 35, 45, 54, 34, 24, 14, 41, 21, 51, 31
{i = 1, j = 4}
12, 52, 32, 42, 24, 34, 54, 14, 41, 21, 51, 31, 13, 23, 43, 53, 35, 45
{i = 1, j = 5}
12, 42, 52, 32, 23, 13, 43, 53, 35, 45, 54, 34, 24, 14, 41, 31, 21, 51
{i = 2, j = 3}
23, 13, 43, 53, 35, 45, 54, 34, 24, 14, 41, 31, 51, 21, 12, 42, 52, 32
{i = 2, j = 4}
23, 13, 43, 53, 35, 45, 54, 34, 24, 14, 41, 31, 51, 21, 12, 32, 52, 42
{i = 2, j = 5}
23, 13, 43, 53, 35, 45, 54, 34, 24, 14, 41, 31, 51, 21, 12, 42, 32, 52
{i = 3, j = 4}
35, 45, 54, 14, 24, 34, 43, 53, 23, 13, 31, 41, 51, 21, 12, 32, 52, 42
{i = 3, j = 5}
35, 45, 54, 14, 24, 34, 43, 53, 23, 13, 31, 41, 51, 21, 12, 32, 42, 52
{i = 4, j = 5}
45, 35, 53, 23, 13, 43, 34, 24, 54, 14, 41, 31, 51, 21, 12, 32, 42, 52
{5}
Note that R is a Hamiltonian path of S5,3 {u, v} joining x to p0 . We set p1 = 453,
{1} 1,j
p2 = 254, and p3 = 152. By Lemma 16.17, |{z|z S5,3 and (z)1 = j}| = |E5,3 | = 3 for
{1}
2 j 5. We can choose a vertex p4 in S5,3 {(p3 )3 } with (p4 )1 = j. By Theorem 16.6,
{(p ) }
there is a Hamiltonian path Qt of S5,3 t 3 joining (pt1 )3 to pt for every 1 t 4. We
set y = p4 and P =
x, R, p0 , (p0 )3 , Q1 , p1 , (p1 )3 , Q2 , p2 , . . . , (p3 )3 , Q4 , p4 = y. Then
P forms a desired path.
Case 3. n 6, k 2, and n k 2. Let x and y be any two vertices of Sn,k {u, v}
with (x)1 = i and (y)1 = j. By Theorem 16.6, there is a Hamiltonian path P of
Sn,k {u, v} joining x to y.
Thus, this statement is proved.
We set Pi =
u, z1i , z2i , . . . , zn2
i , v for every 1 i n 2. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 }
forms a set of (n 2) mutually independent Hamiltonian paths of Sn,1 from u
to v.
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 558
TABLE 19.3
All Hamiltonian Paths of S 4,2 between Vertices 12 and 14
P1 =
12, 32, 42, 24, 34, 43, 23, 13, 31, 21, 41, 14
P2 =
12, 21, 41, 31, 13, 43, 23, 32, 42, 24, 34, 14
LEMMA 19.6 Let u be any vertex of Sn,1 , and let {i1 , i2 , . . . , im } be any nonempty
subset of
n {(u)1 } with n 2. Then, there are m Hamiltonian paths P1 , P2 , . . . , Pm
of Sn,1 such that (1) Pj joins u to some vertex xj with xj = (xj )1 = ij for every 1 j m
and (2)|{P1 ( j), P2 ( j), . . . , Pm ( j)}| = m for every 2 j n.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we assume that u = (u)1 = n and xj = (xj )1 = ij = j
j
for every 1 j n 1. For every 1 j n 1 and for every 1 l n 1, we set zl as
&
j j + l 1 if j + l n
zl =
j + l n if n + 1 j + l
j j j j
We set xj = zn1 and Pj =
u, z1 , z2 , . . . , zn1 = xj for every 1 j n 1. Then
Pi1 , Pi2 , . . . , Pim form desired paths.
More precisely,
3 4 n2 n1 n
4 5 n1 n 3
A=. .. .. .. .. ..
.. . . . . .
n 3 n3 n2 n1
Obviously, aj,1 aj,2 . . . aj,n1 forms a permutation of {3, 4, . . . , n} for every j with
1 j n 2. Moreover, aj,l = aj ,l for any 1 j < j n 2 and 1 l n 2. In
other words, A forms a rectangular Latin square with entries in {3, 4, . . . , n}.
We set pi0 = xi and pin2 = (yi )2 for every 1 i n 2. For every 1 i n 2
and 1 j n 3, we set pij = ai,j+1 ai,j . By Theorem 16.6, there is a Hamiltonian
{a }
path Tji of Sn,2i,j joining (pij1 )2 to pij for every 1 i n 2 and 1 j n 2. We
set Pi =
u, Hi , xi = pi0 , (pi0 )2 , T1i , pi1 , (pi1 )2 , T2i , pi2 , . . . , (pin3 )2 , Tn2 n2 = (yi ) , yi ,
i , pi 3
1
Qi , v for every 1 i n 2. Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 } forms a set of (n 2) mutu-
ally independent Hamiltonian paths of Sn,2 from u to v. See Figure 19.5 for an
illustration.
Case 2. Either (u)2 = (v)1 and (u)1 = (v)2 or (u)1 = (v)2 and (u)2 = (v)1 . Without
loss of generality, we assume that (u)2 = (v)1 and (u)1 = (v)2 . Moreover, we assume
that u = 12 and v = 23. By Lemma 19.6, there are (n 3) Hamiltonian path H1 ,
{2}
H2 , . . . , Hn3 of Sn,2 such that (1) Hi joins u to some vertex xi with (xi )1 = i + 3
for every 1 i n 3 and (2) |{H1 ( j), H2 ( j), . . . , Hn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for every
{3}
2 j n 1. Again, there are (n 3) Hamiltonian path Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qn3 of Sn,2 such
that (1) Q1 joins v to some vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = 1 and Qi joins v to some vertex yi with
(yi )1 = i + 2 for every 2 i n 3, and (2) |{H1 ( j), H2 ( j), . . . , Hn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for
every 2 j n 1. Let A be an (n 3) (n 2) matrix dened by
i+j+2 if i + j n 2
ai,j = 1 if i + j = n 1
i+jn+4 if n i + j
More precisely,
4 5 6 n1 n 1
5 6 7 n 1 4
A=. .... . . .. .. ..
.. . . . . . .
n 1 4 n3 n2 n1
TABLE 19.4
TheThree Mutually Independent Hamiltonian Paths of S 5,2
between 12 and 32
P1 =
12, 42, 24, 34, 54, 14, 41, 51, 21, 31, 13, 43, 23, 53, 35, 45, 15, 25, 52, 32
P2 =
12, 52, 25, 15, 45, 35, 53, 43, 23, 13, 31, 21, 51, 41, 14, 34, 54, 24, 42, 32
P3 =
12, 21, 31, 41, 51, 15, 45, 35, 25, 52, 42, 24, 14, 54, 34, 43, 53, 13, 23, 32
We set Hi =
u, z1i , z2i , . . . , zn4
i for every 1 i n 3. Obviously, Hi is a
{2}
Hamiltonian path of Sn,2 {v, zn3 } joining u to zn4
i i for every 1 i n 4,
and |{H1 ( j), H2 ( j), . . . , Hn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for every 2 j n 3. Let A be an
(n 3) (n 1) matrix dened by
ij+4 if i = n 3 and j i
1 if i = n 3 and j 1 = i
3 if i = n 3 and j 2 = i
n+ij+3 if i = n 3 and j 3 i
ai, j = n if i = n 3 and j = 1
3 if i = n 3 and j = 2
nj+2 if i = n 3 and 3 j n 3
1 if i = n 3 and j = n 2
4 if i = n 3 and j = n 1
More precisely,
4 1 3 n n1 8 75 6
5 4 1 3 n 9 86 7
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. ..
A= . . . . . . . .. .
n1 n2 n3 n4 n 5 4 1 3 n
n 3 n1 n2 n 3 6 5 1 4
Let q1 = 24, q2 = 54, q3 = 34, qn1 = 14, and qi = (i + 2)4 for every
4 i n 2. We set Q1 =
q1 , q2 , . . . , qn1 , Q2 =
q2 , q1 , q3 , q4 , . . . , qn1 , and
Q3 =
qn1 , q2 , q3 , . . . , qn2 , q1 . Obviously, (zn4
1 )2 = q , and Q is a Hamiltonian
1 i
{4}
path of Sn,2 for every 1 i 3.
We construct P1 as following. Let p11 = qn1 , p1n1 = (zn3 1 )2 , and p1 = a
j 1,j+1 a1,j
for every 2 j n 2. By Theorem 16.6, there is a Hamiltonian path Tj1 of
{a }
Sn,21,j joining (p1j1 )2 to p1j for every 2 j n 1. We set P1 =
u, H1 , zn4 1 ,q ,Q ,
1 1
qn1 = p1 , (p1 ) , T2 , p2 , . . . , (pn2 ) , Tn1 , pn1 = (zn3 ) , zn3 , v.
1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
{5} 2 )2 to (q )2 . We set P =
u, H , z2 , (z2 )2 , H, (q )2 , q , Q ,
of Sn,2 joining (zn4 2 2 2 n4 n4 2 2 2
qn1 = p22 , (p22 )2 , T32 , p23 , . . . , (p2n2 )2 , Tn1
2 , p2
n1 = (zn3 ) , zn3 , v.
2 2 2
More precisely,
5 6 7 8 n 3 4 1
6 7 8 9 5
3 4 1
.. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. ..
. .
A=. . . . . . .
n 3 4 1 n4 n3 n2 n1
3 4 1 5 n3 n2 n1 n
4 1 5 6 n2 n1 n 3
We set p10 = x1 , p1j = a1,j+1 a1,j for every 1 j n 2, and p1n1 = (v)2 . Obvi-
{3}
ously, {(p1n4 )2 = n3, p1n3 = 43} V (Sn,2 ) {v}. By Lemma 16.18, there is a Hamil-
{a }
tonian path Tj1 of Sn,21,j joining (p1j1 )2 to p1j for every j
n 1 {n 3} and
{3}
there is a Hamiltonian path Tn3 1 of Sn,2 {v} joining (p1n4 )2 to p1n3 . We set P1 =
u, H1 , x1 = p0 , (p0 ) , T1 , p1 , (p1 ) , T21 , p12 , . . . , (p1n2 )2 , Tn1
1 1 2 1 1 1 2
n1 = (v) , v.
1 , p1 2
2 i n 3.
We set pn20 = xn2 , pn2 j = an2,j+1 an2,j for every 1 j n 3, and pn2 n2 = 4n.
{a }
By Theorem 16.6, there is a Hamiltonian path Tjn2 of Sn,2n2,j joining (pn2
j1 )
2
to pn2
j for every j
n 2 {1}. Let w = 34 and z = 23. By Lemma 16.18,
{4}
there is a Hamiltonian path T1n2 of Sn,2 {w, (pn2 n2 2
n2 ) } joining (p0 ) to
2
{3}
pn2
1 . Again, there is a Hamiltonian path Q of Sn,2 {v} joining (w) to z.
2
n2 n2 2 n2 n2 n2 2 n2 n2
We set Pn2 =
u, Hn2 , xn2 = p0 , (p0 ) , T1 , p1 , (p1 ) , T2 , p2 , . . . ,
(pn2 2 n2 n2 n2 2 2
n3 ) , Tn2 , pn2 , (pn2 ) , w, (w) , Q, z, v.
Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 } forms a set of (n 2) mutually independent Hamiltonian
paths of Sn,2 from u to v. See Figure 19.8 for illustration.
Case 5. (u)2 = (v)2 , (u)2 = (v)1 , (u)1 = (v)2 , and (u)1 = (v)1 . Without loss of gener-
ality, we assume that u = 12 and v = 34. By Lemma 19.6, there are (n 3) Hamiltonian
{2}
paths H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn3 of Sn,2 such that (1) Hi joins u to some vertex xi with
(xi )1 = i + 4 for every 1 i n 4 and Hn3 joins u to some vertex xn3 with
(xn3 )1 = 3, and (2) |{H1 ( j), H2 ( j), . . . , Hn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for every 2 j n 1.
{4}
Again, there are (n 3) Hamiltonian paths Q1 , Q2 , . . ., Qn3 of Sn,2 such that (1)
Q1 joins v to some vertex y1 with (y1 )1 = 1 and Qi joins v to some vertex yi with
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 564
(yi )1 = i + 3 for every 2 i n 3, and (2) |{Q1 ( j), Q2 ( j), . . . , Qn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for
every 2 j n 1. Let A be an (n 3) (n 2) matrix dened as
i+j+3 if i + j n 3
3 if i + j = n 2
ai, j =
1 if i+j =n1
i + j n + 5 if n i + j
More precisely,
5 6 7 8 n1 n 3 1
6 7 8 9 n 3 1 5
..
A = ... ..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
. .
n 3 1 5 n4 n3 n2 n1
3 1 5 6 n3 n2 n1 n
We set pi0 = xi and pin2 = (yi )2 for every 1 i n 3. For every 1 i n 3 and
every 1 j n 3, we set pij = ai, j+1 ai, j . By Theorem 16.6, there is a Hamiltonian
{a }
path Tji of Sn,2i, j joining the vertex (pij1 )2 to pij for every 1 i n 3 and for every
1 j n 2. We set Pi =
u, Hi , xi = pi0 , (pi0 )2 , T1i , pi1 , (pi1 )2 , T2i , pi2 , . . . , (pin3 )2 ,
1
n2 , (pn2 ) = yi , Qi , v for every 1 i n 3.
i , pi
Tn2 i 2
TABLE 19.5
All Cases of the Required Hamiltonian Paths for S 4,2 of Theorem 19.8
{i1 , i2 , i3 } = {1, 2, 3} P1 =
14, 34, 24, 42, 32, 23, 43, 13, 31, 41, 21, 12
P2 =
14, 41, 21, 31, 13, 43, 34, 24, 42, 12, 32, 23
P3 =
14, 24, 42, 32, 12, 21, 41, 31, 13, 23, 43, 34
{i1 , i2 , i3 } = {1, 2, 4} P1 =
14, 34, 24, 42, 32, 23, 43, 13, 31, 41, 21, 12
P2 =
14, 41, 31, 21, 12, 32, 42, 24, 34, 43, 13, 23
P3 =
14, 24, 34, 43, 23, 13, 31, 41, 21, 12, 32, 42
{i1 , i2 , i3 } = {1, 3, 4} P1 =
14, 24, 34, 43, 23, 32, 42, 12, 21, 41, 31, 13
P2 =
14, 41, 21, 31, 13, 23, 43, 34, 24, 42, 12, 32
P3 =
14, 34, 24, 42, 32, 12, 21, 41, 31, 13, 23, 43
{i1 , i2 , i3 } = {2, 3, 4} P1 =
14, 24, 34, 43, 13, 31, 41, 21, 12, 42, 32, 23
P2 =
14, 41, 21, 12, 32, 42, 24, 34, 43, 23, 13, 31
P3 =
14, 34, 24, 42, 12, 32, 23, 43, 13, 31, 21, 41
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 566
in3
/ {1, n 1}, in2 / {1, 2}, and in1
/ {2, 3}. By Lemma 19.6, there are (n 2)
{n}
Hamiltonian paths H1 , H2 , . . . , Hn2 of Sn,2 such that (1) Hj joins u to some vertex xj
with (xj )1 = j + 1 for every 1 j n 2 and (2) |{H1 ( j), H2 ( j), . . . , Hn2 ( j)}| = n 2
j,l
for every 2 j n 1. Since k = 2, by Lemma 16.17, |En,2 | = (n 2)!/(n 2)! = 1.
{j+2} {1}
We choose a vertex zj Sn,2 with (zj )1 = ij for 1 j n 3, a vertex zn2 Sn,2
with (zn2 )1 = in2 . Let A be an (n 2) (n 1) matrix dened by
'
jl+2 if j i + 1
aj,l =
jl+n+1 if i + 2 j
More precisely,
2 1 n1 n 2 4 3
3 2 1 n 1 5 4
..
A = ... ..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
. .
n2 n3 n4 n 5 1 n1
n1 n2 n3 n4 2 1
j
For every j
n 2 {2}, we construct Pj as following. Let p0 = xj
for every j
n 2 {2}. Since ij / {j + 2, j + 3} for every j
n 2 {2},
j
in3
/ {1, n 1}, and in2
/ {1, 2}, we can choose a vertex pn1 = ij aj,n1 = zj
{a } j
in Sn,2j,n2 . We set pl = aj,l+1 aj,l for every 1 j n 2 and 1 l n 2. Note
j {a } j
that (pl )2 Sn,2j,l+1 {pl+1 } for every j
n 2 {2} and 0 l n 2. By
j {a } j j
Lemma 16.18, there is a Hamiltonian path Tl in Sn,2j,l joining (pl1 )2 to pl for every
j j j j j j
j
n 2 {2} and 1 l n 1. We set Pj =
u, Hj , xj = p0 , (p0 )2 , T1 , p1 , (p1 )2 , T2 ,
j j j j
p2 , . . . , (pn2 )2 , Tn1 , pn1 = zj for every j
n 2 {2}.
We construct P2 as follows. Let p20 = x2 . Since i2 / {4, 5}, we can choose a vertex
{a2,n2 }
pn1 = i2 a2,n1 = z2 in Sn,2
2 . We set pl = a2,l+1 a2,l for every 1 l n 2. Note
2
{a }
that (p2l )2 Sn,22,l+1 {p2l+1 } for every 0 l n 2. By Lemma 16.18, there is a
{3}
Hamiltonian path T in Sn,2 {(p20 )2 } joining y = 43 to p21 . Again, there is a Hamiltonian
{a }
path Tl2 in Sn,22,l joining (p2l1 )2 to p2l for every 2 l n 1. We set P2 =
u, H2 , x2 =
p20 , (p20 )2 , y, T , p21 , (p21 )2 , T22 , p22 , (p22 )2 , T32 , p23 , . . . , (p2n2 )2 , Tn1 n1 = z2 .
2 , p2
j+l+2 if j n 3 and j + l n 3
j + l n + 3 if j n 3 and n 2 j + l
bj,l =
l+2 if j = n 2 and l n 3
ln+3 if j = n 2 and n 2 l n 1
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 568
More precisely,
4 5 n2 n1 1 2 3
n1
5 6 1 2 3 4
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . .
B=
n 1 1 n6 n5 n4 n3 n2
1 2 n5 n4 n3 n2 n1
3 4 n3 n2 n1 1 2
Then {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn1 } forms a set of desired paths of Sn,k . Note that
(y1n1 )1 = 2, = n = (x1n3 )1 , and (yin1 )1 = i + 1 = i 1 = (xin3 )1 for 2 i n 1.
See Figure 19.11 for an illustration.
Hence, this statement is proved.
We set Ri =
u, z1i , z2i , . . . , zn4
i for every 1 i n 3. Obviously, Ri is
{n}
a Hamiltonian path of Sn,2 {v, yi } joining u to zn4 i for every 1 i n 3,
and |{R1 ( j), R2 ( j), . . . , Rn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for every 2 j n 3. Moreover,
1 ) = n 1 and (zi
(zn4 1 n4 )1 = i + 1 for every 2 i n 3. Let C be an
(n 3) (n 1) matrix dened by
n1 if i = 1 and j = 1
5j if i = 1 and 2 j 4
j 1 if i = 1 and 5 j
4j if i = 2 and 1 j 3
ci, j =
j if i = 2 and 4 j
+ if 3 i and i + j n 1
i j
n i j + 3 if 3 i and n i + j n + 2
i + j n + 1 if 3 i and n + 3 i + j
More precisely,
n1 3 2 1 4 ... n 5 n 4 n 3 n2
3 4 5 ... n 4 n 3 n 2 n1
2 1
4 5 6 7 8 ... n 1 3 2 1
C= 5 4
6 7 8 9 ... 3 2 1
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . .
n2 n1 3 2 1 ... n6 n5 n4 n3
TABLE 19.6
Desired Hamiltonian Paths of S 5,3 {245, yi } for Lemma 19.8
y1 = 345
145, 415, 315, 215, 125, 425, 325, 235, 135, 435, 534, 354, 154, 254, 524, 324, 124, 214, 514, 314,
134, 234, 432, 532, 352, 152, 452, 542, 342, 142, 412, 512, 312, 132, 231, 531, 431, 341, 541, 241,
421, 321, 521, 251, 451, 351, 153, 453, 543, 243, 143, 413, 513, 213, 123, 423, 523, 253
y2 = 425
145, 345, 435, 235, 135, 315, 415, 215, 125, 325, 523, 423, 243, 143, 543, 453, 253, 153, 513, 413,
213, 123, 321, 421, 521, 251, 351, 451, 541, 241, 341, 431, 531, 231, 132, 532, 352, 452, 152, 512,
312, 412, 142, 542, 342, 432, 234, 324, 124, 524, 254, 154, 514, 214, 314, 134, 534, 354
y3 = 524
145, 541, 241, 341, 431, 231, 321, 421, 521, 251, 451, 351, 531, 135, 315, 415, 215, 125, 425, 325,
235, 435, 345, 543, 143, 243, 423, 523, 123, 213, 413, 513, 153, 253, 453, 354, 154, 254, 524, 124,
324, 234, 534, 134, 314, 514, 214, 412, 142, 342, 432, 532, 132, 312, 512, 152, 352, 452
statement holds for n = 5 and k = 3. Thus, we assume that this statement holds on
{n}
Sm,l for every 5 m < n and for every 2 l < k with m l 2. Obviously, Sn,k is iso-
{n}
morphic to Sn1,k1 . By induction, there are (n 3) paths W1 , W2 , . . . , Wn3 of Sn,k
{n}
such that (1) Wi is a Hamiltonian path of Sn,k {v, yi } joining u to a vertex wi with
(wi )1 = i + 1 for every 1 i n 3 and (2) |{W1 ( j), W2 ( j), . . . , Wn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for
every 2 j (n 1)!/(n k)! 2. Let C be an (n 3) (n 1) matrix dened by
i+j if i + j n 2
1 if i + j = n 1
ci, j =
n1 if i + j = n
i+jn+1 if i + j n + 1
More precisely,
2 3 4 5 ... n 3 n2 1 n1
... n 2 n1 2
3 4 5 6 1
C=
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
..
. . . . . . . . .
n2 1 n1 2 ... n6 n5 n4 n3
{c }
We set pi0 = wi for every 1 i n 3. We choose a vertex pij in Sn,ki, j
with (pij )1 = ci,j+1 for every 1 i n 3 and 1 j n 2, and choose a vertex
{c }
pin1 in Sn,ki,n1 with (pin1 )1 = i + 1 for every 1 i n 3. Note that (pij )k
{c }
Sn,ki,j+1 {pij+1 } for every 1 i n 3 and 0 j n 2. By Theorem 16.6, there
{c }
is a Hamiltonian path Tji of Sn,ki, j joining the vertex (pij1 )k to pij for every
1 i n 3 and 1 j n 1. Let xi = Pn1 i for 1 i n 3, then we set
Pi =
u, Wi , wi = p0 , (p0 ) , T1 , p1 , (p1 ) , p2 , . . . , (pn2 )k , Tn1
i i k i i i k i i
n1 = xi for every
i , pi
1 i n 3.
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 572
'
i+j1 if i + j n 1
ci, j =
i+jn+1 if n i + j
More precisely,
1 2 3 ... n 2
2 1
3 4 ...
C=
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
n2 1 2 ... n 3
{n}
By Theorem 19.8, there are Hamiltonian paths Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qn2 of Sn,k such
{n}
that Qi is a Hamiltonian path of Sn,k joining u to a vertex si with (1) (si )1 = ci,1
for every 1 i n 2 and (2) |{Q1 ( j), Q2 ( j), . . . , Qn2 ( j)}| = n 2 for every
2 j (n 1)!/(n k)!. Again, there are Hamiltonian paths R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn2 of
{n1} {n 1}
Sn,k such that Ri is a Hamiltonian path of Sn,k joining v to a vertex ti with
(1) (ti )1 = ci,(n2) for every 1 i n 2 and (2) |{R1 ( j), R2 ( j), . . . , Rn2 ( j)}| = n 2
for every 2 j (n 1)!/(n k)!. For every 1 i n 2, by Theorem 16.7, there
n 2
exists a Hamiltonian path Wi =
x1i , T1i , y1i , x2i , T2i , y2i , . . . , xn2
i i , yi
, Tn2 n2 of Sn,k
joining the vertex x1i to the vertex yn2 i such that x1i = (si )k , yn2 i = (ti )k , and
{c }
Tji is a Hamiltonian path of Sn,ki, j joining xji to yji for every 1 j n 2. Let
Pi =
u, Qi , si , (si )k = x1i , Wi , yn2
i = (ti )k , ti , Ri1 , v for every 1 i n 2. Hence,
{P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn2 } forms a set of (n 2) mutually independent Hamiltonian paths of
Sn,k from u to v. See Figure 19.14 for illustration.
Case 2. (u)i = (v)i for every 2 i k. Without loss of generality, we assume that
(u)1 = 1, (v)1 = 2, and (u)i = (v)i = n k + i for every 2 i k. Suppose that n = 5
and k = 3. We prove there are three mutually independent Hamiltonian paths on S5,3
joining u = 145 to v = 245 by exhibiting the three required Hamiltonian paths in
Table 19.7.
Thus, we assume that n 6, k 3, and n k 2. Let yi be a vertex of
{n} {n}
NSn,k (v) with (yi )1 = i + 2 for every 1 i n 2. Obviously, u Sn,k , v Sn,k ,
TABLE 19.7
The Three Mutually Independent Hamiltonian Paths of S 5,3 between 145
and 245
P1 =
145, 345, 435, 135, 235, 325, 523, 423, 243, 143, 543, 453, 253, 153, 513, 413, 213, 123, 321, 521,
421, 241, 341, 541, 451, 251, 351, 531, 431, 231, 132, 532, 352, 452, 152, 512, 312, 412, 142, 542,
342, 432, 234, 534, 134, 314, 214, 124, 324, 524, 254, 354, 154, 514, 415, 315, 215, 125, 425, 245
P2 =
145, 415, 315, 215, 125, 425, 524, 324, 124, 214, 514, 314, 134, 234, 534, 354, 154, 254, 452, 352,
532, 132, 432, 342, 542, 142, 412, 312, 512, 152, 251, 451, 541, 341, 241, 421, 521, 321, 231, 431,
531, 351, 153, 513, 413, 213, 123, 423, 243, 143, 543, 453, 253, 523, 325, 235, 135, 435, 345, 245
P3 =
145, 541, 341, 241, 421, 521, 321, 231, 431, 531, 351, 251, 451, 154, 354, 254, 524, 124, 324, 234,
534, 134, 314, 214, 514, 415, 315, 215, 125, 425, 325, 235, 135, 435, 345, 543, 143, 413, 213, 513,
153, 453, 253, 523, 123, 423, 243, 342, 142, 412, 512, 312, 132, 432, 532, 352, 152, 452, 542, 245
{n} {2}
yi Sn,k for every 1 i n 3, and yn2 Sn,k . By Lemma 19.8, there are
{n}
(n 3) paths R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn3 of Sn,k such that (1) Ri is a Hamiltonian path of
{n}
Sn,k {v, yi } joining u to a vertex xi with (xi )1 = i + 1 for every 1 i n 3 and
(2) |{R1 ( j), R2 ( j), . . . , Rn3 ( j)}| = n 3 for every 2 j (n 1)!/(n k)! 2. Let
C be an (n 3) (n 1) matrix dened by
'
ij+2 if j i + 1
ci, j =
i + n j + 1 if i + 2 j
More precisely,
2 1 n1 n2 ... 4 3
n1 4
3 2 1 ... 5
C=
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . .
n2 n3 n4 n5 ... 1 n 1
{4}
S 6,4 {v,y3} S 6,4
{6} {3} {2} {1} {5}
S 6,4 S 6,4 S 6,4 S 6,4
u R2 p30 (p40)4 T 13 p31 (p3)4 T 3 p23 3
(p23)4 T 3 p33 3
(p33)4 T 4 p43 3
(p43)4 T 5 p53 v
1 2
{1}
Hamiltonian path Q1 of Sn,k joining (q0 )k to q1 . Again, there is a Hamil-
{ni+2}
tonian path Qi of Sn,k joining (qi1 )k to qi for every 3 i n. We set
Pn2 =
u = q0 , (q0 ) , Q1 , q1 , (q1 )k = x, Q2 , y = q2 , . . . , (qn2 )k , Qn1 , qn1 , (qn1 )k ,
k
According to Theorems 19.5 through 19.7 and Theorem 19.9, we have the
following result.
7 1 2 4 5 6
3
Cubic 2-independent Hamiltonian- Cubic 1-fault-tolerant
connected graphs Super 3*-connected graphs Hamiltonian graphs
as
y, v, P1 , u and
y, x, P2 , u, where P1 and P2 are Hamiltonian paths in G y.
Obviously,
y, v, P1 , u, y forms a Hamiltonian cycle of G e.
Suppose that x is a vertex in F. Let e = (x, y) be any edge incident with x and
N(y) = {x, u, v}. Since G is cubic 2-independent Hamiltonian-connected graph, there
are two independent Hamiltonian paths between x and v in G. Apparently, these two
Hamiltonian paths can be written as
x, y, u, Q1 , v and
x, Q2 , u, y, v, where Q1 is a
Hamiltonian path in G {x, y} and Q2 is a Hamiltonian path in G {y, v}. Obviously,
y, u, Q1 , v, y forms a Hamiltonian cycle of G x.
Thus, G is 1-fault-tolerant Hamiltonian. The theorem is proved.
i i i
i j i
(i1) i1 (i1) j1 (i1) i1
j j j
j j j
FIGURE 19.17 Illustrations for path patterns: (a) P(i, j), (b) Q(i , j ), and (c) M(i , j ).
The generalized Petersen graph P(n, 1) is the graph with vertex set
{i | 0 i < n} {i | 0 i < n} and edge set {(i, i 1) | 0 i < n} {(i , (i 1) ) | 0 i
< n} {(i, i )|0 i < n}.
Case 2. x = 1. Set P1 =
0, P(2k, 2), Q(2 , 0 ), 1 , 1 and P2 =
0, 0 , Q(1 , (2k) ),
P(2k, 2), 1. From Figure 19.18b, it is easy to see that P1 and P2 are independent.
0 2 3 5 6 8
1 4 7
10 13 16
9 11 12 14 15 17
Hamiltonian-connected. Using the same technique, it is easy to see that H(n) is not
cubic 2-independent Hamiltonian-connected if n is even and n 4.
By brute force, it is easy to see that there are only two Hamiltonian paths between
1 and 7; namely,
1, 2, 6, 5, 3, 4, 0, 7 and
1, 0, 4, 5, 3, 2, 6, 7. Apparently, these two
Hamiltonian paths are not independent.
01
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 12, 14, 07, 06, 08, 17, 16, 15, 02, 01
0, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 07, 06, 11, 09, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 14, 12, 01
02
0, 09, 10, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 15, 16, 05, 03, 04, 13, 14, 12, 01, 02
0, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 05, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 16, 15, 02
03
0, 09, 10, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 13, 12, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 04, 03
0, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 05, 16, 15, 17, 08, 07, 06, 11, 09, 10, 03
04
0, 09, 10, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 13, 12, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 03, 04
0, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 12, 13, 04
05
0, 09, 10, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 16, 15, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 03, 05
0, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 15, 16, 05
06
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 14, 12, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 07, 06
0, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 07, 14, 12, 13, 04, 05, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06
07
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 14, 12, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 06, 07
0, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 06, 11, 09, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 12, 14, 07
08
0, 02, 01, 12, 13, 14, 07, 06, 11, 09, 10, 03, 04, 05, 16, 15, 17, 08
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 04, 05, 16, 17, 15, 02, 01, 12, 13, 14, 07, 06, 08
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 581
09
0, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 03, 04, 13, 12, 14, 07, 08, 06, 11, 10, 09
0, 02, 01, 12, 13, 14, 07, 06, 08, 17, 15, 16, 05, 04, 03, 10, 11, 09
0 10
0, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 03, 05, 16, 15, 17, 08, 07, 06, 11, 09, 10
0, 09, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 13, 12, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 04, 03, 10
0 11
0, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 06, 07, 14, 12, 13, 04, 05, 03, 10, 09, 11
0, 09, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 14, 12, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 07, 06, 11
0 12
0, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 04, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 13, 12
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 14, 07, 06, 08, 17, 16, 15, 02, 01, 12
0 13
0, 09, 10, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 12, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 03, 04, 13
0, 01, 02, 15, 17, 16, 05, 04, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06, 08, 07, 14, 12, 13
0 14
0, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 07, 16, 11, 09, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 12, 14
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 05, 04, 13, 12, 01, 02, 15, 16, 17, 08, 06, 07, 14
0 15
0, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 05, 03, 10, 09, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 16, 15
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 04, 05, 16, 17, 08, 06, 07, 14, 13, 12, 01, 02, 15
0 16
0, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 05, 02, 10, 09, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 15, 16
0, 09, 10, 11, 06, 07, 08, 17, 15, 02, 01, 12, 14, 13, 04, 03, 05, 16
0 17
0, 02, 01, 12, 13, 14, 07, 08, 06, 11, 09, 10, 03, 04, 05, 16, 15, 17
0, 09, 11, 10, 03, 04, 05, 16, 15, 02, 01, 12, 13, 14, 07, 06, 08, 17
2 3
9 10
1 13 14 15 16 17 4
18
32 33 19
37
41
47 48
31 36 42 38 20
30 40 46 34 21
44 43
45
39
29 35 22
28
8 27 26 25 24 23 5
12 11
7 6
(a) (b) (c)
2 3
9 10 r1 r2
1 13 14 15 16 17 4
18 13 14 r5
32 33 19 49 r6
37 32 37
41
47 48
31 36 42 38 20 48 41
r 14 r 12 r7
40 46 34
30 44 43
21 r 11
45 r 13
39
29 35 22
8
28
5
r 10 r9 r8
27 26 25 24 23
12 11
7 6 r4 r3
48 41 r7 48 41 r7 r7
r14 r12 r14 r12 r14 r12
r11 r11 r11
r13 r13 r13
r4 r3 r4 r3 r4 r3
(d) (e) (f)
FIGURE 19.21 The graphs (a) M, (b) M3 , (c) M4 , (d) M5 , (e) M6 , and (f) M7 .
the graph M2 , in Figure 19.20c, by a sequence of 3-joins with K4 . It is easy to see that
M2 is isomorphic to the generalized Petersen graph P(8, 2). By Theorem 15.5, P(8, 2)
is not 3 -connected. Repeatedly using Theorem 15.1, M is not 3 -connected.
By brute force, we prove that M is Hamiltonian-connected. Now, we want
to show that M is not cubic 2-independent Hamiltonian-connected. Assume that
P =
v1 = 14, v2 , . . . , v48 = 48 is any Hamiltonian path of M between 14 and 48
in M. We claim that v2 must be 15. Then M is not 2-independent Hamiltonian-
connected once our claim is proved. To prove this claim, it is equivalent to show that
the graph M3 , shown in Figure 19.21b, is not Hamiltonian. Repeatedly using Theo-
rem 14.9, it is sufcient to show that the graph M4 , shown in Figure 19.21c, is not
Hamiltonian. Suppose there exists a Hamiltonian cycle H in M4 . We can write H as
H =
49, 48, vx , . . . , vz , 49. Obviously, vx is r14 , or 41.
Case 1. vx = r14 . Then neither (48, 37) nor (48, 41) is in H. Thus, both (37, 41)
and (41, r12 ) are in H. This implies that the graph M4 , shown in Figure 19.21c,
has a Hamiltonian cycle C . And degM4 (r5 ) = 2. Therefore, the graph M5 , shown in
Figure 19.21d, has a Hamiltonian cycle C. Note that the graph M5 is planar. By the
Grinberg condition, 2(f4 f4 ) + 3(f5 f5 ) + 9(f11
f ) = 0, where f is the number
11 i
of faces of length i inside C and fi is the number of faces of length i outside C
for i = 4, 5, 11. Obviously, 2(f4 f4 ) = 0 (mod 3). Since |f4 f4 | = 1, the equation
cannot hold. We get a contradiction.
Case 2. vx = 41. Neither (48, r14 ) nor (48, 37) is in H. Thus, both (48, 41) and
(41, 37) are in H. This implies that the graph M6 , shown in Figure 19.21e, has a
ch019.tex 12/8/2008 11: 10 Page 583
Hamiltonian cycle C . Obviously, degM6 (48) = degM6 (41) = degM6 (37) = degM6 (r5 )
= 2. Therefore, the graph M7 , shown in Figure 19.21f, has a Hamilto-
nian cycle C. Since the graph M7 is planar, by the Grinberg condition,
2(f4 f4 ) + 3(f5 f5 ) + 6(f8 f8 ) = 0, where fi is the number of faces of length i
inside C and fi is the number of faces of length i outside C for i = 4, 5, 8. Obvi-
ously, 2(f4 f4 ) = 0 (mod 3). Since |f4 f4 | = 1, the equation cannot hold. We get
a contradiction.
From the previous discussion, we have the following theorem.
20 Topological Properties
of Butterfly Graphs
20.1 INTRODUCTION
The wrapped around buttery graph BF(n), introduced in Chapter 2, is an important
family of interconnection networks, due to its nice topological properties, and thus
has been widely discussed in Refs 24,50,132,185,220,300,303, and 343. However,
BF(n) is bipartite if and only if n is even. For this reason, it is difcult to discuss the
corresponding topological properties in the previous chapters. Instead, we devote a
chapter here to these properties.
Let Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} denote the set of integers modulo n. The n-dimensional
binary wrapped buttery graph (or buttery graph for short), denoted by BF(n),
is a graph with Zn Zn2 as vertex set. Each vertex is labeled by a two-tuple
, a0 . . . an1 with a level Zn and an n-bit binary string a0 . . . an1 Zn2 .
A level- vertex
, a0 . . . a . . . an1 is adjacent to two vertices,
( + 1)mod n ,
a0 . . . a . . . an1 and
( 1)mod n ,a0 . . . a1 . . . an1 , by straight edges, and is
adjacent to another two vertices,
( + 1)mod n , a0 . . . a1 a a+1 . . . an1 and
( 1)mod n ,a0 . . . a2 a1 a . . . an1 , by cross edges. More formally, the edges
of BF(n) can be dened in terms of four generators g, g1 , f , and f 1 as follows:
g(
, a0 . . . a . . . an1 ) =
( + 1)mod n , a0 . . . a . . . an1
f (
, a0 . . . a . . . an1 ) =
( + 1)mod n , a0 . . . a1 a a+1 . . . an1
1
g (
, a0 . . . a . . . an1 ) =
( 1)mod n , a0 . . . a . . . an1
f 1 (
, a0 . . . a1 . . . an1 ) =
( 1)mod n , a0 a1 . . . a2 a1 a . . . an1
where a a + 1 (mod 2). Hence, the g-edges, (u, g(u)) or (u, g1 (u)), and the
f -edges, (u, f (u)) or (u, f 1 (u)) for any u V (BF(n)), represent the straight edges and
cross edges, respectively. Consequently, we have Lemma 20.1.
A level- edge of BF(n) is an edge that joins a level- vertex to a level-( + 1)mod n
vertex. To avoid the degenerate case, we assume n 3 in what follows. So BF(n) is
4-regular. Moreover, BF(n) is bipartite if and only if n is even. Figure 20.1a depicts
the structure of BF(3), and Figure 20.1b is the isomorphic structure of BF(3) with
level-0 replication for easy visualization.
For any Zn and i Z2 , we use BFi (n) to denote the subgraph of BF(n) induced
j
by {
h, a0 . . . an1 |h Zn , a = i}. Obviously, BFi 1 (n) is isomorphic to BF2 (n) for
585
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 586
<0,011>
0
000 100 010 110 001 101 011 111
0
2
1
2
1
0
(a) (b)
FIGURE 20.1 (a) The structure of BF(3) and (b) BF(3) with level-0 replicated to ease
visualization.
1 2
2 3
0 0
(a) (b)
0
(c)
FIGURE 20.2 (a) A subgraph G of BF(3), (b) 00 (G) in 00 (BF(3)), and (c) 10 (G) in 10 (BF(3).
0000 0010 0001 0011 0000 0100 0001 0101 0000 0100 0010 0110
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
0 0 0
(a) (b) (c)
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
0 0 0
(d) (e) (f)
The following lemmas can be easily derived according to the stretching operation.
i,j
LEMMA 20.2 Assume that n 3 and i, j, k Z2 . Then BF0,1 (n) is isomorphic to
i,j i,j,k i,j,k i,j,k
BF0,n1 (n); BF0,1,2 (n), BF0,1,n1 (n), and BF0,n2,n1 (n) are isomorphic.
F0 = {
, a0 . . . an1 = v | v V (G) is not incident with any level-( 1)mod n,
edge in G}
F1 = {
, a0 . . . an1 = v | v V (G) is not incident with any level- edge in G}
#
F0 = {
, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 ,
,a0 ...a1 a ...an1 F0
+ 1, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 }
#
F1 = {
+ 1, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 ,
,a0 ...a1 a ...an1 F1
+ 2, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 }
#
X0 = {(
, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 ,
,a0 ...a1 a ...an1 F0
+ 1, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 )}
#
X1 = {(
+ 1, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 ,
,a0 ...a1 a ...an1 F1
+ 2, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 )}
#
M0 = {(
, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 ,
,a0 ...an1 G(F0 F1 )
+ 1, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 )}
#
M1 = {(
+ 1, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 ,
,a0 ...an1 G(F0 F1 )
+ 2, a0 . . . a1 ija . . . an1 )}
j j
Then F0 F1 = and F0 F1 = . Thus, F0 F1 = V (+1 i ()) V (+1 i (G))
j
k=1 {uk , g(uk )|uk V (+1 ())} with some m 1 such that
can be represented as m i
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 590
j
{uk |1 k m} {g(uk )|1 k m} = . Moreover, M0 M1 E(+1 i (G)) and
j
X0 X1 = m k=1 {(uk , g(uk ))|uk V (+1 ())} is a set of edges with no shared
i
endpoints.
LEMMA 20.5 [320] (g(u), g1 ( f (u))) is an f -edge joining vertices of Cgu and Cg .
f (u)
Any Cgu contains exactly one vertex at each level. In particular, Cgu contains exactly
(a a ...a )
one vertex at level 0, say
0, a0 a1 . . . an1 . We use Cg 0 1 n1 as the name for Cgu .
Now, we form a new graph BF(n)G with all the g-cycles of BF(n) as vertices, where
two different g-cycles are joined with an edge if and only if there exists at least one
u
f -edge joining them. The vertex of BF(n)G corresponding to Cgu is denoted by C g .
We recall the denition of the hypercube as follows. An n-dimensional hypercube
(abbreviated as n-cube) consists of 2n vertices, which are labeled with the 2n binary
numbers from 0 to 2n 1. Two vertices are connected by an edge if and only if their
labels differ by exactly one bit.
COROLLARY 20.1 [184] If (u, f (u)) X(h) then (g(u), f 1 (g(u))) X(h) and
|X(h)| = 2. Moreover, {u, f (u), g(u), f 1 (g(u))} induces a 4-cycle in BF(n).
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 591
COROLLARY 20.2 [320] There is a unique cycle C such that edges of BF(n)
joining vertices between Cgu and C are exactly (u, f (u)) and (g(u), f 1 (g(u))) and in
f (u)
that case, C is isomorphic to Cg .
u v
According to Corollaries 20.1 and 20.2, any edge h = (C g , C g ) in BF(n)G induces
a unique 4-cycle in BF(n), with two f -edges and two g-edges. We use Xf (Cgu , Cgv ) to
denote the set of f -edges in this 4-cycle, and Xg (Cgu , Cgv ) to denote the set of g-edges
in this cycle.
LEMMA 20.7 Let T be any subtree of BF(n)G and let CgT be the subgraph of BF(n)
generated by
# # #
E C u
X C u
, C v
X C u
, C v
g f
g g
g g g
u
C g V (T ) u v
C g ,C g E(T )
u v
C g ,C g E(T )
In Figure 20.4a, we have another layout of BF(3). The graph BF(3)G is shown
(000) (001)
in Figure 20.4b. For example, Xf (Cg , Cg ) = {(
0, 000,
2, 001), (
2, 000,
(000) (001)
0, 001)} and Xg (Cg , Cg ) = {(
0, 000,
2, 000), (
0, 001,
2, 001)}. Let T be
the tree indicated by bold lines in Figure 20.4b. The corresponding CgT is indicated by
bold lines in Figure 20.4a.
Let u =
k, a0 a1 . . . an1 be any vertex of BF(n) and let u denote the ver-
tex
k, a0 a1 . . . an1 . One can see that f n (u) = u and f 2n (u) = u. Moreover,
u, f (u), f 2 (u), . . . , f 2n (u) forms a simple cycle of length 2n, denoted by Cfu . So all
f -cycles form a partition of the cross edges of BF(n). Meanwhile, any g-edge joins
vertices from two different f -cycles. And then (u, g(u)) joins vertices from Cfu and
g(u)
Cf . Lemmas 20.8 and 20.9 were proved in Ref. 320.
LEMMA 20.8 [320] ( f (u), g1 ( f (u))), (u, g(u)), ( f (u), g1 ( f (u))) are g-edges join-
ing vertices of Cfu and Cf . Moreover, the paths
u, f (u), g1 ( f (u)), g(u), u and
g(u)
u, f (u), g1 ( f (u)), g(u), u form two 4-cycles in BF(n).
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 592
<0,000> <0,001>
(000) (001)
Cg Cg
<2,000>
<1,001>
<2,001>
<1,000>
<0,010> <0,011>
(010) (011)
Cg Cg
<2,010> <2,011>
<1,010> <1,011>
<2,110> <2,111>
<1,110> <1,111>
(a) (b)
FIGURE 20.4 (a) Another layout of BF(3) and (b) the graph BF(3)G .
Any Cfu contains exactly two vertices at each level. Suppose that u is one of the
vertices in Cfu at level i. Then the other vertex in Cfu at level i is u. Thus, Cfu contains
(a a ...a 0)
exactly one vertex at level 0, say
0, a0 a1 . . . an1 , with an1 = 0. We use Cf 0 1 n2
as the name for Cfu . Now, we form a new graph BF(n)F with all the f -cycles of BF(n)
as vertices, where two different f -cycles are joined with an edge if and only if there
exists a g-edge joining them. The vertex of BF(n)F corresponding to Cfu is denoted
u
by C f . We recall the denition of the folded hypercube as follows. An n-dimensional
folded hypercube is basically an n-cube augmented with 2n1 complement edges. Each
complement edge connects two vertices whose labels are complements to each other.
COROLLARY 20.3 [185] If (u, g(u)) Y (h) then ( f (u), g1 ( f (u))), (u, g(u)), and
( f (u), g1 ( f (u))) are in Y (h) and |Y (h)| = 4. Moreover, {u, f (u), g(u), g1 ( f (u))} and
{u, f (u), g(u), g1 ( f (u))} induce two 4-cycles in BF(n).
COROLLARY 20.4 [320] There is a unique cycle C such that edges of BF(n)
joining vertices between Cfu and C are exactly (u, g(u)), ( f (u), g1 ( f (u))), (u, g(u)),
and ( f (u), g1 ( f (u))), and in that case, C is isomorphic to Cf
g(u)
.
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 593
u v
According to Corollaries 20.3 and 20.4, any edge h = (C f , C f ) induces two
u v
4-cycles in BF(n). Let be an assignment of (C f , C f ) E(BF(n)F ) with one of the
4-cycles that it induced. We use Yf (Cfu , Cfv ) to denote the set of f -edges induced
by (h) and Yg (Cfu , Cfv ) to denote the set of g-edges induced by (h). Hence,
|Yf (Cfu , Cfv )| = |Yg (Cfu , Cfv )| = 2.
LEMMA 20.10 Let T be any subtree of BF(n)F and let CfT , be the subgraph of
BF(n) generated by
# # #
E C u
Y
C u
, C v
Y
C u
, C v
f
g f f
f f f
u
C f V (T ) u v
C f ,C f E(T )
u v
C f ,C f E(T )
In Figure 20.5a, we have another layout of BF(3). The graph BF(3)F is shown
(000) (100)
in Figure 20.5b. For example, Yg (Cf , Cf ) = {(
0, 000,
1, 000), (
0, 100,
(000) (100)
1, 100)} and Yf (Cf , Cf ) = {(
0, 000,
1, 100), (
0, 100,
1, 000)}. Let T be
the tree indicated by bold lines in Figure 20.5b. The corresponding CfT , is indicated
by bold lines in Figure 20.5a.
Now, we propose three lemmas. Lemma 20.11 proves that the cycle of length
n2n 2 can be embedded in BF(n) F for any n 3 when F consists of one vertex
and one edge. Lemma 20.12 shows that the maximum cycle length is n2n 1 if n
is odd when F consists of one vertex and one edge. Lemma 20.13 veries that the
maximum cycle length is n2n 2 for odd n 3 when F consists of two vertices. To
prove these three lemmas, we use three fundamental cycles, denoted by B1 , B2 , and
B3 ( j), respectively, to construct a larger cycle in a faulty wrapped buttery graph.
The cycle B1 shown in Figure 20.6a is constructed as follows. Let a1 =
1, 00 . . . 0 and P1 be the path
a1 , g(a1 ), g2 (a1 ), . . . , gn2 (a1 ). Hence,
n
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 594
q <0,000> s
<0,100>
<1,000>
<2,001>
<1,100> <2,101>
(000) (100)
<1,011> <2,110> <1,111> Cf Cf
<2,010>
<0,111> <0,011>
<0,010> <0,110>
<2,011> <1,010>
<1,110> <2,111>
<2,100> <1,101>
<1,001> <2,000> (010) (110)
Cf Cf
<0,101> r <0,001> p
s q
(a) (b)
FIGURE 20.5 (a) Another layout of BF(3) and (b) the graph BF(3)F .
gn2 (a1 ) = a2 =
n 1, 00 . . . 0, f (a2 ) =
0, 00 . . . 0 1 = a3 , and f (a3 ) =
1,
n n1
1 00 . . . 0 1 = a4 . Let P2 be the path
a4 , g(a4 ), g2 (a4 ), . . . , gn1 (a4 ). Consequently,
n2
gn1 (a4 ) = a5 =
0, 1 00 . . . 0 1 and f 1 (a5 ) =
n 1, 1 00 . . . 0 = a6 . Let P3 be the
n2 n1
path
a6 , g1 (a6 ), g2 (a6 ), . . . , g(n1) (a6 ). Thus, g(n1) (a6 ) = a7 =
0, 1 00 . . . 0
n1
and f (a7 ) = a1 . Let B1 be
a1 , P1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , P2 , a5 , a6 , P3 , a7 , a1 . Obviously, P1 is
a path in Cga1 , P2 is a path in Cga4 , and P3 is a path in Cga6 . Since V (Cgu ) V (Cgv ) =
for u = v {a1 , a4 , a6 } and n 3, P1 , P2 , and P3 are disjoint paths. Therefore, B1 is a
cycle of length 3n.
Similarly, we can construct the basic cycle B2 shown in Figure 20.6b as follows.
Let B2 =
b1 , Q1 , b2 , b3 , Q2 , b4 , b5 , Q3 , b6 , b7 , Q4 , b8 , b1 , where
9 : 9 : 9 :
b1 = 1, 00 . . . 0 , b2 = n 1, 00 . . . 0 , b3 = n 2, 00 . . . 0 10
n n n2
9 : 9 : 9 :
b4 = 1, 00 . . . 0 10 , b5 = 0, 1 00 . . . 0 10 , b6 = n 1, 1 00 . . . 0 10
n2 n3 n3
9 : 9 :
b7 = n 2, 00 . . . 0 , b8 = 0, 1 00 . . . 0
n1 n1
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 595
(a) (b)
0 1
1 0
00...0 c c 8 100...0
1
n n1
R1 R4
j j1 j1 j
c2 c7
c3 c6
j j1
j1 j
00 ...0100...0 R2 R3 100...0100...0
j1 nj j2 nj
c4 c5
0 1
2
(c)
- .
Q1 = b1 , g(b1 ), g2 (b1 ), . . . , gn2 (b1 )
- .
Q2 = b3 , g1 (b3 ), g2 (b3 ), . . . , g(n3) (b3 )
- .
Q3 = b5 , g(b5 ), g2 (b5 ), . . . , gn1 (b5 )
- .
Q4 = b7 , g(b7 ), g2 (b7 )
9 : 9 :
c4 = 0, 00 . . . 0 1 00 . . . 0 , c5 = 1, 1 00 . . . 0 1 00 . . . 0
j1 nj j2 nj
9 : 9 : 9 :
c6 = j, 1 00 . . . 0 1 00 . . . 0 , c7 = j 1, 1 00 . . . 0 , c8 = 0, 1 00 . . . 0
j2 nj n1 n1
- .
R1 = c1 , g(c1 ), g2 (c1 ), . . . , g j2 (c1 )
- .
R2 = c3 , g1 (c3 ), g2 (c3 ), . . . , gj (c3 )
- .
R3 = c5 , g1 (c5 ), g2 (c5 ), . . . , g(nj+1) (c5 )
- .
R4 = c7 , g1 (c7 ), g2 (c7 ), . . . , g(nj+1) (c7 )
g (u 4)
u5
g 1(u 5)
u4 x
CfX
e u3 u1
u2
g (u 2) CfT,
g 1(u 3)
FIGURE 20.7 An illustration for Case 1.1 with n = 3, Sg = {(u2 , g(u2 )), (u4 , g(u4 ))}, Sg = {(u3 ,
g1 (u3 )), (u5 , g1 (u5 ))}, Sf = {(u2 , u3 ), (u4 , u5 )}, and Sf = {(g(u2 ), g1 (u3 )), (g(u4 ), g1 (u5 ))}.
Hence,
E CfT , Sg Sg Sf Sf
f (u3)
u4
f 1(u4)
Cgx x
u3 e
z
Cgz
u2 u1
CgT
f(u1) f 1(u2)
FIGURE 20.8 An illustration for Case 2.2.1 with n = 3, S1 = {(u3 , f (u3 )), (u4 , f 1 (u4 ))}, and
S2 = {(u1 , f (u1 )), (u2 , f 1 (u2 ))}.
y f ( y)
Case 2.2. n is an odd integer. Let S1 = Xf (Cg , Cg ) | y = g2k1 (x); 1 k
(n 1)/2 .
u f (u)
Case 2.2.1. e / S1 (see Figure 20.8). Since C g = C g , we can choose z {u, f (u)}
according to the following rules:
u x f (u) x z x
1. If either C g = C g or C g = C g , then we choose z such that C g = C g .
z x
2. Otherwise, we choose z such that (C g , C g )
/ E(BF(n)G ).
f (u3)
1
f (u4)
1
f (u2) u1
u4 u3 f 1(z2)
e
Cgy x f (z1)
f (u1) B1
u2 y
z1 z2
T
Cg
FIGURE 20.9 An illustration for Case 2.2.2 with n = 3, S3 = {(u3 , f (u3 )), (u4 , f 1 (u4 ))}, and
S4 = {(u1 , f (u1 )), (u2 , f 1 (u2 )).
y x
Hence, C g is not adjacent to any vertex in W 1 {C g }. Since n 3 and BF(n)G is
y
isomorphic to an n-dimensional hypercube, BF(n)G W 1 {C g } is connected. Let T
y
be any spanning tree of BF(n)G W 1 {C g }. By Lemma 20.7, CgT is a cycle spanning
y f (w)
V (BF(n)) W1 V (Cg ). There exists w V (B1 ) such that Xf (Cgw , Cg ) is fault-free
and (w, f (w)) joins some vertex in both B1 and CgT . Then
# #
Ce = E(B1 ) E CgT Xf Cgw , Cgf (w) Xg Cgw , Cgf (w)
y
length n2 2n spanning (V (BF(n)) W1 V
(Cg )) V (B1).
forms a cycle of n
f (s)
Let S3 = Xf (Cgs , Cg ) | s = g2k1 (a3 ); 1 k (n 1)/2 and S4 = Xf (Cgt ,
f (t)
Cg ) |t = g2k1 ( y); 1 k (n 1)/2 . Hence, S3 S4 = and S3 S4 is fault-
free. We observe that (u,v)(S3 S4 ) Xg (Cgu , Cgv )) S3 S4 forms n 1 disjoint
; <
4-cycles. Let S5 = ( f (s), g1 ( f (s))) | s = g2k1 (a3 ); 1 k (n 1)/2 and S6 =
; <
( f (t), g1 ( f (t))) | t = g2k1 ( y); 1 k (n 1)/2 . Hence, S5 S6 = , S5 S6 is a
subset of both E(Ce ) and (u,v)(S3 S4 ) Xg (Cgu , Cgv )). Therefore,
#
Xg Cgu , Cgv S3 S4 E(Ce ) S5 S6
(u,v)(S3 S4 )
f(z1) 1
f (u1) f (u2)
1
f (z2)
u2 u1
z2
z1 x
B1
T
Cg
FIGURE 20.10 An illustration for Case 1.1 with n = 3 and S = {(u1 , f (u1 )), (u2 , f 1 (u2 ))}.
forms a cycle of length n2n 3n 1 spanning V (BF(n)) V (B1 ) {x} and it does not
f (z)
contain e. Since the length of B1 is 3n, there exists z V (B1 ) such that Xf (Cgz , Cg )
is fault-free and (z, f (z)) joins some vertex in both Ce and B1 . Therefore,
# #
E(Ce ) E(B1 ) Xf Cgz , Cgf (z) Xg Cgz , Cgf (z)
f (u1)
u2
1
f (u2)
C gx x
u1
CgT
FIGURE 20.11 An illustration for Case 1.2 with n = 3 and S = {(u1 , f (u1 )), (u2 , f 1 (u2 ))}.
V (BF(n)) V (Cgx ). Since S is fault-free, (u,v) S Xg (Cgu , Cgv ) S forms (n 1)/2 dis-
; <
joint 4-cycles. Let S1 = ( f (y), g1 ( f (y))) | y = g2k1 (x); 1 k (n 1)/2 . Hence,
S1 is a subset of both (u,v) S Xg (Cgu , Cgv ) and E(CgT ). Therefore,
#
Xg Cgu , Cgv S E CgT S1
(u,v)S
T f (v1) f 1(v2)
Cg
v2 v1
u v4
v3 x
u
z2
Cg e B1
f (z1)
z1
f 1(z2)
FIGURE 20.12 An illustration for Case 2.3.1 with n = 3, S = {(v1 , f (v1 )), (v2 , f 1 (v2 ))},
Xf (Cgu , Cg ) = {(u, v3 ), (z1 , v4 )}, Xf (Cgz , Cg )) = {(z1 , f (z1 )), (z2 , f 1 (z2 ))}, Xg (Cgu , Cg ) =
f (u) f (z) f (u)
#
Ce = Xg Cgu , Cgv S E CgT S1
(u,v)S
forms a cycle spanning V (BF(n)) V (B1 ) V (Cgu ) {x}. Since the length of B1 is
3n, we can choose a vertex z V (Cgu ) such that f (z) V (Ce ) if f (u) V (B1 ) or f (z)
V (B1 ) if f (u)
/ V (B1 ). Therefore,
E(Ce ) E(B1 ) E Cgu Xf Cgu , Cgf (u) Xf Cgz , Cgf (z)
Xg Cgu , Cgf (u) Xg Cgz , Cgf (z)
f 1(v2)
u 2,001 f (v1)
f 1(w ) v1
e u 2
Cg v2
f (u) 1 0
2
x
1
w 1,001 B2
0 z2
2 0
1 z
1 2
1
f (z1)
f 1(z2)
y f (y)
S2 = Xf (Cg , Cg ) y = g2k1 (b8 ); 1 k (n 3)/2 . Then
#
Ce = E CgT S2 Xg Cgu , Cgv Xf Cgg(b3 ) , Cgf (g(b3 ))
(u,v)S2
& =
f (g(b3 ))
1
n3
Xg Cg , Cg
g(b3 )
f (y), g ( f (y)) y = g 2k1
(b8 ); 1 k
2
forms a cycle spanning V (BF(n)) V (B2 ) {x} and it does not contain e. Since the
length of B2 is 3n, there exists w V (B2 ) such that (w, f (w)) joins some vertex in
f (w)
both Ce and B2 . Obviously, Xf (Cgw , Cg ) is fault-free. Then
E(Ce ) E(B2 ) Xf Cgw , Cgf (w) Xg Cgw , Cgf (w)
& =
nj1
S1 = Xf Cgy , Cgf (y) y = g2k (c2 ); 1 k
2
& =
nj1
S2 = Xf Cgy , Cgf (y) y = g2k1 (c3 ); 1 k
2
& =
j
S3 = Xf Cgy , Cgf (y) y = g2k1 (c5 ); 1 k 1
2
& =
j
S4 = Xf Cgy , Cgf (y) y = g2k1 (c8 ); 1 k 1
2
f (u7)
0 u8 1
f (u1) 1 0 f (u8)
u2 x c
z2 c 8 1
1
6
2 u7
f 1(u2) 5 z1
f (z1)
u1 4 3 3
y c2 c 1
c3 B3(4) c67 f (z2)
u3 4 4
f 1
(u4) 5 3 u6 f (u5)
6
f(u3) c4
u4 c5 2
u5 f 1(u6)
0 1
CgT
FIGURE 20.14 An illustration for Case 1 with j = 4, n = 7, S1 = {(u1 , f (u1 )), (u2 , f 1 (u2 ))},
S2 = {(u3 , f (u3 )), (u4 , f 1 (u4 ))}, S3 = {(u5 , f (u5 )), (u6 , f 1 (u6 ))}, and S4 = {(u7 , f (u7 )),
(u8 , f 1 (u8 ))}.
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 605
"
One can observe that Si Sj = for 1 i = j 4 and (u,v) S1 S2 S3 S4 Xg (Cgu , Cgv )
S1 S2 S3 S4 forms n 3 disjoint 4-cycles. Let
& =
nj1
S5 = f (y), g1 ( f (y)) y = g2k (c2 ); 1 k
2
& =
1
nj1
S6 = f (y), g ( f (y)) y = g 2k1
(c3 ); 1 k
2
& =
j
S7 = f (y), g1 ( f (y)) y = g2k1 (c5 ); 1 k 1
2
& =
1
j
S8 = f (y), g ( f (y)) y = g 2k1
(c8 ); 1 k 1
2
forms a cycle of length n2n 2n 6 spanning V (BF(n)) V (B3 ( j)) {x, y}. Since
f (z)
the length of B3 ( j) is 2n + 4, there exists z V (B3 ( j)) such that Xf (Cgz , Cg ) is
fault-free and (z, f (z)) joins some vertex in both Ce and B3 ( j). Then
E(Ce ) E(B3 ( j)) Xf Cgz , Cgf (z) Xg Cgz , Cgf (z)
f (u3)
u4
f 1(u4)
Cgx x
u3
y
Cgy
u2 u1
CgT
f (u1) f 1(u2)
FIGURE 20.15 An illustration for Case 2 with n = 3, S1 = {(u3 , f (u3 )), (u4 , f 1 (u4 ))}, and
S2 = {(u1 , f (u1 )), (u2 , f 1 (u2 ))}.
y a y a
Case 3.1. C g = C g3 and C g = C g7 (see Figure 20.9). Since BF(n)G is an
n-dimensional hypercube with n 3, Cga3 , Cga5 , and Cga7 are fault-free. As a result,
a y y
C g3 is not adjacent to C g in BF(n)G . Since BF(n)G W 1 {C g } is connected,
y
let T be any spanning tree of BF(n)G W 1 {C g }. The Hamiltonian cycle of the
graph BF(n) F can be constructed by the same method used in Case 2.2.2 of
Lemma 20.11.
y a y a
Case 3.2. C g = C g3 or C g = C g7 . Let S1 =
2k 1, 00 . . . 0 1 | 1 k (n 1)/2
n1
and S2 =
2k, 1 00 . . . 0 | 1 k (n 1)/2 . Therefore, there does not exist any
n1
f (u) y
edge in Xf (Cgu , Cg ) that joins vertices of Cgx and Cg for all u S1 S2 .
Case 3.2.2. y S1 S2 .
Given an integer k with 0 k < n, the mapping k from V (BF(n)) into V (BF(n))
can be dened by k (
l, a0 a1 . . . an1 ) =
(l k) mod n, ak ak+1 . . . an1 a0 a1 . . .
ak1 . Similarly, we can dene the mapping i from V (BF(n)) into V (BF(n))
as i (
l, a0 a1 . . . , ai ai+1 , . . . , an1 ) =
l, a0 a1 . . . ai ai+1 . . . an1 where 0 i < n.
Hence, k and i are two automorphisms of BF(n).
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 607
With a similar but easier proof, we have the following two lemmas.
LEMMA 20.14 [185] For any integer n 3, BF(n) F is Hamiltonian if F consists
of two edges.
LEMMA 20.15 [321] For any integer n 3, BF(n) F contains a cycle of length
n2n 2 if F consists of one vertex and a cycle of length n2n 4 if F consists of two
vertices.
Combining Lemmas 20.11 through 20.15, we have the following theorem.
1 1
ij 00 ij 10 ij01 ij 11 ij 00 ij 10 ij01 ij 11
1 2 1 2
3 3
2 2
4 4
3 3
5 5
0 0
0 0
1 1 1 1
i, j
FIGURE 20.16 (a) A weakly 2-scheduled Hamiltonian path P1 of BF0,1 (4) joins
1, ij00
i, j,0,0 i, j
to
2, ij10; (b) 30 20 (P1 ) in BF0,1,2,3 (6) = 30 20 (BF0,1 (4)); (c) a weakly 2-scheduled
i, j i, j,0,0
Hamiltonian path P2 of BF0,1 (4) joins
1, ij00 to
2, ij00; and (d) 30 20 (P2 ) in BF0,1,2,3 (6).
THEOREM 20.2 [343] Assume that n 3. Every BF(n) has a totally scheduled
Hamiltonian cycle. Thus, BF(n) is 2 -connected.
Proof: We prove this theorem by induction on n. Obviously, BF(3) contains a
totally scheduled Hamiltonian cycle (See Figure 20.17). Assume that BF(n 1)
has a totally scheduled Hamiltonian cycle C for n 4. Accordingly, 00 (C)
and 01 (C) are totally scheduled Hamiltonian cycles of 00 (BF(n 1)) = BF00 (n)
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 609
and 01 (BF(n 1)) = BF01 (n), respectively. Since BF(n) can be partitioned into
{BF00 (n), BF01 (n)}, then the cycle generated by
000 100 000 100 000 100 000 100 010 110 001 101 011 111
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
0,0 0,0 0,0
BF 1,2 (3) BF 1,2 (3) BF 0,1 (3)
(a) (b) (c)
000 100 010 110 001 101 011 111 000 100 010 110 001 101 011 111
0 0
1 1
2 2
0 0
(d) (e)
0,0
FIGURE 20.18 (a) Hamiltonian paths from u =
0, 000 to every level-2 vertex in BF1,2 (3);
0,0
(b) a path from u =
0, 000 to
0, 001 in BF0,1 (3); (c) a weakly 0-scheduled Hamiltonian path
from u =
0, 000 to
0, 100; (d) a weakly 0-scheduled Hamiltonian path from u =
0, 000 to
0, 010; and (e) a weakly 0-scheduled Hamiltonian path from u =
0, 000 to
0, 110.
E(P) E(C 10 ) E(C 01 ) E(C 11 )
; 00 10 10 11 10 11 01 11 01 11 <
v00
1 , v10
2 , v2 , v1 , v2 , v0 , v0 , v2 , v1 , v2 , v2 , v1
; 00 00 10 10 10 10 11 11 01 01 11 11 <
v1 , v2 , v1 , v2 , v2 , v0 , v2 , v0 , v1 , v2 , v1 , v2
E(P) E(C 10 ) E(C 01 ) E(C 11 )
; 00 01 00 01 01 11 01 11 <
v00 10
0 , v1 , u1 , u2 , u2 , u1 , u0 , u1 , u1 , u0
; 00 01 00 01 <
v00 00
1 , v2 , v1 , v2 , v2 , v1
; 00 00 01 01 01 01 11 11 01 01 <
v10 10
0 , v1 , u1 , u2 , u1 , u2 , u0 , u1 , u0 , u1 , v1 , v2
E(P) E(C 10 ) E(C 01 ) E(C 11 )
; 10 11 11 01 < ; 00 00 00 01 00 01 <
v00 10
0 , v1 1, v2 , v1 , v0 , v1 v1 , v2 , v1 , v2 , v2 , v1
; 10 10 11 11 01 01 01 01 <
v1 , v2 , v0 , v1 , v0 , v1 , v1 , v2
E(P) E(C 10 ) E(C 01 ) E(C 11 )
; 10 11 11 01 11 01 <
v00 10
0 , v1 , v2 , v1 , u0 , u1 , u1 , u0
; 00 01 00 01 <
v00 00
1 , v2 , v1 , v2 , v2 , v1
; 11 11 01 01 11 11 01 01 <
v10 10
1 , v2 , v0 , v1 , u0 , u1 , u0 , u1 , v1 , v2
0000 1000 0001 1001 0000 1000 0001 1001 0000 1000 0001 1001 0000 1000 0001 1001
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
BF 1,2 (4) BF 1,2 (4) BF 1,2 (4) BF 1,2 (4)
Case 1. Suppose that x1 = 0 and x2 = 0. Obviously, we have v = v00 1 . Since BF(4) can
be partitioned into {BF1,2 (4), BF1,2 (4), BF1,2 (4), BF1,2 (4)}, the path P generated by
0,0 1,0 0,1 1,1
E(P) E(C 10 ) E(C 01 ) E(C 11 )
; 00 10 00 01 00 01 01 11 01 11 <
w00
1 , w10
2 , w2 , w1 , w2 , w3 , w3 , w2 , w1 , w2 , w2 , w1
; 00 00 10 10 00 00 01 01 01 01 11 11 <
w1 , w2 , w1 , w2 , w2 , w3 , w2 , w3 , w1 , w2 , w1 , w2
Depending upon Lemmas 20.18 and 20.19, we can prove the following theorem
by induction.
THEOREM 20.3 [343] Assume that n is an even integer greater than two. Let
u =
0, 0n and let v be any level- vertex of BF(n) for odd Zn . Then there exists
a weakly -scheduled Hamiltonian path of BF(n) joining u to v.
ij
Proof: For convenience, let v =
, x0 x1 . . . xn1 and vh =
h, x0 . . . x1 ijx+2 . . .
xn1 . We proceed by induction on n. For n = 4, Lemma 20.19 conrms this condition.
Now we assume that BF(n 2) is Hamiltonian laceable for n 6. By Theorem 20.2,
there exists a totally scheduled Hamiltonian cycle C in BF(n 2). By the inductive
hypothesis, there also exists a weakly -scheduled Hamiltonian P of BF(n 2) from
u to any vertex on an odd level. Since P is weakly -scheduled, there is at least one
level- vertex w =
, y0 . . . y1 y+2 . . . yn1 of P incident to a level-(-1) edge and
a level- edge on P. If the nal edge of P is a level- edge, then we assume that
P =
u, +1
0 0 (P), v0,0 , v0,0 , v0,0 . Otherwise, we assume that P = 0 0 (P).
+2 +1 +1
In either case, P is a weakly -scheduled path joining u to v00 . For convenience, let
ij
wh =
h, y0 . . . y1 ijy+2 . . . yn1 .
Case 1. Suppose that x = 0 and x+1 = 0.
0,0 1,0 0,1
Since BF(n) can be partitioned into {BF,+1 (n), BF,+1 (n), BF,+1 (n),
1,1
BF,+1 (n)}, the path P generated by
E(P ) E ,+1
1,0 0,1
(C) E ,+1 1,1
(C) E ,+1 (C)
; 00 00
w00 10 10
, w+1 , w+1 , w , w+1 , w+2 ,
01
00 01 11 01 <
w+2 , w01+1 , w , w+1 , w+1 , w
11
; 10 10 00
w00 00
, w+1 , w , w+1 , w+1 , w+2 ,
00
01 01 01 11 11 <
w+1 , w01+2 , w , w+1 , w , w+1
Case 2. Suppose that x = 1 and x+1 = 0. Obviously, the path P generated by
E(P ) E ,+1
1,0 0,1
(C) E ,+1 1,1
(C) E ,+1 (C)
; 00 10 00 00 01 11 01 <
v , v+1 , w+1 , w01 01 11
+2 , w+2 , w+1 , w , w+1 , w+1 , w
; 00 01 01 01 11 11 <
v10 10 00 01
, v+1 , w+1 , w+2 , w+1 , w+2 , w , w+1 , w , w+1
THEOREM 20.4 [343] Assume that n is an odd integer greater than two. Let
u =
0, 0n and let v be any level- vertex of BF(n) for any . Then there exists a
weakly -scheduled Hamiltonian path of BF(n) joining u to v.
Using a similar technique, Kueng et al. [208] prove that BF(n) is i -laceable
(respectively i -connected) if n is even (respectively odd) for i {3, 4}. Thus, we have
the following theorem.
Suppose that e1 = (u1 , v1 ) and e2 = (u2 , v2 ) are either any two cross edges of BF(n)
or any two straight edges of BF(n). It is known that there exists an isomorphism
over V (BF(n)) such that u2 = (u1 ) and v2 = (v1 ). Clearly, every Hamiltonian cycle
of BF(n) contains at least one cross edge and at least one straight edge. Hence, we
have the following lemma.
LEMMA 20.20 For any edge e of BF(n) with n 3, there exists a totally scheduled
Hamiltonian cycle of BF(n) including e.
0, ijk0,
1, ijk0,
2, ijk0,
3, ijk0,
0, ijk1,
1, ijk1,
2, ijk1,
i,j,k
3, ijk1, and
0, ijk0 forms a desired Hamiltonian cycle of BF0,1,2 (4).
i,j,k
COROLLARY 20.8 Let e be any edge of BF0,1,2 (n) for n 5 and some i, j, k Z2 .
i,j,k
There exists a totally scheduled Hamiltonian cycle of BF0,1,2 (n) including e.
1, ij0,
0, ij0,
2, ij1,
1, ij1,
0, ij1,
2, ij0
1, ij0,
0, ij0,
2, ij0,
0, ij1,
1, ij1,
2, ij1
where F0 = {
2, ij00w |
2, ijw F0 } {
3, ij00w |
2, ijw F0 } and F1 = {
3,
ij00w |
2, ijw F1 } {
4, ij00w|
2, ijw F1 }. If 30 20 (P00 ) joins s to
2, ij00x,
then let P00 = 30 20 (P00 ) and F60 = F0 . Otherwise, let P00 =
s, 30 20 (P00 ),
4, ij00x,
3, ij00x,
2, ij00x and F60 = F0 {
2, ij00x,
3, ij00x}. Then we con-
sider the following cases.
TABLE 20.1
i,j
Hamiltonian Paths of BF 0,1 (4) as Induction Bases
1, ij00,
0, ij00,
3, ij01,
2, ij11,
1, ij11,
0, ij11,
3, ij11,
2, ij01,
1, ij01,
0, ij01,
3, ij00,
2, ij10,
1, ij10,
0, ij10,
3, ij10,
2, ij00
1, ij00,
0, ij00,
3, ij00,
2, ij00,
3, ij10,
0, ij11,
1, ij11,
2, ij11,
3, ij01,
0, ij01,
1, ij01,
2, ij01,
3, ij11,
0, ij10,
1, ij10,
2, ij10
1, ij00,
0, ij00,
3, ij00,
2, ij00,
3, ij10,
2, ij10,
1, ij10,
0, ij10,
3, ij11,
0, ij11,
1, ij11,
2, ij11,
3, ij01,
0, ij01,
1, ij01,
2, ij01
1, ij00,
0, ij00,
3, ij01,
2, ij01,
1, ij01,
0, ij01,
3, ij00,
2, ij00,
3, ij10,
2, ij10,
1, ij10,
0, ij10,
3, ij11,
0, ij11,
1, ij11,
2, ij11
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 618
TABLE 20.2
i,j
Hamiltonian Paths of BF 0,1 (5) as Induction Bases
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij001,
3, ij011,
2, ij111,
1, ij111,
0, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij111,
2, ij011,
1, ij011,
0, ij011,
4, ij011,
3, ij001,
2, ij101,
1, ij101,
0, ij101,
4, ij101,
3, ij101,
2, ij001,
1, ij001,
0, ij001,
4, ij000,
3, ij010,
2, ij110,
1, ij110,
0, ij110,
4, ij110,
3, ij110,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij000,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
3, ij100,
2, ij000
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij001,
3, ij011,
2, ij111,
1, ij111,
0, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij111,
2, ij011,
1, ij011,
0, ij011,
4, ij011,
3, ij001,
2, ij101,
1, ij101,
0, ij101,
4, ij101,
3, ij101,
2, ij001,
1, ij001,
0, ij001,
4, ij000,
3, ij010,
2, ij110,
1, ij110,
0, ij110,
4, ij110,
3, ij110,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
4, ij100,
0, ij100,
1, ij100,
2, ij100
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij001,
3, ij011,
2, ij111,
1, ij111,
0, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij111,
2, ij011,
1, ij011,
0, ij011,
4, ij011,
3, ij001,
2, ij101,
1, ij101,
0, ij101,
4, ij101,
3, ij101,
2, ij001,
1, ij001,
0, ij001,
4, ij000,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
3, ij110,
4, ij110,
0, ij110,
1, ij110,
2, ij110,
3, ij010,
4, ij010,
0, ij010,
1, ij010,
2, ij010
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij001,
3, ij011,
2, ij111,
1, ij111,
0, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij111,
2, ij011,
1, ij011,
0, ij011,
4, ij011,
3, ij001,
2, ij101,
1, ij101,
0, ij101,
4, ij101,
3, ij101,
2, ij001,
1, ij001,
0, ij001,
4, ij000,
3, ij010,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
3, ij110,
4, ij110,
0, ij110,
1, ij110,
2, ij110
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij000,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
3, ij110,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij010,
2, ij110,
1, ij110,
0, ij110,
4, ij110,
0, ij111,
1, ij111,
2, ij111,
3, ij011,
4, ij011,
0, ij011,
1, ij011,
2, ij011,
3, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij101,
4, ij101,
0, ij101,
1, ij101,
2, ij101,
3, ij001,
4, ij001,
0, ij001,
1, ij001,
2, ij001
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij000,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
3, ij110,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij010,
2, ij110,
1, ij110,
0, ij110,
4, ij110,
0, ij111,
1, ij111,
2, ij111,
3, ij011,
4, ij001,
0, ij001,
1, ij001,
2, ij001,
3, ij001,
4, ij011,
0, ij011,
1, ij011,
2, ij011,
3, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij101,
4, ij101,
0, ij101,
1, ij101,
2, ij101
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij000,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
3, ij110,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij010,
2, ij110,
1, ij110,
0, ij110,
4, ij110,
0, ij111,
1, ij111,
2, ij111,
3, ij111,
4, ij111,
3, ij101,
4, ij101,
0, ij101,
1, ij101,
2, ij101,
3, ij001,
2, ij001,
1, ij001,
0, ij001,
4, ij001,
3, ij011,
4, ij011,
0, ij011,
1, ij011,
2, ij011
1, ij000,
0, ij000,
4, ij000,
3, ij010,
2, ij110,
1, ij110,
0, ij110,
4, ij110,
3, ij110,
2, ij010,
1, ij010,
0, ij010,
4, ij010,
3, ij000,
2, ij000,
3, ij100,
2, ij100,
1, ij100,
0, ij100,
4, ij100,
0, ij101,
1, ij101,
2, ij101,
3, ij001,
4, ij011,
0, ij011,
1, ij011,
2, ij011,
3, ij011,
4, ij001,
0, ij001,
1, ij001,
2, ij001,
3, ij101,
4, ij101,
3, ij111,
4, ij111,
0, ij111,
1, ij111,
2, ij111
Case 1. If ij = 00, d =
2, ij00x. Let A = {(
2, ij10y,
3, ij00y), (
2, ij00y,
3, ij10y), (
2, ij11y,
3, ij01y), (
2, ij01y,
3, ij11y), (
3, ij11y,
4, ij10y),
(
3, ij10y,
4, ij11y)} and B = {(
2, ij00y,
3, ij00y), (
2, ij10y,
3, ij10y),
(
2, ij01y,
3, ij01y), (
2, ij11y,
3, ij11y), (
3, ij10y,
4, ij10y), (
3, ij11y,
4, ij11y)}. Then the subgraph P, generated by (E(P00 ) E(C 10 ) E(C 01 )
i,j
E(C 11 ) A) B, forms a weakly 2-scheduled path of BF0,1 (n) joining s to d with
V (BF0,1 (n)) V (P) = F60 F1 . Moreover, since P00 , C 10 , C 01 , and C 11 are all
i,j
0-scheduled, P is 0-scheduled.
For convenience, let dhab =
h, ijabx and vab h =
h, ijaby for any a, b Z2 ,
h {2, 3, 4}.
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 619
Case 2. If ij = 10, d =
2, ij10x. Let A = {(d200 , d310 ), (v11 01 01 11 11
2 , v3 ), (v2 , v3 ), (v3 ,
v4 ), (v3 , v4 )} and B = {(d2 , d3 ), (v2 , v3 ), (v2 , v3 ), (v3 , v4 ), (v3 , v4 )}. Then
10 10 11 10 10 01 01 11 11 10 10 11 11
X0hk = {(
2, ijhkw,
3, ijhkw) |
2, ij00w and
3, ij00w are in F60 }
Y0hk = {(
2, ijhkw,
3, ijhkw) |
2, ij00w and
3, ij00w are in F60 }
X1hk = {(
3, ijhkw,
4, ijhkw) |
3, ij00w and
4, ij00w are in F1 }
Y1hk = {(
3, ijhkw,
4, ijhkw) |
3, ij00w and
4, ij00w are in F1 }
Case 1.
In terms of the symmetry of BF(n), we have the following corollary.
g2 (d) >
<4, i j 10x> <4, i j 01x>
<2,i j11y >
<2, i j 00y>
< <2,i j 10y> <2, i j 01y>
<3, i j 00y>
> <3, i j 01y> <3, i j 11y>
<3,i j 10y y>
<4, i j 00y> <4, i j 10y>
y <4, i j 01y>
< <4, i j 11y>
P 00 C 10 C 01 C11
FIGURE 20.20 The path P generated by (E(P) (X000 Y000 Y010 ) (X100 Y100 Y101 ))
(X010 X101 ).
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 620
0,0,0 0,0,1
BF 0,1,2 (n) BF 0,1,2 (n)
0,0,0 0,0,1
BF 0,1,2 (4) BF 0,1,2 (4) C0 C1
d2
0000 0001 0010 0011 s u3
1 s u3
u1 d1
u5 u2
u1 d1 u4
2
---- : C0 (b)
: C1
0,0,0 0,0,1
3 u5 u2 BF 0,1,2 (n) BF 0,1,2 (n)
H1:
0 d2 u2 Sd2 P01 u5 u1 u2 u4 P1 u3 d1
0,0,1 0,0,0
BF 0,1,2 (n) BF 0,1,2 (n){s,u1}
s u3
1
H2:
(a) s u1 u2 u4 P1 u3d1 u5 P0 d2
(c)
0,0
abstraction of C0 and C1 for general n. Since {(u1 , u2 ), (d1 , u5 )} E(BF0,1 (n)), we set
H1 =
s, d2 , P01 , u5 , u1 , u2 , u4 , P1 , u3 , d1
H2 =
s, u1 , u2 , u4 , P1 , u3 , d1 , u5 , P0 , d2
One can nd, as shown in Figure 20.21c, that H1 and H2 satisfy the requirements.
LEMMA 20.24 Given any k {0, 1} and n 4, let (b1 , w1 ) be a level-1 straight edge
1,1,k 1,1,k
of BF0,1,n1 (n) and let (b2 , w2 ) be a level-0 straight edge of BF0,1,n1 (n) such that w1
and w2 are two distinct level-1 vertices. There exist two Hamiltonian paths H1 and
1,1
H2 of BF0,1 (n) such that the following conditions are all satised:
H1 =
b1 , P01 , v5 , b2 , w2 , v6 , P02 , u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , P11 , v1 , v4 , v3 , v2 , P12 , u5 , u6 , w1
1 1 1 1
H2 =
b2 , v1 , P11 , u4 , u3 , u2 , u5 , P12 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , P01 , b1 , w1 , u6 , u1 , P02 , v6 , w2
1,1,0 1,1,1
BF 0,1,n1(n) BF 0,1,n1 (n)
C0 P02 P12 C1
1,1,0 1,1,1 v6
BF 0,1,3 (4) BF 0,1,3 (4) w2 u1 u5 v2
1100 1110 1101 1111 u6 u2
b2 v3
1 w1 u3
w1 w2 u3 v4 v5 v4
b1 u4
v1
b1 v6 u4 v2 P01 P11
2
---- : C0 (b)
: C1
1,1,0 1,1,1
3 u1 v5 u5 v1 BF 0,1,n1(n){w1, u6} BF 0,1,n1(n)
H1:
0 u6 b2 u2 v4 b1 P0 u1 u2 u3 u4 P1 u5 u6 w1
1,1,1 1,1,0
BF 0,1,n1(n) BF 0,1,n1(n){b2}
w1 w2 u3 v3
1
H2:
(a) b2 v1 R1 v2 v3 v4 v5 R0 v6 w2
(c)
1 1
FIGURE 20.22 Illustration for Lemma 20.24. In (c), R1 =
v1 , P11 , u4 , u3 , u2 , u5 , P12 , v2 and
1 1
R0 =
v5 , P01 , b1 , w1 , u6 , u1 , P02 , v6 .
TABLE 20.3
Four Mutually Independent Hamiltonian Cycles C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 of BF (3)
Starting from 0,000
C1
0, 000,
2, 001,
0, 001,
1, 001,
2, 011,
0, 011,
1, 011,
0, 111,
2, 111,
1, 111,
2, 101,
1, 101,
0, 101,
2, 100,
0, 100,
1, 100,
2, 110,
0, 110,
1, 110,
0, 010,
2, 010,
1, 010,
2, 000,
1, 000,
0, 000
C2
0, 000,
1, 000,
2, 000,
0, 001,
1, 001,
2, 011,
0, 011,
1, 111,
2, 101,
0, 101,
1, 101,
2, 111,
0, 110,
1, 010,
2, 010,
0, 010,
1, 110,
2, 100,
0, 100,
1, 100,
2, 110,
0, 111,
1, 011,
2, 001,
0, 000
C3
0, 000,
1, 100,
2, 100,
0, 100,
1, 000,
2, 010,
0, 010,
1, 110,
2, 110,
0, 111,
1, 111,
0, 011,
2, 011,
1, 011,
2, 001,
0, 001,
1, 001,
0, 101,
2, 101,
1, 101,
2, 111,
0, 110,
1, 010,
2, 000,
0, 000
C4
0, 000,
2, 000,
1, 000,
2, 010,
0, 010,
1, 010,
0, 110,
2, 110,
1, 110,
2, 100,
0, 101,
1, 001,
2, 001,
0, 001,
1, 101,
2, 111,
0, 111,
1, 011,
2, 011,
0, 011,
1, 111,
2, 101,
0, 100,
1, 100,
0, 000
u2 = f 1 (u1 ) =
1, 012 0n3 , u3 = g1 (u2 ) =
0, 012 0n3 , u4 = f (u3 ) =
1, 13 0n3 ,
u5 = g(u4 ) =
2, 13 0n3 , u6 = f 1 (u5 ) =
1, 1010n3 , u7 = f 1 (s) =
0, 10n1 ,
v1 = g1 (s) =
0, 0n , v2 = f (v1 ) =
1, 10n1 , v3 = g(v2 ) =
2, 10n1, v4 = f 1 (v3 ) =
1, 12 0n2 , v5 = g1 (v4 ) =
0, 12 0n2 , v6 = f (v5 ) =
1, 010n2 , and v7 = g(v6 ) =
f (s) =
2, 010n2 be vertices of BF(n). Obviously, {u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5 , u6 , u7 , v1 , v2 ,
v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v7 } consists of 14 different vertices of BF(n) such that all (u1 , u2 ),
(u3 , u4 ), (u5 , u6 ), (u7 , s), (v1 , v2 ), (v3 , v4 ), (v5 , v6 ), and (v7 , s) are in E(BF(n)). By
0,0
Lemma 20.23, there exist two Hamiltonian paths P1 and P2 of BF0,1 (n) such that (1)
ch020.tex 30/6/2008 13: 47 Page 623
(a) s u1 u2 u3 u4 u 5 u6 u7 s
0,0 1,0 1,1 0,1
BF 0,1 (n) BF 0,1(n) BF 0,1(n) BF 0,1 (n)
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v7 s
(b) s
1,0 1,1 0,1 0,0
BF 0,1 (n) BF 0,1(n) BF 0,1(n) BF 0,1 (n)
FIGURE 20.23 Illustration for Theorem 20.6. (a) C1 , (b) C2 , (c) C3 , and (d) C4 .
P1 joins s to u1 , (2) P2 joins s to v1 , and (3) P1 (1) = P2 (1) = s and P1 (t) = P2 (t) for all
0,1
2 t n 2n2 . By Lemma 20.22, there is a Hamiltonian path Q1 of BF0,1 (n) joining
1,0
u2 to u3 . Similarly, there is a Hamiltonian path Q2 of BF0,1 (n) joining v2 to v3 , a Hamil-
1,0 0,1
tonian path R1 of BF0,1 (n) joining u6 to u7 , and a Hamiltonian path R2 of BF0,1 (n)
joining v6 to v7 . Using Lemma 20.24, we can nd two Hamiltonian paths S1 and S2
1,1
of BF0,1 (n) such that (1) S1 joins u4 to u5 , (2) S2 joins v4 to v5 , and (3) S1 (t) = S2 (t)
for all 1 t n 2n2 . We set C1 =
s, P1 , u1 , u2 , Q1 , u3 , u4 , S1 , u5 , u6 , R1 , u7 , s and
C2 =
s, P2 , v1 , v2 , Q2 , v3 , v4 , S2 , v5 , v6 , R2 , v7 , s. Figures 20.23a and 20.23b illus-
trate C1 and C2 , respectively. Obviously, C1 and C2 are both Hamiltonian
cycles of BF(n). We claim that C1 and C2 are independent in what follows.
First, Lemma 20.23 guarantees that C1 (t) = C2 (t) with 2 t n 2n2 . Next,
C1 (t) = C2 (t) if n 2n2 + 1 t n 2n1 because C1 and C2 pass through dif-
ferent subgraphs separately. Moreover, Lemma 20.24 guarantees that C1 (t) =
C2 (t) with n 2n1 + 1 t 3n 2n2 . Finally, it is obvious that C1 (t) = C2 (t) if
3n 2n2 + 1 t n 2n . So C1 and C2 are independent.
Let u3 =
0, 012 0n4 1, u4 = f (u3 ) =
1, 13 0n4 1, u5 = g(u4 ) =
2, 13 0n4 1,
u6 = f 1 (u5 ) =
1, 1010n4 1,
v3 =
2, 10n2 1, v4 = f 1 (v3 ) =
1, 12 0n3 1,
1
v5 = g (v4 ) =
0, 1 0 1, and v6 = f (v5 ) =
1, 010 1 be vertices of BF(n).
2 n3 n3
C1 =
s, P1 , u1 , u2 , Q1 , u3 , u4 , S1 , u5 , u6 , R1 , u7 , s
C2 =
s, P2 , v1 , v2 , Q2 , v3 , v4 , S2 , v5 , v6 , R2 , v7 , s
C3 =
s, u7 , R31 , u6 , u5 , S31 , u4 , u3 , Q31 , u2 , u1 , P11 , s
C4 =
s, v7 , R41 , v6 , v5 , S41 , v4 , v3 , Q41 , v2 , v1 , P21 , s
21 Diagnosis of
Multiprocessor Systems
21.1 INTRODUCTION
With the rapid development of technology, the need for high-speed parallel processing
systems has been continuously increasing. The reliability of the processors in parallel
computing systems is therefore becoming an important issue. In order to maintain
the reliability of a system, whenever a processor is found to be faulty, it should be
replaced by a fault-free processor. The process of identifying all the faulty vertices is
called the diagnosis of the system. System-level diagnosis appears to be an alternative
to circuit-level testing in a complex multiprocessor system.
Many terms for system-level diagnosis have been dened and various models have
been proposed [19,115,248,273]. If all allowable fault sets can be diagnosed correctly
and completely based on a single syndrome, which is dened in the following section,
then the diagnosis is referred to as one-step diagnosis or diagnosis without repairs. A
system is called sequentially t-diagnosable, if at least one faulty unit can be identied,
provided that the number of faulty vertices does not exceed t. A system is said to be
t-diagnosable if, for every syndrome, there is a unique set of faulty vertices that could
produce the syndrome, as long as the number of faulty vertices does not exceed t. The
maximum number of faulty vertices that the system can guarantee to identify is called
the diagnosability of the system.
Another way of diagnosis is to allow a certain number of processors to be incor-
rectly diagnosed. Friedman [113] introduced the notation of t/s-diagnosable. A system
is t/s-diagnosable if, given any syndrome, the faulty units can be isolated to within
a set of at most s units, provided that the number of faulty units does not exceed t.
Chwa and Hakimi [72] studied the t1 /t1 -diagnosable systems.
625
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 626
LEMMA 21.1 [77] A system G(V , E) is t-diagnosable under the PMC model if and
only if for each pair F1 , F2 V with |F1 |, |F2 | t and F1 = F2 , there is at least one
test from V (F1 F2 ) to F1 F2 .
The following two results related to t-diagnosable systems are due to Hakimi and
Amin [136], and Preparata et al. [273], respectively.
LEMMA 21.2 [273] Let G(V , E) be the graph representation of a system G, with
V representing the processors and E the interconnection among them. Let |V | = n.
The following two conditions are necessary for G to be t-diagnosable under the PMC
model:
1. n 2t + 1
2. Each processor is tested by at least t other processors
LEMMA 21.3 [136] The following two conditions are sufcient for a system G of
n processors to be t-diagnosable under the PMC model:
1. n 2t + 1
2. (G) t
a directed graph G and vertex v V (G), let (v) = {vi | (v, vi ) E} and
For "
(X) = vX (v) X, X V . Hakimi and Amin presented the following necessary
and sufcient condition for a system G to be t-diagnosable.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 627
F1 F2 F1 F2
v or v
u u
THEOREM 21.1 [136] Let G(V , E) be the directed graph of a system G with n
units. Then G is t-diagnosable under the PMC model if and only if: (1) n 2t + 1,
(2) din (v) t for all v V , and (3) for each integer p with 0 p t 1, and each
X V with |X| = n 2t + p, |(X)| > p.
LEMMA 21.4 For any two distinct sets F1 , F2 V , (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable pair
under the PMC model if and only if u V (F1 F2 ) and v F1 F2 such that
(u, v) E (see Figure 21.1).
LEMMA 21.5 A system is t-diagnosable under the PMC model if and only if for each
distinct pair of sets F1 , F2 V with |F1 | t and |F2 | t, F1 and F2 are distinguishable.
LEMMA 21.6 A system is t-diagnosable under the PMC model if and only if for
each indistinguishable pair of sets F1 , F2 V , it implies that |F1 | > t or |F2 | > t.
COROLLARY 21.1 [273] Let G(V , E) be an undirected graph. The following two
conditions are necessary for G to be t-diagnosable under the PMC model:
1. n 2t + 1
2. (G) t
For (u, v)w L, the output of the comparison w of u and v is denoted by r((u, v)w ),
and a disagreement of the outputs is denoted by the comparison results r((u, v)w ) = 1,
whereas an agreement is denoted by r((u, v)w ) = 0.
Therefore, if the comparator w is fault-free and r((u, v)w ) = 0, then u and v are
both fault-free. If r((u, v)w ) = 1, then at least one of u, v, and w must be faulty. The
set of all comparison results of a multicomputer system that are analyzed together to
determine the faulty processors is called a syndrome of the system.
Next, we discuss the diagnosability under the comparison model. Given a graph
G, let T be the comparison graph of G. For a vertex v V (G), we dene Xv to be the
set of vertices {u|(v, u) E(G)} {u|(v, u)w E(T ) for some w} and Yv to be the set
of edges {(u, w)|u, w Xv and (v, u)w E(T )}. In Ref. 282, the order graph of vertex
v is dened as G(v) = (Xv , Yv ) and the order of the vertex v, denoted by orderG (v), is
dened to be the cardinality of a minimum vertex cover of G(v). Let U V (G), we
use (G, U) to denote the set {v|(u, v)w E(T ) and w, u U, v = U}. We observe
that (G, U) = N(U, U) if G[U] is connected and |U| > 1. This observation can be
extended to the following lemma.
LEMMA 21.8 [102] Let G be a connected graph and U be a subset of V (G). Then
|N(U, U)| (G) if |U| (G) and N(U, U) = U if |U| < (G).
Five lemmas and theorems presented by Sengupta and Dahbura [282] must be
applied to characterize whether a system is t-diagnosable. The results of these theorems
follow.
The rst one is a necessary and sufcient condition for ensuring distinguishability.
0 3
4 7
5 6
1 2
S1 S2
(1)
(1)
(2) (3)
LEMMA 21.10 [282] If, in a system, each vertex has order at least t, then for each
S1 , S2 V such that |S1 S2 | t, (S1 , S2 ) is a distinguishable pair.
1. N 2t + 1
2. orderG (v) t for every vertex v in G
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 631
3. |(G, U)| > p for each U V (G) such that |U| = N 2t + p and
0pt1
According to the Theorems 21.3 through 21.5, we observe that condition (3) of
Theorem 21.5 restricts G, satisfying the rst condition of Theorem 21.3, and ignores
conditions (2) and (3). Hence, we present a hybrid theorem to test whether a system
is t-diagnosable.
1. N 2t + 1
2. orderG (v) t for every vertex v in G
3. For any two distinct subsets S1 , S2 V (G) such that |S1 | = |S2 | = t either
(a) |(G, U)| > p, where U = V (G) (S1 S2 ), and |S1 S2 | = p; or (b) The
pair (S1 , S2 ) satises condition (2) or (3) of Theorem 21.3
Proof: Conditions (1) and (2) are the same as conditions (1) and (2) of Theorem 21.5.
Consider condition (3a). S1 and S2 are two distinct subsets of V (G) with |S1 | = |S2 | = t,
U = V (G) (S1 S2 ), and |S1 S2 | = p. Then 0 p t 1 and |U| = N 2t + p. If
|(G, U)| > p, it implies that the pair (S1 , S2 ) satises condition (1) of Theorem 21.3.
Combining conditions (3a) and (3b), by Theorems 21.3 and 21.4, this theorem
follows.
v v v
G1 G2
What we have in mind is the following. Let G1 and G2 be two t-connected networks
with the same number of vertices and orderGi (v) t for every vertex v in Gi , where
i = 1, 2, and let M be an arbitrary perfect matching between the vertices of G1 and
G2 . Then the degree of any vertex v in G(G1 G2 ) as compared with that of vertex
v in Gi , i = 1, 2, is increased by 1. We expect that the diagnosability of G(G1 G2 )
is also increased to t + 1. For example, the hypercube Qn+1 is constructed from two
copies of Qn by adding a perfect matching between the two, and the diagnosability is
increased from n to n + 1 for n 5. Other examples, such as the twisted cube TQn+1 ,
the crossed cube CQn+1 , and the Mbius cube MQn+1 , are all constructed recursively
using the same method as previously.
THEOREM 21.8 Let G1 and G2 be two networks with the same number of vertices,
and t be a positive integer. Suppose that orderGi (v) t for every vertex v in Gi , where
i = 1, 2. Then order G1 G2 (v) t + 1 for vertex v in G1 G2 .
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 633
A v
U U v
A v
v v
U U
v
(b) y is connected to A
(a) G
U1 U2
U1 U2
G1 G2
orderG (v) t for every vertex v in G. So G[U] has a connected component A with
cardinality at least 2. This proves the claim, and the lemma follows.
We are now ready to state and prove the following theorem about the diagnosability
of the MCN under the comparison model. As an illustration, the conditions of the
following theorem are applicable to some well-known interconnection networks, such
as Qn , CQn , TQn , and MQn for n = t 3.
THEOREM 21.9 For t 2, let G1 and G2 be two graphs with the same number of
vertices N, where N t + 2. Suppose that orderGi (v) t for every vertex v in Gi and
the connectivity (Gi ) t, where i = 1, 2. Then MCN G1 G2 is (t + 1)-diagnosable
under the comparison model.
Proof: Since |V (G1 )| = |V (G2 )| = N, 2N 2(t + 2) > 2(t + 1) + 1. By Theo-
rem 21.8, orderG1 G2 (v) t + 1 for any vertex v in G1 G2 . It remains to prove
that G1 G2 satises condition (3) of Theorem 21.6.
Let F1 and F2 be two distinct subsets of V (G) with the same number t + 1 of
vertices, and let |F1 F2 | = p, then 0 p t. In order to prove this theorem, we will
prove that F1 and F2 are distinguishable; that is, that this pair (F1 , F2 ) satises either
condition (3a) or (3b) of Theorem 21.6.
Let G = G1 G2 and U = V (G) (F1 F2 ), then |U| = 2N 2(t + 1) + p. Let
U = U1 U2 with Ui = U V (Gi ) and U i = V (Gi ) Ui , i = 1, 2. Without loss of gen-
erality, we assume that |U1 | |U2 |. Let |U 1 | = n1 , |U 2 | = n2 , n1 + n2 = 2(t + 1) p,
and n1 n2 . Since 0 n1 (2(t + 1) p)/2, the maximum value of n1 is equal to
t + 1 when p = 0 and n2 = t + 1. According to different values of n1 and n2 , we divide
the proof into two cases. The rst case n2 t, which implies n1 t. The second case
n2 > t, and this case is further divided into three subcases n1 < t, n1 = t, and n1 > t.
Case 1. n1 t and n2 t. By Lemma 21.11, we have |(G, U)| |(G1 , U1 )| +
|(G2 , U2 )| = |U 1 | + |U 2 | = n1 + n2 = 2(t + 1) p. We know that 0 < p t,
|(G, U)| 2(t + 1) p > p, and condition (3a) of Theorem 21.6 is satised.
Case 2. n2 > t. We discuss the case according to the following three subcases: (1)
n1 < t, (2) n1 = t, and (3) n1 > t.
Case 2.1. n1 < t. Since (G1 ) t and |U 1 | = n1 < t, G[U1 ] is connected. By
Lemmas 21.7 and 21.8, (G1 , U1 ) = N(U 1 , U1 ) = n1 . There are n1 and n2 ver-
tices in U 1 and U 2 , respectively, and n2 = 2t + 2 p n1 (see Figure 21.6).
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 635
U1
U2
A1 u u
S1 u3
u1 u2 u3 u2 u1 S2
G1 G2
If all the vertices in U 1 are adjacent to some n1 vertices in U 2 , there are still at
least n2 n1 = 2t + 2 p 2n1 vertices in U 2 such that each of them is adjacent
to some vertex in U1 under the matching M. So, |(G, U)| |(G1 , U1 )| + (n2
n1 ) = n1 + (n2 n1 ) = n2 . Because n2 > t p, the proof of this subcase is
complete.
Case 2.2. n1 = t. We know that n1 + n2 = 2(t + 1) p, 0 p t, n2 > t, and n1 = t.
The only two valid values for n2 are t + 1 and t + 2. n2 = t + 1 implies p = 1 and
n2 = t + 2 implies p = 0. By Lemma 21.11, |(G1 , U1 )| = |U 1 | = t 2 > p for p = 0
or 1. Then the subcase holds.
Case 2.3. n1 > t. Observe that 0 n1 (2(t + 1) p)/2, where 0 p t and
n2 n1 > t. Therefore, n1 = n2 = t + 1. It also implies p = 0. Here, we will prove
that the subcase satises either condition (3a) or (3b) of Theorem 21.6.
First, if the subgraph induced by U contains a connected component A1 with
cardinality at least 2 (see Figure 21.7), then it must be adjacent to some vertex in
U. Thus, we know that |(G, U)| > 0 = p, and condition (3a) of Theorem 21.6 is
satised.
Otherwise, every connected component of U contains a single vertex only. By
Theorem 21.3, we know that F1 and F2 are distinguishable if there exists a path form
u1 to u2 that contains a vertex u in U and u1 , u2 F1 F2 , or u1 , u2 F2 F1 . If
p = 0, it implies F1 F2 = , any vertex u in G[U] with degree more than 2 must be
connected to at least two vertices in F1 or F2 (see Figure 21.7). By Theorem 21.8,
orderG1 G2 (v) t + 1 for every vertex v in G1 G2 ; therefore, deg(v) t + 1 for
every vertex v in G1 G2 . Since t 2, condition (3b) of Theorem 21.6 is satised.
Hence, the subcase holds and the theorem follows.
COROLLARY 21.2 Let G1 and G2 be two graphs with the same number of
vertices N. Suppose that both G1 and G2 are t-diagnosable under the comparison
model and have connectivity (G1 ) = (G2 ) t, where t 2. Then MCN G1 G2 is
(t + 1)-diagnosable under the comparison model.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 636
0 3
S1 S2
0 7 5 2
4 7
5 6
1 2 4 3 1 6
(a) Q3 (b) Q3
1. V = {
x, y| x V1 and y V2 }
2. for u =
xu , yu and v =
xv , yv in V , (u, v) E if and only if (xu , xv ) E1 and
yu = yv , or (yu , yv ) E2 and xu = xv
y
Let y be a xed vertex of G2 . The subgraph G1 -component of G1 G2 has
y y
vertex set V1 = {(x, y)|x V1 } and edge set E1 = {(u, v)|u = <xu , y>, v = <xv , y>,
(xu , xv ) E1 }. Similarly, let x be a xed vertex of G1 , the subgraph
Gx2 -component of G1 G2 has vertex set V2x = {(x, y)|y V2 } and edge
set E2x = {(u, v)|u = <x, yu >, v = <x, yv >, (yu , yv ) E2 }. It is clear that the
y y
G1 -component (abbreviated as G1 ) and the Gx2 -component (abbreviated as Gx2 ) are
isomorphic to G1 and G2 , respectively (as illustrated in Figure 21.9). The follow-
ing lemma lists a set of known results [80,81,90,97,353] related to the topological
properties of the Cartesian product of G1 G2 of two graphs G1 and G2 .
1. G1 G2 is isomorphic to G2 G1
2. |G1 G2 | = |G1 | |G2 |, where |G| is the number of vertices in G
3. degG1 G2 (u) = degG1(xu ) + degG2(yu )
4. distG1 G2 (u, v) = distG1 (xu , xv ) + distG2 (yu , yv ), where distG (u, v) is the dis-
tance between u and v in G
5. D(G1 G2 ) = D(G1 ) + D(G2 ), where D(G) is the diameter of G
6. (G1 G2 ) (G1 ) + (G2 ), where (G) is the connectivity of G
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 638
1
a b
2 3 d c
G1 G2
(1, b)
(1, a)
(2, b) (3, b)
(2, a)
(3, a)
(1, c)
(1, d)
(2, c)
(3, c)
(2, d)
(3, d)
G1 G2
Araki and Shibata [16] proposed some results for the t-diagnosability and t/t-
diagnosability of Cartesian product systems under the PMC model, listed as follows.
THEOREM 21.15 [16] ) Let *G1 and G2 be digraphs of ti /ti -diagnosable sys-
tem (i = 1, 2). If i (ti +1)2 for i = 1, 2. Then the system G = G1 G2 is
(t1 + t2 )/(t1 + t2 )-diagnosable.
In this section, we distinguish the product networks into homogeneous product net-
works and heterogeneous product networks. By homogeneous product networks,
we mean that every factor network of the product has the same properties of being
t-diagnosable and t-regular (or being t-connected and t-regular, respectively), while
heterogeneous product networks mean that one of the factor networks is t-diagnosable
and another is t-connected. Before discussing homogeneous product networks and
heterogeneous product networks, we consider the problem of whether a t-regular and
t-connected interconnection network is t-diagnosable.
Given a t-diagnosable system, by Lemma 21.9, the number of vertices must exceed
or be equal to 2t + 1. However, a t-regular and t-connected network with N = 2t + 1
vertices is not necessarily t-diagnosable. The graph shown in Figure 21.10 is a
4-regular and 4-connected network with N = 9 vertices, since any two arbitrarily
S1 S2
4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3
distinct vertices in Figure 2.10 are contained in two disjoint cycles. For example,
two distinct vertices 4 and 5 are present in cycles
4, 9, 8, 5 and
4, 1, 6, 5, 2, 7, 3.
This graph can be easily seen to be not 4-diagnosable, since {4, 5, 6, 7} and {6, 7, 8, 9}
constitute an indistinguishable pair. With regard to N = 2t + 2, the three, dimensional
crossed cube CQ3 and the three-dimensional hypercube Q3 are 3-regular, 3-connected
networks and each vertex has order t = 3. However, it was demonstrated [101,196]
that CQ3 and Q3 are not 3-diagnosable under the comparison diagnosis model. The
t-regular and t-connected network G with N 2t + 3 vertices is thus considered in
the following theorem.
v v v
N(v, v)
v
Case 1. |V V | < t. For |V V | < t, the degree of each vertex is t, so each vertex in
V has at least one neighbor in V . Therefore, no isolated vertex exists in V . Similarly,
every vertex in V V has at least one neighbor in V . Hence, (G, V ) = V V .
Case 2. |V V | = t. For |V V | = t, each vertex in V V has at least one neigh-
bor in V . N(v, V ) is used to denote the neighbor set of v in V . Assume that no vertex
in N(v, V ) is adjacent to any other vertices in V . Then, every vertex in N(v, V ) is
adjacent only to V V (as shown in Figure 21.12). Thus, V V {v} is a vertex
cover of G(v), because every vertex in N(v, V ) is an isolated vertex in V . The cardi-
nality of a minimum vertex cover of the order graph G(v) can be easily determined to
be at most t 1. However, this contradicts the hypothesis that each vertex has order
t. Therefore, N(v, V ) contains at least one neighbor u of v such that the vertex u is
adjacent to another vertex w in V . Hence, (G, V ) = V V .
LEMMA 21.17 Let H be a t-regular network, t > 2, and let K2 be the complete
network with two vertices. Suppose that the order of each vertex in H is t. Then, each
vertex of the product network G = H K2 has order t + 1.
Proof: Let G0 and G1 be two copies of H in G. M = (V , C) represents the comparison
scheme of G. Let v be a vertex of G and let G(v) be the order graph of v in G. Without
loss of generality, assume that v is a vertex in G0 , and that u is a neighbor of v in G1 .
There exists at least one vertex w in G1 such that (v, w)u C. Then, let G0 (v) be the
order graph of v in G0 . Since G0 (v) is a proper subgraph of G(v), every vertex cover of
G(v) must contain a vertex cover of G0 (v). However, (w, u) is an edge in G(v) rather
than in G0 (v). Therefore, a vertex cover of G(v) must include at least either u or w.
The order of v in G, therefore, exceeds that of v in G0 by one. Thus, the lemma is
proven.
THEOREM 21.18 For t > 2, let H be a t-regular and t-diagnosable network with N
vertices. Then the product network G = H K2 is (t + 1)-diagnosable.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 643
Case 1.3. 2(t + 1) p k > t and k > t. Since 2(t + 1) p k > t and k > t, the
number of vertices in V V is 2(t + 1), indicating p = 0. Condition (1) in The-
orem 21.3 is supposed to be satised in G0 rst. Then, the subgraph induced by
V 0 includes at least one connected component R with a cardinality of at least
two. Given |V 0 V 0 | = t + 1, Theorem 21.5 implies |(G0 , V 0 )| t > 2 since G0 is
t-diagnosable. Therefore, |(G, V )| |(G0 , V 0 )| > 2 > p. This result implies that
condition (1) in Theorem 21.3 is also satised in G.
Next, consider that the condition (1) in Theorem 21.3 is violated in G0 . Then,
either condition (2) or (3) in Theorem 21.3 is satised in G0 . Since G0 is t-regular and
t > 2, one vertex v in V 0 is adjacent to at least three vertices in V 0 V 0 . Now, let u, w,
and x be three vertices in V 0 V 0 such that u, w S1, and x S2 . Since u, w S1 S2 ,
v V S1 S2 and p = 0, condition (2) in Theorem 21.3 is also satised in G. The
theorem follows.
LEMMA 21.18 Let Gi = (Vi , Ei ) be a ti -regular network with ti > 2. Suppose each
vertex of Gi has order at least ti , i = 1, 2. Then each vertex of the product network
G = G1 G2 has order t1 + t2 .
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 644
Proof: Let v =
x, y be an arbitrary vertex of G and let G(v) be the order graph of
v in G. According to the denition of product networks, x is a vertex of V1 and y is a
vertex of V2 . Therefore, the order of x is at least t1 and the order of y is at least t2 . Let
G1 (x) be the order graph of x in G1 and let G2 (y) be the order graph of y in G2 . N(x)
is a vertex cover of G1 (x), so the order of vertex x is exactly t1 . Similarly, the order of
y y
vertex y is t2 . Let G1 (v) be the order graph of v in the subgraph G1 of G and let Gx2 (v) be
y y
the order graph of v in the subgraph G2 of G. Since V1 V2 = v, G1 (v) Gx2 (v) = ,
x x
y x y x
where V (G1 (v)) and V (G2 (v)) are the vertex sets of G1 (v) and G2 (v), respectively.
y
G1 (v) and Gx2 (v) are observed to be subgraphs of G(v). Thus, every vertex cover of
y y
G(v) must contain a vertex cover of both G1 (v) and Gx2 (v). Since the subgraphs G1
x y
and G2 of G are isomorphic to G1 and G2 , respectively, G1 (v) is isomorphic to G1 (x)
y
and Gx2 (v) is isomorphic to G2 (y). Therefore, the order of v in G1 (v) is t1 and the order
y
of v in G2 (v) is t2 . Since V (G1 (v)) V (G2 (v)) = , the order of v in G(v) is t1 + t2 .
x x
THEOREM 21.19 [42] For ti > 2, let Gi = (Vi , Ei ) be a ti -diagnosable and ti -regular
network with Ni vertices, i = 1, 2. Let G = (V , E) be the product network of G1 and G2 .
Then the product network G = G1 G2 is (t1 + t2 )-diagnosable under the comparison
diagnosis model with regularity t1 + t2 .
Notice that in Theorem 21.19 the number of vertices Ni is larger than or equal
to 2ti + 1 for ti -diagnosable, i = 1, 2. From Theorem 21.19 and by induction, the
following corollary is obtained.
LEMMA 21.19 Let G1 be a t1 -regular and t1 -diagnosable network with t1 > 2 and
let G2 be a t2 -regular and t2 -connected network with N2 2t2 + 1 vertices and t2 > 2.
Then, each vertex of the product network G = G1 G2 has order t1 + t2 .
In the previous theorem, the factor network G2 must have at least 2t2 + 1 vertices.
Therefore, by Corollary 21.5 and Theorem 21.20, the following corollary holds.
LEMMA 21.20 Let n 2 and let XQn represent any n-dimensional cube that
belongs to the cube family. For each set of vertices S V (XQn ) with |S| = n, if
XQn S is disconnected, there exists a vertex v V (XQn ) such that N(v) = S.
Proof: We prove this lemma by induction on n. A two-dimensional cube XQ2 is
simply a cycle of length 4. Clearly, this lemma is true for XQ2 . Assume that it holds
for some n 2. We now show that it holds for n + 1.
Let (n + 1)-dimensional cube XQn + 1 be obtained from two n-dimensional cubes
XQn , denoted by XQnL and XQnR , by adding a perfect matching between them.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 646
Let F1 and F2 be two distinct sets of vertices of XQn with |Fi | n + 1, i = 1, 2 and
let S = F1 F2 . Then |S| n. By the previous lemma, either XQn S is connected,
or XQn S is disconnected and there is a vertex v V (XQn ) such that S = N(v). If
XQn S is connected, the two sets V (XQn ) (F1 F2 ) and F1 F2 both belong to the
same component XQn S. Thus, there exists one edge connecting V (XQn ) (F1 F2 )
and F1 F2 . By Lemma 23.4, F1 and F2 are distinguishable. Therefore, if F1 and F2
are indistinguishable, |Fi | n + 1, i = 1, 2, XQn S is disconnected and there exists
a vertex v such that S = N(v). S = F1 F2 , so N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . We then
propose the following concept.
A system G is strongly t-diagnosable if the following two conditions hold:
1. G is t-diagnosable
2. For any two distinct subsets F1 , F2 V (G) with |Fi | t + 1, i = 1, 2, either
(a) (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable pair; or (b) (F1 , F2 ) is an indistinguishable
pair and there exists a vertex v V such that N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 .
1. n 2(t + 1) + 1
2. (G) t
3. For any vertex set S V with |S| = t, if G S is disconnected, there exists a
vertex v V such that N(v) S
Proof: With conditions (1) and (2), by Lemma 21.3, G is t-diagnosable. Now, we
want to prove whether condition (2) the denition of strongly t-diagnosable holds. Let
F1 , F2 V be two distinct sets with |Fi | t + 1, i = 1, 2 and S = F1 F2 . Suppose that
G S is connected. Then there exists one edge connecting V (F1 F2 ) and F1 F2 .
By Lemma 21.4, F1 and F2 are distinguishable. That is, condition (2a) of the denition
of strongly t-diagnosable holds.
Otherwise, G S is disconnected. By condition (2), the connectivity of G is at
least t, and 0 |S| t, so |S| = t. Then by condition (3), there exists one vertex
v V such that N(v) S. Therefore, N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . So condition (2b)
of the denition of strongly t-diagnosable holds. This completes the proof of this
proposition.
Next, we present a necessary and sufcient condition for a system G to be strongly
t-diagnosable.
1. n 2(t + 1) + 1
2. (G) t
3. For any two distinct subsets F1 , F2 V (G) with |Fi | t + 1, i = 1, 2, the
pair (F1 , F2 ) satisfy condition (2a) or (2b) of the denition of strongly t-
diagnosable
Proof: We rst prove the necessity. To prove condition (1), we show that the assump-
tion n 2(t + 1) leads to a contradiction. Assume that n 2(t + 1). We can partition V
into two disjoint vertex sets V1 and V2 , V1 V2 = and V = V1 V2 , with |Vi | t + 1,
i = 1, 2. By Lemma 21.4, V1 and V2 are indistinguishable. Since G is strongly
t-diagnosable, by the denition of strongly t-diagnosable, N(v) V1 and N(v) V2 ,
for some vertex v V , contradicting the assumption V1 V2 = .
To prove condition (2), since G is strongly t-diagnosable, it is t-diagnosable
by denition. Then by condition (2) of Corollary 21.1, |N(v)| t for each ver-
tex v V . So condition (2) is necessary. Condition (3) of this lemma is the
same as condition (2) of the denition of strongly t-diagnosable. This proves the
necessity.
To prove the sufciency of conditions (1), (2), and (3). We need to show only
that G is t-diagnosable. Suppose not; then there exists an indistinguishable pair of
sets F1 , F2 V , F1 = F2 , and |Fi | t, i = 1, 2. By condition (2b) of the denition of
strongly t-diagnosable, there exists a vertex v V such that N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 .
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 648
We now give another necessary and sufcient condition for checking whether a
system is strongly t-diagnosable. The motivation of these conditions is as follows: Let
G(V , E) be a strongly t-diagnosable system. Suppose that G is (t + 1)-diagnosable.
Then by Theorem 21.2, for every set S V , 0 p t where |S| = p, each component
C of G S satises |VC | 2((t + 1) p) + 1. Otherwise, G is t-diagnosable but not
(t + 1)-diagnosable. Then there exists an indistinguishable pair (F1 , F2 ), F1 = F2 , with
|Fi | t + 1, i = 1, 2. By condition (2b) of the denition of strongly t-diagnosable,
there exists a vertex v V such that N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . Note that (G) t, and
therefore, |N(v)| t. It means that {v} is a trivial component of G (F1 F2 ). Setting
S = F1 F2 and |S| = t, G S has a trivial component.
Proof: We use Theorem 21.2 to prove the sufciency of conditions (1) and (2). Let
S be a set of vertices with |S| = p, 0 p t 1. By condition (1), every component
C of G S satises |VC | 2((t + 1) p) + 1 2(t p) + 1. Then by Theorem 21.2,
G is t-diagnosable.
To show that G is strongly t-diagnosable, we need to prove that condition
(2) of the denition of strongly t-diagnosable holds. Suppose that conditions (1)
and (2a) are both satised. Then by Theorem 21.2, G is (t + 1)-diagnosable. Now
consider the case that G is not (t + 1)-diagnosable. Let (F1 , F2 ) be an indistin-
guishable pair, F1 = F2 , with |F1 | t + 1 and |F2 | t + 1. Let S = F1 F2 and
X = V (F1 F2 ), then 0 p t, where |S| = p. Since F1 and F2 are indistin-
guishable, by Lemma 21.4, there is no edge between X and F1 F2 . There-
fore, in G S, F1 F2 is disconnected from the other components. Observe
that |F1 F2 | 2((t + 1) p), by condition (1), p cannot be in the range from
0 to t 1. So p = t and |F1 F2 | 2((t + 1) p) = 2((t + 1) t) = 2. Then, by
condition (2b), G S must have a trivial component {v}. So N(v) S. G is
t-diagnosable, by condition (2) of Corollary 21.1, |N(v)| t. Hence, S = N(v). Since
S = F1 F2 , N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . Therefore, G is strongly t-diagnosable.
This proves the sufciency. Next, we prove that the conditions (1) and (2) are also
necessary.
To prove condition (1), suppose that to the contrary, that there exists a set of vertices
S V with |S| = p, 0 p t 1, such that G S has a component with strictly less
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 649
than 2((t + 1) p) + 1 vertices. Let C be such a component with |VC | 2((t + 1) p).
We can partition VC into two disjoint subsets A1 and A2 , A1 A2 = VC and A1 A2 = ,
with |Ai | (t + 1) p, i = 1, 2. Let F1 = A1 S and F2 = A2 S. Then |Fi | t + 1,
i = 1, 2, and F1 and F2 are indistinguishable by Lemma 21.4. Since G is strongly t-
diagnosable, by condition (2b) of the denition of strongly t-diagnosable, there exists
a vertex v such that N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . G is t-diagnosable, by Corollary 21.1,
each vertex of G has degree at least t. So |N(v)| t. However, N(v) F1 F2 = S and
|S| = p t 1; this is a contradiction. Thus, condition (1) is necessary.
Now, we prove that condition (2) is necessary. Let S be a set of vertices with
|S| = p and p = t. Suppose that G is (t + 1)-diagnosable. By Theorem 21.2, for p = t,
every component C of G S satises |VC | 2((t + 1) t) + 1 = 3. That is, condition
(2a) holds if G is (t + 1)-diagnosable. Otherwise, G is not (t + 1)-diagnosable and
there exists a component C in G S with strictly fewer than three vertices, |VC | 2.
We have to show that there is a trivial component in G S. It holds on |Vc | = 1.
Assume that |VC | = 2; say, VC = {v1 , v2 }. Let F1 = S {v1 } and F2 = S {v2 }. Then
|F1 | = t + 1, |F2 | = t + 1, and F1 and F2 are indistinguishable. Since G is strongly
t-diagnosable, by condition (2b) of the denition of strongly t-diagnosable, there
exists a vertex v such that N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . We have S = F1 F2 and N(v) S.
Therefore, {v} is a trivial component in G S; this proves condition (2b).
Consequently, the theorem holds.
The previous theorem again states that a strongly t-diagnosable system is almost
(t + 1)-diagnosable, if it is not so. The only case that stops it from being (t + 1)-
diagnosable occurs in the following situation: all the neighboring vertices N(v) of
some vertex v are faulty simultaneously.
satises |VC | 3, or else (ii) G S contains at least one trivial component. Then by
Theorem 21.21, G is strongly (t + 1)-diagnosable.
Case 1. S1 = or S2 = . Without loss of generality, we assume that S1 =
and S2 = S. We know that each vertex of V2 has an adjacent neighbor in V1 ,
so G S is connected. The only component C of G S is G S itself. Hence,
|VC | = |V S| = |V1 | + |V2 | p. Gi is t-diagnosable, i = 1, 2; by Corollary 21.1,
|Vi | 2t + 1. So |VC | 2(2t + 1) p 2((t + 2) p) + 1 for t 2. That is, conditions
(1) and (2a) of Theorem 21.21 are satised.
Case 2. S1 = and S2 = . Since S1 = and S2 = , p1 1 and p2 1. Then, we
divide the case into two subcases: (1) both p1 t 1 and p2 t 1, and (2) either
p1 = t or p2 = t. Note that 0 p t + 1 and p = p1 + p2 . For subcase (1), 1 p1 t 1
and 1 p2 t 1, and for subcase (2), either p1 = t and p2 = 1 or p2 = t and p1 = 1.
Case 2.1. 1 p1 t 1 and 1 p2 t 1. Let C1 be a component of G1 S1 .
Note that G1 is t-diagnosable. By Theorem 21.2, |VC1 | 2(t p1 ) + 1. We claim that
2(t p1 ) + 1 p2 + 1. Since p = p1 + p2 , 2(t p1 ) + 1 = 2(t (p p2 )) + 1 = 2p2 +
2(t p) + 1. Suppose p t, |VC1 | 2p2 + 1. Otherwise, p = t + 1. Since p1 t 1,
p2 2 and 2p2 + 2(t p) + 1 p2 + 1. Hence, |VC1 | 2(t p1 ) + 1 p2 + 1.
That is, VC1 has at least one adjacent neighbor v V2 and v / S2 . Note that
G2 is t-diagnosable. By Theorem 21.2, every component of G2 S2 has at
least 2(t p2 ) + 1 vertices. Let C2 be the component of G2 S2 such that
v VC2 and let C be the component of G S such that VC1 VC2 VC . Then
|VC | |VC1 | + |VC2 | (2(t p1 ) + 1) + (2(t p2 ) + 1) = 2(2t p + 1) 2((t + 2)
p) + 1 as t 2. So every component of G S has at least 2((t + 2) p) + 1 vertices
in this subcase. It means that conditions (1) and (2a) of Theorem 21.21 are satised.
Case 2.2. Either p1 = t and p2 = 1 or p2 = t and p1 = 1. Without loss of gen-
erality, assume that p2 = t and p1 = 1. Since p = p1 + p2 = t + 1, we need to
prove only whether either condition (2a) or (2b) of Theorem 21.21 holds. Let C1
be a component of G1 S1 . Note that G1 is t-diagnosable. By Theorem 21.2,
|VC1 | 2(t p1 ) + 1 = 2(t 1) + 1. Since t 2, |VC1 | 2(t 1) + 1 3. So the
component of G S containing the vertex set VC1 has at least three vertices.
Let C2 be a component of G2 S2 , N(VC2 , V2 ) S2. If VC2 has some adjacent
neighbor v1 V1 and vertex v1 belongs to some component C1 of G1 S1 , then the
component C containing the two vertex sets VC1 and VC2 has at least four vertices.
Thus, condition (2a) of Theorem 21.21 holds. Otherwise, N(VC2 , V1 ) S1 . Since
|S1 | = p1 = 1, |N(VC2 , V1 )| = 1. That is, |VC2 | = 1 and N(VC2 ) S1 S2 . Hence, C2 is
a trivial component of G S, and therefore, condition (2b) of Theorem 21.21 holds.
Consequently, the theorem follows.
For t = 1, the previous result is not necessarily true; we give an example shown
in Figure 21.13. Let G1 and G2 be two path graphs of length 4 with vertex sets
{u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , u5 } and {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 }, respectively. Let G be the MCN constructed
by adding a perfect matching (the dash lines in Figure 21.13a) between G1 and G2 .
By Lemma 21.3, both G1 and G2 are 1-diagnosable and G is 2-diagnosable. See
Figure 21.13b; let F1 = {u1 , u2 , v2 } and F2 = {v1 , v2 , u2 }. By Lemma 21.4, F1 and F2
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 651
u1 v1
u2 v2 u1 v1
u2 v2
u3 v3 F1 T2
u3 v3
u4 v4
u4 v4
u5 v5
u5 v`5
G1 G2
(a) (b)
1 5 3
F1 S F2
2 6 4
8 12 10
7 11 9
are indistinguishable, but there does not exist any vertex v V (Gi ), i = 1, 2, such that
N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . So G is not strongly 2-diagnosable.
Applying Theorem 21.22, all systems in the cube family are strongly (t + 1)-
diagnosable if their subcubes are t-diagnosable for t 2. The hypercube Qn , the
crossed cube CQn , the twisted cube TQn , and the Mbius cube MQn are well-known
members in the cube family. For n = 2, these cubes are all isomorphic to the cycle
of length 4; they are 1-diagnosable but not 2-diagnosable. For n = 3, these cubes are
all 3-connected. By Lemma 21.3, they are 3-diagnosable. So we have the following
corollary.
COROLLARY 21.8 The hypercube Qn , the crossed cube CQn , the Mbius cube
MQn , and the twisted cube TQn are all strongly n-diagnosable for n 4.
We now give some examples that are not strongly t-diagnosable. Consider the
three-dimensional hypercube Q3 ; it is 3-diagnosable but not strongly 3-diagnosable,
due to the fact that |V (Q3 )| = 8 2(t + 1) + 1 as t = 3, which contradicts condition
(1) of Lemma 21.21. Let Cn be a cycle of length n, n 7. By Lemma 21.3, Cn is
2-diagnosable, but it is not strongly 2-diagnosable. Another nontrivial example is pre-
sented in Figure 21.14. This graph G is 3-regular, 2-connected, and by Theorem 21.2,
it is 3-diagnosable. As shown in Figure 21.14, F1 = {1, 2, 5, 6} and F2 = {3, 4, 5, 6}.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 652
(F1 , F2 ) is an indistinguishable pair, but there does not exist any vertex v in V (G) such
that N(v) F1 and N(v) F2 . By the denition of strongly t-diagnosable, the graph
is not strongly 3-diagnosable.
t-diagnosable systems can be far greater than t + 1. This motivates us to study the
conditional diagnosability of the hypercube.
v
F1 F1
u
X
v1 v3
n2 n2
F1 S F2
n2 n2 v
v2 4
FIGURE 21.16 Illustration for an indistinguishable conditional pair (F1 , F2 ), where |F1 | =
|F2 | = 4(n 2) + 2.
Note that the hypercube Qn has no triangle and any two vertices have at most two com-
mon neighbors. It is obvious that |F1 F2 | = |F2 F1 | = 2 and |F1 F2 | = 4(n 2).
Hence, Qn is not conditionally (4(n 2) + 2)-diagnosable and tc (Qn ) 4(n 2) + 1.
Then, we shall show that Qn is in fact conditionally t-diagnosable, where
t = 4(n 2) + 1.
1. |S| n
2. If n |S| 2(n 1) 1, then Qn S has exactly two components, one
is trivial and the other is nontrivial. The nontrivial component of Qn S
contains 2n |S| 1 vertices
Proof: Since (Qn ) = n [279], condition (1) holds. We need to prove that only
condition (2) is true. Because Qn S is disconnected, there are at least two components
in Qn S. We consider three cases: (1) Qn S contains at least two trivial components,
(2) Qn S has at least two nontrivial components, and (3) there are exactly one trivial
component and one nontrivial component in Qn S. In Cases 1 and 2, we shall prove
that |S| 2(n 1). Then n |S| 2(n 1) 1, which implies that Qn S belongs to
Case 3.
Case 1. Qn S contains at least two trivial components. Let vi V , i = 1, 2,
and {v1 }, {v2 } V (Qn ) be two trivial components of Qn S. It means that
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 655
N(v1 ) S and N(v2 ) S. For Qn , it is not difcult to see that any two ver-
tices have at most two common neighbors. That is, |N(v1 ) N(v2 )| 2. Hence,
|S| |N(v1 ) N(v2 )| = |N(v1 )| + |N(v2 )| |N(v1 ) N(v2 )| 2n 2 = 2(n 1).
Case 2. Qn S has at least two nontrivial components. We prove, by induction on n,
that |S| 2(n 1). For n = 3, suppose n |S| 2(n 1) 1, it implies that |S| = 3.
The connectivity of Q3 is 3. By Lemma 21.20, the only vertex cut S with |S| = 3
in Q3 is S = N(v) for some vertex v V (Q3 ). It follows that Q3 S has exactly two
components: one is trivial and the other is nontrivial. Therefore, if Q3 S has at least
two nontrivial components, |S| 2(n 1), where n = 3. Assume that the case holds
for some n 1, n 1 3. We now show that it holds for n.
Let C and C be two nontrivial component of Qn S. So |VC | 2. It is feasible to
divide Qn into the two disjoint Qn1 s, denoted by Qn1 L R , such that |V | 1
and Qn1 CL
and |VCR | 1. There is another component C of Qn S, so at least one of the two
L
graphs Qn1 SL and Qn1R S is disconnected.
R
Suppose that both Qn1 L SL and Qn1 R S
R are disconnected. Since
(Qn1 ) = n 1, |SL | n 1 and |SR | n 1. Then |S| = |SL | + |SR | 2(n 1).
Otherwise, one of the two subgraphs Qn1 L SL and Qn1R S is connected. Without
R
loss of generality, assume that Qn1 SL is connected and Qn1
L R S is disconnected.
R
Then VL = VCL SL and the other nontrivial component C of Qn S is completely con-
R S . Since V is disconnected from V , the corresponding matched
tained in Qn1 R C CL
L
vertices of VC in Qn1 L ) S . Hence, |S | |V | 2.
are in SL . That is, N(VC , Qn1 L L C
If |SR | 2(n 2), then |S| = |SL | + |SR | 2 + 2(n 2) = 2(n 1). Otherwise,
n 1 |SR | 2(n 2) 1. By induction hypothesis, QR SR cannot have two non-
trivial components, and by the result of Case 1, QR SR has exactly two components;
one is trivial and the other is nontrivial. We know that Qn1 R S has C and
R R
C as its components, and C is a nontrivial component. So CR must be a trivial
component of Qn1 R S , and |V | = 2n1 |S | 1. Note that N(V , QL ) S .
R C R C n1 L
Then |S| = |SL | + |SR | |VC | + |SR | = 2n1 |SR | 1 + |SR | = 2n1 1 2(n 1)
for n 4.
Consequently, condition (2) is true and the lemma holds.
1. |S| 4(n 2)
2. |VC | 4(n 2) 1
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 656
disconnected.
Case 1. One of Qn1 L SL and Qn1 R S is connected, and the other is discon-
R
nected. Without loss of generality, we assume that Qn1 L SL is connected and
Qn1 SR is disconnected. Let C be another component of Qn S other than C.
R
F1 F2 F1 F2
(a) (b)
FIGURE 21.17 Illustration for two indistinguishable conditional pairs for Q3 and Q4 .
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 658
THEOREM 21.24 Let G(V , E) be a graph. For any two distinct sets F1 , F2 V with
|Fi | t, i = 1, 2, and S = F1 F2 . (F1 , F2 ) is distinguishable if the subgraph CF1 F2 ,S
of G S contains at least 2(t |S|) + 1 vertices having degree 3 or more.
Proof: Given any pair of distinct sets of vertices F1 and F2 of V with |Fi | t,
i = 1, 2. Let S = F1 F2 . Then 0 |S| t 1, and |F1 F2 | 2(t |S|). Consider
the subgraph CF1 F2 ,S , the number of vertices having degree 3 or more is at least
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 659
2(t |S|) + 1 in CF1 F2 ,S , the subgraph CF1 F2 ,S contains at least 2(t |S|) + 1 ver-
tices. There is at least one vertex with degree 3 or more lying in CF1 F2 ,S F1 F2 .
Let u be one of such vertices with degree 3 or more. Let i, j, and k be three distinct
vertices linked to u. If one of i, j, and k lies in CF1 F2 ,S F1 F2 , condition (1)
of Theorem 21.3 holds, obviously. Suppose that all these three vertices belong to
F1 F2 . Without loss of generality, assume that i lies in F1 F2 ; one of the two
cases will happen: (1) if j lies in F1 F2 , condition (2) of Theorem 21.3 holds;
or (2) if j lies in F2 F1 , wherever k lies in F1 F2 or F2 F1 , condition (2) or
(3) of Theorem 21.3 holds. So (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable pair and the proof is
complete.
COROLLARY 21.9 Let G(V , E) be a graph. G is t-diagnosable if, for each set of
vertices S V with |S| = p, 0 p t 1, every connected component C of G S
contains at least 2(t p) + 1 vertices having degree at least 3. More precisely,
|V (C; 3)| 2(t p) + 1.
Let (F1 , F2 ) be an indistinguishable conditional pair. Let X = V (F1 F2 ). Since
F1 and F2 are an indistinguishable conditional pair, none of the three conditions of
Theorem 21.3 holds and every vertex has at least one fault-free neighbor. Let ver-
tex u X. If N(u) X = , then N(u) (F1 F2 ) = (see Figure 21.18a); otherwise,
|N(u) (F1 F2 )| = 1 and |N(u) (F2 F1 )| = 1 (see Figure 21.18b). Let vertex
v F1 F2 . If N(v) X = , then |N(v) (F1 F2 )| 1 and |N(v) (F2 F1 )| 1
(see Figure 21.18c). We state this fact in the following lemma.
u
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
v
u
X X
(a) (b) (c)
v4
F2
F1 n2
n2 n2
v1 S v3
v2
n2
FIGURE 21.19 An indistinguishable conditional pair (F1 , F2 ), where |F1 | = |F2 | = 3(n
2) + 2.
Now, we give an example to show that the conditional diagnosability of the hyper-
cube Qn is no greater than 3(n 2) + 2, n 5. As shown in Figure 21.19, we take a
cycle of length four in Qn . Let {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } be the four consecutive vertices on
this cycle, and let F1 = N({v1 , v3 , v4 }) {v1 } and F2 = N({v1 , v3 , v4 }) {v3 }, then
|F1 | = |F2 | = 3(n 2) + 2. It is straightforward to check whether F1 and F2 are two
conditional faulty sets, and F1 and F2 are indistinguishable by Theorem 21.3. Note that
the hypercube Qn has no cycle of length 3 and any two vertices have at most two com-
mon neighbors. Obviously, |F1 F2 | = |F2 F1 | = 1 and |F1 F2 | = 3(n 2) + 1.
Therefore, Qn is not conditionally (3(n 2) + 2)-diagnosable and tc (Qn ) 3(n
2) + 1, n 3. Then, we shall show that Qn is conditionally t-diagnosable, where
t = 3(n 2) + 1.
Then |F| = |FL | + |FR |. Without loss of generality, we may assume that |FL | |FR |.
In the following proof, we consider two cases by the size of FR : (1) 0 |FR | 2 and
(2) |FR | 3.
Case 1. 0 |FR | 2. Since 0 |FR | 2, Qn1 R F
R is connected and
(L)
|V (Qn1 FR )| = 2
R n1 |FR |. Let FR V (Qn1 ) be the set of vertices that
L
(L)
has neighboring vertices in FR . For each vertex v Qn1 L FL FR , there
is exactly one vertex v(R) in Qn1 R F , such that (v, v(R) ) E(Q ). Besides,
R n
(L)
|V (Qn1 FL FR )| 2
L n1 |FL | |FR |. Hence Qn F has a connected compo-
nent that contains at least [2n1 |FR |] + [2n1 |FL | |FR |] = 2n |F| |FR |
2n |F| 2 vertices.
Case 2. |FR | 3. Since |FR | 3, 3 |FL | 3(n 1) 6 and 3 |FR | 3(n 1) 6.
By the inductive hypothesis, Qn1 L FL (Qn1
R F , respectively) has a con-
R
nected component CL (CR , respectively) that contains at least 2n1 |FL | 2
(2n1 |FR | 2, respectively) vertices. Next, we divide the case into
three subcases: (1) |V (CL )| = 2n1 |FL | 2 and Qn1 R F
R is discon-
nected, (2) |V (CL )| = 2 n1 |FL | 2 and Qn1 FR is connected, and
R
1. Qn F is connected.
2. Qn F has two components, one of which is K1 , and the other one has
2n |F| 1 vertices.
3. Qn F has two components, one of which is K2 , and the other one has
2n |F| 2 vertices.
4. Qn F has three components, two of which are K1 , and the third one has
2n |F| 2 vertices.
THEOREM 21.25 [339] Let G(V , E) be a bipartite graph. The maximum size of a
matching in G equals the minimum size of a vertex cover of G.
PROPOSITION 21.2 [339] Let G(V , E) be a bipartite graph. The set I V (G)
is a maximum independent set of G if and only if V I is a minimum vertex cover
of G.
The hypercube can be described as follows. Let Qn denote an n-dimensional
hypercube. Q1 is a complete graph with two vertices labeled with 0 and 1, respectively.
For n 2, each Qn consists of two Qn1 s, denoted by Qn1
0 1 , with a perfect
and Qn1
0
matching M between them. That is, M is a set of edges connecting the vertices of Qn1
1
and the vertices of Qn1 in a one-to-one manner. It is easy to see that there are 2n1
0
edges between Qn1 and Qn1 1 . The hypercube is a bipartite graph with 2n vertices.
1000 1110
F1 F2 F1 F2
000 010 110 100 0000 1111 0101 0011 1100 1010 1001 0110
(a) (b)
3412 3421
3142 3241
3124 3214
1324 2314
1342 2341
1234 2134
1243 2143
1432 2431
1423 2413
4123 4213
4132 4231
4312 4321
B4
These properties are illustrated in Figures 7 of Chapter 3.5 and 21.21, as (for example)
S4 and the bubble-sort graph contain four copies of a smaller Cayley graph, the 6-
cycle. Note that the 6-cycle is the shortest cycle in star graphs, whereas in other Cayley
graphs we also have 4-cycles.
Cayley graphs generated by transposition trees have strong connectivity proper-
ties. Roughly speaking, after deleting a large number of vertices from these graphs,
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 668
they will still contain a large connected component, as shown by the following
theorem:
THEOREM 21.27 [58] Let n (S) be a Cayley graph obtained from a transposition
generating tree S on {1, 2, . . . , n} with n 4, and let T be a set of vertices of G such
that |T | 3n 8. Then n (S) T satises one of the following conditions:
1. n (S) T is connected.
2. n (S) T has two components, one of which is K1 or K2 .
3. n (S) T has three components, two of which are singletons.
4. n (S) T has two components, one of which is a path of length 3, and T is
the union of the neighbor sets of the vertices on the path except the vertices
of the path itself with |T | = 3n 8.
5. n (S) T has four components, three of which are singletons, and T is the
union of the neighbor sets of the singletons with |T | = 3n 8.
6. n (S) T has two components, one of which is a 4-cycle, n = 4 and |T | = 4.
Note: Cases 4, 5, and 6 can occur only when n (S) is not a star graph, because each
require a 4-cycle in the graph.
u2
F1 F2
u1 n 3 u3
n2 n2
is easy to see that any two vertices in n (S) can have at most two common neighbors.
Thus when the path
u1 , u2 , u3 is part of a 4-cycle, we get |F1 | = |F2 | = 3n 7. In
both cases we have |F1 F2 | = |F2 F1 | = 1, therefore when n (S) is a star graph,
it is not conditionally (3n 6)-diagnosable; otherwise, n (S) is not conditionally
(3n 7)-diagnosable. Hence we have the following result.
The following two lemmas will be needed to show our result on the conditional
diagnosability of n (S) for n 4.
LEMMA 21.39 For n 4, let F1 and F2 be any two distinct conditional faulty
subsets of V (n (S)) with |F1 | 3n 7 and |F2 | 3n 7 if n (S) is a star graph, and
|F1 | 3n 8 and |F2 | 3n 8 otherwise. Denote by H the maximum component of
n (S) (F1 F2 ). Then for every vertex u in F1 ' F2 , u is in H.
Proof: Without loss of generality, we assume that u is in F1 F2 . Since F2 is a condi-
tional faulty set, there is vertex v in (V (n (S)) F2 ) {u} such that (u, v) E(n (S)).
Suppose that u is not a vertex of H. Then v is not in V (H), so u and v are part
of a small component in n (S) (F1 F2 ). Since F1 and F2 are distinct, we have
|F1 F2 | 3n 8 when n (S) is a star graph and |F1 F2 | 3n 9 otherwise. Thus
in Theorem 21.27, Cases 4 through 6 cannot occur, hence {u, v} forms a component
K2 of n (S) (F1 F2 ), that is, u is the unique neighbor of v in n (S) (F1 F2 ).
This is a contradiction since F1 is a conditional faulty set, but all the neighbors of v
are faulty in n (S) F1 .
LEMMA 21.40 Let G be a graph with (G) 2, and let F1 and F2 be any two distinct
conditional faulty subsets of V (G) with F2 F1 . Then (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable
conditional pair under the comparison diagnosis model.
Proof: Let u be any vertex of F1 F2 . Since F1 is a conditional faulty subset of
V (G), there is a vertex v of V (G) F1 such that (u, v) E(G) and there is a vertex
w of V (G) F1 such that (v, w) E(G). Since F2 F1 , neither v nor w is in F2 . By
Theorem 21.3, (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable pair.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 670
THEOREM 21.29 For n 4, let F1 and F2 be two distinct conditional faulty subsets
of V (n (S)). Assume that |F1 | 3n 7 and |F2 | 3n 7 when n (S) is a star graph,
and |F1 | 3n 8 and |F2 | 3n 8 otherwise. Then (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable
conditional pair under the comparison diagnosis model.
Proof: By Lemma 21.40, (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable pair if F1 F2 or F2 F1 .
Thus we assume that |F1 F2 | 1 and |F2 F1 | 1. Let A = F1 F2 . Then we have
|A| 3n 8 when n (S) is a star graph, and |A| 3n 9 otherwise. Let H be the
maximum component of n (S) A. By Lemma 21.39, every vertex in F1 'F2 is in H.
We claim that H has a vertex v outside F1 F2 that has no neighbor in A. Since
every vertex has degree n 1, vertices in A can have at most |A|(n 1) neighbors
in H. There are at most 2(3n 7) |A| vertices in F1 F2 , and at most two ver-
tices of n (S) A may not belong to H by Theorem 21.27. Since |A| 3n 8,
we have n! |A|(n 2) 2(3n 7) 2 n! (3n 8)(n 2) 2(3n 7) 2 4
when n 4. Thus there must be vertices of H outside F1 F2 having no neighbor
in A; let v be such a vertex.
If v has no neighbor in F1 F2 , then we can nd a path of length at least 2 within
H to a vertex p in F1 ' F2 . We may assume that p is the rst vertex of F1 ' F2 on this
path, and let q and w be the two vertices on this path immediately before p (we may
have v = q), so q and w are not in F1 F2 . Then the edges (q, w) and (w, p) show
that (F1 , F2 ) is a distinguishable conditional pair. Now assume that v has a neighbor
in F1 ' F2 . Then since the degree of v is at least 3, and v has no neighbor in A, there
are three possibilities:
To summarize, with Proposition 21.3 and Theorem 21.29, we have the following
result.
THEOREM 21.30 For n 4, tc (n (S)) = 3n 7 when n (S) is a star graph, and
tc (n (S)) = 3n 8 otherwise.
REMARK: Theorem 21.28 can be proved similarly, indeed much simpler, using
that its connectivity is n 1, proved in Ref. 56.
processors can be uniquely identied, provided that the number of faulty processors
does not exceed t. However, it is possible to correctly indicate all the faulty processors
in a t-diagnosable system when the number of faulty processors is greater than t.
For example, consider a multiprocessor system generated by integrating two arbitrary
subsystems with a few communication links in some way, where the two subsystems
are m-diagnosable and n-diagnosable, respectively, and m >> n. The diagnosability
of this system is limited by n, but it is possible to correctly point out all the faulty
processors even if the number of the faulty ones is between m and n. Therefore, if only
considering the global faulty/fault-free status, we lose some local systematic details.
For this reason, Hsu et al. [175] introduced a new measure of diagnosability called
local diagnosability under the PMC model. The aim of local diagnosis is to study the
local status of each vertex instead of the whole system. Given a single vertex, we need
to identify only the status of this particular processor correctly. We now propose the
following concept.
Let G(V , E) be a graph and v V be a vertex. The G is locally t-diagnosable at
vertex v if, given a syndrome F produced by a set of faulty vertices F V containing
vertex v with |F| t, every set of faulty vertices F compatible with F and |F | t,
must also contain vertex v.
Let G(V , E) be a graph and v V be a vertex. The local diagnosability of vertex
v, written as tl (v), is dened to be the maximum value of t such that G is locally
t-diagnosable at vertex v.
The following result is another point of view for checking whether a vertex is
locally t-diagnosable.
Proof: We show this by contradiction. Assume that |V (G)| 2t. We partition V (G)
into two disjoint subsets F1 , F2 with |F1 | t, |F2 | t. The vertex v is either in F1 or
in F2 . Since V (F1 F2 ) = , there is no edge between V (F1 F2 ) and F1 F2 .
By Lemma 21.4, (F1 , F2 ) is an indistinguishable pair; this contradicts the assumption
that G is locally t-diagnosable at vertex v. So the result follows.
Proof: Let F1 be the set of vertices adjacent to vertex v, F1 = NG (v) and |F1 | = n. Let
F2 = F1 {v} with |F2 | = n + 1. It is a simple matter to check whether there is no edge
between V (F1 F2 ) and F1 F2 . By Lemma 21.4, (F1 , F2 ) is an indistinguishable
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 672
xk x2 x1
...
yk y2 y1
We now propose two special subgraphs called the Type I structure and the Type
II structure. They provide us with an efcient and simple method to identify the local
diagnosability of each vertex of a system under the PMC diagnosis model.
Let G(V , E) be a graph, v V be a vertex and k be an integer, k 1; a Type I
structure T1 (v; k) of order k at vertex v is dened to be the following graph:
T1 (v; k) = [V (v; k), E(v; k)]
which is composed of 2k + 1 vertices and of 2k edges, as illustrated in Figure 21.23,
where V (v; k) = {v} {xi , yi | 1 i k} and E(v; k) = {(v, xi ), (xi , yi )|1 i k}.
Following Theorem 21.32 and the denition of local diagnosability, we propose a
sufcient condition for verifying whether it is locally t-diagnosable at a given processor
in a system.
z2 z1
xk x2 x1
z3 ...
z4 yk y2 y1
Example 21.1
Let us consider a cycle of length four as shown in Figure 21.25a. We can nd a Type I
structure T1 (v; 1) of order 1 at vertex v, as shown in Figure 21.25b. Hence, vertex v is
locally 1-diagnosable.
Example 21.2
Consider examples as shown in Figures 21.26a, 21.26b, and 21.26c. It is a routine matter
to check whether there is a subgraph T1 (v1 ; 2), T1 (v2 ; 2), and T2 (v3 ; 1, 2) at vertex v1 , v2 ,
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 675
v v
(a) (b)
FIGURE 21.25 A cycle of length four and a Type I structure T1 (v; 1) of order 1 at v.
v3
v1 v2
v 3
1 2
F1 F2
v v
(a) (b)
order n at vertex v. By Theorem 21.35, the denition of local diagnosability and the
denition of strongly local diagnosability, Qn has the strongly local diagnosability
property. See Figure 21.28.
Faulty edges
F1 F2
x v
:
v x x
:
|S| n 1
(a) (b)
{v }
of order n 2 at vertex v. Consider the vertex (v)n in Sn 1 . Vertex (v)n has at least one
{v }
adjacent neighbor in Sn 1 due to deg((v)n ) = n 1, where n 3. Thus, Sn contains a
Type I structure T1 (v; n 1) of order n 1 at vertex v. By Theorem 21.35, the local
diagnosability of each vertex in Sn is n 1, for n 3.
2 2
3 3
3 3
3 3
FIGURE 21.30 Q3 with one missing edge. The number labeled on each vertex represents its
local diagnosability.
We now prove that Sn has the strongly local diagnosable property, even if it has
up to (n 3) faulty edges. The number (n 3) is optimal, in the sense that a faulty Sn
cannot be guaranteed to have this strong property if there are (n 2) faulty edges.
Faulty edges
1 F1 F2
|S1|
: 2
n2 a v :
Faulty edges n2 v 1 c
b c 2
..
..
:
a n2 b
|S2|
|S3|
n2
n2
Faulty edges
(a) (b)
THEOREM 21.40 [339] Let G(V , E) be a bipartite graph with bipartition (X, Y ).
Then G has a matching that saturates every vertex in X if and only if |N(S)| |S|, for
all S X.
THEOREM 21.41 [339] Let G(V , E) be a bipartite graph. The maximum size of a
matching in G equals the minimum size of a vertex cover of G.
x1 x2 ... xk
L 1(v)
.. .. ..
.. .. .. ..
L 2(v)
y1 y2 y3 ...
BG (v)
xk 1 ... x2 x1 xk
L1(v)
.. ..
yk 1 ... y2 y1 ...
L2(v)
BG (v) ML 2(v)
FIGURE 21.33 Illustration for the Case 2 of Theorems 21.42 and 21.44.
Case 2. |M| = k 1. We shall show that there is a Type II structure of order k at ver-
tex v. As shown in Figure 21.33, let L1 (v) = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk } and let ML2 (v) L2 (v)
be the set of vertices matched under M, ML2 (v) = {y L2 (v) | there exists a vertex
x L1 (v) such that (x, y) M}. So |ML2 (v)| = k 1. Let ML2 (v) = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yk1 }
and assume that vertex xi is matched with vertex yi for each i, 1 i k 1.
Then there exists a vertex xk L1 (v), xk is unmatched by M. Since each vertex of
Qn S is incident to at least two fault-free edges, there exists a vertex yi ML2 (v),
i {1, 2, . . . , k 1}, such that (xk , yi ) E(BG(v)). Without loss of generality, let
(xk , y1 ) E(BG(v)). If the remaining degree of y1 is at least three, as shown in Figure
21.34, there exists a Type II structure T2 (v; k 2, 2) of order k at vertex v. By Theo-
rem 21.35, the local diagnosability of vertex v is equal to k and the result follows. If
the remaining degree of y1 is two, the number of faulty edges incident to y1 is n 2.
Next, we divide the case into two subcases: (1) both xk and x1 have remaining degree
two and (2) one of xk and x1 has remaining degree at least three and the other has at
least two.
Case 2.1. Both xk and x1 have remaining degree 2. This is an impossible case. Since
the number of faulty edges incident to xk and x1 is 2(n 2), the total number of faulty
edges is at least 3(n 2) which is greater than 3(n 2) 1, which is a contradiction.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 682
xk 1 ... x2 x1 xk
L1(v)
.. ..
yk 1 ... y2 y1 ...
L 2(v)
`
ML 2(v)
BG (v)
Case 2.2. One of xk and x1 has remaining degree at least three and the other has
at least two. Without loss of generality, assume that xk has remaining degree at least
three and x1 has remaining degree at least two. Since degQn S (xk ) 3, there exist at
least two vertices in ML2 (v) that are the neighbors of vertex xk . Then, we can nd a
vertex yi ML2 (v) and yi = y1 , i {2, 3, . . . , k 1}, such that (xk , yi ) E(BG(v)).
Without loss of generality, let (xk , y2 ) E(BG(v)). If the remaining degree of y2 is at
least three, there exists a Type II structure T2 (v; k 2, 2) of order k at vertex v. By
Theorem 21.35, the local diagnosability of vertex v is equal to k and the result follows.
If the remaining degree of y2 is two, the number of faulty edges incident to y2 is n 2.
We then consider two further cases.
Case 2.2.1. x1 has remaining degree 2. This is an impossible case. Since the number
of faulty edges incident to x1 is n 2, the total number of faulty edges is at least
3(n 2), which is greater than 3(n 2) 1. A contradiction holds.
Case 2.2.2. x1 has remaining degree at least three. Since degQn S (x1 ) 3, there exist
at least two vertices in ML2 (v) that are the neighbors of vertex x1 . By Lemma 21.42,
any two vertices of Qn have at most two common neighbors. We can nd a vertex
yi ML2 (v), yi = y1 and yi = y2 , i {3, 4, . . . , k 1}, such that (x1 , yi ) E(BG(v)).
Without loss of generality, let (x1 , y3 ) E(BG(v)). If the remaining degree of y3 is at
least three, there exists a Type II structure T2 (v; k 2, 2) of order k at vertex v. By
Theorem 21.35, the local diagnosability of vertex v is equal to k and the result follows.
If the remaining degree of y3 is two, then the number of faulty edges incident to y3 is
n 2, and the total number of faulty edges is at least 3(n 2), which is greater than
3(n 2) 1, a contradiction.
Case 3. |M| k 2. We shall see that this is an impossible case. By Theo-
rem 21.41, the minimum size of a vertex cover of the bipartite graph BG(v) is
no greater than k 2. We take a vertex cover with the minimum size, and let
VCL1 (v) L1 (v), VCL2 (v) L2 (v), and VCL1 (v) VCL2 (v) be the vertex cover, as
shown in Figure 21.35. VCL1 (v) and VCL2 (v) can cover all the edges of BG(v). Let
NVCL1 (v) = L1 (v) VCL1 (v). We claim that the total number of faulty edges is at least
(n 1)|NVCL1 (v)| 2|VCL2 (v)|, and this number is greater than 3(n 2), which is a
contradiction. With this claim, the case is impossible.
ch021.tex 30/7/2008 14: 9 Page 683
v
VCL1(v) VCL1(v)
... ...
L1(v) .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. ..
L2(v)
... ...
VCL2(v) BG(v)
Now we prove the claim. First, for each vertex x NVCL1 (v), the edges con-
necting x except (x, v) must be incident to the vertices in VCL2 (v). For each
vertex y VCL2 (v), by Lemma 21.42, at most two edges connecting y are inci-
dent to the vertices in NVCL1 (v). Then, the total number of faulty edges is at
least (n 1)|NVCL1 (v)| 2|VCL2 (v)|. Since VCL1 (v) VCL2 (v) is a minimum ver-
tex cover, |VCL1 (v)| + |VCL2 (v)| k 2. Since |L1 (v)| = k and each vertex of Qn S
is incident to at least two fault-free edges, there exists a vertex in L1 (v) VCL1 (v)
such that the vertex has at least one neighbor in VCL2 (v). Thus, |VCL2 (v)| 1. Now,
we show that the number (n 1)|NVCL1 (v)| 2|VCL2 (v)| is greater than 3(n 2).
With |VCL1 (v)| + |VCL2 (v)| k 2 and |VCL2 (v)| 1, we have the following:
Thus, our claim holds.
In summary, aside from those impossible cases, we show that Qn S contains
either a Type I structure T1 (v; k) or a Type II structure T2 (v; k 2, 2) of order k at vertex
v. By Theorem 21.35, removing all the edges in S from Qn , the local diagnosability
of each vertex is still equal to its remaining degree.
By Theorem 21.42, we have the following corollary.
Next, we shall show that Sn keeps the strongly local diagnosable property, no
matter how many edges are faulty, provided that each vertex of Sn F is incident to
at least two fault-free edges.
be the set of vertices matched under M, ML2 (v) = {y L2 (v) | there exists a vertex
x L1 (v) such that (x, y) M}. So |ML2 (v)| = k 1. Let ML2 (v) = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yk1 }
and assume vertex xi is matched with vertex yi for each i, 1 i k 1. Then there
exists a vertex xk L1 (v), xk is unmatched by M. Since each vertex of Qn S
is incident with at least three fault-free edges, there exists a vertex yi ML2 (v),
i, {1, 2, . . . , k 1}, such that (xk , yi ) E(BG(v)). Without loss of generality, let
(xk , y1 ) E(BG(v)). Since the remaining degree of y1 is at least three, as shown in
Figure 21.34, there exists a Type II structure T2 (v; k 2, 2) of order k at vertex v. By
Theorem 21.35, the local diagnosability of vertex v is equal to k, and the result follows.
Case 3. |M| k 2. We will see that this is an impossible case. By Theorem 21.41,
the minimum size of a vertex cover of the bipartite graph BG(v) is no greater than
k 2. However, we claim that any k 2 vertices of BG(v) cannot cover all the edges
of BG(v). With this claim, the case is impossible.
Now we prove this claim. Suppose to the contrary, that we take a vertex
cover with the minimum size, and let VCL1 (v) L1 (v), VCL2 (v) L2 (v), and
VCL1 (v) VCL2 (v) be the vertex cover, as shown in Figure 21.35. VCL1 (v) and
VCL2 (v) can cover all the edges of BG(v). Since |VCL1 (v)| + |VCL2 (v)| k 2,
we rewrite this inequality into the following equivalent form: 2(k |VCL1 (v)|)
2(|VCL2 (v)| + 2). Let NVCL1 (v) = L1 (v) VCL1 (v). Since each vertex of Qn S is
incident with at least three fault-free edges, for each vertex x NVCL1 (v), aside from
the edge (x, v), at least two edges connecting x must be incident to the vertices in
VCL2 (v). So the total number of edges incident to the vertices in VCL2 (v) is at least
2|NVCL1 (v)|. For each vertex y VCL2 (v), by Lemma 21.42, at most two edges
connecting y are incident to the vertices in NVCL1 (v). So the total number of edges
incident to the vertices in NVCL1 (v) is at most 2|VCL2 (v)|. Compare the lower bound
2|NVCL1 (v)| and the upper bound 2|VCL2 (v)|. We have the following inequality:
2|NVCL1 (v)| = 2(k |VCL1 (v)|) 2(|VCL2 (v)| + 2) > 2|VCL2 (v)|.
The lower bound 2|NVCL1 (v)| is greater than the upper bound 2|VCL2 (v)|. It means
that some edges are not covered by VCL1 (v) or VCL2 (v) in BG(v). Thus, our claim
follows.
In Case 1, Qn S contains a Type I structure T1 (v; k) of order k at vertex v. In
Case 2, Qn S contains a Type II structure T2 (v; k 2, 2) of order k at vertex v.
We also prove that Case 3 is impossible. By Theorem 21.35, removing all the edges
in S from Qn , the local diagnosability of each vertex is still equal to its remaining
degree.
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Index.tex 23/7/2008 18: 56 Page 703
Index
(n, k)-star graph, 193, 475 comparison model, 625
1-1 connection, 120 complement, 2
1-edge fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, 227, 267 complete bipartite graph, 3
1-factor, 93 complete graph, 3
1-vertex fault-tolerant Hamiltonian, 227, 267 component, 11
3-join, 228, 263 conditional diagnosability, 652
conditional edge-fault-tolerant
A bipancyclic, 487
acyclic, 61 conict, 162
adjacency matrix, 5 connected, 5, 10
adjacent, 1 connectivity, 105
alternating path, 94 container, 119, 339
ancestor, 66 contraction, 70
augmented cube, 195, 489 crossed cube, 46, 361
augmenting path, 94 cut cover, 137
automorphism, 8 cut edge, 11
cut vertex, 11
cycle, 10
B
cycle extension, 229
binary tree, 66
cyclic-cubes, 25
bipanconnected, 479
bipancyclic, 479 D
bipanpositionable, 501 de Bruijn digraph, 50
bipanpositionable bipancyclic, 504 deadheading time, 86
bipartite graph, 3 degree, 1
bisection width, 55 degree sequence, 18
block, 108 depth-rst search, 64
breadth-rst search, 64 descendant, 66
brother cell, 312 diagnosability, 625
brother tree, 312, 313 diagnosis, 625
buttery graph, 585 diagnosis without repairs, 625
diameter, 43
C dilation, 78
Cartesian product, 14 directed graph, 1
Cayley graph, 666 directed tree, 65
cell, 241 disconnected, 5, 10
center, 43 disconnecting set, 106
child, 66 distance, 43
child s.p. subgraph, 89 double Hamming distance, 44
child subnetwork, 88 double loop network, 267
Christmas tree, 179 double-rooted complete binary tree, 76
chromatic index, 138 dual graph, 89, 163
chromatic number, 4, 125 duplication, 85
chromatic polynomial, 133
circuit, 79 E
closed walk, 10 eccentricity, 43
color class, 4, 125 edge, 1
color-critical, 125 edge congestion, 55
common Euler trail, 91 edge cover, 98
common trail, 89 edge cut, 106
703
Index.tex 23/7/2008 18: 56 Page 704
704 Index
Index 705
706 Index