Bosch Batterie Handbuch

Bosch Battery Manual
Version 1.0
AA/MKE Christoph Haag
08.08.2006
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 7
1.1 Warning and safety guidelines................................................................................... 7
1.2 Glossary........................................................................................................................ 9
2 THE BATTERY ................................................................................... 15

2.1 Purpose and Requirements ...................................................................................... 15
2.2 Electrochemical processes in the lead storage cell .............................................. 15
2.2.1 Generation of the cell voltage ...................................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Charging ...................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.3 Discharging (current drain from the battery)................................................................ 18
2.3 Parameters and Performance of a Battery.............................................................. 19
2.3.1 Cell voltage .................................................................................................................. 20
2.3.2 Nominal voltage ........................................................................................................... 20
2.3.3 Open Circuit Voltage (OCV), U0 .................................................................................. 20
2.3.4 Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte ................................................................................ 21
2.3.5 Specific Gravity vs. Cell Voltage.................................................................................. 22
2.3.6 Internal resistance........................................................................................................ 23
2.3.7 Terminal voltage, Uk..................................................................................................... 23
2.3.8 Gassing Voltage and Water Consumption .................................................................. 24
2.3.9 Capacity ....................................................................................................................... 25
2.3.10 Nominal capacity, K20................................................................................................... 27
2.3.11 Cold Start Performance / Cold Cranking Amperes...................................................... 28
2.3.12 Reserve Capacity Rating ............................................................................................. 31
2.3.13 Service life ................................................................................................................... 31
2.3.14 Self-Discharge ............................................................................................................. 34
2.3.15 Resistance to deep discharge ..................................................................................... 35
2.4 Battery Identification ................................................................................................. 36
2.4.1 European Type Number and Bosch Reference Number............................................. 36
2.4.2 Manufacturing Date...................................................................................................... 37
2.5 The Components of a Lead-Acid Battery ................................................................ 39
2.5.1 Battery case ................................................................................................................. 39
2.5.2 Lid and SOC Indicator ................................................................................................. 41
2.5.3 Cell Packs, Plates and Grids ....................................................................................... 44
2.5.4 Separators ................................................................................................................... 48
2.5.5 Electrolyte .................................................................................................................... 50
2.5.6 Cell connectors ............................................................................................................ 50
2.5.7 Terminal posts ............................................................................................................. 51
2.6 Battery Types ............................................................................................................. 51
2.6.1 Conventional and low-maintenance Battery ................................................................ 51
2.6.2 Hybrid Battery (Maintenance-free Battery) .................................................................. 52
2.6.3 100% Maintenance-free Battery .................................................................................. 52
2.6.4 Deep-Cycle-Resistant Battery ..................................................................................... 54
2.6.5 AGM Battery ................................................................................................................ 55
2.6.6 Vibration-Proof Battery ................................................................................................ 58
2.6.7 Heavy-Duty Battery (HD Battery)................................................................................. 58
2.6.8 Semitraction Battery..................................................................................................... 58
2.6.9 Dry-charged Battery..................................................................................................... 58
2.6.10 Gel Battery ................................................................................................................... 59
2.6.11 Maintenance-free Battery for Motor Bicycles............................................................... 59
2.6.12 Technology and Product Comparison ......................................................................... 59
2
3 STORAGE AND TRANSPORT........................................................... 62

3.1 Incoming Inspection .................................................................................................. 62
3.2 Storage........................................................................................................................ 63
3.2.1 Supervising Wet Batteries during Storage................................................................... 64
3.2.2 Supervising Dry-charged Batteries during Storage ..................................................... 66
3.3 Outgoing Inspection .................................................................................................. 66
3.3.1 Wet batteries................................................................................................................ 66
3.3.2 Dry-charged batteries .................................................................................................. 66
3.4 Tabular Overview: Battery Warehouse Handling ................................................... 67
3.5 Transportation............................................................................................................ 69
3.5.1 General Advices........................................................................................................... 69
3.5.2 Classification as Dangerous Good .............................................................................. 70
4 BATTERY CHARGING ....................................................................... 73

4.1 Charge Characteristic Curves .................................................................................. 73
4.1.1 Charging with constant current .................................................................................... 73
4.1.2 Charging with constant voltage.................................................................................... 73
4.1.3 Charging with resistance characteristic ....................................................................... 74
4.1.4 Mixed charge curves.................................................................................................... 75
4.2 Determining if recharging is necessary .................................................................. 79
4.2.1 Batteries with accessible screw-in plugs ..................................................................... 79
4.2.2 Batteries with non accessible screw-in plugs .............................................................. 79
4.3 Preliminary Steps before Recharging...................................................................... 81
4.4 Charging of Starter Batteries (including AGM)....................................................... 81
4.4.1 Automatic Chargers ..................................................................................................... 81
4.4.2 Manually charging with constant current ..................................................................... 83
4.4.3 Manually charging with constant voltage ..................................................................... 84
4.5 Charging of Gel Batteries ......................................................................................... 84
4.5.1 For lighting applications ............................................................................................... 85
4.5.2 For traction applications............................................................................................... 85
4.6 Actions during and after charging ........................................................................... 86
4.7 Treatment of deeply discharged Batteries.............................................................. 86
5 THE VEHICLE AND ITS ELECTRICAL SYSTEM .............................. 87

5.1 Starter ......................................................................................................................... 87
5.2 Alternator.................................................................................................................... 88
5.3 Voltage Regulator ...................................................................................................... 89
5.4 Electrical Balance ...................................................................................................... 89
5.5 No-load Current.......................................................................................................... 89
5.6 Starting aid ................................................................................................................. 90
5.7 Battery installation and removal .............................................................................. 91
5.8 Putting the vehicle out of operation ........................................................................ 92
3
6 BATTERY TESTING ........................................................................... 93

6.1 BAT 121 Tester........................................................................................................... 93
6.1.1 Introduction and Important Notes ................................................................................ 93
6.1.2 BAT 121 Readings and Interpretation ......................................................................... 95
6.2 Specific Gravity Test ................................................................................................. 96
6.3 High Rate Discharge Test ......................................................................................... 98
7 WARRANTY ....................................................................................... 99
7.1 General Information................................................................................................... 99
7.1.1 Warranty Cover............................................................................................................ 99
7.1.2 Warranty Periods ......................................................................................................... 99
7.1.3 Excess storage .......................................................................................................... 100
7.1.4 Warranty Refunding Methods .................................................................................... 101
7.2 Warranty Claim Process with the End-user .......................................................... 101
7.3 Technical Information on Battery problems ......................................................... 109
7.3.1 Manufacturing faults................................................................................................... 109
7.3.2 Non-manufacturing faults........................................................................................... 110
4
List of Figures
Figure 1 Solution Pressure .................................................................................................................... 16

Figure 2 Cell discharged........................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 3 Charging Process.................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 4 Cell charged ............................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 5 Discharge Process .................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 6 Cell voltage and OCV.............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 7 OCV as a function of specific gravity ...................................................................................... 22
Figure 8 Terminal Voltage ..................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 9 Water loss of AGM, PAG and Hybrid Batteries....................................................................... 25
Figure 10 Available Ah capacity as a function of discharge current (44Ah battery).............................. 26
Figure 11 Available Ah capacity as a function of temperature and discharge current .......................... 27
Figure 12 Terminal voltage when discharging with a high current at -18C and 27C ......................... 27
Figure 13 Influence of temperature on starter speed and required minimum start speed .................... 28
Figure 14 Hybrid, Calcium and Silver battery performance in J240 Test.............................................. 33
Figure 15 Hybrid, Calcium and Silver battery performance in Las Vegas Test .................................... 33
Figure 16 Self discharge of calcium-silver batteries at different storage temperatures ........................ 34
Figure 17 Self discharge of different battery technologies .................................................................... 35
Figure 18 ETN Code Explanation.......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 19 Bosch Part Number System.................................................................................................. 37
Figure 20 Battery Construction (100% maintenance free) .................................................................... 39
Figure 21 Conventional Battery Construction........................................................................................ 40
Figure 22 Battery Cell Connection Designs .......................................................................................... 41
Figure 23 Block and Mono Lid............................................................................................................... 41
Figure 24 Labyrinth lid with central degassing channel and flame arrestor .......................................... 42
Figure 25 Labyrinth lid of a truck battery ............................................................................................... 43
Figure 26 SOC Indicator........................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 27 Cell pack................................................................................................................................ 44
Figure 28 Photo of a cast grid ............................................................................................................... 44
Figure 29 Photo of a pasted grid ........................................................................................................... 44
Figure 30 Cast and expanded grid ........................................................................................................ 47
Figure 31 Plate in pocket separator ...................................................................................................... 49
Figure 32 AGM battery separator design .............................................................................................. 49
Figure 33 Electrolyte Mixture................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 34 Cell Connector....................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 35 Starting power as a function of useful life ............................................................................. 53
Figure 36 Cyclic resistance of AGM compared to standard lead acid batteries ................................... 56
Figure 37 Service Life of AGM, PAG and Hybrid Batteries during taxi field test................................... 56
Figure 38 Larger Plate Design of AGM batteries .................................................................................. 57
Figure 39 Downsizing with AGM batteries ............................................................................................ 57
Figure 40 Incoming Inspection Checklist............................................................................................... 63
Figure 41 Self-discharge graph of a calcium-silver battery (OCV over time)........................................ 65
Figure 42 Photo of a starter................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 43 Photo of an alternator............................................................................................................ 88
Figure 44 Starting aid ............................................................................................................................ 91
Figure 45 BAT 121 ................................................................................................................................ 93
Figure 46 Photo of a deep discharged battery with sulfation .............................................................. 111
Figure 47 No acid stratification ............................................................................................................ 112
Figure 48 Acid stratification ................................................................................................................. 112
Figure 49 Photo of a molten battery terminal ...................................................................................... 113
5
List of Tables
Table 1 Overview of the discharge processes ...................................................................................... 19

Table 2 Conversion Table Specific Gravity to OCV .............................................................................. 22
Table 3 Overview of Cold Cranking Ampere Definitions ....................................................................... 30
Table 4 Cold Cranking Power Conversion Table SAE-EN-IEC-DIN-JIS (all values in A)..................... 31
Table 5 Manufacturing date codes ........................................................................................................ 38
Table 6 Grid Alloy Technology Comparison.......................................................................................... 46
Table 7 Battery Technology Comparison .............................................................................................. 61
Table 8 Battery Warehouse Handling (filled batteries).......................................................................... 68
Table 9 Battery Warehouse Handling (dry batteries) ............................................................................ 69
Table 10 Classification of Batteries as dangerous goods during transportation ................................... 71
Table 11 Determination of recharging point by specific gravity............................................................. 79
Table 12 Determination of recharging point by OCV ............................................................................ 80
Table 13 Overview Bosch Battery Chargers ......................................................................................... 82
Table 14 Charge duration when manually charging with constant current ........................................... 84
Table 15 Maximum no-load currents of different consumers ................................................................ 90
Table 16 BAT121 Readings and their Interpretation............................................................................. 95
Table 17 Sample for warranty periods depending on application and product type ........................... 100
6
1 Introduction
This manual provides comprehensive information on the function, features, design,
handling and testing of lead acid batteries. On the one hand the given information is
intended for internal use, e.g. for trainings, as reference book or as basis to create
further documents. On the other hand this handbook shall serve as a foundation and
reference document to create training and marketing materials for the customers.
Chapter 1 deals with warning and safety guidelines for lead acid batteries. Chapter 2
presents the working principle as well as the characteristic parameters of a battery.
The components of a battery and a comparison of different lead acid technologies
can also be found in chapter 2. The proceeding chapter 3 gives advices on how to
store batteries, how to maintain them during storage including the warehouse
incoming and outgoing inspection and finally how to transport batteries. Chapter 4
covers battery charging. At the beginning some theory about charge characteristic
curves is given. Later on it is described how to determine if charging is necessary
and how to correctly charge a battery. Chapter 5 gives a short overview about the
vehicle electrical system and its components. In brief problems of these components,
which can negatively impair the battery, are discussed. Finally you will find help on
the installation of the battery in the vehicle, putting the vehicle out of operation and
how to jump start another car. Different methods for testing batteries are described in
chapter 6. The last chapter 7, after introducing basic information about warranty,
contains advices on how to handle a warranty case with the end-user. Towards the
end of chapter 7 battery faults are discussed.
1.1 Warning and safety guidelines
Observe the information on the battery, the batterys operating manual

and the vehicles operating manual. Please carry these instructions in
the vehicle.
Wear eye protection as a precautionary measure when working on the

battery
Keep acid and filled batteries out of reach of children. Keep out of reach
of children when working on the battery
Fire, sparks, naked flames and smoking are prohibited:

- Avoid creating sparks when handling cables and electrical
equipment as well as those caused by electrostatic discharge
- Avoid short-circuits
- Clean with damp cloth only and wear appropriate clothing. Dry
cleaning cloth might become electrically charged and produce
sparks
7
Danger of explosion:
- An explosive oxyhydrogen gas mixture is formed when batteries
are charged.
Corrosive hazard:
- Battery acid is extremely corrosive. The acid can cause burns and
blindness. Under normal operation conditions, there should be no
contact with the electrolyte (diluted sulphuric acid). Please note
that when the battery casing of a battery with fixed electrolyte is
destroyed or damaged, bound electrolyte in glass fiber mats or
jellified electrolyte is as corrosive as when liquid
- Wear protective gloves and goggles
- Do not tilt the battery permitting acid to leak out of vent openings
First aid:
- Drops of acid coming into contact with eyes should be rinsed for
several minutes using clear water. Then consult a doctor without
delay
- Drops of acid on the skin or clothes should be neutralized
immediately using acid neutralizer or soap suds and rinsed with
plenty of water
- If acid is swallowed, drink plenty of water and consult a doctor
immediately
Warning:
- The enclosure becomes brittle with time, therefore: Do not expose
batteries to direct sunlight.
- Discharged batteries can freeze so store in a place where they
are protected from frost.
- Never connect the positive terminal to the negative terminal
because it will cause a short circuit. A short circuit can cause
burns, fire or the explosion of the battery.
- It is dangerous to use tools such as hammers on the battery
terminal when connecting cables.
- Never rub with dry cloth on the battery casing. This might produce
sparks because of electrostatic discharges and can cause an
explosion
Disposal:
- Dispose old batteries at a battery collection point
- Never dispose old batteries as household waste
- If a battery with glass fiber materials is destroyed or damaged, the
released fiber material must be disposed in line with the official
local regulations
- Do not let electrolyte penetrate into the sewage system, the soil or
into groundwater.
8
Exposure limits
- No exposure caused by lead and lead containing battery paste when handling
properly
- Possible exposure caused by sulphuric acid and acid mist during filling and
charging
Threshold value on workplace Occupational exposure to sulphuric acid

mist is regulated on a national basis
Hazard symbol C, corrosive
R-phrases R-35 Causes severe burns.
S-phrases S-2 Keep out of reach of children

S-16 Keep away from sparks or naked flame
No smoking
S-26 In case of contact with eyes rinse
immediately with plenty of water and seek
medical advice.
S-45 In case of accident or if you feel unwell
seek medical advice immediately (show the
label where possible).
1.2 Glossary
Accumulator An electrochemical device that can transform electrical

energy into stored chemical energy and by reversing the
process, release energy again
Acid density The state of charge of an automotive battery can be
determined by measuring the acid density. This is done
using a hydrometer, whereas the following applies: Acid
density 1.28 kg/l: battery is fully charged. Acid density
1.16 kg/l: battery is half charged. Acid density 1.04 kg/l:
battery is empty
Acid stratification When charging a lead acid cell, high density acid is
produced in the plates. This drops as a result of
gravitation to the lower part of the cell. Over repeat cycles
in which the electrolyte does not move, a sulfuric acid
density gradient is therefore produced. This state must not
be allowed to become permanent, otherwise it could
irreversibly damage the battery. Possible
countermeasures include shaking the battery, increasing
the charging voltage and recirculating the electrolyte
during cyclical use
9
Active Mass The material pasted onto the grids that takes part in the
charging and discharging reactions. Lead dioxide serves
as active mass at the positive electrode and spongy lead
as the active mass of the negative electrode
AGM Abbreviation for Absorbant Glass Mat. This is a mat of
microglass fibers which is used for fixing the sulfuric acid
in this special battery technology
Alternating current an electric current that reverses direction periodically. A
(AC) battery does not deliver alternating current
Ampere (A) a measure of the amount of electric charge flowing past a
circuit point at a specific time
Ampere-Hour (Ah) The quantity of electricity delivered in one hour by a
current whose average strength is one ampere. Ampere
hour is also used to quantify the storage capacity of a
battery by multiplying the current in amperes by the
discharge time in hours. (Example: A battery which
delivers 5 amperes for 20 hours: 5A x 20h = 100 Ah
capacity)
Calcium-Silver High technology maintenance-free battery with lead-
calcium-silver alloy grids, which provide long life and low
water consumption
Capacity The available quantity of electricity of a battery or cell
measured in ampere hours. The capacity depends on the
battery temperature and the discharging current. It is
therefore important to state not just the capacity, but also
the discharging current and temperature
Cell The smallest unit of a battery, consisting of a positive and
a negative electrode, a separator and the electrolyte. It
stores electrical energy and forms the fundamental
cornerstone of a battery if it is placed into a case and
equipped with electrical connectors. The capacity of a cell
is determined by its size. The cell voltage, however,
depends on the electrochemical system of the element
Cell connectors They connect the different elements in series. The plate
straps of individual cells are connected by the shortest
path that is directly through the cell partition. This
decreases the batterys internal resistance and weight
Central degassing Gases formed in the battery can escape centrally through
vent one channel in the battery cover
Charge state Remaining capacity (in %) referred to the rated capacity.
The state of charge can be determined by measuring the
specific gravity of the electrolyte or the open circuit
voltage
Charging factor Ratio between the charged energy and the energy
discharged earlier (in the case of a lead accumulator, lies
between 1.05 and 1.20 depending on the model)
10
Cover Made of polypropylene. The cover is dropped on and

sealed with the battery case after the battery is completely
manufactured. It prevents the electrolyte to leak out and
strange substances to get into the battery
Cranking current The current that a new and fully charged battery can
supply at a given temperature for a given period of time
until a specified terminal voltage is reached
Cycle stability The cycle stability of an accumulator is a measure of how
often it can be charged and discharged. Cycle strength is
particularly important in the case of semitraction or
batteries for leisure appliances
Cyclic resistance See cycle stability
Deep discharge State in which a cell is fully discharged, so that the voltage
falls below the final discharging voltage
Degassing Release of charge gases from the cell openings
Direct current (DC) An electric current flowing in one direction only. A battery
delivers direct current and must be recharged with direct
current
Discharge depth The capacity drawn from a battery divided by the rated
battery capacity and expressed as a percentage (e.g.
50% discharge depth for a battery with a rated capacity of
50 Ah means that a capacity of 25 Ah is drawn)
Electrolyte In a lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is a solution of
sulphuric acid, diluted with distilled water. It is a conductor
that supplies ions for the electrochemical reaction
Electrolyte, fixed Electrolyte which is fixed in the form of a gel or in an
absorptive glass mat (AGM)
Element/ Cell packs A set of positive and negative plates assembled with
separators between them. One element of a lead-acid
battery has a voltage of 2,1V, so a standard battery
usually has six elements, which results in a total voltage
of 12,6V
Flame arrestor They allow gases to escape from the inside of the battery
but also protect the battery from backfiring sparks or fire
thus preventing the battery from exploding
Forming Initial electrical charging for converting the active masses
into a charged state. The forming process takes place at
the manufacturing plant
Frame The reinforced outer parts of a battery grid
Gassing The development of hydrogen and oxygen gas when
overcharging a lead acid battery
Gel Electrolyte jellified through the addition of silicic acid to
sulfuric acid
11
Grid growth Deformation of the frame of positive grid plates resulting

from corrosion of the grid lead
Grids Lead alloy frames that support the active mass of a
battery plate and conducts current
Hydrometer a measuring instrument for determining the specific
gravity of the batterys electrolyte (the concentration of
sulfuric acid in the electrolyte). It can be used to
determine the state of charge of a battery. The higher the
density is, the higher the concentration of sulfuric acid in
the electrolyte and the higher the state of charge
Inner resistance Ohmic resistance of a battery. The inner resistance is the
measurable resistance against the flow of current in a
battery expressed as a drop in the battery voltage
proportional to the discharging current. The value is
dependent on the manner of construction, the charge
state, temperature and the age of the battery
Lead (Pb) A chemical element which belongs to the heavy metals
(specific weight 11.341 g/cm). It is used in the form of
bivalent and / or quadrivalent compounds (PbSO4 or
PbO2), as porous sponge lead for active masses, and as
lead-antimony or lead-calcium alloys for grids in lead
batteries
Lead dioxide (PbO2) Quadrivalent lead oxide (PbO2), which is generated
electrochemically during formation and which forms the
active mass of the positive lead electrode. Color: black-
brown
Lead sulfate (PbSO4) Chemical compound produced on the positive and
negative plates of a lead battery during discharge. It is the
result of a chemical reaction between the sulfuric acid and
lead dioxide of the positive electrode or the metallic lead
of the negative electrode
Lid See cover
Metallic spongy lead active material in the negative plates
(Pb)
OCV Abbreviation for Open Circuit Voltage
Open circuit voltage The measured voltage of a battery without any consumer
connected to it
Overcharging Charging beyond the fully charged stage. This can result
in permanent battery damages (e.g. loss of electrolyte,
corrosion and damages to the grid, etc.)
Oxy-hydrogen gas Gaseous mixture of hydrogen and oxygen which is
extremely flammable over a wide composition range. Oxy-
hydrogen gas is created when overcharging lead acid
batteries
12
Parallel connection a closed circuit in which the current flow divides into two
or more paths before recombining to complete the circuit.
In a parallel connection of batteries (usually the batteries
have the same voltage and capacity) all positive terminals
are connected to one conductor and all negative terminals
are connected to another conductor. If two 12V batteries
of 50Ah capacity each are used in a parallel connection,
the circuit voltage is 12V and the capacity of the
combination is 100Ah
Paste Mixture of various compounds, (e.g. lead oxide, water,
sulfuric acid) which is pasted onto the positive and
negative grids. A distinction is made between positive and
negative pastes depending on the recipe. These pastes
are then transformed into positive and negative cured
masses. See active mass
Pasting The manufacturing process where the grids are coated by
the paste is called pasting
Plates Flat, typically rectangular components that contain the
active mass and a grid, which has an electrical function,
carrying electrons to and from the active mass. Plates are
either positive or negative, depending on the active mass
they hold
Polypropylene case The case holds the plates, straps and electrolyte and is
divided into 3 or 6 sections or cells, for batteries of 6 or 12
volts respectively
Pores Cavities in an active battery mass
Purified water Distilled or demineralized water for compensating the
water losses in batteries requiring maintenance
Safety ventilation A recloseable ventilation that reduces abnormal gas
pressures arising from misuse
Self discharge describes the fact, that every battery becomes discharged
without any consumer connected to it. Depending on the
batterys technology the self discharge varies in its speed
(for example calcium-silver technology batteries have a
lower self discharge than antimony batteries)
Separator A device used for the physical separation and electrical
isolation of electrodes of opposing polarities. The
separator generally consists of a porous PP/PE foil. In
certain cases, the separator can also be used for
absorbing the electrolyte. In this case it is an absorbant
microfiber glass mat (AGM)
Series connection a circuit having its parts connected serially. There is only
one path for the current flow. Batteries in series
connection are connected with the negative pole of the
first battery to the positive pole of the second battery, the
negative pole of the second battery to positive pole of the
third battery, etc. If two 12V batteries of 50Ah capacity
13
each are in a series connection, the circuit voltage is

equal to the sum of each batterys voltage, so 24V in the
above mentioned case. The ampere-hour capacity of the
combination is 50 ampere-hours
Service life The length of satisfactory performance measured in years
or charging / discharging cycles
Short circuit, external Low-impedance electrical contact between the battery
poles. An external short circuit will lead to very high
temperatures at the electrical conductor and at the
battery. The battery can be destroyed or it can explode
Short circuit, internal The cells can experience an inner short circuit in the case
of fine short circuits. This will generally result in high self-
discharging and will be reflected in a sharp reduction in
capacity
State of charge See charge state
Sulfating The formation of lead sulfate at the electrodes of a lead
accumulator by recrystallization when the battery remains
unused for a long time in a deep discharge state. A
coarse grained lead sulfate is produced which can only be
recharged with difficulty
Terminal post Part of a battery to which the external electric circuit is
connected
Volt (V) An International System unit of electric potential and
electromotive force
Watt (W) An International System unit of power. 1W = 1A x 1V
14
2 The Battery
A battery is an electrochemical device which transforms chemical energy into
electrical energy and vice versa. A battery can store electrical energy for future use.
The transformation process is reversible, which means that a battery can be charged
and discharged for several hundred times.
2.1 Purpose and Requirements

A battery in a vehicle assumes the role of a chemical storage unit for the electrical
energy generated by the alternator when the vehicle is driven. This energy must be
made available to start the engine again after it has been switched off. This is one of
the reasons for the battery also being known as starter battery. Alternator and
starter battery must therefore be correctly matched to each other.
On the one hand, with the engine stopped (and therefore also the alternator), the
battery must be able to deliver a high current for a brief period in order to start the
engine, which is especially critical at low temperatures. On the other hand, when the
engine is running idle, is switched off or when the alternator does not produce
enough energy to meet the demands of all consumers, the battery must be able to
supply some or all of the electrical energy to other important components in the
vehicle electrical system.
The battery also absorbs voltage peaks in the vehicle electrical system so that these
do not damage sensitive electronic components.
Generally speaking, the lead-acid storage battery suffices for meeting these
demands, as well as at present still being the most cost-effective energy-storage
medium for such assignments.
To fulfill these assignments efficiently, a battery should
- have a high service life
- be maintenance free or require low maintenance
- be able to reliably supply high currents to start the engine
- be able to supply lower currents over a longer period of time
- have a high performance at different operating temperatures
2.2 Electrochemical processes in the lead storage cell
2.2.1 Generation of the cell voltage

If a lead electrode is immersed in dilute sulfuric acid (the electrolyte), positive ions
are transferred from the electrode into the electrolyte due to the effects of so-called
"solution pressure" (see Figure 1). The transfer of the positive lead ions to the
electrolyte means that negative charges (electrons) remain on the lead electrode. In
other words, the lead electrode is no longer electrically neutral, but has a negative
potential referred to the electrolyte.
Since the negative charges remaining on the electrode exert a force of attraction
(return force) on the positive ions which have entered the electrolyte, the
phenomenon described above, in which charged particles (here the lead ions) are
15
released into the electrolyte, very quickly results in a condition of equilibrium. After a
certain period, this return force exactly equals the solution pressure.
lead electrode
Pb
Pb ++
electron
Pb
lead ion lead atom
Pb ++
electrolyte
Figure 1 Solution Pressure
If two electrodes of different materials (for instance, lead [Pb] and lead dioxide
[PbO2]) are immersed in a common electrolyte, different potentials develop at the
individual electrodes with respect to the electrolyte. The difference in potential
between the electrodes themselves is the cell voltage. The voltage depends on the
used materials and on the conductive liquid, it does not depend on the quantities of
these elements in the battery. In the case of a lead-acid battery, the reaction between
lead dioxide (positive plate), spongy lead (negative plate) and sulfuric acid generates
2,1V per cell.
If an external voltage is applied across the electrodes, depending on the direction of
current, further electrical particles can be released into the electrolyte or they can
return from the electrolyte to the lead electrode. It is this fact which makes it possible
to recharge the lead-acid storage battery (secondary cell).
In a charged lead cell, the positive electrode consists of lead dioxide, and the
negative electrode of pure lead. The electrolyte is diluted sulphuric acid. In the
aqueous solution, the sulphuric-acid molecules split into positively charged hydrogen
ions and negatively charged residual acid ions. The splitting of the sulphuric-acid
molecules is the prerequisite for the electrolyte's conductivity and therefore for the
flow of charge or discharge current. When discharge current flows, the positive
electrode's lead dioxide and the negative electrode's lead are converted to lead
sulphate (PbSO4). In a discharged lead cell (Figure 2), both electrodes consist of lead
sulphate.
The particle transfers involved in the charge and discharge of the lead cell are
described in the two paragraphs below in more detail.
2.2.2 Charging
To charge the lead storage cell, its positive electrode is connected to the positive
pole of a DC source, and its negative electrode to the negative pole. Contrary to the
discharging process described later on, electrical energy must be introduced here in
order to force the cell to charge so that it has a higher energy level at the completion
of charging than at the beginning. Figure 2 to Figure 4 demonstrate in schematic form
16
the processes which take place between the individual particles in the electrode
mass and the electrolyte.
Figure 2 Cell discharged Figure 3 Charging Process
The source of charging current draws electrons from the positive electrode and
forces them to the negative electrode. Due to the electrons which have been forced
to the negative electrode by the source of charging current, zero valent (metallic) lead
is formed at this electrode from the bivalent positive lead atoms, whereby the
(PbSO4) lead-sulphate molecules are broken down. At the same time, the negatively
charged residual-oxygen ions (SO42-) are released from the negative electrode into
the electrolyte.
At the positive electrode bivalent positive lead (Figure 3) is transformed into
tetravalent positive lead due to the removal of electrons, whereby the lead compound
PbSO4 (lead sulphate) is split electrochemically by the applied charging voltage.
The tetravalent positive lead combines with the oxygen removed from the water
(H2O) to form lead peroxide (PbO2).
At the same time, the sulphate ions released at the positive electrode during this
oxidation process (from the lead compound PbSO4), and the hydrogen ions (from the
water), pass into the electrolyte. As mentioned above, sulphate ions also enter the
electrolyte from the negative electrode. As a result of the charging process therefore,
the number of hydrogen ions and sulphate ions in the electrolyte is increased.
In other words, fresh sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is formed and the density of the
electrolyte increases. In a charged cell, the density is normally =1.28 kg/l
corresponding to an electrolyte comprising about 37% sulphuric acid and about 63%
water.
17
This means that the state of charge can be determined by measuring the electrolyte's
specific gravity.
Charging is complete when:
- The lead sulphate at the positive electrode has converted to lead dioxide
(PbO2), and
- The lead sulphate at the negative electrode has converted to metallic lead
(Pb), and when
- The charge voltage and the electrolyte's specific gravity remain constant even
though charging continues.
If charging is continued, although it is in fact finished, all that occurs is electrolytic

decomposition of the water. Oxygen is formed at the positive plate and hydrogen at
the negative plate. The battery is said to be "gassing".
Once it has been charged, the battery can now be separated again from the source
of charging current. In the charging process, the electrical energy applied to the cell
has been converted and stored there in chemical form (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Cell charged Figure 5 Discharge Process
2.2.3 Discharging (current drain from the battery)

If a load (e.g. a lamp bulb) is connected between the poles of a lead cell, due to the
potential difference between the poles (cell voltage) electrons flow from the negative
pole through the load to the positive pole.
Compared to the battery-charging process, the direction of current flow and the
electrochemical process are reversed when discharge takes place.
18
The flow of electrons leads to the tetravalent lead at the positive electrode changing
to bivalent positive lead, and to the breakage of the bond between the previously
tetravalent lead and the oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms thus released combine
with the hydrogen ions from the sulphuric acid and form water. The specific gravity of
the electrolyte decreases. An empty battery has a specific density of below
=1.12kg/l. This is equal to an acid content of about 17%.
At the negative electrode, bivalent positive lead also forms as a result of electrons
moving from the metallic lead to the positive electrode (Figure 5). The bivalent
negative sulphate ions (SO42- from the sulfuric acid) combine with the bivalent
positive lead at both electrodes so that lead sulphate (PbSO4) is formed as a
discharge product at each electrode.
Both electrodes have now returned to their initial condition: the chemical energy
stored in the cell has been transformed back into electrical energy by the discharge
process.
Table 1 provides an overview of the processes concerned in the discharge of a
battery. When charging, the processes are reversed.
Table 1 Overview of the discharge processes
The chemical reactions of the discharge process can be summarized to:
Positive plate (+) PbO2 + SO42- + 4H3O+ + 2e- PbSO4 + 6H2O
Negative plate (-) Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e-
Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
2.3 Parameters and Performance of a Battery

The European norm EN 50342 as well as other norms specify various parameters
and testing criteria for starter batteries. These parameters and test methods are
suitable to determine and monitor the quality of starter batteries, but they cannot
represent the various loads during normal operation. Amendatory tests are often
required by the vehicle manufacturers. For example charge and discharge cycles
19
under extreme temperatures need to be simulated with a subsequence engine

cranking test.
In the following subchapters important battery parameters and performance
characteristics are presented.
2.3.1 Cell voltage

The cell voltage UZ is the difference between the potentials which are generated
between the positive and negative plates in the electrolyte. These potentials depend
on the plate materials and on the electrolyte and its concentration. The cell voltage is
not a constant value but depends on the state of charge (electrolyte specific gravity)
and the electrolyte temperature.
2.3.2 Nominal voltage

For lead acid batteries the nominal (theoretical) voltage UN of a single cell is defined
as 2 volts.
The nominal voltage of the whole battery results from multiplying the individual cell
voltages by the number of cells connected in series. According to EN 60095-1, the
nominal voltage for starter batteries is 12V. The 24V required for truck electrical
systems is provided by connecting two 12V batteries in series.
2.3.3 Open Circuit Voltage (OCV), U0

The open circuit voltage (or off-load voltage, no-load voltage, U0) is the voltage
across the unloaded battery. The OCV changes after the completion of a charge or
discharge process, due to polarization and diffusion effects. After a certain time,
when the OCV reaches a steady value, the so-called steady-state OCV can be
measured.
The voltage U0 is the voltage obtained by adding up the specific cell voltages UZ. For
six cells, the following applies:
U0 = UZ1 + ...+ UZ6
Figure 6 Cell voltage and OCV
20
Same as the cell voltage, the OCV depends on the batterys state of charge and the
electrolyte temperature. If an OCV is measured shortly after a charge or discharge
process, it is not possible to conclude on the state of charge. The battery need to be
left to stand, sometimes up to 24 hours until a steady state is reached. To measure
the electrolytes specific gravity is more suitable for determining the state of charge,
but can only be conducted on older batteries, which have accessible screw-in plugs.
2.3.4 Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte

The specific gravity of the electrolyte is an effective mean to determine the state of
charge of a battery. However uncertainties come from construction related
differences in the specific gravity values, from stratification of the electrolyte and from
wear and tear.
For a fully charged battery used in countries of tropical climate, the electrolytes
specific gravity is usually 1.27 g/cm3 at a reference temperature of 20C.
If the temperature of the electrolyte is different from the reference temperature, the
density can be corrected according to the formula described below:
g
D(20C ) = Dt + 0,0007 (T 20C )
cm C
3
D(20C) corrected specific gravity in g/cm3

Dt measured specific gravity in g/cm3
T Temperature of the battery in C
Example:
Measured specific gravity Dt=1,235g/cm
Temperature T=40C
g g g
D(20C ) = 1,235 + 0,0007 3 (40C 20C ) = 1,249 3
cm 3
cm C cm
21
2.3.5 Specific Gravity vs. Cell Voltage

Between the specific gravity of the electrolyte and the cell voltage exists following
dependency:
2,2
2,15
2,1
2,05
2
U Z [V]
Approximation: U0 = specific gravity + 0,84

1,95
1,9
1,85
1,8
1,75
1
3
02
04
06
08
12
14
16
18
22
24
26
28
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
specific gravity [g/cm3]
Figure 7 OCV as a function of specific gravity
As a rule of thumb the cell voltage can be approximated by UZ=specific gravity+0.84.

Following table gives an overview about the specific gravity and the related OCV of a
12V starter battery, calculated by the approximation:
Specific Gravity Approx. OCV [V] Specific Gravity Approx. OCV [V]
[g/cm3] [g/cm3]
0.99 11.00 1.21 12.30

1.01 11.10 1.23 12.40
1.03 11.20 1.24 12.50
1.04 11.30 1.26 12.60
1.06 11.40 1.28 12.70
1.08 11.50 1.29 12.80
1.09 11.60 1.31 12.90
1.11 11.70 1.33 13.00
1.13 11.80 1.34 13.10
1.14 11.90 1.36 13.20
1.16 12.00
1.18 12.10
1.19 12.20
Table 2 Conversion Table Specific Gravity to OCV
22
2.3.6 Internal resistance

The internal resistance Ri of a cell is composed of a number of individual resistances
together. Basically speaking, these consist of Ri1, the contact resistance between the
electrodes and the electrolyte (polarization resistance), together with the resistance
Ri2 presented by the electrodes (plates with separators) against the flow of electrons,
and Ri3 , the electrolyte's resistance to the flow of ions. And when a number of cells
are connected in series, the resistances of the individual cell connectors Ri4 must
also be added. The following thus applies:
Ri = Ri1 + Ri2 + Ri3 + Ri4
As the number of plates increases (and therefore their total surface area as well), the
cell's internal resistance decreases. In other words, the higher the Ah capacity, the
lower the internal resistance (presuming identical plate thickness). On the other hand,
the more the battery is discharged and the lower the temperature is (the sulfuric-acid
becomes more viscous), the internal resistance increase. The internal resistance Ri
of a 12V starter battery comprises the series connection of the internal resistances of
the individual cells, together with the resistances presented by the internal
connecting elements (cell connectors and plate straps). For a fully charged 50 Ah
battery for instance, at 20C the internal resistance Ri is 5...10 m; whereas at 50%
state of charge and at -25C Ri increases to about 25 m.
The internal resistance of the battery in combination with other resistances in the
starter-motor circuit determines the speed at which the engine is turned over when
being started. Thus it is one of the decisive parameters for the starting behaviour.
2.3.7 Terminal voltage, Uk

The terminal voltage UK is the voltage measured between the two terminal posts of a
battery under load. It is a function of the off-load voltage (OCV) and the voltage drop
across the battery's internal resistance Ri (Figure 8):
UK = U0 - Ui mit Ui = IE x Ri
If a current IE is taken from a battery through a load RL a lower terminal voltage is
measured than in the off-load state. This is due to the battery's internal resistance. In
other words, when a current IE flows through the cell, a voltage drop Ui takes place
across Ri which increases with an increasing current. Since the internal resistance is
a function of among other things temperature and state of charge, this means that
the terminal voltage of a battery under load drops at low temperatures and when it is
inadequately charged.
23
Figure 8 Terminal Voltage
2.3.8 Gassing Voltage and Water Consumption

The gassing voltage (DIN 40729) is defined as the charging voltage above which the
battery clearly starts to gas. Gassing leads to water losses and there is a danger of
explosive oxy-hydrogen gas being formed.
According to VDE0510, a voltage of 2.42.45V per cell applies as a rough limit
depending on the particular battery design. For 12V batteries this voltage limit is
about 14.4...14.7V.
All lead acid batteries loose water due to gassing when charging as well as
evaporation because of temperature influences. The water consumption plays an
important role regarding the maintenance requirements. Batteries with a high
antimony content, have a higher water consumption and need to be maintained
regularly (water has to be refilled). Special lid designs with labyrinths additionally
reduce the water consumption by redirecting evaporated water back into the cells.
The EN norm distinguishes between a low water consumption (<4 g/Ah) and a very
low consumption (<1 g/Ah).
24
400
350
300
250
water loss [g]
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
time in use [days]
AGM PAG Hybrid
Figure 9 Water loss of AGM, PAG and Hybrid Batteries
Overcharging and gassing directly impairs the battery's service life. Therefore it is
important that the voltage regulator is working properly and thus the charge current
does not lead to overcharging, gassing, corrosion or loosening of active mass.
2.3.9 Capacity
Available Capacity
The capacity K is the quantity of electric power which the battery can deliver under
specified conditions. It is the product of current and time (ampere-hours Ah).
The battery's capacity is determined essentially by the quantity of active material
used in its construction. For high powers (such as needed when starting an IC
engine), the active material must have large internal and external surfaces (a large
number of large-area plates). The large internal surface area is produced by a special
form of electrochemical preconditioning, known as "forming at the manufacturers site
during the production process.
However, the capacity is not a fixed parameter but depends, among other things, on
the following factors (Figure 10 and Figure 11):
- Level of the discharging current
- Specific gravity and temperature of the electrolyte
- Discharging process as a function of time (the capacity is higher when a pause
is made during discharging than when the discharge process is continuous)
- age of the battery (due to the loss of active material of the plates, the Ah
capacity decreases as the battery approaches the end of its service life)
25
- Is the battery moved around during use, or does it remain stationary

(electrolyte stratification)
The discharge current plays a particularly important role, whereby the higher the
discharge current is, the lower the available capacity.
In the example shown in Figure 10, the available capacity of 44 Ah can be used for
up to 20h with a discharging current of 2.2 A. A load of 150A (an average starter
current) leads to a drop of the available capacity to approx 20Ah. The battery would
be empty within 6-8 minutes. The reason for this is that at low discharging currents
the electrochemical processes can take place slowly and penetrate deeply into the
plate pores, whereas high discharge currents cause these processes to take place
mostly on the surface of the plates.
Figure 10 Available Ah capacity as a function of discharge current (44Ah battery)
Temperature influence
With an increasing temperature the discharging voltage and the capacity increase,
whereas they drop when temperatures decrease (see Figure 11 and Figure 12).
Among other things, the increase is the result of the reduction in the electrolyte's
viscosity at higher temperatures and the attendant drop in internal resistance. The
decreasing capacity and discharging voltage are due to the fact that the lower the
temperature, the less efficient are the electrochemical processes in the battery.
26
Figure 11 Available Ah capacity as a function of temperature and discharge current
Figure 12 Terminal voltage when discharging with a high current at -18C and 27C
2.3.10 Nominal capacity, K20

In order to be able to make a comparison between starter batteries at all, their
nominal capacity K20 is defined as follows:
According to EN 60095-1, a battery must be able to deliver this quantity of electricity
(in Ah) at a fixed discharge current of I20 within 20 hours discharging time until it
reaches the final discharge voltage of 10.5 V at a temperature of 252C. The
discharge current l20 is allocated to the nominal Ah capacity, and the battery must be
able to deliver this current during the total discharge period: l20 = K20/20h.
27
The nominal capacity is a measure for the energy which can be stored by a new
battery. The capacity depends on the quantity of active material used in the battery
and on the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
For instance, a new 44Ah battery can be discharged with a current of 2.2A for at least
20 hours (44 Ah/20 h = 2.2 A) until the final discharge voltage of 10.5V is reached.
The nominal capacity K20 is therefore a highly important battery parameter for the
permanent loads in the vehicles electrical system.
2.3.11 Cold Start Performance / Cold Cranking Amperes

For a vehicle battery, which must provide the electrical energy to the starter, the
starting capabilities at low temperatures are very important. The cold cranking current
or the cold cranking amperes are a measure for the starting capabilities, since they
represent a current drain at low temperatures.
When selecting the right starter battery for a car the capacity and the cold start
performance should be adequate, which means the battery should not be
dimensioned too small. Otherwise, with a wrongly dimensioned battery, there is a risk
that at very low temperatures the engine is not cranked fast enough and long enough
to start it.
This fact is demonstrated in Figure 13:
Figure 13 Influence of temperature on starter speed and required minimum start speed
Curve 1a shows the rotational speed of the starter as a function of the temperature
with a battery, which is 20% discharged (Curve 1b shows the rpm achieved with a
heavily discharged battery). Curve 2 on the other hand, shows the minimum starting
speed needed by the engine. At low temperatures the starting power needed by the
engine is correspondingly higher due to the increase in frictional resistance in the
engine (for instance the increase in lube-oil viscosity).
The intersection S1 of curves 1a and 2 defines the cold-starting limit (min.
temperature) for a battery which is 20% discharged. In other words at lower
temperatures or with a battery which is even further discharged, it is impossible to
start the engine. The power which the battery (and respectively the starter) delivers is
28
less than the power needed to start the engine. The more the battery is discharged,
the more the cold-start limit (intersection S2) is shifted to higher temperatures.
The cold start performance ICC (formerly IKP) is denoted in amperes. It highly depends
on the total surface area of the active material (number of plates, surface-area of the
plates) because the larger the contact area between the lead material and the
electrolyte, the higher the current that can be delivered for a short period. The plate
spacing and the separators material are two variables, which affect the speed of the
chemical processes in the electrolyte and which also determine the cold cranking
amperes.
These factors are represented in the internal resistance Ri of the battery. For a
temperature of -18C and a fully charged 12V battery, Ri can be estimated as follows:
Ri <= 4000/lCC (m), where lCC is stated in amperes
The cold start performance is defined according to different standards in different
countries, so it is often not possible to directly compare the cited figures with each
other.
Following table gives an overview about standards, which regulate the cold start
performance:
29
Example for
Bosch Silver
Abbrevia 574 012 068
tion Full name Standard Used in Cold start performance definition (12V; 74 Ah)
EN European Norm EN 50342 Europe, China discharge down to 1.25V per cell over a period of 10 680 A
seconds at -18C
DIN German Industrial Standard Formerly used in discharge down to 1.5 volts per cell over a period of 30 400 A
(Deutsche Industrie Norm) Germany; seconds at -18C
replaced by EN
SAE Society of Automotive J537 USA, Middle East discharge down to 1.2 volts per cell over a period of 30 640 A
Engineers seconds at -18C
IEC International electro technical IEC 60095 discharge down to 1.4 volts per cell over a period of 60 465 A
Commission seconds at -18C
JIS Japanese Industrial Standard D 5301 Japan This standard contains a table which defines for each 115F51
battery type the cold cranking performance. E.g. the battery
type 50D20L has to have a min. voltage of 9.6V after 5s
when discharging with 150A at -15C. When further
discharging it has to hold its voltage above 6V for 4min.
For each battery type a certain current, a min. voltage after

5 or 30s, and the duration till the cutoff voltage of 6V is
specified.
The temperature of -15C is same for all types.
CCA Cold cranking amperes Discharge down to 1.2V per cell over a period of 30
seconds at 0F
MCA Marine cranking amperes Discharge down to 1.2V per cell over a period of 30
seconds at 32F
HCA Hot cranking amperes Discharge down to 1.2V per cell over a period of 30
seconds at 80F
Table 3 Overview of Cold Cranking Ampere Definitions
30
To convert cold start performance values between different standards, following table
can be used:
SAE EN IEC DIN JIS SAE JIS SAE
155 145 100 90 26A17 225 55D26 348
200 180 130 110 26A19 201 65D26 413
250 230 160 140 28A19 248 75D26 490
300 280 195 170 32A19 294 80D26 582
350 330 225 200 26B17 225 65D31 389
400 360 260 225 28B17 246 75D31 447
450 420 290 255 34B17 279 95D31 622
500 480 325 280 28B19 247 95E41 512
550 520 355 310 34B19 272 105E41 577
600 540 390 335 36B20 274 115E41 651
650 600 420 365 38B20 332 130E41 799
700 640 450 395 46B24 325 115F51 638
750 680 485 420 50B24 390 145F51 780
800 760 515 450 55B24 433 150F51 916
850 790 550 480 32C24 238 170F51 1045
900 860 580 505 50D20 306 145G51 754
950 900 615 535 55D23 356 165G51 933
1000 940 645 560 65D23 420 180G51 1090
1050 1000 680 590 70D23 490 195G51 1146
1100 1040 710 620 75D23 520 190H52 924
1150 1080 745 645 48D26 278 245H52 1532
1200 1150 775 675
1250 1170 810 700
1300 1220 840 730
1350 1270 870 760
1400 1320 905 790
1450 1360 935 815
1500 1410 975 820
1540 1450 1000 870
Table 4 Cold Cranking Power Conversion Table SAE-EN-IEC-DIN-JIS (all values in A)
2.3.12 Reserve Capacity Rating

The reserve capacity rating is the time in minutes that a new and fully charged
battery can deliver 25A at 27C, maintaining a terminal voltage of 1.75V or higher per
cell (10.5V for a 12V battery). This rating represents the time the battery can operate
essential accessories if the alternator of a vehicle fails.
2.3.13 Service life

To retrieve information regarding the service life of a battery laboratory tests can be
performed. Considering the extremely varying electrical and mechanical loads a
starter battery faces in the field, laboratory tests are not really adequate to ascertain
its service life. The real benefit and performance of a battery can often only be tested
31
under field conditions; as a result batteries are also tested in the vehicle during
operation.
Below three tests, two laboratory and one field test, are described and some test
results for different battery technologies are presented.
OE Test
The battery has to undergo following charge and discharge cycle. The battery is
discharged with I=0.25 x capacity for 1 hour and afterwards charged for 3 hours with
a constant voltage of 14.8V.
After 32 of these charge/discharge cycles a high current discharge test with the
nominal cold cranking value is performed. Within 30s the voltage must not drop
below 7.2V. Subsequent the battery is charged for 24h.
This procedure of 32 cycles, a high current discharge and recharging is one test
cycle.
Five test cycles at a temperature of 40C are performed, then the battery is cooled
down to -18C. At that temperature further test cycles are done until the battery can
not fulfill the high rate discharge test anymore (U30s > 7.2V).
The number of passed test cycles is the test result.
SAE J240 Test

This test is in relation to the American SAE standard and provides information about
the batterys lifespan at high temperatures.
During this test the battery is placed in a water basin with a temperature of 75C.
Independent from the Ah capacity the battery is discharged with a current of 25A for
four minutes. Afterwards the battery is charged with a constant voltage of 14.8V for
10 minutes. After 428 of these charge/discharge cycles the battery has to has to pass
a high current discharge test (with the nominal cold cranking ampere). The voltage
may not drop below 7.2V.
The whole procedure is repeated until the battery fails the high rate discharge test.
The number of the total repetitions is the test score.
32
SAE J240 Test
4000
3500
3000 3344
number of cycles
2500
2000
1976
1500 1806
1000
500
0
Hybrid PbCa PA G
batte ry-te chnology
Figure 14 Hybrid, Calcium and Silver battery performance in J240 Test
Las Vegas Test

The Las Vegas test is a typical field test and is carried out with American taxis. The
taxis in Las Vegas are in use for almost 24h a day, which stresses the battery a lot.
From this test statements can be made about the lifespan, the performance and the
durability at high temperatures. As a test result the driven miles until the battery fails
are taken into account.
Las Vegas Test (Ford)
100000
90000 95000
80000
70000
miles before failure
60000
50000
40000 43000
30000
30000
20000
10000
0
PA G Hybrid PbCa
batte ry-te chnology
Figure 15 Hybrid, Calcium and Silver battery performance in Las Vegas Test
33
2.3.14 Self-Discharge
All wet (filled) batteries will slowly self discharge whether they are in service or only
stored. In a battery, although without any consumers connected to it, chemical
reactions go on as if an inner electrical circuit is closed. Impurities are the reason for
the self discharge. Antimony, which is used as alloy to harden the lead grids, is one
of these metallic impurities, which causes self discharge. For older battery
technologies a relative high amount of antimony was used, thus leading to a high self
discharge rate. In modern starter batteries the antimony content is much lower,
because it is replaced by other alloys as e.g. calcium. So the self-discharge rate of
modern batteries is less then 0.1% of the batterys capacity per day.
Besides the antimony content (the battery technology), the self-discharge rate mainly
depends on following factors:
- temperature:
higher temperature accelerates the chemical processes in the lead acid
battery, thus leading to an increasing self discharge rate
- batterys age:
the older the battery the higher the self discharge rate
- humidity:
high humidity leads to a higher self discharge rate
The most important two factors for self discharge are the average storage
temperature and the grid technology.
In the following two diagrams the relationship between temperatures and self-
discharge and the self discharge rate for different battery technologies are presented:
Selfdischarge of PbCa and PbCaAg Technology Batteries

(e.g. Bosch Silver)
100
90
Average
80 storage
temperature
State of Charge [%]
70 5-10C
10-15C
15-20C
60 25C
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Time [months]
Figure 16 Self discharge of calcium-silver batteries at different storage temperatures
34
Selfdischarge of different
Battery T echnology
100
90
80
State of Charge [%]
70
60
50
40
30
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Time [months]
PbCa Hybrid (1.8%Sb/PbCa) Antimony (1.6%Sb/1.6%Sb)
Figure 17 Self discharge of different battery technologies
During the self discharge process same as during a normal discharge, lead sulfate is
built at the positive and negative plates, which is finely distributed across the plates.
But the longer the battery is left in a discharged stage, the fine sulfate crystals
develop into larger ones, which can only hardly be transformed back to lead dioxide
or lead. This phenomenon is called sulfating and negatively impairs the performance
and service life of the battery.
The self-discharge phenomenon is particularly significant for vehicles used only
during specific seasons (agriculture, forestry, and construction sites). It is also
important for second cars and mobile homes, which are rarely driven or not driven at
all in winter. It also applies to new and second hand vehicles, which have to be
parked for long periods due to seasonal fluctuations in sales or due to long
transportation times.
In all these cases it is important that the battery has a high state of charge when the
vehicle is taken out of operation and it must be disconnected from all consumers (e.g.
by disconnecting the ground cable).
2.3.15 Resistance to deep discharge

To check the resistance to deep discharge, a battery is completely discharged with
lamps, and afterwards left in a short-circuit condition for four weeks. The battery must
then be able to recharge when connected to the vehicle electrical system, it must still
be fully operational, and it must only display certain reductions in performance (e.g.
the capacity may drop by a specified value).
35
2.4 Battery Identification
2.4.1 European Type Number and Bosch Reference Number

To identify unlike battery types and to make it possible to compare and exchange
batteries of different manufacturers (compatibility), parts of the layout (e.g. position
and distance of the poles) and the designation are regulated in norms. A Bosch
battery has following information on its label:
- Parameters according to EN
- European Type Number ETN with safety advises for the battery handling
- Bosch part number TTNR
- Short code
Parameters according to EN
The European norm EN 50342 stipulates parameters, which describe the batteries
performance. The most important parameters are:
- nominal voltage (e.g. 12V)
- nominal capacity (e.g. 44Ah)
- Cold cranking performance (e.g. 360 Ampere)
In the USA parameters according to SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) are used
and in Japan according to JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard). This leads for example
to different measurement methods for the cold cranking performance as explained in
chapter 2.3.11.
European Type Number (ETN)

The European type number replaces since 1998 the DIN number in Germany. The
ETN gives information about the voltage, capacity and the cold cranking
performance.
Example: 5 44 059 036
5 44 059 036
Battery type Capacity Other characteristics Cold cranking

14 6V battery The 2nd and 3rd digit e.g. dimensions, performance
57 12V battery represent the capacity K20. In assembly, terminal type, This figure stands for the
8 special battery the case above 44Ah. For a container type, cover type, cold cranking amperes and
9 traction battery capacity of more than 100Ah etc. is given in 1/10th of the
the 1st digit will be increased actual value. In the
by 1 for every 100 Ah (in the example above 036 stands
range 14, respectively for 360A.
57)
Figure 18 ETN Code Explanation
36
Bosch reference (TTNR)

The alphanumerical Bosch part number TTNR consists of a Bosch numerical code
for the battery type plus a part of the ETN.
Example: 0 093 S 544 1N
ETN Part
0 093 S 5 44 1N
Bosch Code Number Product Line Battery type Capacity Serial No.
for Battery Type 14 6V battery These two digits represent
57 12V battery the capacity K20. In the case
8 special battery above 44Ah. For a capacity
9 traction battery of more than 100Ah the
previous digit will be
increased by 1 for every 100
Ah (in the range 14,
respectively 57)
Figure 19 Bosch Part Number System
Short Code
To make it easier for customers to find a suitable battery for a certain vehicle, a short
code with two digits was implemented. The short code is much easier to remember
and thus more convenient for customers.
2.4.2 Manufacturing Date

Each battery has a manufacturing code, which contains among others the production
date. When doing the incoming inspection, when supervising the maximum storage
time as well as for warranty cases, it is necessary to determine the manufacturing
date.
Following different codes can be found on Bosch batteries:
Batteries manufactured by Varta Bosch (not Optima Batteries)

A 13-digit manufacturing code is embossed on the cover. The manufacturing date is
also printed on the front label of the battery.
1st to 3rd digits: Plant code
4th digit: Year of manufacture
5th and 6th digits: Month of manufacture
7th to 13th digits not relevant
Example: Manufacturing code for Bosch batteries

Plant code Manufacturing Date (Not relevant)
G3B 581 25 1 0254
Y0T 581 25 1 0254 (motorcycle batteries)
37
Gel batteries
A 13-digit manufacturing code is embossed on the cover. The manufacturing date is
also printed on the front label of the battery.
1st to 3rd digits: always D00
4th digit: Year of manufacture
5th and 6th digits: Month of manufacture
7th to 13th digits not relevant
Example: Manufacturing code for Bosch gel batteries

Plant code Manufacturing Date (Not relevant)
D00 581 25 1 0254
The table below shows the manufacturing date codes for the period from 1993 to
2005:
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
January 361 461 561 661 761 861 961
February 362 462 562 662 762 862 962
March 363 463 563 663 763 863 963
April 364 464 564 664 764 864 964
May 365 465 565 665 765 865 965
June 366 466 566 666 766 866 966
July 367 467 567 667 767 867 967
August 368 468 568 668 768 868 968
September 369 469 569 669 769 869 969
October 370 470 570 670 770 870 970
November 371 471 571 671 771 871 971
December 372 472 572 672 772 872 972
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

January 081 181 281 381 481 581 681 781
February 082 182 282 382 482 582 682 782
March 083 183 283 383 483 583 683 783
April 084 184 284 384 484 584 684 784
May 085 185 285 385 485 585 685 785
June 086 186 286 386 486 586 686 786
July 087 187 287 387 487 587 687 787
August 088 188 288 388 488 588 688 788
September 089 189 289 389 489 589 689 789
October 090 190 290 390 490 590 690 790
November 091 191 291 391 491 591 691 791
December 092 192 292 392 492 592 962 792
Table 5 Manufacturing date codes
38
2.5 The Components of a Lead-Acid Battery

A 12V starter battery contains of six in series connected individually partitioned cells
in a polypropylene case (Figure 20). Each cell comprises the element (cell pack),
which consists of a positive and a negative plate set. These, in turn, are composed of
the lead plates (lead grid and active mass), together with the microporous insulating
material (separators) between the plates of opposite polarity. The electrolyte is
diluted sulfuric acid which permeates the pores in the plates and separators, and fills
the free space in the cells. Terminals, cell connectors and plate straps are made of
lead. The openings for the cell connectors in the partitions are sealed. A hot-sealing
process is used to permanently bond the cover to the battery case thus providing the
battery's upper seal. On conventional batteries each cell has its own filling plug,
which allows the initial battery filling, topping-up during service and the release of
oxy-hydrogen gas during the charging process (Figure 21). Maintenance-free
batteries often appear to be totally sealed, but they also have vent holes and
sometimes screw-in plugs, which are not accessible.
terminal
cover
lid
cell terminal
positive connector
plate set plate
strap
case
negative grid
positive plate bottom rail

for mounting
lug
cell pack
negative
plate set
negative plate
positive plate in
pocket separator
positive grid
Figure 20 Battery Construction (100% maintenance free)
2.5.1 Battery case

The battery case is made of acid resistant insulating material (Polypropylene). It is
usually provided on the outside with bottom rails for mounting purposes. Older,
conventional batteries have small ribs (sludge ribs) on the inner bottom area of the
case (compare Figure 21), on which the plates are mounted. The space between the
bars (sediment chambers) serves to collect small solid material, which is sloughed off
from the plates during normal operation. The lead sludge, which is electrically
conductive, accumulates in the sediment chambers without contact to the plates.
39
Thus short-circuits are avoided. The design with slug ribs is necessary for
conventional batteries because separators are used, which do not enclose the plates
at their lower end as pocket separators do.
The battery case is divided into cells by partition walls. These cells are the basic
element of a battery. They contain the cell packs with the positive and negative
plates, as well as the separators between them. The cells are connected in series
using cell connectors, which provide the connection through openings in the partition
walls.
Figure 21 Conventional Battery Construction
Battery cases of modern starter batteries have no longer sludge ribs. The plates
reach down to the floor of the case (increased plate surface) and they have contact
along their full length with the battery case (increased stability).
The battery case for AGM (absorbent glass mat) technology has stronger and thicker
walls, because the plates with the separators between them are installed under
pressure into the case. This is possible because of the compressible glass fiber
fleece used as separator material.
Depending upon the available space and the layout of the equipment in the vehicle,
batteries with various dimensions and terminal configurations are needed. These
requirements can be fulfilled by the appropriate arrangement of the cells (lengthways
or transverse installation) and their interconnections. An overview of the most
common connection designs is given in Figure 22. Consequently the design of the
battery case differs accordingly.
40
Figure 22 Battery Cell Connection Designs
2.5.2 Lid and SOC Indicator

The cells are all covered and sealed by a lid. This lid is permanently bond to the case
by a hot-sealing process and it has openings above each cell for the initial filling with
electrolyte and for non maintenance free batteries for servicing. There are lids with
attached handles for an easy installation and handling of the battery.
Basically two lid types can be distinguished:
- block lid: the terminal posts are embedded into the lid; they do not protrude the
lid (see Figure 23 on the left)
- mono lid: on a mono lid the terminals posts protrude the lid, so they are the
highest point of the battery
Figure 23 Block and Mono Lid
Block and mono lids exist in different versions and with different features. Older
battery types especially batteries which require maintenance have screw-in plugs,
41
which are accessible to top up the battery with water. These screw-in plugs have
vents to release gases from the inner of the battery.
Later (especially for maintenance free batteries) a central degassing channel was
developed. All cells are connected to that central gas channel and charge gases can
escape through a central vent hole. The battery has two of these vent holes, allowing
a more flexible installation in different vehicles. One vent hole will be closed by a
small plug, the other vent hole will be connected to a vent pipe. This design allows
the installation of the battery inside the vehicle. Dangerous gases are carried out of
the vehicle through the vent pipe.
If a battery is 100% maintenance free, the screw in plugs are not accessible. In these
cases they are e.g. sealed by a label or the plugs are located in a trough and covered
by another small closure.
Modern 100% maintenance free batteries are often equipped with a labyrinth lid. In
this case the cover consists of two parts (Figure 24). The second smaller part
contains the central degassing channel and covers with its labyrinth mechanism the
openings to the cells. In this case no plugs are used anymore.
Lids with a central degassing channel can be fitted with flame arrestors. Firstly they
hold the electrolyte back if the battery is tilted or turned upside down. Secondly
sparks and flames are retained from backfiring into the battery.
Valve regulated lead acid batteries (VRLA) as e.g. Gel and AGM batteries are
equipped with special security valve plugs. Under normal operating conditions theses
batteries are able to avoid the generation of charge gases by an internal loop
process. Only if strongly overcharged, the loop process fails and the security valves
open to release overpressure. These valve plugs are one time fitted during the
manufacturing process and will not be removed afterwards.
Figure 24 Labyrinth lid with central degassing channel and flame arrestor
42
labyrinth
flame arrestor
central degassing channel
Figure 25 Labyrinth lid of a truck battery
In addition a power control system (SOC Indicator, see Figure 26) can be installed
either somewhere in the lid or in one of the screw-in plugs. The power control system
works like a hydrometer, using an optic and one or two small colored balls to give
information about the batterys status. The following picture shows a power control
system used in truck batteries. It consists of a cage, which holds a small green ball,
and an optic. In a fully operational battery more than half of the optic reaches into the
electrolyte. If the battery is fully charged (thus the acid density is high) the ball swims
in the upper right area of the cage and through the optic its green color can be seen.
If the batterys state of charge is low (thus the acid density is low) the ball is in the
lower left area of the cage and cannot be seen through the optic. The user can only
see a black color coming from the cage. If the electrolyte level is low and does not
cover the optic anymore, the user will see a grey or white color. In this case the
battery is used up and has to be replaced by a new one soon.
optic
cage ball
Figure 26 SOC Indicator
43
2.5.3 Cell Packs, Plates and Grids

The cell packs (elements) comprise positive and negative plates and the separators
between them. The number and surface area of these plates are the essential factor,
which defines the cells Ah capacity. The thickness of the plates depends on the field
of application of the battery. Usually the plates are between 1 and 3 mm thick.
Figure 27 Cell pack
The plates, so-called grid plates, are constructed of lead grids (the carrier of the
active mass, Figure 28), and the active mass itself, which is pasted onto them.
The active mass of the positive plate contains lead dioxide (PbO2, dark brown), and
that of the negative plate contains pure lead in the form of spongy lead (Pb, metallic
grey). The active mass, which is subjected to chemical processes when current flows
through it, is porous and therefore provides a large effective surface area.
In a cell pack, all positive plates are welded together with a plate strap as well as all
the negative plates (Figure 20 and Figure 34). These straps are made of lead and
hold the individual plates mechanically in position. Normally, each element has one
more negative plate than it has positive plates.
Figure 28 Photo of a cast grid Figure 29 Photo of a pasted grid
44
Grid alloys
The grids are made of lead, alloyed with different chemical elements to obtain certain
characteristics. The grid alloys can be divided into: lead-antimony (PbSb), lead-
calcium (PbCa) and lead-calcium-silver (PbCaAg) often only named as lead-silver.
Besides these main and characteristic alloys all grids contain additional substances,
which are not explicitly mentioned, when talking about the different grid technologies.
Lead-antimony alloy (PbSb)

Antimony is added to the lead used for the grid to improve the castability of the thin
lead grids (very important for high-performance batteries), to speed-up the hardening
process, and to provide the lead plates with the strength needed to withstand
operation in the vehicle. In other words, the antimony acts as a hardener. However,
during the batterys service life the antimony is increasingly separated out due to
corrosion of the positive grids. It moves through the electrolyte and the separators to
the negative plate and poisons it by forming local voltaic couples. This increases the
batterys self-discharge and reduces the gassing voltage. Both factors promote the
increase of water consumption due to overcharging and this in turn leads to an
increased release of antimony. This self-energizing mechanism leads to a continuous
drop in power throughout the battery's service life. Especially in winter the available
low charging current is wasted on decomposing water. The battery then fails to reach
an adequate state of charge and the electrolyte level must be checked more often. In
former times an antimony content of 4...5% used in the lead grid led to a high self-
discharge of the negative plate; one of the main reasons for a starter-battery to fail.
The water consumption of older batteries (>4g/Ah) resulting from increased gassing
made it necessary to check the battery every 4 to 6 weeks depending on the driving
conditions.
The relative high antimony content in former times was later reduced to diminish the
problems coming from the negative plate poisoning. However this reduction of the
antimony content has not really led to real improvements of the batterys
characteristics. The target was to replace the hardener antimony by another more
suitable alloy.
Lead-calcium alloy (PbCa)

In the so-called calcium technology, the antimony is replaced by calcium, which is
electrochemically inactive under the prevailing potential differences in the lead
storage battery. This means that negative plate poisoning is avoided and self-
discharge is almost completely stopped. Of even more importance is the fact, that the
gassing voltage remains stable at a high level throughout the whole service life.
Lead-calcium-silver alloy (PbCaAg)

The higher power of modern car engines combined with a more compact and
streamlined body-shell has resulted in a higher average engine-compartment
temperature. These changes also affect the design of a starter battery. One of the
most recent developments has been the use of an improved lead alloy for the battery
grids of the positive plates. The grids not only have lower calcium and higher tin
contents, but they also contain the element silver.
This alloy combined with a finer grid structure has proved to be extremely durable
even at high temperatures which usually lead to an accelerated corrosion. This also
applies in case that the battery is overcharged at high acid density as well as when
45
the battery rests at a low acid density. The optimized grid geometry in addition with
the optimized electrical conductivity, allows a better utilization of the active mass,
which amplifies this effect.
Grid Alloy Technology Overview

Not necessarily the positive and negative plates are both made of the same grid
alloy. Four different combinations are common, which are shown with their
characteristics in the table below:
Used Grid alloy Self Wet

term for discharge battery
grid alloy positive negative rate Maintenance Water loss possible Others
Lead PbSb PbSb High Required High No High
antimony especially cyclic
after durability
discharge
Low PbSb PbSb High- Required High No High

antimony cyclic
(<3.5%) medium durability
Hybrid PbSb PbCa Medium Low medium No

maintenance;
maintenance
free possible
Lead PbCa PbCa low 100% low Yes

calcium Maintenance
free
Silver PbCaAg PbCa Very low 100% low Yes Low grid
Maintenance corrosion;
free +20%
lifespan;
higher
cold
cranking
power
Table 6 Grid Alloy Technology Comparison
Grid design
The grid geometry varies depending on the production process, the manufacturer
decided to use. A manufacturing process, where the grid is expanded from a lead
strip does not allow a frame around the grid. If the grid is produced by a casting
process it is possible to design other grid line geometries and have a frame around
the grid.
Following picture shows the different geometry of an expanded (on the left) and a
cast grid:
46
Figure 30 Cast and expanded grid
Each grid has a lug, with which it is attached to the cell connector (see Figure 20 and
Figure 30). If the lug is positioned more to the center of the plate (the lug can never
be placed exactly in the center, because of the two cell straps as shown in Figure
20), it is called center lug. A center lug provides a more balanced fixing of the grid
plates inside the battery casing. This fixation allows an even thinner (about 30%
thinner compared to plates with a non-center lug) but stronger design of the plates
and therefore an increasing number of plates can be used. This leads to a further
increase in cold start performance without any loss of quality.
"Robust-design" battery versions have shorter and thicker positive plates with a
stronger frame. The shorter grid plates allow a larger volume of electrolyte above the
plates. Thereby the plates are always covered with electrolyte and protected against
corrosion. Such kinds of batteries are generally "tougher" in practical applications.
Active mass
The active mass is that part of the battery plates which changes chemically when
current flows during the charging and discharging processes. The mass is porous
and thus has a large surface area. The negative plates of a 100Ah battery for
example have a surface area of approximately 2000m2, the positive plates of about
30,000m2.
The active mass is produced as follows: Water, dilute sulphuric acid, and where
required other materials together with short plastic fibers are added to lead oxide,
which usually contains 5...15% of finely distributed metallic lead ("Grauoxid", literally
"grey oxide"). A dough-like mass is formed in a mixer or kneader. Alkaline lead
sulfates are produced in this way, whereas parts of the lead oxide and metallic lead
remain in their original forms. This dough-like mass is then pasted onto the grids and
left to harden.
47
The subsequent process, the so called forming process, changes this mass
electrochemically into the active mass. This process takes place at the manufacturer.
The physical and chemical properties of lead are as following:
pH-value(25C): 7-8 (100 mg/l water)
solidification point: 327C
boiling point: 1740C
solubility in water: low (0.15 mg/l) (25 C)
density (20 C): 11.35 g/cm
vapour pressure (20 C) -
Lead and lead-containing battery paste is poorly soluble in water. Lead can be
dissolved in an acidic or alkaline environment.
2.5.4 Separators
Since weight and space-saving considerations are important for the design of
automotive batteries, the positive and negative plates are placed very close to each
other. Usually the space between the positive and negative plates is 0.8-1.5mm.
They must not touch each other neither when they bend nor when particles crumble
away from their surface. Otherwise the battery is immediately destroyed by the
resulting short-circuit.
Partitions (separators) are installed between the individual plates of the elements to
ensure that there is enough space between plates of opposite polarity and that they
are electrically insulated from each other. However, these separators must not
noticeably oppose the ion migration and they must be of acid-resistant, porous
material through which the electrolyte can pass freely. Such a microporous structure
prevents the very fine lead fibers penetrating the separators and causing short-
circuits.
Nowadays polyethylene foil, which is non-oxidizing and acid-resistant, is used as
separator material. This is brought into a pocket form, which surrounds (and
separates) the negative and positive battery plates (Figure 31). It prevents the active
material crumbling off the plates, as well as short-circuits at the bottom and at the
side edges of the plates. The average pore diameter is 10 times smaller than that of
conventional separators, which is an effective measure in preventing short-circuits
through the separator and it reduces the electrical resistance.
In former times and for conventional batteries the separators where not formed as
pockets. Only separator sheets were placed between the plates and consequently
they did not offer any protection against short circuit at the edges of the plates.
48
Figure 31 Plate in pocket separator
For AGM batteries (absorbent glass mat) the separators are made of 100% micro
glass fiber fleece. The fleece is formed around the plate like a pocket separator
(Figure 32). It does not only separate the negative and positive plates, but it is also
the medium for storing and fixing the electrolyte. Each plate set is installed under
pressure into the battery case. This ensures even contact between the separators
and the plates, even acid distribution and avoids gassing as well as acid stratification.
The design with the compressed separators also leads to an improved paste
adhesion to the grid.
Figure 32 AGM battery separator design
49
2.5.5 Electrolyte
Battery electrolyte is a mixture of 64% distilled water and 36% sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Batteries today have an electrolyte with a specific gravity of about 1.270 g/cm3 (at
20C, 68F) when fully charged. Specific Gravity is the weight of a given volume of
liquid in comparison to the weight of the same volume of water. The higher the
specific gravity of a liquid the denser (thicker) it is.
The electrolyte permeates the pores in the plates and separators, and fills the free
space in the cells. Thus the lead oxide and lead particles of the active mass are
always in touch with the electrolyte.
Figure 33 Electrolyte Mixture
When sulfuric acid is diluted in water the acid molecules split into positively charged
hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged acid-rest ions (SO42-). The splitting is
necessary to make the electrolyte conductive and to allow the chemical reaction
during the charge and discharge process.
The physical and chemical properties of sulfuric acid are as following:
pH-value(25C): 0.3 (49 mg/l water)
solidification point: -35 to -60 C
boiling point: approx. 108 to 144C
solubility in water: complete (25 C)
density (20 C): (1.2 to 1.3) g/cm
vapour pressure (20 C) 14.6 mbar
2.5.6 Cell connectors

The battery's individual cells (elements) are connected in series by the cell
connectors (Figure 20 and Figure 34). The cell connectors are made of lead. To
decrease the battery's internal resistance and weight, direct cell connectors are used
in modern batteries. Here, the plate straps of individual cells are connected directly
through the cell partition (the shortest connection path). The openings in the cell
partition walls are sealed.
50
Figure 34 Cell Connector
2.5.7 Terminal posts

The plate strap of the positive plates of the first cell is connected to the positive
terminal post and that from the negative plates of the last cell to the negative terminal
post. The terminal posts are made of lead alloy and formed conically to allow low
contact resistance to the cable connectors. Between these two terminal posts the
terminal voltage of approx. 12V can be measured.
The battery cables are attached to the terminal posts with special cable terminals. To
prevent mixing up the positive and negative battery pole, they are marked with their
polarity. In addition the positive terminal post has a thicker outer diameter than the
negative terminal.
The terminal posts are protected by caps against inadvertent short-circuits.
2.6 Battery Types

In this chapter diverse battery types, respectively technologies are introduced.
Differences concerning the construction and performance features are described. In
the last subchapter a tabular overview and a product comparison is given.
2.6.1 Conventional and low-maintenance Battery
Conventional Batteries
Conventional batteries are designed with sludge ribs at the bottom area of the case.
Between the ribs lead sludge can accumulate without generating short circuits. This
design is necessary since no pocket separators are used, which would enclose the
bottom end of the plates. As grid alloy a relative high antimony content is used
(4...5%). On the one hand the antimony brings down the gassing voltage, thus the
gassing process starts earlier and the water loss is higher. Water need to be added
regularly through accessible screw-in plugs. On the other hand the antimony makes
the battery more cyclic durable. Because of the maintenance requirements a lid with
accessible screw-in plugs is used.
51
Low-Maintenance Batteries
Low maintenance batteries are equipped with pocket separators. No sludge ribs are
necessary, thus the battery case has a flat bottom. The additional space is used by
larger plates. The larger plate surface area allows higher current drains and the flat
case bottom brings more stability, because the plates can stand along their full length
on the bottom.
The grid is alloyed with a lower antimony content than it is in conventional batteries
(<3.5%). The water consumption is lower, but still exceeds 4g/Ah, which is the limit
according to EN for maintenance free batteries. The lower antimony content also
reduces the self discharge rate, especially when the battery becomes older.
Because batteries with lead antimony grids have a higher cyclic durability they are
used in LCV and taxis. Also for motorcycles antimony batteries can be applied,
because the seasonal usage requires a more cyclic durable battery.
The advantages of a higher cyclic durability are often compensated by the
disadvantages of grid corrosion, resulting in a shortened lifetime. The reason is, that
grids with lead-antimony alloy are subject to a higher corrosion than grids with
calcium or silver alloy, used in battery technologies as described below.
Nowadays conventional batteries are seldom used in new vehicles, because they are
not maintenance free. In addition a passenger cars starter battery does not need to
be extreme cyclic durable.
2.6.2 Hybrid Battery (Maintenance-free Battery)

As the name suggests, in hybrid batteries two grid technologies are used. The
negative grids are made of calcium alloy and the positive grids of antimony alloy. This
allows the negative grids with the calcium alloy to be manufactured using a simple
drawing process, and the positive grids, which are subjected to greater mechanical
stresses, are produced by a casting process. As separator material polyethylene foil
is applied in form of pockets.
The calcium alloy reduces the self discharge and more important it ensures a high
and over the batterys lifetime stable gassing voltage, which reduces the water
consumption. The water loss of a maintenance-free battery is over its whole lifespan
much lower than that of a conventional battery (<4 g/Ah, often about 2 g/Ah). The
water level only needs to be checked during the standard vehicle maintenance
interval. As cover lids with accessible screw-in plugs are used.
Because a hybrid battery still contains antimony, they even cannot meet the extreme
demands for low-water consumption in the passenger car sector (<1g/Ah). Only
100% maintenance-free batteries, in which both positive and negative grids are made
of a lead-calcium alloy, are capable of meeting these requirements.
2.6.3 100% Maintenance-free Battery

Absolute maintenance free batteries are a further development of hybrid batteries.
Both grids, positive and negative, consist of a lead calcium alloy. There are also
100% maintenance free batteries, which contain silver. The positive grid has less
calcium but in addition silver is added. Due to the silver alloy the grid is even at high
temperatures very durable against corrosion, resulting in a better lifespan and better
resistance to overcharging. Consequently calcium/calcium and calcium/silver
52
batteries are antimony free. The water consumption is reduced to less than 1g/Ah, so
that during the whole lifespan no electrolyte needs to be added.
Bosch 100% maintenance free batteries have optimized grid geometries. Cast
positive grids with a surrounding border, an improved grid line layout and a center lug
allow thinner but more stable grids. The amount of plates can be increased therefore
the cold cranking performance is improved.
On 100% maintenance free batteries often the lid is designed with a labyrinth and it
has a central gas vent and flame arrestors. This design minimizes the water
consumption, prevents the spilling of electrolyte in case the battery is tipped-up for a
short time and prevents backfiring in case of sparks. The cover is equipped with
handles, which facilitate easy and safe transportation of the battery.
The low self-discharge level allows all maintenance-free batteries to be filled with
sulfuric acid at the factory. The filling procedure can take place under optimal
conditions, avoiding dangerous spilling of acid at wholesalers or car repair shops.
A 100% maintenance-free starter battery with lead-calcium-silver technology features
a higher starting power (approx 30% more) than a conventional battery. Basically
speaking, this is due to the thin but stronger plate design, which allows more plates to
be installed and the increased plate surface because of omitting the sediment
chambers.
Furthermore, thanks to the lead-calcium alloy used for the plate grids, the 100%
maintenance-free battery's starting power remains practically unchanged for years. It
only drops below the figure of the norm for new batteries when it almost reached its
end of service life. Whereas the 100% maintenance-free battery is still above the
given norm value after 75% of its service life, the conventional battery drops below
this figure considerably sooner (at approx. 40% of its service life). In practice a
conventional starter battery has already lost about a third of its original starting power
after 75% of its useful life (Figure 35).
In Figure 35 the graphs are scaled to a service life of 100%, so the difference in
lifespan between conventional, calcium and calcium-silver batteries can not be seen.
Lead-calcium batteries show a 1.4 times higher and lead-calcium-silver batteries a 3
times higher service life compared to conventional starter batteries.
Figure 35 Starting power as a function of useful life
53
In summary 100% maintenance-free starter batteries are characterized as follows:

- Maintenance-free for the whole service life
- Performance data and charging characteristics remain as constant as possible
throughout the battery's service life
- After a deep discharge and a subsequent period of downtime, the battery can
be recharged when connected to the normal vehicle electrical system
- In case of seasonal operation without intermediate charging (but with
disconnected ground cable), there is no reduction in the service life compared
to an all year round operation
- A filled battery can be stored for long periods
- The charging voltage only exceeds the gassing voltage at high temperatures.
This means that gassing (water consumption) occurs rarely, so that topping up
with distilled water remains unnecessary throughout the whole service life.
- It is no longer possible to forget to top-up with distilled water or to use
contaminated water, or even to use so called battery improvers"
- Injuries and the danger of damage due to contact with sulfuric acid cannot
occur anymore
- Maintenance and servicing costs are reduced
- Higher resistance to short distance driving
- Installation in positions difficult to access
Nowadays 100% maintenance free batteries are state of the art and used in almost
all new vehicles by the original equipment manufacturers in Europe.
Also for commercial vehicles 100% maintenance free batteries with a calcium-
calcium or a calcium-silver technology are available. These batteries can be
equipped with a labyrinth lid and flame arrestors (as e.g. the Bosch CV battery
Tecmaxx)
2.6.4 Deep-Cycle-Resistant Battery

Due to their design characteristics standard maintenance free automotive batteries
are not really suited for applications in which frequent, deep discharge occurs.
Standard batteries response to these operating conditions with high rates of wear at
the positive plates due to the separation and shedding (sedimentation) of active
material. Moreover antimony as grid alloy is better in case of deep cyclic usage.
In taxis, buses, delivery vans, etc., which are characterized by short distances
traveled between engine starts, and the associated high current consumption, the
battery is subjected to very high loadings. This can lead to the battery being
discharged almost completely so that it is impossible to adequately recharge it with
the vehicles alternator. Added to this are the high levels of current consumption
when the vehicle is at a standstill due to fans, air-conditioner, auxiliary heating,
lighting, car radio and two-way radio.
AGM batteries, as described in the next chapter, are the first choice for the above
mentioned applications. An alternative is the so-called deep-cycle-resistant starter
battery. It can be deeply discharged more often than a normal battery without
impairing its service life. In this type of battery, separators with fiber-glass mats are
used to give the positive mass the extra support need to prevent premature
shedding and thus forming battery sludge. Deep cycle technology can be found in
the Heavy Duty and Heavy Duty Extra truck batteries as described in chapter 2.6.7.
54
The service life of such a battery, measured in charge/discharge cycles, is

approximately double that of a standard battery. An AGM battery reaches even 3-4
times more charge/discharge cycles than a standard starter battery.
2.6.5 AGM Battery

The AGM technology (absorbent glass mat) is able to fulfill even higher demands
coming from modern vehicles. Contrary to batteries with free liquid electrolyte, the
sulfuric acid in AGM batteries is bound by glass mats, which is used instead of the
separators to fill the space between positive and negative plates.
The battery is sealed airproof with special vents, which only open in case of
overpressure. Oxygen gas, formed at the positive plate during overcharging, is used
up at the negative plate by an internal loop process. The formation of explosive
hydrogen gas is thus prevented. The oxygen gas is transported through small
channels between the positive and negative plates. A sealed AGM battery has
extremely low water consumption and is absolutely maintenance free.
The AGM technology has additional advantages. The absorbent glass mat is elastic,
which allows placing the cell packs into the case under pressure. The pressure onto
the plates prevents, that the active mass can crumble away. The battery is much
more resistant to cyclic usage.
In case that the battery case becomes damaged, the electrolyte usually does not
leak, because it is bound in the glass mats. If the battery is turned upside down, also
after a longer time no electrolyte leaks. The high porosity of the absorbent glass mat
allows high cold cranking currents.
Another advantage of AGM batteries is that no electrolyte stratification occurs. During
cyclic charge and discharge processes a battery with free liquid electrolyte shows a
gradient in the specific gravity from top to bottom. The reason is that during the
charging process electrolyte with a high specific gravity is formed at the plates. Due
to its higher density it moves downwards and stays in the bottom area, whereas in
the upper area the electrolyte with a low density accumulates. This stratification leads
to a lower service life and it reduces the capacity. A stratification in AGM batteries
does not occur, because the electrolyte is bound to the glass mats.
55
Deep Cyclic Resistance
Deep cycling test with 50 % discharge (95 Ah batteries)
13,0
test criteria : charge: 5h 14,8 V / 5 x i 20
12,5 discharge: 2h 5 x i 20
12,0
voltage (V)
11,5
11,0 lead acid sealed

PbCa HighTec
10,5
10,0
9,5
9,0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
number of cycles
Figure 36 Cyclic resistance of AGM compared to standard lead acid batteries
Service Life under Cyclic Conditions

During a field test between 1998 and 2002 in Hanover the service life of different
battery technologies was examined. The batteries were tested in taxis, where they
were subject to high cyclic loads. The test showed a significant higher lifetime of the
AGM technology compared to the silver (PAG) or hybrid technology.
The main reasons for the failure of the PAG and hybrid battery types were acid
stratification and paste shedding due to the cyclic load. Both phenomena are
effectively prevented by the absorbent glass fiber material used in AGM batteries.
30
25
Lifespan up to
2,5 - 3 fache
Lebensdauer
3 times
20
lifespan
Lebensdauer
(months)
[Monate] 15
10
AGM H8
AGM H6
PAG H8
Hybrid H8
Battery type
Batterietype
Figure 37 Service Life of AGM, PAG and Hybrid Batteries during taxi field test
56
Cold Cranking Performance

In batteries with free electrolyte it is necessary to have an acid reserve above the
plates. It ensures that the plates are always covered by electrolyte when the battery
is tilted for small angles and it allows the loss of electrolyte due to gassing to a
certain extend.
As the electrolyte is bound in glass fiber mats and the battery is fully sealed, there is
no need for an acid reserve above the plates for AGM batteries. The plates can be
designed larger (approx. 22% larger plate surface) than plates of normal lead acid
batteries. The cold cranking performance of AGM batteries is about 10-30% higher
than that of comparable lead acid batteries.
acid reserve above plates
plates
Platten
plates
Platten
Lead - acid
nasse battery
Batterie AGM
AGM- battery
Batterie
Figure 38 Larger Plate Design of AGM batteries
The higher cold cranking values and the higher cyclic durability allows a downsizing
of the battery. This means a smaller battery with lower weight and capacity, but the
same cold cranking amperes can be used for the same application. E.g. a
maintenance free lead acid battery with 110Ah, 850 A CCA and a weight of 28.2 kg
can be replaced by an AGM battery with 92Ah, 850 CCA and only 26.4kg weight
(See samples in Figure 39):
Figure 39 Downsizing with AGM batteries
57
2.6.6 Vibration-Proof Battery

In a vibration proof battery, a fixation of cast resign and/or plastics prevents the cell
packs from moving relative to the battery case. According to norms, this type of
battery must survive 20 hours of sinusoidal vibration at a frequency of 22Hz and a
maximum acceleration of 6g. These requirements are approximately 10 times higher
than that of standard batteries. Vibration proof batteries are installed primarily on
trucks, construction machinery and tractors used on building sites, on ski slopes, and
for off-road application in agriculture and forestry.
2.6.7 Heavy-Duty Battery (HD Battery)

Commercial vehicles possess a large amount of additional electric consumers, e.g.
lifting platforms, radio communication, television or coffee machines. The dry-
charged HD (HD=heavy duty) battery is maintenance free as per EN and features a
combination of measures used in deep-cycle resistant and vibration proof batteries. It
ensures a reliable power supply even under conditions of permanent loading caused
by a large number of electrical consumers. This type of battery is installed in
commercial vehicles which are subject to high levels of vibration and cyclic load.
The HD-extra battery features following additional items:
- better cold cranking performance (up to 20% more)
- higher service life
- vibration proof 100% above EN
- cyclic resistance four times higher than standard batteries
2.6.8 Semitraction Battery

The design of this kind of battery is similar to the deep cyclic resistant battery, but
thicker and less plates are used. A cold cranking value is not specified for these
batteries, as they are not suitable for cranking an engine. Their starting capability is
noticeable lower (35-40%) compared to a starter battery of the same size.
The application requires high cyclic loads and in some cases the battery is used to
supply traction engines, e.g. fork lifters, invalid carriages, sweeping machines.
Semitraction batteries use antimony as alloy, which makes this battery type deep
cyclic resistant. The negative influences of the antimony are reduced to bearable
extents.
2.6.9 Dry-charged Battery

The plates of a dry battery are charged and formed at the manufacturers plant. After
washing and drying, the plates are installed into the battery case. The battery is then
sealed and shipped without electrolyte.
As long as the battery is kept in its sealed condition, it can be stored much longer
than a wet, filled battery.
When put into use, electrolyte and charging are required. Batteries of this type have a
long shelf life. Motorcycle batteries are typically dry charged batteries.
58
Antimony batteries as e.g. semitraction batteries are often sold as dry charged,
because as filled battery their maximum storage time would be too short.
2.6.10 Gel Battery

In a gel battery the acid is held within a multi-component gel. A chemical loop
reaction prevents gas generation and consequently the consumption of water. The
battery cell plugs have safety valves, which release pressure when the battery is
continuously overcharged. Such gel-electrolyte batteries have a self discharge rate of
only 2% per month at 20C. A gel battery is 100% maintenance free.
The short thick plates and the gel electrolyte also guarantee high resistance to cyclic
loading. In order to provide high power capacity, glass-fiber fleece layers are also
used. As a result the battery can complete 500-700 charging and discharging cycles
when 60% discharged.
Since the plates of the gel battery are firmly embedded in the gel electrolyte and the
glass-fiber fleece provide extra support, the battery is extremely vibration resistant. It
is completely sealed and 100% spill proof, even when turning upside down.
Gel batteries are mainly used for semitraction applications.
2.6.11 Maintenance-free Battery for Motor Bicycles

More and more often leak proof batteries with fleece technology are used for motor
bicycles. The gel technology is not used for this application. The batteries are
delivered dry together with the electrolyte in special acid bottles and can be filled by
the end-user when necessary. After filling, the acid is bound in fleece like separators
and the battery will be closed permanently. A chemical loop process prevents
gassing, as long as the battery is not overcharged with a high voltage for a longer
time. In case of gassing, the gas can escape through a safety vent. The battery is
thus leak proof when tilted, although when turned upside down for a short period of
time.
2.6.12 Technology and Product Comparison

The following table gives an overview of the different battery technologies and their
features.
59
EN-Water Case Lid Separator Grid alloy Others

consumption
[g/Ah]
Positive Negative
Passenger car batteries
Conventional >4.0 Ribs on bottom (or flat Lid with vent plugs Sheet separator (or Lead antimony Lead antimony Cyclic
Battery case bottom) pocket separator) (PbSb) (PbSb) resistant;
Low-maintenance Usually <4.0 Flat case bottom Lid with vent plugs Pocket separator Low antimony possible as
(<3.5%) vibration proof
or HD
Hybrid Battery <4.0 Flat case bottom Lid with vent plugs Pocket separator Low Antimony Lead calcium old OEM
(maintenance- Often <2.0 (also central installation
free according to degassing channel
EN) possible); screw-in
plugs
100% <1.0 Flat case bottom Lid with central gas Pocket separator Lead calcium Lead calcium State of the art
maintenance free channel; often with or Lead OEM and IAM;
labyrinth; flame calcium silver growing CV
arrestors, sealed usage
lid possible
AGM <1.0 Flat case bottom; Lid with safety Microporous Lead calcium Lead calcium Very cyclic
stronger outer walls valve and flame absorbent glass silver resistance;
arrestors mat as pocket used in luxury
separator class vehicles;
100% spill
proof
Truck battery
Vibration Proof Usually <4.0 Flat case bottom; Lid with vent plugs Sheet separator/ Low antimony Low antimony/
Plate stabilization Pocket separator Lead calcium
along case walls.
Bottom and or top
fixation of grids with
glue
Heavy Duty (HD) Usually <4.0 Flat case bottom; Lid with vent plugs Sheet separator/ Low antimony Low antimony/ Higher cyclic
Plate stabilization Pocket separator Lead calcium durability than
along case walls. vibration proof
Bottom and or top due to
fixation of grids with stronger plates
glue
60
EN-Water Case Lid Separator Grid alloy Others

consumption
[g/Ah]
Positive Negative
Heavy Duty Usually <4.0 Flat case bottom; Lid with vent plugs Sheet separator/ Low antimony Low antimony/ Higher cyclic
Extra/ Super Plate stabilization Pocket separator Lead calcium durability than
Heavy Duty along case walls. HD;
Bottom and top 20% more
fixation of grids with cranking
glue power
100% <1.0 Flat case bottom; Sealed lid Pocket separator, Lead calcium Lead calcium
maintenance free Plate stabilization (labyrinth possible) additional glass mat silver
along case walls with central
degassing channel
Semitraction batteries
Dry charged, low Usually <4.0 Flat case bottom; Lid with vent plugs Pocket separator, Lead antimony Lead antimony
maintenance Plate stabilization additional glass mat
along case walls possible
Gel <1.0 Flat case bottom; Lid with safety Sheet separator/ Lead calcium Lead calcium 100% spill
Plate stabilization valve and flame pocket separator proof
along case walls arrestors
Table 7 Battery Technology Comparison
61
3 Storage and Transport
3.1 Incoming Inspection

Before unloading the goods from the truck, make sure that the data from the invoice,
the actual goods on the truck and your order match.
Check for:
- Battery type
- Quantities
- Damaged batteries, batteries that have not been transported in horizontal
position or those which leak electrolyte should be rejected and sent back at
the carriers expenses
Unloading
All Bosch batteries are wrapped in plastic and placed on wooden pallets. In order to
unload the truck correctly, the batteries should be moved using a forklift/pallet carrier.
The forklift/pallet carrier or any other means of transportation used for unloading
should have metal protection on the surface and the user is obliged to wear safety
shoes and glasses. Unloading of the pallet should take place in presence of the
carrier.
After unloading before storing the batteries following should be checked:
- Age of the battery counting from the manufacturing date
- Open circuit voltage
- If the battery has accessible screw-in plugs check the electrolyte density
- For non maintenance-free batteries check if the electrolyte level is between
the max and min marks engraved on the battery case
- Visual inspection (case, cover, terminals, SOC indicator, colors, labels)
The values for maximum age, minimum voltage, etc. depend on the battery
technology, the average storage temperature and on the tier of the logistic chain.
Recommendations are given in the tables in chapter 3.4.
Following picture shows an example of an incoming inspection checklist of a regional
warehouse. For other tiers of the supply chain the checklist has to be modified
concerning the minimum voltage levels and the maximum battery age.
62
Battery check before storage
Supplier name:
Shipment data:
Bosch battery partnumber:
Battery name:
Production code:
(All test should be done with at least 5 batteries per part number
Test results Remark (Decision taken by Product Manager)
or 3 batteries per pallet)
Battery age ____ months If older than agreed with the supplier, reject
If under 12.5V recharching is necessary; refuse of

Voltage test ________ / ________ / ________ / ________ / ________
battery possible
Weight of battery ________ / ________ / ________ / ________ / ________ If difference is more than 15% battery on hold
Leackage of batteries No leackage / Leakage If there are leacks, battery should be scraped
Outside of batteries: Case/ Cover No Damages / Damages If there are damaged, battery should be scraped
Outside of batteries: Terminal/ Indicators No Damages / Damages If they are damaged, battery should be scraped
Outside of batteries: Colors/ Label positioning Good / Bad If they are bad battery should be scraped
In all cases where the batteries are not OK please contact local Bosch battery product manager who will inform Bosch central marketing and supplier.
Figure 40 Incoming Inspection Checklist
3.2 Storage
For an adequate storage, please pay attention to the following advices:
The floor area for stocking the batteries should have an easy access for forklift/pallet
carriers. The warehouse should be prepared and established for the use of these
forklift/pallet carriers. The batteries should be placed into and removed from stock
only by authorized persons who use safety equipment and safety clothing.
A battery should be stored on wooden pallets or racks in a horizontal position (Do not
lay down or tilt). Do not store them on the floor because small stones or sharp points
on a concrete floor can damage the battery case and cause leakage.
Make sure handles are left in a flat (down) position. Upright handles are more likely
to be damaged.
The battery should be kept in a dry place and not be exposed to direct sun light. The
average storage temperature should be 15C. Higher storage temperatures lead to
higher water consumption, higher corrosion and higher self discharge. In countries
with high average temperatures the storage temperature should not exceed 35C.
The maximum storage times deteriorate if stored at high temperatures.
Stacking
Do not stack unwrapped batteries on top of each other to avoid scratching and
tearing labels.
Shrink wrapped batteries or batteries packed in single carton boxes may be stacked
to not more than 3 layers. It is recommended to use cardboard or Styrofoam as
additional layer between the batteries.
63
Batteries with terminal posts protruding the batterys lid should not be stacked at all
unless special provisions are taken to protect the terminals and make a stable
stacking possible.
From the manufacturer batteries are sometimes stacked up to 5 or 6 layers for
transportation. If a re-commissioning at one of the tiers of the supply chain is
necessary, the manufacturers maximum stacking height for a battery type should not
be exceeded.
The First in First out procedure has to be strictly applied. FiFo means, the first
battery to come into stock should be the first to go out.
FiFo manually:
- place the oldest batteries in front
- if stored on pallets place the oldest batteries in working height. 3rd or 4th
pallet from the ground
FiFo with a DP system:

- Enter the relevant information into the system (type, amount, manufacturing
date) and store it accordingly
The main reason for excessive storage of batteries is disobeying the FiFo principle!
Batteries, which were stored excessively will not reach their full lifetime and
performance values and thus must not be sold to the end-user.
3.2.1 Supervising Wet Batteries during Storage

As mentioned in chapter 2.3.14 wet batteries have a limited shelf-life due to the self
discharge effect and they are subject to sulfating, which starts when the battery is left
in a low state of charge and not recharged immediately. Batteries which are not
supervised correctly during storage will not reach their maximum performance and
lifespan. The battery might fail early, it can lead to warranty claims and more severe
to a loss in reputation for the battery seller and the brand.
Figure 41 shows self-discharge graphs at different temperatures for silver technology
batteries. In addition the voltage limits for the different tiers of the supply chain are
marked.
64
Selfdischarge of Silver Technology

(PAG) Batteries
12,8
12,7
12,6
12,5
recharge limit regional warehouse 5-10C
10-15C
U 0 [V]
12,4
recharge limit 1st trade level 15-20C
25C
12,3
12,2
limit for installation into vehicle/recharge limit 2nd trade level
12,1
12
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
storage time counting from manufacturing date [months]
Figure 41 Self-discharge graph of a calcium-silver battery (OCV over time)
For example if a battery would be stored at 15C all the time from its production date
on, an OCV check and recharging would not be necessary if the battery would reach
the end-user before 15 months are passed counting from the manufacturing date. Of
course this represents the optimal case and assumes that the battery was fully
charged by the manufacturer and that the storage temperature was held constant
also during transportation. Long transports by sea, waiting times for and after
transport or for customs control are uncertainties, which influence the discharge
curve and may require an earlier voltage check plus recharging.
Because of that an incoming inspection as described above and regular voltage
checks are recommended.
The frequency of the voltage check depends on the average storage temperature.
For an average storage temperature of 10-25C the OCV should be checked on a
two-monthly basis. For a temperature range of 25-35C monthly voltage checks are
suggested.
Following voltage limits for recharging are suggested:
Regional Warehouse 12.5V
First Trade Level 12.4V
Second Trade Level 12.2V
The limit of 12.2 volt for the second trade level corresponds to the minimum voltage
level at which a battery should be installed in a vehicle, respectively sold to the end
user.
65
During the total storage time at the different tiers of the supply chain till the battery
reaches the end-user, a battery should never drop below 12 volts. Otherwise the
battery will sulphate and corrode, what cannot be completely reversed by charging.
Thus a battery, which dropped below 12V during storage, will not give the expected
performance and life time to the customer. Batteries, which dropped below 12V
should be scraped to avoid selling batteries with irreversible permanent damages.
The recommended maximum storage times for wet batteries can be found in the
overview in subchapter 3.4. Agreements between the suppliers along the supply
chain should be made to avoid selling bad batteries to the next trade level and finally
to the end-user. Batteries exceeding the total maximum storage life have to be
scraped and must not be sold to the end-user.
3.2.2 Supervising Dry-charged Batteries during Storage

Dry-charged batteries should be kept in a cool and dry environment. Seals (or vent
plugs) must not be removed. If you pay attention to these points, they do not need
any other attention during storage.
The recommended maximum storage times of dry-charged batteries can be found in
the overview in subchapter 3.4. Agreements between the suppliers along the supply
chain should be made to avoid selling old batteries to the next trade level and finally
to the end-user. Batteries exceeding the total maximum storage life have to be
scraped and must not be sold to the end-user.
3.3 Outgoing Inspection
3.3.1 Wet batteries

The minimum recommended voltages when a battery may be shipped to the next
trade level are as follows:
1. Batteries which are sold by a regional warehouse to the first trade level need
to have an OCV of minimum 12.5V
2. Only batteries with an OCV of 12.4V or higher may be send out by the first
trade level to the second trade level.
3. The second trade level may only sell batteries with an OCV of 12.2V or higher
to the end-user.
Batteries with lower voltage must be recharged before sending out. As mentioned
before it is important that a battery never drops below 12V during storage before it is
recharged, otherwise it must be scraped.
3.3.2 Dry-charged batteries

Dry-charged batteries are either filled before the shipment to the next trade level or at
the last trade level just before the battery is sold to the end user or put into operation.
For activating dry charged batteries refer to the instruction of the battery
manufacturer!
66
Generally the activation procedure for dry batteries is as follows:

- If fitted, remove and discard any sealing plugs, tape or foil
- If fitted, remove and keep normal vent-plugs and terminal covers (usually red
and black)
- For filling, use battery-grade dilute sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1.28 kg/l
(1.23 kg/l in tropical climates). (Note: contaminated acid with impurities can
seriously damage the life of the battery, in some cases reducing this to a few
days. Do not use acid from old batteries).
- The temperature of the acid and the battery should both be in the range of 15-
30C. When filling the battery the lead oxide of the plates reacts with the
sulphuric acid and forms lead sulphate and heat. The specific gravity of the
sulphuric acid decreases.
- Fill each cell up to the max-level mark or 15mm (commercial vehicle batteries
25mm) above the upper edge of the plates
- After 15 minutes slightly tilt the filled battery several times and charge at 1/10
of the nominal capacity for approx 2 hours; top up acid to the maximum mark
or 15 (CV 25) mm above the plates, if necessary
- Use plugs to close tightly; use a moist antistatic cloth to wipe away any acid
splashes.
- Recharge in case of insufficient starting power or check the specific gravity or
the OCV. The OCV should be at least 12.5V and the specific gravity at least
1.24 g/cm3
- If one of the measured values is lower, charge the battery until the specific
gravity reaches 1.28 g/cm3
Batteries filled for the next trade level have to be marked with the filling date to allow
FiFo stock procedures.
Note that performance checks on newly-commissioned dry-charged batteries with
modern electronic digital testers using conductance technology are not
recommended. Examples are testers supplied by Midtronics or Bosch. The results
can be misleading until the battery has undergone some service use.
3.4 Tabular Overview: Battery Warehouse Handling

In the following two tables the actions described previously and the recommended
maximum storage times are shown for four tiers of the supply chain in relation to
different battery technologies. The first table refers to filled batteries the second table
is valid for dry batteries.
67
Battery Warehouse Handling

filled Batteries
Recommended maximum battery age in months counting from manufacturing date

Silver and AGM Gel and Sb/Ca Sb/Sb Actions
10-30C 30-35C 10-30C 30-35C 10-30C 30-35C 10-25C 25-35C Notes
Manufacturer
The batteries have to leave the warehouse with

OCV12.6V
4 4 4 4 1 1
Incoming Inspection (min. three batteries per pallet):
Regional Warehouse
Refuse batteries, if
max. battery age is exceeded and/or OCV<12.6V
Check OCV every
2 months 1 month
If OCV12.5V recharge the battery!
Outgoing Inspection:
Strictly apply FiFo
9 6 8 6 2 2 Only sell batteries with an OCV12.5V
Refuse batteries, if Do not let the OCV
1st trade level
max. battery age is exceeded and/or OCV<12.5V drop below 12V.

Check OCV every Batteries need to be
2 months 1 month scraped, when the
If OCV12.4V recharge the battery! OCV dropped below
Outgoing Inspection: due to irreversible
Strictly apply FiFo sulphating
(accumulated max. storage

Refuse batteries, if
2nd trade level
max. battery age is exceeded and/or OCV<12.4V

Check OCV every
time)
2 months 1 month
If OCV12.2V recharge the battery!
Outgoing Inspection:
Strictly apply FiFo
If the total storage time is exceeded, scrap the battery!
The given values are recommendations. Agreements between supplier and customer should be made for max. battery age and min. OCV
Silver AGM Batteries Gel Batteries Conversion of OCV and specifig gravity
Bosch Silver Bosch Hightec Bosch AS Gel OCV [V] Specific Gravity [g/cm3]
Bosch Asia Silver Optima 12,2 1,19
Bosch Tecmaxx 12,4 1,23
Bosch Tecmaxx HDE Bosch Battery Brands Sb/Sb 12,5 1,24
Bosch white CV 12,6 1,26
Table 8 Battery Warehouse Handling (filled batteries)
68
Battery Warehouse Handling

dry Batteries
Recommended Maximum battery

age in months counting from MD
10-30C 30-35C Notes
Manufacturer
9 9
Regional Warehouse
18 18
Only fill the battery
directly before the
shipment to the next
1st trade level
trade level or at the

last trade level just
before the battery is
sold to the end user or
put into operation
26 26
(accumulated max.
2nd trade level
storage time)
36 36
If the total storage time is exceeded,
scrap the battery!
The given values are recommendations.

Agreements between supplier and customer should be made
for max. battery age and min. OCV
Bosch Battery Brands dry

Bosch white CV
Bosch MoBa white
Bosch Semitraction white
Bosch Moba AS
Table 9 Battery Warehouse Handling (dry batteries)
3.5 Transportation
3.5.1 General Advices

Batteries should be transported in a vertical position. Do not tilt more than 45.
Prevent falling or damaging of the battery. This is also valid for dry-charged batteries!
If the battery suffers damages during transportation, the responsibility has to be born
by the transport company. The person who receives the battery should check it
immediately and make notes in case the battery is damaged for a later complain
report.
The transport should be done with a certified company with the following
requirements:
- The carrier should be certified for the transport of dangerous goods
- The assisting personnel should be authorized for the handling of dangerous
goods and should use safety equipment/clothing
Requirements for the vehicle:

- Identification transporting dangerous goods
- Safety signs
69
- Vehicle in good condition/well maintained

- Vehicle body in good condition (Chassis should be in good conditions without
showing any defect that could lead to a damage of the batteries)
- Truck tarp and ropes should be in good condition
- Sufficient capacity for the cargo
Safety equipment:
- barrier tape black and yellow (to mark off areas), safety glasses, gloves and
safety blankets
3.5.2 Classification as Dangerous Good

Whether a battery is considered as dangerous good depends on the battery
technology and the transport way. The following table gives an overview when a
battery has to be handled as dangerous good and when not. For the specific
packaging and transport regulations of dangerous goods, please refer directly to the
transport way related dangerous good code or to the Bosch Work Instruction AA-264,
which deals with the packing specifications for starter batteries. The newest versions
can be found on following pages:
http://www.ka.de.bosch.com/pes/batteries/en/communication/media/after_sales/AA2
64_06_en.doc
or
http://www.ka.de.bosch.com/pvp/PVP_neu/de/qualitaet/index.asp
The UN Recommendation on the transport of dangerous goods, which is a general

model regulation independent from the transport way, can be found here:
http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/publi/unrec/12_e.html
70
Products Road transportation Sea freight Air freight
Dangerous ADR IMDG Code IATA-DGR

goods (European Agreement concerning the (International Maritime Dangerous (International Air Transport
regulation* International Carriage of Dangerous Goods Code) Association - Dangerous Goods
Goods by Road) Regulation)
Dry batteries Bosch Standard No dangerous goods

Bosch Moba
Standard They must be neither packed in UN boxes nor individually shrink wrapped.
Bosch Moba AS
Wet, filled with Bosch Silver UN number 2794 UN number 2794 UN number 2794
acid Bosch Silver Plus
Bosch Asia Silver No dangerous goods, when certain Dangerous good! Dangerous good!
Bosch Tecmaxx precautions are taken in accordance
Bosch Standard with the special provision 598 a
(Remark A)
AGM Bosch Hightec UN number 2800 UN number 2800 UN number 2800

Optima
An AGM battery complies as non- An AGM battery complies as non- An AGM battery complies as non-
spillable and is not regarded as spillable and is not regarded as spillable and is not regarded as
dangerous good if the special provision dangerous good if the special provision dangerous good if the special
238 is fulfilled (Remark B). 238 is fulfilled (Remark B). provision A67 and IATA packing
instruction 806 are fulfilled (Remark
B).
Not restricted and the number of this
special provision, need to be written
down on the airbill.
Gel Bosch AS Same as AGM
Table 10 Classification of Batteries as dangerous goods during transportation
* if existent additional country specific laws have to be taken into account
71
Remark A
Special provision 598 of ADR:
The following are not subject to the requirements of ADR:
(a) New storage batteries when
- they are secured in such a way that they cannot slip, fall or be damaged
- they are provided with carrying devices, unless they are suitably stacked (e.g.
on pallets)
- there are no dangerous traces of alkalis or acids on the outside
- they are protected against short circuits
(b) Used storage batteries when:
- their cases are undamaged
- they are secured in such a way that they cannot leak, slip, fall or be damaged,
e.g. by stacking on pallets
- there are no dangerous traces of alkalis or acids on the outside of the articles
- they are protected against short circuits
"Used storage batteries" means storage batteries carried for recycling at the end of
their normal service life.
Remark B
The manufacturer is responsible for performing the below mentioned tests. The
fulfilment of the special provision is then mentioned in the safety data sheets by the
manufacturer.
Special provision 238 (a):
(same contents as corresponding IATA special regulations A67)
Batteries can be considered as non-spillable provided that they are capable of
withstanding the vibration and pressure differential tests given below, without leakage
of battery fluid.
Vibration test: The battery is rigidly clamped to the platform of a vibration machine
and a simple harmonic motion having an amplitude of 0.8 mm (1.6 mm maximum
total excursion) is applied. The frequency is varied at the rate of 1 Hz/min between
the limits of 10 Hz and 55 Hz. The entire range of frequencies and return is traversed
in 95 5 minutes for each mounting position (direction of vibration) of the battery. The
battery is tested in three mutually perpendicular positions (to include testing with fill
openings and vents, if any, in an inverted position) for equal time periods.
Pressure differential test: Following the vibration test, the battery is stored for six
hours at 24 C 4 C while subjected to a pressure differential of at least 88 kPa. The
battery is tested in three mutually perpendicular positions (to include testing with fill
openings and vents, if any, in an inverted position) for at least six hours in each
position.
238 (b)
Non-spillable batteries are not subject to these Regulations if, at a temperature of
55C, the electrolyte will not flow from a ruptured or cracked case and there is no free
liquid to flow and if, when packaged for transport, the terminals are protected from
short circuit.
72
4 Battery Charging
4.1 Charge Characteristic Curves

A battery can be charged with various charge methods, which are characterized by
different charge characteristic curves. In this chapter the different curves are
explained. Practical advices on how to charge a battery are given in the subchapters
4.2 and following.
4.1.1 Charging with constant current

When charging with constant current the voltage rises slowly during charging.
Towards the end of charging the voltage rises steeply and has to be limited to a
cutoff voltage.
I Charging with constant current until the voltage does not increase for a
certain period of time (manual cut-off)
Ia with automatic cut-off
U I
t t
4.1.2 Charging with constant voltage

When charging with constant voltage the charge current decreases continuously and
converges asymptotic against 0A.
Trickle Charge with Constant Voltage

The battery can be charged permanently with a voltage of 2.23V per cell. This trickle
charge voltage assures that the battery will be fully charged.
During trickle charge the water consumption is a critical factor. With a lower charge
voltage the water consumption can be reduced. With the mentioned value of 2.23V
per cell the water consumption is maintainable low. If the voltage is reduced below
2.2V per cell the trickle charge cannot assure a fully charged battery and an
additional charging is necessary from time to time.
Normal Charge with Constant Voltage

The charging voltage influences the charge time and current (initial current at the
beginning of the charge cycle).
A low voltage leads to a low initial charge current according to the equation:
73
U
I=
R
A high voltage leads to a high current and shortens the charge duration. Indeed a
high voltage also results in higher water consumption. Thus high voltages are only
used for a limited time to speed up charging. As maximum charge voltage 2.4V per
cell should be applied.
A too low voltage results in an acid stratification, because the gassing is not strong
enough to stir up the electrolyte.
U Charging with constant voltage until the current does not decrease
noticeably for a certain period of time (manual cut-off)
Ua with automatic cut-off
U I
t t
4.1.3 Charging with resistance characteristic

W The resistant of the charge circuit is kept constant. The current decreases
with an increasing voltage.
Wa with automatic cut-off
U I
t t
Simple standard chargers usually use the W-charge curve, because this
characteristic can be technically realized in an easy and simple way. A disadvantage
is that the charging current drops long before the gassing voltage is reached. Thus it
takes a very long time to fully charge a battery.
74
4.1.4 Mixed charge curves

IU a) I Charging with (high) constant current until the gassing voltage of 2.4V
per cell is reached.
b) U Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) until a specific current
is reached or until the current does not noticeably change anymore.
IU is a fast and sparing charge method.
U
I U I U
2,4 V
t t
IUIa a) I Charging with (high) constant current until the gassing voltage of 2.4V
b) U Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) until a specific current
is reached or until the current does not noticeably change anymore.
c) Ia Charging with a low constant current, which leads to a higher voltage
due to the increasing internal resistant of the battery. The occurring
gassing will mix up the electrolyte. The charge cycle will be automatically
shut off.
U I
I U Ia I U Ia
2,4 V
t t
75
IUoU a) I Charging with (high) constant current until the gassing voltage of 2.4V
b) Uo Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) for a limited time o
c) U Charging with a lower constant voltage (approx 2.3V per cell) as
trickle charge phase
U I
I Uo U I Uo U
2,4 V
t t
I1U1I2aI3aI3
a) I1 Charging with constant current (I=10-15% of nominal capacity) until
the gassing voltage of 2.4V per cell is reached
b) U1 Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) until a specific current
is reached
c) I2 Charging with a constant current (I=approx. 1% of nominal capacity)
for a limited time (approx. 65% of the duration for phase I1U1)
d) I3aI3 Trickle charge phase with I=1% of nominal capacity with an
automatic cutoff. This phase reactivates as soon as the battery self
discharges below a certain voltage
U I
I1 U1 I2a I3a I1 U1 I2a I3a
2,4 V
t t
76
WU a) W Charging with a current depending on the internal resistant of the

battery. The voltage increases during this phase
b) U Charging with constant voltage between 13.8 and 14.4V until the
current does not noticeably decreases anymore or until the current drops
below a specific value
The WU charge method is suitable for partially charging of batteries. To fully charge a
battery takes a long time.
U I
W U W U
2,4 V
t t
WUoU a) W Charging with a current depending on the internal resistant of the

b) Uo Charging with constant voltage (2.4V per cell) for a limited time o
c) U Charging with a lower constant voltage (approx 2.3V per cell) as
trickle charge phase
U I
W Uo U W Uo U
2,4 V
t t
77
WUIa a) W Charging with a current depending on the internal resistant of the

b) U Charging with constant voltage between 13.8 and 14.4V until the
current does not noticeably decreases anymore or until the current drops
below a specific value.
c) Ia Charging with a low constant current, which leads to a higher voltage
due to the increasing internal resistant of the battery. The occurring
gassing will mix up the electrolyte and the charge cycle will be shut off
automatically.
U I
W U Ia W U Ia
2,4 V
t t
78
4.2 Determining if recharging is necessary

After each discharge even a partial discharge a lead acid battery should be
charged immediately. If a battery is left in a low state of charge sulfating will occur.
For further information refer to chapter 7.3.
The in the following subchapters mentioned values for recharging are chosen to
avoid permanent damages of a battery. Be aware that other voltage limits for
recharging are suggested for the different trade levels as described in chapter 3.
4.2.1 Batteries with accessible screw-in plugs

For batteries with accessible screw-in plugs, the electrolytes specific density can be
measured to determine if the battery need to be recharged.
A battery should be recharged when the specific gravity drops below 1.22 g/cm3,
respectively 1.18 g/cm3 for batteries with tropical electrolyte filling. These values
reflect a voltage of approx. 12.4V which is mentioned as recharge value in the next
chapter for batteries with non accessible plugs.
State of Charge Electrolyte Filling Specific Gravity of
Electrolyte (g/cm3)
Normal 1,28
Fully charged
Tropical 1,23
Normal 1,22
charged
Tropical 1,18
Normal 1,16
charged
Tropical 1,13
Normal 1,10
charged
Tropical 1,08
Normal 1,04
Empty
Tropical 1,03
Table 11 Determination of recharging point by specific gravity
Remarks:
All mentioned values are valid for an ambient temperature of 25C +/-5C. The
density value changes with the temperature: 0,01g/cm3 per 14K temperature
difference
4.2.2 Batteries with non accessible screw-in plugs

Modern starter batteries are maintenance free and it is not possible to open the
battery, check the specific density of the electrolyte or add distilled water. Some
batteries are equipped with a power control system, also called SOC (state of
charge) indicator as described in chapter 2.5.2.
The power control system can be used to quickly identify batteries, which should be
further examined. Since the SOC indicator is a very simple mean to check the
specific gravity and because it usually only shows the status of one single battery
cell, it is more reliable to measure the open circuit voltage to verify if a battery need to
be recharged. In order to measure the OCV the use of a digital multimeter with a
resolution of 1mV and a deviation of max +/-0.3% is recommended.
79
When measuring the voltage it is necessary to wait until the battery is in a steady
state. After e.g. a previous charging process a voltage excursion occurs, which can
be removed by:
- let the battery rest for approx. 60-120 minutes. If there is enough time, let the
battery rest for 24 hours.
- or discharge the battery with 200A for 15 second
For a new battery following table is a rough guide to show the relationship between
the open circuit voltage and the state of charge. If the battery is older and already
parts of it became sulfated, the below mention values do not any longer express the
real state of charge. Such a partly damaged battery will have a high OCV, but under
load the voltage will drop quickly.
Open Circuit Voltage (V) in stable State of Charge (%)

condition Batteries vary 10% by model
12.75 100
12.60 85
12.40 65
12.20 55
12.00 40
Table 12 Determination of recharging point by OCV
If the voltage is below 12.4V, the battery must be recharged. This voltage level also
protects the battery from freezing when exposed to temperatures of up to -15C.
The above stated OCV are based on a measurement temperature of 25C +/-5C.
In case the battery has a temperature differing +/- 10C the temperature should be
compensated as follows:
Temperature >25C by +1.2mV/C
<25C by 1.2mV/C
Example:
OCV 12.51 V at a measurement temperature of +40C.
The OCV based on 25C has to be calculated as follows:
Temperature difference 40-25=15C
15C X 1,2mV/C= 0,018V
OCV based on 25C is 12.51 0,018 = 12.49V
80
4.3 Preliminary Steps before Recharging

Modern battery chargers allow charging without disconnecting the battery from the
vehicle electrical system. For the car workshops, this features higher safety and
comfort. Sensitive electrical consumers (airbag, electrical control devices, etc.) are
protected of voltage peaks and stored data in the car radio, board computer, etc.
does not get lost. If the battery is recharged inside the vehicle, the instructions
provided by the vehicle manufacturer must be observed.
It is not recommended to charge a battery when its temperature is below 5C as the
electrolyte may be too cold and the charging procedure cannot take place under
optimal conditions. Never charge a battery if the electrolyte is frozen.
A visual inspection of the battery is needed in order to detect defects at the battery
casing, the cover or defects at the terminal posts. Damaged batteries should not be
recharged.
If the battery has accessible screw-in plugs, check the electrolyte level in each cell
and top up with distilled water if necessary.
Do not switch on the charger until the battery has been connected. Do not switch off
the charger until charging is complete. Verify if the connectors have good contact by
pressing them against the terminal post.
If a battery has vent plugs, these should always be removed before charging. Ensure
that there is sufficient ventilation during charging, especially when charging indoor.
Charging in series
If more than one battery shall be recharged the batteries can be connected in series,
this means, the negative pole of the first battery connected to positive pole of the
second battery, the negative pole of the second to the positive pole of the third, etc.
This leaves the positive pole of the first battery and the negative pole of the last
battery open. Only batteries of the same type, same capacity, the same state of
charge and the same age should be charged in the same circuit. This will prevent
less discharged batteries from being overcharged. If possible, all batteries which
need to be recharged should have their density checked, in order to determine their
state of charge. If the density can not be checked, the OCV has to be measured.
The batteries should be placed with a minimum space of 20 mm between each other
for charging.
4.4 Charging of Starter Batteries (including AGM)
4.4.1 Automatic Chargers

It is recommended to use a Bosch charger. Their voltage output is free of peaks,
which could damage electronic components of the vehicle. They have mechanisms to
prevent overcharging and invert connections, as well as limited charge currents.
Table 1 gives an overview of the different Bosch chargers and their features. Please
consult the operating manuals for the correct use.
81
Table 13 Overview Bosch Battery Chargers
Note: The charger LW30/50E is not available anymore!

Explanation of the terms used in Table 13:
Charge at vehicle electrical system
The battery does not need to be disconnected from the vehicle electrical system. The
chargers have protection mechanisms to avoid high voltage peaks, which might
cause damage to the vehicles electrical components.
Start assistant (auxiliary starting)
The battery is supported by a starting aid function when the vehicle is started. These
chargers can supply short-term high currents required for cranking the engine.
Floating-mode operation
In floating-mode consumers can be connected to the battery and a current can be
drained. This means that energy is simultaneously extracted from the battery during
the charging procedure. The chargers electronics prevents the battery from
overcharging.
Trickle charging
The battery can stay connected to the charger over an extended period, e.g. for
storing motor-home and motorcycle batteries over the winter period.
Backup mode
The charger provides protection in backup mode so that data memories of the car
radio, car phone etc. are retained, when the battery is replaced or removed. The
current output is limited in this mode.
Charge of exhausted batteries
The charger is able to charge deeply discharged batteries.
82
If others than the above mentioned chargers are used, following advices should be
taken into account:
Chargers using only one of the following charge curves should NOT be used:
- W-curve
If there is no voltage limitation or any automatic cutoff, a simple charger
using only the W-principle should not be used.
- I-curve
Such chargers do not have any voltage limitation or automatic cutoff!
- U-curve
A constant voltage power supply is having a U-curve. If they have no
current limitation, they should not be used to charge lead acid batteries.
It is recommended to use chargers with a mixed charge curve, such as:

- WU
A half automatic charger suitable for lead acid batteries. Since there is no
automatic cutoff or a third switch to a trickle charge phase, the charge has
to be interrupted manually.
- IU
Similar to a WU charger, but due to the constant current charge phase
faster.
- IUoU
A fully automatic charger, which switches to a trickle charge phase. It is
also suitable for gel batteries.
Chargers, with modified mixed curves including the above mentioned ones, can also
be applied. E.g. I1U1I2aI3a, WoWa, IUIa, etc. In general one of the above
mentioned characteristics modified by an automatic cutoff or the use of different
trickle charge phases can be applied.
4.4.2 Manually charging with constant current

As said in the previous chapters charging with a constant current only, without any
automatically switch off or a switch-over to another charge curve is not suggested. In
some cases it might be unavoidable, so following advices help to determine how long
the charging has to take place to fully charge the battery.
Measuring the OCV is used to define the state of charge and consequently the
appropriate recharge time. As charge current a value of 10% of the batterys Ah
capacity shall be used (indicated as I10). For a 45 Ah Battery the charging current
should be: I10=45 x 0.1 = 4.5 A
83
Battery Voltage Recharging Time

OCV/U0 (V) with I10 (hours)
>12.80 -
12.70 1
12.60 2
12.50 3
12.40 4
12.30 5
12.20 6
12.10 7
12.00 8
11.80 9
11.50 11
11.00 15
Table 14 Charge duration when manually charging with constant current
Do not exceed the above mentioned charging times!
4.4.3 Manually charging with constant voltage

In cases that it is unavoidable to charge with a constant voltage only, the voltage
should be limited to 14.4V. The charging device should have a current limit of 25A.
The charging time should be limited to 24h.
4.5 Charging of Gel Batteries

Gel batteries are fully sealed and only have security valves. To avoid unacceptable
high pressures inside the battery case and to avoid damages due to water
decomposition, gel batteries must not be overcharged. If the battery is strongly
overcharged, the safety valves will open to release overpressure. If a gel battery
gases, it will shorten its service life and after a while, the battery will not be
serviceable anymore. Thus only chargers with a voltage limit of 14.4V should be
used.
It is necessary to distinguish two different recharge situations:
Single recharge
If gel batteries are recharged by importers, by different trade levels e.g. during
storage or by service workshops for testing purposes all in chapter 4.4.1 mentioned
chargers (except from SL 24100 E) can be used.
If no automatic charger is available gel batteries can simply be charged with a

constant voltage of 14.4V for maximum 24 hours. This should only be done in
exceptional cases and is not recommended as permanent charging method!
84
Professional, permanent recharge (by the end-user)

Special gel chargers should be used otherwise the full performance and service life
might not be reached. The BAT415 with its I1U1I2aI3aI3 curve is also designed to
professionally recharge gel batteries.
For permanent and professional charging it is further possible to distinguish between
gel batteries for lighting and those for traction application. The following two
subchapters give advices which charging methods and currents are suggested if
other chargers than the BAT415 are used. The BAT415 covers both applications.
4.5.1 For lighting applications

Valid for following battery types:
0 097 083 575; 0 097 083 620; 0 097 083 645; 0 097 083 720
a) IUoU
IUo-main charge phase:
I=15-40A per 100Ah capacity (K20)
U=14.1-14.4V
Charge duration: 12-15h
U-final charge phase:

Maximum voltage of U=13.8V
b) WUoU
Same values as given above for IUoU.
c) IUIa
IU-main charge phase:
U=14.1-14.4V
Ia-final charge phase:

I=1-1.4A per 100 Ah capacity
The total duration of the whole charge cycle should be 10-15h. The final charge
phase should be 1-4h.
4.5.2 For traction applications

Valid for following battery types:
0 097 083 201; 0 097 083 025; 0 097 083 040; 0 097 083 060; 0 097 083 085
IUIa charge method as mentioned above but only a maximum of 20A charge current
per 100Ah can be applied:
U=14.1-14.4V
Ia-final charge phase:
I=1-1.4A per 100 Ah capacity
The total duration of the whole charge cycle should be 10-15h. The final charge
phase should be 1-4h.
85
4.6 Actions during and after charging

During the charging process, the following items should be checked permanently:
- Temperature of the electrolyte, if possible. Otherwise the temperature of the
battery casing should be checked. The battery temperature must not exceed
50C. Charging should be interrupted if this temperature is exceeded. When
all batteries of the charging circuit reach a value of 45C, charging can be
continued.
- Recharge time
It is good practice to wait for about 20 minutes for the gases to clear before removing
the leads from the battery as some chargers remain live and can cause a spark.
Check the acid level in case of maintainable batteries and top up with purified water if
necessary.
Refit vent-plugs or gas pipes if these have been removed. Wash the battery with hot
water and dry it.
4.7 Treatment of deeply discharged Batteries

A deeply discharged battery (OCV <11V) will not accept a charge rate of more than
1/20th of the nominal capacity due to an excessive internal resistance. Recharging
will therefore only be successful at the appropriate charging current for 12-18 hours.
Automatic chargers, without a special charge program for deeply discharged
batteries, will not work on deeply discharged batteries. The high internal resistance
will cause the terminal voltage to rise soon after charging was started and this will cut
off the charger very early.
Any prolonged attempt to charge with a higher current will probably damage the
battery and will result in an incomplete charge. The high internal resistance will cause
the current which cannot be absorbed by the plates to be transformed into heat.
Recharging a deeply discharged battery with a boost charger will at best have no
effect and at worst it will terminally damage the battery. An appropriate charger
needs to have a variable charging current and/or any program option for charging of
deeply discharged batteries.
Deeply discharged batteries might have a reversed polarity, which means that the
pole, which is marked as positive on the battery case, has a negative potential. If the
battery is connected wrongly to the charger (marked positive pole of the battery to the
negative pole of the charger) it might be possible to recharge the battery with
reversed polarity. The usage of a battery with wrong polarity can be dangerous, e.g.
when connecting in series with another battery. The user thinks that the negative
pole is connected to the positive pole of the second battery, but in reality he
connected both positive poles together. When closing the electrical circuit, it can lead
to very high current flows, which can cause fire and explosions.
When charging deeply discharged batteries make sure to always connect the battery
in the right way (marked positive pole of the battery to the positive pole of the
charger, negative pole of the battery to the negative pole of the charger), although
the charger might display an error message when the battery has reversed polarities.
86
5 The Vehicle and its Electrical System

In this chapter the different components of the vehicle electrical system are explained
in brief. When processing a battery warranty case it might be necessary to check
besides the battery other parts of the vehicle electrical system as e.g. the starter, the
alternator or the voltage regulator. Measurements of these devices should only be
made by qualified professionals, otherwise serious physical injuries to the operator
and irreparable damages to the vehicle and instruments can occur.
Basically speaking the vehicle electrical system consists of an energy storage device
(the battery), an energy transforming device (the alternator) and various energy
consumers (electrical equipment).
The starter motor (electrical consumer) with the help of the energy supplied by the
battery starts the engine. When the engine is running, the alternator transforms
mechanical energy into electrical energy and depending on the rpm of the alternator
and on how many consumers are working, there is in best case enough energy to
supply all consumers and charge the battery. If the electrical load of the consumers is
higher than the current supplied by the alternator, the vehicle electrical systems
voltage drops below the batterys voltage and the battery will be discharged.
5.1 Starter
The starter is a powerful electric motor, with a small gear (pinion) attached to the end.
When activated, the pinion is meshed with a larger gear (ring), which is attached to
the engine. The starter motor then spins the engine over so that the piston can draw
in a fuel/air mixture, which is then ignited to start the engine. When the engine starts
to spin faster than the starter, a device called overrunning clutch (bendix drive)
automatically disengages the starter gear from the engine gear.
Figure 42 Photo of a starter
If the starter motor has a defect, it will need extra high power from the battery. In this
case the battery becomes strongly discharged or in worst case it cannot crank the
engine at all. Irreversible damages to the battery are possible.
87
Possible reasons for a high energy consumption of the starter are:

- Bearings or bushes in the starter motor are in bad conditions
- Rotor has welds with bad contact or short circuited turns
- Starter automatic or Bendix is not in good conditions
- Cables and terminals have bad contact
5.2 Alternator
An alternator is a device, which transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Thus it supplies electric power for the vehicle electric systems and it recharges the
battery when the engine is running at higher rotation speed, so that more energy is
generated than the consumers need.
Figure 43 Photo of an alternator
The basic working principle of the alternator is the electrodynamic principle. When an
electric conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a potential is generated
(induced) in the conductor. For the induction it is not important whether the conductor
is moved through a magnetic field or the conductor is static and the magnetic field is
moving. The generators used for vehicles operate as three-phase alternator.
If the alternator is not working properly it will not supply enough energy to all
consumers. Consequently the battery becomes discharged and irreversible damages
to the battery are possible.
Possible problems related to the alternator are:
- The belt which connects the engine to the alternator is loose
- Brushes are worn out
- Bearings or bushes are worn out
- Rectification and excitation diodes are in bad conditions
- Bad connection between cables and alternator
- Bad connection between battery and cables
88
5.3 Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator is responsible for supplying the battery and the vehicle
electrical system with an appropriate voltage. The voltage is stabilized between
13.5V and 14.5V for vehicles with a 12V electrical system. For vehicles with a 24V
system the voltage ranges from 27V to 29V. These values are limits. Higher or lower
values are not acceptable.
If the regulators voltage output is too low, the battery will not be charged sufficiently,
which leads to permanent damages to the battery. If the regulator delivers a higher
voltage than stated above, the battery will be overcharged and its lifespan will be
noticeably shortened.
5.4 Electrical Balance

The alternator should be able to meet the demand of all electrical consumers of the
vehicle. By the vehicle OE manufacturer an appropriate alternator is chosen in
relation to the originally fitted electrical consumers. If additional electrical equipment
is retrofitted as for example a navigation system, sound system, electrical window
openers, seat heating etc. the original alternator might not be able to generate
sufficient energy. It might be necessary to install a stronger alternator. In addition
upgrading to a battery with a higher capacity is suggested.
A wrongly dimensioned alternator can lead to an undercharged battery resulting in
irreversible damages.
5.5 No-load Current

The no-load current is the consumption of electrical energy which exists when all car
accessories are switched off. If the no load currents are too high, the battery will often
have a low state of charge or it will become deeply discharged. Both will negatively
influence the batterys service life.
To measure the no-load current it is necessary to use an amperemeter with a
milliampere scale (1/1000A=0.001A=1mA).
To measure the no load current you should:
- turn off ignition and remove the key
- switch off the independent vehicle heater
- switch off the car phone
- close make-up mirrors
- turn off reading lights
- switch off the radio
- switch lights off
- close all doors, the interior lighting has to turn off automatically after a while
- all contacts (engine hood, trunk, doors, glove compartment) have to be closed.
The vehicle need to be locked
- keys with keyless-go function should not be close to the vehicle (min 7m
distance)
A no-load current of <50mA is ok. In some vehicles higher no load currents can
occur. For further information on vehicle specific acceptable no-load currents consult
your Bosch service hotline or the vehicle manufacturer.
89
Typical mistakes when measuring the no-load current:

- the alarm of the anti theft system is charged for 14h with approx. 20mA, after
the battery was disconnected and then reconnected to the electrical system
- the cooler box is connected and drains about 2.5A if running
- the safety trunk opener inside the vehicle is illuminated for 30 min after locking
the car
- radio, navigation system or TIM active. Are there other additionally installed
consumers?
- glove compartment light still on
- make-up mirrors opened
- waiting time not long enough, CAN bus still active
As a reference the following table shows typical no-load currents for different
consumers:
Consumer Max. no-load
current (mA)
Navigation system 5
Alarm 10
Window opening mechanism 5
Ignition system 5
Injection system 5
Digital clock 3
Radio with code system 3
Analogue clock 7
Table 15 Maximum no-load currents of different consumers
The values above refer to the maximum consumption per single equipment. If the
vehicle has an electrical window opening mechanism in each door and if it is a four-
door vehicle, the resulting no-load current of the whole window opening system is 4 x
5mA = 20mA. If the vehicle has a digital clock integrated in the radio with code
system, then there is a load of 3mA from the clock + 3mA from the code system
=6mA, and so on.
5.6 Starting aid

When giving starting aid with jumper cables, high voltage peaks of several hundred
volts can occur when connecting the cables. If the vehicle electrical system is not
protected from these peaks, they can damage sensitive electronic components like
ABS, airbag control units, etc.
Therefore observe the operating instructions of the vehicle manufacturer!
Only use standardized battery jumper cables. Only connect batteries of the same
nominal voltage.
Before giving starting aid, try to figure out the reason for the battery weakness. If the
reason is a failure in the vehicle electrical system, starting aid should not be given.
The battery or the electric system of the vehicle giving starting aid might become
damaged.
90
Boost Battery Weak Battery

(2) (1)
+ +
12 V 12 V

(3)
(4)
Important:
Away from the battery
Figure 44 Starting aid
Turn off both vehicle engines.

Connect the two positive terminals (1) with (2) and then connect the charged
batterys negative terminal (3) with a bare metallic point (4) away from the battery of
the vehicle requiring assistance.
Start the engine in the vehicle providing assistance, followed by the engine in the
vehicle requiring assistance for a maximum of 15 seconds.
Disconnect the cables in reverse order (4-3-2-1).
5.7 Battery installation and removal

Modern vehicles are equipped with sensitive electrical systems as airbag controllers,
ABS, stabilization and traction controllers, board computer, etc. For some vehicles it
is necessary to follow certain procedures when installing a battery or taking it out of
operation. For example electrical components might need to be initialized after they
have been without power supply.
Therefore observe the operating instructions of the vehicle manufacturer!
Switch off the motor and all other power consumers before installing or removing the
battery.
Install only fully charged and undamaged batteries.
Install the recommended type of battery for the vehicle.
Avoid short-circuit caused by tools or cables. Terminal post covers should be
removed after mounting the battery into the vehicle, just before connecting the cables
to the terminals.
When removing, disconnect the negative terminal (-) first, followed by the positive
terminal (+). Before installing the battery, clean the surface area inside the vehicle.
Clamp the battery securely. If the battery is not fixed securely, it will be exposed to
higher vibrations, which can result in a shorter service life. Friction between the
91
battery case and the support area can cause wear and tear of the case, furthermore
the case can break and electrolyte can leak.
Clean the battery terminals and terminal clamps, grease them lightly with acid-free
grease. When installing, connect the positive terminal (+) first, followed by the
negative terminal (-). Ensure that the terminal clamps are securely fastened.
Accessory parts such as hose connections, terminal holders or terminal caps from
the old battery should be used. Use the filler plugs supplied.
At least one went must always remain open to prevent the danger of explosion.
5.8 Putting the vehicle out of operation

When the vehicle is put out of operation (e.g. if it is used seasonal) charge the battery
and store it in a cool place. If the battery is to remain in the vehicle, disconnect the
negative terminal. The batterys OCV should be checked every two months. If the
OCV is below 12.4V recharge the battery.
92
6 Battery Testing
6.1 BAT 121 Tester
6.1.1 Introduction and Important Notes

The portable and mains-independent battery tester BAT 121, developed for mobile
applications, is used for load-free testing of 12-V starter batteries. It is possible to
check the battery both in the vehicle as well as when it is not installed in the vehicle.
The applications for the BAT 121 range from car workshops, MOT testing stations,
petrol stations to the retail battery trade. For further information on how to operate the
tester, please refer to the manual.
Figure 45 BAT 121
The battery tester delivers the best results if no charging or current consumption has
taken place on the battery for at least one hour prior to the test. Charging the battery
leads to a temporarily excessively high voltage and the battery tester would assess
the battery with a result that is too critical. On the opposite if the battery test would be
done shortly after the battery has been discharged with a high load or during a
current drain, the test would assess the battery as too good.
Letting the battery leave to stand after charging lets the surface charge dissipate into
the active mass and thus ensures accurate testing. Also a high rate discharge tester
can be used to remove the surface charge and afterwards a test can be done as
normal. Especially if a deeply discharged battery is returned and subsequently
recharged, a high rate discharge should be done before testing the battery with the
BAT121.
Principally the BAT 121 indicates correct test results for all kind of 12V starter
batteries (also on AGM and Optima starter batteries (except from small traction
batteries)). Unfortunately all types of batteries need to be used for some days under
normal cyclic conditions until they achieve their entire capacity, which has technical
reasons and does not point out a defective battery. Thus a new unused battery can
have much less capacity and performance than nominally stated. If the cold cranking
performance is measured with the BAT 121, the test result can be misleading. It is
recommended to judge new and unused batteries, e.g. when doing an incoming
93
inspection before putting the batteries onto stock, based on an open circuit voltage
measurement only.
It has to be emphasized, that the reason for misleading test results, if the battery did
not rest long enough or if a new and unused battery is tested, is not the BAT121
itself. Responsible are the chemical and physical properties of the lead acid
technology. Other battery testers have to cope with the same problems and will give
the same false readings.
The BAT121 cannot be used for batteries with a stated cold start test current smaller
than 50A. E.g. motor bicycle batteries might have a lower cold start test current and
thus cannot be tested with the BAT121.
Batteries can be tested with the BAT 121 down to a voltage of approximately 9 Volts.
Such a low voltage or in fact a voltage below 10.5V, rather comes from outside
influences than from a battery defect. Batteries do not self-discharge themselves to
such low voltages.
Any battery returned with such a deficient state of charge has been operated under
abnormal conditions and has probably been subjected to a prolonged low rate
discharge. Before testing the battery needs to be recharged.
A battery with an OCV below 12.2V is technically flat and needs to be recharged
before going back into service. If the battery is left in a low charged condition for a
few weeks, sulfating will start on the plates. This will decrease the batterys ability to
become charged and in some cases it prevents it completely.
The battery terminal post should be cleaned before the BAT121 will be connected to
it. Pay attention to have a good electrical connection between the tester and the
battery terminal posts.
Conventional wisdom states that one or two cells with low specific gravity are a sure
sign of a dead cell or cells. Equally, when one or several cells boil under a high rate
discharge it is usually judged as a cell fault. These two judgments can be misleading
but the BAT 121 is an accurate means of analyzing real short-circuits. It is quite
possible to diagnose faulty cells using conventional testing procedures, but the BAT
121 does not show a bad cell result. In this case the BAT 121 is correct.
The test program calculates the results "good" or "replace" from the charge level of
the battery (derived from the battery voltage) and the currently available start
performance of the battery. Thus it is possible that a battery with a start performance
of 45% will be classified as "good", while another with a start performance of 75% will
be classified as bad ("replace").
The start performance states the proportion of the determined cold test current and
the cold test current entered for the battery. Start performance may exceed 100%.
94
6.1.2 BAT 121 Readings and Interpretation

Reading Interpretation
Battery is good The battery is charged and in good
conditions.
Warranty claims rejected
Good and Recharge Battery is discharged but should recover
after prolonged recharge
Recharge & Re-test As above, but battery may be recoverable
after prolonged recharge. Recharge and
retest!
Recharge & Re-test Battery has lost performance due to age,
(after a prolonged recharge) cyclic wear & tear, deep discharging, or
sulphation.
This is not a manufacturing fault,
warranty claims rejected
Replace Battery1) Battery has lost performance due to age,
Battery Unserviceable cyclic wear and tear, deep discharging or
overcharging. If OCV>12.6 and the start
capacity>60%, redo the test.
This is not a manufacturing fault,
warranty claims rejected
Cell Short Circuit Short circuit, almost certainly due to a
manufacturing defect.
Replace battery under guarantee
No Reading A) Battery is deeply discharged (below 8
volts) due to external influences. Test
with digital voltmeter for residual
voltage i.e. between 1 and 8 volts.
Battery may recover after prolonged
recharged. If the test result is the
same after a prolonged recharge:
B) Battery has a circuit break. Check with
a digital voltmeter, if OCV<0.5V or if it
has reversed polarity
Replace battery under guarantee
Table 16 BAT121 Readings and their Interpretation
95
1) If the replace battery reading appears after testing a relatively new battery (less
than 18 months old), it is almost certain that this battery will not need to be
replaced.
This is a symptom of a negative load balance within the car. The negative load
balance is associated with excessive town/low speed driving with most/all the
electrical consumers running. In these situations the energy produced by the
alternator is insufficient to recharge both the battery and power all the electrical
consumers. As a result the battery is slowly becoming discharged and it will
eventually reach a point where starting becomes a problem. This is not necessarily
a fault of the car or the battery but the environment and driving cycle in which it is
used. This situation can also arise if the vehicle has been resting for a long time
and then has only been used for relatively short trips at low average speeds.
In such cases the battery need to be completely recharged and afterwards rest for
at least 60 minutes. Best would be to let the battery rest for 24 hours. A
subsequent test will almost certainly show the reading good battery.
6.2 Specific Gravity Test

The below described procedure can only be applied to batteries with accessible
screw-in plugs.
In a good battery the specific gravity reading should be the same in all cells. The
maximum permitted tolerance in all six cells is 0.03g/cm3 between the lowest and
highest reading (i.e. 1.25 min and 1.28g/cm3 max would be permitted).
Test procedure
1. Is there one cell with a low specific gravity, while the other cells have 1.25g/cm3 or
above?
YES Replace the battery under warranty
NO Continue with 2.
Cell 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.28 1.28 1.14 1.28 1.28 1.28
- +
96
2. Is the electrolyte discoloured (dark brown), or do the terminal caps blacken on the
inside, and/or is there evidence of excessive water consumption?
YES Damaged caused by overcharging. Test voltage regulator. Warranty will
be rejected.
NO Continue with 3.
3. If the specific gravity is the same in all cells, but reading 1.24g/cm3 or lower,
charge the battery. Is the charge acceptance at least 1/20th of the nominal
capacity? (e.g. 100Ah battery: 100 x 1/20 = 5A)
YES Charge the battery then proceed with a high rate discharge test. If after
a full recharging a reading of 1.24g/cm3 is not achieved, then there is
no reason for a warranty claim. The battery is simply ageing and
therefore having less than 100% performance.
NO Damage caused by deep discharge or undercharging. Check the
vehicles electrics (i.e. the voltage regulator, alternator, fan belt, etc.).
Warranty claims will be rejected.
4. Is the specific gravity the same in all cells and above 1.25g/cm3?
YES Continue with a high rate discharge test
NO charge the battery, then proceed with a high rate discharge test
Note: If the specific gravity is higher than 1.29g/cm3 the electrolyte level has probably
been filled up with a mixture of sulfuric acid and water. This will lead to a chemical
reaction which is not equilibrated and it can reduce the battery service life. The
battery may only be filled up with distilled water!
Specific Gravity (g/cm3) at Condition Procedure

27C
1.25-1.28 Fully charged Proceed with high rate
discharge test
1.20-1.24 Partially charged Charging recommended
before proceeding with a
high rate discharge test
Less than Low state of charge Charge immediately
1.20
97
6.3 High Rate Discharge Test

This test can only be carried out if the terminal voltage is equal to or higher than
12.5V, respectively the gravity reading is equal to or higher than 1.25g/cm3,
otherwise the battery needs to be charged first. It is important to read the instructions
of the the battery tester.
For battery testers with switch-able resistances (variable load), discharge the battery
at about 3 times the nominal capacity for 10 seconds (e.g. a 50Ah battery at 150
amps).
The voltage during discharge should remain stable at 9.6 volts or higher.
Results
- Voltage remains stable. Good battery, no fault found
- Voltage drops below 9.6volts. Replace the battery under warranty.
98
7 Warranty
7.1 General Information

The applicable warranty regulations are either a part of the general terms and
conditions and/or the delivery terms, which are effective between the supplier and its
customer or they are written down in an additional warranty document.
Usually each country has specific laws, which are designated to protect the end-
customer. Consequently if statutory warranty terms are specified in certain countries
they are applicable!
As sample for a warranty manual the Warranty Manual, Automotive Technology
International Aftermarket from AA/ASA3 shall be mentioned. This warranty manual is
solely intended for Bosch regional companies (RGs), Bosch international offices
(AVs) and their service centres (BG, BS) that are entitled to perform warranty repairs
on Bosch products. The newest version of the warranty manual can be found on the
Intranet page of AA/ASA.
Link to the handbook valid for region Middle (in German language)
http://www.ka.de.bosch.com/kdg/de/KD%20fuer%20Kfz/GW-Handbuch.htm
Link to the handbook valid for all foreign countries

http://www.ka.de.bosch.com/kdg/de/KD%20fuer%20Kfz/GW-
Handbuch%20Ausland.htm
7.1.1 Warranty Cover

The warranty covers material and manufacturing defects which occur within the
applicable warranty period. Normal wear and tear, damage due to improper use,
failure caused by opening the battery shall be expressly excluded from the warranty.
As sample, detailed definitions are given in the Bosch warranty manual in chapter
1.2.1 and 1.2.2.
7.1.2 Warranty Periods

As said before the applicable warranty terms, thus also the warranty periods are part
of the general terms and conditions stipulated between the seller and buyer or they
are stipulated by laws. Thus the warranty periods can differ from country to country.
The time at which the use of the battery commences or the installation, sale or
shipping of the goods, counts as the starting date of the warranty period (Date of
installation or purchase invoice).
Taking the vehicle out of service temporarily does not extend the warranty period.
The warranty period does not recommence after repair or replacement delivery/
follow-up service. Under certain refund agreements as e.g. the pro rata system (see
99
chapter 7.1.4), it is possible that the warranty period recommences after replacing the
battery.
The warranty periods for different battery types and different applications may vary.
As shown in the table below it can be useful to distinguish the warranty periods by
application. Specific values have to be stipulated in the local countries terms and
conditions.
Application Battery line Alloy Warranty Period
Passenger cars Bosch Silver Plus Silver 24 months
Bosch Silver Silver 24 months
Bosch Asia Silver Silver 24 months
Centro Hybrid/Antimony 24 months
Commercial TECMAXX Silver 24 months
vehicles RF Antimony 24 months
HD Antimony 24 months
HD-Extra Antimony 24 months
Centro Hybrid/Antimony 24 months
Motorcycles Gel Calcium 24 months
Standard Antimony 24 months
Traction + lighting Gel Calcium 12 months, max.
600 cycles
Standard Antimony 12 months, max.
400 cycles
Taxis HD Antimony 24 months
100 Tkm or
2.400hrs
Special Optima 24 months
applications
Table 17 Sample for warranty periods depending on application and product type
7.1.3 Excess storage

Batteries have a limited shelf life. They are subject to self-discharge, oxidization and
sulphating processes. The speed of these processes highly depends on the storage
conditions, especially on the ambient temperature. After the shelf life is exceeded,
the battery may no longer be delivered or installed in a vehicle. It is important to
strictly apply the FiFo rule when managing the batterys stock as described in chapter
3.2.
The manufacturer will reject warranty claims for excessively stored batteries.
Towards the end-user warranty claims shall be accepted, if the battery was stored for
an excessive period by the 1st or 2nd trade level and was then sold.
Excess storage times are regulated between the manufacturer and its customers.
Therefore applicable times vary by product, manufacturer and country. For further
information contact your local Bosch supplier.
100
7.1.4 Warranty Refunding Methods

For the warranty refund following established models can be applied:
a) Individual case handling
Each individual warranty case will be refunded. In general the warranty battery
has to be returned to the supplier in order to examine the case.
b) Warranty flat rate
A flat rate based on the sales turnover is defined between the supplier and its
customers (e.g. 2% of the sales turnover). This payment shall cover the
customers expenses for warranty claims. Batteries do not need to be returned to
the next higher trade level only in special cases or in order to measure the claim
reasons and supervise/define the amount of the flat rate.
c) Pro Rata/Pro Rate
A pro rata warranty is defined as follows:
If the consumer purchases the item at time 0, and it fails at time x and x < W
(W=Warranty period), then the consumer buys a new item for price x/W times the
original price. The new item comes with a full warranty. Example: The warranty
period is W=36 months. The battery fails 12 months after the date of purchase.
The customer has to pay 12/36=1/3 of the original price to receive a new battery.
After the replacement under warranty the warranty period will recommence.
7.2 Warranty Claim Process with the End-user

From statistics it is well known, that the battery is one of the main reasons for a
vehicle break down. But the origin of the failure is often not the battery itself. Finding
the real cause for the battery problem is a great chance for every car service to prove
its competence towards the customers.
To prevent replacing batteries without really knowing what caused the breakdown,
this chapter presents a process diagram and descriptions of how to go through a
warranty case with the end-user. The individual steps are explained afterwards in
detail. The below discussed process refers to warranty claims for passenger cars.
For other battery types and application the process description and the questions
asked to the customers have to be modified accordingly.
101
1 no
Receipt
available?
yes
Within 2 no
warranty
period?
yes
3 no
Right usage of
the battery?
yes
Visual check 4 bad
of battery
condition?
good
5 Reject warranty
Testing the battery with
a BAT121
6
Testing the vehicle
electrical system
If a high rate discharge tester is

available or if the battery has
accessible screw-in plugs, go on
here
Remove the battery from the vehicle

and let it rest for min 3 hours
102
A
5
Check the battery
with BAT121
No Reading Replace Battery/

Good and Recharge Cell short circuit Recharge and Retest
Voltage too low Unserviceable
Check battery with Accept warranty no

1st loop in
voltmeter claim Voltage yes
process flow?
>12.6V
Reject warranty
yes Start Capacity
Terminal yes >60%
voltage Charge Battery with
<0.5V? 1/20th of capacity for no
no 12-18h
yes Reject warranty
Reverse Battery has been
polarity? Leave battery to used up
no stand for 24h or
apply high rate
yes discharge test
no 1st loop in
process flow?
103
Testing the vehicle 6

electrical system
yes Battery is deeply

Starter
discharged due to
defective
abnormal high currents
no
Alternator yes Battery is undercharged

defective or deeply discharged
no Reject warranty
Voltage yes Battery is constantly

Regulator out undercharged or
of range? overcharged
no
No-load current yes Battery has often a low

>50mA? state of charge
no
Vehicle electrical system

is ok
104
Check the OCV 7 If the battery has accessible 8

screw-in plugs, check the
electrolyte specific gravity
OCV8V 8V<OCV<12.5V OCV12.5V

One cell with low
yes specific gravity, while
Battery has been other cells have
deeply discharged Charge Battery 1.25g/cm3 or above?
(Voltage regulator ok?) Accept warranty
claim no
Electrolyte discoloured
yes or terminal caps
blacken or high water
consumption?
Reject warranty no
no Specific gravity same

in all cells, but
1.24g/cm3 or lower?
Reject warranty yes
9 Charge Battery
Perform a high rate

discharge test
Damaged caused by no Charge acceptance at
deep discharge or least 1/20th of the
undercharging nominal capacity?
no yes
Test failed?
Finish charging
yes
Accept warranty Battery is ageing and yes Specific gravity still

claim loosing performance below 1.24g/cm3?
no
105
An important part of the whole battery warranty procedure is the dialog with the
customer. Only if asking the right questions to the costumer, the batterys usage and
the reason for the battery failure can be found out. In many cases the battery is
defective and the reason is not the battery itself but occurs from the vehicle or a
wrong handling. Only if the reason for the failure is found, a trouble free operation
can be assured for the future. The numbers used for the following process
description match the numbers in the process flow diagrams.
1. Check the receipt

If the customer cannot show the correct sales receipt, warranty claims can be
rejected.
2. Check if within the warranty period

If the manufacturing date (refer to chapter 2.4.2 for how to read the
manufacturing code) is not within the warranty period, the sales receipt need
to be checked. If the date of purchase is within the warranty period the claim
will be followed up.
Was the battery stored excessively before the date of purchase? (If a battery
was stored too long, depends on the corresponding terms and conditions
between the manufacturer and its customers)
- NO: Follow up the claim
- YES: Replace the battery. It is clearly a storage fault by one of the trade
levels.
3. Battery usage
It is a very important step to find out more about the usage of the battery. For
which application and how does the customer use the battery?
Already at this point it often appears to be not a manufacturing or a material
fault but an inappropriate battery was used. Here it is essential to advise the
customer and help choosing the correct battery for the future, thus further
battery failures can be avoided.
Following questions can be asked in the case of passenger car batteries:
What is the reason for the claim?
In which kind of vehicle do you use the battery?
- Taxis and LCVs
The electrical consumption of these vehicles is often very high. The use
of cyclic resistant (antimony) batteries is suggested. The warranty can be
limited to a certain amount of km or operating hours for this kind of
application.
106
- RV
An extreme cyclic load is applied to the battery. Warranty claims can be
rejected. The use of a traction and lighting battery is suggested.
- Lift trucks, tractors, construction machines
The mechanical load due to vibrations is high in these vehicles. The use
of vibration resistant batteries is suggested. The warranty period can be
reduced to a certain amount of operating hours for this application.
How do you use your battery?

- Short distance driving
A low state of charge can occur. The state of charge should be checked
periodically. If the voltage of the voltage regulator is below 13.8 Volts,
warranty claims can be rejected.
- Long distance driving, mile-eater
The battery could be overcharged. The state of charge should be
checked periodically. If the voltage of the voltage regulator is wrong
(>14.5V or >15V for Silver/Silver Plus), warranty claims can be rejected.
- Seasonal usage
Before the vehicle will be put out of operation for a longer time, the
battery should be disconnected from the vehicle electrical system and if
necessary recharged.
What is the electrical equipment of your vehicle?

- Additional equipment was installed such as engine independent heating,
seat heating system, navigation system and so on
The capacity of the original battery suggested by the vehicle
manufacturer is probably too low to supply all additional consumers. A
battery with a higher capacity and possibly with a higher cyclic resistance
is a better choice.
- Hydraulic platform in commercial vehicles
In this case it is better to use a cyclic resistant (antimony) battery,
possibly a two battery system can be installed.
4. Visual inspection for damages

Warranty can be rejected:
- if the cable connectors are not tightly fixed to the battery terminals. In this
case the contact resistance is much higher which can lead to a low state of
charge.
- if the battery is leaking electrolyte and around the leakage area external
damages are visible
- if the battery top is covered with electrically conductive dirt or other
material, which will lead to a higher self discharge
107
- if the terminal posts are impressed or show other visible damages (e.g.
from over tightening the cable connectors)
- if the terminals are molten, which is a sign for an external short circuit
- if the Power Control System shows a transparent reading, which
indicates an excessive consumption of the electrolyte. This is usually a
sign for overcharging
5. Testing the battery with the BAT121

See chapter 6.1 for testing with the BAT121 and how to interpret the readings.
The first test should be performed without any prior charging of the battery.
6. Testing the vehicle

Battery defects can occur from problems of the vehicle electrical system. Thus
the starter, the alternator, the voltage regulator and the no-load current should
be checked if the reason for the battery failure has not clearly been identified
so far. Remember that replacing a battery without knowing the reason, which
caused the failure, will not really help the customer as well as the seller.
In chapter 5.1 and 5.2 brief information is given about the starter and the
alternator. Check if both are working properly, if not, defects have to be fixed
or the aggregates have to be replaced. Battery warranty claims can be
rejected
See chapter 5.3 for more information about the voltage regulator. If the voltage
output is not within the range of 13.8-14.5V (for Silver/Silver Plus 15V) a
warranty claim can be rejected and the voltage regulator has to be repaired or
replaced.
See chapter 5.5 for more information about no-load currents in the vehicle. If
the no-load current is higher than 50mA (valid for most cars, for further
information on vehicle specific no-load currents consult your Bosch service
hotline or the vehicle manufacturer), warranty claims can be rejected. The
reason for the excessive no load consumption has to be analyzed and fixed
before changing the battery.
If a high rate discharge tester is available or if the battery has accessible screw-in
plugs, the battery can be removed from the vehicle and following process steps can
be performed:
7. Checking the OCV

Before checking the OCV the battery should have rested for minimum 3 hours
without any load or charging within that time.
If the terminal voltage is below 8V, the battery is undercharged. Warranty
claims can be rejected. The reason for the low state of charge need to be
108
figured out: voltage regulator, short distance driving, additional consumers,

etc.?
If the OCV is below 12.5V, the battery has to be charged before a high rate
discharge test can be performed.
8. Testing the specific gravity of the electrolyte for batteries with accessible
screw-in plugs
See chapter 6.2 for the instructions of a specific gravity test
9. High rate discharge test

See chapter 6.3 for how to perform a high rate discharge test
If the battery fails the high rate discharge test, warranty claims will be granted.
In some cases it is possible to notice a strange smell when discharging with a
high current. It can be a sign for a contaminated battery. If the customer added
other chemicals or fluids than distilled water, warranty claims can be rejected.
7.3 Technical Information on Battery problems
7.3.1 Manufacturing faults

Due to the high demands of the OEM market and taking into account the technical
and manufacturing standards by Bosch, the rate of genuine manufacturing faults is
negligible. The following faults can occur.
Short circuit/dead cell

If the battery has a short service life of less than 12 months it is typically a problem of
a dead cell. One cell will show a dramatically lower specific gravity reading than the
others. The affected cell will boil visibly under a high rate discharge test. For testing
the specific gravity and doing a high rate discharge test, refer to chapter 6. The
BAT121 is an even more reliable measure to detect short circuits (see chapter 6). For
an accurate diagnosis, the battery must be fully charged, or at least it need to have
an OCV 12.5V. In some cases a dead cell may also be visible as a sulfated cell.
Internal break
The battery will have good specific gravity readings but no terminal voltage can be
measured.
109
7.3.2 Non-manufacturing faults

Following technical problems are due to a wrong handling of the battery. Warranty
will be rejected in these cases.
Low state of charge

A low state of charge is a preliminary stage of deep discharge. In a low state of
charge the active mass has not yet been damaged. The battery still can be charged
with a standard charger.
The reasons for a low state of charge are:
- a faulty alternator
- a low output voltage of the regulator
- high contact resistances because of loose cable connectors or dirt at the cable
terminals
- loose drive belts
- insufficient engine running time because of short distance driving
- retrofitted consumers
Deep discharge
A battery is deeply discharged when the total capacity is used up. The longer a
battery is left in this state, the higher is the damage of the active mass. The plates
begin to sulfate and charging becomes impossible. This damage is irreversible.
Possible reasons for deep discharge are:
- see the reasons for a low state of charge
- the light or other consumers were not shut off
A battery with a good state of charge usually has a no-load voltage of >12.6V. Thus
the no-load voltage of each cell is approximately 2.1V. If there is a short circuit of a
single cell, it leads to a reduction of the terminal voltage by approx. 2.1V to a typical
short-circuit voltage of 10.5V. The probability for two cells of one battery having a
short circuit is very low. In case of two short circuit cells the OCV drops by 4.2V to a
value of 8.4V. To exclude influences to the terminal voltage by long transportation
and storage times, by two short circuit cells and so on, only batteries with a no-load
voltage below 8 Volts are recognized as deeply discharged and warranty claims will
be rejected.
Deep discharge particularly occurs when the vehicle is used seasonally like
motorcycles or RVs. Deep discharge can be prevented by disconnecting the battery
from the vehicle electrical system (see chapter 5.7 and 5.8). The battery should then
be checked, if necessary recharged and stored in a cool and dry place.
Sulphation
If a battery is allowed to stand in a discharged state for an excessive amount of time,
a chemical reaction, called sulphation, takes place, which can permanently impair
performance. During the discharge process, lead sulfate is built at the positive and
110
negative plates, which is finely distributed across the plates. The longer the battery is
left in a discharged stage, the fine sulfate crystals develop into larger ones, which can
only hardly be transformed back to lead dioxide or lead. Sulphation can be seen as a
fine white/grey coating on the plates. In most cases this signifies irreversible damage
and the battery will not be serviceable. 80% of all battery failures are related to
sulfation.
Figure 46 Photo of a deep discharged battery with sulfation
This damage can occur either during storage or if the battery is installed in a vehicle
(or equipment) that is not used for a long period of time, for example a tractor,
motorcycle, or boat. In vehicles there is a permanent drain on the battery from the
clock, alarm etc. As a result the level of charge in the battery decreases, and after a
period of time sulphation will build up on the plates. But also a disconnected battery
will start sulfating because of its self-discharge.
The causes for sulphating can be summarized as:
- Batteries sit too long between charges
- "Deep cycling" an engine starter battery. These batteries can not stand deep
discharge
- Undercharging of a battery will allow sulfation. Undercharging can also come
from incorrect charging levels and settings
- Low electrolyte level - battery plates exposed to air will immediately sulfate
The sulphation (lead sulphate) hinders the chemical reaction between the acid
(electrolyte) and the active mass (lead compound) in the plates and prevents the
battery from operating as normal. Even after recharging the voltage will be low
(<12.4V) but the cells will generally have even readings. Sulphation is not a
manufacturing fault.
111
Acid Stratification
A common cause of battery failure is acid stratification. The electrolyte on a stratified
battery concentrates on the bottom, causing the upper half of the cell to be acid poor.
This effect is similar to a cup of coffee in which the sugar collects on the bottom when
the waitress forgets to bring the stirring spoon. Batteries tend to stratify if kept at low
charge (below 80%) and never have the opportunity to receive a full charge. Short
distance driving while running windshield wiper and electric heaters contributes to
this. Acid stratification reduces the overall performance of the battery.
Figure 47 illustrates a normal battery in which the acid is equally distributed from top
to bottom. This battery provides good performance because the correct acid
concentration surrounds the plates. Figure 48 shows a stratified battery in which the
acid concentration is light on top and heavy on the bottom. A light acid limits plate
activation, promotes corrosion and reduces performance. High acid concentration on
the bottom, on the other hand, artificially raises the open circuit voltage. The battery
appears fully charged but provides a low cold cranking power. High acid
concentration also promotes sulfation and decreases the already low conductivity
further. If unchecked, such a condition will eventually lead to a battery failure.
Figure 47 No acid stratification
Figure 48 Acid stratification
Fully charging the battery, applying a shaking motion or tipping the unit over tends to
correct the problem.
Overcharging
Overcharging is often related to an inadequate high temperature in the engine
compartment. Also a defective voltage regulator is often the reason for overcharging.
Characteristical for overcharging is a high corrosion of the grids, loose positive active
mass, damaged active mass as well as noticeable high water consumption. When
examining an overcharged battery, often a low level of electrolyte can be found and
quite often a black coating is visible on the filler caps. Due to excessive water
112
consumption the specific gravity of the electrolyte can raise to values of 1.3g/cm3 or
above. High temperature leads to a lower internal resistance of the battery, which
results in a higher charging current and thus increases the effect of overcharging.
Physical damage
If the battery is installed and fixed incorrectly, if the connector leads are hammered
onto the terminals, or if the leads are not properly fastened, the battery will have
obvious damage to the casing or the terminals. The terminal posts can also be
molten if the battery was subject to a short circuit.
Figure 49 Photo of a molten battery terminal
Incorrect application
The batteries recommended by Bosch are those equal to or above the OE
specification. Choosing a battery with less capacity or a less powerful battery will
result in a shorter service life and early failure. Usually it will lead to a low state of
charge with the above mentioned effects.
Wear and Tear

During the charge and discharge cycle, material from the battery plates (active mass)
is in motion due to the electrochemical processes. Every time the battery goes
through a charge and discharge cycle, a small amount of the active mass is lost from
the plates. This process of normal ageing through the charge and discharge cycle will
eventually cause the battery to lose capacity, and it will come to the point where the
battery can no longer start the vehicle/equipment.
A battery only has a finite number of cycles it can go through before it looses its
capacity. Vehicles with high short distance usage such as taxis, minicabs, trucks, and
buses will reach the maximum number of cycles in a shorter time than under long
distance driving. As a result, batteries in these vehicles can display the above
symptoms after 12-24 months.
113

Bosch Batterie Handbuch

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bosch Batterie Handbuch

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bosch Battery Manual

2 THE BATTERY ................................................................................... 15

3 STORAGE AND TRANSPORT........................................................... 62

4 BATTERY CHARGING ....................................................................... 73

5 THE VEHICLE AND ITS ELECTRICAL SYSTEM .............................. 87

6 BATTERY TESTING ........................................................................... 93

Figure 1 Solution Pressure .................................................................................................................... 16

Table 1 Overview of the discharge processes ...................................................................................... 19

1.1 Warning and safety guidelines

Observe the information on the battery, the batterys operating manual

Wear eye protection as a precautionary measure when working on the

Fire, sparks, naked flames and smoking are prohibited:

Threshold value on workplace Occupational exposure to sulphuric acid

R-phrases R-35 Causes severe burns.

S-phrases S-2 Keep out of reach of children

Accumulator An electrochemical device that can transform electrical

Cover Made of polypropylene. The cover is dropped on and

Grid growth Deformation of the frame of positive grid plates resulting

each are in a series connection, the circuit voltage is

2.1 Purpose and Requirements

2.2 Electrochemical processes in the lead storage cell

2.2.1 Generation of the cell voltage

Figure 1 Solution Pressure

Figure 2 Cell discharged Figure 3 Charging Process

If charging is continued, although it is in fact finished, all that occurs is electrolytic

Figure 4 Cell charged Figure 5 Discharge Process

2.2.3 Discharging (current drain from the battery)

Table 1 Overview of the discharge processes

The chemical reactions of the discharge process can be summarized to:

Positive plate (+) PbO2 + SO42- + 4H3O+ + 2e- PbSO4 + 6H2O

Negative plate (-) Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e-

Pb + PbO2 + H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

2.3 Parameters and Performance of a Battery

under extreme temperatures need to be simulated with a subsequence engine

2.3.1 Cell voltage

2.3.2 Nominal voltage

2.3.3 Open Circuit Voltage (OCV), U0

Figure 6 Cell voltage and OCV

2.3.4 Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte

D(20C) corrected specific gravity in g/cm3

2.3.5 Specific Gravity vs. Cell Voltage

Approximation: U0 = specific gravity + 0,84

specific gravity [g/cm3]

Figure 7 OCV as a function of specific gravity

As a rule of thumb the cell voltage can be approximated by UZ=specific gravity+0.84.

0.99 11.00 1.21 12.30

Table 2 Conversion Table Specific Gravity to OCV

2.3.6 Internal resistance

2.3.7 Terminal voltage, Uk

Figure 8 Terminal Voltage

2.3.8 Gassing Voltage and Water Consumption

time in use [days]

AGM PAG Hybrid

Figure 9 Water loss of AGM, PAG and Hybrid Batteries

- Is the battery moved around during use, or does it remain stationary

Figure 10 Available Ah capacity as a function of discharge current (44Ah battery)

Figure 11 Available Ah capacity as a function of temperature and discharge current

2.3.10 Nominal capacity, K20

2.3.11 Cold Start Performance / Cold Cranking Amperes

For each battery type a certain current, a min. voltage after

The temperature of -15C is same for all types.

Table 3 Overview of Cold Cranking Ampere Definitions

2.3.12 Reserve Capacity Rating

2.3.13 Service life