MEMORANDUM

To;
From;
Date;
Subject;

Question 1.0: Define the symbols in the microscopic form of Ohm's law and indicate their SI
units.

Solution:
Microscopic form of Ohms Law is given by:

J =
E

In this equation, is constant called conductivity, E is the applied Electric field and J
is the current density.

Electric field is defined as the area around any charged particle in which it is able to exert force
on other charged particles. SI unit of electric field is Volts per meter i.e. Vm -1 or Newton per
Coulomb i.e. NC-1.

Current density is defined as the amount of current flowing through a unit cross-sectional area.
SI unit of current density is amperes per square meter i.e. Am-2

Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct electricity. A material with high conductivity
can conduct electric current easily. SI unit of conductivity is Siemens per meter i.e. Sm-1

Question 2.0: In your own words explain why the valence electron energy levels broadened
into bands in a solid block of a good conducting metal such as sodium.

Solution:
When atoms are brought together to form a true solid they start interacting with each other.
Especially the electrons in valence band interact with neighboring electrons of surrounding
atoms. Initially they had same energy levels but these interactions result in distributed energy
levels. Paulis Exclusion Principle explains this distribution by stating that no two electrons can
have same spin. It causes energies of electrons to be broadened out into bands. In case of metals
this distribution helps in conduction.

Question 3.0: In your own words explain why the 3s electron energy band in a block of
sodium only half-filled.

Solution:
Atomic number of sodium atom is 11 and so the electronic configuration becomes 1s 2 2s2 2p6
3s1. First two electrons go to 1s orbital, next two go to 2s orbital, and then six electrons go to 2p
orbital. Since p-orbital can hold only 6 electrons thats why remaining one electron goes to 3s
orbital. Thats why 3s electron energy band in a block of sodium is only half-filled.

Question 4.0: In your own words explain why the electrical conductivity of intrinsic silicon
and germanium increases with increasing temperature.

Solution:
In semiconductors like silicon and germanium electrical conductivity is not that easy because of
rarity of electrons in conduction. When temperature of these elements is increased it results in
increase in electron-hole pairs due to bonds breakage. When these electron-hole pairs are
generated they conduct electricity. Thats why electrical conductivity of silicon and germanium
increase with increase in temperature.

Question 5.0: In your own words describe the diffusion process for the introduction of
dopants into the surface of a silicon wafer.

Solution:
The process of doping is accomplished at very high temperatures that range from 900 oC to
1100oC (these temperatures are still well below the melting point of silicon which is at 1420 oC).
This process is done in a high temperature furnace. After maintaining a high temperature in
furnace, appropriate impurities are introduced on the surface of a silicon wafer. These impurities
then diffuse slowly into the wafer. It happens because of the natural tendency of the materials to
move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Diffusion rate is of
the order of 1um/hour. Also the penetration depth is of the order of tens of micrometers. At the
room temperature diffusion becomes so slow that these impurities get stuck to the wafer. This is
how diffusion process is done.

Question 6.0: In your own words define the term microprocessor.

Solution:
Microprocessors are like a brain of electrical equipment/computer. They are capable of
performing various functions that include addition, subtraction, comparison, manipulating data,
fetching information and storing it in dedicated places known as registers. They serve as central
processing units or CPU. In fact microprocessor is in-charge of all activities going on in the
system controlled by it. They are also known as logic chips or microchips and there are a
variety of them.

Question 7.0: In your own words describe the three major applications for ceramic materials
in the electrical-electronics industries.

Solution:
Ceramic materials have great properties like low dielectric losses, good insulation properties and
are able to adopt different shapes. Following are the major uses of ceramic materials in the
electrical-electronic industries:

1. Ceramic materials are used heavily in making ceramic capacitors, vibratos, temperature
sensors and oscillators. This type of ceramics are called functional ceramics.

2. Ferroelectric ceramic materials are used in specific industrial applications that include sensors,
sonar, mics and pumps etc. In this type of applications those materials are used that can be
polarized immediately as well their polarization should be able to reorient itself.

3. Magnetic ceramics are used in the production of antennas and inductors. In this type of
applications magnetic properties of ceramic materials are exploited.

Question 8.0: In your own words describe the composition of fosterite and explain why
fosterite is an excellent insulator material.

Solution:
Fosterite in its pure form is composed of magnesium, oxygen and silicon with a chemical
formula Mg2SiO4. Its structure contains cation Mg2+ and anion SiO4-1 in molar ratio of 2:1.
Silicon is present in the center and four oxygen atoms with partial negative charge are attached to
silicon with a covalent bond. In order to reduce repulsion between oxygen atoms they need to
stay apart and best way is to assume a tetrahedral geometry. The structure of fosterite is shown in
following figure 1.

Fosterite is a good insulator because of its chemical structure. Presence of four electronegative
oxygen atoms in this molecule makes this compound non-conducting. Since oxygen atoms dont
provide electrons for conduction instead it attracts electrons towards itself. Thats why its a good
insulating material.

Figure 1. Structure of Fosterite.

Question 9.0: In your own words describe the materials used to make NTC thermistors

Solution:
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors are resistors whose resistance decreases with
the increase in temperature because they have negative temperature co-efficient. They are made
from polycrystalline semiconductors. Their composition includes a mixture of Chromium (Cr),
Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co) and Manganese (Mn). Their manufacturing process is similar
to that of ceramics. All the components are mixed intensively and plastic binder is also added.
After this mass is shaped into desired form.

Question 10.0: List three devices that utilize the piezoelectric effect.

Solution:
Following are the three devices that utilize piezoelectric effect:

1. Airbag sensors and airflow sensors in automobiles.

2. Ultrasonic imaging and foetal heart monitors.

3. Inkjet printers and disc drives.

Question 11.0: Refer to Table 14.3 and determine the resistivity and resistance of aluminum
wire having a diameter of 1.95 mm and length of 310 m at -130 deg C. Report resistivity and
resistance in ohm-m and ohms, respectively.

Solution:

By the inspection of table 14.3, for given specifications resistivity and resistance is given below:

= 1.331 ohm-m

R = 1.38 ohms

Question 12.0: Determine electron drift velocity (in m/hr) when the wire described in Prob.1
above carries 7 amps. Assume the number of free electrons per atom = 3 using a density of
aluminum of 2.7 g/cm3 and atomic wt of 26.98 g/mole.

Given:

Current = I = 7A
Number of free electrons/atom = 3
Density of aluminum = 2.7g/cm3
Atomic weight of aluminum = 26.98 g/mol

To find:

Drift Velocity = v =?

Solution:

We know that:

I
Drift Velocity=v=
nAQ

A is the cross-sectional area given by:

3 2
d2 ( 1.9510 )
A= A= =2.986106 m2
4 4

Now drift velocity can be found:

7 5 m
v= 28
v =5.746 x 10
3 x 8.5 x 10 x 2.986 x 106 x 1.6 x 1019 s

v =0.20685 m/hr
Question 13.0: Calculate the electrical conductivity of intrinsic germanium at 300K. Assume
electron and hole motilities are 0.39 and 0.19 m2/ (V-s), respectively and the intrinsic charge
carrier concentration is 4.7 E16 carriers/m3. Report conductivity in 1/ (ohm-m).

Given:

Electron mobility = 0.39 m2/ (V-s) = n

Hole mobility = 0.19 m2/ (V-s) = p
Charge carrier concentration = 4.7e16 carriers/m3 = nn= np

To find:

Electrical conductivity = =?

Solution:

Electrical conductivity is given by:

=nn qn n +n p q p p

Putting values we get:

=( 4.7e16 )(1.6e-19 ) ( 0.39 ) + ( 4.7e16 ) ( 1.6e-19 ) ( 0.19 ) =2.9328e-3+1.4288e-3

=0.00436 1/(ohmm)

Question 14.0: A silicon wafer is doped with arsenic to a concentration of 1E 23 atoms/m3.

(a) What is the majority charge carrier? Calculate the (b) the minority-carrier concentration and
(c) the electrical resistivity of the doped silicon at room temperature. Report the resistivity in
ohm-m. Assume complete ionization of the dopant. Also assume that mobilities are unaffected by
dopant concentration.

Given:

Doping concentration = 1e23 atoms/m3

Doping Element = arsenic

To find:

Majority charge carrier=?

Minority-carrier concentration=?
Electrical resistivity of doped silicon=?

Solution:
Since arsenic is a penta-valent impurity so,
(a) majority charge carrier = electron

(b)

According to law of mass action:

n MAX n MIN=n2i

Where ni is intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon and is equal to 1.45e16 m-3. So minority
carrier concentration is given by:

n 2i ( 1.45e16 )2
n MIN = n MIN =
n MAX 1e23

3
n MIN =2102500000 carriers/m

(c)

Resistivity is given by:

1
=

Where is conductivity and is given by:

=q( n nn+ p n p)

So

1
=
q ( n nn + p n p )

By putting values:

1
=
( 1.6e-19 )( ( 0.136 ) ( 1e23 ) + ( 0.048 ) ( 2.1025e9 ) )

=4.5956 104 ohm. m

Question 15.0: A silicon wafer is doped with boron to a concentration of 1E 22 atoms/m3. (a)
What is the majority charge carrier? Calculate the (b) the minority-carrier concentration and (c)
the electrical resistivity of the doped silicon at room temperature. Report the resistivity in ohm-
m. Assume complete ionization of the dopant. Also assume that mobilities are unaffected by
dopant concentration.
Given:

Doping concentration = 1e22 atoms/m3

Doping Element = boron

To find:

Majority charge carrier=?

Minority-carrier concentration=?
Electrical resistivity of doped silicon=?

Solution:

Since boron is a tri-valent impurity so,

(a) majority charge carrier = hole

(b)

According to law of mass action:

2
n MAX n MIN =ni

Where ni is intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon and is equal to 1.45e16 m-3. So minority
carrier concentration is given by:
2
ni ( 1.45e16 )2
n MIN = n MIN =
n MAX 1e2 2

n MIN =2.105 1010 carriers /m3

(c)

Resistivity is given by:

1
=

Where is conductivity and is given by:

=q( n nn+ p n p)

So

1
=
q ( n nn + p n p )
By putting values:

1
=
( 1.6e-19 )( ( 0.136 ) ( 1e22 ) + ( 0.048 )( 2.1025 e 10 ))

3
=4.5956 10 ohm . m

Question 16.0: The diagram on right depicts a forward biased PN

junction comprised of solid cylindrical extrinsic semiconductors
having resistivity as described in P14 and P15 above. Determine the
forward bias and reverse bias resistance of the junction. Assume the
diameter = 12 mm and the dimension L = 6 microns (x 1E-6 m).
Report the forward bias resistance in micro-ohm (x 1E-6 ohm).
Report the reverse bias resistance in giga-ohms. Again assume the
mobility of the charge carriers is unaffected by dopant concentrations.

Given:

Diameter = 12mm
Length = 6e-6m

To find:

Forward bias resistance = RFORWARD?

Reverse bias resistance = RREVERSE?

Solution:

Electrical conductivity is given by:

=nn qn n +n p q p p

Putting values we get:

=( 4.7e16 )(1.6e-19 ) ( 0.39 ) + ( 4.7e16 ) ( 1.6e-19 ) ( 0.19 ) =2.9328e-3+1.4288e-3

=0.00436 1/(ohmm)

Question 2: Use figure 7.19 in your text to help you answer the following problem. A
cylindrical rod of brass having a minimum tensile strength of 450 MPa, a ductility of at least
13% EL, and a final diameter of 12.7 mm is desired. Some brass stock of diameter 19.0 mm has
been cold worked to 35% is available. Describe the procedure you would follow to obtain this
material. Assume the brass experiences cracking at 65% CW.

Given:
Minimum Tensile Strength = TS = 450 MPa

Minimum ductility = % EL = 13%

Final diameter = 12.7 mm

Stock diameter = 19.0 mm

%CW = 35%

Solution:

For tensile strength 27% CW is observed and for ductility it is 29% CW. Taking 28% CW as a
requirement.

For finding diameter:

 2 2
d 12.7
28= 1 2 100
d1

d 1=15 mm

Another condition is given,

2 2
d 19
35= o 2 100
do

d o=23.6 mm

We have no degree of cold work at 23.6mm and for trying to get 15mm diameter 60% CW is
required (hit and trial).

The degree of cold work is in permissible limit and we would follow the procedure like that.

Drawing of 23.6 mm to 15 mm at 60% cold work.

Annealing of the specimen

Further cold work to 28% for 12.7 mm.

Question 3: A single crystal of BCC iron is oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along
a [121] direction. If slip begins at a stress of 4.0 MPa, on the (101) [111] slip system, what is the
critically resolved shear stress?

Given:
Slip system = (101) [111]

Applied stress direction = [121]

Stress = = 4.0 MPa

Find:

Critical resolved shear stress = R=?

Solution:
R=coscos
First we have to find and .

Where: is the angle between the applied stress direction and the direction normal to slip plane,
and is the angle between the applied stress direction and slip direction.

u1 u 2+ v 1 v 2+ w1 w2
(u 21+ v 21 +w 21)(u22 + v 22+ w22 )
=cos1

Here,

[u 1 , v 1 , w1 ] = [121]

[u 2 , v 2 , w2 ] = [111]

By solving,

=61.87

Similarly,

[u 1 , v 1 , w1 ] = [121]

[u 2 , v 2 , w2 ] = [101]

=54.73

R=(4 )cos ( 54.73) cos ( 61.87)

R=1.088 MPa

Question 4: The largest surface crack in a steel alloy rod is 0.5 mm long with a tip radius of
curvature of 1 10-3 mm.

a) What is the stress concentration factor, Kt at the tip of the crack?

b) If the plain strain fracture toughness of the alloy is 45 MPa-m1/2 and a stress of 1000 MPa is
applied perpendicular to the crack, will this specimen experience fracture? Justify the answer.

Given:
Crack length = a = 0.5 mm

Tip radius of curvature = t =1 103 mm

 K ic =45 MPa m

Applied stress o =1000 MPa

Find:
K t =?

Solution:

a 2
K t =2( )
t

K t =44.72

K ic =Y c a

K ic
c=
Y (a)

45
c=
(1) (0.5)

c =1134.55 MPa

The fracture will not likely occur because c is greater than the applied stess.

Question 5: Note, you will need to use data from Appendix B to solve this problem. For the
thin walled spherical tank discussed in Design Example 8.1:

a) Rank the following polymers from longest to shortest critical crack length: nylon 6, 6 (50%
relative humidity), polycarbonate, poly (ethylene terephthalate), and poly (methyl
methacrylate).

b) Reflect on how the magnitude of polymers compare to the metal alloys provided in Table 8.3.

c) Now rank the same four polymers relative to the maximum allowable pressure according to
the leak-before-break criterion. As described in the part b of Design Example 8.1.

d) Reflect on these values in relation to those for the metal alloys tabulated in Table 8.4.
Solution:

a) It is known that the critical crack length is proportional to the square ratio of K ic c . These
values are extracted from table B.4 and B.5.

Material K ic (MPa m) y (MPa)

Nylon 6,6 2.75 51.7

Polycarbonate 2.2 62.1

Poly (ethylene terephthalate) 5.0 59.3

Poly (methyl methacrylate) 1.2 63.5

Now, the calculated ratio

K ic 2
Material ( ) (mm)
y

Poly ethylene terephthalate 7.11

Nylon 6,6 2.83

Polycarbonate 1.26

Poly methyl methacrylate 0.36

b) There is not much difference between the Poissons ratio of polymers and metals.

c) According to the leak-before-break criterion, four polymers are rank on the basis of K 2ic y this
ratio:
2
K ic
Material (mm)
y

Poly ethylene terephthalate 0.422

Nylon 6,6 0.146

Polycarbonate 0.078
Poly methyl methacrylate 0.023

d) Generally, yield strength and tensile strength of metals are higher but for polymers %
elongation is higher in general context.

Question 6: The following tabulated data were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests
on a commercial low-carbon steel alloy.

Temperature (C) Impact Energy (J)

50 76

40 76

30 71

20 58

10 38

0 23

-10 14

-20 9

-30 5

-40 1.5

a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

b) Determine the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature corresponding to

the average of the maximum and minimum impact energies.

c) Determine the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature at which the impact
energy is 20 J.

d) What is the maximum carbon content possible for a plain carbon steel that must have an
impact energy of at least 200 J at -50C?
Solution:
a)

Charpy Impact Test

80 76 76
71
70

58
60
Impact Energy

50

38
40

30
23
20 14
9
10 5
1.5
0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

Temperature

b) The average of the minimum and maximum impact energies from to above data is:

76+1.5
Average Impact Energy=
2

Average Impact Energy=38.75 J

From the graph the temperature corresponding to 38.75J impact energy is 11C.

c) From the given data, the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature at 20J is about -3C.
d) Increasing carbon content decreases impact strength of the material for plain steel it should be
as low as possible to maintain the other properties as well. 0.1 to 0.2 is the range in which can
achieve this condition.