RCC Design of Concrete Structures Nilson #S#

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Preface
The thiTl<lenth edition of [)eli/:II ()fC()lIcr<'l~ Stnt('wreI has the Sam~ dual objecti"e,
as th" previous work: firsl to ,'stablish a fmll undt'rstamJing of Ih~ behavior of struc-
luml concrde, Ih"" to develop profici~ncy in the llJethods used In curr~nt design prac
lic~. Tlk) lexi has Mn updated in a.x-ordance wtlh Ilk) provisions of the 2002
American Concrde inslitute (ACI) Building Code.
It is generally r~><-'Ogniled Ihal mer~ Imining in ,pc><-'ial design skill, and codifi~d
pro,:edur", tS Inadctjuat~ for succ~,sful professional practice. As n"w re~arch
beconk), a,'ailable and new design nk)lhoos are continually inlroduccd. thew proce-
dures are subj~ct to fr~'<luenl changes. To understand and keep abreast of theS<l rapid
oowlopments and to engage ,afdy in nuto~alive deSIgn, th~ engineer needs a thorough
grounding in the basic ~rfonnancc of concrel" and st~el a, structural materials. and
In the behavior of rein forc~d concrete m~mbers and structu n,s. On the other hand. ttk)
maIn business of th~ !tTuduml ~ngine~r is to c:ksign structures safdy. economically,
and dTiCI~ntly. Con!k'<luelllly. with this basic understanding as a firm foundation,
familiarity with CUTre ri t d"sign proc~du res IS eSS<lrnial. Th is .'{]ition. lik" th~ preceding
on~s. OOdres!k's both needs .
The t~xt nOt on ly pre~ms Ih" basic nwchanics of structural COnCrete and meth
ods for the <ksign of indi,'idualmembers for bending, sh"ar. torsion. and axial for~s,
bU I also proyid~s mu ch ddail ~rtaining to applications in the vari ous Iy~, of struc
tuml systems. lIldudin., an cxt ensiw pr,,~ntaliorl of sbbs. footings. foundations. and
retaining walls. The important topic of joint d~sig" is ,ndmled. CowmgG of ~ismi .'
<ksign IS updated . and an introdudion 10 pr"stres!k'{] c'Oncrek IS included. as in pr"vl-
ous editi ons.
TIler~ have Mn major chang.s in the AC I Building Code. which gowms design
practice in most of tlw Unikd States. and serves as a modd ccxk in mUJly oth er coun
tri", as wdL Load factoN and strength reduction facloN have be~n ~ntirely r~"ised 10
agr,,,, with th~ reconurlelldations of the A IlJerkan Socidy of C;,'i] Engin,,,-,rs (ASCE).
TIle strainhased "unified mdhoo" of <ksign for Ilexun for reinforC<:! and preslre,s~d
concrd" Ilwmbers. presel1l~d as an alt"maliw in an ap~ndix in the 1999 ACI COO~,
has been lllcorporated in the tHain bod,. of the 2002 Code. TI,e,;., changes required
~writing significant ,;"clions of tlte thirt<lenlh edition tat and revision of the design
exampl"s and problems. Th~ "ah~matiw <ksign rlwthod:' also known as "allowabl~
str~ss d~sign: ' has be'!'n ~tHowd from the Cod~ and from th~ I~XI.
A feature of the text is a cotHpr~hensiw pn'sentation of all aspects of slab
<ksign. Th~ two chapters of th. pr~vious ,'{]ili on d~aling with I"o-way edg~suppon~d
and c'Ol mnn-su pported slabs have Mn c'OlUbimd inlo on~. delding th. co... fficient
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n i I'rd"""
method. which is now seldom used in proctice. 11", text cominue, 10 indude n"'thod,
of sbh anal)"sis and design hased on the theOJY of plaMi"ity: Ihe yield line methlxl for
anal)"sis and d", strip method for design of , bhs, bOlh panicularl)" useful for inno.'a-
tive suuclures.
11,e strut -and -tie metlKxl, originally developed in Europe, has Ix..,n inmxluced
intoA",erican practice and into an appendix of the 2002 ACI Cod". It offers a mtional
approach to bOlh tm, detailing of joint, and connection, and the design of special type,
of ",embers. such a, deep beams. Accordingly, an entirely new chapter giving detail,
of this desig n approach has been intnKlucL'<i.
11", chapter ,m analysis has been expanded 10 indude load combinations for use
in de'ign. a description of e,welop" CUr""s for moment and sbeaL and b)' adding
guidelines for pmponioning members umler both gr.l\"ity and later.d loads. strength-
"ning the >eetion on preliminary de'ign.
Most present -day design i, carned out using computer pmgrams. either general -
purpose comrnerciall)" a"aibhle software or individual pmgrams wrinen for special
nL",d,. Step-by-,tep pro,:edure s are given throughout the book 10 guide the student and
"n gi",_",r through the increa.ingly complex methodology of current design. with d",
""'plm,is on understanding the de'ign process. Once mastered. tbese proredure, are
ea,il)' convened into flow chan, to aid in pmgramming. Refcrence> are given. where
appmpriate, to the more widely u",->d commercial progr.lms.
111e text will be found suitable fOJ either a one or two-sen""ter course in d",
de'ign of concrde structures. If the ,'urnculum permit, only a single {'ourse (prubably
taught in the founh undergraduate year). the foll owing will provide a good basis: the
intnxluCiion and treatment of materials fouad in Chapters I and 2 respectively: the
material On flexure. ,I",ar. and anchomge in Chapters 3, 4. and 5; Chapter 6 on ser-
viceability; Chapter 8 on ,hon ,'olu",n,; and the introdu"tion \0 two-way slab, found
in tm, first fi"e se("{ions of Chapter 13. Time mayor lila)' nO! permit dassroom cover-
age of frame analy,is or building 'y,tems, Chapters 12 and 18, but these (ould well t..,
assigned a, independent reading , con(Urrent with the earlier wori< of the course. In tI",
authors' experience, such cornpl~mentary o utside reading tends to enhance student
moti,ation.
The text is more than adequate for a ",-,<"",d course, most likely taught in tbe first
year of graduate study, The second rourse ,hould include tI", increasingly important
topics of tor,ion. Chapter 7; slender columns. Chapter 9; the strut-and-tie method of
Chapter 10: and the design and detniling of joint,. Chapter 11, 11 should also offer an
o pponunity for a much-expanded study of slabs. including the remaining sections of
Chapter 13, plus the n"'thod, for slab analy"i, and de'ign based on plasticity theory
found in ChapteT> 14 and 15, yield line analysis and the strip method of design. Other
topin appmpriate to a ",<:ond course include foundations ami retaining walls,
Chapters 16 and 17, and the introduction to sei,mic design in Chapter 20. Prestressed
concrde is sufficiently imponant to ju,tify a sepamte course, If time <:on,traint, do nOi
permit thi" Chapter 19 provides an inmxlunioll and can be used as the text for a One-
{'redit-IKmr course.
At the "nd of each (hapwr, the u",r will find ~xten,ive ref~re,]("e li,t" which pm-
vide an emry into the literature for those wishing to intre"'e their knowledge thmugh
individual study. For professor" the in"tructor', solutions manual is availahle online
at www.mhhe.<:ornlnil,on .
A word mu,t be said about units. In the United State,. regrellably. tbe tmllsition
fmlll OUr c{)SlOma,)" unit" to the metri,' system I"," p",,,,-,,,dt.' mK at aiL Thi s is in part Ix,<,ause of th" expense to tbe construction industry
of the conv~rsion. but perhaps also because of pem'i\'ed shortcomings in th" SI met-
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ric' system (u", of dcrived unit, such as the pascal. dimination of the (,(lIlveniem <"en -
tin",ter. etc.) compared with the tr.illitional European metric system. Although pmha-
hly most hasi<' scicnce co",,!,,, are taught using SI unit,. in most upper dass and gr.KI -
uate design courses. inch -p<>und units are customarily u",-xl. refleding condit;';",. of
practic"e here . Accordingly. i!lch-p<>und unit. arc used throughout the text. although
graph, and hasic data in Chapter 2 are given in dual units. Appendix B gives the SI
,-X(uivalems of inch -p<",nd un its. An Sl version of the ACl Building Code is availahle.
A hrief historical note ma)' he of intere,t. TI,is h<x,k i, the thirteenth edition of
a textbook Qriginated in 1923 hy uQnard C. Urquhart and Chari", E. O Rourke. hoth
pmfess(ID of structural engin""ring at Comell University. Over its remarkahle 80 year
history. new editions have kept pa<'c with rcsearch. impmved materials. and new meth-
ods of analysis and design. 'The second. third. and fourth edition, tirmly established
the work as a leading text for elementary CQur"", in the suhj .....t area. GeQrge Winter.
also of ComelL collaborated with Ur'luhart in preparing thc fifth and sixth editions.
Winter and the present senior author were re'p<""ihle for the se,emh. eighth. and
nimh editions. which sUhstantially expanded hoth the scope and the depth of the pre-
"'ntmion. 'The tenth. elcvemh. and twelfth <-ditiQns were prepar..-d by Arthur Nilson
,uh",-X(uem to George Winters passing in 1982.
In preparing the present thirtecmh editi<lIl. Arthur Nil,on was joi,It.-d b)' David
Darwin. of the University of Kan,as. and Charles [)olan. of the University of
Wyoming. Both have OOen dt.-eply in\"Ol\"ed in research and te;,,:hing of reinforced and
prestressed concrete. as we ll as professional code-writing committee,. and have spem
,ignificant time in professional practice as well. invaluable in developing the perspec-
tive and structural judgme nt that ",ts thi, book apart.
Special thanks arc due to reviewers and former studern, for their many helpful
comments and sugg~stion' for this and previous editions. In pani<'ular. the autl",rs
would like to thank the follQwing reviewers: Dan 8mn,on. University of Iowa: Hany
Farran. Califomia State University. Pornorm: Kenneth Fridley. University of A bbama;
Kurt Gerstle. University of Colorado: Louis Geschwidner. Penn'yh'ania State
University; Wayne Klaiber. Iowa Stme University; William Saul. Michigan State
University: Simn Somayaji. Califomia l'oJyk-chnic State Univ~rsity. San Lui s Obi,p<:>;
Michael Stallings. Auburn University; John Stanton. Uni",,,ity of Washington; Jan""
Wight. University of II.lichigan; and NUT Yazdani. Florida State University.
Spe<'ial mention i, due [() B. 1. Clark. who was Executi\"~ Editor for Engineering
at McGmw-Hill. and who worked with the senior author in the production of five edi -
tions of the text. as well as the pre""m McGmw-Hili project team. notahly Kat~
$cltei",,,an. De\dopm"!ltal Editor. and Sheila Frdnk. Project Manage r.
We gladly acknowledge our indehtedness to tl", original autl",rs. Although it i,
,afe tQ "'y tlmt neither Urquhart nor O'R<>urke would r""ognize vel)' much Qf tl",
detail. the approach to the subject and the educational philosophy that did so much to
account for the success of the early ed ilion. would be familiar. We ack'l<lwledge with
particular gratitude the influence of George Winter in developing a p<:>int of view that
has shaped all of the work in the chapters that follow.
An"", H. Nil.\On
Vavid Vuru'in
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INTRODUCTION
CONCRETE, REINFORCED C O NCRETE, AND P RESTRESS ED CON CR ETE
C""aere is ~ ,tolldike material ohlainaJ by permitting a carefully proponinned mix -

ture of ~"mem, ~anJ and grJvel orOth," aggregate. and waler f{) harden in form, of lhe
, hal'" and dimeosinns of th" desired ,truttUTe. The bulk of tl", material consi,l, of fine
and Coarse aggregale. Cell",nt and water im~mcl chemil"~lly 10 bind the aggregale par-
tides into a solid mass. Addi tional waler. owr and "Ix,,"e that needed for Ih i, chemi -
cal reaclion. i, flC("C~Sary 1<) gi,'e the mixture tl'" worbbility that enable, it 10 fillihe
fOlll" and ,umlUnd the emlx-dded reillforcing <teel prior \() hardenin g. Connetes with
a wide range of prOl"'nies can be obrained by appropriate adju<tn",m of tM pmpnr-
tion.' o f the constituelll materials. Spedal ~"n"'nts (,m"h as h igh early strength
cc"",ot9. spc<"ial aggregale, (such as various lightweight or havyweigln aggregate,).
admi xture, (such as pbsticil.ers, ~ir-entr~ining agents. silica fume. alld ny ash). and
spc<"i~1 curing metllt,,!> (such as steam--curing) pennil an even wider ,-aridy of pmp-
enies to be oht~ined.
1nese pmpenies d~penJ 10 a wI)' suhstamial degree on the proponions of lhe
mix, on the thomuglltless with which the various constituenls arc intermixed, alld OIl
tl'" condilions of humidily anJ tempemture in which th" mix i, mai ntained fmm the
mo"",nl it i, placed in the fonns unlil il is fully haruellaJ. n,e p"x;e" ofcontmHing
co ndilions after plac"ment is known as curi",; . To pmleCt against tl'" uninlentional
pnxJul"tioll o f substandard concrete. a high degft.", of skillful contml and supervision
is n~'Ce<",r)' throughoul tl'" process. fm'" II", pmpon ioning by weight of Ihe individ -
ual c<lmp<lJlenls. through mixing and placing. untillhe completion of curing .
1ne factOJ< that make concrele a uni,-ersa l building material are so pronounn-d
thai it ha, been used. in more primitive kinds and ways than at present. for Ihousands
of years. st~ning wilh lime monaT> fmm 12,000 I<> 6000 H.C. in Crele, Cypru s. GTC<.>ce.
and the Middle Ea~1. The facility with which. wh ile plas!ic, it can be dep<~ited and
made 10 fill fonn' or molds of alm<)s1 an)' praclical shape is one of these fa,"mrs. liS
high fj", and weather resistance are e\'idt:m advantages. M(~t of tl'" mn~tituem mate-
rial,. with Ihe exceplion of cen"'nl anJ additi,-e,. are usually a\'~il~ble ~I low co<l
l<x;ally or at smal l distanl"e" fmm the cOllstruClioo ~i te . It ~ compre ssi"e strength. like
thai of natural StOt"'s, is high. which makes il ~uitahle for n",mhe" primarily suhject
to com!""."ion. such a, mlumns and arches. On tl'" other hand. again a, in natural
stones. it is a relatively hritt le material whose lellsile strength is ,mall compaK..t wilh
it, tOlnpre>sive strenglh . This prevent' its economical use ill structuml "",mher> that
are subject to ten sion eilher entirely (such as in tie rods) or over pan of Iheir cm<,
sections (s!)ch a< in beams or otl",r nexural members).
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2 I)E.~ I(; N OF CONCREn: STRUCTll RE.~ (bap<<r I
To offset thi s limitation. it was found possible. in the "-",,,nd half of the nine-
teenth century. tQ use sk'el with its high ten,ile 'trength to reinforce CQncr"te. chiefly
in tIK)SC places where it, low len,il" str"nglh would limit the carr),ing l'apacity of the
member. 11Je reinforcement. usually round st",,1 rods with appropriate surface defm-
mation, to provide interlocking. is placed in the fQnns in advance of lhe ("Qncret~.
When completely sUffilunded hy the hanlened connete ma,,-,. it fmrns an integral pan
Qf the member. The re,uiting l'QmbinatiQn of Iwo material,. knQwn as /'I'iII/mud COl! -
cre/e, combine, many of the advantages of eal' h, tt;.;, ,datively low l'ml. good weather
and fire resi stance. good compressive strength. and excellent fonnabitily of ("Qncret~
and the high len,ile strength and mUl' h greater duclility and toughne~s of >itleL It i,
this combination that allows the almost unlimited mnge of uses and po"ibitilies of
reinfmu-d concrete in tt;.;, cOllstruction of hu ildings. bridge,. dam,. tank.<. reservoirs.
and a host of other struCl ures.
In more recent times. it has been found Il"ssible to produce sl<-'els. at relatively
low cost. whose yield strength is 3 10 4 time, and more that of ordinal)' reinfmcing
,teels. Likewise. il i, possible 10 produce concrete 4 10 5 time, as strong in compre,-
,ion as It;.;, m,)fC ordinary com:retes. These high-s1rength materials offer many ad"an -
tages. indudi ng smaller member cross seclion" reduced dead lood. and longer spans.
However. there are limit> to the strengths of the con,tituent l1lat~rials beyond which
~..,nain problem, arisc. To be ,ure. tbe 'trength of such a member wou ld increa",
roughly in proponion to those of the materials. However. tl", higb strdins that resull
from the high stresse, that wou ld 'liherwise be f't'nnissihle would lead to large defor-
matiQns and l'(HI""luentl)' large defledions of ,ul' h melllber~ under ordinary loading
condition,. Equally imponant. Ihe large 'tr~ins in such high -strength reinforci ng ,1<-",1
would induce large cracks inlhe su rrounding low tensile 'trength concrele. crad:.., tlwl
would not only III' unsightly but that could significantly ,,_-duce lhe dumbi!it) of tl",
,tructure. lllis limit, the useful yield menglh of high-slrength reinforl'ing sted tQ 80
hit ac." ording to many codes and specifi c-ations; 60 hi sl<-'el i, most commonly used.
A special way ha, Ix",n found. however. to use 't~el. and <"<>ncrdes of ,'cry high
'trength in <"<lmllination. This type of con,trunion is known as 1',,'Mre ..<t>d cml("rele.
n", 'teel. in lhe forTH of wire,. st rdnds. or Ilap;. is embeddt.-d inlhe concret~ under high
tension that is held in equilihriurn by compre~si\"C stresses in the (oncrele afler hard -
ening. Because of thi, pr,-"","'p",,,ion. the concrete in a flexural IllCmber will tmck
on the tension si,le al a much larger load than ",hen not '0 precornpres,,--d . PreMre"i ng
gTl'atly reduces IxJlh the defle<'tiQns and the lensile cmcks at onlinary loads in such
'trul'ture~. and lherelly enallle, lhe"" high -strenglh materials tQ re used eff,-'Ctivdy.
Pre~tre,,,--dl'oncrele has extended. tQ a ~ery significant ext~nt. tl'" range of span, of
'trunur~1 ,'oneret e and the types <:If structures for which it i, suited .
. 1.2 STR UCTURAL F ORMS
n", figure, that follow ,how "m", of tl'" prinl'ipal stru,'tuml forTHS of reinforced con -
crete . Pertine nt de,ign method s for mall)' of them are discu~sed later ill this volume.
FI'lIJr -support syst~rns fm lxJi Idings inclnde the monolilhic sJaIl-and -ream fl'lIJr
,hown ill Fig. I .1. Ihe one-way joist syslern of Fig. 1.2. and the flat plate fl'lIlr. with-
QUI heams or girder.; . sho"'n ill Fig. 1.3. The flat ,lab fl'lIlr of Fig. 104. frequently used
for more heavily IOa<led building, ,u c-h a, warehouses. i, similar to the fln! plate floor.
but makes use of increa,,--d slah thickness in lbe vicinity of tl", column,. as well a,
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[t;TRODUC TlON 3
FIG UIU: 1.1

re inforced coocWe
{ )nc, w a}'
t100f ,lob wi," nlO<1olilhk
,upponing b<.m . (I'l mi<1nd
C,,,,,", AlW<ia,ioo>.,
FIG URE 1.2

( )nc, way joist fk~J< ' y>tc m,
wilh dostly.p;><:e<I ribs
. uppmtcd by "",,~ ) hthic
concrete b< .. m ; Ira "" '""",,
rih, prO"ide for la'cml
di"rl bmioo of Iocali,ed
load" (1'"" /,,,"1 C_"",m
As.J'ock" .,, )
fla,,-"<l ("olumn lops, 10 reduce stre.ses and increase strength in the ,uppon region. 11",
dK>ice among these and <>lher ~ystem' for fl'K)rs and T<K,fs depends upon fUllctional
requir~rnent', load,. spalls. alld perrni~sibl~ member deplhs. a, well a, Oil cosl and
esthetic facIo",
Where long dear "pan, arc required for roofs, COnerelc shell, pennit use of
nlremdy lhin surface" oflen thin"er, relatively. than an egg,hell, The fotdc"<l plate nK)f
of Fig. I. .~ is simple 10 foml bt.'Causc it is CQlllp,,",ed of flat surfaces; sud) n K)fs have
bt...,n employoo for 'pans of 200 ft alld more. The ("ylindri('al shell of Fig. 1.6 is also
relati,dy e",y 10 fonn because it ha. ollly a single cu,--'.-alure; it is similar to tI", folded
plme in its structural behavior and r.mg~ of span, and loads, Shells of thi, Iype were
on("" quile popular in the Unitoo St"t~s and remain popular ill mher parts of the w'Kld,
Doubly cU,",'ed ~hdl surface, ma)' be gene,--~ted by ~imple mathematical cu,",'e,
,uch as cirtulnr nrcs. pambobs. and hyperbolas, or Ihey may be comp"",d of complex
combin"tion, of shapes. The hyperbolic pamboloid shnpe. defined hy a concave down-
ward pnrnhola moving al(Hlg a cOllcave upward pnrnholi(" path. ha, bt...,n widely used,
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4 I)E.~I(; N OF CONCR En: STRUCTll RE.~ (bap<<r I
FIG UIU: 1.3

Flat pial< floor ,Iab_ carried
direclly by rol o"\'" w;I~1
t.:arrIS or ginkrs_ (P" rth.."
C,,,,,", AlW<ia,"",,)
FIG URE 1.4

Flal ,bb floor. williool
t.:am, but with .Iab
Ihkk""" i""re,seJ Jt lt.:
",Ium"' and with fl.=!
rol,,"," IO!" 10 pro\'ide fOf
local """"on",,,i,," of !()fcr,_
(U~~""i'" o{s<.,,/rm, Mow .1
It ha, the ime re'ling propeny lhal lhe doubly curyoo surface contnins Iwo s)'<tems of
'traighl-lin" gene rators. pennitling 'traight form lumbe r to be used. The complex
dome of Fig _ 1.7. Whie"h provide, shelter fw perfwming an, nents, consisls e,,,,,, -
tially of a circular dome hut include. monolithic. upwardly (our,...,d e..-:lge surfaces to
provide sti/Telling and strengthening in thaI crilical region,
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It;TRODUC TION
FIG UIU: 1.5

Folded plat< roof of I H Ii
'p.n Ih", in odJilioo 10
corry;ng ordinary mof load"
c.rrie<. Iho "",ood nOOf as
...<11 from. <y<lcm of cai>k
h,",o;e" ; II>< grootJd nOOf is
""pi free of column"
FIG URE 1.6

CylitJdric,1 ,hell roof
p""'idin8oolu","-free
interior <p;>cc
Bridge design has pnwid"d Ih" "pponunily for some of lhe mO'<l challenging
and crcalive applil-atiolls of suuctuml engine"flng, n", award-winning Napob)JI Bona-
pane Bmward Bridge, shown in Fig. 1,8, is 3 six-Iar"" ,-ahle-slay,od <tru<"1ure thal Spall'
the SI. John's River al Dnme Point, Jack.'iOllvill~ , F1orida.lt~ noo ft celller 'pan is tl",
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6 I)E.~ I(; N OF CONCREn: STRUCTlI RE.~ (bap<<r I
FIG UIU: 1.7

Spb<ri,-al ,1>011 in Lru,anr.o,
Swiw,<),"d, Upwardly
<'urvcd <dg<' I",,-i <k
'Iiffening for !he cenn"1
dmn<.
FIG URE 1.8

N,,,,,i,,,,,, Booapane
Broward Bridg<. with.
1.\00 fl ce nler 'pan a! Dam"
I\,i" t. J>ch"''''il k, Florida.
(II.'IT/I C"'I"m"i< ... KO")(1<
Cil)' M;", ..d)
IOllg"~1 of il. Iyl'<' in Ihe U nit~d States. Figure 1.9 shows Ihe B~nnen Bay Celllennial
Bridge. a four-'pan {"ominuouii. segmentally <:asl -in - plat~ box girder <uueture. Special
"nCmi<Kl waS gi~en to C';lhelies in thi, award -winning design. 'Inc spedacular Nalchez
Tmt" I'arkw"y Bridge in Fig. 1,10, a lwo-span arch <Iructure using hol low p=asl con -
("rele ele""'nts. carries a two-lane highway ]55 fl nbo\'~ Ihe valle)' floor, This 51ruClure
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It;TRODUCTlO N 7
FIG UIU: 1.9

BonIlCtt Bay C~"lCn ni>i
Bridge, C<leU' d' AI.ne.
Idaho, a fou r" r ,m eMtin""'"
COOCfete box sir"", suocture
of length 1no ft_ (II.\Th
CO,,,,,M""', KIl""" Cin',
Mi",,",._ )
FIG URE 1.10

N.",ho, Tr",-" Pariway
Bridge ""or Fronklin.
Ten"",,,,,". an a ward .,..i"ning
I"'O}-; PJ" coocrele arch
"IlK'tUro ri' ing 155 f bo,'<
tho ' -alley floor. (fiu
E"~i_ri"~ Gm.p, r,,'laI>aj.__
f /O ,-;Ja,>
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8 I)E.~ I(;N O F CONC REn: STRUCTll RE.~ (bap<<r I
FI GU IU: 1.11
Cirmlar "",,:r,"c tanks used
as , part of the "'asto,,"'ater
I"'rificatiOll f:>eility.t
II",,-don. Eng!>"'"
{N""',"mb",,,, iii"" A"liu,,,,)'
.'llh Uo,k, 11'1<1 J""""
At',hi"'N$_)
has won many honor,. including awards from the Ameritan So"iety of Civil Engineers
and the National Endowment for the Ans_
Cylindrital <"<",crete tanks are widely used for 'IOmge of water or in wa.~le purifi -
cation planK The design shown in Fig_ I_II i, proof tha! a ... nitary enginee ring facil -
ity can be esthelicnlly plea'ing a, well as functional. Cylindrical tanks are ofteo pre-
,tre,sed circumferentially to maintain compre<,ion in Ihe coocrete and eliminale Ihe
tmcking dmt would mherwise re,ult from internal pressure.
Concrete <Uuclure, may he designed 10 provide a wide a=y of surface lexlures.
colors. and S(fu("luml f':>nlls. Figure 1.12 ,how, a pre,"nst concret~ hui Iding <"<"'mining
hmh color changes and archiloclUml fini,he,.
n", fon"s ,howo in Fig'_ 1.1 to 1_12 hardly ~x,t1Stitut~ a compl~le invento,), hut
are i lIu",r.uive of the shap'" appropriate 10 the prop"rties of reinforced or pre<lressed
conerete_TI",y illu>1mle d", adaptability of the material !O a great variety of one-dimen -
,ional (hearns, ginkrs. column,). Iwo-din","sional (slnbs. nrehe,. rigid fmn",s). and
Ihree-dimensional (,hells. lanh) sHu("ture, and <lnK'lUr~1 comJlOnent . This "ariahility
allows the ,imp" o f d", sHuclure 10 be adapted to it, function in an economical mallner.
and fumist",-~ the archiioci and design engineer with a wide variely of possihilit;"s for
e'lhelically salisfying <lruclUml soIUlion,_
_ 1.3 LOADS
Lo"ds thai acl on struclUres can be divided into Ihree broad ("ategorics: d"ad lo.ads. li\'~
load~. and environmemal loods_
Oem/ !tMJd.," are lhose dun are con,tall! in magnilUde and fixed in IOeali<Kl through-
(luI the lifelime of II", slrutlUre. Usually lile m.ajm pan oilhe dead lood is the weighl
of Ihe s(funure itself. Thi s can he cakulatt."<l with gOlxJ an:uracy from Ihe de'ign con -
figur~t ion. dimension, of II", SHucture. and den<ily of the malerial. For huildings. fhK"
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It;TRODUC TION 9
FIGUIU: I .ll
Cone,",c .truetu,,,, can be
prod","" in" 1I";.re ",nFP of
",10,"" fi ni""", and
>rchite<tuf>1 Je'Jiling,
{n'",m)' '1' 1/,~,t1 M"""wi,,
r",,,,,,, ('0'7'. )
fill. finish f1()ors. and pla'iered ceil ings are usunlly induded a, dead loads, and nil
allowance is ITIlIde for suspended loods ,uch ns piping and liglning fixtures. For
hridges, dead loads may include wearing ,urfnces, ,idewalks , and cums, and an
alk.wance i, made f()r piping and oth~r ,u'pended loads.
Li;-e /o"J" consist chiefly of occupnncy load, in building' nnd traffi<' loads Oil
hridges. They may be either fully or partially in place or not pre"'ot at all, and may
als" change in localion. Their nmgnitude and distribution at any given time are "'Ker-
lain, and ev~n their maximum intensitie, throughout the lifetime of th~ struct ur~ are
not known with preci,ion. The minimum liv~ load, for which the flOOr> and f{)()f of a
building should be designed are usually 'I"'<'ified in the bui Iding c,xle that go"erns at
the ,ite of constructioo, Repre"'ntative ,".tlues of minimum live loads to be used in a
wide variety of buildings are found in Mi"imllm D,',,;S" Li""/.' for BlliIJins., <1Iki Other
Structure" (Ref. 1.1). a ponion of which i, reprint~..-:l in Tnble 1.1. The table giws uni -
formly distributed live l<:>ad, for variou, types of o<:cupancieso the", indude impact
p"",isi"n, wbere n~cessary. l1Jese load, are exped<..-:l maxima and ('on,i<krably ex<'~"ed
a\'erag~ \'alu~, .
III additioo to tbcse unifoollly distribuk..-:l loads, it is re<'ornr!lend~..-:l that, as nil
altcmatiw to the uniform load, f1'K'''' be <ksigned (() supp<Jn safely cenain corK"n -
trated l<:>ad, if these prudu{'C agr~at~r stress, Forexample, necording to Ref. 1. 1, office
fl<K)J'; nre to be designed to carry a load of 20Cl0 Ih distribu(~d O\'er an aren 2,5 ftl, to
allow for the weight of a safe or oth~r bc~v)' equipment, ""d stair tre~ds must safely
,uppon a 300 Ih lond applied on the center of the (rad. Cenain n."<luctions are oft~n
permitted in live load, for m~mbers ,uppon ing larg~ meas, on the premi!iC that it i,
not likely that tbc entire area would be full)' l<:>aded at one time (Rek 1.1 and 1.2).
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10 IW..'i I{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r I
TABLE 1.1
Minimum uniformly distributed live loads
live lQad . live lQad .
O<:cupano;y Qr Use p,f Occupano;y Qr Usa p,f
Aparl""'"OS (>ee "" i<lemial)
Actt" f1"".- .)>t~m'
Din ing room,.OO f~'{'""'nl5
Dwdling.' (<co ""i<kn'ial) ""
Omce "'"
" Fire escare'
On .ingk famil)" dwelling, 00 1)" ""'"
Comp.".f OJ><
AmlO and 00><,' '"
Fhed " "" (f.".""J 10 floor)
Lobbi,", '" GrnOO'r'n<h (see stadium .,rId ""'". bI.ache,,)
~ 10"able ,,"os
PI.,form, (>!.<Cmbl))
'"'
'00
Gymn",ium,. main fl""" . rId balconies'
lIo,pilal, "".,
'"' Operating roo", ... 1,00000{orie,
Sl>ge floors
Iblcoo i~, (",t<riQl) '"
I<X)
Pri~",e rooms
Wan!. '"'"
On <>n" and , ..,,..famil)" ,idonet>
ooly,.nd nOI .,Cding 100 ft' "' Conidors abc,,"" r, ,,{ floor
lIotel> (""" residen,i.]) ""
Oo..-ling altry>. p<lroo,",. olld .imilar libraries
"",,,,,,{ion,1 ,,,,.,
" Reading room!. W
Caow.lh for "",inlen" ...'e aecess
COO"idors
l"i",flOOl
'"
'00
Srack rooms'
Corrid..rs ahove Ii ", floor
Manufaerurit\g
''''
'"
Othef floors...""",,, occup.floC}' Light 125
",,,-ed nt'''' '" iOOitated
J).'oce 11-,11, "",I ballrooms '00
!ie,,'Y
''''
Dech (pa'io arid roof)
S.me '" are" ""rved, Of fo< lIlo
'ype of "'-..-"pant}' """"nomodated
( mn!in" ~dj
Tabulaled live loads ('an not always he used. The type of occupa'Ky ,h';lUld he
considered and the probabk loads compured as a("('umtd), as po5);ible. Warehou!;es for
heavy slorage may he designed for loads as high as 500 psf or more; unusually heavy
operd,i<;",. in manufacturing buildings may r"'quire an increase in lhe 250 psf "alue
sp'-'<oified in Table 1. 1~ 'pecial pmvisions must be made for all definitely located hea,'y
<oonccmm{ed loads.
Live loads for highway bridges are spe6fied by rhe Ameri('an Association of
S'ate Highway and Trdn,portmion Officials (AAS HTO) in its LRFD Bridge D<,."i8"
Sf'<'cijicmirm., (Ref, 1.3). For rai Iway bridges. lhe American Rai lway Engin ..",ring and
Maimenance of-Way Associa,ion (AR EMA) has published 'he Ma,,"al of Raiilm., '
IIgiJJeerillf!. (Ref, 1.4). which specifies lmffic load,.
""immll<'ltwilixlIl., consist mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suclioll,
earthquake loads (i,e .. inertia fo"",s caused by earthquake m01i(HI~), >oil pre"ures on
suhsunace p<)flions of slructures. loads frum possible p<mding of min,,"aler on flal ,ur
faces. and (orces caused by ,empemlure differential,. Like live loads. en"irolllnental
loads al any given lime are uocertain both in magnitude and disrribmioll. Refereoce
1.1 contains much infonnation Oil "nvironmemal loads, which is oflen modified
localiy depending. for illstance, on Io<;al dima1ic or seismic conditions .
Figure 1. 13. from the 1972 edition of Ref 1.1. gives ,now loads for {he conti
nental Uniled S{a'es. and is included here for illuslrntion ollly. The 2002 edi,ion of
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I~TR()DUcr l() N II
TABLE 1,1
(Continued)
liViJ load , liViJ load ,
Occupancy or Use p,f Occupancy or Usa p,f
M.rquees.nd C''''''!'ie' Sidewalk,. "ehie"I,1' dri"e"" y, . nd yards,
Building'
{)tf"", ,,,bjc'" u) trucking'
File and c"mpoter room, , hal l be <ksigned f",. Siadium, and arenas
b<av i~1' I""", b.""d <m "ntici"",ro O'-"CUp'IlL')' Bkacbefli
""at, ".
Lobbies and first-floor conido.-.
Off",.,
Coniclors ,oo.e r"'t floor
Penal imtitution,
'00
"W
Fi.ed (f"'t~r.ed to t100rr
Slain and ",i'way'
0"" ,nd !V>'ohmil y re,ide..:;e, only
SW'ge areo, ,00\'0 ceil ing,
."'
' 00
'"
'"''"
Cel l blocks Stor.ge w.rd."""", (sha ll be <ksW>ed r",.
CorTidor-, beJ';el' loads if requ ired f",. anticip.ted SlOf'ageJ
Reside"ti.1 Ligh' 125
Dwdling' (""" and tw<rfamily) Ika>'y 2'\0
Uninhahitabl< attic< wit.o"t orage Siore,
Un inh,bit,ble .{(ics wilh "''''''ge R~lail
Habil"bl< .Uio, alld 'l"' l>i n~ .rea, First floor '00
/1,,,,,.
All ",ber are .>C.p! slai" ~nd haleon;",
HOlds alld multifamily"""""
Print. room, and corridor-, .. rving lbem
Publ", root",
aoo conid"" "",ing the," '"
'00
llWr
Woolesale .11 floors
W. lkw'y"nd dn""'Cd platform,
(",be, tho" ~' ;twa)' ,)
.
n
1 2.~
RO'o'icwing "" nd,. g.-. nd,raOOs.,nd bl.""be,,' '00 y,,,,l<.nd 'err""" . pedo,,';.n, '00
SdlOOh
CI.""",m,
Corridors aoo." fit" floor '"
W
Fi",t100r coffido<-, '00
" I\MJnds 1'" "'I""'" r"",_
G","i'" >r">mm< .... "'in~ ,rock> aOO I""",> ,hall ",. ,""i~"''d in ..."'..<1"0,:< "ith >II lWI'''',-,l roclhod ,1Ia! coo"im rn"'i ,~",, f<Jf rru.: ' ..... "",
k>adin~'
1><",,,.,,,,
, In ooJ,ji,ioo> '" tl><' ,c~ ~, l 1;\'" 10;0.1>, ,Ile '\o';!Jl ,.naIl i"",oJc '''',yi ng f".,,~~ llflI'liooJ u, ",",h n'" ,of ,,'''''' ., f,~k"",: !4 10 f'C' Ii"" .. to
of "'''' .".,Iicd in ,Il<' ,bn"""", """,Ile l In <...-II n"" of .,,,......1 10 10 1'-'" li""..- I, "r .... ' . ppliooJ in ,Il<' ui,,,,t ., l"'1"'ndic ular to e...11 row of
(,""'"
";'''', 11>.' rw.llc- I ",Id l"'I,;"Jic.l., h"";,,,,, ,," ,~',,-,' i "i ,..,;0 n.,( I>.: 1lflI'l",1 ,;,nul""""",,ly
, I'll< Ioad in~ IlflI'lb 10 """. ,oom thn ,"'" '"l'P<lfl noo",">bile. dOll.,l<r..,' ,ul>i<"<.1 "' ,Il< foU"win2 lim" ",i"",: (I ) ,II"
nominol b""i<>....k " nil hei; hulull no. ,,-,c<,"<J 90 in .. 121 ,he .. >miMI ,,",If d.:pI/l ,h:lJ 1 001 <'''~'d 12 in_ for <""h rltCc': ...1 (31 rural",1 of ro,,",
", .. Ne.f.,xJ ho.,k>...-b ,h,1I "'. ..,.,....,,"<1
by .i, "-~ ""' "''' 'h:rn 36 in , "",,-,_
' ( _ "'~ "nif,,,,o k>Oili in . ",: .-d= "'ilh ", 1lPf'I'''~d ,"","''" th" ,'00'''"' pnwi"'""
r..- ''''''k k<>ilirv "'>II 01><) be <OIl,i<Ic,,-,J "OCR: oprrorria!o.
Sou",,: From Ref. 1. L U,,-" Ily I"rn'i~'ion of the Amcric"" Sociely <>I (j" il ["l'i""-,,,
R ~f 1.1 gi ves much mor~ detnil~d infoJlnalion. In eilher C1Ise, specitied ,-al,,~ s repre-
sem n<;l1 avemge \'alu e~, but expected uppe r limit,_ A minimum roof load o f 20 p,f i,
often specifi<-..J to provide for construction and "'pair load~ and 10 en'ur~ ",a,onabl~
,tiffness,
Mud, prog"'" has Ix",n mad~ in recent y~a", in de,-eloping mtional m"thod, for
p",dicting horizorual for,,,,, on ,Iruclure, due 10 wind nnd ""ismic a"tion. Refe",nce
LI summarize, cu=n! Ihinking regarding wind for,e,. and ha.~ much inforrruuion
pertaining 10 earthquake lond, a, well. Referenc" 1.5 pre>ents delailed re,'om"",nda-
lion, for lateral fo",e.> from ~arthquak~s,
Reference L I sT"""ifi<-", design wind pressu"-,,, per square f'KIt of veni,'a] wall sur-
h .-e. Depending uflIIIllocality, !he", <-><Juivalem stnlic focc'-"S vary from aboul 10 10 50 psf.
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12 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [
FIG UIU: 1.13

Snow [oat! in I"",nd, peT
"l0"'" fOOl (",f) on Ill<
g"","t!. '\O.. ycar m"a"
recorreoce imerv, 1. W"..,
Minimum Ik,;; " 1.>0<1, 1< ..
Uuildi"".""" ( ~hcr S,n.... '""'
ANSI ,08- 1-1972. "-.... ,~""
,\'ari"",u S'II'ukmh Im,i,"".
Nndi,,-t, N~ 1971.)
Facu,,-,; indudt: has;" wi,K1 'jl\-'<'<l, eXpOSure (urlxtn n. open t~rr.lin. for cxample). height
of 1"" ,Imclure. !he i mponance of the slructure (i.~ .. COll,,-'<!uences of fai [ure ). and gu,l -
dTe",t fac-tors 10 acc'ount for the /luc-Iuating nalure of lhe wind and its inter~clion with
the'truclure.
Sdsmic' forces may"" fomKl for a pankular stmctur~ by dasli,' or indastic
dynamic analysis. considering eXjl\-",led ground acx'eieralions and the rm". sli ffness .
and damping d'amclcriSlics of lhe construction. How""er. ofl~n the de'ign is ba=l OIl
",-!uiv"lern SIalic forces c-akulaled from p"wi<ion s such a, tho", of Refs. I, I and 1,5.
n.e base shear is found by considering such fa':lors a, location. type of ~truc-Iure and
il !; o,:cupanc-y. total de"d load, and Ihe panic-ular soil mndition . The tOlal laleml force
i, di stributed to 1l,X)'; o"~r th;, ~n1ire height of the Slruc-ture in sudr a way as to aPflrux -
irnale the di,trihulion of fon."" nhtaint_-d from a dynamic analy,is.
S ERVICEA81L1TV, STRENGTH, AND STR UCTURAL SAFETV
To se rye il> jl\lrpose, a slruc-ture mu,t "" safc ag~i"st co llapse and ",rvict.'able in u'c.
Se",ice~hility require, Ihal d~lle"'tion' he a<le'lualdy small; Ihal ~r.ICh. if any. be k~pl
to lo lerable limil!;; lila! vibration, re minimil-"d~ elc. Safety r"'luires Ihat Ih" slrensth
of the Slructure be adl''luate for all k""h Ihal lIlay fore.",~ably act on il. If the Slrenglh
of a ,tructure. built as de,ignctl. could be pn.-dicted a,;('urately. and if the load, and
Iheir internal effe('{s (momerns, ,hears. axial fon." ,,) were known accur~tdy. saf~ly
muld be ~n<ur~-d by providing a carrying capacil y jU~1 \XIrcl)' in exc..,,, of II", known
lo"ds, However. lhere are a nurn""r of sources of uncenaimy in Ihe analysi s, d~sign.
and conslruction of reinforced COOC",I'" structure,. 1'1",,,, sources or ullcenainty.
whic-h r"'luir~ a defin ile margin of safely. 111ay be li'loo as follows:
I. ACluall"ads lIlay differ from Iho,~ a"umed.
2. Ac!ual loads may re di'lributed in a manner diff~",rn fmm Ihal assunK..-:I.
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I~TR()D UcrI ON 13
3. TIle assumptions and simplification, inherent in any analysis may resull in l'al -
culated load effeciS-molllents. shears. c1(".-----<lifferent fmm Ih"", Ihm. in fact. a<1
in tile ,UUl"ture.
4. TIle aemal ,trueluml h<ehayior may differ from Ihal assumed. owing to imperfeci
knowl"dge .
5. AClual memh<er di men~ions rrt.ly differ fromlh"", specified.
6. Reinforcemem may mK h<e in il, pmper position.
7. Actual rrt.llerial 'Irength may be different from thai ,ptXified.
In midition. in the establi,hnlent of a safety specifi eation. <"<lIlsideratinn musl be
given In the conS\."<luence, of failure. In ,om<.'- l'a"". a failure would nlerdy '-'" an
incon\enie!lce. In OIlier ca"". 10"-< of life and signifi eant lo~s of pmperty may he
in\"ol\"(.-d. A funller l~lIlsidcration should '-'" tile nmure of tile failure. ,hould it ()("<."ur.
A gradual failure with ample warning pennitting remedial measurc~ i" prefer~ble \() a
sudden. une'p'--eted collapse.
It is e,ide nt that the ." ,Iection of an appmpriate margin of safety is not a simple
ma!!er. However. progr~" has been made loward ralional s.afety pmvisions in <.ksign
mde, (Refs. J.6 I" 1.9).
a. Variability of loads
Since the maximum load that will occur during the life of a structure is unCertain. it
can '-'" considered a nmdom variable. In spite of this uncerwinty. the e ngineer must
pro"ide an a<kqurue structure. A probability model for the ma.\ im um load can '-'" devised
t>y IOCaJlS of a probability density function for loads. as represented by the ff\Xjuency
CUT\'C of Fig. 1.14<1. The exact form of this distriootion curve. for any particular tyJl<' of
loading such as office loads. can '-'" oclermined only on the basis of statistical dala
obtained from Ia/]e-sealc load surveys, A number of such surveys ha"e been completed,
For lyJl<'s of loads for which such d~ta are scarce. fairly reliable information can '-'"
obtained from eXJl<'ri~nce. ohscrvation, and judgment.
In such a frequency curve (Fig, 1.14<1). the area unde r the curve between tWO
abscissas . such as loads Q land QJ. represents the probabili ty of occurrence of loads Q
of magnitude Q I < Q < Q). A specified service load Qd for design is seleCted conser
vatively in the upper region of Q in the distribution curve. as shown. The probability
of occurrence of loads larger th~n Qd is then given by the shaded area to the right of
Qd' It is seen that this sp<.'Cified service load is considerably larg~r than the mean load
Q acting on lhe >tructure. This mean load is much more typical of average load con
ditions than thc design load Qd'
b. Strength
l1Je slrength of a ,{ruclure depend, on the strength of {he rrt.llcrials fmm which i{ is
made. For this purpose. minimum material ~treng{h' are specifi~>d in standardized
ways. Actual material strength' eannot h<e known precisely and therefore also consti -
tute random yariable. (see Section 2.6). Struc{ural strength depend,. funhennore. on
the care with whi~'h a structure is OOi!t. which in {urn reflect' lhe 'lualily of supervi -
sion and in'pe~'lion. Member sizes may differ from specifi ed dimen,ioll'. reinforce-
mem may he out of position. ",Klriy placed cOllcrele may show voids. elc.
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14 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [
FIGUIU: 1. 14
F""ILlC!l"Y ,u",e< fll<
I) load,. Q: (/ ",e"gth.. S:
,nd Ir) ",f<,y m''l;n .'.I.
s, S" S
(b) Str9l1gth S
Q
,
,
"""
,
(c) Satety margin M - S - Q "
Strength of th., entire structure or of a population of repditive ~truc-lures_ e.g ..

highway o .. erpasse,. can alo;o he con,idered n random variable witb a prubabi lity "",, -
,it)" funclion of the t)"pe shown in Fig. 1.14h. A, in the C[lSC of loads_ the exact form
o f lhis fu""tklll cannOl be known hut can be nppmxilll:ued fmm known dma. such a,
,tatistics of anuat. measured material, and mem""r s1"'ngths and similar inforrrullion.
Consi<kmble information of 1his type has been. or is being. dc'doped and used.
c. Structura l Safe t y
A gi,-.,n strutture has a ."'f"f) margin ill if
AI=S - Q >O (I.I )
i.e .. if the slrength of 1he ,tructure i, larger than the load acting on it, Sincc Sand Q
are mndo", vanable,. the safel)' margin AI = S - Q is alSO a r~ndolll variable. A 1'101
o f 1he prohabilit)' function of AI may appear as in Fig . 1,14.-:. Failure occur>; when M
is les, lhan 7..,"'. Thus. the probabilily of failure is represented by the shaded area in
tbe figure.
Even though 1he prrtise fom} of tbe probability den,it)' funclion, for S anJ Q.
and thereforc for M. is not kllown. muc-h can be achieved in the way o f a mtional
approach 10 <Iructural safety. One such appr<;lath i, 10 r<-"luire that lhe r""an safdy
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I~T R() D UcrI ON IS
""'rgi" M be a <pedfied number of 'tand~nl de"iarions .. alx",e zero. It can be

d~mon'trat"" that thi, results in the "-><luiren~nt that
,S 2: . I.Q (1.2)
where ,is a panial >afety coefficient ,n",lIer Ihan one applied 10 Ihe mean slrength
S. and L is a panial safety coefficient larg~r than one applied to the mean l<",d Q. The
rmlgnilude of each panial safety coefticient depends on the variance of the quamir)' to
whidl it appli~s. S or Q. and on the dlOsen value of . the reliahilily ind~, of Ihe struc-
ture. As a general guide. a v~lue of Ih~ ,afely indn belween 1 and 4 corresponds to
a probability of fa;lure of the order of I: 100.000 (Ref 1.8). n", ,'alue of is oflen
estahlishe<l by calibration ~gainsl well -pro,''''' and estahli shed design' .
I ~ pr~clke. il is mOTe ,"onv~nienl 10 introduce panial safety cr",ffic;ena with
respecI to codc-,pt.'<"ified l<",ds which . as already noted, consid~rabl y exceed average
,,,Iuc,. ratl",r than wilh r~'pt.'("t to mean loadS a, in Eq. (1.2): similarly. the parrial
safely c,,,,ffic;em for ,trcnglh i, applied to nominal "renglh generally compuled
S(ln",what con",rvalively. ralher than to mean slre"gths as in Eq. (I .2). A rcstaten",nl
of the safely requ irernem in these lenm is
(L3a )
in which i" a slrenglh ,,--<lud;on faclor appli(.x1 to nominal slre"glh S" and is a load
factor aprli.,.] to calculal.,.] or code-;;pt.'<"ified design 10llih Q.r Funl",nnore. recogniz-
ing tl'" differences;n "ur;ahilily I><:lwl-en. !;ay. dead I""ds D and live l()ads L. il is both
reastmable and easy to introduce different load facto", for dilTer"m Iype. of loads. The
p"-'<"~-<ling equalion ,"an thus be writt~n
0.3/;
in wbich J is a h",d f"'-'Im somewhal greal.,,-lhan one applied to lhe calcularlxl dead
h",d D. and ,is a larger I""d factor applit.x1 10 Ihe "o,k-,'p<:"i !i~d liY~ load L. Whe"
additional loads. such as lhe wind I,,,,d IV. are to I><: consider.,.]. the reduced probabil -
ily Ihal maximum dead.li"e. and wind or olher loads w;1l act simultaneousl)' can be
incorporated by including a faclor I"" than I 'm"h Ihat
S.2: (JD+ ,L + .W+) (L3c)
Presel][ U.S. de~;gn sl"',';!icalion, follow II><: fonnat of F4$. ( J .1/; and (1.3(").
_ 1.5 D ES IGN B ASI S
The single most illlponant ch:uacteristic of any s1ructural n!Cmb.:r is i1 S aC1uai

streng1h. which must be large enough 10 resist. wilh some omrgin10 spare. all fore
Sl't:able loads 1hat may act on il during 1he life of the structure. without failure or other
distr.:ss. It is logical. therefore. 10 proponion IllClnocrs. i.e .. 10 selccI concrete dimen
sions and rdnforcemcl1l. so Ihat 1l1C11lb.:r streng1hs arc a<l<XJualC to resist forces resulting
from ccnain hypothe1ical ovcrlood s1ageS. significantly ab<we loads cxpt.'Cted actually
to occur in service. Thi s <ksign concep1 's kno wn as stmlxlll desiXn.
For reinforced COI!Cre1e structures a110ads close 10 and al failure. one or ro1h of
the materials. concre1e and sted. are invariably in their nonlinear inelastic range. That
is. concrete in a s1ructural n",mocr reaches i1S Ina.\ i mum streng1h and subsequent frac
ture at s1resses and s1rains far beyond Ihe ini1ial clas1ic range H1 Which stresses and
strains are fairly proponional. Similarly. steel dose 10 an d at failure of the IllCmber is
usually stressed b.:yond il s clastic domain into and e~en I><:yond Ihe yidd region.
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Consequ~"lly, Ihe llomin~1 strenglh of a m~mber mu,1 be calculaled On the basis of

Ihi, inelastic behavior of the materials.
A member designed by tl", strength method musl alw perfoml in a s:nisfanory
way under nonnal service loading, For ex~mple, beam deflections mu,t be limited 10
acptable value" and the number and width of flexural ,TdCh at servi,,, load, muSl
be mntroIlL'<i. Serviceahility limit condition, are ~n important part oflhe tot~1 dc'ign.
alt hough ~ttention is f"",uS<.'<i inilially on strength.
Hislorically. lIIembers were proportioned so that stresses in the sled and con -
crete re,uliing from norlllal service loads were within specified limil~. 11",se limilS,
known a, allowable ,'Ift'.',"',<, were only fraelion, of lhe failure stresse, of the materi -
als. For ""'mbe'" proponioned ml such a ",rvi,-e load basis, the lIIargin of safety was
pro\'idc'<i by slipulating allowahle stresses nnder ",rvic" loads lhat were appropri~tely
,mall fmclion, of the compressi"e concrete strenglh and the sl"d yield Slre.-;s. We now
refer 10 Ihis basi, for de'ign as "ef"l'ice 1"",1 design . Allowable slresses. in pr.lClice,
were ",I at about one-half the connele (-olllpressive strenglh and one -half lhe yidd
,tress of lhe steeL
Becanse of Ihe difference in reali.m anJ reliability, over 11", paSI "'veml decaok,
lhe slrength design meth<xl has displaced the older ",n.'ice I""d dc'ign lIIelhod,
Howe\,er. tile older n"'lhod i. slill u",d occasi<;lI1ally and is lhe design hasis for m~ny
older struclUres. Throughout this text, slrength design i, presented al"""1 exclusively,
, 1.6 D eSIG N C ODes AND SP ECIF ICATIO N S
TI,e design of cmlCrete strutlUres ,uth as Iho", of Figs. 1.1 to 1.12 is gellemlly dOl'"
within the framework of c(KieS giving specific requirement, for malerials, .uuclural
analysi" memller pr<:>p<mi!Kling, etc. 11", 11lIemaliollai Building C,xle (Ref. I .2) i~ ""
example of ~ con",n,us "ode gm-eming struclUml ,iesign and i, oflen adopled hy k'ral
municipalities. The re~pon,ibility of preparing malerial-specific p<1I1;ons of 11", cook,
resl, wilh ,'ario"s professional groups, Imde associati!KI~, and k'<Ohnical insl itutes, In
Contr~st wilh mallY mher indusuiali7.ed nalions. lhe United Slates d,,,,. nOi have ""
oflitial, gm'emment -saoclioned , nalional code.
n,e An",rican C!KlCrete Illstitule (ACI) ha, long b""n a leader in such effon,. A,
one pan of il, a'-livily, Ihe American Concrel e In.litule h~s published 11", widdy rec-
ogniz<-'<i Built/ins Code R~quirt!",elll., lor Slruclllml C()"Crt!I~ (Rd. I. I0), which
sen.'es as a guide in the ok'ign and construnion of reinfor,-ed connde bui Idings. 'll;.,
ACI Code has no official sl~tu, in ilself, However. it is generally regard,-'<i as an
authoritalive slaleme!ll of curre!ll g<KKl practice in lhe field o f reinforce<.! connete. A,
a re5ult. il h~s been iIICOf]K1r~k' thereh)' ~nain, in effect, leg~1 slanding. Mosl
reinforct.'<i ,-oncrele huildings and related conslroction in the United Slates are
desigl",d in aCc(lTdance wilh the cuITem ACI Code . It has also sen--ed as a nKilll doc-
ume!ll for rnany other countries. A "",ond ACI puhlicalion, CO/mut'"lmy "" Building
Code R~lJuireJllelll., 1m Smu-lIImi C"",rt'le (Ref I, I I). p,,)\'ide, background rnalerial
and ralionale for lhe Code provisions. 'fhe American COIlCrere In slilUle "I", puhli,I""
irnp<lfIant journal, and <lanJard,. a. well as recornn"'nd~tions for the anal)'sis and
design of ~peciallypes of connde slructure, such as lhe lanks of Fig. 1. 11 .
Mosl highway bridges in 11", Unil~d State. are ok'igned aC(,(lTding 10 lhe require-
me!lls of Ihe AASHTO hrid ge spe,-ifications (Ref. 1.3) which not 'mly co11l~in 11",
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1, , - 1 THI
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I~TR() DUcrI ON 17
pmvi~ions relming to load, and load distribution, memioned ~arli~r. but al.o indudt:
detaibJ pmvi,ions for the de'ign and construetion of "oncrete bridges. Many of the
pmvi,ions follow ACI Code pmvisions dosely. although a number of ,ignifil"ant dif-
ferences will be found.
n,e design of railway bridgt:s is d"II1e according to the specifications of th"
AREMA M"",,,,I ofRa;l;my Engineering (Rd. IA). It. too. i, patterned after the ACI
Code in most respects. but it contains mucb addit;';II1al material pertaining to r~ilway
'trul'lure~ of all types.
No code or design ,pt.'Cification cnn be con,trued as a substitute for ,ound engi -
nl",ring judgment in the design of connett: stru ctures, In structural practice. special
cireum,tance, are frequently enl"01.l11terl'<i where wde provision, l"al' serve only as a
guide, and the enginl",r IIlU~t rdy upon a finn understanding of the ba.,il' principle, of
'tructur~1 n"-'Chanic, applit.-d to reinfor~-ed or pre'trt:,sed concrete. al,d an intimate
knowk-dge of the nature of the nmterials ,
_ 1.7 SAFETY P ROVt SIO N S OF THE AC I C ODE
nle ... fety pmvisi!HlS of the ACI Code are given in the form of F---'l" (1.31 and (I ,3.-:)
u,ing strength reduction factoT'! and load foctors. The", fal'lo", "'" based to ,ome extenl
on statistical informat;';", but to a larger degK"-' on experience, engin""ring judg",ent.
and eompmlllise. In words. the design strength So of a structure Or member must bc
at lea" equal to the r<-><Juired 'trength U cakulaiL-d fTlm, the fal'lored loads. i,e,.
Dt:sign strength ;;: r.:quircd strength
(IA)
The I1Qminal strength S. is compuk-d (u,ually mlewhat aln"""'at;vely) by aCl-epled

",,,thods. n,e required st ren gth U is eakulated by applying appmprime load faetor~ to
tile respective servi~-e loads: dead load D. li"e load L. wind load IV. eanhquake load
E. eanh pressure H. fluid pres,ure F. im[lact allowance I. and environmental eff~cts T
th"t may include settlement, cn."-'p. ,hrinkage. and tel\lper~ture change. L"ad~ "re
ddined in a general >en>e, to include either loads or tl'" related internal efTe,;ts soch
a, monlents. ,hears, and thrust" nms. in sl"'cific tenos for a lllemher subjeck-d. say.
10 moment. "Ileaf. and axi,,1 load:
M. 2: M , ( Un)
V. "" V. ( Ub)
p. 2:. 1'. ( l.5c)
where tIle ~ub'!Cript,,, ocnote the nominal ,trengths in flexure. ,hear. and axial load.
respectively. and the subscripts u denote the fanored load mOlnenl. shear. and axial
load. In computing the f,,,:tmed load effects On the right. load fano", may be applied
either to the se"'ice I""ds themselves or to the internal load effects cakulated fmlll the
se"'il"e loads,
The lo"d factoJS spt.><:ified in the ACI Code. to be applied to cakulated dead load,
and those live and envimn mentalload, spe<:ifi~-d in tile appropriate codes or standard"
are summarized in Table 1.2, The", are l"Cmsistent with the roncepts introdul"ed in
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1, . - 1 THI
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HI IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r [
TABLE 1.2
Factored load combinations for determining required strength
in the ACI Code
Condition Factored Load or Load Effect
U"iC> u- I.2D + 1.61-
Dead p[u, [" "i<l" U - + f)
1.4(V
Snow, Rain, Tcn1J><fOlufe. U - l,2(/J + F+ n + 1.(>(1- ~ I f) 10.5(I-,(>fS(>f R)
and Wind U~ 1,20 + 1.6(I., (>fS(>fR) I ( 1,01.(>fO,8W)
U - I ,20 ~ 1.6W + I.or + O,~ L,(>f S(>f R

U ~ 0.90 + 1.6W + 1.61/
Earthquake U - 1.20 + 1.0 + 1.0L + 0 ,2S
U ~ 0,90 + 1.0 + 1.6H
Wher< ,he fol l"""fl~ r<pm.:nI ,he k_ 'll ,,:Lllted internal ".,m<"', '"f""", ["",I'illl! I"." ,h<' 1""--.1
f""'1f> : f) _ <1<"3<1 k<l; ~ ,'ar1h'lu,""" f _ lIu,,1>: If _ ~'Ci~'" '" ",.''' L'' ~ fl\)ffi ,,,iI; L _ li"o k<l;
4 - roof Ii", klOd; R _ ,.in: S _ '"",,': r a "Ulnub'i,~ df.~.", 01 L"tn[J<","r<. '''''po 1hri ""~c, and
difTcrcmi11 ",,,Icr,,,,"' : W ~ "ilk!
'/t.: ACi Code inehrdo.-, f" ,. If k...:b in Lb" klOO c"rnNnali,",~ 1 he --&."," kw ,'(>oo;,ioo 0( Ll/) + L6L
",f1<.." ,he for ' thai ,,.'" ooikli"" ,","" .dt",,[ F IIOf H 1<<l, ",,-""'nI and ,b:lr L4f) TWcly lowm, <I<' >i~.
$eclion 1,4 and Wilh SEl/ASCE 7. Minimu", I>.!,' ign ,..JIld. jor Building' ",,,/ Olher
Slmc lllre" (Rd. 1.1 ). and allow, d~,ign of cmnp<" ile ,tru{"lUre, u,ing combination, of
,tructural ,toed and reinforc~d concrete . Fw indi"id ual Inad,. lower f,,,:top; are u,ed for
load, known wilh greate r certainty. e.g" dead load. comp:med with load, of greater vari -
ability. e.g .. live load" Further, for load combination, 'Uc'h as dead plus live load, plu,
wind fOfl'es. reduclion, are applied to one load or the other that refleet the improbabil -
ity that an exc'essive1y large li\'e load c-oincides with an unu,ually high wi1ldstorm. 'fho:,
fac'tors aJ.;o relleet . in a geller.. l way. u",-"'rtaintie, with whic' h internal load effect, :me
talculated from external loads in ,ystem" a, complex as highly illdelerminate. inelastic
reinforced c01lcrete ,tructure, which. in addition. <"<,",i.t of variable-se<-1ion memhe"
(I",,:ause of tensi<:", na{"king. di"-"Ontinuous reinforcement. etc .). Finally. the load fac-
tors also di,tingui.h hetween two ,iluation" panicu larly when horizontal foree, :me
present in addilion to gmvity. i.e" the ,ituation where the eff""t, of all ,imutuneou,
load, are additive. as distinct ("'''' lhat ill which variom load effect, coumemct each
"ther. For example. in a retaining wall the ,,,il pres,ure produces an ovenuroing
moment, and the gmvity fOfl'cs produce a munter..cting stabilizi ng """'lem,
In all ca<;e, in Table t ,2. the controlling equation i~ the one that gives the largesl
factored load effect U.
n,e st rength r..-duclion faclOrs in tIle ACI Cooe are given different vatue,
depending on the ,tate of knowledge, i.e" lhe attur.K)' with whi<:h various strength,
tan be calculal<--d. Thu,. Ihe value for bending i, higher than that for 'hear <;Ir bearing.
At",. vat ue, refleet the probable importance. for the ,urvivat of the .tructure. <;If tt;"
particular member and of the probabk quatity c'ontrol ,,,:hiC\'able, For b<:>ih these rea-
wn,. a lower "alue i, used for column, than for beams, Table 1.3 give, the value,
'pecified in the ACl Oxle,
The joi nt application of 'lrenglh reduction fatto" (Table 1.3) and load factor-,;
(Table 1.2) i, ainled at produting app",x inmlC probabililies of understrength of th"
"rder of 1/100 and of overload, o f 1/1 000. TI,i, re,u lt , in a prohability of muctural
failure of the order <;If 1/ 100.000.
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1, , - 1 THI
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I~TR()DUcrION 19
TABLE 1.3
Strength reduction factors in the ACI Code
Strength Reduction
Strength Condition F~ctor
Ten,;on ron,rolbf =.,;"", 090

Compre"iOll""OIltrolled sectiOll'-
M,mhc", with 'riml r~;nfon"mcn! 0,70
Ott", .. reinfOITed member. O.M
Sb<ar and "",;,m o 7S
Be,ring on COlIC"". OM
1\"t-1<m;()flCd anchorage >Am,,, ().!L~
StM-aoo-ti. model,' O.iS
,,,,",in, J;","""", , ~ ,t... liocar ,-,.,;....'" ,,1'

Chap.... 3 1'Ic, ....~"TI find C<"IJ'f\~'K,"-<'-"'l,,~"--J
".",;,'"
>,;. .. ,. C".",,~ ~ "is"""",, < ,,,,,,Ii,",,,, !h.. :Uk,... ... ""..R" in h spinolly ,,;ohero >l"m", .
S'ruH"Ml,., 1.. ...,1> "'" Jc,..:ril>.-J in Ol"" ~ 10,
In addition to the values givcn in Table 1.3, ACI CO<k Appendix B, "Ahenmtive
Provisions for R~inforc<XI and Prcstrcss.:d Concrete I-l~xural and Compression
Members." allows the use of load factors :md strcnglh reduction facfOrs from pr~vious
l'<iitions Oflhc AC I CO<k.lltt: load factors and strenglh rl'<iuction factors of ACI Code
Appendi .~ B arccalibratcd in cony.metion wilh thc detailed rcqu,rements ofthm nppen
di.\. Consequent ly. they may not be intcrchang~d with the provisions oflhc main body
of 1he CO<k.
. 1.8 FUNDAMENTAL ASSUM PTIONS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE B EHAVIOR
me chief tas k of lh~ slru<tur.. 1engin~"'r is the d~sign of mU<lure$. /J;.'.,ign is lhe deter-
min:nion or the gener.. 1 shape aoo ali ~pe<'ifi<' din",n,ion. of a pan icu lar structure so
that it will perfonn the funclion for which it is created and wil l safcl)' wilh'tand the
influence, that will a{"t on it throughout its uscfu l lif" , TIle"" in fl u~nces are primarily
the I(KlIls and mher for<.-e, (() whi<'h it will be ,ubj~<.1ed, a, well as other detrimemal
agents. ,uch as temperature fluctuations. foundatioo settlements. and c/llTo'!i", influ -
en~..,s, SIn/{;/IIrr.d medumic.r is one of the main tools in this pmcess of design. As here
unders{(KJd. it is the body of scientific knowl~dge that permits one to predict witll a
good degree of ~nairny how a Slructurc of given 'hape and dinlensions will beha"e
when acted upon by know n for~..,s or mhe r m~chanical in n uerl<"'~. The chief items of
beha"ior tllat are of praclical i mer~'t are (I) tile slre"gth of the ,tmclure. i.e ,. that mag-
nitude of loads of a given distrihmioll ",hid, will cause lhe structure to fail. and (2) the
ddonnalion$, such as d~neclio'" and extent of cratking. that the S1ructur~ will
undergo when I"aded under """,ice condilions.
me fundamental propositions on whid, the mechanic, of reinforc~"<l concrete is
based nre as follows;
I. n,~ internal forces. such as bending mon",nts. ,hear force" and nonnal and sl",ar
strc,,,,s, at nny seclion of a ""'mher are in ~"<Iuilibrium with the effecls of the
cucmnl loads at lhat section. This propo,ilio" is nm '111 assumption but a fact,
oc-cau", any body or any ponion thereof can be at re,t on ly if all forces acting on
il nre in equilibrium,
o..loootc..,_
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2. TIle .train in an embedded reinforcing bar (u nit extension or ~~)mpression) is tile

sanle as that of the surrounding concrele. Expressed diffe rently. it i, a-"u""-,,l thaI
perfect honding exists hetween COncrete and sk'Cl al the interface. so that III) slip
Can o"cur belween tlle two materials. Hen,"e. as tlle one deforms. so must tlle
other. With modern deformed Dan; (see Senion2.(4). a hig h degn."e of m<-'Chani -
cal interlocking is prnvidc-d in addition to the natur.il surface adhesion. so thi,
assumption is ver)' dose Hl corren.
3. Cross section. that we re plane prior to loading continue to he plane in lhe nlem-
her under [o"d. A,...,urate nleasure ments have slll)wn that whe" a reinforced co,, -
crete memher is loaded dose to failure. th is assumption is not ahsolutely acCu -
mte. Howner. lhe dc"ialions are usually minor. and the re,uits "f theory based
on thi, assum ption cheek well with extensive test informati"n.
4. In view <;If tile fact thai the tensile st renglh of cOflcrete is only a small fraction of
it , com pressive strength (see Seclio" 2.9) . the conn ete in Ihat pan of a m"",her
which is in tension is usually cr~chd. While these crach. in well -designed
memllers. are gencrnlly SO nafTOW as to be hardl y visihle (they are known as ha;r-
1;11" cracks). they nidently render the crac""d concrete incapable of resi" ing ten -
siOll .tre~s. Correspondingly. it is assumed that concrete is not capahle o f resist-
ing any tensi<;ln ,t ress whatcver. This assumption is evidently a si mplifi,"ation of
the actual situation oc'Cause. in fact. concrete prior 10 crac king . as well as the con -
Crete located belw",",n 'T.!ch. docs resiS! tension stresses of small magnitude.
Later i" discu"ions of the resislalK"C of reinforced co[l{"rete heams to shear. it will
oc"CQme apparent that under certain c<Hulitions this pani,"ular assumption is di.-
pen",d with and advantage is taken of the modest tensile strength that concret~
Can develop.
5. l1te theory is based on the actual stress-str.!in relationships and strength proper-
ties of the two ("onstituent mat~rials (see Section. 2.8 and 2.14) or some reason-
able "'lui'"dlent simpli ficati<Hls the r<-"Of. l1te fact that notlelastic behavior i. reflected
in Ill'Kkm tbeory. that ,"oncrete is assumed to be ineffeclive in tension. and thai
the joi nt action of the two materials is take n into consideration results in analyti -
cal metllltds whi,"h are co"siderabl)' more complex. and also Illore ,"hallenging.
than those that are ad~"<Juale for nlembers mack of a ,ingle. substantially elastic
material.
1ltese five assumption' pennit one to predict Ity caltu1atiun the perfonnance o f
reinforc"Cd cunerete members only for ,,)me simple situations . Actually. 11m joint
a<:tion of two t""!erial $ as di"i milar and ,"omplicated as concrete and st""l is ", com-
plex that it has n01 yet lent ilself to purely analyl;c,,1 treatment. For thi s reason. melh -
ods of design and anal)s;s. whilc usi ng the"" a"umptions. are very largely Ita""d on
the result, of cXlensive and continuing experinlental re.search. They are m"ditied and
impron-d as additional test evidence I:leeo mes available .
_. 1.9 B EHAVtOR OF M EMBERS S UBJECT TO AXtA L L OAD S
Many of the fundamentals of the behavior of reinforu-d concrele. through the full range
<;If loading from zero to ullimate. can be illustrated dearl)' in the contexl of n",mhers
subj,-'C1 to sim ple ax ial compression OJ len,ion . l1te basic concepts i lluSlmted here will
he recogni7.<--d in lat er dUlplers in !he analysi, and desig n of beam,. slab,. eccentri,"ally
loaded columns. and "'her members sub~t to more complex loadings.
o..loootc..,_
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I~T R()DUcrI ON 21
a. Axial Compression
In mcmlx:rs Ihal slIslain chiefly or cxdusively axial compression loads. such as build
ing col umns. il is economical 10 make Ihe concrclC C3n-y mOSI of Ihc load. Still. some
steel reinforccment is always provided for various reasons . For ooc. "cry few mem o
rers are truly axially loaded: sicel is esse1llial for resisting any rending thai may exis1.
FOT anotocr. if pari of Ihe tOlal load is carried by steel wilh its mudl great~r Slrcngth.
the cross scclional di mensions of the member can be reduced- the more so. tile largcr
the amount of r<::inforcenlCnI.
TIle two chief forms of reinforced conCl"Cte columns are shown in Fig. 1.15. In
the square column. Ihe four longitudinal bars serve as main reinforcenlCnI. They are
held in pl"ce by Irans"erse smalldiameter steel ties that prcvcnt disploccl1lcnl of tre
main bars during wnslruction orcralions and wumcract any tendency of the com
pressionloaded bars 10 hucklc out oflhe concrele by bursting Ihe thin outcr covcr. On
the left is shown a round column with eight main reinforcing bars. These are sur
rounded by a closely spaccd spiral Ihat serves the san-.: purpose as Ihc more widely
spa~ed tics but also acts 10 confine Ihc ~OllCrete wilhin il. lherchy increasing its resis
la nce 10 a.~ial ~omprcssion. The diocussion thai follo"'s applies 10 lil'd col umns.
When axial load is applied. lhe compression ma in is the sanlC 0''eT the emire
cross seclion, and in view of Ihe bonding belwecn concrele and steel, is lhe samc in
Ihe IWO materials (see proposilions 2 and J in Scction 1.8). To illuslrate the aClion of
such a member as load is applied. Fig. 1. 16 shows IWO Iypical stressmain CUT\'CS. 01-':
for a conerelC wilh compressive slrenglh ,{.: .. 4000 psi and Ihe olher for a sll"'-'I wilh
yield str~ss f, .. 60.000 psi . The curves for Ihe IWO materials arc dra.,m on Ihe same
graph using difkrenl venical Slress ocales. Curve b has lhe shape which would be
HG URE 1.15
Reinforced cone",t,
",Iumns_
Long~ud inal ba rs Longmwinal ba rs

and sp; ral reinforcement and lateral ties
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22 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfliRES Olapl<r [
FIGUIU : 1. [6
C<>n<r<lC and 'lee[ SIre,,
maip <"'WS,
,/,
, ,
" ,,,
,,
li
,".'" .;" , ,
"
,
a Steel
" b
c
d
Concrete, last Ioadiog
Concrele, slow loading
Elastic COOCfete
, 0,001 0.002 0.000

~. or a
oblaincd in a concrel~ cylinoor ICOI. 11le ral~ of loading in most structures is consid
crably slower thanlhat in a cylinder t~st, and this affects the shape of the curve, Cun'c
L', therefon::, is drawn as being characteristic of the performance of concrete under
slow loading. Under these conditions. tesls have shown that the nta.ximum reliable
compressive slrcngth of reinforced concret~ is :tbout 0.85 r:,
as shown ,
EtA',1( BF.Il AV IOR At low stresses, up 10 ahout /;12, tl", connde is "-"'II 10 hochaw
nearly eintic'ally. i.e" stresses and strains are quite closely pmponional: tile straight
line d represent, this range of behavior with little em" for bolh rat~s of loading. For
the givell (,()lIcrct~ lhe range eXlcnd, 10 a 'train of about 0 .0005. The stcel, 011 the <>Iher
hand, is seell to be elastic' nearly to its yield point of 60 hi , or to lhe m uch greale r
strain of about OJXl2 .
Because the cornprc<sion strain in the COliC rete. at any giwn load, is equal to tl",
compressioll strain in lhe S1<"'1,
/, (,
E,
from which tl'" rdati()ll betw~en the steel stre" j, and tl", concrele 'tress f is ohIained a,
( 1.6)
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1, . - 1 THI
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I~TR() DUcrION 23
FI G UIU: 1.17
T"""fO<TIl<d ,""ctio" in .,ial
comrre"'joo,
Actual section Translo<med seclion Translo<med seclioo

A, - Ac + nAst A, - A;;r + (1l-1 lAst
1"1 Ie)
lei Ac .. o.:t area of COJlcrete. i.c .. gross are~ minus area occupied by reinforcing bars
At .. gross arc~
A" .. lOla] area of reinforcing b.1/"S
I' .. :txialload
nlcn
(1.7)
The term Ac + nA" ,-an he int~'1Ir~1<.-d as the area o( a fictitious concrete noss
>eclion. lhe ",-called Im":if()r",~d a",,,. whith when subjected tQ th~ panicular con -
trete str~ss re<ults in the Same axial load I' as the actual =tion {"('",posed of both
sl~eI and cOncrete. This tr.IJt,fonned C<Hlcrete area is seen to C<ltl,i,t of the actual con -
crete area plus " limes the aren of the reinforce men!. It Can he visuali7.ed as shown in
Fig. I. 17. That is. in Fig. 1. 17h the three rn.rs ulong ~ad, of the two fnces are thought
o f as be ing removed and replaced . nl lhe ,an", distance from the nxis of the section.
with add~d nreas of ftctitious ~Xlnnete of total anK>unt 11A,.. Alternatively. as ~hown ill
Fig. 1.17c. one can Ihink of the aren of the <1,-",1 bars a, replaced with connete, in
which case one has tQ ndd to tI", gros, conn ete aren A, so ohtain~d Qnly (n - I)A" to
obtain the same tolnl tran,fonned area. Therefore. nlt';mnli\'ely,
( 1.8)
If load and ,-ross-sectional dimension, are known. the COllcrete ,tres!; can he
(ound by solving F--'j. (1.7) or (1.8) (or f,. and the ,t l",1 stress can he calcu lated from
E'l' (1.6) . '!lJcse rdntions hold in the r~nge in which the l'or'cn:l~ behave, nearly elas-
tienlly, i.e .. up 10 about 50 to 60 p"rcettl o(j;. For reasons of safety nnd "'rvi~..,ability.
concn:te <tre." ,,, in ~lruCtures under normal condilio", are kepI wilhin thi, range.
Therefore. the", relntions I"'m lit one to cnltu late . pn-i,e hl<1d . Ire"-",,,.
EXA ,\1PLE 1.1 A column llIade of the malerial, defined in Fig. I 16 h" a eros, section of 16 X 20 in. "",I
is rt>infon:ed by six No, 9 (No. 29) t>ar:.. di'po",d assho".-n in FiM . 1.17, (See Table,A, I and
A.2 of App'ndi~ A for bar di"""'I"" and area, "",I Section 2.14 for a tk..,tiplion of har size
de,ign.t;"",,) Detem,;n" the a,ial loiltllhat will SIre" the cOIICrete to 1200 psi . Th" moo,,
la' ralio" may be """"Jed equal to 8. (In "~w of the ..,aller inherent in ,. it i, customary
and sali,foctory to rour><! off lhe,,,I",, of" to lh" ncare" integer.)
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1, . - 1 THI
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IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r [
S()'.\f[1"~. O"~ finds A, = [6 X 20 = 320 in', and from Appendi> A. Tab[e A,2,
A~ - 6.00 in' or [.88 [J<'n:e111 nf I~ gms' area. The load OIl the cn[u m". from Eq. (1 .8). is
P ~ 1200(320 + (H - I)6.00J ~ .f:14.000 Ib. Of Ini, 101,1 load. doe concrelC i, "'"" 10 co rry
1', - l,Ae - IAA, - A~) - 1200(.120 - 6) - .177.000 lb. and lhe <I~.II', - J;A" - (nfJA~
= 9600 X 6 = ~7.600 lb. which i, 1 .1 . ~ I>"rc~nl of In. )tal a, ialload.
INE L,\STlC R ,\/<;{;t: Inspeclioo of Fig. 1.16 shows Ih~t Ihc daslic rclali<HlShi", Ihat
have been used so far ,'ann01 be applied beyond a Slrain of about 0,0005 for the given
concrcl~. To oblain informalion on lhe behavior of Ihe member allarger simins and.
correspondingly. at larger load,. il is Iherdore n..'Cess",) 10 make dircci u'"' of II",
information in Fig. Ll6.
One may wont 10 calculrue lhe magniloo. of lhe a'ialload Ihm will produce a "'ain or un;1
,lIortenin~ e = ,= 0,0010 in 1"" rolumn Ofln. preding e, .mple. Al this 'tm;" the ' teel
is =n 10 be Slill elaslic '" Ihat lbe ' tttl ,1",,, I, - ,E, - 0.001 X 29.000.000 -
2~.000 psi . 11", ,o""rele i, in tJ", inciaSli" ""1g~.'" lhal il' >Ire" cannot be dir".:tJy caku-
Ialed. bill il ca" be read from 1M <lre"''lrain cu,..,'e for lhe gil''''' value of 'l<';n.
I. If lroe n",mberllas be." lo:Kk'<l'I" fa'l rate. CUf\'e
j, holds at the instant when Ihe entire
Inad is lpplied. Tho: >l1'CSS for - 0.001 Can oc rc.'ld asi;, - 3200 ~i. Con>eq ncntly.
lhe tOlalload can De obtained from
P - l eA, + j,A" ( 1.9)
whid' awlies ill the i""Ia."ie as well as in ,he elastiC ""'s,c. Henc><:. I' - 32(X)020 -
6) + 29.000 X 6 ~ 1.005.000 + 174,000 ~ 1.179.000 Ib. Of Ihis tOlalload. the' ""'t'l
is seen 10 carr)" 174.000 lb. or 14.7 I"'""cn',
2. For \lowly applied or ,uSlained Inad ing. cu""'c ~ rcprc.>CIIIS tile bella"ior of tllC conerc'e ,
11, ,tres> al a stmin of 0.00 I can De read as l = 2400 psi. Then P = 2400 X J 14 +
29.000 X 6 - ? 54.(XX) -,- 174.000 - 928.000 lb. Of 'h is 100ai load. the sk-'>!I is secn In
carry 18,8 percen!.
Compari:;on of Ihe tesullS for fasl an(1 slow load ing show~ the following. Owing
10 creep of concrele. a givcn shonenin!; of the column is produced by a smaller load
wh~" slowly applied or susluined ovcr :;ome lenglh of tin'll: lhan when quickly applied,
More imponant. the fanher lhc Slress is beyond lhe proponional Ii mil of lhe eoncrelC.
und Ihe more slowly lhc load is appl ied or lhc longer il is ~u>tained. the smaller the sh~re
of Ih" 10lal load earned by lhe concrele. and Ihe larger th~ share carried by lhe slecl.
In the sumpk column. the Sleel was seen 10 carry 13.3 percenl of lhe load in lhe clas
lie range. 14.7 percenl for a strain ofO.(X)1 uno.:r fUS110ading. and 18.8 percel11 at lhe
sam~ Slrain un{ler slow or suslain<.,<lloading .
STR ~"{; TU n", one quamily of chit'f inleresl 10 Ihe slruclu!':.ll designer is ;'fn'nKlh.
i.e .. lhe maximum load that tl", slrucl ure or n",mber will carry. Information on stresses.
sirains. and similar quunlili~s S<'T,'es chieny as a 1001 for detennining carrying cnpac
ity, TIle performance of the column discussed so far indicates Iwo lhings: (I) in III<'
!':.lnge of larg~ Stresses and simins Ihal precede altainmem of the maximum load and
subS&:j ' lenl failure. elastic r<' lationshillS cannot be used: (2) Ihe n",mt.:r behaves dif
f~lVnlJy under fast and unocr slow or susta ined loading iIJld shows less rt,sismnc'e 10 II",
Inl1t'r thnn \0 the former. In usonl consu"~lion, many types of loads. such as th<) ,,<)ighl
of tlO<) SlntClllre and any pennanenll'<juiplllt'ni housed ther<)in. are suslnin~d. and OIlk'TS
are applied at slow ml~S. For Ihis lVason . 10 caiculat<) a rdiable magn ilude of compres
she slrenglh. curve c or Fig. 1.16 muSI be used as far as lhe c'OlO<)rele is concrmed ,
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1, . - 1 THI
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I~TR()DUcrION 2S
n,~Sled reach~s ils t~nsil~ strenglh (peak or the curve) at ,trains on the oruer
of 0.08 (see Fig. 2.15). Concrete, OIl the other hand. fails hy cru,hing at the much
,mailer 'train of about 0.003 and. as seen from Fig. I.ll> ({'un,e c), reaches il~ ma~i
mum SIre" in the simin r~nge of 0.002 to 0.001. Ikcause the stmins in steel and con -
crete ar~ ,-,<[ual in axial CQmpr~"ion. the load at whi('h II", ,teel hegins 10 yield can he
{'akulat<'<l from the infonnation in Fig. 1.16.
If th~ small kn'-", prior to yidding of the steel is disregarded. i.e .. if the 'teel i,
assumed to he sharp-yielding, Ihe stmin at whi{'h it yields is
f,
, E,
(1.10)
.. 1 60.000 .. 0.00207
.9.000.000
At this Slmin, curve r of Fig. 1.16 indicate, a ,trcss of }200 psi in the concrete: there-
fore, by Eq. ( 1.9), the load in the ",emher whenlhe sk",1 ,tans yidding is p. - 3200
X 314 + 60.000 X 6 - 1.365,000 lb. At Ihis load th~ concrete ha, nOl yet reacru.'<l ii,
full strength, whi{'h. a, mention<'<l hefore. {'an he asSUI11'-'<l a, 0.85 t: = 3400 psi for
,low or sustained k.ading. and th~refore the load on th~ memmer can me funh~r
increased. Du ring this slage or loading, tl", steel keep' yielding at constant stress.
Finally, the ultimate load' of the memher i, reached wl",n the ('Oncrele crushe, whik
the SI(",1 yields, i.e ..
p. - O.85D A" + I, A" (l . I I)
Nomerous careful t.:sIS have shown tile reliability of Eq . ( 1,11 1 in pr.xticting the ulti
mme strength of a concentrical ly loaded reinforc~d ~oncret~ column. provided ils slen
derness mlio is small so that buckling will not reducc its strcngth.
Fortlle panicular Ilumerical exwnplc. p. - 3400 X 314 + 60.000 X 6 - 1.068.000
+ 360.000 - 1.428.000 lb. At this stage tile sleel carries 25.2 percent of the lond.
SU~1.\IA K\, In th~ clastic range. the steel carri~s a relati"ely sillall ponion of the total
load of an axially compres,,'d m~mbcr, As nlClllbcr strength is approached. tocre OC(urs
a redistribution of the relative shares of the load resisted by cOfICrete and steel . tile lat
tcr taking an i'lCreasing amount. TlIe ullimale load. 31 "'hieh tile I""-'mbcr is on the
point offailure. eonsisl s of the comribution of tile steel "'hcn it is stressed to lhe yield
point plus thm of the concrete "'hen its stress has anain~d a \'alu~ of 0.85 I;, as
reflecled in Eq, ( l.ll).
b. Axial Tension
llIc t~nsion strcnglh of concrete is only a small fmction of its compressive strength . It
follows thai reinforced concrete is not well su ited for usc ,n lension mcmocrs because
the concrete "'ill contribut~ linlc. if anything. to lheir strength. Still. there an: SitUalions
Th.",, ~ houI 'hi> ",-,,, ~ ....u'b Ih" .dt"f ,,, ,,",- ,~ ", n~' h ,>f ,,,,,,,,,",,.., . ... b l...., l i>y ..., 'cpt,," ....1),;, " ", ,,,,.j~ art lumi. i11 .,i," ,h<' '"""'ript .
,..hKh ~ or.l, f,.- .,.,,,,in" : n o> ","at;'., i. in qR"'""'" ~ ' i' h ,iI<: Act G od<, II b ,",,,nJ,.," ,,, ,,,.r','Y lhat ,he: ,",., ... ""'n ~ l " , ~ any ".,,,,,,,--, i,
1>"",.., '" <1<"'-; .. ,' ,,, ;m", " ,"n' fn"" ", ".k-"I. tro, ",,,rio,1,-, I"" 1>"""".. ,~ i ",~'i "!>k ":ui .. ~",, , ~ di mrn'~ .. >. ,"",,,n. ,, """"", i<:; , .n<l ,"1>..7
p;mu1~1<". I lc>i~n in :ill ... """. ;, 00><"<1 , .. lhi. ",,""lUll ;lrC n~lh. ,.'hith '<"1"""""" Iii<: h<'" ."';I.t>k " >11m.,,, of ll>< ><1""' " "''''''-.T .""nl l"
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in which r~infon:ed cOnnele is """sed in len,io". chiefly in lie rods in <1ruclures such
as arches. Such rnemhep; consist of o ne or more ha" e m""dded in ,'oncrele in a .ym-
metrical arrangement ~imilar to <"<"npre"ion mem""" (see Figs. 1.15 and 1.17).
When the ten. ion fOfl'e in the mem""r i, ,mall enough for lhe stre" in the con -
crete to "" <"<msiderably helow its ten,ile s1fcngth. hOlh sted and connete hehave elas-
tically. In thi, s iluation, all o f the exp",s ~ions deriwd for eb,tic bdmvi or in compres-
,ion in S<-'Ction I .9<1 are identicall)' valid for tensio". In panicu lar. F--'J. (1.7) heco"",s
P = falAc + wi ,,) 0.12)
where f" is the te",ile stre" in the <"<mcrei<'.

Howe",f. when the load i, funhe r increased. the concrete reaches it, tensile
'trengll' at a ,tress and strain on the ord~r of one-tenth ofwhal it ('()lJld sustain in cOm-
pression. Al this stage. the concrete cracks acrosS the e ntire cross section . When !hi,
happens, it ceases 10 re sist any pan of the applied tension force. ~ince, evidently. no
force can be !r~nsllliued across the air gap in lhe cr~ck. Al any load larger than that
whi"h ,'aused lhe mnnete 10 cmd:. the sl<-",1 is call~d upon 10 resi,t the emire te",ion
force. Correspondingly, at lhi s stage.
P = f, A" ( 1.1 3)
With funher increased load, the ten,ile stress f, in the s1<.",1 reaches the yield
pointf,. WI",n lhis <x'cur,. lhe te",ion mernhe" cease to exhillit 'mall, elasti(' defor-
mation, but inSlead ,trelCh a sizalli e and perman"m amOum at ~ullstantially constam
load. Thi s doe, not impair the 'trength of the member. 11, elongalion. howev~f.
OC'COI1lCS SO large (on the order of I ".,rcent or Illore of il> lenglh) a, to render it use-
tess. Therdore. the maximum useful strength " " of a tension member is the for,'e 11,,"
will just cause the 'teel ,tre ss to reach the yield poim. That i,.
f'", = f,A" ( 1.14)
To pmvi"" adequate ,afety, the fOKe permitted in a tension member under normal
i
servi,'e load, ,hould be limited to about POI' Because the connele ha, cmck<."<1 al
load~ con,iderabl)' smaller than thi,. concrete doe, not contribute to lhe ("all)'ing
capacity of the member in """"ice. It does servc , however. fire and cOfTosion pm-:I.,
tection and oflen imp"" 'cs the appeamnce of the structure.
n",,,, are situations , though, in which rein forct."<I concrde is "sed in axial ten,ion
under condition, in which the occurrence of len,ion cmcks must be prevented . A ca",
in point i, a circular tank (sec Fig. I.ll l . To provide watenightnes,. tI", hoop ten,ion
caused by the fluid pre",ure IllU,t be pre,'emed from cau,ing the <"<mcrete to cra"k. In
this ,':I."',
Eq. (1.12) can be "sed 10 determi,,,, a saf~ value for the axial tension force /'
by using. for the nmcrete ten,ion ,tre" ic,. an appropriate fraction of tk tensile
'trength of lhe concret~, i.e.. of the stre.~, that would ,'ause the COllcretc to (T.lCk.
REFE RE N CES
LI .'I/"';"'"ffl lJ. d3" L""t!, fi". lI"iM;",~., a.w (J,h" .<;,,,,,.,"",,, SELIASUi 7-Dl, IIlt~'tie"" ';.,,",,), o( (:j,it
I'ng'''-''''', R<WJ<] . VA, 1())!
1.2 Im"'II",,,,,al ll"iliI'''N C..I,. t""""",."",t Co.k (,\.lIIdl. ! ,II, Ch",,'h, VII, .'(~~1.
! '. MSHTO UlFI) II,,,*,,,, 11<.<'8# '1"cijit""';''''''' " .. t <d __ ,\"lL'I'ican A,..-.ci .. ioo 0( S':lIO tt i\ltlny ... t
T''''''I''I<I:>I;o" (),r,:;.L, (AIISm{)). W>"';"~U'-L tX;. 1m
IA. M"",,,,/ "I 1/";1><,,,. E"Ni"~";"N, An-"rlc"" R' ; l ~' aj' 14;"""';"~ "nd .\ ! ,j",,,,,," ,,,,,~)f_W.y A,,,>doh, ..
{ .\RE.~I'\), J.-k'Wf. MI). ljm
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I~TR()DUcrI ON 27
I.S. N.iUJI'iJj &i,'''';( S,ifm- C"",,.-.I NI,III1P U"""'""',,,fnl I'n:~#~o<' tv' &j,,,,io N",ulmj,." I'"~ N"",
k.-M"'8-' "",I 011.<, 51"","""''''' ;>jOI OOi, ~ ... I',~ I. "I'n"' ; '~''' ' " I1,M/\ J6lI. I ..... ). ''C''''''''''' 'liry:'
FF!Il,\ Wi. FOOcr,l b"",~<"''y M.O>$C""" '\~"" 1. ",.,hi""" ... Ix.:. ~I""h !WI.
1,6 j, G, .\t ...fJn;g''', S. ". Mi " .. ,0<1 U. IOlI i"~"'-l~,j. S' .. i ~ k;.I/\ " .I)>i, Qt ~<>i"""" Qf ~c in l(omxI ..-.J
I""~"",,,I C_,,",' M.'"""...,." J, ACt, "',., 80, 00. l. 19~',~ . 167- 176.
1.7 J (, M""' ;"'~. "I,i....t,O I "" ign rn.. W('iM",,-oo C, ..,",,: C'Uf, J C.... I),~ .. ""I. J.
00.4. 197"- flIl. 4!'4-SI3
I ~ (;, \>"01<,. "S;do'y .,,1 s.,~,' '''''''h'y l'<v,i,."" "f ,he /\CI l<"i~I;"~ 0.10.- "CI O,U-I'W-I'O
S)''''l''"iu,n. Ac/ Sp<ria l I'"Nim,h", 51'-59. 1979,
1.10 N",MI/8 C,,/, 1/'4"'''''''''"'' tv' 51".","",/ C""''''I<. /\U .<1#-0), A,,,,..-;.,,, 0 .....",,, In,li,ule,
" .... "i"Il'("' Ih ll~ MI. ;>jm,
I II e"",m",",,)' "" H"",j.s e"l, I/fi(IIiffm""," fi" S,,,,,,",,,/ em",,,.. All JI ~R~IZ, A,"C""'" c""",,'"
"."ilu Le. I"","," ~" ", 11,11>. MI. !OO) ((>Ubi;, ,",,, . . . """ nt R.r. 1,101.
PROBLEMS
1.1. A 16 X 20 in. col um n is mnde of (he snn)l! concre(e ~nd reinforced wi1h 1he
s~".." ~i" No.9 (No. 29) b~rs as Ill<: column in Examples I. I and 1.2, cM'epl
(hat n S1L-.:I with yidd Slrength/" ~ 40 ksi i8 used. Thc S1reS~'S1r~in di~gr~m of
(his reinforcing s(eel is shown in Fig. 2.15 for/, = 40 ksi. "'or 1his column
(lelermin~ (a) IhI! axial load 1hn( will 81n:SS Ih~ concrele 101200 psi: (/1) 1hc
load at which Ill<: s1.:e1 slans yielding: (c) (hi! maximum load: (d) Ill<: ~hare of
(he total load c~rried by (he reinforcement a1 these Ihn.-.: Hages of load ing.
Compare =uhs wilh Ihose cakulaled in lhe example:; for/,. = 60 ~si, ~.:eping
in mind, in regard to relali\'e eCQnomy. thnlthe price pcr p<Jund for reinforcing
s(eel:; with 40 and 60 ksi yield p<Jints is aboulthe samc.
1.2. The aren of steel. expressed ns a percentage of gross concrete area, for the col.
umn of Problcm 1.1 i:; lower (han would often be used in praclice. RL",akula1c
(he comp~riwns of Problem 1.1 usingJ~ of 40 hi nnd 60 ksi ~ before. oot for
a 16 x 20 in . column reinfOr<:ed wilh eight No. II (No. 36) bars. Comparc
your re8ulls wi1h those Qf Problem 1.1.
1.3. A square concretc column wilh dimensions 22 x 22 in . is rcinfOr<:ed wi1h a
total of eigh t No. 10 (No. 32) bars arranged uniformly around the coh" nn
pcrinJeler. Mal<:rial S1rcnglhs arc/, = 60 hi andJ: = 4000 psi, wi th Slress
s(rain curVe8 ns given by curvcs <I and (' of Fig. 1. 16. Cakulale 1hc percenlages
of to(al load cnrried by 1he concre1e and by Ill<: Sled as load is gradually
increased from 0 to failure. which is a~sumed to occur when the concrele strain
reacll<:s a limi1 valuc of 0.0030. l)c1<-"rl)line the load~ al slrain incren)l!ntl' of
0.0<Xl5 up (0 (he failure main and graph your results, plouing lond percenlages
"S. S1rain. The modular ratio mny be assunK!d al II = 8 for 1hese ma1erials.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
Th~ slrucrures and compon~nr membe", rr~ared in rhi s rexr me compo~ of connell'
reinfom,d wirh sreel bars , and in ,on", ,-~ses prestr~'se<I witb steel wire, strand, o r
alloy hars. An understanding of the mar~rial-, dmr~crerislics and belmvi", under load
is fundamenrallO und~n;tanding tbe perfonnance of slructural concrete, and 10 safe.
""onomical, and s.erviceable design of concrere ,tru<'1ures. Although prior eXpO'lure 10
rhe fundamental, of material behavior is a,sumed, a brief review is pre,cnr~d in thi s
chaprer, as welt as a de'lCfiplion of the types of b"r reinforcement and prestressing
steel, in common use. Numerous rcferen,'Cs are given a, a guide for those seeking
more informalioll on any of rh" IOpics di"-'u-,,,-',.L
, 2.2 CEMENT
A c"memiriolls material i, one that h~s the adh~si,'e and cohesi"e pmpenies nL'CCssary
10 bond inert aggregates into ~ solid maSs of adequate meng1h and durdbility. This
redUlologically important tat~gory of ma{eriai> indud~s not Ollly c"n-.ems proper bur
also li"'''$, asphah" and tars a~ rhey are used in road building, and others . Fo r making
stru,'tuml concrer", so-calle<i hdrt",/ic "''''''Ill,' are uSL'{1 exdusivcly. Warer is needed
for rl", chemical pr()('e~s (hydrarion) in which the cement powder Sds and hardens imo
one solid mass. Of the ""rious hydr~ulic cements thm have been dew loped, !,or/hmd
,."",ml, which wa~ /irst parent"d in England in 182... is b)' far th" mO'lr common.
Portland cenlem is a finely powdered, grayi sh malerial rhat consist, chiefly of
calcium and aluminum silicates.' The common rdW mar"rial. from which it i, made
are limes{on~s, which pmvide CaO, and day' or shales, which furnish SiO, and
AI 10,. TIlese are ground, blended, fu,ed to clinkers in a kiln, and cooled, Gyp,um i~
added and the mixture is gmund to 100 required tin~n~". 11", material i, shipped in
bulk or in bag' containing 94 Ib of cen"'n!.
Over tlte YCill'i, five srandard types of portland c~ment have heen d~"doped. Type
I. "orm,,/ ponland cement. is u~ for m-er 90 percent of construc-rion in the Unit,,,,
Slares, Concrete, made with Type J portland cen",nt g"ncmlly llL'ed about two weeks
, s.." ASlM C ISO" "Su"..hml S!"",f.:aoi<OI h 1\>I1I.nd (""'n<nI,' 'I hi . and u" ",- ASlM ",r"",,,o,s "'" ""Ni.oo.! ...., penoJ~,. lIy upJ,"'" t>y
ASnt lo'c""aoiuNI (ft.",'''~Y (',,,,,1>;,...,,""
LII< A""'TI<:'" Socio.'y k. " I"Sli"~ ond M",cri.I.). \\"c>! I'A.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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MATERIAI_" 29
10 reach ,ufficient sirengih so thm form, of beam, and slab, can he reOlOved and rea-
,onable load, applied; they reach their ,\t"ign mength afler 28 day' and continue to
gain strength thereafter at a <i<'<.Tea,ing rate. To 'I"-"d conSUUl'ti<Hl when needed. hig"
early _"I",nlll" remenn' such as Tyl'" III have been developed. l1Jey "'" ('Ostlier than
ordinary portland (emem. bm within aboot 7 10 ]4 day' !hey reach th" ,t"'"gth
achi"" ..-d using Type I a1 28 days. Type III portland cement comail1' Ihe same hasil'
comp',ul1,1> as Tyl'" L but the relaliv" proportions differ and it is ground Illon: finely.
When ('ement is mix<--d with water 10 form a soft pa,te. it gmdually slifTens until
it beco"",s a ,,,lid. TI,i, pn":e,, i, known as ." m ill8 and Iwro<'llin8. l1Je cemem i, said
to have set when it h~s gained sufficiem rigidity 10 ~uPP"rt an arbitrarily defin<.,,1 pre,-
,ure, after which it ("ominue, for a long time to harden. i.e .. to gain further s1lel1gth.
l1Je water in the pasle dissolves material al the surface, of Ihe cement grains and
form, a gel thai gradually increases in ,'olume and 'lifTnes..~. Thi~ leads 10 a rapid ,tiff-
ening of the paste 2 10 4 hours ~fter water has been add<--d 10 the cement Hydration
continues to proceed dttper imo the ("en"'m grain,. m decreasing .pe<--d. with contin -
u<--d ,tiffening and hardening of the mass, l1Je principal produtts of hydralion "'" cal -
cium ,ilicm~ hydral", whi,'h is insoluble. and calcium hydroxide, which is soluble.
In ordinary collcrete, the cemem is probably nner completely hydrated, l1Je gel
,trunure of the hardened pa,te seem, to he the chief rea~orl for the volume challge,
that are caused in concrele by variation, in moisture, ,uch as the shrinkage of concret~
a, it dries,
For complele hydration of a given amount of ~"mem, an arlK>unt of water ">qual
to about 25 percent of that of ~"en",m . by weight-i.e" a \I"t<'r-amenl ratio of 0.25-
is II",--ded chemically. An additional aOlOunt musl he present. howe'-er. to provid"
mobility for the water in the ce"",,,t pa,te during Ihe hydr~tion pnx;ess so that it can
reach Ihe cement panicle, and 10 provide the necessary worbhilily of the concrete
mix. For normal connell's, the water-cement ratio is genemlly in tl", mllge of aboul
0.40 10 0.60. although for high-slrength concretes. ratim as Iowa, 0.21 h~ve been
u,,-"<l, In this ca>e. the needed worbbility i, obtained Ihrough the use of admixtures.
Any amount of water above Ihat ~x",sum"d in the chemical reaction produce,
pores in the ce"",nt paste. The strength of Ire hardell,--d paSle denease. in inwrse pro-
p'miolll<> the fraction of the total volume occupied by p'"e" Put differemly. since only
the solid,. and lIot lhe void~, re,ist stft."\,. strength innea.<;c, directl)' as the fraction of
the total volume occupiN! by the ,olids, TImt is why the sirengih of the cement paste
depends primari Iy <HI. and d,-""rea.,,,. di""'t]y with, an inc",a.~ing waler-<:ement mtio.
l1Je chemical process involved in the setting and hardening liberale, heat.
known a.~ h<'m of It., 'dmlioll. In large concret" masse,. ,uch a, dams. thi, heat i, dissi -
patN! ,-cry slowly and resu Its in a tempcmture ri"" and volume expansion of Ihe Con -
Crete during hydrntion. with subsequent c()()ling and contmcti,,", To avoid the serious
cmcking and weakening thai may re,ult from Ihi s process , sl"->cial measures mu,t he
tat"" for it, control.
, _, 2.3 A GGREGATES
In ordinillY slruclural collcrele~ the aggregale, occupy ah<>ut 70 to 75 percell! of tl", vol -
u"'" of the hardened mass, The remaimkr consists of harderied cement pasle. uncOm-
bin<.-d waler (i.e .. water IIot i"~olved in the hydration of the cement), and air voids. TI",
ianer two evidently ,k, not ("ontribute to lhe strength of the ~x",crete. In gelJeml. the
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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30 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
lOOn: densely th" aggregat" can be pad,ed, II", better tm, dUf~bi!ity aoJ ~cmlOm)' of II",
coocret". For this reason II", gradation of the partid" si1.'" io II", aggregat". to prodUl"<,
doo\<' palking. is of oonsid~rahle iOlponanc". It is also important that the aggregate ha,
good ,trength. durabi lity. aoJ weather resi,tan,'e: that its ,urfa,'e is free fnlllt impuri lies
,uch as loam, day. ,ilt. and organic maner that may weaken th~ bond with cen",nt
pa'te: and that no ul1favor~ble chemical reaction takes place between it a!KI the cel1"'l11.
Nmural aggr"gate, are g"ncf~lIy cla"ifi ..-d as fine and c<>arSC. Fin" "8!V~gme
(typi"ally natural sarKI) is any material that will pass a No . 4 ,i~ve. i.e .. a sieve with
four openings per linear inch. Ma!<'rial coarrer than this is da.~,ified a.~ "'){Ir.,e "g8re-
gate. When favof.lble gradation is desin.-d. aggregate, are separ.lted by sievi ng into
two or thre~ size groups of ,and and several size groups of coarse aggregate. These
can then be combined according to gradi ng chans to result in a densely packoo aggre-
gate, The Ilu"i",u", .,;ze of e(){Ir.'" "8gr~g(!/e in reinforced concrete is governed by tl",
requirement that it shall ea,ily fit into the forms and between the reinforcing bars. For
thi, purposc it should l10t he larger thal1 one-fifth of the narrOwest di"",nsiol1 of the
form, or one-thinl of the depth of slab" nOr three -quaners of the minimum di,tanc,",
hetween reinforcing bars. Requiremenl' for satisfactory aggregates arc found in
ASH.-l C ]]. "Standard Speciticmiol1 for Concrete Aggr~gat~s:' and authoritatiw
information on aggregate properties and lI",ir influence OIl ("Ql1crete prol"'nie,. as well
a, guidance in selenion, preparation, and handling o f aggregate, is found in Ref. 2.1.
n,~ unit weight of .Wm,e crJncrt'le. i.e .. concrete witb natuml slOn~ aggregate_
varies from about 140 to 152 pounds I"'r cubic foot (pet) and can genef.llly be
a~sumed to be 145 pef. For spe<:ial purposes. lightweight C<Hlcre!<',. 011 the OtlC hand_
and heavy concretes, 011 the other. are used.
A variety of lig/!llwiglo/ aggregate, is available. Some unprocessffi aggr~gates,
,uch as pumice or cind~r<;_ are suitable for insulating mn,-retes, but for stroct umllight-
weight mncrete.l'roce.",,,,l "gS"'stUc.' are used because of hetter control. These con -
,;st of expanded shales. days_ ,lates. ,lags, or pelletized fly a,h. They are ligll1 in
weight beeause of the porou,_ cellular structure of the ind ividual aggregate particle,
whi,-h ;s achie",d by ga, or stea m formation in pnx:essing lhe aggregates in rotary
kilns at high kml"'ratures (gene rally in ex<-~ss of 2000' F). Requirements for satisfac-
tory lightweight aggregates are found in ASTM C ]]0_ --Standard SI"-oeification for
Lightw~ight Aggrega!<" for Structural Concrete,"
nnee da~se, of lightw~ight concrete are disli nguished in Ref. 2.2: low-den,ity
concretes, which are ehiefly emplo)',--d for insulation and ,,-ho,., unit weight rardy
exceeds 50 pe( m<Klerate strength concretes, witb unit w~ight, from about tiO to 85
I'd and ("Qmp",,,ive strengths of I 000 to 2500 psi. wlti,-h are ,-hi~fly used as f,11. e.g, _
over light -gage sted floor panels: and structural concrete>_ with unit weights from 90
to 120 I"--f and compressive strengths C<lmparable to thos~ of slOne mncretes. Similari-
ties and differences in structural characteristics of ligbtweight and stone concrete, are
discu,,~d in Moetions 2.8 and 2.9.
Hem'},weixlll ('(lllcrete i, somelimes required for shidding again't gamma and
x-mdiatiotl in nudear reactor.; and ,imilar in'tallations. for protective st ructures. and
for 'I"-oeial purpose,_ such a, counterweights of Iin bridge,. Heavy aggregate, are used
for sud, concretes. These c<",~ist of heavy iron ores or barit~ (barium sulfate) nx:k
crushed to suitable ,ire,. Sk..,1 in the fonn of serap_ punchings_ or shot (a, fine,) i,
also uSt.-d. Unit weights of heavyweight <"<mcrete, with natuml heavy ",,,:k aggregates
mnge from about 200 to no pd: if iron punching, are added to higb den~ity ore"
weight' a, high as 270 pef are aehie\"~d. The weight may be as high a.~ 330 I'd if o res
are used for lhe fines onl y and steel for the c<>arSC aggregate.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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MATERIAI_" 31
"- ". 2.4 P ROPORTIONING AND MIXING CONCRETE
The various componell1s or a mi .x are propol1iollCd so Ihal the resulting concrele has
adequate slrength. prop.:r wor~abil it y for placing. and low cos\. Thc Ih ird call s for use
of the minimum amoum of ccme nt (lhe mOSl cosIly of thc components) that ..... ill
ach icvc adequate properties. TIle beH~r the gr~da(ion of ~ggrega1cs. i.c" the smn lkr
the volume or voids. the less cenle!lt paste is needed 10 follthcse voids . In addition to
the .....al~r required for hydml ion, WJtcr is necded for wcning the surfacc of the aggrc-
g~te . As Water is added. the plasticity ~nd fluid ily of (he mix illCre~se (i.e .. ilS work -
abili(y impro"cs). bu( the S(rengOl decreases because of the larger 'olume of "oids cre
a(Cd by (he free wa(cr. To rcducc (hc rrec wa(er while rctaining (he wor~ abili(y. cement
mu,( be added. Therefore. as ror the cement pnste. (he wmU' ('el<l<'l1l "'Iio is (he chicI'
fac(Or th~( control s (he slreng(h of (he concre(c. For a given ..... atercClllen( ratio. one
selecls (he minimum amount of celllell1 that will secure Ihe de, ircd workability.
Figure 2. I shows the decisive influence of the water'CClllCnt ra(io on the com
press i"c strenglh of concrete. II.S influcncc on the (~nsile mcnlHh . as measured by (he
nominal t1cxural S(rcng(h or modu lus of rupture. is secn (0 be pronounced Out much
FIG URE 2.1

Efl'ec1 of w".rcemem rati<>
"" 28.da)" com l'rc><i,-e and
fle,",-,I teo,i le strength.
V!df'l"Nl 1m", I<.{ 1.4_)
+--f---li "
.,
o ~~-~--c~-~ o
0.4 0 .5 0.6 0.7
Watar-lmant ratio, by wa;ght
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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,mailer Iha" ii, eff",--I "" the eompressi"e 'Irellgth. This St...,m, 10 be so because. in
additio" to the void ratio, the tensile 'trength depends sln"'gly on the slrength of bond
hoetw~en ~="'" aggregate ,"><1 ce=1l1 monar (i .e" cement past~ plus fme aggregate),
According to te,ts at C<;Imeil Uniw,-,;ity. this hond 'trength is only slightly affected by
rhe water-cement ratio (Ref. 2.3).
It i, customary 10 define the prof""ri""" of a corK'rete mix in tenn, of thoe tmal
weight of each cOJ11l'onent needed to make up I yd l of ,,et concrete. such as 517 Ib of
~..,mem, 100 Ib of waler, 1270 Ib of sand, and 1940 Ib of ,-~ aggregate, plus the
total volume of air, in percent. when air i, deliberately elUra;II<'J in the mix (typically
4 \0 7 pe,,-em). The weight, o f the fine and coarse aggnegate, are ba",-'<l On male rial ill
the sm,,,m,.t/ ,W rjlU'<! dry l'lJlldiliof1. in which. a, lhe description implie,. the aggre-
gates are fully salurated but have no waler on the eXleri<;lr oflhe pan icles .
Variou, metht><1, of pmponioni"g are u",d to obtain mix~s of the de,ired pmp-
enie, fmm Ihe cementS and aggregates at hand. One is the 'IO--<:alled Ir;,,'-bmr"
m~thod. Selening a water-cement ralio fmm infmmatio" such as Ihat in Fig. 2.1. "''''
pmduce, ""'er~1 small trial batche, wilh \'arying amou nts of aggregate 10 ohtai n the
required strength. cOf]si,wlIC)'. and oli",r pmpeni ~s with a minimum amount of pa'te,
C<lIlcrete l'lm.,i"te1!cy is IIK"t ffl><juently measured hy Ihe .,Iump rat. A metal mold in
the shape of a tmncated cone 12 ill. high i, filled with fresh concrete in a carefully
'pe<eified manner. Immediately umn hoeing filled. rhe "K,ld is lifted off, and the ~Iump
of the coocrete is measured ru; the difference in height between the nK)ld and ti", pik
o f concrele. The slump is a good measure of Ihe total water ,-Onteni in the mix ""d
,ht",ld he kept as low as i, compatible with workability, Slump' for cOl",rete, in build -
ing <eon,truction genera lly r....nge fn"" 2 to .~ in .. although higher ,lumps are used with
rhe aid of dlemical admixtures.
n", ,,>-called ACI meth!KI of pmponioning make, use of the ,lump te ,t in con -
n,-",tion with a sct of tables that, for a variely of COlulilion, (tyPl's of ,tructures. dimen -
,ions of "",mbers. degree of exposure to wealhering, etc .j, pennit one 10 estimate pm-
ponions that will re,ult in tl", de,ired pmpenie, (Ref. 2.5). lne"" prdiminaf)' sel""'ted
pmponion' are checked and adjustoo by "",am of trial bal<ehe, to resull in concrete of
the desired quality. Inevitably. 'trength propenie, of a <"<",erete of given pn'mnion,
,caller fmm hatch to hatch. It is therefore nece,=y to ",Iect proponi on, that will fur-
nish an average strength ,uffi<eienily greater limn the 'p'-",ified de'ign 'trength for even
the accidentally weaker batch", to be of adequate quality (for detail,. se" Section 2.6),
Di,!:u"iOll in del ail of p.-aclices for proportioning concret~ is hoeyond the .<x'pe of thi,
volume; thi s topk i, lreated fully in Reh, 2.5 and 2.6. both for ,tone concrete and f()f
lightweight aggregate coocretc.
If the result, of trial bald"" or field exPl'rience are not available. the ACI OKle
allows concrete 10 he proportioned ba",d on <;Ither experic11<."e or infonnation. if
approved by Ihe registered design pn,fessiollal ove r",-",ing the pmjec\. Thi s ahemativ~
may not hoe applied f()f 'p"cified compre"ivc strengths greater than 5000 psi .
On all but the ,malle,t jobs. "'",.-hi"S is carried oUl in special batching plani ,.
Separate hoppers contain cement and 1he various fractions of aggregate . Promnion,
are <eonimlk'<l. hy weight. hy mean, of manually opcrak'<l or automalic ",-,ale, con -
n,-",ted to the hoppers. The mixing water is hatd",d either hy ll",asuring tanks ot hy
water meters.
n", principal purpose of mix;"s is to produce an intimate mixture <;If ,-ell"'ni.
water. fine ami <"<"''''' aggregate, and I"",ible admixtures of unifonn <"<'n~istency
througlK>ut each batch. TI,is is achieved in machine mixers of ti", revolving-drum type,
Minimum mixing lime is I min ('" mixers of not more Ihan I yd l capacity. with all
additi<;lnal 15 se,- for ea<eh additional 1 yd 1. Mixing can be continued for a consider-
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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M ATER I AI_" 33
abl" ti"", widlQUl adver.;e dT~cl. This fact i, pnrticubrly imponant in cO""Loction with
ready mixed co"cret~.
On large proje(1s. panicularly in the open countl)' where ample 51':1<:1' i, avail -
ab'~, m",'abl~ mixing plants are in,talled and opermed al!l", sit". On the mher hand,
in constru<-tion under cong~sted city conditions, On ,mall"r johs, and fr"'luently in
highway construction, !ady mixed (,Oil,!!" is u>ed. Such C<;lncret~ is batched in a sta-
tionary plant and then hault.-d to the site in truch in one ofthr"" way" (I) mix~d cOm-
pletely m the stationary p'ant and haul<-d in a truck agitalor, (2) tmn,it -mixed. i .~"
batched at the plant but mixed in a truck mixer. or (3) panially mixed atthc plant with
mixing complek-d in a truck mixer. C<mcrele should be dischargl-d from the mixer or
agitamr within a limittld tillle after the water is added to!l", batch. Although specifi -
cations often provide a 'ingle value for all condition" the maximum mixing ti"",
,hould be based on the coocretc temperature because higher temreratures lead to
increased rates of _,/1<1"1' /0-'-' and rapid selling. Conversely, lower tcmreralure,
increase the period during which the concrete r~mains workable . A good guidt: for
maximum mixing time is to allow I hour at a temper~t ur~ o f ?O"F, plus (or minus) 15
min for ea,-h 5"F drop (or ri..,) in <"<",crete temper~tur~ for cone-rete teOlrerature,
between 40 and WE Ten minUle, may be used at 95"F. the practical upper limil for
n<;lnnnimixing and placing.
Much informmion on proportioning and other a,pects of design and control of
""ncrde mixture, will be found in Ref. 2.1.
'- , 2.S C O NVEYING, P LACI NG, C O M PACTtN G, A ND CU RIN G
Cmll'0 ';n8 of mo,t building concret~ from the mixer or truck to the fonn i, done in
1>o1lom-dump buckets or by pumping through steel pipelines. The chief danger during
conveying is thm of .<t!!V<'8mirm. The individual co"'ponent' of coOCrete tend to seg-
regate be,-ause of !l",ir di ..illli larity. In ,werly wet <-oncrete 'tanding in <-"onminers or
form" tl", heavier gr::lVd components tend to ",ule, ami tI", lighter materials. pani<-"u -
larly water, tend 10 rise. Lateral m<",e"",nt, ,u,-h as flow within the fonn" tends to
sepamte the COONe gmvel from the fi,,,,r components of the mix.
l'/acil18 i, tflo;, pnx=' of tr~nsferring 11", fre,h roncretoe from the conveying
dL'Vic~ to it, final pla<:e in the form,. Prior to placing, hK'''' ru,t mu St be removtld fmm
r~inforcemellt, fonns must he dem",d, :md harderll-d surfaces of previous cone-rete lifts
mu,t be deanI'd and treated appropriately. PIa<-ing and consolidating are critical in II",ir
elT~<-t on the final quality of tl", cOm-rete. Pmper piacell"'nt must avoid ",gregation.
di splacement of fonn, or of reinforcement in the fOnlL', and p'K)f bond betw""n ,u,--
"""iv~ layers of concrete. lrnm"diately up'''' pla('ing, d", concrete should he co/I,mH-
dmed, usunll)' by means of vibmtor'. Con,olidation prevents ho''''y<-ombing, en,ure,
do"! contaCt with fonns and reinfwcer""nt, and "'H'es as a p:lflial r~n,,--dy 10 possible
prior segregation. Oltlsolid:uion is achieved by high-fr"'luenc)', p',wer--driven ..ibm-
lOr.<. lnese are of the imem,,/ type, imme""d in the concrete, or of lhe xu",,,/ typ",
attached to the forms. The fOnl", r are preferable but mu,t he supplen"'nted by the lal-
ter where narrow fonns or 01l",r obstacles make immep;ion itllp'lSsibJe (Ref. 2.8).
Fresh coocrete gains ,trength most r~pidly during the fir<t few day' and weeks.
Structur~1 design is generally bused on tl", 18-d"-,, -'lr~"XI", about 70 pen-ent of which
is reachL-d at tl", end of the first week after placing. The final concrete ,trength depend,
greatly On the conditions of UI<,isture and temp"r~t ure during this initial period. 11",
maintenance of proper c<;Imlition, during this time i, known as ,-"uri"s. Thiny percent
<;If the strength or "I<'re <-an be lost by prerrmture drying out of the <-oncrete ; similar
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
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IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
anKlur,ts may be lost by pennitling th~ COncrete tempemture to droJl1{1 40F or lower
during the fi"'t few days unless th~ concrete is kept <'ominuously "Klisl for a long time
thereafler. Freezing of fresh concrete may reduce it, strenglh hy 50 perc~nt or more.
To pr~vem sucb damage. connet~ should be prolected from loss of moisture for
at least 7 days am!. in "Klre sensilive work, up to 14 days. When high early slfcngth
""ments are u",d. curing period, can be cut in half. Curing "an be nchi~ved by keep-
ing exposed surfaces continually wet through sprinkling. ponding. or covering with
plaslic film or by the use of sealing compounds , wbicb. wben Jlfoperly u~. form
eapomtion -retarding "",mbmne,_ In addition 10 improving strength. proper moist-
curing pnl\'ides bener shrinkage control. To proteci tbe LOn<'ret~ again't low lemper.l-
tures during cold weamer. the mixing water. and occasionally the aggregates. are heated:
temperature insulmion is us<x! where f'O'!,ibl~: nnd sptXial admixtures are employed,
When air temperatures are ~ery low. external heat may have 10 be supplit.x! in addilion
to insulation (Refs. 2.7. 2.9. and 2.10).
, _, 2.6 QUA Lt TY C O NTROL
TI", quality of mill-produced material,. such a, 'tru<:tuml or reinforcing steel. is as., ured
by the pnxlucer. who must exe'ise syslemali c quality controls. usually specified hy per-
tinent ASTM standard,. Concrele. in contra", is p.-oduc'ed at or dose to tl", ,ite. and iI,
tinal qualilies are affected by a number of facI""', which ha,'e been diseu<sed briefly.
TIm . ,)'ste mntic qualil)' colltrol must be instilUI<-x! 3l1hc nltlStruction 'ite.
n.e main "",asure of the s!ructur.ll quality of ("(mcrete is it, cOI"f'I'I'_",il'e .\'r"'''8Ih,
Te,tJ; for Ihis property are made on tylindrical 'pecim"ns of beight "'lual to twice the
diameter. u,ually 6 X 12 in. Imperviou, molds of this shape are filled with connete
during tl", oper.ltiml of plac'~n"'nl a, speeified by ASTM C 172, "Slandard Method of
Sampling Freshly /l lix'-x! Concrete:' and ASTM C 31. "Statldard Practic'e for Making
and Curing em",rele Te't Specimens in th~ Field." '!be cylinde", are moist-c'ured at
about 70P' ge,,,, r.llly for 28 days, and locn lestex! in tbe labor.ltory at a specified r.lte
of lo"ding. The ("(Impressive 't"'ngth obtained from such teslS is ktlown as the ,'yli"dcr
_flre"8th I; and i, toc main property specifi ed for design purpose,_
To provide ,trucluml <nfety. continuous ,'omrol is nece.sar)' to ensure thai tl",
'trength oftbe conc'rete as fumishlx! is in ~tisfanory agreement with the ,",Iue called
for hy the de'igner. The ACl Code 'p'-'cifi~, thai a pair of cylind~T> must be tested for
eath 150 yd 1 of concret~ or for eac'h 5000 fll of su rfae", area aclually JlI"",-x!. but nOl
Ie.. than once a day. A, mentioned in S""'li on 2.4, the resuits of ,trength t~sl~ of dif-
ferent batches mixed to identical proportions show inevitahle sca[{~r. The sca1t~r can
be rt.x!uc~d by dos~r COlUro!. but ll('Casional tcst, below the cylind~r s{fenglh specified
intoc d~sign cnnnOl be avoilk,,!. To enSure adequate concrete slrenglh in spite of soch
,catter, Ihe ACI Cod~ slipuiale, that "o",:rete qunli1y i, ",-tisfanory if (I) no individ -
ual slrength t~SI result (the a,-emge of a pair of cylind~r lesls) falls below 1he required
f: by more than 'i00 I"i when/; i, ,'iOOO p<i or less or hy more than 0.101: when/; i,
more than 'i{)()() p,i, and (2) every arithmetic a"emge o f any three consecutive slrenglh
tcst, equals or CXC'L'Lx!, I;,
It i, evident Ihat, if concrele wer~ proponioned so thnl iI, mean slrength were
just eqml to the r"'luired strength I:.
it would not pass thes~ quality n:<jui",mem,.
hl-cau", ahout half of its slfength lesl resnlts ",ould fall belo", the required I,'. It i,
therefore neces",-ry to proportion the COOCret~ so lhat its mean strenglh I;,. used a, tl",
basis for ""Ienion of suitabl~ proportions. eXCL"eds the r"'luir<-x! d~sign slrenglhf: hy
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
M ATERI AI_" 35
FIG UIU: 2.2

F""ILlCII"Y eu",e<.nd
",'",age strensth' for ,"';",,,
dcgr=s of eont"'! of
coone,es "' jth specified
dc'ign ;'rt:nf,h r..(AdaIAM
1",,,,//41./1,)
, 0
.Q .Q
"'~ :...t ",b
Compressive sireoglh
an amount sufficient {() ensure thnt lhe m~l qumed requirements are mel. lne mini -
mum mnoum by wbich the ,,-,<!uired menn strength muSl exc~>e<l!; cnn be determined
only by 'lali,lical methods because or the random nature or te,t scatter. R""uiremem,
ba,'e be",n derived , based on ,Iatistical annlysi,. 10 hc u",d a, a guide 10 proper pro-
portioning or the concrete a1 the plam SO Ihat lhe probability or slrength deficien(-y a1
the construetion site is a(-ceptnbly low.
nle ba,is [or these "-'<Juiremem, i, illuslr.:lIed in Fig . 2.2, which shuws three nQr-
mal frequency curye, giving the distrihution o[ strength test re,ull~. TIie specilied
design strength is f.'. The (-urves correspond tQ three different deg"-"'" of qua lily con -
trol. ('U""" A repre",ming the best comrol. i.e .. the least scaner, and curve C lhe worsl
comrol. Wilh the 1110,1 scalter. The deg"-",, of control i, measured stmistically by tI",
,tandard deviation ( . for('u",'" A. I> [or curve H. and < [or Curve O. ,,-hich is rd -
ati""ly ,mall for produ(-er A and rdatively Inrge for producer C All d,,,-",, di,tribulion,
have the same pmbabililY of,trength I"" than the ,f't'Cified "al ue!;, i.e .. ~ach ba, the
,an", fmctional part of the torul area undcr the curve {() lhe left o[ E. For any nonrtlll
distribution curve. thai f""'tional part is deli"",,1 by the index ". n mu lt iplier applied
to th" standard ocviation ; , is the sarne for all Ihree dislributions of Fig, 2.2 . It i,
",-",n that. to s.alisfy the requirement lhat, say. Ile't in 100 wilt fall below,';: (with the
value of . , thus oct~r111in~-d). for produ(-er A Wilh the best quality controllh" me""
,tr"ngth!;, can be much doser 10 tI", 'pe(-ified.t;: than for producer C with the m051
p<X>r!y controlbl ol"'rnti!Kl.
Oll tbe oo.,i, o f such studies, lhe AC I Code K'<Juires that concrete productio" facil -
itie' maintain record~ from which tI", stalKlard d~vinlion nchieved in tI", particular
fncility Carl be determined. It t""n stipulnte, t"" minimum allKlUnt by which the required
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
36 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
a,wage slrcnglht,. ainx"(j al when sclccling eonerele propor1ions. mUSl e~c.:cd lhe SIX"'-
ifitd design slrenglh/; _dCjxnding on lhe slnnclnrd d\:vimion as follo .... s:
1;, =1; +1.34 (2. 1)
'" I" = t + 2.33 - 500 fnr/, :5 5000 p,i (2.la)
I" = 0.90/; + 2.33 for lc 5000 psi (2.21

Equmion (2.1 ) provides a prolxlbilily of I in 100 tilal awrages oflhrceconseeuliw leS1S
will be belo .... lhe spcciticd slrcngth/;. Equalions (2.2<1) and (2.2b) provilk a prooabil -
ity of I in 100 lhm an indi ,'idual slrcnglh lest .... i II he more than .'iOO psi belo .... lhe sPC'C -
ifled/; for t up 10 5000 psi or below 0.901; fort over 5000 psi . If no adcqume record
of COllCl>:le planl performance is availahle. the awrag~ slrcnglh mUSl cxc~'Cd t hy al
leasl 1000 psi for t of 3000 psi. by at least 1200 psi fort belwccn JOOO and 50Cl0 psi.
and by 0. lOt + 700 psi for t o,'er 5000 psi. according 10 the ACI Code.
1\ is SlXn lhat tilis method of c01l1rol recognizes the fact lhat occasional deficient
hatcl"o:s ao>: inevitable. The requol>:l....,nls ensul>: (I) a small probahility Ihat such
strenglh defieiencics as are boulld to occur will be larg~ enough to represent a serious
danger alld (2) an equally small probahility thm a s izable pol1ion of tile structure . as
represented by threc consecul ive strength teslS ..... ill be made of below-par concrete.
In spitt of seientil"ic ad"allCcs. building in general. and concrele ma~ing in par-
ticular. rewin some elclncnls of an an: they depend on mnny sk.ills and imponderables.
1\ is lhe 13sk of systematic ;"Jlff.'d;(lli 10 ensure clos.: correspondence betwccn plans
and spccificalions and the finished structure. Inspcclion during conslruction should be
carried OUI by a compel~nt engineer. prckrably the one who produc~d the design or
one .... ho is responsible to the lks ign cnginecr.lhc inSJlCClOr>S main funclions in regard
to materials qual ity control are s.1lnpl ing. examination. and Ikld testing of mmerials:
control of concrete proponioning: inspection of batching. mixing. conveying. placing.
compacting. and curing: and supervision of the preparalion of specimens for labora-
tory lcsts. Tn addition. the inspcclor mUSl inspcel foundations. fOrlnwork. . placing of
reinforcing sleel. and other pel1i1ICOlt features of the gentral progress of wor~: ktep
records of all the inspected ilems: and prepare periodic rcpons. The imponancc of
thorough inspection to th~ com:ctness and adequat~ quality of the finished struclUre
cannOl be emphasiz~'d 100 strongly.
Thi s brief account of concrete technology represents the merest outli ne of an
imponall1 subjec1. A nyone in practice who is actually responsible for any of Ihe
phases of producing and placing concrele muSl be familiar wilh the details in much
grealer depth .
, _, 2_7 A DM IXTURES
In addition to lhe main components of conereles. ,"lmi.Hurl'S arc often uS<.'d to i mprovc
concrete perfoflnance. There arc admixtures 10 accelerate or retard sclling 31ld hard-
ening. to improve .... oTkabil ily. to increase strength. to improve durabil ity. to d..-crcasc
permeability. Jnd to impJrt other prop..:nies (Ref. 2.12). Thc beneficial effects of par-
ticular admixtures are well eSlablished . Chemical admixlUres should mcct the
rcquiremcll1s of ASTM C 494. StandJrd Specification for Chemical Admixtures for
Conerele:'
Air-e"/f<lilli"g (lg""/s arc probably tl"o: 1110S1 commonly used admixtures at the
present tim~ . nl~y cause the entrainment of air in lhe form of s mall disJXrsed bubbles
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
M ATERIAI_" 37
in tm, ,-Onerete. These improve workabi lity and dumbility (chi efl)' re~i51an"e to fR..,z-
;ng and thawing), and R'<.Iuce segregal;on during plac;ng _Thcy de,-rease cone-rete den -
,it), !Jt.'<-ause of the ;ncrea<;cd void ralio and thereby decrease slrength; howc,-er, thi,
d,'ITease can be pan;ally offsel by a reduction of mixing water without loss of work-
ability. The chief use of a;r-emm;ned concretes is in pavemem" hut they are also used
for ,tructures, panicularly for exposed element' (Ref. 2_13).
Accdcrmill8 "d",ixture" are used 10 ft.'<.Iuce setting lime and accelerate early
'trength devdopment. Calc;um chloride i, th" mosl w;ddy used accelemtor becau,,",
of it, cost clfe,-t;vene", but it .rnQuld not he u><xl in pre,tre,sed (,(Hlcrete and .hould
be used with caution in reinforced concrete in a mo;,t env;mnmem, because of it, len -
dency to promote comlSi<>ll of stt."'1. Nonchloride, noncorrosive accdera1;ng admix -
ture, are available (Ref. 2.12).
Sct -retardi,,!! ",/",ix/"r~.'- are nsed primarily 10 offset the a,-cder.:lting effect of
high ambient tcmpemture and to keep the cOnerele worbble during d", em;re placing
period, This help, tQeliminate cmck;ng due to foml defle,'t;on and also keeps concret~
workable long enough thai succeeding lifts can be placed without d", de"eloflmem o(
"cold" jQinl,_
Cena;n organic and in"rga ni" compound, are used to ,,'<Iuce the water 'equ;re-
melll of a ""ncrete mix (or a g;ven ,lump, Sud, ,-ompound, are lerrned 1'/".,tici~,'H.
Reduction ;n water demand may ""ult in e;lher a redun;on in the water-cemem mtio
for a gi\'en ,lump and c-cn",nt ,-omel11 , or an increase in slump for lhe ""me water-
C-Cment mtio and ,-emem col11em. Pla't;cizers wo,-j.; by R,<lucing the ;me'l'anide fo"""
that exi,t betw<-..,n ,-en",nt gmins in thc fre,h pa,te, thereby increasing the pa.~1C fluid -
;ty_ H;gh-mnge waler-reduc;ng admixlUres, or ,<lII't'rp/".wi,iur. , are used to produce
high-strcnglh n,"cr~le (,...", Senion 2_12) with a \'Cry low water-cemem ratio whik
maintaining the higher ,lump' n,..,<led for proper placement and compan;on of tl",
"oncrde. TIley are al"" u,...'<.1 to produce flowable ('onc,et~ at conyel11;Ollal waler-
~"Cmelll r~tio,_ Supe'l'ia~ti"ize" differ fmm convent;onal water-redu,-ing adm;x1ure,
in thaI they do not an as remniers at high do>:!ge,; therefore, they can be UM.'<.I a1
higber dosage rate, without severely slowing hydm;on (Refs. 2, 12. 2. I4, and 2.1 'i),
TI", ,pt.,<-ific effecl' of water-reducing admixtures vary with differelll ce""'nts,
change, in water-<-"Cmelll mtio, mixing lemper~ture, ambient wmpemture. and Olher
job (,(Hld;tion" and tr;al batd",s are gellemlly requ;red_
Fly mil and _,ilim fi"ne are l",z1_0Iall . h;ghly aclive ~i lica that combine with
talc;um hydroxide, the so]nble product of C-Cmelll hydr~t ion (St.'Ct;on 2.2), tQ form
more calcium silicale hydrate. the inS<lluble product of cement hydration. P01.zolans
qualify as mineral mlmix/",,.' , which are used 10 repla~'C a part of tl'" ponlalld ce",ent
;n m'Krete mixe,_ Fly a,h, which is spe6fied under ASTM C 61 8, "Standard Speci -
fication for Coal Fl)' Ash and Raw or Calc;fi<-'<.I Natnml POlloian for Use as a Mineral
Adm;xlure in Con,-rete," is pre<-ip;lated dectrmtatically a, a by-prod""t of the exhausl
fUll"'S Qf coal -fired I",wer ,tat ions_ It i~ \'ery finely diyitk'<.l and reactS with calcium
hydroxide ;n the presellce of moisture to for", a cementitiou> material. It tend s to
increase the strenglh of concre1e at ag"s ",'er 28 days. Silica fUIll". whi,-h is specified
under ASTM C 1240, "Slandard Spt.'Cifi,-m;on for U~ of S;lica Fume as a Mineral
Admixlure in Hydraul;c Ce",ent Concrde, Monar. and GmUl,";, a by-produ,-l ""sult-
;ng from d", lIlanufanure, in elenric -arc furnaces, of fem,-silicOll alloys and s;liron
metal. It is extremely finely div;d<-'<.I and is h;ghly cememitiQus when combined with
I"mbnd cement_ I" n,lllmst to fly ash. silica fume cOl11r;OOte, mainly to ,trellgth gain
at early agts, from 3 tQ 28 day,_ Both fly ash alld ,ilica fUllle, pani,-ul",ly tm, latt~r.
ha,-e been iml"lITant ill the produ"t;onof high-'trength nmcrete (see Section 2.ll),
When either s;lica fun", or fly am, Qr txlth. are u><-'<.I, ;t ;s "ustOlnary to rerer tQ the
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
,,a/a-t>melllitiou.' /lulle,ill!." wrio rather than th" water-('eIT",111 ratio. This typically
may be a, low as 0.25 for high-strength co""rete. and ratios as Iowa, 0.21 hav" been
used (Ref,. 2.16 and 2.17).
.... _, 2.8 P ROPE RTI ES tN C OM PRE SSIO N
a. Sho rt-Term Loading

Pe rfonnance of a ,tructure under load del"'nds 10 a large degree On lhe st,,,-,,-,t rain
relationship of the material from which it is made. onder the tyl'" of Slress to which
the material is suhj<>eted in the structure. Since conc,ete i, used lIlostly in ("""pres-
sio" . its compressive stress -,train Cur"" is of primary illl eresL Su,;h a (' urve is ohtained
by appropriate 'train measurements in cylinder tests (Section 2.b) or on the compres-
sion side in beams. Figure 2.~ ,how$ a typical set of such curves for nomlal-density
concrete. ohtai",->d from uniaxial comp,,,,,ive lest, I"'rformed at normal. modemle
tesling 'peeds on <~",cr"te, tll at ar~ 28 days old . Figure 2,4 shows corresponding
cU"'e, for light\\ieight concretes hm'ing a density of 100 pd.
A ll of the c",,'''$ have somewllat similar chanKler. They consist of an initial rel -
ati,'ely straight elastic ponion in which stress a nd strai n are do,"'y pmponional. then
begin to curve to 11.., horizontal. reaching the maximu m stR"!'. i.e .. the (xlmpressive
strength. ar a ,train thar ranges from alxlut OJI02 to 0.003 for no"nal-density con -
crete,. and from aho ut 0.003 to 0.0035 for lightweight corKrete, (Refs. 2.18 and 2, (9).
the larger value. in each case corresponding l() the higher strenglhs, All curws show
" "
" ., "
,
-"
-",, ,
! ,,
,,
.~
6
.,

>
0
, [, ,
.\ u
0
, ,
~~~~~~~~~ o 0 ~~~~~~~~~
0.001 0,002 0.003
o
0.004
0.001 0,002 0.003 0.004 0
Sirain fc SIrain tic
FIGURE 2.3 FIGUIU : 2.J

"IYric-.l ",mpre>li"e "",,,>tra in cu""" f<>< l.onIlllt-don,it), Typical C<)mrro"';vc ,"o~Ntra i n eu,,'", f<J< tighr",.igllt
con"e,e ",'iln w, ~ 145 pd. /AJiwuJjmm ~'fs. U8<m<! 1,/9.1 concrete ,"-'j,n w, - 100 pd. lA,klf'l<Jf~"'J /I'ft. 1. 18~ord 119.)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
MATERtAl_" 39
a desc~nding hraru:h afte r the peak stre" i, reached; however. the characteri,ti", of th"
Curve, aft"r peak ,tress are hi gh ly dependent upon the meth(xl of testing. If special
p"x,,_'<lure~ are followed in te'ting to ensure a con,tant 'Irain rate while cylinder resi,-
lance i, decrea,ing. long stabk descendi ng br~nches Can he obtained (Ref. 2.20)_ In
the ab,.,,,,;e of spe('ial devi l"'. unloading past tt", point of peak stress may he rapid.
particularly fOJ the higher-strength (XlIKretes. which arc generally mOJe brittle than
low-strength concrete.
In present practice. the 'pecified compre"i"e strength f; is commonly in tl!.,
rnnge from 3000 to 5000 psi for nOJmal den'ity cast -in- pb('e concrete. and up tQ abmn
8000 psi fQr preca~t prestressed cCIIlcrete members. Ligh tweight c<mcrete strengths are
,omewhat bdow the", valu"s generally. The high-'trength concretes . with f; to I 5.000
p,i OJ more. are u,,-'<l with increa~ing frequency. particularly fOJ I!.,avily loaded ("01 -
umn, in high-rise concrete buildings and fOJ long-span bridge, (mostty preme"ed)
where a significant r<'{luction in dead load may he reali7.ed by minimizing memher
cro"-,,-'dion din",n,ions. (See St.,{,tion 2.12.)
l1Je 11100"/".' of e/lI.wi.;ry E,. (i n p,i units). i, e .. the slope of the initial straight
poniQn of the stress- str~in curve. i, ""n {() he larger the hi gher the strength of the COIl -
Crete _ FOJ ('oncrete, in tl", strength r.mge to aboot 6000 p"i. il can be compuled with
reasmlable ",-'curacy from the empi rical <,<!uation found in the ACI Code:
(2.3)
where we is the unit weight Qf tt", hardened concrete in pd andf; is its strength in psi,
Equation (2.3) wa, obtainc'<l by te'ting structural concretes with ,,,dues of w,. from 90 to
155 pef. For nOflllal ,arul-and -,tollC conne..,s. with w, = 145 pef. Ee may he ta""n as
(2.4 )
For compres.,ive strength, in the range from 6000 to 12.000 psi. the ACt Cooe <'<iua-
tion may o\'ere,tirnale E,. for both normal-weight and I ightweight material hy as much
a~ 20 per~"nt, Based on research at Comell University (Ref>. 2.18 and 2, 19). the fol -
lowing equation is ,,->commended fOJ normal-density concrete, with f; in the mng~ of
3000 to 12.000 p,i. and for lightwei gh t ("Oncrete, from 3000 to 9000 p"i:
(2.5)
14 5
where Wnm and units are a, defined above for the ACI Code <,<!uations. When COM'"
aggregate~ with hi gh modul i of dasticity are used. however. Eq_ (2 .4) may ,,,,,It'rt!w;-
/!late E, .. Thu ,. in cases where E, is a key d~,ign criterion. it ,Iwuld he mea,ured.
rut""r than esti mated using Eq. (2 _3). (2.4 ). or (2.5)_
Infonnation on ('oncrete strength properties such as those discu ssed is usually
obtained through "',ls made 28 day' after placing. However. C'Cn",nt cont inues to
hydrute, and consequently concrete ("ontinue, to harden. long after this age. at a decreas-
ing rate. Figure 2_,'i ,how, a typical cur\'e of the gain of con<"fete s{fength with age for
concrete made using Type I (nonnal) centent and also Type III (h igh early strength)
("mem. each cur"e normalized with respect to tl", 28-day ~'olllpressive 'trength_ High
early strength ",,,,,,,n ts produce more rapid strength gain at early ages. allbough the
rute of 'trength gain al later ages is generally less_Concrete, using Type III C'CmeU! are
often u..oo in precasting plant,. and often tI", strength i:' i, specified at 7 da)'s. rathe r
than 28 days_
It should he nOk'<l that the shape of the stress -'train curve for variou s concrete,
Qf tt", san", cylinder strength. and even for the """'" ("(mcre'" und"r variou, {"(lIldition,
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
40 IW..'i I{; N OF CONCREn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
, T~ I I-~
FIGUIU: 2.5 L
of .ge OIl ,,,mprciYe
Eff-~
L
m""g,h F, fOf moi't-cured
,,,,,,,,,I<. (Nj,'l'l<d fmm R,! 0 earty strength - -
2.1J.,
, \~
o.
o.
.,V 'k<
,
, Type I-normal
0 ,, , 14 28 90 180 ,
"''' AIIE' (log seal,,) ""'"
~' I G U RE 1.6 , .00
SUe>.-"rain CUf',.,.t 100 days
,"';o.l> "nun TIl'"'.
concentric ro,npre" ioo,
',\,k'l~d fmm l4'j: l .!!. , , 1 day
0,75 ,, ,
C" ,, ,",
, \
0 .'"
,
1 min
u
0
$ '~
0
0.25 ,'"-
'8.
w
0
0
0 0,00 1 0."" 0.000 0.""
Concrete strain
of loading. vafie, con,idefably. An ex"mple of this i, .hown in Fig. 2.6, Wh~f~ dif-
ferent ,[",cimen, of the same ,'oncr~t~ are lo"Jed "t diffe rent rates nf slmin. from one
coITe.ponding to a reiatiwly faM loading (0.001 p"r min) Hl one cOITe'pooding 10 an
cxtre mely ,low application of load (0.001 pe r IOOdays). It is seen that lhe descend -
ing bmnch of the curve, indicative of int~mal di,int~gmtion of th~ ma t~rial, is much
more pronoUl1<"ed at fast than at slow rates of loading. It is also seen that the p"ah of
the cur\"~s, i.e" th~ maximum st rengths rea,hed . are somewhat smal!~r nt slower mt~'
o f ,train.
When compressed in one di r~{'tion, concrete, Iike other materials. expands in tI",
direclion transverse 10 that of the applied <tresS. The mtio o f the tran,ve rse 10 the lon -
gitudinal stmin is kno"'" a.~ po;.,.,o" '" rat;o and dep""ds 'IO,,,,,wiml on strength, ",,,n-
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 rHl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
M AT ER I AI_" 41
posi(jon. and otller factors. At slresses lower than aoout O.7J; . Poisson's Mio for con
crele falls wilhin llIe limits of 0.15 10 0.20.
b. Long-Term Loading
In some engincering In~lerial s. such as sleel. strenglh and lhe slress-main rela(jon
sh ips are illdep.:nocnt of ratc and dura(jon of Io.'lding. m least wilhin IhI: usual rnnges
of (";lIe of Slress. lemperature. and olher variables . In conlrast. Fig. 2.6 illUSlrates IhI:
fXI Ihat lhe influence of lime. in Ihis case of rale of loading. on Ihc behavior of con
crete ufl(kr lood is pronounced. Thc main reason for Ihi s is Ihal concrele creeps under
load. while stc'd docs 1101 cxhibit crc,,",p undcr cond il ions prevailing in huildings,
hridges. and similar slruclurcs.
Creel' is Ihe slow ddonnalion of a material ovcr considcrable lenglhs of lime m
conSlanl Slress or load. The n~l"re of Ihe creep proccss is shown schematically in Fig.
2.7. This part icu lar COllCl>:le was loaded alier 28 day s wilh resulling inSlanla neouS
Slrain ",," l1JC load was Ihen mainlained for 230 days, during which time creep was
secn 10 have increased Ihe 10lal deforll1alionto almost 3 l;nlCs ils inslanlaneous 'aluc .
If the load weI'! ma int ainoo, lhe dcfornlnlion would follow lhe solid cunc. If Ihe load
is remo'"xl. as shown hy the dashed curvc. mOSI of IhI: clastic instantaneous strain "",
is recovcred. and some er.:cp recovery is St.'Cn to occur. If lhe concr.:le is reloadc-d al
some lalCr dale, inslantaneou s and creep deformation s dcvelop ag~in, as shown.
Creep deformalions for a given eoncrele are practically proponional to the mag-
nitude of Ihe appli ..xl stress: al any gi"en stress, high-slrenglh concretes show less
creep Ihan lower-slrength concrCles. As seen in Fig. 2.7. wilh elapsing linlC. creep pro-
cc"Cds at a tkcreasing rnte and ceases alier 2 to 5 ycars al a fillal ,'aluc which. dcp.:nd-
ing on concretc slrenglh and OIlier faclors. is aoout 1.210 J linlCs the ll1~gniludc of lhe
FIG URE 2.7 0

Typical creep cU"'e (COlIC .. '"
loaded ", 6(X) psi at age
----- -
28 d.y.).
o. ,
,I ,,
,,
, --
8
0 0 , /
t.",
,,
11, ,~
, ',-
~

~
0 ,
t"'~ '_,\,
'- - JJ
-
0 ,
E
,

"
E
"
,~
0
0
o
"" "" ""Age. ""
days ""
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
42 IW..'i[{; N OF CONCREn: STRUCfliRES Olapl<r 2
in'tan1a,,~ou, ,t rain. If. in't~ad of being applied quickly and 1he",aftcr k~pt con'lant.
the load is increased slowly and gmdually. a, is 1h~ ea,e in many ,trueture<; during and
afte, CQlls1ruction. instantaneous alld c,"""p deformation, p,,"'....,d ,imultaru.ou,ly. TIle
eff~ct i, that shown in Fi g. 2.6: i.e .. the previou,ly di, ..",,,,d diffe"'n~.., in the , haP<'
of 1he ,tre,,-,train cur\"~ for ' -an,,,,s mtes of loading is chiefly th~ resul! of the creep
defon",,!ion of C<;lncret~.
For ,t re ,,,,s not ex"""ding al"JUt half the cylind~, ,trength. creep stmins are
approximatdy proponionnl to ,1ress. Beenu"" initinl dnstic ,trni", ille also propor-
tional to <;tre5.> in this mnge. thi, permits definition of Ihe eral' co<'n;d~m:
c =~ (2.6)
"
where ... is th~ final a,ymptotic ,alue of the addilionalneep main and , d is dlC ini -
tiaL ;nstnmaneou-< '1r~in wh~n th~ load i, fiNt applied. Creep may "lso be expre,sed
in term, <;If lhe "",,<:ifi, ' 0>:<'1' c. defmed as th;, additi<;lnnl timc-dcpendent S!f~in per
p~i St""s. It call easily be ,hown Ihm
(2.7)
In mlditio" to the ,1ress Ind. c,"""p d~p"nds ou the average ambient relatiw
humidity. being nK)re than twi~.., a, lillg~ for 50 pe,c"em as for 100 percent humidity
(Rd. 2.2 3). Thi, is so beenuse pnn of the r<.-due1ion in "ol ume under sus1ained load i,
cau,,--d by oUlwa,,1 migra1io" <;If fr<..., pore wmer. which napomtes into th~ ,umJUnd -
ing ,,1I11ospllere, Oth~r factors of imfXInanee includ~ the type of Ument and aggregate.
age of Ihe corn:rete wl!en fiNt 1",,,.1<.-d. and c<;lnc,et~ ,t",ngth (Ref. 2.23) . TI,e cr<.>ep
c()effici~nt for high-s1rength ~~lnc"'t~ is much less than for low-s1rength concrete,
However. sus1ained load '1re,,~, are apt 10 Ill: higher '0 that tl", creep de/orlluuio/l
may Ill: n, great for high-,trength connete. even though the n ....,p c(Jeffici~nt is less.
TIle values of Table 2.1. qU<;l1l-d from Ref. 2.24 and extended for high-s1f~ngth
concrde based on reseilleh at Com~ll Univ~r;ity. are Iypical vnlue, for nWr.lge humid -
ily ~~,"ditions. for concrete> looded at the age of 7 dnys.
To illus1mte. if the CQncret~ in n column with/; = 4000 psi is ,uhjen to a loug-
tinle load that cnuses ,u,tained stress of 1200 rsi. dlen aft~r seveml )'enrs under load
the final valueof1beer""p 'train will be about 1200 X 0.80 X 10 ~ = O.(XX)%. Thu"
if the column were 20 ft long. c",ep "x",ld shonen il by about i ill.
TABLE 2.1
Typical creep parameters
Compressive
Stren gth Specific en/",P
psi
." 10-< per psi 10-< per MPa Creep coefficient
"'" " ,..,

' .00
'" ), 1
"'" " '"., 2,9
"""
"'"
10.000 """
O.5~
,.'"
0.28 "
"2.0
t2.ooo ".B
" 0.12 "
"
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
MATERIAI_" 43
n,~ creep coeffici~m a' any time, C,.,. can be rdated to the ultimate creep c<",f-
ticiem Cc. ' III Rd. 2.21. Bran,on suggests the equation:
[ 0,'"
C" .. -c;';-:o.,
10 + 1J<) C'"
where I = tin'" in day' aner Io-wing.

In many special ,itumioos. e.g .. slend~r memhers or fra111~s. or in prestre,scd
~x'"struction. the design~r ",u,t take a<'~x,unt of the. Lx)",bioc-d df~"'t, of <'reep and
shrinkage (Seclio" 2. 11 ), In ,u<'h cascs, rather than relying on the >ample valu~s of
Table 2.1. more acCumle infonnalion on cr~ep parallIelers shWld he obtained, such as
from Ref. 2.21 or 2,24.
$u>tained loads atTeet not only lite deformation but also llIe strength of conn~te.
The cylinder strength j; is d~lermined al normal raleS of test loading (about 3 .~ psi per
se,j. Tests b)' Riisch (Ref. 2.22) and al Cornell Univcrsily (Rds. 2.25 and 2.26) ha"e
shown that. for <"<",centrically loaded ullreinforc't.-d cuncret~ prisms an<! cylinders. tile
$1"'"gl11 'IIIJa -"",wined load is sign ificamly smaller than j;. on tl>c order of 7.~ pcr-
C'C'" of); for loads maintained for a year or more. Thus, a memller subje,{ed 10 a sus-
tained overload causing compressiv" stres< of over 75 peKCnt of .r; may fail aner a
I"'riod of time. e""n though the load is nm increased .
c. Fatigue
When ~x'n<-rete is ,ubj<-",t 10 nuctuating r~ther than suslained loading. its jm;gue
.,{",ng{h. as for all other malerials. is considerably smaller (han its ,tatic 'lJength,
When plain concrete in compression i, slJ~,sed c-ydically from zcm 10 maximum
,tre ss. ils faligue limit i, fmm 50 to 60 percent of th~ "ntic compre"i\'~ slJeng{h , f",
2.(x)(),(X)() cYc-les, A rea""nabk estimate c-an he ",ade for other siress rang"" using tl",
modified G(xxlman dingmm (st.'" Ref. 2.24). For other types of appli<--d stress. ,uth a,
flnuml co"'pr~"iv" stress in reinfoKed concrete heams '" flexur~1 t~nsion in unrein -
forced hearns or On the (~nsion side of r~inf"'ct.-d beams. the faligue limit likewise
appea" to he about 55 peKent of the corresponding slatic strength. Thesc figures,
h<mever. are for gener~1 guidatKe onl)'. It i, known that tl'" fatigue st renglh of Con -
Crete depend, not onl)' OIl ilS ,tmic 'trength but also on moisture nllldilion. age. and
mte of loading (see Ref. 2.27).
-..... , 2.9 P ROPERTIES tN T EN StO N
Whil~ concrete i, hesl ernploy~-d in a mann~r thai use, its favorable compressive
,trcnglh. il> hehavior in ten, ion i, al"" important. n", condilions under which cmcks
form and propagate on tl", {en.ion side of reinioKed <"<",crele flexural memhers
depend stmngly on both th~ {ensile 'trength and the fmct ur~ properties of the concrete,
tile Inlier dealing wilh the ease wilh which n <T.lCk pmg"'sse, once it ha, formed. Con -
Crete {ensile S1re.~se, also occur ns a rc.uh of shcar, torsion. nnd Olher action,. at,d in
most cas~s n",mher hehavior changes upon crac-king. Thus, i{ is important 10 he abk
to predict. with reasonabl~ accumcy. Ihe lensi Ie strength of concrele at,d to understand
tile fa('(ors Ihat control crack propagation.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
4.4 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfliRES Olapl<r 2
a. Tensile Strength
Thcre arc considerable expcrilncnta[ difficulties in detwnining the truc tensile strength
of COIICr.:te. In direci /"1".;'", lests. minor misalignl....,nts and stress concentrations in
the gripping devices arc apt to mar the r.::suhs. For many years. tensile slrength has
I>ccn measurc"{\ in t~rms of tile mudulus 0/ rup/un' I,. the computed nexural tcnsile
str.::ss al " 'hich a tesl beam of plain conerelC fractures. Because this nominal Slress is
computcd on the assumption that concrete is an elast ic matcrial. and because Ihis
hcnding Slress is localized at lhe outermost surface. il is apt to be larger Ihan the
strength of concrete in unifonn a.\ial tension. It is thus a I....,asure of. but nOI identical
with, lhe real axial tcn8ile slrength.
Morc reccm ly the result of thl: so-called spli/ ,cl'/illlJer le.11 has eSlablishcd itsclf
as a nlCasurc of Ihe Icnsile strenglh of concrete. A 6 x 12 in. conerele cylinder. the
8ame as is used for compressi"e tCSI S. is insenc"{\ in a compression tesl ing machine in
the horizonlal position. so tilal compression is applied unifonnly along two oppositc
generators. Pads are inserted between tile compression platcns of the machine and thl:
cyli nder to equalize and distribme the pressure. It can be shown that in an ciaslie cylin
der so looded. a nearly uniform ten sile stress of m3gniludc U' dL cxim at righl
angles 10 the plane of load application. Correspondingly, such cylinders. when tested .
split into two halves along Ihat plane. 31 a slress/a Ihal can be compuled from the
abc,,"e expression. f' is the applied compressive lo.1d at failure, and d and L are the
diarnela and length of the cylinder respcclivcly. Because of local Slress conditions at
the load lines alld the presence of slresses at right angles 10 lOe aforemelllioned len
sion stresses. Ihe results of lhe split-cylinder lests I i~ewise arc nOl identical " ilh (but
are believed 10 be a good nlCasurc of) the lrue axiallensi Ie strength. The resu lis of all
typ.:s of tensile lests show considerably more sealter than Ihose of compression le8lS.
Tensile strength, however determined. docs not correlate well .... ilh lhe compres
si"e Slrenglh 1;. It app.:ars thm for sand-and-gravd concr.:te. lhe tensile Slrength
dcp.:nds pri marily on the Slrength of bond between hanlened ceme nt paste and aggrc
gate. whereas for lightweight concwes il dcp.:nds largely on Ihe lensilc Slrenglh of the
porous aggregate. The compressi"e strength. on lhe otiler hand, is much less dder
mined by these panicular chnrnclCrislics.
Beller correlation is found belwcr:n the various measures of lensile strenglh and
thl: square root of the cOln~e88ivc strength. The direcl tcnsile strength. for example.
ranges from about 3 to 5 - /~ for 1I0mwldensity concretes. and from about 2 to) - / ,
for all lightwcight concrete. Typical ranges of valocs for direellensile strength. splil '
cylinder slr.::ngth. alld modulus of rupture are summarized in Table 2.2. In these e.~prcs
8ions. 1; is expressed in psi units. alld lhe resulting lensile strengths arc oblained ill psi .
These approximate expressions show thai tensile and compressi"e strengths are
hy no moOJIlS proponional. and Illat any incr.:ase in compres8i"e strength. such as Ihat
TABLE 2.2
Approximate range of t ensile strengths of concrete
Normal-Weight Lightweight
Concrete, psi Concrete, psi
Oi'ect ten,ile , wngth J; 3t05 te 2103 t;
Split-.cylinde, wenglhf. 610 8 r; 4(061:
MoJu lu, of n 'ptHre" 8(01 2 r; 6108 j;
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
MATERIAI_" 45
achieved by lowering rhe water-cement ratio, is accompanit.-d b)' a muc-h ,mailer per-
""mage increa"" in tensile strength.
n", ACI Code cOlllain, the recomrnendmioo that the modulus of ruplure j: be
ta ken 10 equal 7.5 1
for nonnal -weight concrete, and thallhi s value be rnultiplic-d by
0.85 for "sand-lightweighl" and 0.75 for "all -lig hlweighr" conc-reles, giving value, of
6,4 I and 5.6 1
respecliwly for dm"" male rial,.
b, Tensile Fracture
n", failure of concrete in len,ion invQlve, blllh lhe fonnalion and propagation of
cracks, 11", field of fratlure mechanics deals wilh 11", laner. While reinforced concrele
,truclures haw been succes.,fully design<.-d and hui h for ove r l .~ years widK)U1 lhe ns.:
o f franure mechanics, Ihe brinle response of high-strength concrele, (St.-ction 2.12).
in len,ion as well a, compression, increase, Ihe irnp<>naoce of tbe fracture prupertie,
o f the malerial as dislinct frum tensile slrenglh. Re""arrh dealing wilh the she ar strength
of high-'trenglh concrele hearn, and the bond belw<-en reinforring sled and high-,Irength
concrele indicmes relalively low increases in Ihe", slruclural propenies wilh inerea",s
in connete compressi"" ,Irenglh (Refs, 2.28 and 2.29). While ,har and bond slrength
are a,socia1<-d wilh rhe fr for normal -slrength conerele, lesl, of high-slrenglh con -
crele indic-ale Ihal increases in ,hear and bond ,trenglh, are well below values pre-
dicled using j" indicating Ihal co""rele lensile sl renglh alQne is not 11", govern ing
faclOr. An explanali on for Ihis behavio.- is prQvided by researrh mille Universily of
Kansas ami el""where (Refs. 2,30 and 2.31) Ihal demonslrates Ihallhe energy "'quired
to full y Qpen a crack (i.e .. aflc r 11", crack ha, slan ed 10 grow) i, largely imkpendem
o f compressive slrenglh. waler-cemell1 rali o, and age. Design expressions retlecl ing
Ihi, ",searc-h a", nlll yel available. The behavior is , hQwner, R-cognin-d in the ACI
Cooe by limilalions mllh" maximum value of h Ihm ma)' be u""d IQ cak-niate .hear
and bond slrenglh, a, will be dis<-us'!ed in Chapters 4 ruxl5,
'- , 2.10 STREN GTH UNDE R C O MB tN ED STR ESS
In many slruclural silUations, ~XllKrele is subjc'Cted simu ltaneousl)" 1<> variQus ,trc,,,,,,
ading in various di r"nions. For insl:J.nce, in beam. much of the concrele i, 'Uhjcd
,imuhaneously 10 comprcssion and ,hear ,tres"", and in ,labs and f'lIKings 1<> cOm-
pression in Iwo perpendicular direniolls plus ,hear, By mdboos well known from 11",
,tudy of engineering mechanics, any ,tale of combi ned Slress , no mailer how complex.
tan be r"duc-~d 10 IhR>e principal SIre sse. aCling al righl angle, to ~a,'h other on an
appropriately oriemt.-d elememary cuhe in lhe mak'TiaL Any or all of the pri""ipal SI",,,,,,,
tan bc eill", r I"nsion {II compre"ion. If any Qne of them is 7.eru, a ,tare of bia.r;,!1 sUess
is ,aid 10 exi.l: if two of lhem are zero. Ihe slale of sl",,, i, ""i"r;ai, eilher simple ,;om-
pression or simple tension. In nll,,1 cases, Qnly lire uniaxinl strength propenie, of a
malerial are known from si mple lesl" such as lhe cylinde r slrenglh ,t;: and Ihe lensile
'trengthj;. For preditling Ihe 'trength' Qf ,tru,'IUres in whic-h ('{mcrele is subject to
biaxial or triaxial 'tress, it would be de,irable to be able 1<> calculale lhe slrenglh of
concrde in such .Iale, of Slre~s. lnowing from lesl, only eilher j; m j; andj;,
In 'pile of eXlensive and continuing researcb, no geneml lheory of Ihe slrenglh
of co"" rele under cOJ11bint.-d slres.~ ha, )'el en"'rged. Modi ficalion, of various slrength
theories, su,-h as maximum 'Ire" , maximum sITain, Ihe Mohr-Coulomb, and Ihe ocla-
1t<-drdl shear SIres< d",orie" all of which are discussed in slruclural mechanics leXlS,
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
46 IW..'i I{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
havc been adapted with varying partial ,uc~..,,, to Concrete (Ref,. 2.32 to 2.36). Al
present, none of the"" Ih~'Ories ha, been gener~lIy a,'cepled. and many ha\'e ohviou,
internal contmdiclion<;. lne main difficulty in developing an adequate gener~1 'Irength
theory lies in the highl y nonh()nK'gen~'Ou, nature of conn ete, and in the degr<'C to
which its behaviOJ at high ,tres,'"" and at fmcture i, influenced by rnicrocmd:ing and
'l1 her di!iContinuity phenomena (Ref. 237).
Howc\,er. the slrength of concrele ha, oc'Cn well established by test,. at least fOJ
the biaxial ,treSs stale (Refs. 2.38 and 2.39). Resuhs may be presented in the form of
an interaction diagmm such a, Fig. 2.8, whi"b shows the ' trenglh in direction I as a
function of the stresS applied in direnion 2. All SIres"", are normalized in terms o f the
uniaxial compressive 'trength f:. It is ",en that in the quadrant representing biaxial
,,,,mpression a strength increase as great as about 20 percent over the uniaxial cOm-
pressi"e slre"gth is attained, the amount of increase depending upon the r~tio of h 10
f ,. In the biaxial ten,ion quadmm, the slre ngth in direction I is almo't independent of
,tress in direction 2. When ten,ion in direction 2 is combined with "'lJHpre"ion in
direclion L the compressive strength i, reoute<J al11lO'lt linearly, and \'ice versa. FOJ
example. late r~l compression of about half the uniaxial compressi,'c 'trengd, will
reouce d", tensile strength by almost half mmpared with i1 ' uniaxial value . Thi, fael
is of great importance in predicting diagonal tension cmcking in deep beam, OJ shear
wall,. fOJ example.
Experimental in\'CSligati<;ll1s into d", triaxial 'trength of com:rete have oc'Cn few.
due mainly to the pr~ctical difficulty of applying load in three difL'Ctions ,imuhanc-
ously without introducing significant res1mi nt from the loading <,<[uip",,,,,t (Ref. 2.40).
From informalio" now available. 1hc following t~ntative ('ondu,;ons can be drawn rel -
nG U RE ! .lI o -
Strength of ,o""",t. in
biaxial "n", (M(Jj"'<ljmm
""
Ntf. 2.39.' 1/ 0
II V 0
/ 0
;7
"
~
0
~ f,
-. F~ f~ 0
1\:x / 'N"~.~,;c +V
L ~
, .0
i'- ,
f,
f,
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
MATERIAI_" 47
ative to th~
triaxial strength of concrete: (I) in a ,tate of equal triaxiall'ompr~"ion.
Concret~ 'tr~ngth may be an order of magnitude Iaq:~r than tt;., uniaxial compressiw
,trength: (2) for "'iual biaxial compressioll combined with a smaller valll<' of cOm-
pression in th~ thinl direction. a strength increase g reater than 20 perl'ent can t,.,
expect.ed: and (3) fOJ stress states induding compr~"i<K1 combined with tension in at
least on~ oth~r direction. tt,., intermediate prillcipal stre" is of little lXln"-'quence. and
the compressive 'trength can be predicted safely based on Fig. 2,&.
In fan, the strength of coll"rete under combin~d stre" cannot yet be calculated
mtional1y and. equally imponant. in many situations in concret~ strunures it is n~arly
i mpo'"ible to cakulate all of tt,., acting stresses and their dir""tions~ these are two of
the main rea,on, fOJ continuoo relian"" on tesl. Because of this. the design of rein -
forced (oncrete structures lXlntinues to be tms.,d more on exten,ive experimental infor-
mation than on <"<,"si,tent analytical theOJ)', panicularly in the many situati<KlS where
combined stresses occur.
, _, 2.11 S HRI NKAG E AN D T EMPERATU RE E FFECTS
n", ddormations di""u, ...xI in $.enion 2.8 were induc<.xI by <tresses cau ...xI by exter-
nalload,. Influe""", of a different nature cause C<KlcTete, nen when free of any external
loading. to undergo defonnati<KlS and "Qlume change., n", most imponant of thes.:
are sh rinkage and the effe,'ts of tempemlure ,'ariations.
a. Shrinkage
As di>cu, ...xI in $.e"tions 2,2 ,,00 2.4 . any workable l""lCret.e mix comain, lIlore water
than is n~eded fOJ hydr.ltiQn. If the concrete is exposed to air. the larger pan of thi s
free water e,-apOJate. in time. the mtc and completeness of drying depending on ambi -
ent temperature and humidity conditions, As the ,'oocrete dries. it shrinks in volull"'.
pmbably due tQ tbe capillar)' tension that develops in the water remaining in the con -
crete. Conversely. if dry coocrete is immersed in w"ter. it expands. regaini ng much of
the yolun", loss from prior shrinkage. Shrinkage. which cominues at a decreasing rat~
for se"eral momhs. depending on th~ configuration of the member. is a detri"",ntal
pmpeny of cmlCret.e ill '-Cveml respecl~. WI",n nol adequat.e!y contmlled. it will cause
un'ightly and oflen deleterious CHlCks. as in ,labs. wall,. etc. In structureS that are stat-
ically ill<kt~rminate (a"d mQl;t concrd~ S1fuctu"" ar~), it can cause large and harmful
,trc,se" In prestressed cOllcrete it leads to partial loss of initial prestress. For the'-C
reaS<KlS it is essemial that ,hrinkage .,." minimized and control1~d.
As is de", fmm the nature of the proc"'" a key factor in d~termining the amount
of final shrinkag~ i, the unit water cont~nt of the fresh coocrete, This is illuslrated in
Fig, 2.9, which shows the am()lmt of !ihrinkage for varying amount. of mixing water.
n", ",n", aggr~gate' were u'-Cd for all =ts. but in addition to and ind~pendently of
the water content. tl", amount of c""",m wa, also varied fnnn 376 to 1034 Iblyd l of
concrde. Thi s very large variation of cement ,'ontent cause' a 20 to 30 pefl'em varia-
tion in , hrinbge ,train for water conwnls hetw~en 250 10 3'iO Iblyd l the range used
for most structural COllCretes. Incre"sing the cer""nt coot~1lI increases the l'en",nt paste
con,tituent o f tt;., concrde. where the shrinkag~ actually takes place. while reducing
the aggregate ,'ont~nt , Since mOSt aggr~gate' do not contribute to shrinkage. an
increase in aggregate content C"" significantly de..,reas" shrinkage. This is ,hown in
Fig, 2, IO. which <Xlmpares the shrinkage of con,' rete, with various aggr~gate contents
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
4.!1 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
FIGUIU: 2.9
Eff.~of walCOT _"ment ""
" ,----,---,----,---,----,
drying 'hrinh8e. (Fn..,
1Itf- 1.4. )
u f--+--f--+--f-
~ "
0
,,
:
,"
,.,
0
'"' "'"
Poonds of waler per cubic yard 01 fresh concrete '"
FIGUItE 2.1 0 ,, ~-----------,
lnll",,""" of aggregate
c",,!on! in cOIIC",!e (by
w,l"me) on the ratio ()f ,""
,.,
,hrinka8e of cooe,e!e !o ,lie
.hrinbg< of nc", em","'
["",e. Wlnt~,d f Nffl lief U4.
"",,",/ ,'" d<u" uJ 114 1.41.)
,.,
Aggf"9'lte coote nt. % "'"
wilh the ,hri nkag~ obtained for ,,,,at ce"", nt pasle (ce mem and water alooe). For
example. increasing Ihe aggregate cOllte nt fmlll 71 to 74 pen"ellt (at Ihe sarne wal",-
,'<'melll mtio) results in a 20 pe ,cent ,educlion in ,hri nkag~ (Ref 2.24). Inc,-"asW
aggregate content may he obtained thmugh the u""' of (I) a larger l11a~ imum size
coan;e aggregat e (whi ch alsu reduces Ihe water content nXluired for a given workabil -
ity). (2) a concre!e with low~r workability. and (3) chemical admixtures to incrca,,",
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
MATERIAI_" 49
workability at k.wer water contems. It is e"ilknt that an effective menns of reducing

,hrinkage invoh'es both a reduction in water ~x'lllelll and an increase in aggregate COII -
tem. In add ition, prolonged nnd carefu l curing is Ilcneflcial for shrinkage COlllroi.
Value, <;If linal shrinkage for ordinary connetes are generally on the "l1kr of
400 X 10 '10 800 X 10 ., del"'nding On the initial water coment, ambie nt tempera-
ture and humidity (onditions. and the nature of the aggregate. Highly absorptive
aggregates. such a. some sandstones and slates, result in 'hrinkage "alue, 2 and more
tin"" those obtained with le<> absorptive materials. such as granites and 'IOn", lime-
,tones. Some lightweight aggregates, in view of their great porosity. easily result in
much larger shrinkage values than ordinary ~x,"netes.
For wme purposes. such as predicti ng the tinlC-de!>,-,ndcnt loss of for<;e in pre-
stresS<.,<1 conCrete beams. il is imponantto estimate the amount of shrinkJge as a func-
tion of time. Long-tcrm studi.:, (Ref. 2.21) show that for moist-cur.:d concr.:te at any
tinlC I after the initial 7 dJYs . shrin kage cJn be pred ictL,<l satisfactorily by the eqUJlion
(2 .9)
where "'-' is the unit shrinkage "rain at time / in days and _,_... is the ultimate value
after a long period of time . Equation (2.9) penains to "standard" conditions, ddi,,,,d
in Ref. 2.21 to exist for humidity n{)[ in execss of 40 percent and for an average thick-
ne" of member of 6 in., and it applie, both for n<;lnnnl-,,'eight and li gh tweight COII -
cretes . Modification f~ctors are to be applied for nonstandard condilions, and separate
L'quations are given for steam-cured members.
For structures in which a reduction in cracking is of pat1icular imponance. ~uch
as bridge decks . pavement slabs. ami liquid ~(Orage tJnks. (he use of ap<llIsil'" C'em<'l!/
('oller"t" is appropriate. Shri nk age-compensating cement is conSlitut<!d and propor_
tioned such tha( the concrete will increase in volume Jfter setting and during harden-
i ng. When the concrete is restrained by reinforeement or other nlCans, the (endency (0
eXp;lnd wi II result in compression, With subsequent drying. the shrinkage so produced.
instead of causing a tension stress in Ihe concrete that would result in cracking. merely
reduces or relieves the eXPJnsive Slra ins caused by the in itial expansion (Ref. 2.42).
Expansive cement is produced by adding a sour<;e of reaclive ahltnin~te to ordinary
portland ceme nt ; approximately 90 percent of shri nkage_compen~a! ing cement is
mad<! up of the con stituents of conventional pot1land cement. Of the lhree main types
of expansive cen)<!llts produced. oll ly type K is cOllltner<;iolly JVJilable in the United
States: it is about 20 percent more expensive tha n ordinary ponlolld cement (Ref.
2.43). Requiremcnts for expansive cenlCnt ore given in ASTM C 845. "S tandard
Sl"'cification for Rxpansive Hydraulic CenlCnt." The usu~1 admi)(ture~ can be used io
shrinkage-compcnsating concrete.Wt trial mixes are nccesSJry becJuse some Jdmix_
tures . panicul~rly air_e ntraining agent~. arc not compatible with cenain eXp;lnsive
cemCIllS.
b. Effect of Temperature Change
Likoe nl<)St OIl"" Imter;~h, concrete expands with increasing t~ml"'mtu,e and COlllmcts
with decreasing teml"'rmure, The effLoct, of such vol un", dlanges are simi 1m to th"..,
cauS<:d by shrinkage . i.e . tempcrature contraction cao lead to objectionable crac~ing.
pat1icularly when superimposed on shrinkage. In indeterminate structul'l!S. deforma-
tions due to temperature changes cao CJuse large aod occasionJlIy harmful StreSseS.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i I{; N OF CONC RE'n: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
The n",fficienl of thennal expansion and cOnlmction varies ,omewhat. depend -

ing upon the type o f aggregate and richness of the mix. It is gener~lly within the
mnge of of X to " to 7 X 10 "pe r of A value of 5."~ X 10 "is generally aCl"ept~d
a, sati,fa{'tory for calculating stresses and deformations caused by tempemture ,"hange,
(Ref. 2,23).
'- , 2.12 H IGH- STR EN GTH C O NCRETE
In recent y~ars there has bee n a r~pid gmwth of inte re,t in iI(~iI-s/r<'lIg/iI cml('w/e.
Although the exact defin ition is arbitral)'. the term g~nemJly refers to concrete having
uniaxial compre"ive strength in the ran ge of ahout 80(() to 15,000 psi or higher. Such
concrdes ,"an he made using (Mdull y selected but widely available ,"en"'nlS, sands,
and stone: cenain admixtures induding high-range water-reducing supe'TIlasticilers.
fly a,h, and sil i,"a fun", ; plus very careful quality mntml during production (Rds, 2,44
and 2,45). In addition tQ higher strength in to"'pression , most Qthe r enginee ring pmp-
ertie, are impmved , leading to use of the alternative term iligio -peliorm{lllce Ct//lcw/e.
n", moSt cotllmon application of high -. trength concrete, has iJ.,en in tl",
columns of tall coOCrete building', where nonnal concrete would resuh in unaccept-
ahly brge cross section,. wilh Ims of valuahle noor space, It ha, been shown that tlJe
use of tlJe IlKlre expensi,'e high-strength mnnete mixes in column, not onl)' saves
1100T area but is more e,"onomical than in,"reasing tlJe amounl of steel reinforcen",nl,
Concrete of up to 12,000 p,i waS specified for the lower-story ,"olurnn, of 31 I South
Wacker Drive in Chicago (see Fig. 2.11 ), having a total height of 946 ft, Fom", rly
holding the height reconl. it has iJ.,en superseded hy taller buildings; the present record
is held by Central Plaza in Hong Kong, which has a total height of 1230 ft (Ref 2,46),
Fo.- bridges, too. smaller {"ross ",,"tions bring significaut advautages, and the
resu Iting reduction in dead load permits long~r spans. The higher elastic "uKtulus and
lower cr~ep coefficieut resu lt in r~duced initial and long- t~n" den~," tions , and io II",
{"ase of prestre,,,--d eon,"rete hridge" initial and time-de"" ndent losses of pre. tress
force are less. Oth~r ",,"eut application, of high-strength concrete incl ude offshore oil
,trunure'. ]XIrking gamges, hrid ge deck ove rlays, dam spillways, warehou>e" and
heavy industrial slabs (Rd. 2A7).
An eS>emial require"",m for high-strength {"oncre,e i, a low water-{;ement ratio,
Fo.- IKlrmal concrete,. thi s usually falls in the r~n ge from about OAO 100.60 by weight
but for high-,trength mixe, it may be 0.25 or even lower. To pe rmit pm""r placement
of wha, would oth~rwise be a zero slump mix, high-range water-reducing admixtures,
or superplasticizers, are esse mial and may inn ease slu mp' to a, much as 6 or 8 in,
O ther addi,ives include fly ash and , most notably, sil ica fume (see S<-'{"tion 2.7) .
MUl'h research in rece", year<; ha, iJ.,en devoted to establi,hing the fundan"'ntal
and engin""ring propenies of high -strength cOflcrete,. a~ well as II", engineering ("har-
acteristi{"s of ,tructur.tl memiJ.,r' made with tI", material (Rds. 2.28, 2.29, and 2A810
2.54). A large body of information is now available, pennitti ng th~ engineer to u!ie
high-strength mncrete with mnfiden,"e when ils advamages ju,tify the higher ("ost ,
n,e co mpressiv~ strength cur'.-eS in Figs. 2,3 and 2.4 illustmte important differe""e,
{"""'pared wilh /lonnal concrete. including higher ela,tic ",,><lulu, and an extended
Illilge of Ii,,,,ar elasti,' response; disadvantage, include brittle behavior ("-'C Fig. 2. I 2)
and ,omewhat reduced ultimate strain capacity. Creep coefficients"", r<--duced , a,
indj ,"at~d in Table 2.1. Strength under sustained load i, a higher fmction of standard
{"ylinder str~ngth (Refs. 2.25 and 2.26), and information no", a,"ilable mnfirnL' it,
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
MATERIAI_" 51
~' I G U RE 1.1 1 FIGURE 2.1 2

.1 11 Sooth W""~ .. Drive. Chic,go. which is >llIOll tile I Uh-m.ngth cOll< ret~ test cyli<><ler aft .. unia,ial lroding 10
world" talk>! huiWing . High ".ns ,h eO,,,,,,,'e wi,h f; - failure; ootc lhe. lypically 'mooth fmc'u", <urf",'" wi,h lillk
12.(0) p;i "'as "~ in tile I""',,, >IOfie. te"",,,'"! <>! 1\."ia'1d aggregJle interlock.
c,'"'"' ~ ,("K;(//i"" . )
improv~'" durabilily and abra<ioll resistance (Rd,. 2.52 and 2.55). As bro.lIler experi -
en e", i< g"ined in praC1;l"al ~pplications. alld as d."ign C<KIeS are gradually u(ldat ..... to
recognize th~ special propenic, o f higher-str~ngth ("oncr~tes now avuilable. much
wid~r use loan "" eXl"'ct~d.
. 2.13 REI NfORCtNG STEELS fOR C ONCRETE
1ne useful Slrength of mclinary ",illforeing sk'ds in tension as wdl as compr~",~i(}n.

i.e" the yidd 'trenglh. i, about 15 times the l"omp","sive Sl",nglh of commOn struc-
tural concrete. and well over 100 1imes ils t~nsile Strength, On the Olher hand . .<!Cd is
a high--co'l malerial ~'()mpared wilh conc",1e. It follows that the Iwo l1later;~h ill" re.<t
uS<'<l in combination ifl"" concret~ is ma<le 10 resisl the ,'",npressiY<' stresses ~nd lhe
st~d til" teosil" <tresses. 11m<. in reinforced c<mc",le bea rm. 1he conc",1" r",;sts the
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
COlnpre"i"~ forc..,. longitudinal s!<ed r~infor<- ing bars are located dose to th~ t~n,ion
fac~ to r~si,t tb~ ten,ion fon:e, and u,ually additi onal sted bars are '0 di'posed tbat
tbey re,ist tbe in<-lined ten,ion ,tresse' tbat are ('aused by tlk: sbear forc~ in the beams.
However, r~inforcement is al,o u",d for re,isting <'ompressiw force, primari Iy whe",
it i, desired to rwue.., II", (,fOss-sectional dim~nsion' of compression members, a~ in
the lower-flom col umns of muiti,tory buildings. Even if no sucb ne,-e"ity exists. a
minimum amount ('If reinforcement is plae..,d in all ('ompression members to saf~guard
tbem against tb~ eff""ts of ,mall accide ntal bending ",on",nt, tbat mi gbt 'T.lCk and
even fail an unreinforc~d n",mber.
For m,,,t ~ffective reinfor"ing anion. it is e,sent ial that 'ted and CQncrete
defonn together. i.~ .. that tl",re be a sufficiently 'trong "m,,1 between the two rnateri -
als to ensure that no relati,.., movements of tbe >t~eI bar<; and tbe ~umlU"ding concret~
o,;cur. Thi, bond i, provided by tl", relatively large "h"miml lUlh".,i"" that develop,
at the steekxltlnet~ intcrfa<-e, by Ihe lIam",/ mug/me.. of tbe mi II seale of bot -rolled
rein forcing bars, and by the cio""ly spa<.-ed rib-sJ1al"'d .,urla"" d"jim',,-,liOl'.,- with
whi<-b reinfor<-ing bars are fumisl",d in order [() provide a higb degree of inte rloc king
of the Iwo rnateriak
Additional features that make for the satisfanory joint perfonnanc-e of sted and
concrete are tI", following :
I . The Ih",,,,,,1 "x{>(,miol1 C(wjficiem., o f the two nmteriah. about 6.5 X 10 " for
st~d vs. an averag~ of 55 X !O "for C()ncret~. are suffi<-iently clos" to forestall
cracking and otber Ulidesirahle effect' of di tTerential tbennal defunn3tions.
2. Wbil~ th~ ,orms;on rt!.,'i"um,:e o f bare 'ted is poor, the cotlcrd~ tbat sumlU!ld s
th;, st~el reinforcement provides excellent cOTTo,ion prot;,ctio n. minimizing (or-
Illsion prohlcms and COTTCspotlditlg mainten anw costs.
3. The fir'<! I>,-.i.'-f{mce of unprotected 'teel is impaired by its high thi:mJal c()tidu('-
ti"ity and by the fact Ihat its strength denea~s sizably at high temperatures.
Conversely. thi: thennal (ouducti"ity of mnnde i~ rdatively low. Thu,. damage
cau~ hy ~ven prolonged fire exposure. if any. is ge''''r~lIy limiled to tbe outer
layer of co!!crete. and a mod~rate amount o f co!!crete C()\'~r plllvide, $uffi<-;"nt
thennal in,ulation for tl", embedded reinforcement.
Sk,.,1 is u~ in two difl"rent w1lY' in COncrele strunures: 1IS reinforcing st~el and
a, prestressing steel. Reinforcing ste~1 is pla<.'t.'<l in tbe form, prior to <-a'ting of the con -
Cret~. Stresses in the ,u,cl. 1IS in the har<ie,,,,d connete. arc caused only by tl'" loads Oil
tbe Slmcture, except for p<lS~ible pam,itic ,tresses from ~brinkage or si milar causes. In
contr.JSt, in pre,tressed concrele Structu",s large t~n,ion fOfl-~' are applied to tl'" rein -
forcement prior to Idting it act jointly witb the nltlnete in resi,ting n ternal loads. 11",
,ted, for tl",se Iwo use, are yery diffe rent and will be discussed separdtely.
.... _, 2.14 REtN fORCl NG B A RS
n,., n1<lSt common type of reinfoT<'ing 'ted (a, di,linn from prestressing sk",lj is in
the form of rouml hap;. often <-ailed rd,.,r. available in a larg~ range of diameters
Ii
from about ~ to in . for ordinary app lic1Itions and in two hi:avy bar size, of about 11
and 2i in. Thes.: bars are fumisb~d witb surface deformat ions for tlk: purl'o"" of
increasing resistance to slip betw..,.,n st~el and contrete. Minimum r~quire""'nl' for
these defo.-mations (spating. pllljenion. etc.) have bt.-en d~\'d0l"'d in eXl"'rim~ntal
resear<-b. Different bar plllducers use differe nt pattems, all of wbich ,ati,fy these
requiren"'nts. Figure 2.1 3 ,bow, 11 "ariety of <-UTTent types of d~foftnation-' .
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
M ATERIAI_" 53
FIG UIU: 2.13

Ty(>C' of deformed
re inforcing bars,
For mnny y~ars, bnr siz~s havc bo.:cn designated by ~uonocrs. Nos. "to II ocing
commonly used ~nd Nos. 14 and 18 represeming the tWO specia l largcsized bars pre.
viously mell1ioncd. Designation I>y numocr. inst~ad of by diameter. wa s introduced
Ilecausc thc s urfac~ ddonnations make it impossible to delinc a single easily onea
sured "alue of lh~ dialllctcr. The n"mllers ar.: so 31TIlnged thatlh~ un,t in the ""mller
*
designation corresponds closely to th~ numocr of in. of diameta size. A No.5 bar.
t
for example. has a nominal dialllCter of in. Bar sizes are rolled into lh~ surface of
the hars for easy identification.
FOJ a numocr of years. ASTM 'ta!ldard~ haw included ~ second d~-;ignation I'OJ
har size. the lnrenmtional System of Unils (SJ), with the size ocing identifi~"" using the
nominal diamcter in mi II imelers. To lim it the numocr of bar designation,. reinfo":ing
bar producers in the United States ha"e convened to the SI s)'~tem for marking the
bars. Thus. Nos, 3 to II bars are marked with Nos. 10 to 36. and No';, 14 and I 8 bars
with No" 43 and .~7, Bmh systems are sti ll uSt..... in the ASTM standards. atid the older.
eu,tmnary system is used in lhe 2002 ACl Code. To recognize the dual ,)'stem of iden -
tifyi ng und marking the bars. the cUSlomary bar designation 'y'lem is rerained
throughout this texi. fOllowed hy the S I har designation' in parenrheses. such as No.6
(No. 19). Tahle A.I of Appendix A giws area., and weights of ~tandard hurs. Tahle~
A, 2 and A,3 give similar information for groupS of bar>;.
a. Grades and Strengths

In rd nforccd concrcte. a long-term trend is evidem lOward (hc usc of higher-strength
materials. bolh sleel and concrctc. Reinforcing bars with 40 ksi yield stress. alnlOSt
standard 30 ycars ago. haw largely been replaced by bars with 60 ksi yield stress. both
tx"Cause they are more economical and occause (heir usc tends (0 ...:duce sl~el conges
tion in Ihe forms , Bars wi(h yield stress of 75 ksi arc U>txl 'ncreasingly in COlumns.
T:lb1c 2.3 lis(s all presently availab1~ reinforcing steels. their grade designa(ions. the
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: ST RUCfliRES Olapl<r 2
TABLE 2.3
Summary of minimum ASTM strength requirements
ASTM Minim um Yi~ld Minimum T~n$i l~
Product Specification D~signation Strength. psi (MPa) Str~n9th. psi (MPa)
Rcin forri ng bars A 615 Grade -'0 40.000 (2801 60.000 (420)
Grode 60 60.000 (420) 90.000 (6201
Grade 75 75.000 (' 20) 100.000 (690)
60.000 (420) 80.000 (WI)"
"'" Grade 60
(78.000 (540) m3, im um]
" '" Grade 40

Grad< SO
40.000 (280)
'>0.000 I.1SO)
60.000 H2O)
80.000 (550)
Gr>de 60 60.000 (420) 90.000 (620)
Defo:>rmW bar mol, " ... SoU'" OS TCinf'>rdng b."
Zi",."""led b:", /I 767 SoU'" OS TCinfc:>rdng b."
r'J'O'y."omod tw, /I 775 . /\ 9:'4 SoU'" OS TCinfc:>rdng b."
S,.in l H , II>.", 11955 S.lme OS TCinfc:>rdng b."
Wi,"
Plain A 82 70.000 (4801 80.000 (550)
75.000(5151 85.000 (58 5)
lXformed
\Vdde<l ""i l~ .... irtforr~tn.rtl
"'"
PI,jn /I 185
W 1.2 a"d 1"'1:"' 65.000 (4SO) 75.000(5 15)
S",.lIer 'han W 1.2 56.000 ( 85) 70.000 (485)
Deformed ,\ 497 70.000 (480) 80.000 (550)
Pre",""ing teOOon,
Socvon-",i", Slraoo A 416 Grad< 2'>0 212500(1465) 2'\0.000 (1725)
(",", ..."Ii.ved)
Gr>de 2SO 225.000 (1555) 250.000(1725)
(Iow-.... la'''';on)
Grack 270 229.500(1580) 270.000 (l8W)

('(,"'Heij.'-od)
Grade 270 243.000(1675) 270.000 ( 1860)
("""',-rdaxalion)
Wir~ A 421 S,,,,,s-,,,lio"ed 199.7'10 (1375) 10 ns.ooo (1620) to
212.500(1 46W 2.'\0.000 (1nW
l,ow' felaxa(ion 2 11,.'\00 ( 1455) (0 235.000 (162(1) (0
225.000(IS'IOf 2.'\0.000 (l725(
liar. A 722 Type I (plain) 127~(800) I SO.OOO (1035)
Tyl'" II (defOfmed) 120.000 (825) 150.000(10.15)
Compacted wand" /I 779 Tyl'" !45 241.900(1 480) 247.000(1700)
l)il'" 260 228.800(1575) 26.1.000(1810)
Typ. 270 2.14.900(1620) 270.000 (1 860)
, Ilu' - -
1.2S lIroc> , he "'u,1 )""" ""IIl:'h
no! k;, ,b;,n
N,~I",cd i. IICll18.
< MiFtilOO1n ""'n~!Il <1<'["-'1\'11 "., "ire ",.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
M ATERIAI_" 55
ASTM speciticmi<;lI1s that ddin~ their propenies (including deformations) in ddail.

and their two main minimum sr=ified strength ,'alues. Gldde 40 bars ar~ no longer
available in sizc, larg~r than No.6 (No. 19), Grade 50 bars ar~ availabl~ in ,izes up to
No.8 (No. 25) ,' and Grade 75 bars are available in ,izes from No.6 (No. 19) upward.
TIl~ con'-ersion to SI units described ab<we als" applie, to the str~ngth gr~tk'.
TItuS, Grade 40 i, ai,,, d~signak",1 as Grade 280 (for a yield st r~n gth of 280 MPa).
Grad~ 60 is de,ignnted Grade 420. and GroKk 75 i, d~signated Gr.:tde ~20. The valu~s.
280,420, and .~20. re~ul1 in minimum yield stre"gths of 40.6.60.9, nnd 75.4 hi: i.e.,
reinf<:>rcing 'ted is slightly stronger than impli~d hy the grade in hi. Grad~s bas~d on
inch-))Ound unit~ will be used in this text.
Welding of reinforcing bap; in mnking 'plices. or for c{)nv~nience in fabricating
reinforcing cage, for place"",nt in the forms, may result in metallurgical ('hanges that
redu(,<, botb strength and ductility. and sr=ial restriction, must he plac~d hoIh on tl",
type of , t",,1 used and tl", welding proc~dures. The provision, of ASTM A 706 rebt~
,peeifically to welding.
l1te ACI Code permits reinforcing sk",ls up to j ,. = 80 ksi. Such high-str~ngth
,ted, usually yield g radually but have n<:> yield platenu ("'-'" Fig. 2.1 5). In this situa-
tion it is required that at the specifi~-<l minimum yield st rength the IOtal str.:tin shall nor
exn",d 0.0035. This is neces.",,), to make current design ""'tlKId,. which were dc"d -
"ped for ~harp- yielding 't~el, with a yi eld plateau. applicable to su ch higher-strength
,ted,. Unde r specinl eircumstan('~' sk",1 in this higher-str~ngth rang~ ha, its plnce,
e.g .. in low~r -,tory mlull111s of high-rise hui Idin&-, .
To allow hars of "ari{)us gr.:tdes and sizes t<:> be ea~ily distinguishoo. which i,
n~="ary to avoid atcidental use of I()w~r- strength or 'maller-si,,,, bar; than called for
in th~ de,ign, all d~fOfm,--<l bars ar~ furnished with roll<--<l -in martings. Th"", id~ntify
the producing mill (usua lly wilh an initial). the har ,i'.e (No,. 3 to 18 under the Inch-
Pound system and No". to to .~7 under th~ S I system). the type of ,t",,1 (S fm hillet.
IV for I"w-alloy, a r.:til sign for rail steeL and A for axle. corresponding re'pecti",ly to
ASTM Specifications A 61 .~. A 706. A 996. the lauer for b<,th rail and axle slc..,I). and
an nddilional marking to idemify higher-strength st(",k Grade 60 (420) bars haw
either one longitudinal line or the numhcr 60 (4): Grade 75 (520) bars have either two
longitudinal lines or the numher 75 (5). The identification marks are shown in Fi g.
2.1 4. As mentioned ~arlier, the SI 'y'tem i, usoo ~xdu,ivdy fm bar, rolled by mill,
in the United Stale,.
b. Stress-Strain Curves
TIte two chief numerical char.:tcteriMics that determine the dtaratt~r <:>f bar reinfmce-
"",m are it~ yidd poinl (genemlly id~ntical in wnsion and compression) and it, ",od-
uiu., of e/lI.wicit)' E,__ TIre laller is pr.>etically the same fm all reinforcing steds (hut not
for prestres>ing """I,) and is taken as E, = 29.000 .000 psi .
In addition. however, the shape of the slre~s-strain curve. ""d panicularly of it,
initial portion, has 'ignifil'ant innuence on th~ perfonnance of r~inforced mncret~
membep;. Typi('al 'tre,,-slr~in curY~' for An",rican rein forcing slc..,ls are slKlwn in
Fig. 2.15. 11te ('omplde str~ss- strain curve, ar~ ~hown in the left pan <:>fthe figure; tlte
right part gives the initial ))Onions of the cur"es magnified I 0 time,.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Main ribs
"
Main ribs
l etter or symbol lette r or symbol

!or produci"9 m ill for producing m ill
H Bar size No. 11 Ba r size No. 36
Type steel Type steel
s
\{J::co'--- Grade IirJe
~",~l __ 'G rade ma rk
" Grade line
(one line on ly) (one line arOy)
Grade 60 Grade 420

I')
Main ribs Main ribs
Letter or symbol LeMr or symbol

!or produci"9 m ill IQr producing m ill
Bar size No. 14 H Bar size No. 43
43
Type stool Type steel
~ s
Grade mark
75
Grade li ne Gratia line
(two li nes only) (tW<llines only)
Grade7S GradeS20
(0)
Main rib Main rib
Letter or symbol leher or symbol

t='1l~ IQr prodoo"9 m iN for producing m ill
Bar size No. 6 1r""11 ~~ Ba r size No. f9
t~1l--- Type steel
Grades 40 and SCI Grades 28C1snd 350

(0)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
MATER IAI_" 57
FIGU IU : 2.14 Low-carbon sleels, Iypifi~d by !lt~ Grade 40 cur.e. show an ela<lic portion fol -
Moriin8 ')''',m fo< lowed by a yield plm""", i.e" a horizomal portion of lhe cur.'~ where <Ir~in ('(mlinue,
reinforcing bars meeling 10 inerea", al mn,lml! Slress. Fo, ,udt '1""ls, lh~ yidd poinl i, Ihal slre~s nt which the
A.STM Specific.tion, A 615, yield plateau eS1ablishe, itself. Wilh funher ,train" tl", 'Ir~" hegins to increase again,
A 706. and A 9%: (oJ Grade, Ihough al a slower rale. a pmcess thm is known as .,(m;II /wrdc"i"8. The Cur....e tla1-
i>O ."d ~l(); (b) G,:>da; 7 .~
lens out when lhe (en,;/" strellgth is ,each~-d ; il then tums down until fracture occurs .
nd 520: (e) G'ade<.\O. SO.
l~O. and )';0 . (lldf'I~MJmm
Highe '-<trength camon sleds. e.g" thoole Wilh 60 hi yield ,Ire" or higher, eithe, ha"~
Ntf. 2.56.' tF"" irt>: NC.'
a yield plateau of much ,horter length or enter stmin -hardening immedialely wid",Ul
any continued yidding m C<ln,unll Sire". In lIt~ btter case, lhe ACI OJdc speeifie s lIml
lhe yield ,treS, [,. he the stu,,, C<lfTesponding to a slrain of OJlO3'i. a, .hown in Fi g.
2.1 5. Low alloy. high-,trength sled, rardy ~h() w any yield plmeau and usually ~me,
,train-han:kuing im"",diately upon beginning 10 yield.
<. Fatigue Stre ngth

In highway bridges and some o(ruer ,itumions, both steel and conerele are suhject 10
large numbers o f 'Ire~s fluctuation,. Under ,uch conditions. 'kel. just like C<;Increte
(SLoelion 2.&). is subjLoel to Imiguc. In melal faligue, olle OJ more micmscopic cracks
form afle, cyclic slfe" has ~n applied a significa nt numher of tim"s. The", faligue
cracks occur at poims of sUess concentrations or o(ruer discontinuilies and gradual ly
increase with increasing numhers of ,tress tluctuntion,. Thi, ,rouL'es the remaining
un<T.lckcd <"<;I,,-sectional area of the ba, until il hc<;mTl<" UK) small 10 ,e,is1 the
applied fmce. AI lhis poim the ba, fails in a sudde n. brittle manner.
For reinf<;lfCing hars it ha, been found (Refs. 2.27 and 257) thnt the faligue
,trength. i.e __ the SIre" at which a given slfe" tluC\um i,m hetween I.... and I ..., can t,.,
applied "2 million time, or tlK)re without cau,ing failure, is p,acli<'ally indel"'ndent of
the grade of ,teeL It ha, also been found thm the SIre" r.lnge. i.e .. tl", algebr~ic dif-
ference hetw~en maximum and minimum ,lre"./t = 1_, - 1_. lhat can be suslained
WilhoUl fatigue fai lure del"'nds on I.,,,,. Funher. in defomled bar> the degr"" of str~"
FIGURE 2. 15
Typic.1 """'<trni" ""ve.
'" , - - - - - - - - - , '"
for reinforcing bars.
'" '" G,ade90
'00 '00
, ""' ,, '" {"
,,
Grade 75
, M
,
~ ., ~ ., ,00
I G'ade60
.00
I
I G'ade40
" '00 " I
I
" I
I
0 0 o
""
Slrain.O.001
'00 0
"
Suaio.O.OOl "
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i I{; N OF CONC RE'n: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r 2
concentration at the location where till: rib joins the main cylindrical body of the har
tends to reduce the safe stress range . TI,i, ,tre" coocentration depend, on the Talio
r II. where r is the base radius of the deformation and Ii iI, height. TI", r.uJius r is the
transition r.idius from the surface of the har to that of till: defOfmation; it is a fairly
un("enain quantity that changes wilh roll wear as rn.rs are heing rolled.
On till: basi s of exten,iw le,ts (Ref. 257). till: following formula has oc",n ,level -
opt--d fOf design:
,
I, = 21 - 033/"", +8h (2. 10)
wl",re /, = ,afe SIre" range. ksi

1_ = minimum SIre,,; po~ilive if teosion. negative if compression
r-" = ratio of base radius 10 height of rolled-on deformation (in the (Xlmmon
,itualion where , -" is not known. a ,-alue of 0.3 may he used)
Where IKt,-,; are exposed to fatigue regin"". stress concentrations such a, wdd~
or sharp hends should he avoid .."{1 si nce they ({my impair btigue 'trenglh.
d. Coated Reinforcing Bars

Galvanized or epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are oft"n specified in onier to minimize
eom"ion of reinfOf("ement and cm".e'-Iuent spalling of concrete under ",,'ere envimn -
memal cmldilion,. such as in bridge d<-..:-h or pan- ing garages , ubject to deicing chelll-
ical,. port and marine ,tmnures. and wa'tewater treatment plants.
ASTM A 767. Standard Spt-"<Oificalion for Zin("-C""ted (Galvanized) Steel Bars
for Concrete ReinfOf("ement:' includes ~uirement' fOf tI", zinc coming material. tI",
galvanizing process . the class Or weight of coating. fini,h and adl",rence of ('("'ling.
and the method of fahrieation . Bar> are usually galvanized after <"utting and bending,
Supplementary requirement' penain to "''''ting of ,I",ared end, and repair of damag~d
e,,,,ting if 00" are fabricated after gah'anizing,
Epoxy-<.-'("'k-d bars. prcsentl)' ff\()ft' widely u,,-"<I than galvanized hars , "'" go\'-
em<--d by ASTM A 775. StmKlard Spt-"<Oification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing S1<-..,1
Bars." which includes ~uirements for the "'xuing material. surface prepar.uioll prior
to coating, method of applicmion. and limits OIl coating thi,"kness , and by ASH.-I A 914.
Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coolt.-d Prefabricated Slt...,1 Reinforcing Bars,"
Under ASTM A 775, the COOling is applied ({) ~tTaight hars in a production- li~ oper~
tion. and the hars "'" rut and hen! after coating. Under ASTM A 93.t, bars are hem to
tinal shape prior ({) coating. Cut ends and small spot, of damag<-d mating are <uitably
repaired after fabrication, Extra care is required in the f,eld 10 ensure that!l", "''''ling i,
not damaged during shipmen! and placing and thm repairs are made if necessary.
..... , 2.15 WELDED W IRE REINFO RCEMENT
Apart from single reinforcing bars, ,<'cided wi", reiliforremel!l (a lso described a,
\I-e/ded '<'i'" fi, hri,) i, often u",d for reinforcing <lab, and od",r surface,. such as <hells.
and for shear reinfOfcemem in thin heam webs, panicularly in preslressed beams,
Welded wire reinforcement ""nsi,t, of set, of longitudinal and tr~nsv erse ('old -drawn
'teel wires at right angle, 10 each OIher and welded together m al l point, of inter",c-
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
M ATERIAI_" 59
lion . The ~izc and 'I"King of wires may be th" same ill both dir.,.:tions or limy be dif-
ferent, depending on the "-'<Juiremem, of the design.
n", notation used to de",ribe th" type and size of welded wire fabric inH;>I,"e, a
lener-number combination. ASTM uses the letter "W" to lk,ignate smooth wire ""d
letter "D" to de<eribe defon1",d wire . The number following the letter gives the cro,,-
...>etional area of the wire ill hund,,-'<lths of a square inch . For example. a W5 .0 wire i,
a smooth wire with a cros .-,;<-'('Iional area "fO.05 in!. A W5.5 wire has a cross-sectiorml
are~ of 0.0.~5 in' . D6.0 indicate, a defon1K'<l wire with a cross-sectional area of
0.06 in1. Welded wire fabric having a de,ignation 4 X 4 - W5 .0 X W5 .0 ha., wi r~
,pacings 4 in. in each way with ml<xlIh wire of <"ro,,-secti onal area 0.05 in l in each
direction. Sizes and spa c-ing' for commnn type, of welded wire fabrit and cro,, -
,enional area., of 'teel per foot, a~ well a, weight per 100 ([1. are shown in Table A.12
of Appendix A.
ASH ..! Specification, A 185 and A 497 penain to , nuK)th and lkfonned welded
wi re fabric resrecti""ly, a.< stu)wn in Table 2.3. S ...:ause the yield stresses shown are
'p<->eified at a str.!in of 0.005. the ACI Code require~ that j, bc taken <'<Iual to 60 hi
unless the stress at a strain of 0.0035 is u",d .
. _, 2.16 P REST RESS ING ST EELS
Prestre"ing !;t",,1 i~ u,,-'<l in three fonns: round wire" s!r.md<-'<l cahle, and alloy steel
bars. Prestressing wire ranges ill diameter fnnn 0. 192 to 0.276 in. It i, made by cOld -
drawing hi gh-carbon ,t",,1 after which the wi re is ,tre,,-relieved by heat treatment to
produce the pre snibed lTIl>ehanical prllpenies. Wires are normally bundled in group,
of up to nbout 50 individual wires to produce pre'tre"ing tendoll~ of the requi red
,trength. Stranded cable. more common than wire in U.S. practice. is fabricated with
,ix wires wound around a seventh of ,lightly larger diameter. The pitch of the spiral
winding is !Je!",ee" 12 and 16 tin"" the nominal di an",!er of the strand. Strand diam-
eters r~ng~ from 0.250 to 0.600 in . Alloy 'teet bars for prestressing are available io
dian"'ters from 0.750 to I.J75 in. as plain round bars and from 0.625 !o 2.50 in . a,
ddonned bars. Specific rOXluirement' for prestressing steds are found in ASTl.l A
421 . "Standard Sp<-'Cification for Uncoated Stress-Rei ieved Steel Wire for Pres!re,sed
Concrete"; ASTM A 4 16, "Standard Specifitation for St",,1 Strand. Uncoated Se"en -
Wire S!re,,-Rdiev<-'<l for Prestressed Co"crete'; and ASTM A 722. "Standard
Specification for U"'-~lated High-Strength SI<-'Cl Bar for Prestressing Co"crete." Tabk
A.IS of Appendix A provides design information for U.S. pre'tre"ing steds.
a. Grades and Strengths

n", tensile stre"gths of prestressing sk'Cl, range from about 2.5 tQ 6 limes the yidd
'trength' of commonly "sed rei nforcing bars. The grade designatio"s correspond to
the minimum specified !ensile 'trength in hi. For the widely used ,,-'ven -wire slrand.
three gmde, nre available: Grade 250 if"" = 250 h i ), Grade 270. and G r~de 300.
alt hough the last is not yet recognized in ASTM A 42 I. Grade 270 ,t rand i, used most
often. For allQy sted bars, two grades are used: th... regular Gmde 150 i, most cOm-
mon. but spe<'inl Grade 160 hnrs may be onkred. Round wires mny be obtained in
Gmde, 235, 240. and 250. depending on dian",ter.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: STRUCfliRES Olapl<r 2
FIGU IU : 2. [6
Tn>ical "",,,,,,,,in cn,Yc,
for ro-e;lfessing "eels.
Grade 250 wand
Grade 250 wire
"'" Graoo 160 bar
Grade 150 bar

I
""I I
II ..
Graoo 60 relnfQrClng bar
___________ _
"'" II _-- --
II _---
....J...j.--
"~
I 1% e><tension
~ 0.7% eXlension
Slrain . O.OOl
b. Stress-Strain Curves
Figure 2.16 shows slress,slmin curves for preslressing wires. slrand. ~nd alloy bars of
various grades. For C01ll[XIri son . lhc slress,slrain wr....e for a Grade 60 rei nforcing har
is also shown . h is secn lhm. in COl11rasllO reinforcing bars. prcslressing slcels do n01
show a sharp yield poinl or yield plmeau: i.c .. lhcy do nOl yield al comlnnl or nearly
conSlanl S1l"":SS. Yielding de"dops gradually. and in the inelaslic rangc the curve con
linues 10 risc smoolhly unlil the lensiic Slrcnglh is rcached. Bc"..:ausc well -defined
yielding is nOl obscrv."d inlhese slccls. the yield slrenglh is somewhat amilrarily deflncd
as lhe Slress 31 a 101al elongalion of I l,,"rcem for slrand and wire and al 0.7 pcrc..:m for
alloy sleel hars. Figure 2.16 shows lha11hc yield slrenglhs so defined represcl11 a good
limi l helow which Slress and main arc fairly proponional. and above which main
increases much more rapidly wilh increasing Slress. 11 is al so seen lhal Ihe spread
helween lensile Slrcnglh and yield slrenglh is smaller in preslressing sleds lhan in
r.:inforeing sleei s. 11 may fUrlher he nOlcd lhal preslressing slc'Cls have signiflcanl ly
less duclili ly.
While the modulus of daslicily E, for b.11 reiMorccmcnl is laken as 29.000.000
psi. lhe cffccli\'C modul us of preslressi~g sleel varies. docpcnd i ng on Ihe lypc of slccl
(c.g .. slrand ,S. wire or bars) and lyp.: of usc. and is b.:sl delamined by leSl or sup-
plied by the manufaclurer. For un bonded Slrand (i.c .. S1rand nOl cmbedded in con -
crele). the modu lus may be as low as 26.000_000 psi. For bonded ,lrand. E, is usually
abom 27.000.000 psi . while for snlOOlh round wires E, is aboUI 29.000.000 psi. lhe
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
M ATERIAI_" 61
,ame as for reinforcing bars. Th~ ~1a'lic modulus of alloy 'led b"", is u,ually taken
as E, = 27,000,000 psi.
c, Relaxation
When prestressing ,t~d i, stressed to the level, tbm ar~ CIIS1Qmary during initial ten -
'ioning and at ",,,,ice loads, it exbibit, a propeny known as re/awti"". Rdaxatioll i,
defined as th~ loss of ,tress in stressed material held at cOnstant I"ngth. (The "''''''
basic phenomenon i, known a~ creep when defined in tenn, of cbange in stmin of a
material under con,tant Slress.) To be 'peeific, if a length Qf prestre"ing sted i,
,tre,sed to a siLlhle fmction of it, yield s1fengthfl'>' (say, 80 to 90 percent) and hdd m
a collstant ,train bctwe~n fixed point, sudl a, the ends of a beam, the sted stresslp
will gr.ldually denease from its initial ,'alu~ i",. In prestre,sed conccele l11~mhcr<; thi ,
,tress relaxation is important hccaus~ il modifies the internal 'tre'se~ in th" Concrete
and changes the defk'Ctions of the hcam some lime after inilial pre,tre" was applied,
nl~ amount Qf relaxation varie" depending on the type and gmd" of sted. tI",
tin'" und~r load, and the initial ,treS, level. A ,ati,fa,'tory estimate for ordinary ,tre,,-
relieved <1rnnd and wires can hc obtained from Eq. 0 . 11 ), whi,'h was d~rived from
more than 400 reiaxaliml te,ts Qf lip tQ 9 years' durmio,,:
I, - --
log t
- " (2,1 I)
I, 10
wl",re Ie is lhe final Slress after t hours, /", is the initial stress, andi",. is the nominal
yield stress (Rd, 2.58). [n Eq. (2.1 [), log I is to the 1xtS<l [0, and!",}", not [t'ss than
0.55: below that \'aille esS<lntia[ly no rdaxation occur<;,
11", tests on which Eq. (2.11) is Ixtsed Were carrit'd out On round. stressre[ie\'~d
wires and are equally applicab[elo stress-relieved strand , In the absence o f O1her infor-
mation. results may be applied to alloy Sk't'[ bars as well.
Low-relaxation slrand has replac~d slress-re[iewd s1rand 3S !lie induslry S13n-
dard. A,x-ording to ASTM A 4 [6, sudl st ~",1 must exhibit relaxation afkr !OOO hours
o f 1101 more than 2.5 pt'rcent wilen initial [y str~sscd 10 70 percent of sp.'Cified tensile
str~nglh and not more than -'.5 p.:rc~nt wh~n [ooded to 80 percent of ten s i[~ slrength ,
For low-relaxation strand, F..q, (2.11) is replaced by
lop
1- - (2 ,1 2)
4S
REFERENCES
2.1 "(;u... h u '" 0{ Noo""t W<' ~h l.oo Hca\J~'d l hl A ~ ,nl'>l< ill COOC'1l.10," AC] C"nmill 121. AU
Mao"a! Of 0"",,,,, 1''''''';''', I'>rt t, 200J
2.2 ''(iu .... h S"""Iul1ll Lilhl..-d!hl A~~"'1 "'o C' ..:n~< ." IIC] C"nmi"e< 2 Ll. Aa Mo"",,' of Cooc""
I'me.i",. t':lrt I. 2lm
2.J T r C tho ...., F. O. SlaI,', "kn>ik tl.,IId Sln'II~I h oc,,.-,,," IIfgrr~"'" :.nJ Cell"""1'.""
'>r Monar," 1.
An. >'01. (,0, oo . .j , t%.), PI'. %~ - 4i'<\ .
2A G. E. '/'""d t, H. L t}"';,,...., J. W Kelty. C""'p<"ih{HI ",u/ I'~~!<"i" ujc,,,,,,,m. 2nd ,'d __ ~ ,,-( . ."'.
tliti, "'ow Vork. 1%8.
2.S "Staoo.ro ''''>:Ike roc Sclc<~inl t'roportiom fOf N",maJ. tf<",'y"~' ~h l. :.nJ M"", C""""",'," I\C[
C,"II mil "~' 2tt, ACt Mom,,,1 of C",.m" I'racl;ce, t''''' t. 200)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 12. ....."'.. 1 THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
62 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfliRES Olapl<r 2
2.6. . S,",,,,,,~II~ ,",, ",,, f(~ S.lo."' in ~ 1"""""0"" r,)f Sl "",,,,,1 U~ hl~" "~'" O " KMo: ACI 0.""""", ! I I.
AC/ M,,"",,~ 'f C"n,CT"" I'm..';c,. I'.~ I. ;>I~IJ.
2.7. /k(;~" ",.,} C",u"ll of 0"""" Muir",,' . 14 Lh l.,j" Po.,I, ",1 0..,.,",
1\",,,,i",loo. Sl(oI...,. 1I ~ !OOZ
!.8 "Gui<lc tu< C"",,,I~l;o ' ",,, .,f (:(..,,,,.:'
11('1 (\o"",i' l", .lOll. ACI M(,,",,~ '1 Coo......" I'''K,i(f . I'.... 2.
;>1113
!.q "(;ui<lc h M C>.",~ "~. n ... ,..,.,,, , ~. "",I I ~"" "~ C"""n' ~:' ACI C(.,oni",, 301. ACt M""",, I of
C,""""''' I'",,';a. 1'",,!.!OIlJ
1.10 "OM WC'\~'< C",,,,,,,, iog." AU C,""",i",,, 3(\(>. ).("1 Mil,,"','
(10"""" 1'"" ,# ,. . I'"" !. ;>1m
2. 11 . lk on" ..,no.IOO I"""",,, f,)f hol ,...100 of S , ,, " g( ~ . ",~ ~l~"I" of CQ<t(",,: ACI (;<",,,",0(<< 114. ACt
.If""",,/ '1 C,"""'''
I'''K'~'', [>,u1 I. ;>I~)J.
!. 12. '"C~" "i< .1 Mmi.' w <> h~ Co"""",,,':' I\U ("""mi,,,, l12. AO Mo", ,,,1 <f C""',." p~ .", .,. 1'>11 I.
;>1103.
1. I 3. K. C. H ,~",. "Why I, 'I""", II"
in O"",,,-(CT (,,,,,,,,,,,, 0",,""""" ' . V(~ . 3K "" , I. 1'193. 1'1', II_I~,
! .14 "(;ui<lc h)f 11\0; U", of High. R... ~ ",\u,~ . R """ i"~ M," i , , ",,~ (Su",,,!,I,,,;..;,,-",,) i n C"",'n" :' ACI
Oonmi,,,,, ) 1). Act .\1,,",,10/ of 0",,'"'' P"""ic<. I'," I. .'00),
1. 1 ~ ,\ A. ~."..,,,ni."i"''''''' V. Si,'. ;"nI. I J, "',. 4. 199~. Pr, 30---3~ .
!.16 V 1>[, M.lt.. r . ""Ily A"'. SiI;c. r,,,,,,, . ..-.J ~ ",, _H u, k 1\>1> ," 0 ... =:
A Ro"",,": c,"", '",t.
,,~. I ~.
no. 4. 1993. fJIl. 2J-2K
1.17 ( ;, Ilc' wi lc~. HiW>-S,n;.g,h SOli<. I-'u"''' (:, ...,,"-Chi<'l'Q Sly", :' C"",, lo,e ""I. 14, "n, 10. 1'1112.
1'1'. ') .. 3(\,
! .18 R. I" C."""",ill,,, 1\. II . Nil..., . ..-.J r n, ~ I .. <. "1''''1'<''''''' "r H;~ " S''''.g,h C,""'''1< Suhjtx1 '" So.",
k "" to.".1>:'
I. ACI. .-01 78. no, 3. Igs t. I"', 171-17S,
1. l q F, n, SI"" , A. H. ~ i1 ~ ",. ",ld S M.... i,..,. "~hh""". 1 I'" ~",,, ~., (..-H i g.h~ 'n... ~'h I )~"',,",, ; g.h '
0""",,",,:' j, Act. ,,,1, Sl. no. 4. 191J6. 1'1'. 606--{;[~
!.;>II p, T, "",",g. S. 1', Sh,h, ''''' 1\. h, ~"""' ...S,n....' _S' .., in Cu"", ....- ~,~m03 on<!l-;g",,..,-i~ hl C.... ",,, i.
0.01""''''''':' j, ACI. ",)1, 7~. "" . II. I97S. 1'1'. W.H>II,
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L14 ,\. M, N(~iI ~' . l'mr"'i" '1"",,,,,,. 4,h oo .. Jc"'" . .--,1<-")' & s..". I,.." Nc... y(~ . 1_ .
2.!S. M, M, ~n '>l1i. F 0. SI." .;old A. II ~ i l ~". "1I ; ~h. MOO,","."..,1 I-'''''-S'''',, ~' h O"'-.",,"~ S"~j;.'' " ,
~ " ..... "'-'.1 O"'tI,,,,,-,,." l AU. "'~, R) , "". S. 19S.\, f'I'. ~ S7 --M4 .
!.!6. M, M, S,oaJ;. F. 0, SI",,,. ",ld 1\. II. );"1,,.,. "Shri"' ~' on.J C""P " f HigJ1 . MOOi.on, on<! l&w-S''''nll.,h
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IU___ 16.
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StteS"',:' MOJ", CO"", II,-,. ,,,~ .<.00, 14. 1'153. 1'1', 7S .. ~
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no. 3. ~!''''" r 97~. 1'1', '60---165,
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,..-,"" S,,,~,,~,,,i n C u...:' J. A('I. ,,~. 6(1, no. 1. I%J. Pr, m-2!4.
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.1 ACI. . olI. 66.
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1975, rr. 10-'-131,
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2.44. 'S,,"o;Jf-I,,,-A~ He,..., ,'" Higj> -S''''''ll'h C_",,\" hel C",,,",in,,, 363, ACI .11,,,,,,,,1 ," C",... ,,"
P",,,h. 1'-'" 5. ;>In;:,
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-16---.1~. 1_
2.47. H, (;, Ho,,.,II, S, Il. GeNet, , nO p, W"i"~. "11;;,h-Sl"""';111 C"',,''''L '': W,'; ~hi"g II>.. 11-c"",r. I ~" Cf,,1
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2.49. A, !l. Nil...,. '-I'mpen .. , ",)OJ I\rfonn...".. , '" H;~ - S",,".. '" C, ... ""... : P"",,,I;"Xj '1 /,tRS
5)''''I",''i"," "" 0.,,,,",, S"'''M,"' for ,''' F.""", 1''';>- V,..". ; I"-~, 1997, I'!'. '159-.'9-1,
2.50. A, 11 ~ I ,"", -I)""ll" h"I' I ~'''",,'' of (''u",", H"",,,,,h ""' fhgh _ S L "'" ~(~ 0 ..."'0: lIi~h'''''.!l'1r
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;:.~J N, J. C"-;"" ..-.J J. k . Clifo"". "Hi~~ _ '\;.-f,-",",",," C'''''''''I<' He"",,,,,h N",,:h ,n l;" h".C II, U'iO." C"",r
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w. (;. C'''''''y.
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l . ~~ W (;. C"' ky. M A So""".
"nO (. I', S~,~ "Ti" " _D..-,,,,.1co, 1l<; l\cx' .... , ,,f Pr''''''~'',1 C,,,,,-,,,,,,
11<,,,",," 1I ,~m.'f)' 1I,""<ch /!(x",1 R~II,"" Ii". JM, 1% I. 1'1', I-:~,
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" . ............. _ I THI
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EoI6 ..
FLEXURAL ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
INTRODU CTION
Th~ fundamemal assumption~ upon which the mmlysis and d~-<ign of reinforced cnn -
crN~ m~mber; are ba",d w~r~ intmdul"W in Section 1.8. and th~ application of tho",
assumption' to the si mple case of a~ialloading was Jevdofl<'d in Sed ion 1.9. The stu -
d~nI should revi"",' $txtions 1.8 and 1.9 at thi, time. In dndoping n",thOlh for the
analysi, and ck'ign of beams in thi, dmpter. the ,ame a"umptioos apply. and identi -
Cal l~"'Cept' will be u",d . This ,"hapter will include analysis and desi gn for nexure,
including the dimensioning of th~ C(",cret~ cmss section and th~ sel~ction and pJal'<'-
me"t of r~inforcing st<'ei. Other imponant aSpI-",t, of heam d~.<ign including ,bear
reinforl'<'n-.em. hond and anchomge of rein forcing haT'S, and th~ i mponant qu~stions of
serviceability (e. g .. limiting ddlection, and controlling concrete cmcking) will he
treat<.-d in Chapter; 4. 5. and 6.
B ENDING OF H O MOGENEO US B EAMS
R~inf()rcl><l concret~ beam, are nonhomogeneous in that the.y are mack of two ~ntirdy
different materials. TI,e methods used in the analy';" of reinforn><l concrete beams are
th"refor~ diff~r~nI fmm Iho,<, used in the d~,ign OJ invesligation of hearn' composed
~mirdy of st~eI. w'KKl. or any mher structural mat~riaL The fundanlt!nlal principl~s
i""ol\'(.><1 arc. how~v~r. cs",mially Ihe ,an",. Brid1y. tll~se principles are as follows.
At any cm" ""clion tl",re exist imemal forces that can be reso lved into cnmpt>-
n~ms rKlnnaJ and tang~ntiallo th~ ",,"tion. TIlOse cmnpt,nem, Ihat are nonnaJ to the
,<,ction are Ihe ''''/I,lillK slre~""s (tension on one ~ide of the n~ut rdl axi s ,Old compre~
S;Oll on Ihe other). Thdr furn:tion is to r~si~t the hending mon",m at the ,,-'("t;on. 1he
tangemial compt'"~nt' are known as the .,-I,,'a, stres""s . and Ih~y res;'t the tran,verse
or ~hear forces.
Fundamental a,sumptions rdating to fI~xure and flexuml ,hear~,-" as follmvs:
I. A cro" "-,,,tion thut wa, plane hefore loading remain, plane und~r load. Thi,
means thai the unit ,train, in a beam above and helow the fleUiral axis ar~ pro-
ptmi<;>Ilalto the d;SlaJK'C from that axis.
2. n", hending slress f at any pt,i nt depends <Kl lbe simin at thai ptlint in ~ manner
gi ven hy lhe stress -strain diagrdlll of the materiaL If tm, heam i, made of a honK)-
ge neous material whose stress-slrain dingmm in tension and cnmp,-""ion is thai
of Fig. 3.1". the following hold,. If Ille maximum ,train at the outer fiher; is
,mailer Ihan the 'train " up to which sire" and strain nr~ p"'portional for the
64
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" . ............. _ I rHl
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. ANA ll' SIS AN D I) E.~ I (; N O F BEAMS 6S
FI GUIU: 3. 1
EJ,,,ic.md ;nd,,,;c ">too'
di.. ribu,ion, in ho,nogeoeous
t.:.rrIS
,,' ,,'
given material. then , h~ compression and len,i"n S!r~'ses on either side of ,he
axis are proportional '0
, he di1Im'~ from ,h~ axi~. a, ,hown in Fig. 3.lh.
H owev~r. if ,Ite maximum strain al tile oute r f,hers i, larg~ r than P' Ihis is no
long~r tru~.11", ,i,ualion ,hal ' hen occurs is ~bown in Fig. 3.1c: i.e" in 11", out.,,-
ponion~ of 11", heam. wl",re . p' resses and rain, am no longer prop<n-
lionaJ. In II",,,, r~gions. IIIe magnitud~ of sire"" al any le,el. ~uch asII in Fig. 3.1,;.
d~~nd, on tl", strain' 1 at that level in the mar"'~ r giv~n by lite 'tre,s-stmin dia-
gr~m of lhe ",aleriaJ. In OIlier wonls. fm a gi"'n ,train in the beam. the streS~ al
a point is lite sa m~ as lhal giwn by lhe ,tre''l-strain diagram fm the ,an", slrain.
3. The disnibution of 11", sbear ~lre''''!i ov~r the deplh of lhe "''''lion d~p"nd, on
11", shape of lhe crosS ...",tion and of tl", StresS-'lrain diagram _ These ,hear
S1re~"" are large,t al lhe neUlral axis and equ1Illo zero al the outer fillers. 1he
~I",ar SlreSses on lIorilO"'al ~nd ,-enical plane, through any p<lim are equal.
4. Owing 10 the c"mbined action of she~r sl re~",s (horizont al and vertical) and tl ex -
ure 'Ires,,"";. at any p<)im in a beam there are incli",'{[ 'tresses Oflcnsion a[w com -
pressi"n, the large;;t of which form an 1Ingle of90 with each O1h~r.1he i "'~nsily
of d,e inclined maxi mum or principal Sl r~!;' at any poim is given by
J'
,
-+ 0.1)
wh~re I - intensity of normal fiocr Slress

- intensity of langel11ial shcaring stress
111C inclined stl'!SS Jnak~s an angle wilh lhe horizontal such lhal tan 2 .. 2- I
5. Since tbe horizon[al and vcr1ieal shearing str.:sses are equal and th~ flexural
stresses are zero a[ [he neutral plane. the i "dined tensile and compressive stresses
at any poilll in thaI plane fonn an angle of 45 " w;lh lhc horizolllai. the intensily
of each being equal 10 the unit shear at the poi nt
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" . ............. _ I THI
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66 IW..'i [{; N O F CO NC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
6. When the stre"e, in th~ outer fLI'<'" an" smaller than the proportional limit};"
Ihe beam behaves "I"-'tical/y. as ,hown in Fig . 3 . lh. In thi, case the following
pertain>:
(a ) The neutral axis pa,."" through the center of gravity or the cross section.
(b ) The intensity of the hending sit""" tlOrmnlm the section increa...." directly with
the distance from the ne utral axis and is a maximum at the extreme flhers. The
sire,,", nt any given mint in the cross section i, repre,ented by the "'luation
Mv
l =/ (J.2)
where, = bend ing ,t",,, at a distance y from neutral axi.,

M ~ ext~mal bending moment al section
I = moment of inenia of nos, sel1ion about neutral axis
The maximum beooing stre", OClU" at tk outer fioc" and is equal m

Me /1/
(3.3 )
' """,- - -, =5"
where,. = distance from nl'utral axis to outer liber
S = I c = sectio" m<XIul us or em"" , ..,..tio"
(e ) The ,hear stre" (horizontal eq uals wrtical) at any mint in the Cf(}!i'i ",,tion is
gi,'en by
(3.4)
wh~re V ~ t01al 'hear at ,""tion

Q = statical moment aoout neutrdl ""i, of that mrtion of crosS section lying
bet",,,,,n a line through milll in qu~stion pardllelm neUlrdl axis and near-
e,t face (upper Or lower) of beam
I ~ ITIOI!lelll of i""nia of cross section aoout neu1r.J.1 axis
h = width of beam at a gi,-e n poi lll
(d ) The intensity of "lear alo"g a wrtical cross ""tion in a rectangular beam '"aries
as tll~ ordinates of a pambola. the int~n!it)' being ,~ro at the ollter fibers of the
beam and a maxim um at tl'" n~utrdl axis. Por a tOlal depth h, the maximum is
tv M .ince at the ""utral axis Q = hl1 8 and I = hh' 12 in Eq , 0 .4).
The rvntainder of this ehapl ~r deals only wilh ix-nding StreSSes and Iheir effocts
on rt>inforc~d conCT~k beams. Sh~ar Slress.)S and lh~ir dfocls ~ discussed separately
in Chapkr4 .
_. 3.3 REI NFORCED C O N CRETE B EAM B EH AVIO R
Plain ~'OnCrcl~ beams are in~m ,'i,'nl as flexural ""'lUbe" becauso.' II", lensil~ SITGnglh
in bending (modulus ofruplure. see &'<.'lion 2,9) is a small fradion of lh~ compn.,ssive
sIT~ngth. As a conseq",'ncc' . such beams fail on the IGnsion side al low load,; long
before I]", !;trenglh of I]", concrde on lh~ compn.'ssion side has be~n full y utilizd. For
lhis reaSOn. sld.'1 reinforcing bars are plac~d on th~ tension sioo as dos~ to Ii", eXIT~n",
knsion fiber as is coltlpalibl~ with prO~T fire and corrosion pf(}t~clion of tl", SId.'1. In
such a reinfon.x'<:l COtICfetc> beall!. lhe knsion caused by II", bending 1t101tk:tltS is chi~t1y
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
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FLE XURA l. ANA ll'S IS AN V I) E.~ I (;N O F BEAMS 67
FIGU IU : 3.2
Doha,-;".- of ",;nforccd
cooc,ele beam UI){\er
I I
;TK'''''';08 10a0d
1 ", 1
r- ' ~
r, 1
l ~.~. A.
--'.
'01 'e'
'l
",
'e
+-" +-"
", 'I)
resist~d by the s!<ed r"infon:ement. while lhe concrete alone is usually l'af"'ble of
resisting lhe corre'ponding compression. Such joint nction of the Iwo material, i,
a~sured if relalive slip is prewnted. This is achiC\'~xl by u,ing deformed bar, with their
high bond ,trenglh at the steel -concrete interface (see Seclion 2.14 ) and. if nl'Ces'ary.
hy special 3nchomge of lhe "nds of lhe h=. A simple example of such a ""3m. wilh
the cuslomary designalion, for the cross -sectional dimension,. i, SIK)Wn in Fig . 3.2.
For simplicily. lhe discus,ion thaI follow, will deal with beams of rrttangular nos>
section. ",'en though members of <>1her , hares are very ~'ommoll in mo,! concrct~
,!ructures.
When the load Oil su ch a heam is gradually innea",-xl from zero!o lhe magni -
tude that will cause the beam!o fail. seveml different siage, ofhehavior can he dearly
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
fill IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
distinguished. At low loads. as long as the maximum tensile stress in the concrete is
,mailer than the modulu~ of rupture. the entire concrete is effec!i"e in re,isting slress.
in compression on one ,ide and in ten,ion on the other ,ide of the neulml axis. In addi -
tion. the rein forcemen!. deforming the same amoun! as the adjacent coocrete. is also
,uhject to lensile stresses. At this stage . all stresses in the <"<,"crete are of small mag-
nitnde and are propollional to stmins. TIte disHihution of ~trains and stre,ses in con -
crete and 'teel "'.." the depth of the ~cti<;1I1 is as shown in Fig. 3.2(".
When 11", load i, funher increased. the ten~ile strength of the concrete i~ soon
reached. and atthi, stage temion cracks develop. Thcse propagate quickly upward to
or dose 10 the Ie\'d of 11", neutral 1'1",,,,, which in turn shifts upward with prugressiw
cracking. The general shape and dimibution ,;,f the se tension cmth i, shown in Fig.
3.2.1. In well -designed heam" the width of these cmcks i~ so small (hairline cmch)
that thq are not ohjectionahle frum the viewpoint of either cOITQl;ion protection or
appear.mce. TIteir presence, howevcr, prufoundly affects the hehavior of the heam
under load. E"idemly, in a n:ll'ked section. i.e .. in a cruss St.,; tion lo,;atcd at a <orack
,uch as a-fl in Fig, 3.2./. 11", concrele does not tran ,mit any lensi Ie st resses, H~n{"e. juSt
as in ten,ion n",mhe", (Section 1.9h). the sted is called uron 10 resist the entire ten -
,i,,", At moderate loads, if thc concrete Stresses do not exc"eed appruximately /: 2.
,trc<se' and stmin, mntinue to he dosely proponional (sec Fig. 1.1 6). 11", distribu -
tion of strains and ,tresses at or near a cra,"ked seclion i, then that shown in Fig. 3.2<,.
When the load is still funher increased, ~tresses and stmins rise COITc<pondingl)' and
are no longe r proponiona!. TIte ensuing nonlinear rdati on hetw,-",n stresses and strai n,
is that given hy the connete ,tre5.>-strain ,"ur"e. 11,erefore. just a, in homogeneou,
heams (see Fi g, 3.1 ). the distribution of con{"rete stresses on the compression ,ide or
the beam i, of the same 'hape as the stress-strain C"Uf\'e. Figure 3,2/ show, the di<tri -
hution of strain, and stresses dose to the ultimate load.
E "entually. the carrying capacity of the heam is reocl><-><1. Failurc can be caused
in one of two ways. When reiati,'ely nKKkralc amoull1s of reinforcement are employed,
at some value of the load the <t",,1 will reach its yield point. At that ,trc". the reill -
forcentell1 yidd, suddenly and stretches a large amount (see Fi g. 2.1 5). and the tell -
,ion <:r.!<oh in the concrete widen visibly and propagate upward. with simultaneous
'ignificant deflection of the heam . When this happens, the str.!ins in the remaining
<:Olllpression ZOl'" of the C<KlCrete increase 10 SUc"h a degree that crmming of the COII -
crete. the .,er""da,.y com"""",;"" /a;llIrt" en,ue> at a load olily slightly larger thall that
whic"h cau",d the sk",1 10 yield. Effectivel y. 1I",refore. anaill"",nt of the yield point in
the ~1t.",1 detennine, the <:arI)'ing capacity of moder.!tel)' reinforced heams. Sueh yield
failure i, g radual and is preceded by visible sign' of distress. su<oh as the widening and
lengthening of cr.lcks and the marked increase in deflccti,,",
On the other hand. if large amou nl, of reinforcemell1 or nOllnal amounl. of stcel
of very high <trength are cmployed. the <:OInpressiw strength of the concrete may he
exhausk><1 hefore the st c",l ~tans yidding. Connete fail, by nushing when strain,
hecome '0 large that they disrup! the integrity of the concrete. Exact criteria for thi ,
otturrelll'e arc IK)t yct known. but it has heen observed that ,,-'{"tangular heam, fail in
<:OInpression when the con{"rete 'train~ rea,"h values of about 0.003 10 0.004.
ComprC"i<Kl failure thmngh crushing of 11", c"onncte is SUddeli. of an almo<t explo-
,ive nature, and oecurs without warning. For this reason it is good practice 10 dimell -
,ion heam, in SUc"h a manncr that slK)lJld they he overloaded. failllre would he initiat~d
hy yielding of thc st".,1 rathe r than by crushing of 11", concrete.
n,e analysi, of stresses and strength in the different stage, just descrihed will he
discossed in the next several seclions.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLEXURAl. ANA ll' SIS AN V I)E.~I (;N O F BEAMS 69
FIG UIU: 3.3

Un<mclcd trnn,[orm<d b<am
",,{ioo,
,,' ",
a. Stresses Elastic and Section Uncracked
As long as tile t~",ilc >tress in the eotlCrcte is smaller than the modulus of ruplUre, so
thm no tension cracks dt:wlop. the strain and stress distribution as shown in Fig. 3.a
is essentially toc same as in an clastic. homogeneous beam (Fig , 3.ln). The only dif
f~rellce is the presence of another mat~ria1. the steel rdnforecmen1. As shown in
S~'Ction 1.9a. in {oc ciastic range. for any g i "~n "alue of strain, th~ stress in tile steel
is " times that of the concrete (Eq. ( 1.6)]. In the same section. it was shown that one
can take account of this fact in calculations by replacing the actual steci-and concrete
cross section with a fictitious section thought of as consisting of concrctc only, In this
"'transformed seclion."' {hc ~c1Ual area Oflhc rdnforccmcnt is replaccd with an equiv.
al~m concrete area equal to IIA , locmed at the level of the st~d. Thc transform~d .
uncracked section pertaining to thc beam of Fig. 3.2b is shown in Fig. 3.3.
Once the transformed s<-'Ction has hcen obtained. the usual mel hods of ana lysis
of cia,tic homogenl~us beams apply. Th at is. the seClion properties (locat ion of neu
tral axis. moment of inert ia. seclion modu l us. ~tc , ) ar~ calculah.'d in the usun l (l1~nner.
and. in p.1rticular. stresses are compuk'd with Eqs. 0.2) to (3.4).
EXAM I'I. E 3.1 A n:c1anguillr beam has {he di"",nsio,", (S<:\< Fig. 3.2b) b = lOin" II = 2.'i in .. and d = n in ..
and i, reinf=d ,,'i{1l {I""e No . R (No. 25) bars '" {M{ A, - 2 __H in ' . The co"cre{e cylin.
der Mreng{h f: i, 4000 p,i. and {he {ensile Mreng{h in bendi ng (mooulu. of ruptu",) is 475
psi. ll>e yield poim of tile steel!,. is 110,000 psi. {he ,{re,,,uaio r un',", of {he ma{.".ial, "'iog
{hi>Se o f Fig. 1,16, [)c{ermine the stresses caused by a bend ing '''''''>em AI ~ 45 ft kips.
So. ~.m'IUN. Wi{h a "Iiue" E E, E, ~ 29.000.000 3.600.000 ~ ~. on< has to add {o tile
=tangulor o.uline an ""'3 (n - llA, - 7 X 2.37 - 16.59 in' . dispo.al as ,hown on rig
3.4. {o obtain {he uncr""~o:d. {ransf""ned ",~{ion . Con"emional calculmion , shoY.<-' {hm tile
location of {Ile '>emral axi. oftlli, ." ",rion i. gi,'en hy y - 1.1.2 in.. and its nlO "",m nf iner_
{ia aboot {his a~i, is 14.740 in'. For AI ~ 45 ftkips = ~,OOO inlb. {he COllC"'{. compres
,ion me" at the top tiber i,. from Iiq. (.1.3).
13.2
h, - ."O~
,,,, ,,, --
14,740 - 4&4 ,.-
n<i
11.8
/" - ~40.000 14.740 - 432 psi
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
70 IW..'i I{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
FI GU IU: 3..1
T"""fO<TIl<d beam .,,,tio,, of
E.,mple .1. I ,
".
1
Sioc. {hi, ,."I ue i, below {he gi'-en {en, ile bending st",ng{h o f!h ~ conere"" J75 psi, no {en-
,ioot cracks will form. and calcula!ioo by {he "ocraded. (ransforn.oo >OClion is ju>tirocd, The
"re" in the steel . from Eq., ( 1.6) and (J.2). is
A,h 98
f = Ii - ' ~ 8 540.000 - - = 2870 psi
' I 1-t,740
By comparingj,. and /, with {he cylinder Slre"~lh and the yield poi nt res[leClil'ely. ;t is "-"'n
Iha' at thi s >lage the aclual stresses are quit~ sm~1I compared with ,he ~"ailublc St"",glhs of
lhe Iwo maleria]s_
b. Stresses Elastic and Section Cracked

When the l~nsile stress f a eXh'&ls lhe modulus of ru pt ure. cracks form. as sllo .... n in
Fig. 3 ,2d. If lll~ concrete compressive Slress is I~ss lhan apprownaldy and Ilk< +fc
sleel Slress has nOl r~a{lied lil t' yield point. both makrials continlle 10 beha>'e etasli
(ally. or wry nearly so. This situation gen~raHy occur; in struclures under nonnal
service conditions and loads. sinc~ at these loads Ihe stresses am !!-en~rally of lile ord~
of magnilulk JUSI discussed , At Ihis sInge. ror Silllplicily and wilh litll~ if WI)' ~rror. il
is assu~d lhal lension {racks haw progressed alllh~ way 10 Ihe neutral axis and lhal
seClions plan~ before bending arv plane in Ihe d~ronned member, The sllualion wilh
rvgard to slrain and S1r~ss distribution IS lhell Ihat shown in Fig. 3.h.
To compule siresses. and Slnl,nS if desired. lhe dcvic~ of Ih~ InInsronu~d seclion
{an slill be used , On~ need only lake account of ltk< fact tlial atl of Ihe COliCTele lhat is
slressed in tension is assumed cracked. and llk<refore effeCliwly absent. As shown in
Fig . .1.5". the transfonned seclion ltk<n consists of lhe concrel<' in compression on Ollt'
sick of lh~ axis and" liuk<s lh~ sled area on lhe mher, n,~ distance to tile neulral axis.
ill lhis slage. is conventionally expn.'ssed as a fraclion kd of the df~live <:kplh d.
(Once lhe concrete is (nicked. any malerial localed below lhe sted is inerf~ctive.
which IS why" is lhe eff~'Cl",e <:kplh of th~ beam ,) To del~rmin~ lh~ location of Iht'
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3. "" . .... ......... _ I THI
o..loo ot c..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
FLEXURAl. ANA ll' SIS ANV I) E.~ I (;N OF BEAMS 71
FIGU IU : 3.5
C'a<:kod tran,{,,<mod sect;"" _
'"
tt"U1r~1 axis. the moment o r the t" " sion urea about the axis is set equal 10 the 1110"", nt
or Ihe <'",npressio" area. which giYe,
td'
', - - -"A , -d - ;;d - 0 (.>.5)
2
HaYing obtained ~d by solving this quadratic equ~tion. onc can dctermine the
mOOloO Ilt of inertia aoo other properties of the trn nsfortncd section as in the prc'Ccding
case. Aitcl1latiwly. one can procCt-'d from hasic principles by accounting directly for
the forccs that act on the cross section. T h~se are 6hown in Fig . .>.5/>. Thc concrete
stress. with ma.ximutll ,'aluc Ie at the outcr edgc, is distributed linearly as shown . The
cntire steel area A, is subject to thc stress /,. Corr~spondingly. the total compression
force C and lhe totaltcnsion forcc T arc
C .. f')M and T" A,J. (3.6)

2
The r~"quirc1llent that these tWO forces be equal nu merically has bc.:n taken care of by
the manner in which thc location of the neutral axis has b.:cn ddermincd.
Eq uilibrium requires that the couple constit uted by the two forces C and r be
equal nUinerically to the cxternal b.:nd ing momc nt M . Hcnce. taking tllOlnents about
Cgives
M .. Tjd " A,/,jd (3.7)
whcrcJdis the illlemalle"cr arm betwcen C and T. From Eq. (3 .7). the steel stress is
M
/'- -",", (3.8)
Conversely. tak ing moments abom r givcs
(3.9)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" . ............. _ I rHl
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
72 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfliRES Olapl<r 3
from which the concrete s(re" is

2M
(3.10)
f. = k)It'"
In using Eqs , (3.6) lhrough (3.10). i( is cOllwnicnt to have equations by which k and)
may be found d irectly. to est~blish the neutral :!xis dist~nce kd and the ,nternal lc,'cr
ann)", Fir,;t defining the reinfim:emml rali"
(3 , II)
then subSlitU1ing A" - 1>11 into F..q, 0.5) and solv ing (ur k. one oblains
'N'+21l - " (3.12)
f rom Hg. 351> it is secn th~tjd ~ d - M), or
) = I - -
, (3.13)
3
V~lucs of k and j for clastic ,rackcd section analysis. fo r common reinforcement r~tios
and modul~r ratios. ~re found in Table A.6 of Appc"di~ A.
The ocam of ha mplc 3. t is \ubje<:1 to ~ bc,)(jing nlOll>i:n1 M - 90 ft kips (r~ltli:c Ihln -'5 ft
kips as pre\'iously). Calcula(e (he relennl rropenie. and SIre,,,, .
S"' .UTlON. If (he =(ion were to remain uocracked. (he lensile m",s iro lhe concreto woold
now be lwie<: ilS pre"iolls ""t"e. lhM is. 864 psi, Sincc ,hi, e.e<:e<ls by far Itli: nlOlllllll' of
flIrture of (he gi"on coocreto (475 psi). cracks will ha,'e formed .nd the anal,-sis musl be
ad,'fllCd aJopropri3tcly. 1,-<]lIa,iOl1 0.5). ",ilh U>i: kllown quanli,ies b , II. alld A, insencd. gi ,'cs
lhe di5!00C<' to I,", neutral axis J.d = 7.6 in .. or l ~ 7.6 B = 0.)3. From Eq, (.1.13).
j - I - 0 ,33 3 - 0,89. Wilh lhese ,allies Itli: SI<:<:I SlreSS is obIaiot'd from Eq, (3.S) asi; -
22300 psi. and 1,", maximum CO/1Cft1e me" from Eq. (3 , 10) as!, ~ 1.190 [lSi,
Complring Itli: ",~uhs with !loe r:-::ni'>i:m "alue, for Iloe s.'n>i: beam "hen subjcci 10 one-
half lhe loomem. as JI"',joosly calculated. OI1t n01ices (hal {II (ht neutral plane has migrale<1
IIpward W ,11.11 il-' JiSI'"CC from Ihe 101' filxr has changed fro m 13.2 '0 7.6 in,: (2) e,'en
lhough the Ixnding mome m has OI1ly been doobled, (h., sleel s(ress has ioc ... ased from 2870
1022.300 p>i , or atx"" 7,8 limcs. and IIIe concrelC compressiOl1 strcss ".11 iocreased from
484 to 1.190 psi. or 2,9 limes; (.1) the nlOlnenl of inenia of the cracked u-ansformed =tiOl1
is ~asily ,'Om!'ul"" 10 be ~.910 in'. C{lmp.1rW willi 1-'.740 in' for IIIe "ocrnc~o<1 "''''1iOl1. '[l, is
afleelS Ilk' mani1U<k' ofille deneClion. as discussed in O1ap1er 6. Thu,. il is seen how rad
ieal i, lhe innuence of ,he fonn.1Ii011 of ",n,i011 crac ks 01' Ille Ixha"ior of reinfon:..xI con-
creto beam .
c. Flexural Strength
It "of intereSI in siructuml praclicc 10 cnicuJak tho"," stresses and defonnation, Ihal
oc,'ur in a SlrUClure in servi,'<l under d~sign load . For rt>i"foreed COncrel~ beams. thi,
can be dOlle by the n~lhods j ust presentoo. which ass"me dastic bdmvior of bolh
materials. II i, .,quail),. if nOI more. imponatll lhal lhe siructural ~ng;n,~r be able 10
predict wilh ,alisfactory accuracy lhe Slrenglh of a SlruClurtl or slruC'lural m~mr.., r. By
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3.FIo . ..ot ......... _ I THI
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. ANA U 'S IS AN V I) E..~ I (;N O F BEAMS 73
making this s1",nglh larger by an appropriate amount than the largest loads thm can t,.,
expected during 1h~ lifdin", of 1t,., suucture. an adequat~ margin of safely is assured.
In the past. me1hods bast.-d <HI elastic analysis, like those just presented or "arimion,
thereof. have been u...-d for this purpose . It is clear, however. thaI a1 or ncar 1t,., ulti -
mate load. ,tresse' an: no long~r proponional to slmins . In regard to axial compre'i-
,i,m. this has t,.,en discusscd in <ktail in Section 1.9. and in regard 10 bending. it has
oc..,n pointt.-d out that at high loads. close to failure. lhe disuihution of stresse, and
,train, i, thaI of Fig . 3.2f ralher than the ela,tic dislribution of Fig. J.k. More real i,-
tic methods of analysis. ha ...-d on actual inela~tic r~tl"'r 1han aumed das1ic behavior
o f the material, and on re ,u lts of extremely exkn~ive experimental research. ha'-e
oc..,n developed to predi{"{ tI", member sueng1h. TIleY are now u",d almo't exclusively
in structural design pmtti,"e.
If the di,trihu1ion of concrele compressi,'e stre,,,,s at or ncar ultimate load (Fig,
3.2[J had a well-defined and invariable , hape-jXIrabolic. trapezoidal, or otherwise--
it would be possible to derive a completely rational toc'{,'Y of bending ,trengtb. just a,
the theu,)' Qf elastic bending with its known triangular shaJlC of ,tress distribmion
(Figs. 3. Iband J.1c and e) is ,traighlfor..-ard and rational. Actually. in'peC1ion of Figs,
2.3. 2.4. alld 2.6. and of many more COllcrete sU6s-s1min Cur'f~' that have been pub-
li shed . shows that tI", geometrical shape of tl'" streS, distrihution is quitc ' -aned and
depends on a number o f facto's. such as the cylinder s1rength and th~ r~te and dur~
tion of loading. For this and mher rea><:>n,. a wholly rational flexural theQr)' for rein -
forced concrete ha, lIot yet been developed (Rd s. J.I tQ 3.3). !'re>ent medK>ds of
analysis. tllerefor~. arc I>a",d in part OIl known laws of n",,-"hanics and are ,upple-
mented. wherc needed. by extensive tcst information.
Le1 Fig . 3,6 represent the dimihution of intemal ,tre,,,,, and stmins when tI",
beam is about to faiL One desires a method {() calculate tha1 moment M , (nominal
Ol<Imem) al which the beam will fail ei1her by tellsion yielding of 11", s1~..,1 or hy crush-
ing of 1he concrete in tbe outer compre"ion fiber. For the first mooe of failure. tl'" cri -
terion i, that the ~teel S1res, equal the yield point.f, = f,. It has oc..,n memi,med bef",~
that an aac! crikrion for C01lCre!e cOl1lpre~,ion failure i, not yet knQwn . hut that for
rectangular beams s1min, of 0.003 to 0,{)04 have been l1Ie,,-~ured i mrnediutei)' p"-,,,,--d -
ing failure. If one "-"un",,. usually ,lightly conscrvatively. tha11he cOnere1e is abom
to crush when the maximum strain reaehe , = 0 .003, comparison with a great many
tes1' of hearn, alld columns of a consi<kmble variety of shape, and conditions of load -
ing show, that a <a1isfactoril)' accurate and safe 'trength prediction can be made
HG URE J .6
Suess diwibution Jt uhima!e
1
1
,,~
, l;7 ,
1 ~' - E
I,
,
J
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
(Ref. JA). In addition to tl"'''' two criteria (yielding of the """I at a ,tress off.. and
cru'hing of lhe conerele at a stmin of 0'(lO3), il i, not real ly necessary 10 kno", tl", end
'ha!", of the n,"crete sireS, distribution in Fig. 3.6. Whal is neee~sary is 10 know, for a
given distal\l", (' of lhe neutml axis , (I) lhe lotal re,uhant compression force C in the
concrele and (2) iI, veni callocation, i,e., its dislance from the outer compression fihoer.
In a recta ngular hoeam , the area Ihal is in compression i, he, and the total ('om-
pression force On Ihis area can be expressed as C = Im.he, where I",. i~ tl", avemge
compression sire" on the area be. Evidently, tl", 3vemge ('ornpre"ive slress thai can
hoe ,kvelo!",d before failure occurs hoecon"" larger. Ihe higher the cylinder ,trenglhl:
of Ihe panicular cOnerele. Let
(.1.14)
Then
C" I"he (3,15)
For a given di slance c' IO the I",ulral axis. the location of C can be del1ned as some frac-
tion - of this distance , Thus. as indicated in Fig. 3.6, for a concre(e of given Slrcng(h
il is lleCCS5."U)" (0 know only - and to completely define (he effoxt of (iIC concrete
compressive stresses.
Extensive direc( mcasurenICt1\S, as well as lIidit"<.'C( c\'aluJ(ions of numerous
beJtl1t~S(S, ha"e showtltha( the following values for :md - are sa(isfac(Qrily accu-
mIl' (see Ref. 3.5. where is designated as k1kJ and - as kl ):
equals 0,72 for I; !i 4000 psi and decreases by 0.04 for e"ery 1000 psi above
4000 up (0 8000 psi. For J; > 8000 psi . .. 0.56.
equals 0,425 forI; :s 4000 psi and <kcreascs by 0.025 fore'-cry 1000 psi abov~
4000 up (0 8000 psi. For f; > 8000 psi. .. 0.325.
The Mcrease in - and - for high-S(fength concreles is rela(cd to the facttha( such con -
cretes arc Illore brinle: i.e .. (hey show a more sharply cu"vcd s(rcss-S(rain plot ..-i(h a
smaller ncar-horizontal porlion (sec Figs , 2..> and 2.4). Figure 3.7 shows Ihcse sil11ple
relations.
If (his c.x!",riI1ICl1Ial inforlllation is accepted, IIIC l1l:1ximull1 mOloom can be cal-
culmed from (he laws of l"quilit>ri um and from the assul11p(ion (hm plan~ cross sections
remain plane. Equilibrium requires (ha(
C= T J..hc = AJ" (3.16)
AI"" the hoending moment. being tht: ~~,uplc of the forces C and T, call hoe writtt:n a,
eithe r
M = Tz = AJ, d - " (3.17)
M " Cz .. l e/>(' d - - , '- 0.18)

For fail ure initiated hy yielding of the tt:nsion sh~el.f, = J;. Substil uting this
value ill Eq, 0 _16), Ollt: ohtains the distance to th" ncut,,,1 axi,
, ---
iI,!,
f~ 1!
(3 ,19(/)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" . ............. _ I rHl
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLEXURAl. ANA ll' SIS AN V I)E.~ I (;N OF BEAMS 7S
FIGU IU : 3.7
Variat;'M1 of atI<l with
M"
cooc,ele slrcnglh f;. "
"
0.'
, ~
0.'
o
o
"'" fd , psi
10,000
Allemali"el)" using A, = iNl. the neulr.il axis distancc i,

M
,- --
f,
(J .19b)
giving the distnncc 10 the ne ut ral axis when t~nsion failure occurs. Tht nominal
momCIi! M. is then oola incd from Eq. (3.17) wilh the value for e just ddcrmillCd. and
J; - I,: that is.
j,
f,
Wilh the 'pe(-;fi c. experimemailyohtnined.aluesforandgivenpre .. iou.I)..thi ~
he,'(jlll'"
. ,
M ~ {MI . I - 0.59 -
f,
f,
(,3 .201
If. for larger reinforccmcm ratios. the steel docs not reach yield at failurc. thcn
the strain in theconcrcte becomes , - 0.003. as previously discussed. The stcel stress
J; . not having reached the yield point. is propol1ional to the steel slrain . ,: i.e .. accord
i~g \0 Hookc's law,
I, = ,E,
From the stmin di,tribution of Fig. 1.6, the sk",1 str~in , can he expre,,,,d in term, of
the di,tance ,- by evaluating similar triangles, after ,,-hieh it is secn thm
t/ - c
1- . E, -"-
)
() .21 )
Then. from Eq . (3.16).

d - ,-
Ie"" = ,
A,' ,E, - - - (,3.22)
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
76 IW..'i I{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
and this quadmtic may be solvoo for ". tht only unknown for the given beam. With both
c and!, known, the nominal mO"lent of the beam. so heavily reinfon:cd that failure
o,:cup; by crushing of the lXlncrete, ma)' be found from either F..q. 0.17) <;Ir Eq. 0.(8).
Whether Or not tt;.;, ,t""[ has yielded at fnilure can be determined hy comparing
the actual rcinforcenlem mtio with the I",/m,ce,! re;njol'l. 'ffl'W/ wI;" b' represent ing
that amount of rein forcement nec'es>ary for the beam to fail by crushing of the con -
Crete at tt;.;, ,anle lood that cau,;.,' the steel to yield . This means that tt;.;, neutr~1 axi,
mu st be so located that at the I"ad at whid, the ,t""[ ,tart, yieldi ng. the cc",crct~
react;.;,s it, cm"pressi,'" stmin limit .' COITe'p'md ingly, setting!, = j,. in Eq. (3.21)
and sub,tituting the yield str~in ,. fm /,. E" o ne obtains the value 0('; defining the
unique position of the n"utml axis 'corresponding t<;l simu ltaneous crushing of tIle con -
crete and initiation of yielding in tbe \t""I,
(3.23)
Sub:slilU(ing (hm value of < into Eq, (3 , 16). with II,!, - bd/,. oroe oNains for (he Nil
anced rcinforcem~nt ratio
.0 __ f, _~
j, ' . +
(3 ,24)
EX,\ MI' I. E 3.3 Determine the oomi nal """""nt M, at which the beam of E,amp("; 3, I and 3,2 will fail.
St) "'J"'o~ . Rlr this he,m the ",inforcemem ratio - A , hJ - 237 (l0 x: 23) - 0.0103
The oolanced reinf<>fCemem TIltio is found fron1Eq. (3 .24) to be 0.0284 . SirlCe the """",01 of
steel in the beam i, Ie", lhan ,hat which would cause fanu", by cru..tling of the COlleme, 11><0
beam will bil in tell,ion by yi~(ding ufthc st".,l, It, !IOminal lTIOH"'nt. from Eq. (3.2Ob). i,
0.010.1 x: 60.000
M, - 0.0103 x: 60,000 x: 10 x: 13' ( - 0.59 4000
- 2.970.000 inlb - 248 ft.~ip,
When tm: bearn reocm:. M" th~ distance to it5 nOUlml a,is. from Eq, (3.191. is
c-
H.0103 X 6H.OOO X n _ 4 <)4
0,72 X 4000 .
It is int~resting to comp:lre lhi~ resull wilh (hose of Examples 3.1 and 3.2. In lhe
previous calculalions. il was found (hat a( low loads. when lhe concrete had not yel
crackoo inlension, th~ neu(ral axis was localc'd al a distance of 1),2 in, fromlhe com
pression edge: al higher loads. when the lension coocrele Wa!' cracked bul Stresses
wcre still sufflcienrly sm~lI to be d~stic. this d iS lance Wal' 7.6 in. Immedia(dy before
(he beam fails. as h~s JUSt been showo, (his distance hal' further d~creased 104.9 in,
For (h~se sa me slag~s of loading, lhe stress in (he Sl~1 iocreas<..-d from 2810 psi inlhe
uncracked seclion. 10 22.300 psi in (he crach 'd elastic seclion. alld 10 60.000 psi allhe
nomi nal mon""m capaci ty. This mi gration of lhe neUlral ~.~ is (oward lhc compression
<XIge and lhe increase in sleel Slress as load is iocrcal'ed is a graphic iIlUslration of (he
(Iifferenc~s between the \"ariou~ st~ge~ of behavior through which a rcinfOr<:ed con
crete beam p~sses al' ilS load is increased from zero 10 lhe "al ile lha( causes ill0 fail.
The examples ulso illus(rale the facllhal nominul momcn(s cannOl be dc(~rmincd
accurately by elal'lic calculations.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. ANA ll' SIS AN V I) E.~ I (;N O F BEAMS 77
'. _. 3.4 D eSIG N OF T EN SIO N R EINFORc eD Re CTANGULAR Be AMS
For reasons Ihat were expl~iOl-d in Charl~r I. the prescli1 design of reinforced concrctc
structures is blIscd on the coocept of providing suflkiem strength to rcsisl hypotheti
cal overloads. The lIominal 51,..,U!!II, of a proposed llIember is calculated. based on the
rest eUITem knowledge of member and llIaterial hchavior. Thai nOlllinal strcngth is
modified by a S!"'lIg!/) ,,'duc!;,J</ f<lc!o, . less tlian unity. to obtain the de,-igl!
.1Ire-'lIlh. The re'l,,;,,'d ""'lilll/l, should the hypothetica l overload stage actually be
realized, is found by applying /oad[<ICiu,S ,greater than uni ty. to the loods actual ly
expect~d. These expectc'{\ sen'ia /oali.< inc1u<k the calculated <kad lood. the calcu
lated or legally specified live load. alld environmental loads such as those due to wind.
seismic aClion. or lemp.:ralUrc. Thus rcinforeed concrcte members are proponioned so
that. as shown in Eq. (1.5).
M ,:s M ,
p. :s p.
V,:s V.
where th~ subscripts n denote the nominal strengths in tlexure. thrust, and shear resIX'C'
tively. and the subscripts u denote I h~ factored load momeli1, thrust. and shear. The
strength r~>duction factors - nonnally differ. <kpending upon the type of strength 10 be
calculated. the illlponancc of the member in the structure. Jnd other considenn ions
discussed in ddail in Chapla I.
A llIember proportioned on Ihe basis of adl."{juatc strcngth al a hypothetical
overload stage IlIUSI also p.:rfonn in a satisfactory way unda nonnal service load con
ditions. In specific terlllS, the deflcction mUSI be limited to an acceptable "al u~. a~d
concret~ tensile cmc).;s. which inevitably occur. must be of narrow width and well dis
tribu1ed throughou1 the lensile zone. Therefore. after proponioning for adequate
strength. deflections arc ca1culat~d and comparc'{\ againsl limiting values (or otherwi6c
controlled), and cmc~ wid1hs limi1 ed by sp.:cilk means . This approach 10 design.
referred to in Europe. and 10 some eX1ell1 in U.s. practice. as Iim;1 SI"I~S d~sillll. is the
basis of Inc 2002 AC I Code. alld il is the approach Ihal will be followed ,n this and
later chapters.
a. Equivalent Rectangular Stress Distribution

lll<' method pr.:scnted in &..;tioll 3.)c for calculating Ihe f1c.~u rJI str~ngth of rei~forced
concrele beams. <krived from basic concepls of structural mc.;hanics and p.:ninent
expcrimcll1al n:search information. also applies to situa1ions OIher than Ihe case of rl";'
\angular beams reinforc~>d on the tension side. It can be used and gives valid answ~rs
for ocalns of other crosssectional shapes, reinforced in OIher manners. and for mem
bers subjc..;t 1101 only to simple bending bu1 also to the simu ltaneous action of beliding
and axial force (compression or lens ion) . How,,'cr. the peninenl equations for these
mon: complex cases bc-..:onl<' increasingly cumbersome and lenglhy. Whm is mon:
important. it bcconk:s increasingly difficult for Ihe designer to visualize the physical
basis for the design methods and formulas: this could lead to a blind n:liancc on for
mulas, with a resulting lac).; of actual undcrSI~nding. This is nOI on ly undc,;i mble on
general groulids but, praclically. is more likely 10 lead to nunk:rical errors in design
wor).; than when the designer m all times has a clear pictun: of the physical situa1ion in
the member being dimensioned or analyzed. ForlUnatcly. il is possibk. essentially by a
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
7S IW..'i I{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
conceptual trick. to fomlUlate the strength analysi~ of reinfwe<-" in

a different ",an ncr, whi"h gives the same anSwers as the general analysis ju,t ,1e\'eI -
opt."<i hut whi<-h is mueh more ea,il)' ,isualizeJ and mueh more ea,il)' arrli<"<i to case'
of greater "otllplexit), than that of the simple rectangular beam. Its <-on,iMency i,
,hown. and its applieation to mOfe complex cases has been (']lec\;oo again,t the results
o f a vast nutllher of tests ,m a great "ariety of types of "lember> and condition, of In:><l -
ing (Ref H).
lt was noted in the p,,-'U'{ling senion that the actual geonletrical shape of tile
concrete compressi"e Stres, di,tribution varies CQnsider~hly and that. in fact one need
not know this shape exactly, provided one d""s know two things: (I) tile magnitude C
of the ",sultant of the "on<"fete compre"ive ,tresse' and (2) the location of thi, resul -
tant . lnfonnation on these two quantities was obtained fmm the results of experimen -
tal resear"h and expre<s.."<i in tl'" tWO pammel<'rs ' aoo
Evidently. then. one can think o f the actual complex ,tre" distribution a,
replaced by a finitiou, one of some simple geometrie .hape. provided tbat thi, lieti -
tious distribution results in the same total compression force C applied at tI", ,a"",
location as in !lie aetual nle",ber wilen it is OIl tl'" point ,;,f failure. Hi storicall y. a num-
ber of simpl ili<-"<i. Ii"titious equivalent S!Te" distributions has been pmpo"-" in various countries. The one gencr~lI y a~'C"pted in thi s <-ountry. aoo in<-rea,-
ingly abmad. was lirst proposed by C. S. Wbitney (Rd. 3.4) and was ,ub"-'<Juently
daoomted aoo checked experimentally by others (sec. for example. Rd,. 35 and 3.6),
nle actual ,tre" di,tribution immediately hefore failure and the Ii"titi,,"s equivalent
distribution are sbown in Fig. 3.8.
h is seen that the actual ,tre" distrihution is replau"<i by an equivalent one of
,impl~ ,,-'Ctangular out line. The inten,ity J: of this equivalent eon,l:mt st ress and it,
depth a = tl: are easily calculated fmm tile two cond itio"s that (I) the tutal ,-om-
pression fOIl:e C and (2) its location, i.e .. distance from the top fth;.r. must he tl'" >:t"",
in tl!" equivalent ",,:tangular a, in the actual SIre" di<lributi"n. From Fig . 3.&1 and h
tbe lirst enndition gives
C" I,dl - I~ <l" from which

-
FIGUIU<: 3.8
AtlW11 aod "'lui,-akn,
... ctangular stre"
distribution, at ultimate l<>ad
'. '.
T - A,I. T a Ai .
Actua l Equovalenl
(,' ("
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLEXURAl. ANAL\' SIS AN V I)ES ICN OF BEAMS 79
TABLE 3.1
Concrete stress block parameters
., psi
",4000 5000 000 "00 000
-,
072
O, ~ H ''"
0.400 '"
0, .' 15
O.W
0.350
0.%
0,325
0.8~ 080 0.7~ 0.70 0.65
085 08~ 0,85 ' .SO 0. 86
With (I " ,c. Ihis gives - 1.11Ie Sl"<:ond condilion simply ...:qulr.:s that in the
equivalcm rectangu lar strt:ss bloc);. the force C be located at the san", dist~ncc . "
from the top fiber as in the actual distribution. 11 follows that I .. 2 .
To supply the details. the upper two lines of Table 3.1 prt:se1l1the experimental
evidence of Fig. 3.7 in tabular fonn. l1lc lower two lines give the just-derived param -
ct~r.; I and for the rt:ctang ular stress bloc~ . 11 is secn tilat the stress imensi ty factor
is ess.:mially ind~pendell1 of!; and can b.: taken as 0.85 throughout Hence. regard-
less of!;. the concrete compr.:ssion force at f~ilurt: in a rectangular b.:am of width I> is
C - 0,8511 (J) (~.2.'i )
Also. for the common concretes wi th J; S 40Cl0 psi. the depth of the rectangular stress
block is" .. 0.85(', (' heing the distance to the 'lI!utral axis. For higher_strength con
cretes. Ihis distance is" = Ie. with the ' , values shown in Table 3. 1. Thi~ i~ "pres~1
in ACI Cod<! 10.2.7.3 al' follows: , shall he laken as 0.85 forcone""te S1rcnglhs IIp 10
and ineluding 4tXX1 psi: for st""ngths above 40Cl0 psi. ' I ~hall be redl.lCed conti nuously
at a rote 01'0.05 for each ItXXI psi of S1rcngth in excess of 40Cl0 psi. but I shall not be
taken less Ihan 0.65. In malhcmaticalterms, the ""Ialiollship betwL't'n ,and!; can be
~xrresS<.."<! a~
Ie - 40Cl0
I ~ 0.85 - 0.05 100') 0.65 s , s 0.85 (3.26)
The equivalent rc"<:tangular Siress (liWibution can be used for d~riving the equalions
thaThave been developed in S~Clion 3.3c.l1Ie failure criteria. of courre. are the same
as before: yield ing of the wei at f, ~ J; or crushing of Ihe concrete at . ~ 0.003.
Hecause the rectangular stress block is easily visu alized and its geometric prop<nies
are ~xlremcly simple. many calculations are carried OUI direc!!y without reference to
formally derived equations, as will be s.:en in the following !.ections.
b. Balanced Strain Condition

A reinforcement ratio producing balanced Slrain cond iti ons can be ~stablished
baS<.."<1 on the condit ion Ihat. al balat)c~d failure, the steel Slrain is exactly equal 10 ,
when the strain in the concrete simult aneously reaches the crushing strain of
0.003. Referring to Fig. 3.6,
, ----:c-'
.+
(3,27)
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i [{; N O F CO NC RE'n: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
which is ><-..,n to he identical to Eq. (3.23). Th~n, from the l><juilihrium requirement that
C=T
"/,, hli = 0.85/,111> = 0.85 d ew
from which
J, ~._
b = 0.85 0.28)
1 J; + .'
Thi, i, easily shown to be "'juivalem to F..q. 0 .24).
c. Underreinforced Beams
A compression f~i lure in flexure. should it occur. giws linle if any warning of disae",
while n tension failure, initiated by yielding of the st",,1. typically is gmduaL Di stress
is obvious from observing the large defl~ctions and widening of cOllcrete c'mcks n'o-
cinted with yielding of the 't",,1 reinfo,,-'<'mem, and ",easure' can be taken to a"oid
total collapse, In addition. mO'it healn, for which failure initiate, by yidding po,sess
sub,tantial strength ba.",d 011 ,tmin -hardening of tm, reinforcing sted. which is not
accounted for in the calculations of M .
Because of these differelll'" in behavior. it is prudent to r"'juire that beams be
de'igned ,uch that failure. if it occurs, will be by yidding oftm, 'teel. not by crush -
ing of the CQI1l'ret~, This can be done. theoretic'a!!y, hy "-><juiring that the r~inforcer""nt
mtio be less than the balance ratio given by Eq. 0.28).
In actual p",,_ tic~. the upper limit on should be helow I> for the fo!!owing ra-
,Ons: ( I) for a beam with exactly "'jual to .. tbe CQmpre"ive stmin limit of the con -
cret~ would be reached. theoretically. at preci,dy the "" me moment that the s1<...,1
read",s it , yidd ,tress. without significant yidding before failure. (2) material pmp-
ertie, are nner known prl'Cisdy. (3) stmin-hardening of tbe reinforcing Sk..,1. n<;>1
accounted for in design. lIlay lead to a brittle concrete compression failure even though
may be somewhat less tban - Ir (4) tl", actual 't",,1 area pmvidl-d. considering slall -
dard reinforcing har ,izes , wi!! alway, be equal 10 or larger than required. b~sed on
",1~cll-d reinforcement ratio . tending toward o\'errcinforcement, and (5) lhe extra
ductility pro\"id~d by beams with lower value, of increases the defl~ction capability
,ub,tantially and. thus. provides ,,"aming prior ) failufl'.
d. ACI Code Provisions for Underreinforced Beams
While tm, nominal strength of a member may be <.'omputed ba.o;ed OIl principles of
mechanic>. the mechanics al()[", cannot establish >afe limits for maximum reinforce-
ment ratiQS. The", limit, are defined by tl", ACI Code. TI", limitations tak~ IW<;> form,.
First. the Cod" addresses the minimum teo,; Ie reinforc'ement slr~in allo,,'ed at nominal
'trength in tl", de'ign of beams. Second, the Code define, strength reduction fanor,
that Ill~y d~pefld on the lensile 'tr~in al nominal slrenglll. Both limitation, are ba><--d on
the lI~t to",il~ .'twin of the reinfOfl'CIl",nt farthe,t from the ~'()mpre"ion fal'C of tl",
concrele at the depth Ii,. The I",t ten,il~ ,train is exclusiw of pre,tress. lemperature. and
,hrinkage effects. For be""" with a 'ingle layer of reinforcement. th" depth to the <'Cn -
t",id of tm, st",,1 Ii is the san", as ,/.. For beam, with lIIuhiple layer> of reinforcen",nt.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLEXURAl. ANAL\' SIS AN V I)ES ICN OF BEAMS 81
d , is grater than the depth to the centroid of the reinforcement d. Substiluling J , for ,}
and ,for ,_ in F..q. (3.27). the tlet tensite Slmi n may he represented as
d, - ('
(3.29)

"
Thcn bas.:d on Eq. 0.28). Ihe rcinforc~1llcnl ralio 10 produce a sek-ctcd "atuc of nel
lensite slra in is
= 0,85 f. _--'~
t /' +
To ~nsurc underreinforc~>d beh~"ior. AC t Code to ..1.5 estabtishes a minimum nel
lensite slrain ,at Ihe nominal member strenglh of 0,004 for members suhjl'Cled 10
axial toad,,; I~ss than O. l0lcl\ g- where A. is the gross area of Ihc cross s~'Clion. By way
of comparison ,. Ihe sled strain at Ihe b.1lanccd condilion, is 0 ,()()207 for /, - 60.000
psi and 0.00259 for /, .. 75.000 psi.
Using , - 0.004 in Eq. (3.30<1) provides Ihe maxim um reinforcement nl1io
allowed by the ACI Code for beams.
-., = 0.85
f, _~ (.1 ..1Oh)
'/, ' . + 0,(104
TIle maximum reinforcement ratio is exacl for beams wilh a single laycr of rein
forcement and sli ghtl y conservative for beams with multiple layers of r~inforccmen1
where Ii, is grealcr than Ii. Because , 2: 0.004 ensures Ihm sted is yielding inlension.
/, .. /; al fail ure. and the nominal flexural strength (rekrring 10 Fig. 3.11) is given by
"
M"" AJ, d - '2-- Cl.J I)
where
A,/,
" = ;;o~.
0. 85 h b
(3.32)
The ACI Cooe fllrlher encourages the use of lower reinforcement ratios by
allowing high<'r Sl",ngth ",du,(ion fac(Qrs in su,h beams. The C<Xk defines a 1<'11,';011'
wmmllecl "","'ber as one wi(h a net tensile slrain grealer than or ~'<luaIIO 0.005 . The
correspotld;ng st",ng(h reduction fac(Qr is .. 0.9. ' The Code ar:1(I; tionally defines a
U>NII'r.-ssilm,('olllrvll,'J 1JI~III""r al' having a ne( lensile strain of less than 0.002. The
strength reduction faclor for comp",ssion-con(rolloo members is 0.65. A vatue of 0.70
may be used if Ihe nK!mbers are spiratly reinforced. A value of ,= 0.002 corresponds
approximately to the yield ~Irain for stee! with /, 60.000 psi yield Strenglh, Between
nel tensile Sirains of 0.002 and 0.005 . the Sl",ngth rcdue(ion fllC(Qr "aries linearly. and
the ACt Code allows a linear interpola(io n of based on " al' shown in Fig. 3.9.
Calculation of the nominal momenl capaeily [",quently involves delenninalion
of tbe depth of the equi"alem rectangular Siress block <I. Since (' .. " ,. t1 is some
times more convenien( 10 compute c- d ratios (han the nel tensile strain , The assump.
tion that plane S<.'C1;ons remain plane ensu",s a direct correlation between nel tensite
strain and the t ,} ralio. al' shown in Fig. 3.1 0.
' '1'1,,' ",h1ioo "r, "" Ic",;k "".in o. (0,00'1 b ;",,,,,d..," I" <""'''''''' "'" yidJ ",,,,;n ,,f ,I I IT ; nr,.d"~ ",,<"I ,"doo,"~ tt;~"'''IT"~ r<,J, .00
"'' ' '"J>
p"'''''''>inll
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" . .... ......... _ I THI
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
82 IW..'i I{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
FIG UIU: 3,9

Variat;'M1 of "reng,h
redt>C1ion f"""'"
tcn,ik "", in.
",i,h tie'
Compression
controlled
-
-t-,s;:~,------=t:==-- 4>
-
Transitiol1 Tensiol1
cont rolled
- 0.90
4>""
m 0r7 + 66.:;./
\,///
,
1> - 0 .70 - - - - ,,'"
1> ~ 0.65
~, - 0.002 ~, - 0.005
Nellensile slrain
FIG URE 3. 10 ~" - 0.003

N<I tcn,ilc <train and c d,
~" - O.003T~,_ _ _ _ _-""~-COCOOJ
o;
ratioo;.
, 1
%----' 0,
j
"1- 0.005 " I - 0.004 " I - 0.002
c 0.003 c
~, 0.~'~,005 ~ 0.375 d, 0.003 + 0 ,004
0.429 dl
0.003 0600
0.003 + 0,002 - .
'"~
(. ) (0)
Teosion <:001 rolled Minimum nat lensile CompreSsioo-conlro1 led
member slrain 10< 119>(ural member membe r
Using lhe equival'llI rectangular 'tress di.,rihutin". directly calcu lale the nominal strength
o f lhe bo:am pl'evioosly anal}'Z<'d in bample 3.3.
So ~ .UTI'>l<, TIk: distrihutioo of stresses. inlernal fore",. ar>d >trains i, as ,heMn in FiM . 3.11 ,
The maxim~m rdnforcemen l ralio i, calculated from Eq. (LIOb) os
~ 4(0) O.l)()3
_ - 0,8S X 0.8. ~HlOO 0,003 + 0.(( - 0.0206
and comp',riwr, "ilh lhe OCl u~1 reinforcemenl "",io of 0.0103 coniirms ,ha, the n>emocr is
undern:infOfCoo and "'ill faj! by yioldi r'll of the "eel. Tho depth of tltt> eqni,'al"nl "res.;
block i, f(Ou r", from ,he "'J " ili\>riu m cOOllilion Ihll C - T. Hence Q,S5;;"b - A,f,. (Or
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. ANA ll' SIS AN V I) E.~ I (;N OF BEAMS 83
FIGUIU: 3. 11 085 f;
Sing ly reiniorct<l re-etllng"lar
.,~
r-- ' ---1 I' 'I
T
1, /I ~
~
{J,c
A. 0-0-0 r-l_~_~
'----------" ~
,.J
,., ",
'"
a = 2.37 X 60.000 (0.85 X 4000 X 10) = 4. 18. The d;SI"""" 1o tile nemral ax;,. by ddin;-
n-.e
1;00 of III< reclangular ,Ire$S bloc~. i. c' - " I - 4.1 8 0.85 - 4.92. nominal n-.omen! is
M, - AJ, - 2..17 X 60,000 n- HI') - 2,970.000 ;nlb - 248 fI.~ips
The re;;ults of this simple and diroct numerical an"lysis . ba",d on the e<lui\'al~nt
rectangular siress diS1ribution, are ;dentical with III"", pre"iou~ly ru,termined fmm the
generdl >!,ength analysis dc,,;ri!>ed in &'CIion 3.3c.
It is <',,"\'~nienl for everyday ru,'ign '" combine Eqs. (3.3 1) and (3.32) a, fol -
lows. Noting that A, = /hI, FA!, (3.32) can re rewrillen as
I,d
,,- -0,85{c
-- (3,33)
TI,i, i, Ihen sumli, uk-d illio Eq. (3,31) to obtain
I - O,59 ..f.
{,
(:"'-4)
whid, is identkal to EAJ. (,120h) de,ived in $ection 1.3c. TI,i, ba,ic ~>(juation Can re
simplified fun her as follows :
M , .. RM' 0.35)
I,
R = j , 1 - 0.59 - (.1.36)
I,
The fln,,,,11 "",i,milla fi,e/O, R w,p"nds on ly on Ihe reinf"",-"menr ,alio and tre
strengths of the material , arnJ is ea.~ily tabulated. Table, A5a and A.5b of App"ndi' A
give R ,'alues for ordinary nHnbin"tions of "ed and COnerele and the full practical
mnge of reinforcement mt;os ,
In accordance wilh tl'" saldy provisions of Ihe AC I Code, Ih~ nom inal flexural
meng1b M. is ",-duc..."<1 by impo'ing lhe str~nglh redwtion factor to obtain lhe de~'i!;n
_<II'I'I1}!.I":
M. - AJ, ,
d- -" . (.>..'1)
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i I{; N OF CONC RE'n: ST RUCfliRES Olapl<r 3
or. altcma1 ively.

I,
J~btP, I - 0.59 - (3.}f\)
I,
(1.19)
EXAM PLE 3A ( Cal~ll l ate Ihe design l11omen1 capacity for til<: beam analyzed i" Example 3.4.
SourH""'. r.... a diSl""c~ 10 the ,\Cutral axis of c - 4.92. , - O.l)(H(23 - 4.92). 4.92 -
om I from Eq, O,2~) . , 0,((15. SO = 0.90 a!1d too design capacity is
M. _ 0.9 X 248 - 223 fltip;
e. Minimum Reinforcement Ratio
Anolh~r mode of fail ure rrm)' oc(ur in wry ligh lly reinforc~d ~ams. If Ihe fl~xural
slr~"glh of Ihe crackcd """'-lion is "'SS Ihan Ih~ 1110rrk)lIllhm produc~d cracking of Ihe
previously uncrachd socliorr. lhe beam will fail ntunediawly and wilhoul warning of
dislress upon fon1l31ion of lhe lin;( flexural crack. To ,'nsure againsl Ihis InJot' of fall
ur~. a I""w limil can be ~stablished for Ilk) reinforcement ralio by <lquatirrg I h~ crack
ing 1lI01llcnl. computed from Ihe conU'de modulus of ruplur~ (Seclion 2.9). 10 Ihe
slr~"glh of Ihe crack~d ~ctiorr.
For a roclangular so"ction having widlh b. tolal deplh h. and effc"'-li~~ dcplh d (see
Fig. 3.2b). Ihe seclion modulus " 'ilh respect 10 Ih~ tension liber is !JIll 6. For typical
cross """,-lions. it IS satisfactory to assume Ihal h d ~ 1,1 and Ihallh~ irrkrnallewr ann
at flexural fail ure is 0 ,95d. If Ih~ modulus of ruplur~ IS lak~" as I, = 7,5 T.., as usual.
Ilwn an analysis ~qualmg the cTa( king momenl to Ih~ fl"xural slrenglh resuits in
1.8 I, /,,/
I,
This dewlopmenl can be generahzed 10 apply 10 beams havmg a T cross seclion (s.e<>
S~clion ] ,8 and Fig. 3, 15), n,e corr~sponlling equations de~nd on Ihe proportion, of
Ihe cross seclion and on whetlwr lhe beam is belli wilh Ilk) flange (slab) in lension or
in compre,sion , For T beams of Iypica l proportions Ihm are benl wilh Ih~ flange in
rompression. analysis will conrmn Ihal Ihe minimum steel area should be
' ~i~,
c2.", (3.40b)
A" ... - IVI
f,
wh~re b, is Ih~ willih of Ih~ w~b. or stem. projocting ~Iow lh~ slab. For T beams Ihal
an.' benl wilh Ih~ flange llliension. from a similar analysis. II~ minimum Slcel area is
6.2 fe b I
(.HOc)
I, ,<
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
n,~
ACI Code ,,-,<!uiremem. for minimum steel ar~a ar~ based <;In the results juSt
discussed, but there arc ,onle differences . Atmrding to ACI Code 10.5, at any section
wllere t~nsi!c reinfoKen"'nt is required by anal)'sis, with >Onle exceptions as noted
!>elow. the area A , provided l11u ,t nm tJ., Ie" than
3 Ie 200l>.li
A .,__ = - - I>"i 2: (HI)
I, f ),
This applies 10 i>mh posilive and ' legative ""nding seclion!i. The indus ion of lhe addi -
tionallimit of 200h,dI" i, n",rely for hiSlorical reaoo,,-,: it hapl"'n, to gi,-e tile "'11lC
minimum reinfon:~menl ralio of OJlO5 tlmt was imp""'-..! in earl ier codes for then -Gom -
nK'" material sm"ngths. Not~ that in F..q. (3.41) tile .'<-'<:li"n width I>~ is us"d: it is under-
S1<KKI that for rectangular sections , " _. = h Note fUrTher lhat the ACI cocfficienl of 3
is a cons"rvativdy fQum\e(] ,'alue l'0111pared with 2.7 in Eq. OAOb) for T beams with
tile flallge in compression, and is wry conserv"tive when applial to rectangular !>earn
s"ction" for which a mtional analy,is gives 1.8 in Eq. (3 AOtl). TIti, probably reflect,
tIle vi~w that the minimum steel for lhe negative !>ending seoions of a ~,('"tilluou!i T
!>earn (whil'h are. in eff~l'l, r~'Ctangular ",-'Ction" as di scussed in S~l'lion 3.Rc ) should
tJ., no less lhan for the p'lSitive tJ.,nding sections, where tile nK"'Ie"t i, ge'leral ly
sma ller.
ACt Cod~ 10.5 trealS .'l<Ili(.'"II,I' d~lt'n"imll" T tJ.,ams with tile flange in tension
as a 'p'-'Gial case, for which lhe minimum st..-el area is C<.jual to or greater than the ,'alue
giwn by F..q, (3041) with b._ replaced by either 2b_ or the width of tile .f1""l:e.
whidlew r i, small~r.
Not~ lhat ACl Cod e Eq. 004 I) is cOl",en i~ntly expre;;",-..! in lerms of a ",illi",,,,,,
Im"ile reinjim'ement mli" .... by dividing bmh side., b)' b~d.
Accordi ng 10 ACt Code 105. the requiren",nts of Eq, (3.4 I ) "ced nol "" imposed
if, at every ",,,,tion , tlte area of I~nsile reinf()f<'em~nl pmvided i, at I~ast mle-third
greate r than thaI required by analysis. Th is pmvides sufficient reinforcement for large
rn"'mbe" such a, gr.ill~ IJ<,ams, where the u,ual equations would "-'<Iuire excessive
amounts of steel,
For structural ,labs and footings of ~nifQrrn thickness , the mini mum area of ten -
si le rein foKeme nt in th~ direction of tile span is Ihat required fOT shrinkag~ and t~m
I"'mture steel ("'e Section 13.3 and Tahle 13.2), and lhe above minimums ne~d not tJ.,
imp'~d. The maximum spaci ng of such steel is the smaller of 3 tin",. tile tOlal ,lab
thickness or 18 in .
f. Examples of Rectangular Beam Analysis and Design

Flexural problems ca n be cla,sifk..! broadly as {IIllIiy,'i" pmh/em,< OJ de. i~n pmh/l'In$.
In analysis pmblem" Ihe section dimen,ions. reinfOJc~n"'nt. and lt1"t~ri,,1 strengths
are known , and the mon",nt capa,:ity is req~ir~..! . In Ih~ Case of design problems. the
,,-,<!uired mom~nt c"pacity is given , as are tile material strenglh." and it is rC<juired to
find the ",etion d il1l~n sions 3[td reinf",,:emenl. Example, 3.5 and 3.6 illu.<1mte analy -
.i" alld ""sign. resl"'ctively.
EXAM I'I. E 3.5 Fle.xuo-dl ' t .... ngth or a gi"f n member. A ",ctangular beam ha, width 12 in " nd dfecti'-e
depth 17.5 in . It is reinforced wilh four NO . 9 (No. 29) hars in one row. If/, - 60,000 psi
and]; = 4000 psi, "'hat is the nominal fte,ur~1 strength, and what is the maxim um T!10 ment
Ihot can he utilized in design. ""cording 10 lhe AC I Code?
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
SIJI .'JTI"S. From Table ,\,2 of Appendi. A. tllc area of fOl" No.9 (No, 29) ba~ is 4.<lO in ' ,
Thus. tlte aclU'[ ... inforcemc "t r:uio is ~ 4,00 ([2 X [7.5) ~ 0.0190. This is below the
n>a.in'un, ,'~hlC fron> Fq, C'.3OI of
_ - 0.R5 X O.R~ 60
, - 0.0206
0.003 + OJI04
so fJi lure by t~n,i[e yi~ld;ng wou ld be OOI.ine<[, For thil ullderreinforced bearn. frorn
EQ. (3.32).
4.00 X 60
" ~ - 5.88 in,
0.85X4X[2
,"d, from r'-Q (3.3!),
5.88
M, ~ 4.00 X 60 17.5 - - ,- ~ :W90 in kiJlS
.he <1cpth 1(1 .he lIeulral a~is is (" - (l , - 5,88 0.85 - 6,92, The net tensile ,tra;n is ,
.(J - c) c = 0.!lO3 X (17 ,5 - 6,92) 6,92 = 0,00-15 8 0.OO-IblJ'le"thanO.005:thus. tlte
s!reng.h reduc,ion ':'>C!or "'ult oc ooju,tcd. Using a lincar intcrpola,ior' from Fig, ~.9.
= 0,87, and tlte design strength is take" as
M . = 0.87 X :W90 = J040in kil"
The ACI Code li mits 0" the ... inf""", ,,,.. ,,, ratio.
_ ~ 0.0206
3 4000 '" ~ = 0.0033

60.(((1 60.000
are sali\ficd for Ihis beam,
EXAMPLE 3.6 ConC,""IC di"",,,,,ions and sled 3'""8 10 ,""s iS! a gi"cn momcnl. Find.he eross =tion
{If Concrete a,wl are.> {If s'ccl required fOt a ;imply '''pp<:>r\ed re~tang"lar bi:am wi,h a sp.'n
of 15 ft .hal is '" carry a compllted dead load of 1.27 kip.Jft ,nd a "'''''ice live 1000 of
2.15 kilNfI. Mat~'rbl streng'h' are};: _ 4000 I"i and/, - 60.000 [1si,
Sm .m"s. 1.,<)00 fOCI<)rS are fn'st applied!o Ihe ~i"cn .crvice 100(\, 10 obtain the r:"lorcd
load for which lhe beam i, ) be designed. and .ho C<Jrre'ponding mom""I :
" ', ~ 1.2 X 1.27 + 1.6 X 2,15 ~ 4,96kiJlSfl
M, ~ '8I X 4,<)6 X

15 X 12 ~
. .
1670 ,"k,ps
The coocrele dimensions will depend on lite designers choice of reinforcenlt m ralio. To
",in;n,i'e lhe con~retc >celion. il ;, dc,iraN" I{I .cicCI Ihe ma.imum penniSlilJle ",infor:.
ment ratio. T" m"im,i" ~ 0,9. lhe ma~imum reinforce n... ", rati" corresponding 10 a ,,..1
.ensile SlnJin of 0,005 will oc .clccted (see Fi~, 3.9). Then. frorn F.q. (3,300)
~ ~0, 85 X O.S5
0.00.\
~ 0. 85 ,f ~ 0.0181
/, + ,005 0.003 + 0,005
Using Eq. r:UOb) gives _ ~ 0.0206. bur w,,"ld r~qui"'" \(",'"r su-e'tglh reduelion fac.or,
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Sening the n-quir<'<l fl~J<ural 'tren~th equa1 to the desi~n strength from Eq. rU8), and suI>-
Iti'uling the scle<:tcd ,'alue s for ~nd ,u.J{eri31 Itren!:{h>.
M. - M.
0.0181 X60
1670 = 0.90 x 0 .0181 x 6Ohd' - 0.59 4
from which
hd' _ 2U4(1 ill '
A beam with width b = lOin. and d = 143 in. will sa{i,fy this requirement 11Ie n-quired , {eel
area is found by applying the ~hoscn reinfOR:C1llCU t ratio to thc req"ired rollCI\."IC dimensions:
A, = 0.0181 x 10 x 14.3 = 2.59 in'

Two No. 10 ( No. 32) bins pro"id.; 2.~ in' and is \"Cry close 10 the required "n:a.
Assumin~ 2.5 in. t"OIICrete cowr from til<" <"<'mroid of the bar., the required total <k"plh i,
/, - 16.8 in. In x'ual IIfaclice. 1I0we''(!f. lhe COllCfde dimensions band h are alwa)'s roundc(l
upward 10 lhe nearesl ioch, and often 10 lhe ""are,1 mulliple of 2 in . (see Sedioll .''-~) . T he
oc{" :ll d is lhen found by subtracti"g llle n-q"i....xl concrele COw" dimensior' from h. For llle
present "",mple, b = 10 in. and h = 18 in. will be selected, n"ult in~ in effecli," <k"plh d =
15.5 in. ImflrO"ed C\.'OO(>ffi)" lhen ""1)"
be possible. refining lhe Sleet area based "" lhe xlual.
I",~er. e/fecti,'e deplh. One can obtain the re"ised ' teel l"C'<]uirenl<"nt direclly by ool.in~ Eq.
(338) for . wilh .'.1, - M . A quic ker ool"lion c,n be obtained by ileralion. Firsl a rea-
oonable ,'alue of <1 i, assumed. and A, is found from FA]. (3.37). From Eq. (,1.32) a ",,'ised
eSlimale of" is oblai"cd. and A, is revised . This melhod corwe'llCS ,cry rapidly. For cxam-
pie. assume <1 = 5 in. Then
1670
A ~ ~ 2.3 8 in'
, 0.90 X 60 15 . ~ - 2.5
2 ..18 X 60
" E K 4.20 in.
0.85X4 X 10
This is do", "'lOOgh to the assumed ,-ajue !ha{ no further cakulot;on is ""lui,,-"'. The required
stc,.,l "rca of 2.38 in' coold be p""'idOO ",ing !hrce No. 8 (No. 25) bar>, 001 for silllplicity
of con. tnIction. tWO No. 10 (No . .12) bars will be u<ed as before.
A ><Jmew hat large, beam coms section using Ie" Sleelma)" be more 1X0000lllical. and will
lend to reduce deflection,. A s on "It,mali," ><J lmi"". lhe beam will he re<k, ig""d wilto a
lower reinfon:cme nl ralio of = 0.60 _ , = 0.60 X 0.0206 = 0.0\ 24. Setting the required
<lren&lh equal to lhe design 'lre n&lh IEQ.I-U8)j as bdure'
1670 = 0.90 X O.OI2J X WI"I' I _ 0.59 0.012~ X 60
/xl' = 2800 in '

A beam with" = 10 in. and d = 16.7 in. will ",.",t the requirement. for which
A, - 0.0124 X 10 X 16.7 - 2.07 in'
Two No. 9 (No. 29) ban are alm05t sufficienl. pnwiding an area of 2.00 in'. If the lotal ron-
cre!, height is rounded upw:lfd to 20 in __ " 17.5 in . e/f'dil'e MPlh results. reducing ,he
"".I"ired stee1 are. to 1.% in'. T,,'O No.9 (No. 29) bars rema in the beM choi<:e.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i [{; N O F CONC RE'n: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
It i, apparem that an infinite number of solutions to the ,tated problem are pos,i
hie. "epending upon the reinfoR'ement mI.!.':> ",I""too. TImt r,lIio may vary from nn
upper limit of """ to a lo"'~r limil of 3 t; f, 2: 200 /" for heam,. a("("()fding tQ tl",
ACI Code. To compar~ the t"'o solution. (using the tl"",reticnl dimen,k"", unrounded
for t!", COlllparison , and numing II i, 2,~ in. greater dum d in ea,'h case). increasing
the coJl{"rete section area hy 14 percent ochi~\'es a 'ted ,,"ving of 20 percent. 1lJe sec
Qnd solution ",ould ,'cminly be more ..'conmnical and ,,'ould be preferred. unle" beam
dimension, mu,t be minimiR-d for archilectural Or functional reason., &x,nomi,'al
design' ",ill typicaJly ha,'e reinforcement r~tios het",een 050, """ ,md 0.7.~ .....
TI",re is a type of prohlem, occurring fr<.'<juently. that docs not fall 'trictl)' into
either th~ analy,i, or design nt"gor)'. TI,e concrete dimension, are gi"en and are
knQwn to be adequate tQ carry the requ;red mQment. and it i, n~,'e"ary only to find
the steel aren, Typically. thiN i, tl", situation at criti,"al design sections of continuous
beams. in which the ""n",-ete dimensions are often kept constant, although tl", steel
reinforcement varie, along the 'pan according to Ihe R'<juired flexural resi,tnnce,
Dimen.ions b, d, and h are dClermined at the maximum mon",m section. u,ually at
one of the supl"ms, At other support" and at mid'pan location., ",here 11Ion",nl. an:
usually ,ma iler. the concrete di",ensi"", nre known to he ad<-'<!uate and only the ten
sile s!<-",I remains to k found . An identical <i tualion "':I.,
encountered in Ih~ design
pmhlem of Enmple 3.6, in which concrete din",n,ion, were rounded up",ard from
the minimum R'<juired valnes, and 1he required sted area was to be found, In either
Case. the iterative approach demonstmkd in Exampl~ 3.6 is conveni ent.
EX ,\ MI)LE 3.7 j)(,t<rmlnatl .." ..r .,t..,1 a .... a. Using lhe ,ame concrete dimension, as w= u>ed for lhe
second .>(l Im;"" of E.a",p[~ 3.6 (h = lOin .. d = 17,~ in .. and h = 20 in,) and 11,. """" mat~
rial <!re"gl h.. find the '{eel area required to resi, t a moment M. of l}(lO in.kip'.
S().,tTn"~. Assume" - 4.0 ill. Then
"=","SCOO,--c,,,
, . "0.90 X 60 17.52.0 - 1.~5in '
Ch.,cking the as,umed <1:

155 X 60
~ = 0.85 X4 X 10 = 2.74 in,
Nexl ."unle" - 2.6 i". and recalculate A,:

1}(lO ,
A = - [,49i"'
, 0.90 x 60 17.5 - U
No funher ;t~ration is required. Use A, - 1.49 in' . T,,o NO.8 (No. 25) hats will be used
A check of the reinfOIT~nlent rat; .. , !>ow, _ , and = 0.9.
As seen in Example 3 . ~ , the strength r<--dunion factnr hecollles a variahle at h;gh

reinfQrcernent mlios, Example 3.g demoll5tmtes how (he ,'ariat;on in """"gth reduc
tion factnr aff~"ts the design p'-''''''''.
EXA'\ II'LE 3.8 J)(,t<rmlna tl .." of st..,1 ..... a and ,'arlahle .t ..m gth reductl.. n factor. Arehitectural ron
,ide'"li"", limit the height of. 2{1 Ii long simple Sj>Jn he.m w 16 in. and the width to 12 in,
The following 10000,.nd material propeni~' are given: w J - 0. , 9 kiPS/ft. H', - 1.65 killS/ft.
f = :1000 p'i. and/. = 60,000 p'i . De1ermine the reinfon:emem for the he"m,
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. A NA L\' SIS AN V I)ES ICN O F BEAMS 89
SOI.UTION. Cakulalin~ [tie factored loads gi,'es

K . = 1.2 x 0,79 + 1.6 x 1.65 = 3_59 kips fl
20'
M . ~ 3.59 X - "- = 179 ft-kips = 2150 in-kips
A"ume (I = 4.0 in, " Old = 0.90. The sinlClUr:11 dcplh is 16 - 2,5 in . = 13.5 in, Calcu-
laling 11,:
II =--;:
,
-;'""' -~
/, d - a2
~~2~'~"';-O.'~
60
'c
Ll.~ - 2,0
= 3_46 in'
Try Iwo No. 10 (No, :12) anJ t>r1C No, 9 (No_ 29) oor, ii, - 3,S.' in ' ,
OleC'" = .l,s~ X 60 (0_85 X ~ X 12) = ~.I6 in, from Eq. (3 ..12)_ Thi, is more than
assume<.!: therefore. cornin ,1C 10 chcck IIIC Tl\O,ncnl capacily.
M . _ 3.54 X 60(13.5 - 4,16 2) - 2426 in. kips
Using a "fO_90 gil'e, M. = 2183 in kip', whieh is adequate: how",'or. lhe net lensile
\I",in "'U;I tIC Clott"'-'tl 10 validale the SCIcClioo of - - 0,9, In Ihi, ~asc c - (1- , -
4.16 0.80 = 5.20 in. Tho c' d ral;o is 0 __185 O. .nS. so 0_005 is tIOI "'Iisfk'<l. Ttle eOf
re'PQlldil1~ n..1 lcnsilc ;Irai" is
13.5 - 5.2
, ~ 0.003 ~ 0 ,0009
5.2
A ,,Iue "f , - 0_00479 is ,1I"wOO by It.. ACI Code. 001 only ;f lbe f.lrenglh red uclion fac
lor i, adjusled, A hnc" imerpoial;"" from Fig. 3.9 gi'-cs = O.MS anJ M. = M. =
2140 in.ki!", which is Ie" Ih,n Ille required copacily_Try increa.,ing llle reinforcen",m 10
Ih"'" No. 10 (No, 32) bafS. A, = 3.81 in' , Repe'ling the c.Jculmions:
3,81 X 60
" - - 4_48 in,
0.85 X 5 X 12
4.48
~ - 0.80 - 5.60 in,
J A8
M, ~ H I X 60 B.5 - - , - ~ 2574 inkip'
0_00.1 13_S - _S,W

= 0.()(423
5.60
~ 0.483 + 83.3 X 0.00423 = 0,83~
M, - M. - 0 _8.15 X 257J - 2150in. ki p<
which meelS lhe design requirement,_
In a<1U.lily. lhe flrs1 wlution oo,i.les 1c" Ihan I f"',ccm frolll the desired "aloe anJ
"'Mid li kely t.. accepl,bl, _Tho remaining porIioo of Ille example demon,I,m"" lhe desig"
implicmions of requiring" vari.ble sirength reduction fa<.1or wilen 111e ne1 tensil~ slr.in f.lls
belween 0_005 a,ld 0_()(4_ In Ihis "..ample, It.. reinforce""'''1 increased ncarly 8 pe"",m, yel
IhI: de,igJl ITIOmem ""pacily M. OIl ly irK'rease<.l 0,5 f"'",em due to Ihe dccr~" sing 'Irm glh
reduclion faclor_
In solving lhe", cxamples, Ihc basic equat ions ha,'e b"en u"'<l 10 develop famil
iar ity wilh Ihem. In aClual practi~",. however. design aid, such as Table A.4 of Appen
dix A. giving values of maximum and m inimum reint'rm:emenr ralios , and Table A.S.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
WI IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
providing value, of fkxural resistance fattor R. are more CQnv~nient. 'The aampk
problems will be rel"'ated in &'elion 3.5 to demonslr.lte use of the", aids.
g. Overreinforced Beams
According tQ the ACI Code. all be:un, =
to be desigr~ for yielding of the ten,io"
'teel wilh not less than O.roJ and. thus. oS """ . Occa,ionally. however. such a,
whe" analyzing the capacity of existing construction. it may be neces.."",), 10 eakulat~
lhe flexural str~nglh of an overreinfor<'ed cornpression -controlk'<i member. for which
I. is less than!., at flexural failure,
In lhis case. the steel strdin. in Fig . 3. llh. will be less than tl", yield strain. bill
cao be apr~='"

Suhstitlll ing lhe st",,1 strain from Eq. (3.42) in the last equation, :uul defining k. = c,d.
one ohtains a quadrdti<" equatimt in k. a, follows:
k ; + mk , - m =0
Here. = A. "'/:1., usual :uu! m is a material parameter gi,'en hy
m=
~f,
,_
;0.85
..,_ (3.43)
,j c
Solving the quadratic equation for t , .
'----,,',- ,
*-
1/1 + , m
2
(3.44)
The ne ut ral axis depth for tl>.: overrei"forc~d beam can then easily be found from~' =
k.".afler which the stressblock depth Il = ,e. With steel strain , then computed
from f.q. (3.42), and wilh!, = f.~ " the nominal tlc'ural wenglh is
M, = A,/,- II - '"2 13.45)
'The \trength reduction fa("[or will <'qual 0.65 for beams in thi, range.
-. 3.5 D eSIG N At DS
Basic ~quations were developed in S<'etion 3,4 for the nnalysi, and design of rein -
forced concret~ beam,. and d",,,, were used direcl ly in the examples. In praclice. tl",
design of beam, and mher r~infon__ ed concrete members is greally fatilita1<'<i by the
u", of aids ,uch as Iho", in Appendix A of this text and in Refs . 3.7 through 3.9. Table,
A.I . A,2. A.4 through A.7. ruxl Graph A. I of Appendix A rclate directl)' to Ihischap-
ler. and the sludem can scan thi, material [() become fami liar with tl", coverage. Othe r
aids wil l he di,eu'sed. and their use def!lonstra1<'<i. in later chapleTS .
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. ANA ll' SIS AN V I) E.~ I (; N O F BEAMS 91
Equmion (3.39) gives the flexural design strength M, of an unocrrcinforccd

rectangular beam with a reinforcement ralio at or below ..,r The fl~xural resistance
factor R. from Eq. 0.36). is giwn in Table A.5a for lower rcinforccme~t ralios or Tahlc
A.5b for higher reinforcement ratios. A llernati",:ly, R can be obtained from Graph A.I,
For """fy.<;,' of the capacily of a section with known concrete dimensions I> and d, hav.
ing known reinforc~111elll ratio . and with known materials strcnglhs. the dt:sign
strength M, can be oblainlxl d irccl ly hy Eq, (339).
For df,i~" purposes. where concrete dimensions and reinforcement are to be
found and the factored load momC11I M. is (0 be resisted. lhere are tWO possible
approochcs. One slans with sckcting Ihe optimum reinforcement rmio. and then cal
culming eoncrele dimensions. as follows:
I. Setlhe r.:quircd slrength M , eq ual 10 lhe design slrength /If, from Eq, (3.39):
/If, " R!>d l

2. Wilh lhe aid of Table AA. seled an appropriale reinf",,:emcm rJlio bclween """
and .... O ften a rulio of ahoU( 0 .60 _ ,' will bc an e<'()Ilomical and pruclical
choice. Selcclion of :s for , = 0.005 a,!;ur,," that will remain (.><1ualH) 0.90.
For _ , and above for I = 0 .005 . an iterative Mllution will be necessary.
3. From Table A,5. for the 'pe<;ified material st renglhs and ",Jected rcinforcen"-'nt
rutio. find Ihe fln urul resistance f",-'Ior R. Then
M -, ,. -/II.
R
4. Choo\-C I> and d to meet Ih~r requiremcm. Unless construction depth must be lim_
ited or mher conwaints exisl (s(."<: Section 12.6). an effective depth aoo ut 2 to 3
times lhe width is often appropriate.
S. Calculare the required ,teel a",a
A, = Ix}
Then. referring 10 Tab'" A, L choose the size and ll umb.?r of bars. givillg prefer
ellce 10 liIe larger bar sizes 10 millimize placement COSIS.
6. Refer to Table A.7 to ensure Ihm the sek'{'led beam widlh w ill provide room for
II", bars chosen . ", ith adequate concr~t~ co,'er and spacing. (lllese points wi II be
discussed further in Section 3.6.)
The altemuli\'e appro.1ch starts wil h selecting concTt'te dimensions . after which
Ihe requirtld reinforc"n,,-,nt is fouud. as follows:
1. Select beam widlh b and cfl~live deplh d. Then calcu late the Trt!u;red R:
R ~ -
M.
bd'
2. Using Table A.5 ror specified nlnterial strengths . find the reinrorcemel11 rutio
"'"-' lhal will provide the required value of R and verify lhe seb:too ,'alue of
3 . Calculure the required steel a",a
A, = bd
and from Table " ,2 selecl Ihe size and number of bars ,
4. Using Table A.7. confinn thaI Ihe beam width is sufficient 10 cOl1l3i1\ the sel~cted
Tl.'inforcenWll t.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
92 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfliRES Olapl<r 3
USt of design aids to ,,,h'e the ~xnrnple problems of Sec'li"n 3.4 will be iliu<-
traled as follows.
EX ,\MI)LE 3.9 F[exu .... 1 <t,..,,,gth of a (;i"." ",.."ber. Roo tile nomi",,1 flexural strength a",[ de'i~n
'treJlgth of the beam in Ex ample 3.5. which has b ~ [2 in, and d ~ [7,5 in, "00 i, rein[",,:OO
with roor NO.9 (No. 29) hars. Make use of the design aids of Appeooh A. Material >trength,
=1; ~ 4{00 I"i and!,- ~ 6O.UXl psi,
S\JI.I'IWN. From Table A2. four No. 9 (No. 29) bars provi<k A, ~ 4,00 in'. aoo wilh
h - 12 in. aoo d - 17.5 in .. ,he reinforcement rotio is - 4.00(12 X 17.5) - 0.0190
According 10 Table A.4. this is below -. ~ 0.0206 aoo .oc".e .... ~ 0.003.1. The" from
Table A~b. wilhJ; - 4{00 1";'1, - 6O.UXl P'i and - 0.019.t'-' mlue R - 949 p,i i,
fouoo. The oominal and deSign slrcnglhs ar~ (with ~ 0,86 from Example 3 . ~) re,!",,tively
17,5'
M. - RI><I ' - <)49 X 12 X H)(~) - 3490in.~iJ'lS
M. ~ 0,86 X 3490 ~ .lUXlin -kip5

as before.
EXA .\ I Pl E 3.10 Conc,..,tc dimensions and ' lttl 3,..,a 10 resi,[ a gi"tn """'''''''t. Find the cros, = tioo of
conc ....1c and lhe ."'Ca of '1c;:1 ....'([uired for lhe beam in h"I1lplc 3.6. ",,,king use of tbe
design aid, of Appendix A, M. = 1670 in-kiP'.1: ~ ~ooo P'i. aoo/,. = 60.000 psi, Use a
rcinjOrtt"lCnl ratio of 0.60 -..'
SoIl ,IJl'ON. Fro", '[':lblc A,4. (he O\~, i n"IT " ,-ejnfon:cnlC'" Mio is ...- - 0,0206. For CI.'On
om),." "Iue of = 0,60 _, ~ 0.0124 will be used. For (hat ,alue. by interpolation from
Table A.5a. (l1C required value of R is 663. "!llCn
M.
1><1 ' - - , -
t670 X 1000
0.90 X 663
- 2800 in
,
Concrete di"",nsion, b ~ 10 in, and" = 16,7 in, will "'tisf)' (h i" 001 lhe deplh will be
rou,\ded to 17..~ in. (0 provide a tOlal [x,a m de",h "r 20.0 in. It fnllO\<-, (ha,
M, 1670 X 1000
,- -- ~ ~606p5i
&.1 ' 0,90 X 10 X [7.5'
and from 'Iable 11.5:1. by interpolat;on. - 0.Ql12. This IC:l<t, to.' Steel f'C<1"ircr1li:Il1 of
A, = 0.01 12 X 10 X 17.~ ~ 1.96 in' as before,
EXAM PI. E 3.1 1 lk[crmina. ion of 5[",,1 a,..,a. FiOOltle steel area required for the beam in Example 3.7,
wilh c'Oncrc'e dilllC",;Oll, b - [0 ill, and ,I - [1.5 in, ~nown to be :>deqlllllC !ocan)' IIIC f"".
lore<! load moment of 1.lOO in-l b. Malerial 'l",,,,,lh, aret = 4000 psi aoo f. = 60.000 psi,
S\1I.VT10N. NOIe that in case, in which the concrete dimensions are Iillown!O be adequate
and O!l[)' '1IC reinforcement mu,l be found. lhe iterative II1C'hod u\Cd earl ier is nO! rc([uired,
The ncressary flexural ""i5tanco f:K1Of is
M. ['lOO X 1000
R ~ 1><1'= 0.90 X [OX 17"~472p,,
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
According 10 Tobie A5a, wilh lhe specified llIalerial Sirellglhs, thi' correSJIOnds 10 a rein-
forcement nllio of - O,OO85'lPYi"~ a \leel a~a of
A, - 0.OO8.S X 10 X 17.5 - 1.49 in'
as l>efore . Two NO. 8 (No 25) bar, will be u'>ed.
1lIe tablcs and graphs of App"ndix A give basil' infonnalion and are u~d cxtcn -
sively throughout Ihi s texi for illuslrativc purp<""', The reader <hould he aware. how-
cvcr, of Ihe greatly expanded vcrsions of these tables, plus many mher useful aid,. Ih at
are found in Rd" 3,71hrough 3.9 and elsewhere.
'... _, 3.6 P RACTtCAl C O NSIDERATtO NS tN THE D ES tGN OF B EAMS
To fiJ<,'u, anemion initially on thc basil' aspect, of nexural <ksign, tM p='eding exam-
ples wcre carried out with only minimum regard fOf certain practical wn,iderarions
that always inl1ucnl'" lile aclual design of heams. 1lIese rdale 10 optimal ';onnde pro-
portions for heam" rounding of dimension" slandardi].ation of d imension'. rt.'quired
lX)\,er for main and auxiliary rdnforeemem, and sek'ction of har l'omhination,. Good
judgment on the pan of d,e design enginee r is partil'ul arly important in rranslaring
from IheoreticaJ requircmems 10 practical dc';gn. Several of tl'" mor~ im]Xmam
a'pects are discu,~d here; mud, addiriorml guida""", is provided by the publil'ali ons
of ACJ (Refs . 3.7 and 3.8 ) and CRSI (Ref<. 3.9 to 3.11).
a. Concrete Protection for Reinforcement

To provide the swel with adc'quJt~ concn:tc protection againsl nrc and corrosion. the
desi goer must mai main a certain minimum thk kness of concrete cover oUlside of the
outermost st~'C1. The Ihicknt:ss rcquirt.'{] will vary, depending " ponthe Iypc of mcmber
and condilions of exposure. According to ACI Code 7.7, for cast-in -place concret~_
concrNC proil'ction at surfaces nOI exposed directly to the ground or weather should
be not less than ~ in . for slabs and walls and It io . for hewns and columns. [fthe con -
crete surface is 10 be C,XpoR'{] to Ihe weal her or in contact wilh the ground, a prolCC-
ti~e co,wing of at kast 2 io . is r~"{)uired [It in . for No. S (No, 16) and smaller bm'sl.
except that, if the concrete is cast in direct contact with the ground without the usc of
forms, a cover of alleast 3 in, must be furnished.
In general. the centers of main n~xural bars in heams shou ld be placed 2! to 3
in. from lhe lOp or OOl1om surface of the beam to furnish alleast I~ in. of clear co"cr
for the bars and the stirrups (see Fig, ... 12). In slabs. I ,n. to the center of the bar is
-i
ordinarily sumcient 10 g ive thc required in. cover,
To simplify construction mid thereby 10 n:doce COSI S. the overall concrcte dimen -
sions of bcmllS. b alid h. arc almost always roulid~d upward to the ncarest inch_ arid
often 10 the nex t mo ltiple of 2 in. As a resul t. the aclUal cfkcti~e d~pth d. foulid by sub-
tracting the sum of cowr distanc~. stirrup diamder. and half the noain r~inforcing bar
dia""'ter frolll the total depth I,. is seldom an eWn dimension. For slabs. th~ total depth
is generally rounded upward to t h~ near~sl}- in. up \0 6 in . in d~pth . arid to lhe nt:aresl
inch aOO,'~ that thickness. TIle dilTercnlvs bd wcen h alld d shown in Fig, 3,12 ate nOl
nact, 001 arc sati sfadory for design purposes for heams with No.3 (No, 10) stirrups
and No. 10 (No. 32) longitudinal bars or slllall~r. and for slabs using No .4 (No . 1.1) or
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU : 3. 1l
R<quiremclll' fo.- coocrote
be.""
co'.".r in atld ,lat><. "" rrr- 'l
~ m'"~~T
I
,. ,-
.
1"2 m,".
-- )
NO.3 (No. 10) stirrups
, , ""
LL,"_
Nos. 4 to 10
(Nos,101(32) <r--p lo
, ,. / T
"" m,rt.
.
. .
~ 1-,:I 'm,rt.

I
1--",. I ""
NO. 3orNo,4
(No, lOorNo. t 3)
(a) Beam with stirrups (b ) S[~b
,maile r bars. If larger bars a re u><.>d for the main flexural reinforcement Qf for tbe ~tir
rup'. as is f""-juently II", ca>e. the corresponding dimensions are ea,; Iy calculated.
R~cog()izing the dose r toler.lllc~, Ihat can be maintained under plant-control
conditions . ACI Code 7.7.3 p,,,mits ",me K>duction in ("oocrete protedion fOT rein -
forcellrent in pK'Cast connete.
b. Concret e Propo rt ions

Reinforced concret~
beam, may be wilk and shallow. or relatively nam,w and deep,
Consid~ration of maximum material ",:,"",my often leads to proponions with effec-
tive depth d in the r.mge fwm about 2 to 3 times the widt h h (or web widtb h~. for T
beams). Hown~r. constraint, may dictate other choices and. as will be discus,,->d in
$ection 12.6. maxim um material economy may not tramlate inm maximum structural
~'<-"()nQmy. FQr example. with one-way co"cret~ joists ,upponed by IlKlllolithic beam,
(see Chapter [8). use of bea"" and joists with Ihe sallie lotal deplh will (lCrmit uo;c of
a single flat-bottom fonn. resulting in fa,t . ('C(}()olllical elmsnuction alld permitting
I~vel ceilings. The beam, will ge''''rnlly be wide and shallow. with heavier reinfQrce-
ment than oth~",'i>e , but the result will be an Qvera ll saving in ("onstructiQn ("0'1. In
other cao;cs . it mny be ne("es>ary to limit the tmal de pth of fl'K)f or roof cons<ruction
for archik'Ctural OJ "'he r ren",n,. An advantage of reinforced con("rete is its adnpt-
ability to such special needs.
c. Se le ction of Bars a nd Bar Spacing

As (}()ted in Section 2. [4. wmmon reinforcing bar ,izes ra"g~ fmm No. 3 to No. II (No.
10", No. 36). the bar number eotWsp'lIKling ck,,,,ly to II", number of eighth-inche,
(millilllet~rs) ofbnr dian"'ter. Th~ two Inrg~r size,. No. 14 (No. 43) [I in. (43 m",)
diameter) and No. 18 (No. 57) f2
in. (57 mm) dinmeter J are u"'<l mninly in columns.
h is often d~<irablc to mix bar sizes to n",et sted area requirements nK)re ("Iose]y,
In ge""r~l. mixed bars ,hQuld be o f comparable diameter. for pr~c'i caj n, well a, the-
Qretical renwns, and ge,,,,rally should be arrangoo sy mmetrically about the veni("al
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FLE XURA l. ANA ll'S IS AN V I) E.~ I (;N O F BEAMS 95
~"'nlerli!le. /l,bny de,ig"ers limil Ihe varialiofl in diamel<er of bar, in a single layer 10
Iwo bar sizes. using. ,ay. No, 10 and No.8 (No. 32 and No. 25) bars lOgdher. bul nm
Nos. II and 6 (Nos. 36 and 19). There is SOme prolCtical advantage to minimizing the
number of different bar sizes used for a given SHueture.
Normally. it i, ,,,,,,essar), 10 maimain a cenain minimum disuUlce between adja-
tent bars to en,ure proper place~nt of <"<merele around Ihem. Air p<)rkelS below the
steel are 10 be avoilli...J. and full surface eonlact betwL",n II", bars and the concrete is
de,irable to optimize bond strength. ACI Cod" 7.6 specifie, that II", minimum dcar
diswKe between adjatent bars shalinOl be les, Ihan d,,, nominal diameler of the bars.
11
or I in. (For columns. lhe", requiren",nts are in,'rensed to bar diamelers and It in.)
Wher" beam reinforee~nt i, plaCt...J in two or mure layers. the clear di""",-" belwee!l
layers must not be Ie" tban I in., and the bars in the upp"r layer shou ld be placed
diTCI.'l ly above tho,e in the b<l1lom layer.
n", maximum number of bars tbm can he plated in a beam of given width i,
timitL..J by bar dian"'ter and spacing requir"~nts and is al'o influen,'ed by ~tirrup
dian"'ler. by ,'onerele <"<wer requirement. and by t1", maximum ~ize of <"<)!]cret" aggre-
gate spe,'ified. Table A,7 of Appendix A gives tl", maximum number of bars tbal can
be placed in a single layer in beam,. assu ming I-!- in. concrete ,'",'er and Ibe use of No,
4 (No. 13) ,tirrup~. Wben using t1", minimum bar spacing in mnjunnion with a large
number of bars in a single plane of reinforcemem. tbe designer shou td be aware Ibal
pmblems may arise in the placemenl and COlI.olidatiml of ,,,,,,crde. especially wheo
multiple laye" of bars are used or wben the bar ,paci ng is smaller than the ,ize of the
vibmlor head.
lnere "'" also re,triclions on the m;ni",u", number of bars Ihat can be pla,'cd in
a 'ingle layer. based on requiremell15 for lhe dislritxniofl of reinfo"-,,,mell1 10 control
the width of llexur~1 CTa,'ks (see Senioll 6.3). Table A.8 give, lhe minimum number
of bars Ihat wilt ~atisfy ACt COOe fL'quirements. which will be discuS5<...J in Chapler 6,
III large girders and column,. il i, sometimes advantageous to "hundle" tensi!.,
or compres,ive reinfo[l'emenl with two. Ihree. o r four ban; in cmUacl 10 provide for
bener depusilion of concrele amund and belween adj",-",nt bundles.ll",se bar> may be
a~,umed to acl:l.' a unit. wid, not mure than four hars in any bundle. provided Ihat stir-
rups or tie, endose Ibe bundle. No more dmn IWO bars ,houl d be bundled in <Hie plane~
typi,'al bundle shapes are triangular. square. Or L-sbaped panems, Individual bars in a
bundle. cui off within the span of flexural members. ,bould lenninale at different
puinl,. ACI C<xle 7.6.6 require, at leaS! 40 bar dianlelers stagger betwL",n p<,ill1s of
cutoff. Where 'pacing l i mitalion~ and minimum connde awer [l'<luiren"'nt~ "'"
based On bar diameter. a uoil of bundled bars is trealed a, a 'ingle bar with a dianle-
ter that pmvide, lhe Same 100al area.
ACI Code 7.6.6 slates dml bars larger than No. II (No. 36) shalt not be bundled
in beam,. altbough lhe AASHTO Specificaliolls p"rmit bundling of No,. 14 and 18
(N"" . 43 and 57) bars in higbway bridges.
RECTA NGULAR B EA MS WITH T EN SIO N

AND C OMPRE SSIO N REINFORCE M EN T
If a beam cross section is limited be,'au", o f archik'Ctural or other co!lsi<kralions. il

may happen Ihal the C!l1lcrel<e tannol de\'ek,p lhe compression force required 10 fesisl
the given bending ox",,,,ni. In Ibi s ca",. reinforcemell1 is added in lbe compre"ion
zone. resulling in a "o-calltX! dm,hiy reinforced beam. i.e .. one with compression a,
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..'i I{; N O F CO NC RE'n: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
'. r:::~ T1.

~_~_~'"1_1=
L G
'. _ e - e - e L___ ~_~_ ~ __". '----'

,.~
i'i (0) "~I

FIG URE 3. 13
Doubly n:;nforo rc<."U!ngular "'=n.
well as lension reinfwcemenl (sce Fig . 3.13). The usc of cornpre"ion reinforeerr>em
has deereascd markedly wilh It;., use of sirength design mellKKls. whi<"h an"ount for
the fnll strength potential of th" <"<mcrete on tl'" compr""iv" side of II", neutml axis,
Howe\'er, there are siluations in which comp",,,i,,, reinfmeemelll is used fm reasons
olt;.,r Ihan slrength.11 has been found that II", inclusion of "om" compression s!t...,1 will
redute the long-tenn deflections of members (sec ~tion 6 .5). In addilion , in son",
eases. bars will be placed in the cotnpre"ion zone fm minimum-mo=1lI loading ( ...>e
$eclion J2.2) m as slinup-'upport ban; cominuou, throughoul the beam span (see Chap-
ler 4). It may he d"sirable to ac<"ount fm II", presence of ,ud, reinfmcen",nt in flex-
uml design. although in many cascs they are negleck.... in flexur~1 <"akulalion'.
a. Tension and Compression Steel Both at Yield Stress

If, in a douhly reinfor<"ed beam. the lensile reinforeeTlreIll ratio is Ie" than or <'<Junl
to /r the 'trength o f Ihe beam may be approximated wilhin accepmble limits by di,-
regarding the cOHlpr""ion Ixw;. The strenglh of such a beam will be <~'mroll,-"" hy len-
sile yidding. and the le\'er arm of tt;., resisling momem will <;Irdinarily he but liule
affeet<'il by the prescnce or the compression bar,.
If tt;., tensile reinfor<"emem r~tio is large r than b ' a somewhat more elaix,,-at~
analysis is required. In Fig. 3.13". a rectangular beam eross scctiml is shown wilh
compression steel A; placed a di,tance d' from the compression face and with tensile
steel A, at effective depth d. II is assumed inilially thai ix>1h A; and A, arc stressed 10
f. at failure. The total resiSTing mome nt can be Ihoughl o f as the sum of two pans, The
'first pan. M" . is provided by the coupk <"onsisting of lhe force in It;., compressio"
steel A; and the foree in an equal ar~a of tension ,t",,1
(.~ .4f>")
as stKJWn in Fig. 3.13./. 11", se.,ond pan. M" . is the conlribution of the r~maining len -
si,m ,t""j A, - A; acting wilh the compression concrete:
"2
<1 - - (3.46J
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
as shown in Fig. 3. 13e, wh~re the d~p!h of tm, ,trcss hlod i,

A, - A,I,.
(3,47a)
" O.8Sj, b
With the definitions - A, M and .. A; M. this can be written
(3,47b)
Tht total nominal n:sisring momtnt is then
+ -J'
A . - A. "
,} - -2 (3,48)
In accordaJlce with tilt sakty provisions of tht ACl Code. the net !ensi le strain is
cheded. and if ,2: 0.005. thi~ nominal capaciry is rc'duccd by the factor - = 0.90 to
obta in the design strength. For ,be!wc,<:n OJlO5 and O.<Xl4. - must be adjusted. as dis-
CUSM.,<I earlier.
It i~ highly desirable. for n:awns given earlier, that failure . should it o<xur. be
prc'Cipitated by tensile yielding rather than crushing of the concrete. This can be
~nsured by 'letting an upper limil on the t~nsile reinforc~ment ratio. By sening the t~n
sill' st~cl stra in in Fig. 3.13/> equal to " to establi~h the location of the neutral axis for
th~ failure cond iti on and then s(,m ming horilQntal forces shown in Fig. 3. 13,; (still
assuming tilt compressive Heel to be at tlK: yidd stress at failure). it is easily ~hown
that th~ balanced reinfOr<:emcnt ratio -:-. for a doubly reinforced beam is
- .. = + (JAg)
when: b is the balanced reinforcement ratio for the correS)lOnding singly reinforced
beam and is calculated from fq. (3.28). The ACl Code limits the lIet tensile wain. not
the reinforcement ratio. To provide the ~ame margin again~t briule fail ure as for singly
r~inforccd beams. the maximum reinforceme nt ratio should be limited to
..... "'"' + (3 .50)

Ikcause . --.- establishes tlK: location of the 'Je(lIral a~is. the limi tation in Eq. (3.50)
will pro"ide acceptable net tensile mains. A checl of , is f<:quired to deten"ine lhe
strength reduction factor and verify 'Jet ten~ile strain requirements are satisfied.
Substituting for , 2: 0.005 for """ in Eq. (3.50) will gi~e = 0.90.
b. Compression Steel below Yield Stress

The preceding equations. through which the fundamental analysis of ,Ioubly rein_
forced beams is dtveloped clearly and concisely. are valid ullly if the compre'Ssion
steel has yiel,loo wlK:n the beam reaches its nominal capaci ty. In many cases, such as
for wide. shallow beams, beams with more than the usual concn:te cover over the com
pression bars. beams with high yield strength steel, or beams with reiatively small
amou"t~ of tensik reinforcement. the compression bars will be below the yield stress
at fail ure. It is nectssary, therefore, to (kvelop more generally applicable eq(,ations to
account for the possibility that the compression n:inforce"'ent has not yielded when
the doubly reinforced beam fails in flewn:.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
9 11 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 3
Whelher or n01lhe compression SI""] will haye yielded al failure can bi: dd~r
mined as follows. Referring In Fig. 3_11b, and la king as Ihe li miting c"", ; = >' or",
oblains , from g~ometry. -
,
d - -.-C-
Summing forces in the horizonla l dir.:elion (Fig . .>'1 Jc) gives the ",i"i",,,,,, t~osile
reinforcement ratio '-" that will ensure yielding of Ihe compr.:ssion st~cI at failure:
,-
n-
.. 0.85 /;
' /,11
~ --=-
' -
+ CUI)
If the 1"II.<il~ rein/vrcement r"liv is Ie"" Ihan thi s limiting value. the nculr~l axis
is sufticiemly high that the compression st~el stress at failure is less than the yield
stress. In this case. il 'an casi ly be sho".-n on the Ntsi s of Fig. J.13/i and ,. that the bal
an,ed reinforc~mcm ratio is
f;
. +
/.
C'-52 )
where
J.
/, = E, ,= E, + sf.
To d~lermine ...,' , = O_QO.t is suhslituI~d for " ,in Eq. (3.53,.). giving
f, = E, -J + 0_004 (3.'i3b)
Hence. the maximum rein forc~me nt

"
mtio pennil1ed hy the ACI Cod~ is
f, (.1.54)
f.
whe", (, i, given in F..q. (353"). A simple eompari>on shows that Eq . (3.52) and
(3 ..Q). with/: given by Eq!i. (3 .53<,) and (3531. "" pecti",ly. ar~ the ge neralized
forms of F..qs. 0.49) and 0.50)_
It should be emphasized Ihal F..qs. 0 _53,.) and (3 ..~3h) for mmp",,,ion steel
stress apply "nly/or I",,.,,,,,, \('ilil uacr .>1m;" mllle_, in lile exl",me 1~II.,ile .,-red 'if ' ,
or , = 0_004.
If th" tensile r"infnrce'r>eni ralio is Ie" than '-,. as given by Eq. (352). and l~ss
than - ", given by Eq. 0 _5 I ). then the t~n,ile 't~el i, at the yield ,tre" al fai lure but the
compression st~el is nQI. and new e'l umions must t,., developed for comp",,,ion steel
stress and fl~xuml strength. The compression st",,1 stress can be e~pres"'" in terms of
the slill-unknown ,,,,utml axis dep1h as
c - II
/, ~ .E,--,-
Consideralion of horizontal force equilihrium (Fig . .ll.k wi th (Ompression stccl
stress equn l to f,) then gives
A,J,. - 0.85 - ,/; bc + A,. E, - -,- ~ - d

(.>.56)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3. "" . .... ......... _ I THI
o..loo ot c..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
FLEXURAl. ANAL\' SIS A N V I)ES ICN OF BEAMS 99
TABLE 3.2
Minimum beam depths for compression reinforcement to yield
0.00< 0.005
Maximum ,,,Minimum
' : 2 .5 in .. Maximum ,.,Minimum
'" 2.5 in ..
p si in . in.
M>.OO> 0.13 10.S 0,20 12.3
W.OO> 0.13 188 0.12 21.5
7~.OOO 0.'" 42, 7 0.0.\ 48.S
This i, a quadrati" equation in c. the on ly unknown. and is easily ,oh'ed for c. The
nominal flu ura l Strength is fou nd usi ng t h~ valu~ of 1: from Eq. 0,55). and" '" ,<'
in the expressio n
d - -" + A,!; d - d (3.57)

2
This nominal capacity is reduced by the so...:ngth reduction fac!OT to obtain the
design strength.
If compression bars are uscd in a flex ural member. p ....'Cautions must be laken 10
cnsure Ihat thes.: bars will not buckle outward under lood . spa lling otT the out~r con
crete. AC I Code 7.1 1.1 imposes the I\:quiremc nt Ihal such hars be atlChored in lhe
same way thaI compression bars in columns are anchored by lal~ral lies (Sec lion 8.2).
Such lies mUSI be uscd Ihroughoul the di stance where Ihe compression reinforcement
is required .
For Ihe compression slul to yield . the reinforc.::mc nt mtio muSI lie below :-"""
and abov~ :-" .. TIIC ratio Oct ween d' and the stcd cwtroidal wpth d to allow yielding
of the compression l\:inforcenlC nt can be found by equating - " to :-.." (or for ,-
0.(05) and solving for d' d. Funhcnnore. if d ' is assumed 10 bC 2.5 in .. as is often tOc
case. the minimum depth ofbeam necessary for lhe compression sleel to yield may be
found for each grade of sleel. The ratios and mi ni mum beam wpths are summariz~d
in Table 3.2. Values al\: included for ," O.ClCW. Ihe min imum tensile yield Slrain per
mill ~d for flexural members. and I 0.()()5. the net lensilc strain nccwd to ensure
tilat .. 0.90. For beams wilh less Ihan the minimum depth. the compression rein
forccnlCnt cannot yield l!n l ~ss Ihe tensile reinforcement exceeds ..,. The compres
sion rcinforectllCnt may yield in beams that e,xc",'d the mi~imum deplh in Table .'1. 2.
depending on the rdmive distribution of Ihe tensile and compressi"e reinforceolCnt.
c. Examples of Analysis and DeSign of Beams

with Te nsion and Compression Steel
As was the case for beams witil only lension reinforccment. doubly reinforced ocam
problems can be placed in one of two cal~gories: an~lysis probkms or design prob
Icms. For <I"" /y.l;" . in whiCh the concrete dimensions . reinforcement, and material
strenglhs arc gi"en . one can find lhe flexural strcnlllh direclly from the equations in
Section .U~ or Seclion 3.7b. First. it mUSI be confirmed that Ihe tensile rei nforcemcnt
ratio is less Ihan - . gi~en by Eq. (3.52). wiln compression steei stress from
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
100 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 3
Eq. (353,,) . Once it is established that the lensile stee! yielded. the ten,ile rein -
ha~
forcement ratio defining compression sl<-",1 yielding is cakulnted from Eq. 0 .51). and
the nctml tensile reinforcement ratio is a;>mpared. If it is greater than - ..... thenf; = f...
and M. is found fmm Eq. 0.48). If it is Ie" than - ". then f, < f.. In this case . c is cai -
culnted b)' soh'ing Eq. (356). f: comeS from Eq. (3.~5). and M. is found from
Eq. (3.57).
For the de.,ign case. in whith the f,u:ton...J load moment .11, to be resisted is
known and the section dimen~i"ns nnd reinforcement arc to he (ound . a direct s"lution
is impo"ible. The stee! "reas to be provided depend OIl the sl<-",1 stresses . which an:
nm known before the """tion is proponioned . h cnll be assumed that the compre"ion
stee! stre" is equal to the yidd stress. but this must be confinu<-..J: if it is !lot so, the
design muSt he ndjusted. lne design pmcedure cnn be outlint...J as fo!lows:
I . Cnkulate tl'" maximum mOment that Can be resisted hy the underreinfofced S<.'C-
tion with . "'" or for , = 0.005!(, en.<ure that = 0.90. The correspon -
di ng ten,ile stee! area is Aj = """hd. a"d. as u",,,I.
M , =AJ, ' d - -"

2
wilh
AJ,
a =
0.85[, b
, Find tl'" exce." """''''nt. if any. that mu,t be resisted. alld set 1\1, = M, . as cal -
culated in step l.
AI ,
A . from step I is now defined as A a. i.e" that pan of the tension steel area in the
doubly reinforced beam that works with tI", compression force in the concrde. In
Fig. 3.13<,. (A, - A;) = A" .
J . Tentativdy aSSUlt'" thalf, = I,.
Then
A ~ o-~M~,c
, f . d d
Ahcrnativdy. if from T:lb!c 3.2. the compression reinforcement is known nOI to
yidd. go to Sl~p 6.
4 . Add an addilional alllOunl of tensile Sled ,t" - A;. nlUS. (he total t~nsile s(ed
area fI, is A,j from st~p 2 plus A".
S. Analyze the doubly reinforced beJm 10 sec if r-
j,: that is. chl'Ck tile t~l1sile
reinforceme nt ralio against '-" . -
6. If -~ . then the compression Sled s(ress is less Ihan f.. and 11", compression
steel area mus( be incrcased to provide (he n~~>dcd force. This ean be done as fol ,
lows . Tllc s(ress bloc); dcp(h is found from lhe l\XIuirctncm of hOrilOllwl l'quilih'
rium (Fig. 3.!Je).
A, - A,I,
0.85f. /)
and tile neutral axis d<oplh is C .. DES IGN OF B~: AMS 101
The revised compression steel area. acling al l;. mUSI provide Ihe smnc force as
Ihe trial steel arca lilal was assumed 10 acl a! J. , Therefor.:.
j.
A,,,,,.,,,,, .. A ,,Jrioi J.
The tensile sleci area new nOI be rcvist"d. because il acts all,. as assumed.
EXAM PLE 3.12 Flexund " """gill of 3 gr.'en mem""r. A f'fflangulor beam has a wid th of 12 in. and an
eftl>c!i,'" <kplh 10 Ib <:cnnoid of Ib len,ion rcinfon;cmcnl of 2J in, The lensioo ",iof""",-
men! con<iSl' of ,ix No. 10 (No . .12) bar< in Iwo row,. Com(lre-sion reinforcemeol con,i,l_
ing of 1"'-0 No, ~ (No. 25) bon; is placed 2,5 i", from lhe ''''" I'''-""ioo face of lhe beall). If
J,. - 60.000 I"i "'idE - 5000 I"i. ,",'hOI is lhe de, ign n",nlen! capacily of llle beam"
St".tm()~. The sleel area, aoo roti"" are
" ',,,'~', -
A, ~ 7.62 in' O.02M
12 X 24
A , - 1.58 in' 1,58 _ 0.0055

12 X 24 .
Clteck the beam first.s . singly reiofo,,:ed beam to see if lhe compressioo bars c"" be di,-
regarded.
_ = 0 ,0243 from TJble A.4 of Appeooix A
Tile actWlI - OJ)::'65 i, larger than _ ,' '" Ih" ""am must be analyzed as doubly rein
forced , From Eq, (3.51),
0, 8~ X 0.80 X ~ X 2.5 X O.(XH + 0.0055 = 0 ,02J5

60 24 0,003 - 0.00207
Tilt- lensil" rrinf""", nle nt ratio is greater lhan Ihi,. so lilt- com.,...."ion bars will yield when
lhe be"" (',il s, The 11l .,imum reinforcement Mio Ill" , ca n be fouo" fro'" 1'",. (3.50).
-_ = 0.024 .1 + 0.00.S5 = 0.029~
T he aclu~1 tcn,i\<: rcinlOn:cnlCnl ratiO is below lhe m,,,illt,,", ","nc. as requirc<J. Tl>cn. from
Eq. (.'1 ,47,,).
7.62 - 1.58 60
7.l1
' - - - - 8.89
0 .80
24 - 8.89
, ~ 0 ,003 ~ 0.0051
8.89
= 0 ,90
aoo from Eq. (3.48).
M. ~ 1.58 X 60 24 - 2.5 + 6.04 X 60 ,, --, 7. 11

= 9450 in -kip.
The de'i~n slrrngth i,

M, ~ 0.90 X 94-')0 = 8500 in-kip,
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
102 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 3
EXi\C\.IPL E 3.13 i)esigll or 3 doubly rclnro ..n>d be.m. A reclOngular beam lba{ "'",{ carry a service Ii,.
load 0(2.47 kil'Slf{,nd" ~ak"lJ{cd <leoo load of 1.05 kipsl'ft on"" 18 fl 'impl~ span is lim
i{ed in ",,'oS >ee{ion for architec{ural rea50n, 10 10 ;n . width mid 20 i" . (Olal depth
If!,- ~ 60.000 p'i and!; = 4000 psi. ,,'ha{ S1cel are,(.) muSt be provided'!
s"', \! ,.,,,~. The service 1000' are fjr>{ increased hy lood factors {o ohlain {he lac{ored load
of 1.2 X 1.0~ + 1.6 X 2.47 ~ ~,21 kipsl(!. Tben M, ~ 5.21 X 18' 8 ~ 211 ({-kip' ~
2.SJO in.kip'. To sali,fy 'pacing ..1d ,,,,,Ct
requirements (see Section 3 .61. assume Iha{ {M
{cn,ion s{e'" centroid win be 4 in . l"we 11.., OO1lOm fa"e of {h. beam and {hal ,umrrc"iun
Sleel. if required. will be placed 25 in. helo,,' {he heam's top surlace. Then d - 16 i" . and
d' ~ 2.5 in.
Fir>!. ,lied {he capacity of {lie \eclioll if singly reinforced. Table AA silo"', lhe m"xi_
lIlum for, = O.OO~. {Ile SImi" associated ",i{h ~ 0,90. 10 be 0.01 ~ 1. While {Ile ""'xi-
mum reinf"",ement rat;o is ,Iiglllly higher. Example 3.8 demoo>1raled ,here wa, no eeo-
n"",ic eIT,cieOC}' uf",ing , " O.OO~ . So. A, ~ 10 X 16 X 0.01 8 1 ~ 2.90 in' . Tllen, ,..i{h
2,90 X 60 ,
,,- 0,85 X 4 X 10 - 5.12 ,,, ,
~ ~ " 0.8~ ~ 6.02 in. and the m"imulll nominal "Klmen! (hal can be ""'-'eloped i,
M. = 2,90 X 60 16 - 5. 12 2 ~ 2340inkips
AI{ern"{i,,,I)'. /I ~ 913 flUlIl Table A~b. 100 oominal nKlmen{ is M. ~ 913 X 10 X 16' 1000
- 2-'40 in.kip' . ileeause 11", co,"",spondi ng de,ign momenl. M . - 2100 i",tips. is I~"
{han {he requi,..,d capacity, 2~30 in-k ips. compression Sled i, n~ a, ","II ", addilional
{~nsion steel
Th" remaini,,>: nKln1l:n1 (o be carried b)' {he "omp"'''ioo s{c..,1 <'ouple i,
2530
M, - - - - ~340 - 470 in_kip,
0 .90 -.
As Ii i, Ie" man {he \,,,1,,,, required 10 ok"elop {he ,0nopr''';'''1 reinforcement yield .{fe"
(Table 3.2). , reduced SIre" in the "o"' pre,,ion rei nfor~~",.,," wi ll be u",d,
6.02 - 2.5
, - 0.003 - 0.00175 aoo / , - 0.00175 X 19.000 - SO.9hi
6 .02
Try 1: - .SO k,j for {M ""mpre"ion reinforceme", 10 ohIain {he area nf <,led
, - ~"'C"',,
, 50)6 - 2,5
0.70 in'
The {oml "",a of!en,ile ,..,;nf""",,,,,," a{ 60 hi i,
A , = 2,90 + 0,70 60 '" ~ JAS bi
T,,o No. (, (No. 19) bars will be u",d for lIie compression reinforcement and foor NO. 9
(No , 29) bar> "'ill pIU,ide {he {ensile >1",,1 area as shu,,.,. in Fig, 3. 14. To place {h" {en,ion
bars in a 10 in. Mam wid,h. two row,
Of l WO ba" each are """d.
,\ lina) ~Ileck i, made {o en'ure {hal {he sekc{ion of re i nfor~"men{ does J)(}{ creal. ,
lower compressi"e ,{res< {han l he a.. ,u med SO hi.
A, = 4,0 - 0.~8 '"60 = 3,27 in ,

o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FU:XURA I. ANA IXSIS AN I) DES IGN O F B~: AMS I Q3
FI GU IU: 3. 14
Doubly rcinfofl:cd be.m of
E.,mple .1.1.1 ,
2No.6 (No, 9) -
4 No, 9 (No, 29) -;q:t:

,,' .
which il grealer than 2.90 in l for , - 0.005, so <: 0.90.

].21 X 60
~ = 0,85 X ,f X 10 5.77 in,
5.77
- - = 6,79 in,
0.8.S
6.79 - 25
, - 0.003 6.79 - 0.0019
f - 29.000 X 0,0019 - ~5,0 hi
whid' is grc.11cr than assumed. O>ed using d, - 17,25 from Fi,. ~.I 3 and ~omPllIC 'he
"" 'ised M. , For simplicily. lbe area of lensil,> rei" forcem'''1 i, 001 modified,
17.25 - 6.79
, = 0.00] = O.oo.u;
6.79
for which ~ 0.87. TIlCn
5.77
M , = 0.87 3.27 X 60 16,0 - - ,-
+ 0,88 X 55.0 16 - 2.5 = 28 10 in-k ips
This is v-e~'er tha n M . > '" nO further rdincmem is necessary,
d. Tensile Steel below the Yield Stress

All doubly rei!lforc~d bemus desig ned according to the ACI Coo., muSI be und~rrein
forc~d .in ,h~ ~nS<.' thm the tensile re;nforc~m~1II mtio is l"llit~d 10 ~lISure yidding at
beam fa"ur~. Two caSe's were consill~red 11\ Sections 3.7a and 3,7b. ""'Slkcti"dy: (a)
both lens;on steel and cOHlpression st~el )'ield. and (b) t~nsion steel yidds but com
pr~ss;on steel does ,101. Two oth~r combinations may be ericoullI~red in analyzing tlk<
capacity of ~xisting beams: (c) knsion skd does nO! yield. bU I compression steel
does. and (d) "either t~nsion sted nor compression st~el yidds. The last two cases arc
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 3."" .............. _ I THI
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
unu,uat and in fncI, il would be diffi,-uh 10 pbce suffici~m len,ion r~infof('~nJem 10

crenl~ such condilion" hUl il is po'sibl~. TI", solUl ion ill such ca",s is oblailled a, n
'implc extension of Ihe Ircalmem of Seclion 3.7b. An '-'qumion for horizontal OXjuilib-
rium is wriHen, in ",hich bmh wn,ion and compre"ion sleel slr6s are expres,,-..J ill
lerm. of tI", unkno",n neUlml axis depth c. The re,uhing quadml ic '-'qualion i, solved
for c, after which sleel slresses call he calculmed and lhe nomillal flexur~1 slrcn gth
detenniru...J.
~, 3.8 T B EAMS
With the exc"plion of p,,-'Ca'i systems, rcin fof('ed conCrele fl(Kl"', ro"f,. de,-h. elC"
are alm"'1 nlway" m"nolithic. Form, are built for beam ,oflit, and side, and for tI",
underside of .bb,. and the emire construction is cast nt once. from the bottom of tI",
d'-"pc'l b<:am 10 the top of lhe slab. Bam slirrups and hem hars extend up into Ihe
,lab. II is evidem. therefore, Ihat a pnn of the slab ",ill act with the upper pan of lhe
beam to resi'l longitudinal compre<>ion. The resuhillg beam cross section is T-shapcd
mtber Ihan rectangular. The slab forms the beam flange, while tI", pnn of the beam
projecting below the sinh form.~ whal is calk..J Ih~ \t'e" or ., Ie",. n,e upper pan of such
a T beam i, stressed lateral!y due 10 slab aclion in that direnion. Although tr~nsver",
compression al the level of the boHom of the slab mny increa", Ihe longitudinal ,-om-
press i,'e 'trength by as much as 25 percent, tr~n''''r''' {eosion nt Ihe top ,urfnce
redu"", Ihe longitudinal ('()mpressive slrenglh ( see Seclion 2.10). N~ith~r effeci is usu -
ally taken into occoum in de'igll,
a. Effective Flange Width
n'e neXI question {() boo: resolved is thai of Ihe dfoclive ",idth of flange. In Fig. 3.1 .');'.
il i, evident Ihnt if the flange is oot linle wider than the ,Iem ",idth. the entire flange
tan boo: considered dT'-'Cli~e in resisting compre"ion. For the l1{)()r ')"tem ,hown in
Fig. },15". IKlwe\,er. it may be equally o bvious Ihnt elemem, of Ihe l1ang~ midway
belween II", heam ~Iem' are less highly stressed in longimdinnl eompression Ih""
Ihose elemem, directly o"er the <I~m. Thi, is so oc'Causc of shearing IkforTlUltion of
the flnnge. which relieves tI", more remOie dements of "''''''' cOlnpr~"ive SireS,.
Although lhe aCloallongitudinal eompression varies because of Ihis effeci. it i,
con"enient in de,ign 10 make use of "" t1feah-e Jlm,se ..-id,h, ",hieh may boo: smaller
Ihan the nClualflange width oot i, consid~",d {() be unifomlly stressed at Ihe maximum
value . This dfocliv~ width has heen found {() depend primarily on the beam span ""d
o n lhe relative thicknes~ of Ihe slab.
~' I GURE J.15

Effecti'"e flange " id(n of
T I>cam'
,-, '0(
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FU:XURA I. ANA IXSIS AN I) DES IGN OF B~:A MS lOS
n,~ cril~ria for eff"'-"Ii"e width giv~n in ACI Cod~ 8.10 are as follows:
1_ For 'ymmetrical T !J.t,arns, th~ en"~L'1ive width b shall not c,ceed o",,-founh t!J.t,
span lenglh of the ~am. The overhanging slab widlh on eith~r side of Ih~ ~arn
web shull nOl exce~d 8 tin"" the Ihickness of Ihe ,lab nor go beyond "''''-half lhe
dear distance 10 the """ beam.
2_ For beam, having a slab on one side only. the effecli,,~ overhanging .Iab widlh
shall 11111 eH"~ed one-Iwdfth II", span len);lh of lhe !J.t,arn, 6 ti"",s II", slab Ih ick-
ne'$, or one-half the dear dislanct: 10 lhe ,,,,xl beam_
3. For i,,,bled !J.t,am., in which Ihe flange is u""d onl)' for II", pu'!",,,,, of prn\'iding
additional mmpre$sive arca. Ill" flange Ihk-kne" shall nOi !J.t, le_" limn one-hal f
II", width of the web. and Ih~ tOial flange width ,hall n(1I be more Ihan 4 ti"",s lhe
web width.
b. Strength Analysis
n", neUlr~1 axis o f a T ~am may!J.t, eilher in the flange or in th~ "-eb, d~pending upon
Ibe prnportion' of the ern" ""'-"lion. Ibe amount of tensi Ie Sk'Cl. and Ihe slrenglh, of
the material,. If Ihe ,'alculated d~pth to the n~utral axis;s Ie" Ihan or equal 10 lhe slah
thi,"kn~" "I'
Ihe beam ,"an be analyzed as if il were a ,,-..:-tangular !J.t,am of width ,-,<[ual
to b. II", dYedi"e flange width. The reason for thi , is illuSlrak..-:l in Fig. 3_16", which
,how, a T beam with the neutr~1 axis in lhe flange _The mrnpressive area is indicated
by lhe ,lm..bJ ponion of the figure_ If the additional concrete indicated hy areas I and
2 had been added when the !J.t,arn was cast, II", physical crn'", section WQuid have be~n
rectangular wit h a width b. No bending strengl h would have been added beeause area,
I and 2 are entirely in tl", tension zone. and lension roncrete is disregarded in flexural
caleulal;ons. The original T !J.t,arn and the reclangular ~am an: eGual in flexural
,trength. and rectangular !J.t,am analysis for fl~xure applie,.
When the n~utral axi, i, in the w~h. as in Fig_ ]. I6h. the pre,"eding argument i,
nQ longer valid. In this cnse. meth(1I1s mu,t !J.t, dc"eiQpt...-:l tQ account for th~ anual T-
' haped compre"iw zone,
III treating T beams, it i, c()n\'~n ient]() adop! tl", sa"", equival~nt Stre" diSlrioo -
tion that i, u",d for beam~ of "-"CIangular no" =tion_ TI", ,,->ctangular ,tress hlock,
ha"ing a uniform compres,ive-Slre" illl,,"'ity 0.8.~ /: . was devised ()figinally Qn tl",
hasis of teSIS of rectangular !J.t,ams (see &><..1iOl1 ].4a). and ilS suitahility for T ~am'
may !J.t, questiolled. However. extensive cakulation, ba",d on "'"Iual stres,!-,trnin curve,
(reported in Ref, ], 12) indicat~ d131 it. use for T ~am', a~ well as for !J.t,ams of <:ircu -
lar or triangu lar noss "',"lion. introduce, Qnly minor ~m" and i, fully justified.
" l~----
t
FIGURE 3. 16
Effect"" ,"ro'i'
T beam"
'''''''(In, of J-I'
"l~~~~~~~~~~
1 -.--=
d ll
, 'I
Neutral
I aXiS
'
If----;:-
Li (1) ._ (2) i d
LI (1) _._._e_
,==~~----, 1_____ _____ 1
I-- b... -J I-- b ... -J
(,( (OJ
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
106 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 3
FIG UIt E 3. 17. II (u 0.85 I~

S'min :md equi,-aien' .,,,,,,
-----;1 ' --., r- ~ r-
,. __._._._~~~=~_!_~_ f_j 1~2'~B"
di.. ribu,ion, r",. T ".""s.
i-- bw--.j (s _
"j ,OJ "j

Accordingly. a T b"am may b" trealed a, a ,,--ctangular beam if the depth of the
'-XJui\'alem SireS' block i, Ie" than o r "'iual to the flange Ihi,-'kne,, _ Figure 3. I 7 ,how,
a ten,ile-reinforced T hoeam wilh effeclive flange widlh b, web width i, .. eff""li""
deplh to the ,1<-",1 ('emmid d , and flang~ thid.:ne" hf - If for trial purpo",s the sire"
block i, assnmed to be complelely wilhi nlhe flange,
A,/, . I, d
11- - --- (J .S8)
O.8S[,." 0.85/;
where - A, -ixi. If (/ is less Ihan or equnl lo thc flange thickness "J' lhe memocr may
he Irc~lcd as ~ rectnngular ocam of widlh /, nnd deplh d. If" is grea ter th~n hJ . ~ T
hea", ~nalysi s is required as follows.
11 will be assumed lhal lhe .Ilrenglh of lhe T beam is controlled hy yielding of lhe
lensile sleei. This will ne~rly ~Iways be lhe case because of Ihe largc compressive con
crete nre~ provided hy the flange. In addilion . an upper limil ean be c, wblishcd for lhe
reinforccmenl ralio to ensure Ihal Ihis is so. as will be shown .
As a comput~lional device . il is con"enienl 10 divide lhe 101a1 I~n s ilc sleel into
IWO jXlMS. The firsl jXlM. A" . represents thc steel nre~ which. when stressed 10/,. is
requ ired 10 balance Ihc 10ngi1Udin~ 1 compressive force in Ihe ovcrhanging poMions of
Ihe /lange thm are slressed uniforl11ly aI 0.~51: . Thus.
C'-59)
The forcc Av/. nnd Ihe equal and Opposile foree O . ~5 t(l, - h.lllf act with a levcr ann
d - 11,- 2 10 provide the nomin~1 resi,ling IllOm~~t:
/'1
M"L- :t,,/,- d - '2 - (.>J,(
The remaining sleel are:1. A, - A". al a StfCSS/, >is bnlanced by the compression
in lhe r~"<:lagular ponion of lhe be~l11. The deplh of the cquiv~1c11l reclangular stress
Noc ~ in Ihis zone is found from horizolllal L"{]uilit>rium:
A , - A,ff,
,,- 0.851, ,,~
(3.61 )
An additional monwnt M ., is thus provid,'d by the forc'<)s (A, - A,,)}; and 0.851:"".
ad;,,); al the lewr ann d - " 2:
d - - "2 (3,62)
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FU:XURA I. ANA IXSIS AN I) DES IGN OF B~:A MS HI7
and the total nominnl resisling m""",nt i~ the sum of the pans:
h,
<I - -
2 "
+A, - A'F f, <1- -
2
(} ,63)
This mome nt is n:d uccd hy the strength reduction factor in aecord~nce with the
safety provisions of the ACI Oxic to obtain the design sln:ngth ,
As for rectangular beams. the tensile sl ..~1 should yield prior 10 sudden crushing
of Ihe compn:ssion concrele. as assun",d in the pn:ccding de,'elopmcnl. Yi elding or
Ihe tensile reinforcement and Cod<: compl iance an: ensured if tI", nel tensile Slrain is
gn:a\cr Ihan 0.004. From Ihe gCO""'lry of Ihe section.
,
- <
",
---+-
+
0.64)
Selling - - 0.003 and - I - 0.004 provides a maximum" ", ra(io of 0.429. as s,:en in
Fig. 3.10. Thus. as long as lhe dCplh 10 lhe nculral a.\ is is less lhan 0.429",. lhe 1"'1 len
sile ,lrain rcquircn"'nts arc satisfied. as they are for rectangular beam sect;ons , This
will occur if ~. - A, b.ll is less Ihan
' -'-" = -"+1 (.1.65)
wi",,,, f = A.,,- b.ll and . -.. is a~ p",viously defin<--d for a H_x:tangular <'m" seclion
[Eq _0 _30b)l _ For cd, r.llios belween 0_429 and 0.375, <><juivalent 10 ' . , belween the
n wn fmlll Eq. (.1_M) and ,,-.. calculated by ,uhstiluling fmlll Eq. (3.30<,) wilh
1 '= 0.005 in place of "",,' the .treng{h redunio" faclor mu.t be adjusted for I" a,
,hown in Fig _3.9 _
The pmctical result of applying Eq. O _M) i, that the sire" hlod of T beam,
will almo,{ alway' he wilhin {he flange. cX<'CP{ for unu,ual geometry or combination,
of material sireng{h _ Consequ~mly, re("\angular beam equalions may he applied in
mosl case,.
lne ACI Cod<: restriction that {he {ensile reinforcement ratio for beams muSI nOi
be I"" (han "'"' = 3 1..
j, and 2: 200 /'_(,,-,e Sec{ion 3_4<1 ) applie, {o T beam, as w~1I
as ",c{angular beams, For T benm" {h~ mtio ,hould be <o"'put.,,] for {hi, purpose
hascd on {he weh width h. ..
c. Proportions of Cross Section

When designing T heams, in CQnIr11S{ {o annlyzing {he capacity of a giwn S<."diof], nQr-
mally the slah dimension, and beam 'pacing will have heen eSlablished hy tr~"'ve rse
flexuml rt."quiremen{,. CO"SC<juently. the only addi{ional "'-"<-1ion di"",n,ion, Iha{ mu,1
be d~lermined from flexuml con,idem{ions are {he width and depth oflhe weh and the
aren of Ihe le",ile ,{""L
If the Stem dimension, were sekx:led on lhe ba.is of concr~le slf~ss capa<'i{y ill
eo"'pressiQn, {I",y would be very small hc{,ause of the large compression flang" widlh
fumi.hed by {I", pr~sence of the slab. Such a design would nO! "'presem the optimum
wlu{ion hecnusc of {I", large tensile 'k~l requiremem resuhing from {I", small effec-
live dep1h. h<.x:ause of {he excessive we], reinforcement {hat would be required for
,hear. and hecnuse of large ddlection, a,.."..in{ed with such a shallow memk" It i,
bener practi", {o ",kx:{ t1", pmportions or (he weh (I) sO n, (o keep an ami{raril)' low
web-reinforce"",m m{io ._ or (2) so as {o keep wel>-shar ,{ re ss n{ desirably low lim-
;{ ' or (3) for ~x,m ; nuou, T beam,. onlhe ha,i, of the flexural requ;",mem, at lhe sup-
pons, wi",,,, d", effecti"e cro.s section is rec{angular and or width h. __
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
In addition to the main reinforcement calculat ed affording to the preceding

requirements, it is ne("c"ary !o enSure the integrity of the c<;Impressive flang~ of T
hoeams by providing sled in the f1ang~ in the din.'dion tmn,verse to the main 'pan. In
typical C(HI~trucrion. the slab steel ", rves thi, purpose. In other case" ""par.ne bars
mu,t hoe add('<.l to pem'it the ove rhanging flange' to ("any. as cantilever bealll~. tl",
loads d irectly applied. According to ACI Code 8.1 05, the 'pacing of such bars must
n<;lt eu't.'Cd 5 ti""" the thickne,~ of the flange "or in any ca,., exc<-'t.'<.l 18 in.
d. Examples of Analysis and Design of T Beams

For {1II"ly~in8 the capacity of a T hoeam with known co""rete din",nsions and tensile
,teel area. it i, reasonable to stan with tl", assumption that tl", Stress bl<><;k depth a dn.",
not exceed the flange thickness hr In that case. allnrdinary ",clangnlar beam equation,
(see Sedion 3.4) apply_ with beam width taken '-'q ual !o the effeClive width of tl",
flange . If. upon dlt.'t."king that assumption. a pro"es!o exceed It,.
then T hoeam analysi,
mu,t hoe applied. FAJuatioJ), (59) through 0.63) can hoe used. in seque""". to obtain the
nominal flexnml ,trength. after which the de'ign strength i, ea,ily calculated .
FOJ de.,';gn. the following "-'<luenee of ("akulation, may hoe foll<;lwed:
I . Establish flange thi<:kne." hi i>.1sed on flexural r'-'quirelllents of th;, slab. which

normally spal1~ tmnsve"",]y hoetween pan,lIel T hoeams.
2. Dct~nnine!he eITective tlange width h a<-.:ording to ACilim its .
3. Olllllse web dimension, b., and" ba""d on either of the following:
(a) negative bending requirements at tbe ,ul'JXlns. if a wntinuous T beam
(bl shear requirement." ",uing a rea,onable upper-limit on the nominal unit sbear
stre-<!; ", in tbe beam web (see Chapter 4)
4. With all C<Hlcretc dimension, thus e stabli shed. calculate a trial value of A j a,,<"m -
ing that" d,,,,s nOt ~xce,-'<.l hi ' with beam width equal to flange width b, Use ordi -
nary rectangular beam d6ign metlK"h,
5. For the trial A ,. check the depth of str,-",~ hlo,:k " to confmn tba! it does no! CXCCl-'<l
"I. If it shou ld exc<-..,.] that v3lue. revise A, using the T beam ~'quations.
Ii. Check!o ensure Ibat ,2: O.()().t or cd:s 0.429. (Th is wi ll almost invariably be
the l"a"".)
7. Check hl ensure that w 2: " .... .
,\ 1<.ment ca!>"dty or a glwn section. An i",I'led T beam i, eompo>ffi of a tlange 28 in

wide and 6 in. dc-ep cast !llOOulitnicall y with a "'eb of 10 in. width that ~te!\lls 24 in, belo,,
[be bol'o'" ,urface of the tlang~ to prod "," a beam of .W in. total <l<:llIh . Ten,ile reint;;..u,
n",!It ~u"sim ur ,ix No. 10 (No . .12) bars placed in twO horizontal row., TI>< ce'llroid uf the
har groul' i, 26 in. from [he top of the beall) . h has been <klennined thot the ron,,,, ,te has a
st",ngth ur 3000 psi JrnJ that th<: yield stresS of tl>< ' leci il 60.000 psi. What is the deSign
mo",,,,,, capacity of [he be a", ~
S"'.lJ[lO~. It i, ~"-'ily ronti",,,,d that tM flange d;,ncn,ion< are ,ati,factory according to

the AU Code for an i!.<llmed be.m, 1lle e~ti", flange Can be ~on,idered .ffect ive. R>r si.
No. 10 (No. 32) bars. A, - 7.6? in' . R"t check the loc.tion of the ne"tral axis. on the
",," million th:,t ",clangu'" be ~", equation, may t.: 'I'plioo,
7.62
~ E 0.0105
28 X 26
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FU:XURAI. ANA IXSIS ANI) DESIGN OF B~: AMS 109
.nd from Eq. (LIl)
7.62 X 60
" ~ ~ 6.40 in.
0.85x3x28
,
A.,- 085 X 60 X 18 - 10 X 6 -4 59;n
,
A, - A~ _ 7.62 - 4.59 - 3.03 i1l '

Then. from Eq. (.1.60).
M" ~ 1.59 X 60(26 - ~) ~ 6330 inkif)S
while from E'ls (3.58) anll (.l.$91
3.03 X 60
,, - -7.Llin
0.85X3 XIO
M., ~ .lm X 6026 - 3,56 ~4080 ; n-kips
The lIepih 10 lhe ,,,,,,(ral axis i, (' - <J ' , - 7. Ll 0.8 ~ - 8 . .19 alld d, - 17.$ in. (0 the IoW"'1
bar, nle" (i, ra(io;, 8.39 27.5 = 0.305 0.325. SO (Ik: , 0.005 req ui"'''lem i, ,nel and
- 0.90 ""'lk:n lhe ACI menglh redue(ion foclor is inrorpora(oo. (he design menglh is
M. ~ 0.90(6330 + .!OSO) ~ 9370 in~i",
EXAM P LE 3.15 Dct~rmjnat jun UfM..,1 ~rea fur a giwn mo ...... t. A flOQf ')'.1"'" con,i'I' of a 3 in, ("On-
cre!~slab supported by conlinuoos T beam, wilh a 24 ft 'pan. 47 in. on rem.".... WeI> dimen_
,ium. a, de1~rmi""d by neB.(ivemoment require"""nls al die support,. are "., ~ II in . nd
d - 20 in. Whal ten,He ,(ttl area i, required al millspan (0 ",,;,1 fOClnre<l moment of
6400 in_kips iff" ~ 60.000 psi .niI!; ~ 3000 p,i?
16hl +"~- I~X.l + 11 - 59i".
- _24 X _12 _ r in
Span
-
4 4 - ,
Centerline beam spacing ~ 47 in.
The cemcfii ne T beJm 'pacing control, in thi. ca"" .nd b ~ J7 in. The roocrele IIi"",",;"".
h. anll d a", ~ now " 10 be :Ide< !U~(C in thii ca>c , lin..", (hey ha,'C t..'.:11 sclc...1<'J jOr II", (arger
negali\'e ,uppon momem oWlioo (0 the effecli ve reclJngular ",clion b . d, The tensil~ >1",,1
a' midlp<'" is "IOSI con,"c"i"",ly f()IJn,1 b)' (riol. As",min~ (II.: "",ss-blod Mplh cq"o! '0 Il'e
flJnge lhickncs, of 3 ;n .. one gel>
" - W- 1.50 - 18,50;11.

d-'2
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I JO IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 3
Trial:
MOO
",";c',"~,,",
0.90 x 6() X 18.5(1 - 641
, in'
6,41
47 X 20 = 0 ,00682
j,d 0,00682 X 60 X 20
,,= -- ~ 3,21 in.
0.8V, 0.85 X 3
Since ~ is greater (ltan "1" a T beam design is ,-.,quiroo and ~ 0 .90 i, ",su",,,d.
0.8V, b - b. I,/ 0,85x3x36x3 '"'

A,/_ - 60 _ 4,,'0'
},
M. t = = 0,9{1 X 4,59 X 60 X 18.50 = 45lj() in-kips
M" ~ 1>1, - M., ~ 6400 - J .S90 ~ 18IOi"- ~iJlS
Assume ~ - 4.00 in,:
A , -A,! -,-j',',",:c,
I, d ,,2
1810
0.90 x 6() X 18.00
1.86 in'
Check:
A, - A ~I,
0.8Vch~
""'o".~'~"'
;;; C'.,
0.85 X 3X I I
.\.98 in.
'lbi, is ~(i,fac!Orily dos.:!O (he ",,,un,,,d ,'al.., of J in. Then

A , _ A" + (ii, - A~) _ 4.59 + 1,86 _ 6.45 in'
Checking to ensure Ihn( (he nd tensile >!rain of 0 .005 is ,""( (0 ,llow 0 .90.
('-- ---
0.85 -H'
"
. I
3.%
c 4.68
- ~ - - = 0.23 0.325
d, 20
indi c~(i n g
Ihallhc desigJl is S,1IisfoclO<y.
The clo", agrc'tmem ,hould be 00100 bel"'''''' lhe OPl'fOXimale lensil. ,(eel area of
6 .4 1 in' fOlln,1 by assuming the ,u\>ss-biod <\';VOh eqllallO It..: flange Ihidn.. and lhe more :s,
euct ,,,due of6,J5 in' found by T beam analy,i,. The approximate sol ulioo woold be sali,-
f'ICIOI"y in nlOSl cases.
REFERENCES
J i l l , ~""'". "k(""",h.," T.,.",""I 0 G" ...,~I n,,",..I 1h.:(J,Y "f S'"",""" 0 .."",,:' I, ACt. ,<~. n "'", I.
1<11. Pr, Hg,
J.l I ..n. K,;,. "UI, i"""... S l n' '' ~I" en 'en o f... II.l'i o[.,..",,, e"."", ,o.- l ("K M"~, IJi,'. A5Cf:. ",' , gS, ""
HO, I~ .W. W' 9'>-- 11 0.
J.J I" n, K,;, .. )(I S. L. I~,'. "U II ;,"",,, S''''''~h of(h'(m';" f"",>,1 II,..,,,,: p,,~ . Ascr. mI, >iii. "". I'MJ.
1'If,(1, Pr, 95--106,
J.4 C. S. 1I'h;'",y. "Ib;g" of ~o; "r.....xI (, ... ",,,. Me"'''''' U""'" Flex",,' ,~ C,...... "'>,I I'.:"", Ii<\(! 1);=
n.nfi'\!-,>ioo:I, "CI. ,,,1, 33. Milt-Apr, 19)1. W ' 4~J---49~ .
JS A, 11 Mau"," . t. B. Kri, ......1 1;. 1I~"~;oj, -k"'",<1gul;r e.""-",,o s ,"''' I~>l ri h. ,h,," ;" UI,im"l>:
S L "'"~l h 1)""'I!Jl," J ACI. ",,- l'. "", 8. 1961. Pr, ~75----'!!~ .
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FU:XURA I. ANA IXSIS AN I) DES IGN O F B~: AM S III
3.6.p, 11 , K..,-. N, W. 11'0","" and fl. T. C"""II. ~ l ""',~',.;o r.,w, >no.! s,~,,, B ~~- '(A'''''''''"'' fo< fli~h_
SO",og,h C""""",,: Pro""di'l%' V,,"SU" Mdl,",), S"fflW"""" '\0 Sl,~'i .1 I"'",,"' .... S!>- ~~ . I~n,
3.7. ,jc/ 1);:,'i~,oI""" Ib<"*, lifo",,'. O>tc-I<"" S/ab." 8""*<1>, ""'""st, Pil, c.~", C"I"""", T~,,,-",,:dl,,',,,
"",I s,,',',"!c I);:,,~" in MW"IrvI<', ~-;,II '"' 5"'~~ffl /J;: " i~" ,1/,,1>0<1 <If JI8-9'. 81'-17. ,\"~.....",,
C, ...,,,",, In,, ;,",., 1'.... "i O ~l "" H i ll~ MI, 1<1<17
3.8 AC/ 1);:0,ili"8 .\1,,",,,,1.,\0 Sp."i.II'uOl~-.. i,'" Sl'-i. """,m.-." C(loX''''''' I" ,h,"", "'''''",ing,oo Hill,.
MI,I994.
3.Q C~SJ I);:,,~" 1I"",ilHH><. 'IIh ,xl .. C.-...-",," ~" in r,.--;,,~ S"",'I"~i," I ". S<.'I.. ","I""~. 1I ,;>On.
JIO. F;r~(a/ C","'n'''' C"""''''''"" I"'gi""''''; o~ I)'"" ~c,..., .'1<). :10, C,",,'I" lI<i of".."i"\1 slc'ol
I"~i , ,,, ,,. s<"!\ou,,"""g_ If, 19~~,
J 11. Mam",/ "j' Sf(U~u",i P"""i(t. n Lh 00 .. U""''''"' ~"in r,.m,,~ S,,'", I ,, ~ i ,",". ~;':h ,,"" ,""'i- II-. lOOl,
3.11 C. W I)" ... Ulti""w O~""'Uy "f Rc;"fr'""''' c"",."" 5,"""" U,i~~" O."i"","" Su,,,-S,,,,i.
It"""_,
"""en'"". MS Ib.::,i~ (-,,,,,,,11 U ni ,'~'il )'. NY, Ju"" I96J,
PROBLEMS
3. 1. ,\ reetangular beam made using connde wilht = 4000 psi and steel with",
= 6(UlOO psi has width" = 24 in .. IOtal deplh " = 18 in .. and efT~tive <kpti\
d = 15.5 in. Concrete modulus of rupture J; = 475 psi. The elastic mooulus of
tl", sl&)1 and concrde are. respective!y, 29.000.000 psi and 3,600.000 psi. TI",
tensile st&)1 area IS A, = l1"e No. !! (No. _16) bars ,
(lI) Find the rna.\ im um service load momem thm Can be resisted wilhoUi
stressing lhe concrete higher Ihan 0045 J: or lhe steel above 0.'10/"
(b) Determine Ilk) nominal nexuml strenglh of the beam ..,ction. and calcu-
lme the ratio of nominal nexural slI'ength 10 service load momem.
k) Determine whelher this beam will show nexum l cracking before reuching
tlw ser\'ice lood calculated;n part (lj.
] .2. A recmngular. tensionreinforced beam is 10 be designed for dead load of
500 Ibm plus self weight and service li.'e load of 1200 Iblh. with a 22 ft sim-
ple span. Materia l strenglhs will btl/, = 60 hi andJ: = 3 ksi for Slee! and con-
crete. respeetiwly. TIl<' IOtal beam depth must not e.\c&->J 16 in. Calculate the
TI.'<ju ired beam width and lensile sK>e1 requirenwnt. using a reinforC<.'ment rmio
of 0.60 """. Use ACI load faclOrs and strenglh r~>Jucl;On faclOTS. The em~cti~e
deplh may be assumed 10 be 2,5 in. It,ss Ihan Ihe lOtal (i..-pth ,
J ..l. A beam wit h a 20 n simple span has cross-,celim\ dimensions b = 12 Hl .. d =
23 in.. and II = 25 in. (see Fig. J.2h for notmionj. It canies a unifonn service
load of 2450 Ibm in addition 10 ilS Own weigh!. Ma!<'rial slI"l.'ngtlis are J; =
4000 psi and/~, = 60.000 psi. Assunw a weight of 150 per for reinfor<x>J con-
crete.
(lI) Ch~ck wlk)tl",r this beam. if reulforced with IlIr&) No.9 (No. 29) bars, is
adequate lO carry this load with a minimum factor of safcl), againsl nex-
uml failure of 1.85. If this requiremenl is n01 mel. selecl a thn.>e-bar rein-
forcemem of diameter or diameters adequate to provide this safely.
(b) Determine tl~ umxim um stress in tl", sK>e1 and in Ilk) concrele under ser-
vice load. i.<, .. when tt", beam canies ilS own weigh l and the specified uni-
fonn load ,
(el Will tlk) beam show hair1i~ cracb on die lension side undt>r St'rvice lond,!
] ,4. A rectang ular reinforced concrete beam has dimt'nsions b = 12 in .. d = 21 in ..
and II = 24 in .. and is reinforced with lhr~'e No. 10 (No. 32) bars , Mat~rial
strengl1ls are /, = 60,000 psi aud J: = 4000 psi.
(<1) Find (he rilUmen( that will produce the first cracking at the bonom surface
of the beam. basing your calcu lation on ' . th~ moment of inertia of the
gross concrcte section.
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
III IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 3
(b) R~pc~t the c~!Culatioll using '.1'

the nK",,,,m of inertia of tl'" ullcrac l .,,\
transformed seclioll.
0) Determinc th~ maximum momcnt th~ll'~n be l'~rried without 'tressing II",
mnlTete heyolKl OA5!: or the gil",1 beyond OAOI, .
(d) FirnJ the nominal f1~xuml str~ngth and d~,ign strength of this heam.
(e) Compute the ratio of design strength (d) to ", rvice l'apacity (e).
3.5. A !ensile-reinforced beam has b = 12 in. and d = 20 in. to th~ CCll!e r of tl",
hars, which are pla""<.J ~II in One row. Iff, = 60.000 p,i arKI!; = 5(xx) p,i, firnJ
the nominal f1exur~1 slrength M. for IU) A, = Iwo No. 8 (No . 25) hars. (b) A,
= 1\<'0 No. 10 (No. 32) hars, (cIA, = three No. 10 (No. 32) hars .
3.6. A singly rei!lforc~d reclanguiar beam is to be design~d. wi th effechw depth
approximat~ly 1.5 times the wid th. to carry a s~rvice live load of 1500 Iblft in
addition to its own weight. on 3 24 fl simple span. Tlw ACI Cod~ load faclOTS
are to be appli,'d as usual. With!, = 6O.(XX) psi andt = 4(xx) psi . delennitlt'
Ihe require,,] conCTel~ dimension. b. d. alit! b. and sl~el reinforcing bars (u) for
= 0.50 "'"' and (b) for = _,. I nclud~ a skelch of ~ach eross s<-'{'Iion drawn
10 scal~. Allow for No.3 (No. 10) slirrup'" Commem on yourre.uils.
l. 7. A fourspan cominuous beam of COllSlall1 reclangular ~'<:Iion is supported at A.
B. C. D. and E. Faclon:d moments resu lt ing from analysis are
At supports, ftkips At midsp<lo, ft-k ips

M, - 92 M .. - 105
M. - 14 7 M" - 92
M, - 134 '\1, . - 92
M. - 1~7 M", - 105
M, - 92
Delermine Ihe rlX)uin:d eoncrele dimensions for Ihis bo.:am . using Ii - 1.75b.
and find the required r.:inforcement for all critical moment secHons. Use a
maximum reinforcement rmio of - 0.60 _.!. - 6O.(XX) psi . and t -
5(xx) psi.
l.S. A twospan com ill ~ous concn::le beam is 10 be supported by three mar.onry
walls spaced 25 Ii on ce!Hers . A service live load of 1.5 kips/ii is to be carried.
in addilion 10 Ihe selfweight of Ihe beam. A consta!H r~"Ctangu lar cross section
is 10 be ~sed> wilh h - 2h. but reinforcement is 10 be vari~d according 10
r.:quirements. Find Ihe r.:quircd concrete dimensions and reinforccmem at an
critical st.'<:lions. Allow for No. J (No . 10) stirrups. Indude skelches. drawn 10
scale. of crilical cross Sc'<.'lions. Use t - 4(XX) psi and!,. - 60,000 psi .
3.9. A riXwngular COllcrele beam measures 12 in. wido: and has an effiXtive <leplh
of 18 in. Compression sleel consisting of two No. 8 (No. 25) bars is localed
2.5 in. from Ihe compression face of the beam. 11' 1; = 4{()() psi and/, =
6O,(XX) psi, what is Ihe design moment capacity of the beam, according 10 the
AC I Code, for the following alternali\'C lensile steel areas: (<I) A, = lhrce No. 10
(No. 32) 00rs in one layer. (b) A, = four No. IO (No. 32) 00rs in two layers. (d
A, = six No.9 (No. 29) bars in tWO layers'? (NOI~: Chec k for yielding of com
pression sleel in each case) ?lol M . \'CI"8US and comment on your f'rnJings .
.llO. A rectangular COllcrele beam of widtll b = 24 in . ;" lim il<'<l II)' archil,..,tural
~xm,idemtion' 10 a ma ximum total depth" = 16 ill. It must carry a tOial fac-
tored load moment M , = 400 ft-kip . De'ign llle flexural rei nforcement fm
tlli, member. u<illg compression <Ieel if l",c~,sary. Allow 3 in . to the Ce nte r o f
the hars fmm the compressi,," <lJ t~nsi"n face of the beam. Malerial ,!rengtll~
o..loootc..,_ D..... .. .. _
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FU:XURA I. ANA IXSIS AN I) DES IGN O F B~: AMS 113
arcJ.. .. 6OJXlO psi and/; .. 4000 psi. Select reinforcement to provide the
needed areas. nnd show a s~etch of your tinn l design. including provision for
No.4 (No. U) stirrups.
3.11. A rectangular beam with width b - 24 in., total d~pth II - 14 in .. and ~ffcc
1iv~ depth to the tensile steel" = 11.5 in. is constructed using materials wilh
strengths!; ~ 4000 psi andf, ~ 60.000 psi. Tensile reinforcement consists of
two No. II (No. 36) bars plus th rec No. 10 (No. 32) bars in Oto: row.
Compression reinfOr<:ement consisting of two No. 10 (No. 32) bars is placed
at dislanc~,}' = 2.5 in. frotH Ih~ compression foce. Calculate the nominal and
(lesign strengths of the beam (a) neglecting the compression reinfOr<:ement. (h)
accounting for the compression reinforcement and assuming that it acts aIJ...
and (1") accounting for the compression reinforceno:m wor~it\g at ils actual
stress J;. establi~hcd by analysis.
3.11. A tensilc -reinfQru..J T beam is to he designed to carry a uniformly distributed
load on a 20 h simple spall. The toul nK",,,,nt to he carried is M. = 5780 in -
~i ps, Concrete dimen,ions. g,wemed by weh shear and d~am!lce require-
ments. arc b = 20 in" b. = 10 in .. h} = 5 in " and d = 20 in. Iff, = 60 lsi and
,r;
= 4 hi. what ten,ile reinfOfccn",nt i, required at mi dspan? Se lect appro-
priate reinfOfccn",nt to provide this area and ch,-..: ~ conc rete cove, limitations.
as~u",ing No. J (No. 10) stirrups. What total d~plh It is "-'quired? Sketch your
design .
.l.U. A concn:te floor system consists of parall~1 T beams spaced 10 f1 Ott centers
and spanni ng. ~2 ft between supports. TII~ 6 in. thick. slab is cast monolith;cally
wtth T J).,am w~bs lIaving widtll b~ = 14 in. and tOlal !kptll, measured from
tile top of th~ slab. of II = 28 in. The eff~etive deptll w;1I be tak.en ~ l!\ , less
than the total depth. In add;lion to tts own weight. ~adl T beam must carry a
su~rimposed dead load of 50 psf and servi~ live load of 225 psf, Material
strengths are I, = 60.000 psi and/; = 4000 psi. [)etennine the required l~n
sile st~eI ar~a and s.cleCtllle re;nfor~ment n~eded for a typical tt1~mJ).,r,
3.14. A pn...:ast T ocmn is to b.: ust.'d as a bridge over a small f<X\dway. Concrete
dimensions arc b .. 48 in .. b. - 16 in ,. 1'1 - 5 in .. and h - 25 in. TIlC effcc
ti~e dcpth d - 20 in , Concrete and sK-c1 slrengths arc 6000 psi and 60.000 psi.
respectively. Using approximately onehalf the maximum tensile reinforce
ment permined by the AC I Code (select the actual sizc of bar and numhcr to
be ust.>d). detennine the design mome1l1 capacity of the girder. If tite b.:am is
used 011 a .10 ft simple span. and if in addition to its own weight ;t must sup
port railings. curbs. and sus~ndcd loads totaling 0.475 ~ipslft. what uniform
service live 100Id limit should be posted'!
3. IS. Com pute the maximum and minim um reinforcement ratios for rei nforc~ment
with an 80 lsi yield point and!: = 4000 to 8000 psi in 1000 psi increments,
similar to th05<' shown in Tabk A.4 of Appendix A. Using 11K! maxim um and
minimum reinforcemenl ralios. devdop resi~tance factors and design graphs
similar 10 Table A.5b and Graph A.I a.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~I I THI
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DIAGONAL

TENSION IN BEAMS
INTROD UCTIO N
Chapter 3 deah with the fl""ur~1 hehavior and flexural <trenglh of beams. B~am< must
ai,,, have an adequale safety rn,ugin against OIh~r ty",,~ of failure, some of which may
be more d"ngemus than flexural fai lure. This may be '" he<;ause of greate r unl'CnaiOly
in predil,ting cenain other modes of coliapse , or because of the catastrophic nature of
SO"Ie othe r types of fail ure. should they nc.:ur.
Shear failure of rein forced concrete , more properl y called Ji"!!,m,,llell.<i/m Iil-
""'. is orle example. Sllear failure is difficult to p,,_..Jict accuratdy. In spite of many
decade, of cxperin"'ntal re.~arch (Ref<. 4.1 to 4.6) and the use of highl y sophistkated
analyticallOols (Rds. 4.7 and 4.8). it i, nOi yet fully uaderstood. FunhemK,"" if a
beam without properly d~signed 'hear reinforce"",nt is owrioa<k<J to failure, 'kar
co llap"e is likely to ,,,,cur suddenly, with no ad\'a,,,,e w"min g of di,tress. TI,i, is in
strong cOlUraS! with the nature of fkxural failure . For typic"lly undeITeinforeed
beams. flexur~1 faiture i, initiated by gradual yielding of the tension steel. a",x)mpa-
nied by obviou, cracking of the concrete and large d~fleetion,. giving ample warning
and provid ing the npponu nit y to take corrective measures. Because of th~"" ditfe r-
en~'" in behavior. reinforn..J concrete beams are generally provided with special
_,!>ear reinlorrelPlnu to ensure that flexu,,,1 failure would ,,,,cur hefme sh~ar failure if
the member should be severdy overloaded.
Figure 4.1 <h",,,, a 'hear-critical beam te,ted und~r thirdpoint loading. With no
s)",ar reinforc"lIlent pmvided. the n"'mber failed immediately upon fonnation of the
critical cr~d.: in the high - ~hear region near th~ right ,uppon,
It is imponant , realize th~t <hear analysis and design are nOi realiy c!KlCemed
with sh~aI as such. TI", sIlear stresses in nK"t heam.' are f", below the di rect ,bear
st rength of the con(rete. TI", ",al tonc,,", is with d;lI!!,mllllcnsirm 511'<',',', resuiting
from the combination of ,be", stress and lo ngitudinal flexural stIe ... !I.-lost of thi s
chapter deal, with ~nal)'sis and de'ign for diagonal tension. and it provide, back-
gmund fm understunding "nd using the shear pmvisions of the 2002 ACI Code.
Members with'Klt web r~inf",cenlent are studied first to establi~h the location and ori -
entati"" of cracks and the diagonal cmd.:ing load. Meth'Kls "'" then developed for the
de'ign of <hear reinfon'~ment a<'(;ording , the pre""nt AC I Code, botb in ordinary
beams and in speci,,1 types of members_such as deep beams.
O,'er tIle years. ahenlati"e rnetlKKls of ,hear design bave 1J.et,n proposed. based
on v~riahle angle tm", nJ<Kld, and di"gonal compressio" field theory (Refs. 4.9 mill
4.10). These approa<'he, will he reviewl-<l bricny later in thi!; chapter. with one soch
approac'h . tile modified compressioll fidd theory, preseuted in detail.
11 4
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _ D~I I rHl
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
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SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS ION IN B~: AMS li S
FIG UIU: 4.1

Sb<ar failure of rcinforl:cd
cooc,ele beam : (0) ove",11
view, (I detail ncar righl
,upport,
Finally. there arc somc circumstallces in which consideration of direcl sho.:ar is

appropriatc. One example is ill the design of composi le mcmocrs combilling precasl
ocmns wilh a cast ill-place top slJb, Hori zonlal she~r Siresses 011 Ihe inlerface betwe~n
componell1s arc important. nle sh~ar-friclion thoory. useful ill Ihis and other cases.
will be prcscll1ed following developmenl of melhods for t~ amdysis and design of
ocams for diagonal I~nsion ,
D IAGONAL T EN SIO N IN H OMOGENEOUS E LASTIC B EAMS
The slresses aCling in homog~"eous beams were bricfly reviewed in Scclion ) ,2. Ii
was pointed OUI th~1 whclI the material IS clastic (stresses proportional 10 slrains).
shear Slr~sses
VQ
> - -II>-
(3.4)
aCI al :my seclion ill addilion to Ihc hcnding Siresses

/If\'
f- - (3.2)
I
cxcept for Ihose locations al which the shear forcc I' happells to oc lero.
The role of shcar stresses is casil y visualized by lhe pcrformallcc under load of
Ihe laminated beam of Fig. 4,2: il consists of IWO rcctallgulJr pioccs bondlxltogclher
along the contact surface. If IIIe adhesiw is slrong enough. Ihe mcmocr will deform as
onc single ocam. ~s shown in Fig. 4,2/1 , On I~ other hand. ifthc adhesiw is w~a~ . the
IWO pioccs will scparale and slide relative 10 cadl olher. as shown in Fig , 4.2h.
Evidcntly. Ihcn. whcn Ihe adhesivc is cffec li,'c. t~re arc forces or Siresses acting in il
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~I I rHl
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
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FIG UIU: 4.2

Sb<ar in ",-lOw>g""""'"
""'lang"lar be.n".
,.,
'"
I"
''I
that prc\"C1ll Ihis sliding or shearing . These horizomal sh~ar stresses arc shown in
Fig. 4.2<: as Ihey acl. separately. on Ihe lOp and bonoOl pie.:es. The &lIne Sll"\:Sses occur
in horizomal planes in single-piece beams: they arc difkrcll1 in illiensity at differem
distances from the neutral axis .
Figure 4.2<1 shows a ditfereilliallength of a single piece rectangular beam acted
upon by a shear force of magnitude V. Upward translalion is pr~vell1cd: i.e .. venical
l'<juilibrium is provi<kd. by the verlical shear stresses ,'. Their average value is l'<jual
to the shear force diviill..d t>y the cross's<-"Ctional area v",. - V,,/>. hut their intensity
varies o\"Cr the depth of the s.:clion. As is easily comput~d from Eq. (3.4) . Ihe shear
stress is zero at the outer fibers and has a maximum of 1.5.,,,, at the ncutral axis. the
variation being parabol ic as shown. Other values and distributions are found for other
shapes of lhe cross s.:ction. the shear stress always being z~ro at the outer fibers and
of maximum val ue at thc Il.:utral axis. If a small square clement locat~d at the neutral
axis of such a beam is isolated. as shown in Fig. 4.31>. Ihe vertic:d shear messes on il.
l'<jual and opposite on the two foces for reasons of C<Juilibrium. oct as shown. However.
if these were the only stresses present . Ihe elenMlt would not be in ~'quihbriUOl : it
would spin. Thaefore. on the two horizontal faces Ihae exiM equilibrating horizontal
shear stresses of the smne magnitude. Thm is. at any point withi n Ihe beam. the hori
zontal shear stresses of Fig. 4.31} are l'<jual in magnitude to the vertical sh~ar stresses
of Fig. 4.2<1.
h is proved in any strength of-materials leXI that on an dem~nt cut al 4Y these
shear stresses combi ne in such a mann~r Ihm their eITecl is as shown in Fig . 4.Jc. nlal
is. the action of the two pairs of shear stresses on the vertical and horizontal faces is
the same as that of two pairs of nonnal stresses. one tensile and one compressive. aCI
ing on th~ 45 " faces and of numerical value C<Jual to Ihat of the shear stresses. If an
c lement of the bo.:am is considcred that is located neither at the neulral axis nor at the
outer edges. it s venical faces arc subjC(;t nOI only to the .hear stresses but also to the
familiar bending stresses whose magnit ude is given by Eq. (3 .2) (Fig. 4.3d). The six
stresses that now act on th~ clement can again be combined into a pair of inclined
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,-"".. _D~I I rHl
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
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SH EAR AND DlA{;(lNA L TENSION I N B~: AMS 117
FIG UIU: 4.3

S're." ''''jc<:'"rie, in
oonlO8cneou, roctangu ]..
t.:.m_ ~------ill---~-~-~-~-~-~
"" ,,'
'" ,,' I" ,,'
Tension lrajec1or>us
- - - Compression trajec1or;es
,n
compressive stresses and a pa ir of inclined Icnsile stresses Iha l net at right angles 10
cadi otller. Tllcy are knO"'n as princil'tI/ SlreSIiCl' (Fig. 4.3c). Their value. as mcntioned
in Section .>.2, is given by
0.1)
and their incl innlion - by tan 2- .. 2"1

Since the magnitudes of the shear stresses I' and the bending stresscs / change
oolh along the beam and venically with distance from the neutra l axis. thl: inclinat ions
as well as the magnitudes of the resulting principal stresses I also vary from OtIC place
to anotncr. Figure 4.J/shows Ihe inclinations of these princi]XI1 stresses for a rectan
gular beam uniformly lo.wed . ThaI is. these stress trajectories are lines which. at any
point. are drawn in that d irection in which the particul:u- principal stress. tension or
compression . acts atlhat point. Ii is secn Ihat at the nCUIral a.xis the principal stresses
in a beam are always inclined at 45 to the aJlis. In Ihe vicinity of the outer fibers they
are horizontal ncar midspan.
An impol1ant poi nt fol lo"'&frolll this discussion. Tensile stresses. which arc of
panicular concern in view of the low tensile strength of the concrete, are not confi ned
to the horiOntal bending stresses/that are caused by bending alone . Tensile stresses
of various inclinat ions and magnitudes. resulting from shear alone (at the neutral axis)
or from the cOll1bined action of shear and bending. exist in all pans of a beam and can
im]XIir its integrity if not adequately provided for. It is for this reason that the incli ned
tensile stresses. known as dill);"'",/I,"".;',,", Illust be careful ly considered in reinforeed
concrete design.
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
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li S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 4
" _. 4.3 REINFO RCED C O N CRETE B EAMS WITHOUT SHEAR RE INFORCEMENT
The discussion of shear in a homogellCous claSlic beam applies very closely 10 a plain
concwe ocam wilhoul reinforcem~m , As Ihe load is incr.:ased in such a ocain. a Icn
sion crock will form ",here Ihe tensile messes arc largesl and ..... ill immediately cause
Ihe b.:am 10 fail. EXeCI'I for beams of "cry un usual proportions. Inc largcsi I~nsile
slresses arc Ihose caused al Ihe OUler fober by bending alone, at Ihe seclion of maxi
mum bending mom~nl. In Ihis case. shear has linle. if any. Influence on Ihe Slrenglh
of a beam.
However. witcn lens ion reinforcement is provided. Ihe situalion is quile ditfer
ent. Even Ihough lension crach form in Ihe concrelC. Ihe r~'{]uired flexurallcnsion
slrcnglh is furnished hy the sleci. and much highcr loads can be carri ..xI. Shear siresses
increase proportional ly (0 Ihe 1o.1ds. In consequence. diagonal lension siresses of sig
nifocanl imensity are created in regions of high shear forces. chiefly close 10 the sup
ports. The longilud inaltension reinforcemenl has been so calculated and placed Ihat il
is chiefly effectiv~ in resisting longilud inallcnsion ncar Ihe lension face. 11 docs nOI
reinforce lhe lensional ly ..... cak conerclC agai nSI Ihe diagonallcnsion slresses Ihal occur
clsewh~rc. cauSi-xI by shear alone or by lhe combined effeci of shear and flexurc,
Eventually. lhese SIr.:sses anain magniludes sutfocicnt 10 open addilional Icnsion
eruch in a dircclion perpendicular 10 Ihe local lens ion Slrcs!. These an: kno ..... n as
di<lgmwl cracks. in dislinclion 10 Ihe vertical Ilcxural cracks. The laller occur in
rcgions of large moments. Ihe former in regions in ..... hich lhe shear forces are high. In
!>cams in which no rcinforcement is provided to coumerael the fonnalion of large
diagonal lens ion cracks. Iheir appcarance has farreaching and deuimental dIccls. For
Ihis reason . I1Iclhoos of predicting Ihe looru at which thesccracks will form arc desired ,
a. Criteria for Formation of Diagonal Cracks

It i~ Si-"en from Eq. 0.1) Ihat II", diagonal t~nsion str~<"" I represent th~ combinlxl
effl"el of lhe ,h~ar ,tre,,,,, \' and th~ bending <tre,,,,st: The", in lum a r~. r~spt..:tivdy.
proportional to Ih~ ~hear force \' and the bending monlen! M ut II", particular 1<,.." atioll
in th" heam [Eqs. (.1.2) and 0.4)]. Depending on configurdtion. ~upport conditions.
and load dist ri bution. a given location in a be~m may hav" a large moment ~o",bining
with a <1tl~1I ,hear force , or tl", rev~=. '" large or ,mall valu", f", bolh shear and
1II0"",nl. Evidently. the relati,'" value.<of AI and \I will affeci II", magnitude as well a~
tl", di"..,tion of tl", diagonal teosion sIre,,,,,. Figur" 4.4 ,bow, a f~w typical beams
and Iheir moment and ,hear diagram, and draws aue nt ion to locations aI which vari
ou< combination, of high'" low V ~nd M occur.
AI a IOl." alion of large sbear fon:e Vand small \>ending mom~nt M, lhere will be
liule flexural cracking, if any. prior 10 the developn"'nt of a diagonal tension crdck.
Consequently. tl", a"~rage , )",ar ,tress prior to crack formal;on is
V
"= - ,,' (4.1 )
n.e c.acl distributio" orthe~ sllear stres"" ovcr Ihe d~plh of lhe cross ""clion i, not
known. It cannot be ~omput<!<l fmlll Eq. (3.4) bt."Cau", Ihi, ~'l\la{ion does not acCount
ror lhe influence of t h~ reinfor~ement and hecaus~ C'ontrcte i, nO( an elastic' honKlge
neou, material. The valu~ col\lpu t~d from E<j. (4 .1 ) mU.'1 lberefore be regard<!<l n",reiy
a, a "",asu", of II", average inten,ity of ,hear ,Ire,,,,,, in lhe secI;"". n", ma~imulII
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,- "".. _ D~I I THI
o..loo ot c..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
SHEA R AND DlM;(lNAI. TENS ION IN B~: A MS 1 19
FIGUIU: 4..1 Sma ll v Large V

Tn>i,allo<;"';on, of cri';ml
combina,ion, of shear and
mmn,,"'_
large V
Smail M -
Large M Smali M
f~f
I
Small V Large V Large V La'99 V
-
Large M
\11111111111\11111111111\
--
La'99 M Sma ll M Sma il M
~ M ~ ~ ~
"'V
~ ~
value. which occurs a1 t~ n~u tral axis . will exceed Ihis average by an unknown but
moderate amount.
If flex ural stresses are negligibly small al t~ particulnr location. th~ diagonal
t~nsile Slresses. as HI Fig. 4.3/> and ... nre inc1in~>d at abou t 45 and are nunlt:ricaJ ly
equal 10 th~ shent Slress.:s. wilh n maxim um at the neutral axis. Consequently. diago
nal cracks form moslly nt or near the Ik:utral axis nnd propagale from that localion. as
shown in Fig. 4.5(1. These so-called ,w/>,heur cracks can be expected 10 form when
the diagonal l~nsion stress in the vicinity oflhe n~ulral axis becomes l"<luallO the len
sile strenglh of the COllcrele. The fonner. as was indicnted. is of the order of. nnd
som~whnt Inrger Ihan. \. - V /)d; Ih~ lall~r. as diseuss.:d in Section 2.9. varies from
about 3 7: to about 5 7:. An evnluntion of ~ wry large number of be~m test~ is in
fair ~grc.:ment with tbis reasoning (Rcf. 4.1). It was found Ihat in regions with large
shear nod small moment. diagollaltension crach fonn at an avcrag~ or nomin~1 shent
stress I'" of aboul 3.5 7:. Ihat is.
,
v"
- - -~ ~ {;
" />d"'j,
whcre V" is tbnt sh~ar force m which the fonnalion of the crack was observed.' Web
shear crac~ illg is relalively rare and occ urs chiefl y near supports of deep. thinwebbed
be~ms or at in n~~lion po ints of continuous beams .
A"",liy. dla!t,",'i 'co, ,,'" ("~b f",,,, at pl""'-"> ~-""", ''''''[1'<"'';,"," ~",,' ....., i. oddi,,,,,, '0 an..! p<rp<"od"ullir ,,) ,II< J;~>naI "'n,~., 'IJ<'~ .,
,"",,,,-n ;n ril '.J./ OIl<! _. n <TII<'. ,t...,..,r."". ,~x-o" '" h-",. ", ,of ~; .. i.l ,,,"', MI"" "",n unin,.1 "'n'~ ... f ""'- '~-'T. ,nc d r,,-, of 'ho<
,,,,,ul,",,-,",, C"'''I.''''';'~ >Ire "" ,nc ('r..:: kin~ ;.u-cn~'b '1'[1<"" ,,, '" sm.lI. ,n """ ("jr~'DI ~- ; 'h u.: ;nf,IOl'''''''", ;n Fil 1.8
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
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120 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
FIGU IU: 4.5

Diag"",1 ",",ion cracki ng i"
reinforced concrele bea"".
/
Web-shear crack Flexu ral crad<
(a) Webshear cradorJg
Flexu re-shear crack Flexural cracks
(b) Flexure-sheaf cfackiog
The siluation i, different wh~n both th~ shenr force ~nd the hending mon",nt
have large \"alu~s. At sUlh local ions. in a w~lI -proponion~d and r~infon."~d he~m. flex -
ur~1 I~n,i()n cr~cks fonn fi rst. Their width ~nd Icn gth are well controlbl and kept
sm~ 1I b) th~ pr~"'nL-e of longit\ld inal r~inforcemelli. However. when Ihe di~gonal ten -
sio" sire" at Ih" upper e"d of on~ or more oflhe", lTd'ks exce~ds the lensil~ slre"gth
of lile cOllcrete. the (rack hends in a diagonal dir~<tion ~nd continues to grow in length
and widlh (''C Fig. 4.5b). n,~se Cf",ks arc known as jlexure-.,hnlr crncks ~nd are
mOre common Ihan web-shear cracks.
It is evident that aI Ihe inst~nt at which a di~gonal tension crnck of Ihis type
d~velOjls. the avcrng~ 'hear m~" is larger th~n that given by Eq. (4.1). Thi, is so
hecau", the preexi,ting ten,ion c r~ck has reduced the ~",a of uncrncju,d ,on<"rete Ihat
is a\".Jilable 10 resisl shear 1<> a value ,mailer than that of Ih~ u!lcrncked ar~a hd u....-d
in Eq. (4.1). The amount of thi, r~"lu<"1ioll will ,ary. depending em Ih~ u"preJicI~ble
length of th~ prcexi.<ling flexurnl tension crnck. Funhe"'Klre. the .<im~l tan~'Ou, hend -
ing sl reSs / comhine, with the she~r stres., v to increase rhe diagonal tension stres., f
funher [see Eq. (3.1)] . No wa) has been found to catculat~ reliable value, of I"" diag-
onal len,i on slress under rllese condil ions. and re~ouf<;C mU~1 be mad~ 10 le,t resuh.
A large number of beam t~~t, have been evaluated for this purl'''''' (Rd. 4.1).
They show Ihat in tl'" pre",nce of large mOmelll, (for whidl 'I!le~uate longiludinal
reinfo,,",,""'nt has been provided) lile nominal ,hear ,t~" al which diagonallen,iOIl
crncks form and propag~le is. in nK>s1 cases. conservalively giwn by
v" _
l 'a = hd = 1.9 I,: (4.21
Comparison wilh Eq . (4.2a) shows Illal largc t>cnd ing mome nt s can reduce the sllear
force at wllich diagonal cr.ocks form to roughly onc-hnlflhc value at which Ihey would
form if lhe moment weI"\: zero or nearly so. This is ill qualilati'c agreement wilh the
discossion just given.
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA I. TENS ION IN B~:AMS 12 1
II is evident Ih~n, Ihal the 'hear at which diagonal cmcks devdop d~pends on
the ralio of 'hear force to bending momem. or, more pr~'Cisdy. on Ihe r.llio of shear
,tress v 1<:> bending ,tress Inear the top of Ihe flauml crack. Neilher of lhe se c'an be
accur~td)' calculated. II is clear. though, that v = K ,( V /:Jd), where. by comparison
with Eq. (4.1). constant K, depend, chi~fly on the depth of penetration of the flexural
cmck. On the other hand (see Eq. (3.lOl].1 = K!(V M1). where K) al,o del"'''''' on
cmck C!mfLguration. H~nce, the ratio
v K , VJ
f K, M
mu,t be expt.'Cted to affeet that l<;tad at which flexnml cmd:s develop int<:> flexure.-.hear
cmcks. the unknown quamity K, Kl 10 be explored by t~,ts. Equation (4.m) giws tl",
cmcking shear for wI)' large values of VJ M. and Eq. (4.2bl for very small value,.
M(}der~te values of Vd M ",su h in magnilude, of v" inwnnediate between the",
extrem~s. Again. from evaluations of large numbers of te,l, (Ref. 4.1). il has been
found that the nominal shear ,tress at which diagOllal flexure-shear crac'king develops
ean be predined from
_ VII
I: + 2500 - M :S 3.5 I: (4.3a)
where
V.. , = v.. , bJ
and = A, /,,1. as before . and 2500 is an empirical con slant in psi unil~. A graph of
Ihis fdalio" and comparison wilh I~S( dala is given in Fig. 4.6 .
FIGUIU : 4.6 ' .0, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Correlatioll of Eq. (4 .:1<.0)
wjlh ,"sl ="lls.

0 ~~L-~L-~~-~-~~~___,J--U
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.52.0 5 =
l000pVd
(M.jf[ )
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~I I THI
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
12 2 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 4
Apan from I~ influclI(;e of VdM, il is seen from Eq , (4.3.:1) Ihal increasing

amounts of lens ion reinforcement, i,e .. increasing values of Ihe reinforcement ralio ..
have a beneficial effl'Cl in Ihal Ihey increase Ihe shear al which diagonal cracks
develop , This is so oc'Cause larger amounts of longiludi Ilal sleel result in smaller and
narrower flexural lens ion cracks prior 10 Ihe formation of diagonal cracking. leaving a
larger an:a of uncTacked concrele available 10 resist shear. [For more delails on lhe
(lc\'e!opment of Eq , (4 ,);1). sec Ref. 4.1.1
A brief study of Fig. 4 ,6 will show thaI. :lllhough Eq. (4..1,,) captures Ihe overall
effects of the controlling variables on " c.-' Ihe match wilh actual data is far from per.
feel. Of particular concen! is Ihe tendency of Eq. (4.3(/) to owrcolimale the shear
strenglh of ocams with n:inforcement ralios < 1.0 percent, values Ihat arc com
monly used in practice. The cracking stress predicted in Eq , (4.3.:1) oc"Conles progrco
si,'ely less conservative asf; increases above SOOO psi and as beam deplh d increases
above 18 in , On Ihe olher hand, Eq , (4 ,.1d) underestimates the effect of Vd M on v"
and ignores the posilive effecl of flanges (present on most reinforced concrete beams)
on shear strenglh. 1l1e cons.:rvmism of Eq , (4 ,Jil) increases as both flange Ihickncss
and web widlh increase (Ref. 4.3). although these faClors ha"e less of an clfeCl than
r;. ,0rV,r M onl,.,..
Considering Ihe three main variables, an improved match wilh tesl resulls is
obtained wilh the empirical relationship (Rcf. 4, II)
,. = V.... = 59 .}' Vd " (4.31

" I><I < M
1:-4 uation (4 .31 was calibralcd ba~ed on beams wilh d 12 in. It can be modified 10
g
accounl for the lower average shear cracking Siress exhibited by deeper beams wilh
the addilion of one tcrm.
v,. 12" Vd , J
, ,. - -bd - 59 d f; M (4..lc)
b. Behavior of Diagonally Cracked Beams
In regurd to flexuml cracks. as dislinct from diagonal t~nsion eratks. it was eAplained
in Section 3.3 that cmcks on tllll tension side of a beam are permilled to tX'Cur and ar~
in no way deuinlllnial 10 tllll slrenglh of Ihe member. One migh1 apeel a similar Silll"
ation in regard to diagonul cracking caused chi~fly by shear. 1l1ll analogy. how(wer. is
not that simple. Flnuml1ension eratks are harmless only beeause adl'<luat~ longilu"
dinal reinforcenwnt has ~lI provided to re,ist the I1~Aural t~nsion SIn.'sses thai tile
erach>d eOnCl'l'lC is no longer able to transmit. In coruraS1. lhe beams now being di,"
cussed. although fumish\,d wilh the lIslIallongilUdinal reinforcenllllli. are nOi ~quipl",d
with allY otllllr rei nforccment to offset the effects of diagonal cracking , This makes tllll
diagonal cracks much more ikcisive in subR'qu~nl pt'rfonn:lIIce and strclIglh of tile
beam Ihan tlw fl~Aural eralh.
Two I)'pes of behal'ior hal'c b.'cn obserwd in th" many teslS on which present
knowk>dge is bas.:d:
1. 111e diagonul erack. one" formed. spreads either immedimely or al only sliglll ly
higher load. lraversing lhe entire beam from lhe tension reinforcement to Ihe
wmpression face. splining it in IwO and fail ing Ihe beam. This process is slIdden
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEA R AND DlM;(lNAI. TENS ION IN B~:A MS 123
and wilhout warning and OCcurs .-hiefly in II", shallow~r heam~. i,e" beams wilh
,pan -deplh r~l io, of aboul 8 or more. Beams in this range of dimensions are very
eOIl1I11<HI. Complele ab",nce of shear reinforcell",nt would make Ihem ,"ery \'ul -
ner~ble to accidell1al large owrload" whi"h would result in ca{a,trophi,' failur~,

will"}lJ1 warning. For this rca,on it is good praClice to provide a minimum amounl
of shear reinfo=melll e"en if cakulation doe, nOI '<Iuire it. because ~uch rein -
forcemell1 re.~lmi", gmwth of diagonal na,'k" thereby increasing ductility and
plll\'idillg warning in advaoce of actual failure. Only in situation, where an
unusually large safety faClor again'l indined crad' ing is pmvidoo. i.e" where
aclual ,hcar ,Ire,,,,, are ,'ery small compared with ", ,.. as in ",me siaM and mos l
f'Klling<. is il permissible to omil shear reinfQTcemenL
2. Alternatively. the diagonal crack, once formed, ~preads toward and partially inlo lhe
{'("npression zone 001 ~top, ,hon of pe,,,,lmling 10 II", mmpre<.,ioll face. In !hi,
case no sudden ""lIapse ' K;curs. and 11", failure load ""'y he <i gnificamly higher
,han Ihal al which the d iagonal cra,'k fin;1 fonnoo. This hehavior is chiefly '*,"''''00
in lhe "","per heam, with smaller spall--depth ratios and will he analym:l now.
Figure 4.7" ,hows a pOllion ()f a beam. "rbilr.IJily 'o"ded, in which a diagonal
lension nack ha, funned, Consider the pan of the beam 10 Ihe left ofille ,TJ,;k, shown
ill solid line'. lhere is an cxtemal upward shear force V" ' = R, - " , aCling on thi~
portion.
Once a CTO<' k is formet!. no lens ion fOJ\:e perpendicular to the cr:l<"k can"" Imn,-
mined acro' it. However, as long as Ihe crdCk is narrow, it can 'Iillimn smi, fon:es in
ils own plan" throu gh interlocking of Ih" surfa"" rough,,,,,,;es. Sizable interlock for,'Cs
VI of thi, kind have in fact been n",a~u,,->d, amounting to one-Ihird and mor" of lhe
lotal 'hear for~'C . The cornl"'''''[[{S \1,-, and V;., of V; are ,hown in Fig. 4.7a. n", olher
FIG URE 4.7

F<>r<<> at ' diagonal cra::k
in a beam IO'illiool web
rcinfo'CmcnL
Ic----.
R,
,,'
1111
'OJ
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
124 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 4
int~mal vertical forces arc tho", in the ulicracked portion of th~ concrele. V,", and
across the longilodinal 'teel. a(,ting a, a dowel. Vd . Thus. Ihe illiemal shear force is
V.., = ~, + Vd + V~
Equilibrium require' that Viol = V,,, so thai the part of the shear resi,ted by tl",
un(T.lcked connete is
(4.4)
III a beam provided wilh longiludinal reinforcement only. Ih~ portion of the sl",ar
force resisled by Ihe sleei in dowe! action is usually quile s mall. In fact. Ihe reinforc-
ing barn On which IIIe dowel force VJ act, are supponed againsl \'erti("al displa<"enlent
chiefly by Ihe thin concrete layer below, The l>earing pressure caused hy VJ create,. in
this concrele. "enieal tension 'Ire,se~ as shown in Fig. 4.7h. Bt.,<-"au"" of these ,tres"".
diagonal (T.lCks often result in 'plitting of the concrete along the tension reinforce-
ment. a, shown. (&'C alw Fig. 4.1.) Thi, reduces the dowd force Vo and also permits
the diagonal cmck 10 widen. This. in lum. reduces the interface force Vi and f"-"-Iuel1lly
leads to immediate failure.
Next consider moment, ahout poilll" at Ih" interseclion of V" and C the exter-
nall1loJ1lent .11,,, " act, at" and happen~ 10 be R,x" - I',(xo - x,) for Ihe loading
,hown. The inte"';'al moment is
M "'" . = T"z + Val' - V,IH

Here I' is the horizuntal pruj<'CtiolJ of the diagonal crack and IH is the mument ann of
the fOITe Vi with res!"'('t to point u. The lksignatiOlI T. fur Tis ni<)ant to emphasil.e that
this force in the st<'C1 aCIS at puint b rather than wrtically bt'low puint fl. Equilibrium
requires that M i.. ,. = M",_" so that the longitudinal tension in the sted at b is
M,,,_" - ~'I' + Vi m
Tb = (4.5)
Neglecting the force. V6 and Vi' which decrea", with increa<ing cr.lck opening. 01",
ha with very little ~rror.
(4.6)
n", formation of the diagonal crack. then. i, . eelll<;1 produte Ihe following redi,-
trihution of internal forces and stres",,,
I. At the yertical section through point a. the average 'hear sUess before emde for-
mution was V,,, btl. Afler crack formal ion. II", shear force is resisled by a c<;Imbi -
nation of Ihe dO,",'d ,hear. the interface shear. and t1", ,hear fon:e on the much
. mailer area by of tl'" remaining uocracked concrete. As t~ns;on splitting lkveJops
along tl'" longitudinal b"rn. Vd and Vi decrease: tbis. in tum. incrca",s tbe ,bear
force an<J the resulting shear ,tresS on the remaining uncracked concr~te area.
2. The diagonal emck. as described previously. usuaily ri"" aoove the t",utral axis
and traver",. some pan of the tompres~ion '-One before it i, arrested by the com-
pression ,tr",,,,,. Con",quently. the compression force C al!) aclS on an area by
smaller than Ihat on whieh it actt..... bt'fore the crack w~s fot1ll\...... Correspon<Jingly.
fonnat;on of tl'" crack ha, increas..'{l the compression ,tresse, ;n tbe remaining
unLT:K'koed <.'()nn~te.
3. Prior 1<> diagonal cracking. tl'" tension for,,,, in the sleei at point b wa., caused by.
~nd was proportional to. II", bending mOment in a vertical SC<"tion thmugh the
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~t I THI
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEA R AND DlM;(lNAL TENS ION IN B~: AMS 125
,ame point h. As a C<Klsequence of the diagoml crack. howev~r, F..q, (4.6) ,how,
that the tension in the 'kel at b is now cau..,.,] by. and is proportional to. the hend -
ing momelll at " . SirK" the mo"",nt at" i, evidently larger than that at b. fonna-
tion of the {'r.>ek ha, (aused a su.wen incre"", in the steel stress at b.
If the two materia!., are cap:rble of resi,ting these increased stre,ses_ equi librium
wi ll establ ish itself after internal redi,tribution and further load c"an he aP!'li~d t>efore
fai lure ",xurs. Such failure call then d~",lop in variou, ways. For one. if only enough
steel ha, ~n provided at b to resi,t the nK",,,,nt at that section. tlr~ irlCrea", of the steel
force. d~wrihed in item .1. will cause tire steel to yield because of the larger nK)n",rn at
ll. thu, failing lhe beam. If the heam is pfoperly designe-d to prevent Ihi!; {lCcurrenc-e, it
is usually the coocrete al tire head of the crack that will eventually crush. This concrele
is subjeet simultall<-,()usly to large compression and 'hear stresses. and this hiaxial stresS
mlllbinatioll i., ('()()dlK-ive 10 earlier failure than "iould t[lke plal-e if ei ther of tl",se
stresses were acting alone. Finally. if tlre r~ is splitting along the rein fo"",ment. it will
cause the bond hetween ~teel and cWlCrete 10 weaken to ,m-h a degree tlrat the rein -
forcen"'nt may pul l loose. n,is may eilher t>e Ihe cause of failure of the heam or may
occur ,im uitar",ously with crushi ng of {]'" remaini ng uncrac"ked conc"rele.
It was noted earlie r Ihal relatively <k-ep heams will u,uall)' Show continued and
inc",a,ing r",islance after forrruriioo of a ,'ritical diagoml lension cr.>eJ.:. hut rdatively
shall"", beam, will fai I almost i rn mediately upon formation of the trlli:L The arlKlUnt
of ",serve strenglh. if any. was found to he erratic. In fan. in se,'er.11 leSt series in
whic"h two speci",,,n, a~ id~rnical as on~ Can muk Ihem we", tested. one failed imme-
di"tely UpOll fonnation of a diagonal cmck. while lhe otl",r reached '-'qui librium under
tl'" describl'-d redistribution and faile-d at a higher load.
FOJ Ihis reasOO. thi, "'~"'e 't"'ngth i, diwounted in modem de'ign pmc~>du"".
As previ'lU,ly ment ioned. most hea rn~ an: fumished with at least a minimum of web
n:infOJc-ement. For those flexural " "'mher.; whic-h are not. ,uch a, sb"'. footings. and
oth"rs , design is ba,~>d on tlmt shear fore" Vc, {)f ,hear st r~" Vo at which fonnation of
inclined nacks musl he expe<:t~d. Thus. F..q, (4.1,,). or ,ome ~qu i valent of it , has
be('()()", the d~<ign niterion for such rn"mhers.
. 4.4 REIN fORCED C O N CRETE B EAMS W ITH W EB R Et N fO RCEME NT
Economy of design demands. in most c"a"". that a flexural me mber be capahle of

-develop ing its full moment capacity mlhe r tharl having it, st rength limited by prema-
ture she"r failun:. n ,is i, al!) desimble because ,tructure'. if (weric)aded. shou ld not
fail in the sudden and explo,i\'~ manner chamcteristi<; of rnuny ,hear failur~,. but
']KlUld shm" adequate ductil it y and warni ng of impending di,tres,. n", laner. as
poimed out earlier, i, typical of flexu",1 fail ure caused by yielding of Ihe longitudinal
bars. which is prec"eded by gmdual exce'sively large defl<-'{'tion.' and rK>ticeable widen -
ing of crack>. n~ ref()[e, if a fairly large safety margin relalive to the available ,hear
strenglh a, given by Eq. (4.3,,) OJ its equivale nt do"s not exi,1. special shear rein -
forcement. known as weh n:i'!foTretne/!l, is u,ed t() increase thi, st rength.
a. Types of Web Reinforcement

Typic-ally. web reinforee""'nt is pmvided in the form of v~ni cal Mjr",I'," 'p:rced 1lI vary-
ing irae,,"I, alollg the axis of lhe beam ""pending Oil require mcnl" a, shown in Fig.
4.8a. Relatively s",,,11 sired bars are o,,->d, generally Nos . .1105 (Nos. 10 to 16). Simple
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~t I THI
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I8o_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
126 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
FIGU IU : 4.8
Type, of web reinforco"",n!
I !1I I I I I I I I III II
111111 I I I I I I 111111
..lULJ.LLLl .L.LL1UUL
'"
o Main reinforcing bars
10( I'}
/
1 /
Bentup
Iongitud'rlal bars
l'l
Ushap"'1 bars similar to Fig. 4.8b are most wmmon, although multipl~ leg stifTUp" such
a, ,hown in Fig. 4.&: "'" ,onl~limes "'-X"e"ary. $lilTUps arc fomk.-d 10 iii around t"" main
longiludinal bars at the bollom and IKK)ked or!.ent around longitudinal bal> at the lOp of
t"" member to imp"'v~ aJK'lKK"dge and provide suppon during con,uuclion, Detailed
""luirement, for ancho.-age of stirrups will be di,,'ussed in Chapter 5.
Alternatively, ,hear reinforcem~nt may be provided by bending up a pan of the
longitudinal st""] where it is no longer needed to r~,ist f1~xuraltcn,ion, as ,ugge<ted
hy Fig , 4, &/, In continuous beams, t""se bent up haT!; may al so prm'idc all or part of
the neces""r)' reinfor('ement for negativ~ nK",,,,nt,. The requirements for longiludinal
tlexuml reinfor("COlent ofteo c<Klflict wilh those for diag,mal kn~ion, and because the
,avings in sl<...,1 resulling from u,", of the capatily of bent har~ as shear re<istan('e i,
,mall. mo,t designers prefer to include venical STirrup, 10 provide for all t"" ,hear
requirernent, ('ounting on tI", hent pan of the l,mgitudinal bars, if bent hap; arc used,
ollly to inerease the ove rall ,afety against diagonalten,io" failure,
Weld~d wire reinfor('cn"'nt is also used for shear reinfof<"ement. particularly for
,mall. lightly loaded members wilh thin wehs, and for ,"Cnain types of pre<:ast, pre
,tre,,,-d beams.
b. Beha vior of We bRe inforce d Concre te Beams

Web reinforcement has no noticeahle e/Tect prior to the formati on of diagonal ,'mcks,
In facl, mca,uremellls show that Ihe web ,1",,1 i, praclically frt.'" of ,tress prior to cmck
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~l I THI
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;"0180_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS ION IN B~:AMS 127
formalion. Ailer diagonal crock, have developed. w'eb reiuforce,",,1l! aug"",ms lhe shear
resislanc" of a b<:am in four "'par.ll~ way\:
I. Pan of lhe sh~ar foree is resisled by lhe bap; lhat lrav"rse a particular cra<k. 1he
m;,chanism of Ihis added re,iSlance is discussed 1><:1",,.
, The pr~,",nce of these "'IlIe bars reslrich; Ihe gmwlh of diagonal cral'ks and
redul"es Iheir p"r",tration imo the compression zone. Th i, leav", more uncracked
mncret~ available at the head of the crack for resisting the combined action o f
sl",ar and compression. already diSlus.~d.
3. The slirrup' al,o munt~racl the wid"ning of tl'" cracks. so thal the two crnck
faces sta)' in do,", ,ont"'!. Thi, makes for a significa nt and reliahl" imerface
foree VI (Sl.., Fig. 4.7).
4. As ,hown in Fig. 4.8. II", slirrups are arranged '10 tha! they lie the longi ludinal
reinforl-ernent into the main bulk of lhe conc"'t~. This pm,"ilk. ,orne measur" of
reslraint against Ih~ splining of concrele ahlllg the longitudinal reinforcement,
shown in Figs. 4.1 and 4.7b, and incr"a",. the ,hare of the ,hear force ",si,ted by
dowel aclion.
Fmm thi, it i, d~ar Ihat failure will he imminent wh~n the ' Iirrups stan yield -
ing. This not only exhausts their own resistance IJm also permits a wider cf.!ck open -
ing with con""'luem reduct;';", of tI", heneficial r"'training effects. puims 2 to 4.
above.
II becomes clear fmm lhis deseripl;on that mernb<:r b<:ha,ior. once a IT.lck is
formed . is <juite C"Qrnplex and dependent in its d~laih on lhe pmi,'ulars of crack con -
figur.!lion (length. inclination. and local ion of tl", main or ,'ritical crack). The latter. in
tum. is <juite erratil' and ha, so far defied purely analytil'al pr~>diction. For this reason.
the corKepts that underlie present design prncti~.., are not wholly mtiona!. They are
baS<'{] partly "n ralional analysis, panly OIl teSt evidence. and panly OIl succe"ful
long-time experience with ' Iructures in which cenain procedures for designing web
reinfQrce""'nt have result.,,} in ~ntisfactory performance.
Il EA-'1S WtTII VERT tCA I. STt RRUI'S. Since w"b reinforcement is ineffel"tive in the
un<T.1l"ked b<:nm. the magnitude of the ~hear forc~ or ~tre" that cau",s (T.1l"king to
o<-cur is the sam~ as in a beam witlwut web r~jnforcen"'nt and is approximnted by F..q.
(4.3a). Most frequently. web reinforcen",nt consists of l"t"rrical .' Iirmp.,: the forces aCl-
ing Qn th~ ponk'" of ~uch a b<:am betw""n the cmck and the nearby supl'"n are shown
in Fig. 4.9. n",y are the same as tho", of Fig. 4.7. eXC<'Jl1 thaI each stirrup trnwrsing
the crack exert, a force AJ,. on tl'" given portion of the beam. Here A,. i, the cro,,'1-
"'>etional area of lhe stirrup (i n tl'" ca.", of the U-shaped stirrup of Fig . 4.8h it is twice
~' I G U RE 4.9
FO}I""",.I, diagonal crack in
beam with venieal Mirrur>.
I I I I
1--1 ' 1--1
11
Vo,
C
I I I I '
,------J-~-J- II ~ --c"c-+---,l
------ -- - ,I
-- ~ ~ A. ~
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
US IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
FIGUIU: 4. 10
R<distriWlioll of in'cmal
, ..... foro:; in. oo"nl
wi,h stirrup'_ 1~,k'I"M from
kef. 4.3)
Fle>(ural Ir>elinoo Yi~dol Failure

cracking cracking slirrups
the area of ooe Nir) and!.. is Ihe tensile stress in Ihe stirrup. Equilibrium in the "eni
cal direction requires
where V, - "A ,.!.. is Ihe vertical force in the 61irrups. " being the number of stirrups
tra~ersing Ihe crack. If s is the ,tirrup spacing and I' the horizontal proj~c(jon of the
crack. as shown. then II .. lUi.
The approxinmte distribution of the four components of the internal shear force
with iocreasing eXl~rnal shear V,,, is shown schematically in Fig. 4.10. It is Sl"ell Ihat
after inclined cracking, the ponion of the shear V, .. nA./,. carried by Ihe stirrups
increases lInearly. while the sum of the three other components. Veo + Va + Vi . stays
ne~rly constant. When the stirrups yield, thei r contribut ion remains constant at the
yidd value V, - /lA,.!.. However. \)ccau,e of widening of the indined cracks and Ion
gitudinal spliniog. V" and Vd f~1I off rapidly. Th is o~erloads the remaining uncracked
concrete and very soon prc'Cipitates failure.
While total shear carried by the stirrups at yielding is known, the individual
magnitudes of Ihe Ihree other components are not. limik'd amounts of test evidence
have led to the conser-'ative asoumption io prescmday methods that just pri or to fail
ure of a webreinforced beam. the sum of these three imernal sh~ar components is
'-'{Jualto the cracking shear V". as gi\'~n hy Eq. (4.3<1). This sum is generally (sollie
what loosely) referred to as the wIl/ri/mtiml uf tlie "",,"eme 10 the IOtal shear n::sist
ance, an d is dcnot ..'d V<. Thus Ve - V" and
(h)
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _ D ~t I THI
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEA R AND DlM;(lNA I. TENS ION IN B~: AMS 129
n,~ numbe r of slirrup' 11 spaced n di,l:m"e ., apan wa, seen 10 d~pcnd on th"
length I' of lhe lK>rizomnl pmjeclion of the diagonal crack. Thi, lenglh i, conSCr\"d-
li,''']y assumed to be ~'<lual to th~ eff~'Cli\'e depth of Ihe beam: lh", " = d .f. implying
a ('r.>ek """,,what flatter lhan 45". Then. nt fai lure. when V,,, = V. F..q'. (ll) and (h)
yield for th~ nominal ,hear "'ength
AJ,..t
V, " V" + - -, -
wlwre Vc is tak~n equal to the cracking shear V" gi,'en by Eq. (4.3,,); lhat is.
_ Vd _
1', = 1.9 j; + 2500 M htl s ).) . j; 1,,/ (4.)(/)
Dividing OOlh sides of Eq. (4.7(1) by /Jd, the snmc rdation is cxpress.x1 in tenns
of Ihe nomina] shear stress:
v = -

'.
bJ
=
,
AJ<
, + --
b.,
(4.7h)
In Rd. 4.1. tl1.: r"su lls of 166 beam t~sts are compared with F..q. (4. 7b). 11 is ~hown thaI
the equation prediClS In.: actual shear strength quitc conservati,cly. thc obserwd
strength being on the average 45 perccnllarger Ihan predicted: a ~"ry few of Ihe indio
vidual I"st beams developed strength just slightly below thn! of I'..q. (4.71.
tb :,\,M S WIT" L"CLl ~R1) n .\ RS. Th~ funClion of inc/i'lfd \\'~b rl'illfl>rt'('m~1/I (I'ig.
4.8d) can be discussed in very similar (erms. Figure 4.11 again indicates tl1.: forc"s thaI
act on In.: portion of the beam to one side of tl1.: d iagonal crad that resuhs in e~"n
tual fail ure. The crack with hori7.0ntul projection" and inclined length i = ,,(cos )
is crossW by inclined bars horizontally spac~'d a diHance ,< apart. The inchnation of
the bars is and that of the crack . a~ shown. The distance between bars rrK!asured
parallel to the direction of the crack is seen from the irregular triangle to be
(a)
Tile number of brrrs crossing the crack." = ia. afwr some transformation. is
11= -
"> I + COl tan (h)
FIGUIU<: 4.l t
F<>rcr< at' diagonal """-'k in
beam with iocli!led ""b
reinforcement.
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
130 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
The ,wtieal compo nent of the force in o ne bar or stirrup is AJ, sin so thm the total
vcrtical compollCnt of the forees in all bars that cross the erack is
v, .. IIA ..!., sin _Af, .

, , E.- sin + cos mn (4.8)
As in the case of vert ical st irrups. shear failure occurs when the stress in the web
reinforcement reaches the yicld point. Also. the smne assumpt ions ar.: made as in the
case of stirrups. namely. that the horizontal projection of the diagonal crack is equal
to the effect ive depth d. and thm V" + VJ + V" is equal to V" Lastly. the inclination
of the d iagonnl crack . which varies somewhm depending on "arious inDuellees. is
generalJy assumed to be 4Y. On this basis. the nominal Slr.:ngth when failure is
cauSl.'d by shear is
V. =V, + A-,"f-"CIC'C'"-c_+~'C"C'__
_
, (4.9)
It i, sn thai Eq. (4. 7(,). developcd fOJ vcrtical stirnJps. is only a special casc. for
= 90' . of Ihe ""'''' gen~ral ~xp",ssion (4.9).
It ,hould be noted thai E'1" (4.7) and (4.9) apply only if wcb rcinforcen"'nl is so
spac...J tbat any cOlll"ivah lc diagon~1 crack i, Ir~wrsed by at leaS! one stirrup or
inc1in~d har. Olherwise web r~inforcem~nI would nOi cOnl ribut~ 10 lhe ,h~ar StfCnglh
of tbe beam. because diagonal Cf",-k., Ihal cou ld form Il<etwee n widdy spac"<-..! web
",infor~"menl would failtlr~ Il<eam al Ihe load ~t which il would fail if no w~b rein
forcemenl were p",senl. Thi, imp'''''' uppcr limil' on Ihe permi ss ible <pacing . to
~n,ure that th~ web rd nforccmenl is actually effective as ~akulaled.
To summarize. al Ihi. tim~ I h~ nalur~ and m~chaniml of diagonal leosion f" ilure
a'" cI~arly und~,-,;t(l(lo;J qual ilatively. bul 'IOn", of the '1uamitmive assumplions Ihat ha,'c
been mad~ in the preceding development cannot be prov...J by ralional a""lysi,.
H owev~r. II", <'alculal.,.j r~sull, ar~ in ac,-"ptahle and generally conservaliv~ ag r~"C
It",nt ",il h " "ery large h<Kly (If empirical d1l1a. and .truclureS dc~ig,,,,d on thi, basis
have proved <ati'factory. Newer n"'lhods. inlf{)cJu<'~d in s".,'lion 4. ~. provide all~ma
li,'~s Ihut "re slowly being inco,-poJ1I1 l..! imo II", ACI Cod~ ,," d Ihe AAS HTO Bridge
Spe<'ificalion, (Ref. 4.29). C hapter 10 pfCsents a delai!ed <k<;niPlion of Ot'" such aller
n1l1ive. Ihe S'H'al led 'trul-and -lie model. which a ppears in A ppend;. A o f II", 2002
AC I Code.
- . 4.5 AC I C ODe P ROVISION S fOR SH EAR D eSIG N
Accnrding to ACI OJde 11 .1.1 . the design of beams for ,I",ar i, IU be has~d on tbe
relalion
(4.10)
where Y, is the total shear force applk>d:n a given se<;tion oflhe beam duc 10 factored
loads and Y, .. Y, + Y, is the nominJI shear slrength. equal to the sum of lhe contri
bUlions of the conC"'le and the web sleel if pres.:ll1. Thus for vertical stirrups
_
V. s V, + '-,'"J~c
,d (4. ! la)
and for indined bar,
V. :!O (4.111
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DiM;(lNAI. TENS ION IN B~:A MS 131
FIGUIU: 4.1l
Location <>f <";lical ",,-'lion
for sOeaf de.ign: (a) eoo-
supported i><am, (hJ beam
,upported by rolunln"
"
(e) '''''''Cnlr.llc..! l""d wi'hin f1J
d of tl>< foce of the , upport:
(d I mem be , 10lIdc<l ncar tho
bonom: (,) b"am supported
,., '0'
by firde, of . imila, deptb ,
(f) be,." ,uwoned by
""'nolilhic ,-enical ckmcnl.
ill ,II :'1111111111
us,,' f
''I
"
,., v,
where all t~rms are as previou.ly dc/inoo. The strength reduclion factor i. to he
lak~n equal to 0,75 for shear. Th" additional mn>ervatism, compared with II", vnlue of
= 0.90 for hending for typical heam designs. rdl~ct. both the sudden nat ur~ of diag-
onal ten.ion failure and the largt '!Caner of test results.
For typical support ('onditions. where th~ reaction from the support surface or
t'mrn a monolithi.- colu mn introduce, vertical compr~ssion at II", end of the heam. "",c-
tions locak'<i les~ than a distance d fmm the face of the ,upp<m may he d~,igned for
the <arne shear V, as that computed at a dislance d, as .bown in Figs. 4. I 2tl and b.
However, the critical design ,ection .hould he taken nt the face of tl,., suppon if COII -
untrat"d load, act within {hat distance (Fig . 4. 12t:), if the heam is lOUlled near it, Ix>l-
torn edg~ (a, may occur for an inwrtoo T hearn, a, SIK)Wn in Fig. 4.J2ti). or if the reac-
tion cause, vertical tension mtller than cornpr".,io" [e .g .. if the beam is ,upponed hy
a girder of similar depth (Fig. 4.Jk) or nt the end of a monolithic vertical element
(Fig.4 .12f)).
a. Shear Strength Provided by the Concrete

n.e nmnin~1 shear strength contributioo of the concrete (including the contribution s
fmm aggregat~ interlock. dowel action of the main r~inforeing hars, and that of the
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;"0180_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
un<T.lckt.oJ c<KlLrete) i, basically th" ,allle as F..q. (4.3<1) with ,light notalional chang"',
To pennil application of F..q. (4.3i/) 10 T beam, having w"b width I>~., Ihe rectangular
beam width I> is replaced by b. with tbe underslanding that for ,,-'Ctangu!ar beams b i,
u",-oJ for h ... For T beams with a tapered web width, such as typical concret~ joist,. tt;.,
averagt web width is used. unle" the narrowest pan of II", web i, in compression. in
whi<' h ca", b", is taken as II", minimum width, Funher. in Eq. (4 .3./). tt;., shear V and
momclll M are designated V, and M, to ernpha,iz~ that lI",y are tt;., values computed
at faclored loads. Thu" for mem""" subject 10 ,hear and fle~ ure, an'ording to ACI
Code 11.3.2. Ihe concrete cOlliributi!Hlto ,t;.,ar strength i,
1.9 J: + 2500 ",Vol!

M.
(4,121,)
where '" = longitudinal reinforcemem r.ltio A, h.11 or A, bd. With the ,ecti on dimen -
,ion b. ami" in inches and V.,I and M, in n,"si,tent unit,. Vc is e~pre,sed in pounds,
In Eq. (4.12t/). thequal11ity V." M. is not tQ be taken greater than 1.0.
While Eq . (4 .1 211) is perfenly well suited to computerized de'ign or for
research, for manual takulati<KlS its Use is koJiou, oc'Cause "" V, . and M, generally
change along the span. "-'quiring that V,. be calculated at f"-><juent interval~. For thi,
rea,on. an alternative equation for Vo is penniu..oJ by AC I Code 11.3.1:
(4.111
Referring to Fig, 4.6, it i, dear that F..q. (4.121 is very conservative in regions where d",
,hear-nlO"",m ratio i, high. such as t",ar the end, of ~imple spans or- near the inflection
poim, of <Xlminuou, 'I'ans: howev..". because of its si mplicity. it i, often u",d in practice.
For membe" with a circular ,'mss ..,ction. ACI Code 11.3.3 pnl\'ides that tl",
area u",-oJ to <'alculate V,. in F--'1" (4.12,,) nnd (4. I 2b) i, the proouct of the diameter nnd
the effenive depth. The laner may be taken 'IS 0 .8 time, the diameter of the member.
n,t tesl. on which Eqs. (4.12t1) and (4.12b) are based used beam, with concret~
t"mpre"iv~ 'trength mostly in tt;., range of 3000 to 5000 psi, More re,'em aperi -
mellial resull. (Rd,. 4.12 to 4 .15) have ,hown that in beams constructed u,ing high -
'trength <Xln<Tete ("'-'" &"ttiQn 2.12) with/; aDo,"e 6000 psi. tbe connete contribution
to ,hear strength. V, . i, less than predicted by those equation,. Differences bt."ton",
incrensin gly significant the higher the conctete streng1h. For this reason, ACI Code
11.1.2 place, an upper limit Qf 100 p,i!H1 the value of I ; to be u",-oJ in F..q', (4.12a)
and (4.121, tI." well tlS;II tl/l mller ACI Cnd" .IIetlr pml';,<;,,"S. However. values of
1: greater than 100 psi may be used in computing V,. if a minimum amount of web
reinforce",ent i, used ("'-'" Section 4.5b).
Cooe pm\'isions for computing V" according to F..q. (4.1 2<,) or (4.12b) apply to
nonnul-weight concrete. Li ghtweight aggregat~ concretes having densities from 90 to
120 pef are used inneasingly. particularly for pre""s1 dement, . Their !en,ile streogth.
o f panicular importance in shear and diagonal tension calculations. i, known 10 be sig-
nificamly less than that of nOfinal -weight cOntrete of !I"" sarne compressive strength
(see Table 2.2 and Ref 4 . 16). It is ;ulvisable. when designing with lightweight con -
crete, to obtain an accum!e e,timate of the anual ten,ile strength of the ma!eriaL 11",
,plit-cylinde r strength !" is not identical with tl", direct ten sile strength, but it ser',e,
a~ n convenient and reliable measure.
For nonnal concrete the split-<"ylinder strength is often taken <><jual to 6.7 I;.
Accordingly, the ACI Code spe"if,es that I" 6.7 shall be ,u!>stitU1<oJ for ' .E in all
'-'quati,ms for 1', . with the further restriction that I" 6.7 shall not exceed I;. If tl",
,plit-cylinder strength is not available, valUe> of Vc cakulated using / ; must be mul -
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;"01 80_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SH EAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS ION I N B~: AMS 133
tiplied by 0,75 for "all- lightw~igbt" concrel~ and by 0 .85 for "sand-lighlweight" coo -
Crele . All olher shear pr<wision, remain unchang,-..-:I.
b. Minimum Web Reinforcement
If V,, the shear force at faclored loads. is no larger than Yr' calculated by Eq. (4 , 12(/)
or :dtcrna(ivdy t>y Eq, (4.12b). then Ihooretic:dly no web reinforcement is required.
Even in such a case. howcvcr, ACI Code 11.5,5 requires provision of at Icast a mini
m um area of web reinforccmc~ t L"{jualto
A. - 0 ,75 (4.13)
where .. .. longitudinal spacing of w~b reinforcement. in.

f .. yield strength of w~b Stcel. psi
A, .. total crosssectional area of web Stcel within distance ... io)
This provision holds unless V. is onchalf or less of the design shear strength V, pro
vidc..-:l by the coocrcte , Sp<-'Cifk exceptions to this requirement for minimum web st~cI
are made for slabs and footings. for concret~ joist floor oonslruction . and for beams
with total depth nOI greater than 10 in .. 2~ times the thickness of the flange. or one
half the web width (whichever is grealest). These nk:mbcrs arc exeludc..-:l t>ccausc of
their capacity to r....-:Iistributc intemal forces beforc diagomd lension failure. as con
finned ooth by leStS and successful design experiencc ,
For high strcngth concrcte beams. the limitation of 100 psi impoS<.>d on Ih~ ~alue
of 1:- used in calculating Vo by Eq. (4.12u) or (4.12b) is "'ai"ed by AC I Coo:le
11.1.2, I if such beams are wsign<->d wilh minimum wcb rcinforcemcnt equ:d to the
amount rcqu ired by Eq. (4, 13). In this casco the concrete contriootion to shear strength
may be calculatcd based on the full concrete cOlnpressive strength. Tests described in
Refs. 4 ,12 and 4 , I S indicate thm for beams with concrete >1rength abo"" aooUl 6000
psi. tbe concrete contribution V, .... as significantly less than predicted by the ACI Code
equations. although Ihe stcd oolllribution V, was higher. T he tOlal nominal shear
strength V. was greater than predictcd by ACI Code n1<:thods in all cas.:s. The usc of
minimum web stocl for highstreng1h concret" beams is intended to enhmtcc the post
cracking capacity. thus resuiting in safe designs evcn though the concrete contribution
to slk:aT strength is overestimated.1
EXAM I'l E 4.1 [It'"111 ,.-ithoul ...~b ",inro,,-.,menl. A rectangular beam i, to be de,igned to cany a shear
force V, of 27 kips . No wei! reinfofnmem is {o be "~!. olld!; i, 4000 psi. WhOi j, {lit min
imom cross s<:<;{ion if controlled by ,~ e"r'!
So.~.mWN. If 110 web rcinf"",cmem is to be used. dre cro" .....1ional dimen,ion, mo't be
""Ier{ed '" {hat II", opplied sl"':tr V, is 110 to!)!"r {han onehalf lb. de';!',11 shear ,{renglh V,
The c"!colmi"", will be based on Eq. (4.12h). Thus.
,
I'. - '2 2 J:h.J
27.000 ,
hJ = - 569 in'
O.1~ 4000
, n,, ' "''''''"10nll' ,,( ,1-0< lIel C<d" V, + I'." 'PfC\....,h ,,, ,1><..- <k,illn. f"'\K ulony 11... p" ~'i'"", ",l ..;ni- ,n tl>< ,,,,,m " ... rioo,"" V~ ~"''C
I"",id<d ,,,,.i,,,,ioo fur II>< ,k'~kop!,,,", of '''''''' ""ional PR " OOu ' ~ ', " .,;111>.' di,,'""'--..J In S<Xtioo 4.8
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
A beam with b. ~ 18 in, and" ~ 32 in, i, Tl><joim!, Alt~malely. if tile minionum amollnt of
web reinf""e menl gh-", by Eq. (4.13) ;' used. (lie concrete sllear re,ista'ICe may be laken
at ils full '"dl"" v, and il;s eali ly conlim><d Ihal a be:lIn will, b~ ~ 12 in . and" ~ 24 in,
will he ,ufficiem.
c. Region in Which Web Reinforcement Is Required
If the ""luire<.J sh~w .<lrength V. is greater than t h~ design Shear strenglh V,. pmvid,'<I
by the cOllcrete in any pon;on of a heam. there is a theorelic'a! requirenlt!m for web
reinfor~"mem. Elsewhere in the span. web <Ieel al least equal I() the amoont given by
Eq. (4.13) musl he pmvided. unle" Ihe fac'l ored shew foree is less th an 1- v,:.
The ponion of any spiln Ihmugh whid] web reinforeemem i, 11",,,,etically n~'('
e.sa,), can he foulld fromlh~ ,hew diagram for the 'pan . sU!""imp'"ing a plot of the
st",ar strenglh of the concrele . Where the sl",ar fo rce V" excC\.'<Is Vc' shew reinforce-
ment muS! pmvide for the exc,,,,. The addilion~1 length through which at lea'l lhe
minimum web sled i, ]",,-'<k<J can he found by superimposing a plOl of V, 2.
EXAM PLE 4.2 Undt. of ,,'eb .... (nfo ..... m.m. A ,;mply ,upported rectangular hea m Ib in. " 'ide ha,-ing
JIl effec1ive depth of 22 in, cames a tOlal faclored load IIf 9.4 kipslfl 00 a 20 fl cle.. span,
11 i, reinforced wilh 7,62 in' of len,ile >teel. which cootinues uninterrllpled into 1I1e suppon,
Iff: = 4000 J)Si, throu ghoul whal pan of the be"on i, web reinforcemenl "-'<luim!'?
So.~.lnt"N. l1lc maximum extent.1 shear force occur.; at lhe ~"d, IIf lhe SPJll. whe", V. ~
9.4 X 20 2 - 94 kips. AI the crilkal ,,",ction for ,lIear. a distaoc" II fmm lhe '"PpOri. V, -
9~ - 9,4 X l .lU ~ 76.8 kip'_ 1.., sl,ear forc~ "a';"s linearl}' 10 lero al mid'pan. The ,,,ri
at;OIl of V. i, shown in Fig. 4.13". Adopting Eq . (4. 121 gi,-"
V, _ 2 4000 X 16 X 22 - 44.SOO Ib
Hence Vo = 0.75 X +U = .13,4 ki ps. Thi s "alnc is SUllCrimposcd on lbe slIc.tt ,hagr,m .
aoo. fmm geomelry. Ihe point at which web reinfo=me nt theoretically is no 10Il~'"
required is
94,0 - .1.1.4
10
'"., ~ 6.~5 fl
from the w'ppon face, Howewr, >eeording 10 Ihe AC I C<Xk. nt lea>! a min im"m amOunt of
",eb reinforcement i, required " 'her,,w lbe shear force e..ceeds V, 2, or Ib.7 kips;n this
ca.c , As secn from Fig. 4, 13<1. th i; applies 10 a di,lan""
10 94.0 - 16.7
- 8.22 fl
" .0
from Ihe supporl face . To summarize. al lea'i lbe minimum web 'Ieel ",u,1 be provided
wilh;n adisuoc" of 8.22 ft fmm lilt! ,upporu. and wilhin 6,4.S fi lhe web ,1",,1 mu,1 provide
for tbe ,hear fo.-.." ~om:spond i ng 10 the ,haded area.
If lhe ahemali,-e Eq . (4. 12a) i< lIsed. lhe \'arial;"n aloog llie 'pan of .. V.. and M. mu,1
be known so Ihm V, can be cakulaled, This i, ,ho".-n in tabula. form in Table 4. 1,
The faclored ,lIear V, and tbe (\e,igl] shear capacil)' V, are plolled in I'ig . 4.1'h. From
lbe gra[>h il is found thai slirrups.re lheoretically no longe, r~quired 6.39 fl from lbe sup--
port face. Howe"er, from the pl(]l of Vc' 1 il is f"",~l lhal al least ]he ",ini",u", web 'Ieel
is 10 be pro"ided withiH a di 'la""" of 8,26 fl.
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS [ON [N B~: AMS US
FI GU IU: 4. 13 d - 1,83'
Sb<ar dc'ign <nmpk.
Vu - 94.0 kips
Vu - 76.8 kip ,
r==l
~ s - s_,
<JNe - 33.4 kip ~

I
4>i' a 16.7 kip , r- 4,35 ' 2.10'
-',,-j
6.45' !
8.22'
Web reinlo<cement I,
10,00'
i'i 1,
Vu - 94.0 kip
Vu K 76.8 kips
r----- I,
, ~ I,
f- - -- - - --- ~[d
6,39'
, !
626'
Web rainlo<cem6fl!
10.00' J
When Figs, -'. [311.ad I>"re COll1p..ed. it is e"i<km Iha! lhe kn81 h OH''- ..... hich "'~b rein-
forceme nt is needed i, "early the '"'~ f<>r Ihi, example ..... helh<-r Eq. (4. 12<1) or (4. 12b) i;
used. Howewr. lhe , ,,,aller shaded are. of l'i8. -'. Ub iflllie"le, Ihm ,ubslantiall y [ess web-
sleet are" 1'100[(\ be n,,,,,de<! wilhin thO! required di.lnnce if lhe ,""'" accurale Eq. (4.t2/1 )
we,.., adopted .
d. Design of Web Reinforcement

n", design of w~h reinforcenlem . under the pr<)\"isio", of lhe ACt C<xk. is hased on F..q.
(4.1111) fOJ ven ical slirrups and Eq. (4 .1 ! b) for inclined stirrups or tJi,m h"". In design.
it is usually convenient to scl""t a trial Weh-SltlCl area A,. ha ...... on standard stirrup sizes
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
U6 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
TABLE 4.1
Shear design example
Dist ance fro m
Support. ft ft' Kips kips
.,,
, .'"'" 94.0
84.6
75.2
61.3
61 ..1
51.8
46.0
4 ~.0
43.4
,,
; NO
""
65.8
56,4
51.9
4S.S
.18.9
36.6
,
,
.153
:195
47.0
37 .6
470
4.S.6
35.2
34.2
428 282 44.0 H.5
.," 451
'"
18.8
... 43S
43.0
32.S
32.3
" "" " 42.3 3L7
[usu~lIy in the range from Nos . "10 5 (Nos. 10 to 16) for stirrups. arK! according to the
10ngiludinJI Imr size for bel11 up Imrs!, for which the required spacing.< can be found .
Equating the design strmgth V. to the n.Xjuired strength V. and tl1lnsposil1g Eqs .
(4.11(1) and (4 .llb) accord ingly. OI)C finds thm lhe n:quin.-d spacing of web reinforce
1111:111 is for venieal stirrups:
A,.f,d
(4. 14a)
for bel11 bars:
.' _.,A",!,.,dc:i,",--c+c"'~"-_ (4.141

V, V..
II ~hou !d he emphasized that when com'~n lional U sti rrups ,uch as in Fig. 4.81> ar~
u,,--d. the web area A,. provided by each slirrup is twi"" the cmsssenional area of the
bar: for sti rrups such as those of Fig. 4.8c, A,. i, 4 times the are a of the bar used.
Eqmtion (.U4<I) i, applicable 10 =mbe r, with circular, a, we ll a, rectangular, noss
sectio",. For circu lar member>. d is taken as the dfective depth, as ddined earlier in
Satioll 45", and A,. i, taken "" 2 times the area of the har. hoo p. or spimL
While the ACI Code requires only th~1 1he i ndin~-d pan of a bent bar make an
~nglc of ~t lC~Sl 30 with the !ongitudin~1 pan , han; are usually bent at a 45 angl~.
Only the center lh"", founhs of the indined JXIr1 of any har is 10 be coosidered effec
ti,'e "'. web reinforcement.
It is undesimblc to space venical stirrups doser than abo ut 4 in.: the si,." of the
,tirrups should he chosen to a,'oid a doser spacing. When venical stirrups are requi red
over a <:ompamtiveiy shon di,tance , it is good pmctic,", 10 space them unifonnly ove r
the entire disuU1ce. the 'pacing being calculated for the point of greale,t shear (mini
mum spacing). If the weh reinforce",ent i, required ",'er a long dislance. and if the
,hear vanes materially throughout Ihis di,ta""". it is more economical 10 ~'ompule the
,pacings required aI sever.I1 section, and 10 pl~ce the slirrups an o rdi ngly. in group,
of varying spacing.
Whe re web reinfor~'ement is ",--.,de-d. the Code require, il 10 be 'P"'-"'" so thai
e\'Cry 45 line. represent ing a potent ial diagonal crat'k and extending from the mid
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEA R AND DlA{;(lNAI. TENS ION IN B~: AMS 137
FIG UIU : 4.14

M:uimum .pocing of web
re inforcement as go"emed
h)' diagonal crnd
interceplion, Polenlial
crack
~",,--,J ~
~d ~dOOlfi ~
Max slor Max s for
inclined ba rs vertical stirrups
depth d 2 oflhe member 10 the loogiludinallension bars , i, crossed by at leasl nne Ii""
of web reinforcc"",nt; in addilio". 1m, Coile specit;", a maximum spacing of 24 in,
When V,. exn..,ds 4 J:.I>.,/,
these maxi mum ,pacings a re halvoo. These limilations are
,hown in Fig . 4.14 for bOlh vertic'al stirruf'" and inciin<--d bars. for situations in which
the excess \hear doe, nO! exceed the statoo limit.
For design purposes, Eq. (4 . 13) giving the minimum wch-st""] an-a A, i, mor"
conwnient Iy inverted 10 penn il calculalion of maximum spacing ., for the selected A,..
TIms , ror the usual case of veni,' a] stirrup,. with Y, :S 4 J:h~d, II", maximum spac-
ing of ,tirrups i, 1m, ,mallesl of
"_ = __,"",r,~_ , _A_,_I_, (4, ]5,,)

0.75 /;1>" 50b".
d
,'.." = 2' (4 , ]51
s .." = 24 in. (4, ]5c)
For longitudinal hars bent at 45. Eq. (4. 151 is replaced by "_ = 3<1 4. a, '-~)tlftnn~-d
by Fig. 4,14.
To avoid ex,-e$sive craek width itt bea m web,. th" ACI Code li t11it~ Ihe yiel d
strength of the reinforc"mem IOf.. = 60.000 f"'i o r less for r";nfon-ing !xl", and RO,OOO
psi or less for welded wim reinforcen",nt. In no case, aC<.~)fding to tOO AC I Code , ;s V,
to exceed R 17-1>.<1. regardl~s.< o f the amount of web -<t",,1 uS<.~L
EX AM P LE 4.3 (}sigll of " ,. b rel"rO""....," I. UsiJ' g "enical U >lirrup< with j. - 60,000 I"" Je.,ign tM
web reinforcernent foc tile beam in fuample -t.2,
SO'.Vft"N. 11>t: s.o1utioo will be based on t~ s~ar diagram in Fig. ~ ,I3<" The stirrups
mllst be designed to ""i" thai pan Ortbe shear ,hown 'haded. \Vith No. J (No. 10) stirrups
lIsed for lrial. lhe three maximum sp~ing criteri a are lim applied. For V, - Vo - Y,
= 43.400 lb. which is less lhan 4 }/b,J - 66.&00 lb. d", maximum spacing must e>ceffi
neilher J 2 = II in, nor 2-1 in. Also. from Eq, (4.15.1).
0.22 X 60.000
17,4 in,
0.75 -t000 X 16
>- - _ 0.22 X 60.000 _ 16 <

A.j, ~ ln
SOI>~ SO X 16 ,.
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
US IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 4
The flrsl mlmon ronlrols in Ihis ca,.,. and a maximum spaci ng of I I in. is im""""". From
U>e suppon 10 3 disla"<.'<! ,/ from Ihe 'Uppori. l!>e exwss ,hear V, - V, i, 43,400 Ib, Irl 'his
region lhe "-'quire<! 'pacing is
,'~d"" " C 0.75 X 0.22 X 60.000 X 22

" - , - -5 .0i".
V, V, 43AOO
This is nei!loer \0 small Iha l 1)13<.'emenl problems would rcsull nor \0 1.1tge ,10.11 m.,.imum
spacing m lma would rollirol. and Ihe chrnce of No. .1 (No , 10) slirruJlS i, ronfimled,
Sol,in~ bq. (4, 14<1) for Ihe exccss she." 31 whidl 'he maximu m spocing ca n b< uS<.'<l gi,'es
v - v, =
A . f.,J
=
O.H x 0 ,22 x 60.000 x n = 19.800 Ib
.' II
Wil h refereoce 10 Fig . 4.I .li,. Ihis is allaitJed al. dislance XI from lhe poim of zero exC<'"
sllear. ,,!>ere x , - 6,45 X 19.80060.600 - 2,10 ft, This is 4, 35 fl from !loe sUppori face,
Wilh Ihi' info.m.lion. a "Ii,faclory 'pa<'ing patlcnI ca n he ,.,leCloo, The first 'Iirrup is usu-
any p1att<J "I a dislMoee ,. 2 from 'he '''I'IX''', Ilte foliowing sp.,cing pan...", is satisfaclory :
, spa<'e al 2 in. - 2 in.
7 'pa<.-e, m 5 in. = 35 in.
1 ,paces al 7 in. - 14 in.
4 'p""'" 01 II in. = .w in .
TOlal - 95i". -7 fl Ilin.
Tho< ""uhing stirrup pall~m i, shown in Fig. 4, lx, As an a l l~mmi," solulion. il i, !X>'sible
10 plOi a cu",~ ,howing required 'pacing as a fU llclion of dislallCe from lhe ,uflIlOn. Once
lhe req uire<! 'pacing al SOme ",fe","ce secliofl. say "I lhe 5lIppoJ1. i, del~n]\iood,
0,75 X 0.12 X 60.000 X 22

>;, = : 3.59 in,
94.000 - 33.400
il i, easy 10 oI!1ain lhe "'quire<! <pacing< ~lsewhere . In r"l. (4.141). only V, - 1', challges
wilh dislaJlC~ from die ,uPf'O<1. Fur unif<>ml k..,.I. Ihis 4ll:lnl;ly is a li""ar fun.lion of di'lan ..",
frolllihe point of zero ""c~" .hear, 6.45 fI from lhe ,ujlpOl1 face. HelICe, al I fI inter\'als,
" = ] ,59 X 6.45 5.45 = ~,25 in .
" - 3.59 X 6,45 4.45 - 520 in.
J, = 3,59 X 6.45 3.45 = 6,70 in .
" - )59 X 6.45 1.45 - 9,45 in.

s. = 3,59 X 6.45 1.4 5 = 15,97 in.
Thi. is plOiled in Fig. 4.15 logether ",ilh the maximllm spa<'ing of II in ., and , praclic,(
'pacing p,lIcm is sele<;led. TI>t: 'pacing at" di'lance ,/ from lhe suppon foc~ is sel~cloo"
the minimum requirement . in acconla~ Wilh Ihe ACt Code. The pallem of No . .1 (No. 10)
Ushap"d SlirruJlS selccloo (shown OIl lhe gr~ph) is ide'lIica' ""ilh Ihe pn:,;ous solulion. In
mosl cases. lhe eKI""ienced de,ign.". ,,'Ould find il unnttc,sary oclually 10 pj(l{ lhe 'pacing
diagram of Fig. 4. 15 and would sel~'1 spacing pallem d in:<:II}' .fler calculaling lhe
required spaci ng al inte",als along lhe beam
If lhe web slee) "'~re 10 be de,igned on lhe ba,is of llIe CK ..",,, IIe.r diagram in Fig,
4. Llb. !h~ =ond aflProach iIIuw'a1ed aoo\'e would '''''''s>arily be sele<;led. an<! 'pacings
would b< cakul3100'1 inlc,,"is ' long lhe 'Pim. In lhis parlicul3r case, a spacing of 7.07 in,
is calculaled lip 10 1() in . from (he face of lhe 'Uppor!. The calculal~d spacing drops 10 6.76
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _ D~I I THI
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA I. TENS [ON [N B~: AMS 139
FIG UIU : 4.15 , 5""" - 11"

R<quircJ " irrup 'P""inp fo.-
E.,mple ~, .l.
0 " al I I'
, Spacing ,aqUi 'ed~ I Spacing p<cwid&d

J<-_Lt
, :1 sp, at 7"
5.0"
--,
4p "2" - I 7Sp, at 5"
,
0
o , , , ,
[)istatlC<l from support h
in . at J from tilt> face of lilt> sUf'llOrl, ""d tllen iocrea"" to I I in .. tile llI:u inlUm pt Tll1 i"ible
sp.'>Cmg.4 Ii from the , uf'llOrl, The foll(ru'ing p.-acti<:al ,[>(ICing could be "SC<.!:
1 'pace at .' in. - :l in
6 spaces at 7 in . = 42 in,
4 space-> at I I in. - 44 in.
Total = 89 in, = 7 ft ~ in.
Thus. I [ No. 3 ( No. [0) ;tirrups would be u;cd. rather than the [ 4 prcviou;[y calcu[ated. III
each half of tile 'I"'n,
E FFE CT O FAX[ Al F ORC ES
The be~ms considcre'<i in the preceding sections wcre subjected 10 shcar and !1exure
only. Reinforced concrete he~m, may ~Iw be subje"'tcd 10 ~xial forces. acting ,imul.
taneously wilh shear and t1exure. due 10 a varicty of causes. These include external
axi~l loads. longitudinnl prestressing. ami restraint forces introd UCL'd as ~ resu lt of
shrink~gc of the concrete or ternpcrJlure changes. Beams mJy have their strength in
shear significantly modified in the presence of axial tension or compression . JS IS eVI
dent from J review of Sections 4.1 through 4.4.
PrcstresS<.,,1 concrCIC mcmb.:rs are treate,,1 by s-omcwhat SIX",iJlized methods.
according to present practice, based largely on resu lts of testing prestressed concrete
beams, TIICY will b.: considcre'<i separately in ChJptcr 19. and only nonprestres s~d
reinforced concrete beams will be treated ocrc.
TIIC main elfcci ofaxiJI load is to modify the diagonal cr:lC~ ing lood of tbe
member. h was shown in Seclion 4 .3 that diagonal tension cracking will occur when
the principal ten sile stress in Inc web of a beam. resu lting fro", combined aetion of
shear and bending, rcaches the tensile Sirength of the concrete , It is clear that the intro-
duction of 10ngiludinal forcc. which modifies thc ","gniwde and dire'Ction of the prin -
cipal lCnsile stresses. l11ay significant ly altcr the d iagonal cracking load , Axial com -
pression will increasc the cracking load. while axial tension will de'Creasc il.
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
For member> carrying only flexural and shear loading. Ihe shear force at which
diagonal crac king {"'cu,.,;, V",. i, predicled by Eq_ (43d). based on a combinalion of
theory and experimental evidence _ Funherr"ore, for rea",ns thai we re expbim_..J in
$ection 4.4h, in beams with web reinforcement , Ihe cOnlrioo tion of the concrete 10
,hear ,trenglh Vo is taken "'-jualto the diagonal cracking load V,.,., Thus. according 10
the ACI Code, Ihe conerde cO!llriootion is calculaled hy Eq, (4.lm) or (4_12b), For
members '-'lITying flexural and ,hear loading plus nxialload,. Vo can be cakulated by
,u;table modifications of Ihe", ''Gual;on, as follow"
a. Axial Compression
In de"doping Eq, (4 _3d) for V,.,.. it was pointed oul Ihat the d;agonal crack;ng load
depends on the ral;o of ,hear slress \' to bending , tre,s f at lbe \()p of the flexural crack.
While th","" sUes,,"s "-ere nner actually detcnnined. they were "onveniemly
expre,sed as
V
K,
,,'
,"d
(b)
Equalion (d) rclates Ihe concrele ,hear Slress al Ihe lOp of Ihe flexural crack 10 Ihe aVeT'
age shear stress: Eq. (b) can he us.:d 10 rdme the flexural lension in Ihe concrete allre
lOp of the crack 10 lhe lens ion ,n the flexural sleel. through the modular ralio 11 ..
E, Eo' as follows:
f, M
foo Ko - - Ko - -.-
n IIA,j<i
M
f = Kn - .- , ,c)
'1- illd"
where jd is lhe im~rnal 1c\"Cf arm belween C and T, and Ko is an unhown constant.
TIlUS. thl: previous constant Kl is equa l 10 Ko' '! ' j.
Now consider a beatll suhjecI 10 axial compression N as well as M and V. as
shown in Fig. 4.16.-:/. In Fig. 4,16/!. Ihc c ,~lemal InOlnent. shear. and thrust acling on
Ihe left side of a slnall elemcnt of Ihe beam. having length dx. arc ~'()uilibrated by lhe
io tcntal str~ss resulta nts T. C. and V act ing on Ihe right. It is convellicnt 10 replace lhe
extcntal loads ilf and N wilh lhe statically equivalent load N acti ~g at cccemricilY " -
M, N from thc mid(kplh. as shown in Fig. 4,16<'. Thc lever ann of Ihe cccentric force
N with respect 10 Ihe compressive resultant C is
(<I)
llIc sleel SlresS/, can now be found Inking moments aboulthc point of application of C:
N,,'
/, .. A, jd
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,-"".. _D~I I THI
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEA R AND DlA{;(lNAI. TENS ION IN B~:A MS 141
FIGUIU : 4. 16
Boa",. 'Ubjc<:l " , a.ia.
comrre"'joo pi", bend ing
P, P, ,,
and shear .,>ad,.
I I
N --------j-1---------------
"
'"
N-r
iL l Bl'"
V _
~
*.- CT - A.I.
~
Ie)
from which
M+NIi - h2 - jd
r. ~ ~--":;-~~
A,PI
i
Noting Ihal j is very close 10 for loads up 10 Ihar producing diagonal cracking. lhe
term in paremhcscs in (he lasl eqoalion atxlVc can he wrincn ", (d - 4h} 8. Then wilh
f = K.,t, "as before. lhe concrere lensile slress a1 rhe head of Ihe !1,,'ural crack is
M - N411 - d S M - N4h - d 8
f - Ko - K1
" jbd
l mi l
'"~
Compming Eq. (d wilh Eq" ') and (b) mal"s it dear Ihm thc previous derivation for
llnuml lension( hold, for the pr"scnt case im: luding axi"lload, if a !not!ifioo moment
M - N(411 - d) 8 is ~ObSlilult."" for Ai. It follows Illat &J. (4.}"1 cao he uset! t() cal -
cuble V" with the ""n", soh"iIU!ion of modi fi et! for aClual mmnent.
The ACJ ClIde provisions arc h"$\..... on Ihi, development. The <'oncrc,,, contri -
bu!ion In 'hear "'"ng,h Ve is laken equal 10 V" ant! is gi"e1l by &J. (4.121,) as before:
_ . V,/
'.9 /; + 2500 - ' -"- b.,/ (4.12</)
M.
excepr thar the mooified 1lI0nk'nt
4h - d
~ M . - N, (4.16)
8
is to he suhstautoo for M. and V"d M. n~t! nOi he Iirnitct! 10 1.0 as beforu. TIIIl thrust
N. is 10 be lakell ]lositi,'e for ~'{)mpres~ion. For beams with axial comprcs>ion. tllll
upper limil of 3.5 1:-b.ll is replac~t! by
+ --
N. (4.17)
SOOA,
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, "",,.. _D~t I THI
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
F IG UIU: 4.17
Compari<()fl of equat;o", for
I', for ".. mbers , ubject to ,
,,;,1 load,
~"""""''''''''''' Eq. {4.17)
',- ',- )
'-
''-,
-----
Approximate Eq . (4_18)
range of Eqs_
(4 .1 28) and (4. 16)
WOO
Compression
o -"'"
Tension
where At is lhe gross area of lhe concre1e and N. A. is expressed in psi unils.
As an allcrna live 10 lile rather complicaled dc1cnninalion of V, using Eqs .
(4. I Za). (4.16). and (4 . 17). ACI Coo:k 11.3.1 .2 permi1s Ihe usc of an alicmalivc sim
plified exprcssion:
V, -Z- I + ~iN
c ,''c- (4.18)
2000A.
Figure 4.17 ,IK>W' a mmparison of V, calculated hy lhe more <:omplex and ,imp li fi ~d
expressions for ""'ams with compression load. Equation (4_ 18) is "-'en to ile generally
'luite conservative. panicularly for hig!Je r values of N. A. _ Howeve r. ""'<'ausc of its
,implicity. it i, widely IIsed in practice.
b. Axial Tension
n", al'Proach de\'eloped aoove for hearns with a~ial cornpre"ion doe, no1 ~xmdat~
well with experimental ~vidence for ileam, ,uhj""t to axial tensk", . and often predi<"1S
,treng!h, Vo higher than actually measured. Fnr this reason. !he ACI Code pnl\'ide,
that . for "",mile" carrying significant axial tension as ,,-ell as hending and shear. tl",
contribution of the concrde "'" taken as
N,
+ -- (4.1 9)
500A g
hu! not less than zero. when: N. i, "ega!i,,, for len,ion. As a 'implifying alternative.
the Cmnn"'ntary to the Code suggests that. for ""'ams carrying axial tension. Vc he
ta k~n ~'lual to zero and the .I",ar reinforcement he required to carry the total ,hear.
n", variation of Vc with N. A. for hearn. with tension is shown in Fig. 4.17 al><:>_
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS [ON [N B~: AMS 143
EXAM PLE 4.-1 Effec t or

H[al fo...,,,,, Oil _ A beam " 'ith di",ension' h - [2 in ., d - 24 in ., and h -
27 in,. with ~ 4{)(X) p,i, CarneS" single l"""en1r~led faclored load of 100 kips at mid'pall,
Fhld lhe llIaximulll >hear slrenglh of lhe concrele V, al 1M fiN crilical "",Ii"" for ,hear ,I
"di.ta""" d frum IhI: ,uppurl (Il' if no .xial for<.." are pr~"'n1. (h) if .xial cornpn:,sio" of
60 kip' orIS. and (d if axial I"",i"" of 60 kips acl< . In each ca"" comrule V, b~ both lhe
mo", complex and simplified "'PfC"iom of the ACI Code, Neg["'1 ,.,If-weighl or the be",1{,
AI 1"- "",Ii"" eoo,;.kred. len,iI, reinforcement con,;", of Ihree No. [0 (No. 12) ban wilh
a tOl.1 are. ofl.8 1 in',
S.OUnJUN_ AI lhe crili.. J S<"Ctiofl. V. ~ 50 kips and 1>1, ~ 50 X 2 ~ 100 fl-kips, "chile
- -'-8 1 (12 X 2-IJ - 0.011 .
(u) If N. - 0, Eq. (4.12,,) pmlicls
4{)(X) + 2.500 0,(113 X 50 X 2 "

12 X [ ~ )() - 44.0 ~ i ps
" '"'
nol I" exceed lhe value of
24 , '
12 X 1000 - 63.8 ~ 1 1>S
1(lhe ,implified Eq. (4 ,12/'J is u>Cd.
. -,-
",. "
4000 X 12 X - - - - J6A kip'
"'"
whic h i$ abool 17 P<'r<:ent beluw thl: '''''''' """"I ,,,I ue o f Eq, (",. Iw),
(h) With a compte.l,ion of 60 kips introduced. 1"- modified nlO,,,,,nl j , found from Eq,
(4. 161 lObe
4 X 27 - 2",
M_ ~ 100 - 60 - 47.5 (I-k ips
8 X 12
Afler inlrodUCl i(l" (If !hOI ,'aluc inl(l Fq, (4 ,11..) in place of M , . U>c concrele sllcar
str"n~lh i,
1.9 4000 + 2.'>00 0.0]] X 50 X 2

47.5
"
12 X - - -
1000'
~4 . ) kin<
"-
and. according to Eq. (4 , 17). ,hould 1101 "x"""d
"".000
1 .,. .".-, ~ ~7 - 7->,6 l ips
."-'" X I. X
If lhe ,implified Eq. (4 , I 8) i, u>Cd.
V - 2 1 -'- 60.000 24
, 2oooX12 x 27 12 X 1000 - .W.8l ips
CO"'I""ing II", ""{lit, of the mor~ ex",,1 calculation fo.- (Il) aod (V). ;t is ""'" Ihal lhe
introduction of an axial cnmpre"i," ,Ire" of 60.000 (12 X 27) - 185 p,i inc"" "" the
CO<lCrcic she.r V,, by .bool 25 VCr<:ent.
(c:I With ,n ""ial ten,i"" of6O kirs acling, lhe redoce<l Vc is f(lu rld from Eq. (4 .19) l(l ""
"
"
1', - 21 - ",,""~.~.":c,, .
12 X 1000 - 22,9 k'l>S
5OOxI2x27
n.>ductio" (If almOSI 50 P<'I'<:Cni from 1M va lue f(ll" N. ~ O.The altemativ" of u,ing Eq,
(4. 19) for Ihi, case. ",-,<:(lCljing 10 'he ACI C(llnn\enlary. wO\l ld be l() >c1 Vc - O.
In all ca"" abo"e. Ihe sirengih Il"dllClioo fac tor = 0.75 woo ld be a""lied to V, IO
obIain the do;sign , trenglh.
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
'- _. 4.7 B eAMS WITH VARYING D ePTH
Reinforc~-.:I concl\:te membocrs havi ~g varying d~pth are fl\:quently used in the form or
haunched beams for bridges or portal franloOS. as shown in Fig. 4.1 !Il,. as precast roor
girders such as shown in Fig. 4. 18/). or as cantib'er slabs. G\:;ncrally the depth
increases in the direction of ,ncreasing moments. Fo r beams ..... ith ,'arying depth. the
inclination of the inte01lal compressi"e and tensile stress resulta nt s may significant ly
affeci lhoc sht:ar for which Ihe beam should be designed , In addilion. IIle shear I\:Si 51'
ance of such rnembocrs may differ from Ihm of pri smn1ic beams.
Figure 4.1& shows a canlilever beam. wilh fixed support al the left eM. carry
ing a single conccntraled Io.'ld P n1lhe right. The deplh increases linearly in lhoc di,,-,\:
lion of increasing moment. In such cases. Ihe imcmaltcn sion in lhe sl~d and lhe com
pressive Slress rcsultam in lhe concrele are inclined. aM imroduce componell1s
Iransverse 10 Ihe a~is of Ihe member. Wilh refel\:nce 10 Fig. 4.1 &1. sho ..... ing a short
lenglh lis oflhe bea.!!). if Ihe slope oflhe top surface is - I alld lhal oflhe I>ouom is l'
Ih~ nel shear rorce V. for which Ihe bocam should be ocsigned is vcry nearly equal 10
V. = V, - TUm , - Clan !
whcre V. is Ihe eXlernal shear force equal 10 Ihe load P here. and C .. T " M, : . The
inlernallc\'er arm z .. (d - " 2) as usu:d. Thus, in a case for which Ihe beam dcplh
increases in Ihe dircclion of ,ncreasing moment. Ihe shear for which Ihe mcmocr
should be dcsigned is approximalely
v, _ M.
V, - - _- -Ian ,+13n -1- (4 ,20,,)
~ ~
FIG U RE 4.111
Efl'ec1 of \" I)'inS beat" depth
"" she..-_ -- --- ~ --
",
,~ ~,
",
0,
, 17cos 0, V. _ p
17cos 0,
-
vut
GIcos Q, '-I
T
,
~ 10~
-1-
[~Dj)M"
Glcosl)~ W
'" '"
", 1"
o..loootc..,_ , ...;" 0180_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS ION IN B~: AMS 145
For the infr"'-juellt case in which the mem\x,r deplh decrease' in the d i""-'liol1 of
increasing ",onlem. il is easily confinned thai the corresponding equation is
M,
V. -V.+ - , -tan ,+tan- l- (4 ,201
These equ~tions ~re approximate because the directi"n of the imern,,1 forces is not
exanly as assumed : however. the equation' "'''Y be UM->d without signifll'ant error pro-
vided Ihe slope angle, do not nCL>eti ahout 30"_
1nere has Ix-en vel)' linle researeh studying Ihe sllear strenglh of beam, ha"ing
varying depth _ Te~ts reponoo ;n Rd. 4.17 on simple 'pan \x,ams with haunches at
slopes up to al:x.>ut I~" and with depths OOlh increasing alld decreasing in the d irection
of inc",asing monlems indicate no apprecial>le ,-hange in Ihe crack ing load V"' co", -
pa",d with that for pri,matic members_ Funhennor". the 'trenglh of Ihe haunched
l>earns. which contained venical ~tirrup' as weI> reinforcen",m. waS nOi sign ifi"am ly
decrea,~-d Of i'IC",,,,,,,d. "'gardless of the d ir~,,_ timl of deereasing d~pth. Based on this
information . il "ppear" '''if'' 10 de,';SII beam,,' ",illl "<1I)-;1l1<: d~plll for "II"<lr u,,;ng equlI-
1;011.\' filr V,_ lind V, d""e/of'<'d for pr;smalic m~mIJer,'-. provided the actual deplh d at
the section under con,idemtion is used in the calculations.
A LTER N ATtVE M ODElS FO R SHE AR AN A LYStS AN D D ESIG N
llIC AC! Code me(ltoo of design for shear and diagonal tension in beams, rn:scm~d in
r=eding S<.'Ct ions of thi s chapter. is esscmiall y empirical. While gener~lI y leading to
sa re designs. the ACI Code "V, + V," approoch lacks a physical model for the behavior
of beams subjOCl to st-.:ar cOlnhine'd with bending. al1d its shorlcomings are nOW gener
al ly recogniled , T1lC "collcrcte contribution" Ve is generally considered to he solne com
binalion offorcc transkr by dowd action of the main skd. aggregate interlock along a
diagonal CTac~. and shear in tl>c UllCrackcd concrete beyond the end of the CTac~. llIC
vaJocs of ench contribution are not identified. A ratht:r ,'ague rationaliz~tion is followed
in adopting Ihe diagonal cr<IC~ing load of a member " -;Ih",o/ web steel ns the concrete
contribution to the shear strength of nn otherwise identical beam 1<';lh web sted (S<."C
ScC(ion 4,4). FUrlhennore, as diseussed in Section 4.3. Eqs. (4.3a) and (4.12<1). osc'd to
prodict the diagonal cracking load. overestimate concrete shear strength for beams with
low reinforcement fa(ios ( < 1,0 perccl1ll. oVCreStilna1e the gain in shear strength
resulting froln tt-.: usc of high strength concrete (Refs, 4.12 to 4.1 ~). al1d underestimate
the inllllCllCe of V.d M. (Ref, 43). 1ltc cxpn:ssions also ignQfC the fact that shear
strength decreascs as lember size inc",ascs (Refs, 4 , IS and 4.19).
Ad hoc proc~-dures nrc bui lt imothe ACI Code to adjUSt for some ofthesc defi
ciencies. but it follows that it is necessary to Include ~'<luations. also emp irically devel
oped for the most pnn. for speci/1c classcs of memocrs (e.g .. oc"CP ocams \'5. Ilonnal
ocams. beams with axi~1 loads. prestressed vs. 110npreStresS<.'d beams. high strength
concrete' ocams}-wilh rcstrictions on the mnge of applicability of such equalions,
Alid it is necessary 10 incorporate seemingly arbitmry provi sions for the m~ximum
nominal shear stress and for the extension of fkxural reinforcement P.1st the thooreti
cal point of need. The eM result is that lhe number of AC I Code equation s for shear
design has grown from 4 prior to I%~ to 43 in 2002 ,
With this as bac~ground . ~\\ention has been given 10 the de\'elopment of design
approaches bascd on rational bel>avioralmodels. geiler-lily applicable. mther than on
empirica l evidence alone (Rd , 4 ,6).
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I8o_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
146 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 4
FIG UIU: 4.1'1

Tru modd fo.- beam, with "'""
\.
weh reinforcement
(a) uniformly load<d ocam, I,
Ih) sin1pi<In", modek
(c) more rcali>!ic m<>dcl
1"1
Tension chord
Verticalle nsion ties
1'1
Compression SIMS
-,,-----
Diagonal
compression field
1'1
n,~ 1m.' .' "wJeI was Ofiginall)' in1fodu(-ed h)' Rilter (Rd. 4.20) and Morsch
(Ref. 4.21) at Ihc lum oflhe las1 century. A <;implifi~d yersion ha, long pn>yided Ihe
hasis fOf Ihc ACI Code design of shear '1""1. The es~nlial f~a1ures of Ihe mIS' model
are reyiewffi with reference 10 Fig . 4.19a. which ,how, one-half lhe span of a simply
,upponed. unifmmly loaded beam. The com hi ned ""lion of flexure and ,hear pro-
dU(-e'lhe pal1em of cHlcking ,hown. R~inforcement cOll,islS of II", main flexuml steel
near Ihe tension face and \'ertical 'Iirrup' dis1ribut~d o~e r the 'pan.
lne strunuml nction can be represented hy the tru~, of Fig. 4. 19b, wilh Ihe main
'ted pruviding the tension cho.-d, the concrete lop flange aCling :I., Ihe (-ompre"ion
dK>rd. the stirrups pmyiding Ihe vertical le",klll weh members, and the c<;mcr"t~
between inclined cracks aning a, 45 compression diagonals, The tru ss i, fornkXi by
lum ping nil of Ihe slirrul" cut by ><-'Clio" a -a into on~ yenical ",ember and all of the
diagonal toncrdc struts cui by ><-'Clion h-b into Orl" (-ompression diagonal. Expcrieoc~
,how. that fm typical c:l.>;es, Ihe re~ul1, of the model deseribed are 'luitc conservative,
particularly fOf !lenm., with small amounl. or weh reinforccn",m. As noted ahl",e, in
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS ION IN B~:AMS 147
the ACl Code Ihe ""se,",,<xl excess ,hear capacity i, taken <~ual to the slrar at tl",
Comnlencemenl of diagonal <T~cking and i, referred to as Ihe C""';n'tt' ('()ntr;/mti"" I'r
Owr Ihe pa,t 25 years, the IruS, coocept has bet.n greatly exknded by the work
of S<'hlaich. Thurlimann. Mani, Collin,. Mac'Gregor, and otl",rs (Rd,. 4.6, 4.22 to
4. 27). h wa, realized that the angle of ineli nation Qfthe coocrele sirul. is generally nOi
4 5 001 may range between about 25 and 65. depemling to a large exlent on tile
arrangement of reinforcement. Thi, led 10 what has ben""" Lnown as the \'ar;ahle
""sle IrU.H modt'l, , hown in Fig . 4.19" whic'h iJiustmte, the five hasic n,mp<,nenl> of
the i mprQved model: (a) struts, or c~'n<:rctt <:ompression nlemboers uniaxially loaded:
(h) tie" or 'tee! ten~ion memboers: (r) joint, at the intersection of truss memboers.
a~,u"led to be pin-<oonnected; (d) compres,ioll fans. which fonn at "di,turbed"
region" such as at the , upp<,rts or under concentrated loads. tmnsmining the fOf(",,'
into tire boeam: and (d diagonal compression fields. ,x;curring where paranel <'001-
pression struts tran,mit force fmm one stirrup to another. As in the ACI Code ,leve1 -
Qpn"'nt, ,timlp' are typically assu"led to reach yield stress at failure. With the force
in all the verticals known and equal to AJ" the tru" of Fig. 4.19c boecome, st atically
detenninate. Direct design t.'quatio", can boe based on the variahle lmgle tru5.~ model
for onli nary cases. The m,xlel al.o pemlit, direct numerical ,olUl ion f", the required
reinforcement for 'pecial cases. The trus. Il](xld 'k"" nm in<'lude com[X"lenl. of the
,boe"r failure mechanism such as aggregme interlock and fric,tion. dowel action of the
longitudinal ,t""L and shear carried across unc.,l(:koo con<'ret~. Funhennore, in the for-
mat origi nall y pro[XISCd. the lruss model does not account for compatihility require-
mellls: i.e .. it is has<xl on "Imt,,;ity th~ol)'. In 2002. one foml of the tru S, modd was
inc"'po.~ted in Appendix A of the ACt Code~ slrut -and -tie fll()(\els are discussed in
detail in Chapter 10.
a, Compression Field Theory
The Canadian National Standard for reinforced concrete ( Rd. 4.28) include, a n"'thod
of ,hear design that is e~sentinlly the ,arne as the present ACI method hut also includes
an alternative gefl".~l melh<xl" haS<'<! on the \'ariahle angle tru" and tile c",""r~ssir",
jid'! tlwory (Refs. 4. 25 mxl4,JO). TIle latter is incorporated in AASHTO LRFD BriJge
IN.,iSIl S"e"ifi,:miOlI.< (Rd . 4.29 ), where its use is mandatory for shear design. In it~
complete form. known as the tt1oclijit'd <'OIIIp",n;OII Jidd 11,~ot~" il ac<:oum, f",
f('<luirenlent' of cmnpatihility as well as t.'quilihrium. and incmpo.~te!; ,tr",,-strain
characteri,tic's of bmh materia'-<. TIms. it i, capable of pr~dicting not only the failure
load hut also the cmnplete load-Uefonnatioll response. TIle mo,t hasi" dcnlem, of the
compression field theory, appli<xl to members carrying cumbined nexure and shear.
will he dear fmm Fig. 4.20. Figure 4.20.1 shows a simple-span concrete hellm, rein -
forced with longitudinal hars and transve~ stirrups. and <:anying a unifonnly dis-
tributed loading alOflg the Hlp fa~"". TIle light diagonalli""s are an idealized represen -
tation of potential tensi le cracking in tl", cOflcrete.
Figure 4.201> il lusl.~te, thaI the Ilet ,hear Vat a section a di,tance x from the , up-
[X,rt is resisted by the venical cump<lnent of the diagonal <'ompre"ion force in the
mn<:rete ,trulS. The horizomal component of the cmnpre5.<ion in the ,truts must he
"'luilibrattd by the tOlal tension for~", tlN in thc longitudinal st~eI. Thus. with refer-
ene", 10 Figs. 4.20h and c , the magnitude of the longitudinal ten,ion resultin g from
st",ar is
V
tlN " - - . I'eo! (4,21 )
tan '
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
14.11 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 4
FIG UIU: 4.20

B"j, of """p<e<.,i"" field
IheOI')' fOf ,hea~ (<I) beam
with ,heaT.OO Im,gitudinal
"eel ; (b) l<nsioo i"
horiz<>nml bar> du< to ,1><..-;
(c) diagonal con,.,..."i""
on ix.m w.h; (d) voni<',1
,.,
t.."ion in stirrups;
( ~) equilibrium di'gmm of
fo.." due to shear. (Ad,'p,ed
from R~f 4 25.)
'N
,
X} ,
tanO
'I I"~
I'}
""0,.}
where , is the angle of inclination of the diagonal Struts. 11'e'" forces 'uperi mpose OIl
the I()ngitudinal f()rces owillg to Ilexure, n()t ~IK)wtl in Fig. 4.2Gb.
1ne effectiw dep1h fOT 'hear calculation~. according t() this melhod, is taken at
the di",tlce hetw~..,n longitudinal force re,uhants, d,.. lllUs, fT<lm Fig. 4.2011. 11m diag-
onal compressive Stre" in , web having width h,. is
V
iJ = ,
b,.d. SIn c",
(4.22)
The tensile fOTCe in the verticJI stirrups, ~ach having area A" and a~su",o:d iO oct
aliho: yield str~~sJ;. can he foun{l from ihe free body of Fig. 4.20". Wiih Slirrups
a~sum~d (Q he JI uniform spaci ng ,<.
V,\ ian
A,/., - (4.23)
J,
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENSION IN B~:A MS 149
NOIe, wilh reference to II", ffL",-body diasr.Hn. thai lhe tr.m<verse reinforcement wilhin
the lenglh d,. Ian can he designed 10 resisl Ihe lowesl ,I",ar Ihat occu r, within Ihis
lenglh, i.e . Ihe ,hear al Ihe righl end.
In lhe ACI Code n",thod developed in Senion 4.4. il was assumed Ihat II", angk
was 4 5. With thai as,umption. and if d is substitulffl fw d,.. Eq. (4.23) is idemical
to that used earlier fw Ihe de'ign of ven ical slirrup" . It is genera lly fLcognized. bow-
e\'er. thai lhe s[ope angle of the compression ,Irut, is nOl neccssarily 4 5" and a("Cord -
ing to Refs . 4.2R and 4.29 Ihat angle can range from 20 to 75. provided Ihe ,an",
value of is UM.-d in satisfying all fL'quirement' at a seclion . It is evidem fmm F..q',
(4.21) and (4.23) Ihal, if a lower ,lope angle i, sek'CIed.less venical reinforccment bul
more hwiwmal reinforcemem will he requirffl. In addilion. Ihe compression in II",
concrete diagonals wi II he increa!ie<L Conversely, if a higher ,lope angle is used" more
verti("al 'teel bul Ie" horizomal 'ted will be needed . and the diagonallhrusl will he
less. It i, generally ",:onomicallo use a slope angle somewhal Ie" Ihan 45 , wilh II",
limilalion Ihallhe cOncrele diagonal slruls mu,t not he overstrc,sed in CQmpression.
In addilion to pmviding an impmved basi, for Ihc dc<ign of reinforce",e nt for
,hear. the variable angle truss model gi,'es important in<ishls illlo detailing need, . For
cxample. it become, clear fmm Ihe abovc thai Ihe increase in longitudinal ,teellen -
,ion resulling fmm Ihe diagonal comp.-e;ion in II", slrut, ".'quires Ihal flexural sleel
be eXlended beyond the point at which il is Iheorclically nOl needed for f1exure, to
acCount for Ihe increased hwizontal tensile force re,ulting fmm Ihe Ihru,t in the ("om-
pression diagonals. This is not recognized nplicitly in Ihe ACI Code method for beam
design. (However. Ihc ACI Code ill"" cOnlain Ihc arlJitmry requirerncnt Ihat Ihe flex -
uml sled he eXlended a dislarK'C d or 12 har dia""'lers beyond Ihc poim indicated by
f1exuml requirements.) Alw. it is dear from rhe basic coneepl of Ihe lru" model thai
,tirrups muSI be capnble of developi ng Iheir full Icn<i Ie <Irenglh Ihroughoul II", emire
,tirrup height, For wide hearns. focus on tru ss action indicate, thai spedal aitemion he
given 10 laleml di<lribution of web reinfofl"ernent. It is often tire pranice 10 use con -
ventional U stirrup, for wid" beams. with Ihe venicallen,ion from lhe ,tirrup' con -
untrated around lhe OUlen"o,t bars. According 10 Ihc di""u,,ion abo,'e. diagonal
compression ,truts tran<mil forces only al the joi nt, . Lack of ,tirrup joirn, al the inte-
rior of the wide -beam web woo Id forcc joims to form onl)' at the exterior longiludinal
bars. which would corK'entrale the diagonal compression al the oUler faces of Ihe beam
and pos,ibly resuh in premalure failure. It is beiil 10 fonn a lruss joint at each of II",
longitudinal barn. and multiple leg ,tirrups slrould always be u,,-d in wide benm.~ (,,'"
Fig. 4.&;).
Reference, 4.28 and 4.29 incorporale a refined vcrsion of II", approach jusl
described, kno,,"n as the modifi<--d compression fi eld Ih<-",,), (MCFT). in whi,"h II",
crach-d CQncrele is lreated:l., a new material wilh ilS O,,"n slre,,-slmin charnclerisli,s.
including Ihe abilily 10 carry len<ion following crack for mation. n.e cornpre"iv~
'trength nnd the ,tres<-,train curY~ of the wncrele in the diagonal compression ,trulS
d<-'Creases as Ihe diagonal tensile strain in Ihe concrele inneases. F..quilibrium. ,"om-
palibilily. and corlSlituti\'e relalionship, arc fommlated in terms of a,"erag~ ,trc<""
and averagc slrains. Variability in the angle o f indinalion of lhe compression ,trulS
and stress-<Irain softening eff""I' in II", re'ponse of Ihe concrete nre taken into
account. Om,ideralion i, al,o given 10 local sire" condilions al 'T~ck localions. 11",
melhod is ("apahlc of ace"uralely p".-dicling the re'pon", of ce,mplex elements su("h a,
,hear walls. diaphmgrns. and membrane elemem, subjeck..-:l to in -plane shear and a xial
loads Ihmugh Ihc full range of loading, from zem load 10 failure (Refs, 4.26 and 4.27),
11", vcrsi,m of tI", rnelhod adopled in Ref 4.29 has been simpl ifi<--d 10 allow ils use for
mUline de,igo,
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
b. Design Provisions
The version of thc MCFf adopt ~d in thc AASHTO LRf'D Bri<lx~ De.,'iX'i
~i><,cijicwi"Ii.' (Ref. 4.29) is. li~c thc shear provisions in thc ACI Code, based on nom-
inal shcar capacity...... ith V, equal to the lesser of
V. - Vc + V, (4,24)
V. = 0,25f:b,.d, (4, 25)

wl",re b" ~ web width (the same as b. in th" ACI Code) and d,. ~ elTecti,'e !kpth in
shear. laken as equal to the flexural lever ann (the di>tmlC~ betwet'n the centroids of
the lensile and compressive forces), but nOlles> than 0.9<1,
1lte values of V, and \', dilTer from thosc used by the AC l. with
v ~ t: b",/, (4.26)
"rnl
"
AJ,d,'cot + cot . Sill
V, - (4.27)
"
where A ,.. [,.. s. . and are as okfined before. is the "'HKfI'le lell.<ile Sl re.'S fOClor
and is based on lhe ability of diagonally cracked concrde 10 resisl tcnsion ...... hich also
controls the angle of tltt: dia,gonallension crack . For mcmbers with a minimum of
tmns\,crsc reinfon;enlCnt. and arc determined by the avemge shear stress and the
longitudinal slrain in the concrete ...... hich is approximaled by '
,M~" "I'__--,;O,.5,A_',,_+~v~, :5 0.002 (4.28)
E,A,
For beams containing allcasl the minimum t rans~crsc reinforcement, - 2. giving a
value of , l'([ual to the concrcte stmin at the mirkleplh of Ihe bo.:am, and Ihus. recog-
nizing the abilily of thesc mcmbers 10 n--distributc shear stress from the most highly
straillCd ponion of tk cross section. For beams wilh less than Ihe minim um amount of
tranwersc reinforcenk:llI. .. I: tltt:sc members ha"e less ability 10 redistributc shear
stress. and , is more appropriately basl'd on tk highest longitudinal stmin. The sign
convcntion for N, is the same as us<'d in Sat ion 4,6 and thc AC! Code: compression is
positi"c ~nd Icnsion is n~gal;ve (the opposilc sign convention is used ;n Ref. 4.29).
The average shcar stress is given by
V.
l' = -- (4.29)
b,.d,.
Many solulions for arc possible. d~pending upon the value of selated. Table
4.2 is a design aid for mcmbo.:rs with at lc:1S1 Ininimum sllCar rcinforcemell11hat pro-
vides the optimum value of and the com:sponding value of for given valu~s of
",fc and , .
As shown in Eq, (4.2 I). Ihe strength of Ihe /ollgilmlitUli rei nfon:emcnt must be
adequale 10 carry lhe additional forces induced by shear. Referring 10 Fig. 4 .21. this
leads to
AJ~<: 1" = - - -- +
M, 0,5N, v.
- - O.5V, co, (4.30)
d.
M, <I. - O,5N, + o. ~ \~ <'"

1'<Iua'...., (4.2S) is illlplifK'llllOO of
.'1 ,
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SH EA R AND DlM;(lNA L TENS[ON [ N B~: AMS 15 1
TABLE 4.2
Values of and for sections with at least minimum transverse reinforcement
x 1000
,;; -0. 2 0 .. - 0 . 10 :>" - 0 .05 .0 ,.; 0. 125 ,; 0. 25 ,; 0. 5 0 "'0.15 :50 1 .00 '; 1.5 0 ,; 2 .00
",0.015 22 ..1 W, 21.0 2 1.8 2~.3 26.6 .1.O.S .1.1.7 .l 6.4 40.8 H9
6. ~2 4.1'\ ~.I0 ~ . 7~ 3. 2~ 2.94 2.'\') 2.3K 2.2.1 1.95 167
",0. [00 18 , I
_.79
20.4 21A 22 ,5 2~.9
2.9[
27. [ ).(1.8 M.O
'" "'. ~.l. I
'"'O.l2-~ 19,9
3.3K
21.9
3.24
22.8
1. 14
2.1.7 2.~ . 9
2.75
27.9
2.'\0
.I[A
1.32
.~.4
1 .1K
.17,0
1.9.1
41.0 H2""
",0 . [50
l . IR
2 1,6 ''''
2.1..1
2.94
2~.2
287
25.0
2.74
26.9
2N
28.8
2.42
32. [
226
M.'
2.n
.17..1
'"
40.5
167
~2 ,8
'"'0.115
28K
2.l.2
2.79
24 ,7
2.IS
2.~ . 5
272
26,2
2.60
28.0 ,.,.,
252 236
.12.7
1 .21
.15 .2
1.OK
.l 6,8
1.82
.19.7
161
~2 , 2
273 'M 2.65 26 B2 2.44 2.28 2.14
]4,5
,% U[ 154
",0 .200 24, 7
263
2(;,1
259
26.7
B2
27.4
25 1
29.0
2.43
).(1.6
237
32.8
2.1 ~
'" '"119
39.2
I.o[
~1.7
lA7
"'0.225 26.1 2n 21.9 2K.5 .1-0.0 :>0.8 323 .140 35 .7 38,8 -I I .4
2,S.1 HZ ,.% , .M I.S[
",0.250 27 ,5
2,45
28 ,6 29. [
''''
29,7
2 ..14
:>0.6
2. [ ~
3l..l 12.8
1.73
34,3 35,8 38.6
1.39
41.2
2.19 239 2.33 l ..n 2. [2 1.9.1 L70 1 58 1 50 US 1.29
I".. ;",""""ii"", vllu,,, or -' x 10ll .oo '. 1;, "", ,00<"'''', (or
"",I ,he mo.' ",;,h ''''' ","" >""" ,', Iuc' ,,{ ". t.
-, ;n the cui"mn w;,h ''''' ""'" ~"' (nc" I"";'~"l val"",,( , x 110)
5<,",,,,: 1',,"" Rd . 4.2'J.
n G U R E -1. 2 1
Equiliooum d i.~ .. m r",.
c.icu i,,;ng I<n<;k fo.-ce in
~-=-==-=-"tl-=1+=-=]~==-"F,=-=~f,
I I I I I
=-=1--.-C
reinl""'<n",", . \AMptd from I I I I I
N'':4.l\I.l I I I I
I I I I
I I I
I I
I I
I
I
AI points of maximom momcnt. V. dmngts sign. V, n""d not be lak~n grealer

than V. . Since Ihe inclination of lhe comp",,,ion ,Irut, change,. len,ion in Ihe lon -
gitudinal reinfo,,:cment d""s nO! exc~"C wilh Ie" Ihan the minimum trans~e"" reinforcen",nt. design i,
accornpli ~hc-d u,ing Table 4.3. which gives the oplimum value of and llie ('OITesp0!ld -
ing value of as a function of , and a <"Tac k ,pacing pammelcr ",. The pamn",ter "., can
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
TABLE 4.3
Values of "d for sections with less than minimum transverse reinforcement
x 1000
in. s -0. 20 :'i - 0. l 0 :>'- 0.05 ., ,.; 0. 125 ,; 0.25 ,; 0.50 "'0.15 :501.00 '; 1.50 ,; 2.00
",5 25.4 25 .5 2 .~ . 9 26A 27.7 2.1.9 .1.0.9 .~2.4 .~.l.7 .15.6 37.2
2 . ~8
:'i 10
6.36
27.6 "'"
27.6
.~ . \6
283
~ . I~
2\U
UI
31.6
3.91
.'-'5
3.26
.1.63
2.86
38.4 10 1 U7
2.21
''''
4 ~. 7
5.78 5.78 .~38 ~.89 4.05 .1.52 2.88 L' 2.2.1 1.88 I.M
", 15 29.5 29.5 29.7 31.1 ~., 36.5 39.9 ~2A ~~A 47.4 49.7
~ ..14 5.34 .~.27 47 3 .1.82 3.28 '.M 226 2.O! 1.68 ,~
"' :w 312
,.., 31.2
.11 .2
,."
32.1 ;0' .18.8 42.7 45 .5 47 .6 ~19 5'A
." 4.6 1 3 . 6.~ 3.09 2.46
''''' I.S5 1.52 1.31
,
..,
I ,4. I .14.1 .IS.9 423 46.9
.~ 3~.
4A6 , ~ ,~
3~.2
4AJ 339 2.82 2.19 ""184
52.6
16()
563
130
59.0
'"
36.6 36.6 .1.6.6
,.'" ''''
36.6 41.1
.1.2{I
45.11
,.,,,
'50.2 53 7 56.3
1.43
ffi.' 630
,., '''' '''' 2.62

'''' I.I~ 0.95
..,
."
J .';O
+1:\
.l .lO
.0.8
, .50
44 .3
3. lO
40.S
4U
.150
3.10
."
J';O
44 .3
.1.l0
M .5
2.92
47.1
2.71
49.2
232
523
2.11
55.1
1.71
58.7
1.52
58.9
1.40
628
1.21
,"
I:> I.S
M .7
1.0 1
65.S
0.92
69.7
0.71:>
'"
OU
72A
0.62
I , ~ j""'mx-d"", va lue, '" , x 100) "Tl(hM "'" !II< ("'t"'~ h

and (.... row ~i(h LII< """ I'f''''''-~ val"" "r '.'
j" LII< ",lwTtfl .. i,h th< ne>: t in,,'cr I"'''''' ro.it;",) ,".1"" (0( ,x 1(0)
Sou",,; I'''.fl Rd. 4.29.
he (ahn as (he lesser of (he shear dep(h <I,. or (hoc spacing b.:(wccn lay~rs of 1""Kimdi
""I ~rac~ collirol rcinforcelH~nl. cach layer wilh ~n al\:a or s(cel of at leasl 0.003b .5,.
Table 4.3 was developed for :i-in. coarse aggrcg~(e . For o(her aggl\:gale siz~s liS' an
cqui"~lcnl "alu~ of (he parame(cr should be used.
(4.31 )
Since is nolo in general. L"<1uallO 45". (he critical SI.'Ction (Highl approprialely
be ta~en as d, CO( from the face of the suppor( if all of the load were applied 10 lhe
upper surface of (he trK!mber. If load is applied al Ihe middeplh of the (ncmb<r. how.
ever. lhe crilical S<.'Ction would occur O.sd,. COl from Ihe support. lIecau~e somc por.
(ion of (he load is always applied below Ill<: lOp surface of a memb<r. Refs. 4.28 and
4.29 def(ne Ihc localion of thoc critical sec(ion as occurring at a (liSlancc cquallo lhe
larger of 0.5<1, COl and " ,. from (he face of the support.
AASHTO t'l!quires a minimum amoun( of Iran8verse reinforcement A,. ~
1:1>,.< J. (com pared 10 0.75 J:1>. ,jJ~ for ACI ). when ". > 0.5 II,. and 8pecifics
maximum spacings of Iransversc l\:inforcemC(lI of II S 0.8",. S 24 in. when ". <
0.125t; and ,< S 0.-1<1,. S 12 in. when v" <: 0.125.t;. Because II>.: predictions oblai ned
wilh Ihe MC~I are generally more ,,"urale than Ihos<: oblained wilh Ihe ACl method.
AASHTO allows Ihe use of = 0.90 for sl>.:ar. (he &lme as for flexure.
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(INA L TENS [ON [N B~: AMS 153
EXAM PLE 4-S i)esign by noodlt1<>d oom p"""l011 tldd apl,,..,ach. Re.",I,'e lhe proIIlem g;""'" in Exam
pies 4 ,2 and 4 ,:1 ba",d 00 lhe MCFf. Use l\Cl lood faclor> and ~ 0,9 for shear. as u~
in AII51/10 LRf"O B'ul~e De'i~n SI",cificali",1S (Ref, 4.29). A,sume an "ggrc~m~ size ".
of ~ in.
S. 'I.lnlUN. For simplicily. lhe elYe"li,. ocplh Tor shear d. will be ",I m lhe minimum
allowable value - 0.911 - 0.9 X 22 - [9.8 in . M, and V, "'" "-, labolalN p"'l'iou,ly in Table
4.1.
The ,rilkal ",ctioll for ,he" is loc.loo. di slance equ,l 10 (be greal .... of d, - 19.8 ;n . -
I.M fl or 05.1, cOl . In I"" following J.oIUlioll . .I, <'OO(roI5 and V. ~ 94 - 9.4 X 1,65 -
785 lil'" CakulO1ing 0. 12V; b,d, - 0. 1 X 4000 X (6 X 19.8 - L~8.400 Ib leoos 10 maxi
mum 'pacing crileria for No.3 (No , 10) ,(inups ~q u"llo lhe ,,,,,,li ef of 0.&/. - O,g X 19,8
- 15.8 in .. 24 in .. or
A./, 0 .22 X 6O,(XMl
"." - ~ - 13 ,0 ill ,
J;b. 4000 X 16
Using Eq. (4.28) wilh - 2.

M.- 19.8 + V,
2 x 29.000 x 1.62
wilh M. ,nd V. in in-lips and kips. rcs(lecti".ly.

Th~ value, and \', 1: are lab\,ialed. along wilh M, and V. in Tabl~ 4,4, These '"Jlue, are
u~ 10 ",Ieel and from Tabl,,-, 4.2 ancl4 . .l for ""'lion. wilh and Wilhool minimum sli<
"'p'. respectiwly. When ",1"Cling ".Iue, frolll Table 4. ~. Iwic" the wb\,laled "al ue, for
are ""'d. si n"" - I for me",bers wilh less Ihan mini mum slirrul'" Where lhe secI;on n=l<
lhe minimum 'Iirrup "Diorio". lhe '"lu~, of are used 10 calculm. Ihe '"~I"", of II" which
or, tMn u~. along wilh !he ,alues of . [0 cakulale V, 0 00 !he required 'Iinup 'paring .
(= T.ble 4.4) ,
TABLE 4.4
Modified compression field theory design example using = 0.9 for shear
for at Least for Less Than
Distance Minimum Stirrups Minimum Stirrups
from
Support. ft ",000 n.
ft kips kips I 2) I . kips kips in. kips kips
,,
'=
,...
,..
26,6
,,
0
" 0.21 0.074
3(1,5
"" " I 1.5 2.46
,.'"
~,
37.7
22.2
"" 0.31
0.40
0,007
0 ,059
2.59
,.w ]0.5
"" ".n 10.5
14.0 1.85 3] .4
18.8
16.7
, '" "' 0,48 0 ,052 2.W .10.5

"", 20.9 1.85 33.4 16 7
,,,
27.4
''''
.153
%
"
,.~ O,().I~
0 ,037
2.38 H7
33,7 " 26.2 152
27.4
13.7
""
059 2.38 86.4 1.52 13.7
In
39~
428 '"'" 0.63
0.65
0.0.10
0.022
2.38
:!,38
33.7
3.1.7
"
U2
1.52
27.4
27.4 1.1.7
," 451
", 0"'
' .M
0,015 2.38 3:1.7
"" 152 n.4 D.7
" '"
'" 0 OM
0,(107
0 .000
2.38
2.38
.H7
3.U
"
1.52
l.52
27.4
2H
13.7
U .7
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;"01 80_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 4.22 d. - lo SS'

Modif.od ""'''pro'''ion fidd
de;ign f,.- h.n)ple 4.5. Vu - 94.0 ~ps
Va - 78.5 kips
r=J
4>Vc ('" minimum stirrups , ~ T
4>.:'" minimum stirrups , ~------ -
-- - - - -
~ i
reel
5.43'
8.54' I,
Web reinforcement
10.00' J
I"'
T
,
, , ,c
, , T
, T
, T
,
,
,
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , ,
L L
, "I, 0
,I,
0
" " " ,I
~ 2@ 10" 5 @ 13""
10'
For mm,,",",,,, fl"inforcement Ie" than tile minimum. [Ile value. of are bas.e<;k con
[rol reinforcement. In Ihis ca",. d, - 19,8 in. controls ,ince cra{"k rontrol ,einforcement is
nOl '1S<'<1, l "toc cq"i,-ak"l crack ,p.'lC;ng p",,,me'Ct $" - s, b<xause a, - 0.75 in. -I"tocse ,-al-
toe. of are us.e<i10 delermine 1he point where V,_ 2 '"' V 11le point a1 which stirrups may
be tcnnin"lcd ( l1'bIC 4.4). The \'alues of V.. Vc wi,., "Iteast minimu'" \1im'l'S. and V, 2
for less Ihan minimum Slirru", are plOlled in F ig. 4.2 k. 1lIe following s1irrup 'pacings ean
be u;eJ for Ihis c~se:
I 'pace at .~ in. - .~ in.
2 spaces al 10 in. ~ 20 in,
5 space., at 13 in. - Min _
TOI "I - 90 in, - 7 fl 6 in.
For lhi, eample. V, i. ~Ie cled bas.e<i 0" V. al eacb poinl. no1 lhe minimum ~'. on a crack
wilh angle 111i, , impli fies II", ""sign rrored ure arnJ resull, in a so,,,"whm more Con",,-
,"ti,'~ design. Even so. only 8 No. 3 (No. 10) MirrullS are nttded. compared 10 II "nd 14
p'~\'iOlJ'ly Cak""'led (fuamplc 4.3) u,ing I;'" lwo me1hod, required by lhe ACI COOC. The
resulting 'lirrup pallern is ,hov.'n in Fig. 4.22b.
By way of comparison. had ,.... - 0.75 betn us.epaces al 7 in. - 21 in.

2,pacesal9in. ~ 18i~ .
4 "paces al l) io. - 52 in.
TOlal ~ 95 in. ~ 7 fl II in .
fur., IUl.ol of 10 \!irr"DS.
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHEAR AND DlM;(lNAL TENSION IN B~: AMS ISS
The I>ICFf recognizes Ihal ,he.r inc",a,.,; the forre in [tie /1""uml 'Ieel. . llhough. as
c,pl"i ....'<1 C3rticr. Ihe 11l~ .,i"'um I~IIsilc fQr\:e in lhe >lttl is rtOI affected. EqualiQII (4. 30)
should be used tQ calculate tbe wnsile force 'r along the span. which will then gQ,..,m tbe
IOC"liQIl ' wh..-re (ensile "eel """Y be lcm,inal cd. This win be di"'I!5<'d further ill O,,1P1cr 5.
Tht M C~T is nO! ind ud<!d in Iht 2002 AC I Code. ACI Code IA. however. pcr_
milS Ihe use of "any sySlem of design or wnSlruction .... Ihe adequacy Qf which has
been shown by successful use or by an~lysis Qr lesl." if approved by the appropriale
building official. The ~pplication of the MC~T in Canad~ arid in U.s. bridge practice
provi<les the evidence nceded 10 demonstrate "successful use."
SHEAR- F RICTION D ESIGN METHOD
Generally. in reinforced concretc de~ign . shear is used merely as a convenient llIeas

ure of diagonal tension. which i~ the real concern. !n COniraSi. there are circumstances
such Ihat direct shear may cause failure of reinforc~,<! conerele llIemhcrs. Such silUa-
fions occur Wlllmon!y in prec~1 concrete SlruClUres. panicularly in Ihe vicinity of
conneClions. as well as in composite construction cQmbining cast-inplace concrete
wilh either precast concrete or steuClUra! steel elemenlS. POlenlial fail ure planes can be
establish<.,<! for such cases along which direci shear wesse~ arc high . and failure 10
provide aoc,<[uate reinforcemenl across such planes llIay produce disaSlrous results _
The necessary reinforcement may be delermined on lhe basis of IhI: 5i1f<lr.
jrioioll IIIflh"d of design (Refs. 4.31 to 4.35). The basic approach is 10 aSS(JJl!e Ihal
the cotlcrel~ may crack in an unfavorable mantler. or thai slip may occur along a pre-
<letermin<!d plane of weakn~ss. Reinforcement must be provirlcd crossing the potential
or actual crack or shear planc to prevent direct shear failure.
The shear.frictiQn Ihoory is "ery simple. and Ihc behavior is easily visuali7cd.
Figur~ 4.23<1 shows a crack<!d block of cOIJ<:rete. with the crack crossed by reinforce-
"!em. A shear fQrce V. aCIS parallel to the crack. and IhI: resuhing tcndency for the
upper block to slip rclative to Ihe lower is resi~ted largely by friClion along the con
crete inlerface al the crack. Since Ihe crack surface is naturally rough and irregular. tl\c
dfL'Ctivc coefficient of friClion may be quite high _ In additi on. the irregular surface
will cause the two blocks of conerele to "'parate slightly. as shown in Fig. 4.23/>_
.,
Shea r-Iran s fer
reioforcemen
-
' ,, , , ,' / '
" r' Graci<
separation ,--=,."---, ,," , r',
due to slip
,, ,' L_~~0 Yr
-,
'- -'
(,
r
''I ",
FIG URE 4.23
Ib,i, <.>f ,hear fri,tion <klign "",thud: (a) applied ,he,r; (h ) enlarged TCj)[c,<nta'ion of crock
,urfoce; (c) tree-body sk.rch of "'''<fete abo,, CTa<'k.
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
156 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 4
If reinforcement i, preselll nonnal to the crack. tl"'n slippage and su b,,-~uenl

",paration of the concrele will stre~, tt;., sled in lension. Te,l, ba,'e confinned tbal
well-anchored 'teel will be stressed 10 its yield str~ngth when ,hear failure is oblained
(Rd. 4.33) . lne re,ulting lensile force sels up an '-'qual and op!""ite pressure between
the COncrete face.~ on eitt;.,r side of Ihe cr~ck. It is dear fmlll tl", f"-",, body of Fig.
4. 23(" that the maximum ,'aloe oflhis interfac'e pressure is Aiff,-. whe re A'f is Ihe tOial
area of steel cn"sing the c r~ck and!., is its yield slrength.
lne concrete resistance 10 sliding may be expressed in tenn, of Ihe normal force
tim"s a coefficient of friction . By sell ing tm, summalion of horizontal forces '-'qual
to ""0
(4 ..12)
D.:fining the reinforc~tncm ralio .. A,[ A" where A, in this cnse is the area of tile
crad:..xJ sul"fure, nllows Eq, (4,32) to be rewrillen in tenns of the nominal shenr stress I'.:
(4.33)
The relative movemc nt of the concrete on opposit~ sides of the crac~ also sub-
jects Ihe individual reinforcing hars to shearing action. and th~ dowel resislancc of lhe
IxIrs to this shearing action cOlliributes to shear resistance. However. it IS customary to
ncglect the dowel eff,-'Ct for simplicity ,n design and to compenSllte for this by using
an anificially high value of the friction cocffici~nl.
Based on early teslS, may be ta];en equal 10 1.4 for erac]; s in monolithic con -
crete. but V. should not be assumed great~r than O,2t;A o or SOOA , Ib (Ref. 4,}I) .
The ShCar-lransfer strenglh prlxlicted by Eq, (4 J3) is compar,-xl with test resuhs
in Fig, 4.24 (Rd . 4.33) . It is evidem that Eq. (4.33) gives a conservative eSlimale of
shear strenglh, It is also c1e~r Ihat strenglh considerably in excess oflhe upper limil of
800 psi can be d.:vclop.:d ,f approprimc reinforcement is provided. It has been pro-
posed (Rcf. 4J3) that a modificd form of Eq . (4. 33) be adopted when !. e,xcCt-xls
600 psi. as follows:
'. - J. -""f. +0.5 (4. 34)
nle strength, predic'k'() by Eq. (4.34) (indicmed hy Ihe da,m,d line in Fig. 4. 24) app.:ar
to give a ,ali,factory ,'orrela1ion wi lh experimemal result, for concrete slrenglhs
grt'ale r duUl 2'jOO psi . Pending furtt;.,r data. it is re('Ommended thai an uppe r limit of
v, = 1300 p,i be imrosed for Eq . (4.34).
nle pmvision, of ACI Code ! 1.7 are bas"d on F..q. (4.32). The design slrenglh i,
'-'qual 10 V, whe re = 0.75 for shear-fri clion de'ign . and V. musl nnt wexc'e"d the
smaller of 0.2,t;:A, or SOOA,_lb. R,,"('o mmendations for friclion faclor , are as follows:
Concrete plac<'() monolithic'ally 1.4
Concrde pla<.'ctI against hardm"d concrete with surface
intentionally roughened 1.0
Concrete placed against hard~ncd concrete not intentionally
roughened 0.6
Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural sted hy headed
studs or reinforcing bars 0.7
where ~ 1.0 for normal.weight concret~, 0.85 for sand_lightweigh1 concretc. a nd
0,75 for "ll]jghtwcight concrete, The yield strength of the reinforceme nt!,. may nOI
~xceed 60.000 psi. I)irecttension across th~ shear plnne. if present, "'''';1 be carried by
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SH EA R AND DlA{;(lNAI. T ENSION I N B~: AMS 15 7
FI GUIU: 4.14
C.ku].,ro n . <xpcrimcn'al S!)ec;m91'\S initially c.acked
'''''",-lran,re. wenglh r",.
in i,ially Cr.l<:kro <pcc;m<", f~ - 4000 psi
(F~ ,," /lfJ 4.-'-' , f~ - 2500 psi
f~ - SlOOpsi
Vn - 800 psi
Limit tor f~ K 2500 psi (0.2 fa
S he a. f. iction . I-'- - 1.4

A",f,
vn - 'b;; I-'- - pfy}L
"''''' ,"'" """
additional reinforcement , and permanent "er comp.ession ac.o,' 'he ,hea. plane may
b.e taken a, additive to !he force in lh" ,hea. -friction reinforcement A,d; when ('altu -
lating the rl'<luircd A'I"
When ,hear is transfem:d b.etween coocrete newly placed again" hardened con -
eret", the ,urface fOughn~s.< i, an imponant variable; an intentionally fOughe 'led ,ur-

face is defmed to have a fu ll amplitude of approximately in. In any ('ase . th~ old sur-
face must b.e dean and free or lairance . When sheur is to be tr.Ulsferre<J hetwee"
as-rolled swel and concrete, the steel mu~t he dean and withOut paint, according to
AC I Code 11.7.
If Yo is the shear force to be resisted ut factOrl'<l loads, then with V. = . Yo, the
rl'<lu ired ,teel area is found hy mlll'po,iti"" of F..q. (4.32):
(4.}5)
In some casc,. the ,hear-friction .einforcement may not cro" the ,hea. plane at
90 a!i described in the preceding paragraphs. [I' rhe ,hear-friction reinforceme nt i,
indin'-'<l to the shear plane so that the ,h~ar fOKe i, app lied in the direction", innea"!
tensklll in the ,ttlel, a, in Fig. 4.25a, then the component of that tensklll parallel'" tile
o..loootc..,_ T...;.. 0I8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I5S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
FIGUIU: 4.25
Sb<ar f,icl;"" ,ei nfO<l:cm<nl
i"" Iined with ",sl""t to era;; k
1:':< Shear transfu,
reiniorceme
I -II
I I
14:~1I V
I
I
.~
/ / I
7
-(., I I I
('I
shear plune. shown in F ig. 4.251>. "ontribute, w the resistance to slip. Then the ;;hear
strength may he compute<! from
sin'f + COS I (4.36)
in lieu of F..q. (4 .32). Here f is the angle hetw~..,n the shear fri~'tion reinfo"-,,,ment and
rhe ,hear plane. If I i, large r than 90. i,e .. if the indination of the s",el is such thai
the tension in the Dar.; le nd, 10 he reduced by the ,hear foree. then rhe assumption thai
Ibe stcel stres, "'lual,/" is nm \'alid. and 3 bettcr arrangement of bars SIKlU ld boo: mad".
Cerrain precaution, ,IKJUld he ob"'rwd in applying the sbear friction metbod of
de'ign. R"infof('cn",nt of whalner type. sJ](lUld boo: wdl an"hOI<...J to ru,vdop the yield
'trcngth of Ihe 'ted. by the full development length or by honks or hends. inlhe ca>e
of reinforcing bars. or by proper head, and weld ing. in the ca"" of stud~ joining con
crete 10 structural steel. The cOncrele ,hould be well confined. and lhe libeml use of
hoops has ""en ",,:onll11ended ( Ref. 4.3 I), Care mu,t he taken to consider all ",,"ibk
failure planes and 10 provide ,um"ient well and",,,-..J steel acrOl;, these plane,.
EXAM I'I. E 4.6 o.,;i~1l of i:>t'llm ""aring detail . A p<eC3st beam m",1 be de,igne<l 10 ll,>iSI" s"ppon ,.,ac
lion.'1 faclored loads. of V, - 100 kif" 31lJltied (o .l X ~ s,,,,,1 angl~ as ,hown in Fig. 4.26.
In lieu of a calcolaled "alue. a hoo'''''tal force N . owi n~ (() re;;tmine<! ,'Ol lll"" change. will
he as>umed 10 he 20 p'rcenl Oflhe ,'enical reaclion. or 20 l ip'. Delermine lhe requi",d aux
iliary reinforcement. usin~ sleel of yield Sf,.,ngth /, = 60.000 psi, ConcTCte .trenglh /: =
5000 p,i
S"'.lJ"'O ~ . A poIemial crack willtle ."u ,ned at 20". initialing'l a poim -I in. from lhe end
of Ille beam. as shown in Fig. 4,2&" n.e lotal required 'Ieel '\'1 is the ,om of thm ,,->quired
(0 res;'1 Ille effeclS of V, and N. Equation 14,3.S) is lOOilif""d acron:lingly :
(00 X 0 ,9-\0 + 20 X OJtO

0.75 X 1.4 X 60
1.60 in'
The OC! COnllJI"Cssion normal 10 the l>otemial crac k wo"ld be no less 'han v, sin 20 - N.cos
10 - 15,4 kif", This could be cou nled upon (() reduce Ille required shearfrieli"" steet.
oc<'"(H'ding 10 tho: ACI Code. bot it wilt be diSCOllmed cO">C""'a'i~~l y l\er~. FOllr No. (> (NO,
(9) bar, will be used. pflwiding an are. of 1.76 in'. Tiley "'ill be welded 10 the .1 X .I a"gle
and will c'lend intO tho: be"m a sulToeien! di, ' ance 10 de,'clop Ihe yicM "reng!h of lhe bars,
According to Ihe ACI Coo.. Ihe dewlopmc nt lengt h for a No, 6 (No. (9) bar is 26 in .. 32 in,
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SH EAR A N D DlM;(INA I . TENS ION I N B ~: AMS 15 9
FIGU IU : 4.26
DI:.ig" of h<am bearing
,hoe: (~) diagonal crack:
Possible
,I Possible
(~) horizon,"1 <Td,:k crack I crock
Ie) ,.info..am""I:!<I) eros, I I I 1/ ~
"",tion.
I I 1_"'-\
N .-,'1'-""1,---,,
I I__ r I
-"'--"~
,., 'I
_.
NO.4 (No. 13) hoops at 8"
!'1
I I 1 NO.4 (No. 13)
I
I
I
I
I
I
' "KJ..-:::I--
I
I
1_-
..[-::: - I
J 30"
No.6 (No. 19)
anchors
1"'""'---"",''----I
~ 4NO.6{No.19) 4N0 5( No. 16)
L3 x 3 x ,
.1 anchors CQfI>er ba's
,,' ,d)
withoottlle factor (set> Ch:tpt"r 5). Con,idering lilt- unrenaimy of the exacl cra<"~ localiOll.
U>e bHrs will be C.,lended 32 in. iOto the beam as shown in Fig, 4.200. "1"1", bars wi ll be pl:>ced
JI an angle of 15 wilh lile ooliOm face of the n..'mber,
A - 16 -
, - 187 in'
, ,in 20"
Thus. according 10 the ACl Code. th" maximum oominal ,IIear meng!h of Ihe .una,,,, is tlOl
10 ~c=l V, = 0.2/,'11, ~ 187 "rs or V, ~ go),l, ~ 150 ~irs, llIe tn",imum deSign
s!rength 10 be u'>cd i, V, - 0.75 X 150 - 11,\ ' irs. Tilt- apl,lied sllt-ar on llIe inrerface .11
f:>el"",d load, i,
V. - 100co,2{l + 20.i" 20' - 101 ~ip;
and '" lile tk,ign i. jtldged ,mi.foclory to Ihi' poinl.

A S<:("{)oo JXlS'ible enid mu,1 be c,,",ide""'. a, ,hown in Fig. ~,26b, re,ulting from tile
kOOeocy of the " 'tire anchorage wddm"nl 10 pull horizomall y 001 of lile beam.
TIlt: ",quircd steel area A,. aJKi Ilk: c"""",te sllear streSS will be <,.icn!alc'1l ba'>cd OIt IDe
de,'e lopment of lbe full yield tension in I~ bars A>f' (NO!e thai lhe faclor nttd tlOl be u'offi
lk:", beea"", il has already been inlroduco:<! in c,,",puting A,; ,)
'. -
A"f, ciY; I~ '
/,
1.76 X 0.966
"
1.21 in'
Four NO.4 (No. 13) hoop; will be ">ed. pro\'iding an area of 1.60 in' .
o..loootc..,_ T...;..0I 8o_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The ma.\ imurn shear forc~ Ihal can be Iransferre<!. according 10 lhe ACI Code limils. will
be baSctl cO,I,,;:,.... ali~dy on a hOrilJ)Olall'bnc 32 io.loo~, No \Ir~oglh r~J~lion fauor need
be induded in IIIe calculJlion of Ihi' maximum ,'alue because il was already imrod""ed in
delennillillg the >11:<:1 area A'I by which ,he ;hcar force is ;\f!Plied. ACl:onlingly.
V. :S;SOOX 16XJ2~410kil"
The ma.iml'm she" force Ihal coo,ld be applied in the giyen inSl3nce is
v, = 1.76 X 6()cos I~ ' = 102 ki",
well below the SI,,-'Cificd m."im"",.

The firsl hoop will be ploceJ 2 in, from lhe end of t he member. wilh the OIhe ... 'poceJ al
8 in.> as ,hown in Pi~, 4.2&. Abo ;hown in Pig, 4.26<1 arc foor No, 5 (No, 16) bars Ihal will
provide aochorage for the hoop si",1
REFERENCES
' .1. "She..- and 1X. ~>naI k 1\OOn," ro. 2. Al'tASC!' emuni"", 32<,. I. ACI, 1'<>1. W. M . 2. 1'161, "fl.
277 333.
U. II. 1I",.h:md J. G. M""""'~(1f. "11o,';;,,,, ofCo(lC1"~' Ik""" h.iti"" io s", ..: I. S"'H' I);". ASL1'. ,,~.
~l " ., . sn, 1%]. Pfl . .1'.1 _.172
U. "I oc S","" S,,,,,,,,'h of Rciof",c'c'tl Conere" M<rn!'",,:' ASC I ~ AC! l',"nrni"l~' .126. 1'",,". ASCE, ,,~ . '1'1.
00. Sl6. 1911. PIl. 109 1 li S] (wi'h n"'o,~'C NbJi"l:mpIlYi
'-4. ~ r"" Soc", S''''''f'~ of RftiaJ I'l<Mcmi,,,, SI .... !, A",-""''''' G"",,,-~,' 10";,""'.
lX,,,,it, Jg] ~
4,6, "II",.:", Awroarhc> I" S""". I,,.i~n of SHucwnll COII"nie.-' ",-,(hACI Comm;,,,,, 44 ~ . J. Slro.cl. "~ .
A>('I<, rot 124. "" . 12. 19'J8. pp. 137S-1417
O. A. H. Nib"'Hc<I.~ f 'i ni" t'l,OM"' A",ily'u "I H'iltj",r-M ConcffU, A",-7k:m S<'d cty nfl' j"iI LII~inccrs .
N<,.. Y(1fk, 1\182.
H . J. h""OC'i ,I.). FiI!,,, fl''''''''' A",,'p'" of R'ilqi,"",/ c_"'~ Sin.c""" II. A ...er"''' Socio'y ofCi" iI
l'n ~, ,,-~,,. N<~' yo,t;. 1'1'1.1. [JII. :!\)l _ ~3~.
' . ~. M. 1'. C<~lin', ~ Io..,.ru R>lioo,1 rhc<"Y f(.- RC M,mhc.-. io S"' ",." J. 51""" . 1Jj" ASCH. ,-01. I<J.I. no.
SH, April 19]9. pp. 649-_
' . lU. T T. C . Ih". UI1i/i,J Tlw of)' of Ji.infi"",J COlIC"". CI/.C 1'.-..">" inc ., II()c, R:Iooo, Flood,. 1'1'13
4.11 I C ~.... lty. -Soc .. S'reo,th l'!\:diNk.. for s.:""""". C"''iork, of Si. Ik.m 1",L, ," J. Ac/' ,'01 1\8.
00. 2. I~]I, PIl. 138 l oll.
4.12 A. H. ru,,,,,,,,y. A. fl. Nil" ... anJ J. 0. SlaI,. "S","" C'['lO<'i,y of Rc,"fo",:,J Cooc",,,, H".,.. U.io ~
lI ~h. ~Lr... ;'h C,,,,,,,,-",,-' ,. J. Ac/' ,,~ . ~ .l. "". 2. I~~, Pfl. 290_:!%
4.13. t . 1. 11.<>11<, anJ Ii. G . 11.0,,,,11. "SOC..- ~ln:n~th of lIi ~ bS,refl.l! L h Co..,,,1, Ik""'-' .,ith Web
1/.,:i nf(](,ITrocnt." ACt Siro.c'. I.. " . ~ ] ...,. l, 19'JO. 1'1'. I~I I~
4.14 S. H. ""m.J. A. 11.. Kh.l.1"') ...t A. 1'N".:rla. --Sb<..- Cop-JoOily of R<inf,,,,-~'tl H'j,h-S'reI\liLll C""",,,,,,
B.:, ... ,:' I. ACI,.-o1. 83. 00. 2. 19S6. pp. 2'n - 30.~
4.1 ~ M. l' Collin> .... U . Kochrna. ' II"",' ~k A", Our I........, . I.W!LI)' IIdoJ" ,,-.."f Ij '~h . SI",,,,,'h
U~ hL weil'" Cone,,",.-' R'."d(Ch H'f'O" 80. 81 9. Ue""'",,'''' 0( S'ruc, ur>l I'n;h"-~'ri "f ' C,'m.-ll
U " i'~'N L ). A u ~ u " 1982
' .1 ]. S. Y. 1):N,k)' :md E. I. Urnie, ... "Ilcll.>\'ior :md S"1:1l"t~ 01 l/.cillf()rroJ l\""'r<t< Il""""fl.."'tl B<1m, in
Sb<..-." J. AU, ,,~. 7~. no . 3. J9I!1.!,!,- II!4 194
' .18. It N. J. Koni. "li()... S,f( A",Ou, l.>[f(')!, inf,.,,,-.j C,,,,,,n' L,' Ik""",'" I. ACI, ,,~. 6-\, M . 3. 1'167, 1'1'.
128_141.
4 .1 ~. T S~io)' " M. I~uro, Y. Aki.)... ,:lI><l T ,-..., "Shew S'f\'''1:,h of l-"'1lc llcinf()rr<'ti COIIC"-'C Ik"I1>.
1'""" ",,, Med,","",,: "pplb'i"" '0 Co,.:",,,,: Sj"'~.'i I'l<illi",'ivt! SI' II~ Americ.., COlIC"'''' IIJ>Oil"'<.
I),:tro;" 1'Ill9. [JII. 2W - 2N
o..loootc..,_ 7... ;" 0180_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SH EAR AND DlM;(lNA L TENS [ON [ N B~: AMS 16 1
4.!O. W. W i U ,~. To" I\,",.~ i", fl O"""tH<i'''''' lIlI<; fl O""'""","\>(" S)'l<'nol. sn. ~, i, ri<trn- Ha",~ i '""g, XXXIII .
M . 7. 1#99
4.!1 . E. M,,",,'h, ,-,., i:,',,",,,O<!ixU<. wi", n"":",, ""</ A..., otW"X {H<ini',,,,,x! C, ........"'" Tt...~ y . 0<1
A \~~":"' ~", ) , ,,-,,1'-11 K,,.,...,.t Wi1( ",~. S '" H ~"' , Iq 12.
4.n j , S<: M ,~' h . K. ~ h "r"" ,0<1 M. Jon"" ,.. , i . "11,.....(1 C,."i,,,,,, Ibiil' ,of S,""" " .... C, .... " ,.: j ,
P",,,,,.,,,,,i 0",," I".q.. "ol , 3! . ...,. 3, 1</87. 1'1'. 7-1_1 .,,1),
4.23. P. ~I"" i. "'1',,>< MoxIel, i. llo:<'i li o ~:' 0...,. I",.. " oj , 7. "'-', I! . 1'I1! ~ . PI', <i6---73. (S: ol", P. M ,~ ; .
"n,,,< l l~~ , "r "oiof, ...1 U ,"",Ok' n" ", r.,,, ,~,,: j , ),0. ,,>I . 82, 00, I , I q~s . PI'. 46---56,)
4.!4. I, (; , Mor(;",,,"', R~;""fft" , O",m l< O,~ ,,1.), I...... ~c fI, n. I "~ ""''''',,j Cliff>. 1>1. 19'17
4 .2~ M. I~ CoI li""..-xI D, M i ,d... n,
,w, p",,,,.,-,,,d0 "",,,,, $,,,,,,,,,,,.
1"-", ,...... fI. n. I;' ~ """, ,,,-, o m< 1>1,
4.26 I'. j, V",,,'hi,, ....1 M I' C.,IIi",. "M,,,-,i'iOO 0 "1'''::'''"'"

V",1d ' I ~,)<')' h~ W
,""f"",,<,1
c , ....-n;'o !;Ic""''''
SUJ>i<>.'l OO '0 So,,,,,,' 1. ,to. "'~ . #J. M. 2. 198(;, I'!'. 11~ - 1 3 1 .
4 27 I'. I. \\>:<hio ..-xl M. P. c"m",. "I""-I""in& Ilk; ~ " .... "'''' ,M R,'i" t"",,-, 0""""" I",."" Su~i<>: "-..1'"
sr.',.. U, i"g ,"" Moo;rol C< . ")"""iI,, F",1d 1-...."<)0)': j , loCI. " j , ~ ~ . ...,. 3, I q ~ 8 , pp, l SS-lloll ,
4.28 CSA C<,"",i" ,,, A!,' J. IJ,,,~~ ,,' C",,,,,,, S"'''''''",,,
C.."li.., S.. ",tan,I, A,...-.ci.",,". U,""""o,
n ",.-;,), 1W4. 19'1 pp,
4.2'1 AA$IfTO lJ/FlJ H,ul"" '''-,,~~ 51"" (11<''""" a ..1 "I.). A" ~-nc.. A''"''-'j., .... , " I' SI.. " H i~h,.,, ), ..-xI
T"",,,,,,, ,,,,,,.. ( )j r~' i.b IA,\Slmn, W."'i"g~ ""I X: . 1998. ~' i, h i.. ,.,-;,n u polao" ~ 19911-;>00:,
4.311 M I' C.,li i"". Il. Mi,,,Ik;II. P. AoId',..., ...11'. I, v..w ~",."A Go...".,.,", Sl".... D,.ig" M"ho,,j.- ACI Sin'"
j .. ,., ~ . 93, "" . I. I9%. 1'!' . .l6--4S
4 3\ P. W Ihrtd ..-..J ..-..J fI W. l<irtd ..-..J. "(.,,,,",-,,,ito,,
i" I""." (,,,,,.,,,,,, 0"~ AA1 i, .. : ' j , An " nl, 63 . ...
J. 19/\6. 1'1', J4}- J&l.
4.32 H. F M",. -Auxili ary ""iof,"'..." ... .. io I "',," ~ U ,"",Ok' 0"',",-1i, .. ,." }, $(",,.,. Div.. A S(l;.,, ~ <M.
oo. ST6. J.",' 1\1(\8, 1'1'. 1~85---150.a .
4.33 A, fI , Mo,"d " ,," N. M, H ' ~'ki " ~ "st-.: .. '1'''''' ' '-'7 io R ,.; or,,,,~,-, C, "".,..,t o- R ,~',,'" R~",,,,,,h: 1.
P""",,..,f 0",," I""..,,\i , 17.".-" " 197!. pp. ~~7~,
4.3-1 A, 11 M.",d , "st-.:.. Tr,."f,,.i" c ... ,,,,, fI .. i"~ IkiM,,,,...,,,,,.. 01 ". A,'l!"' ,n II'" st-.:.. I~_: '
Spiaf I'uMica'w. SP-4!. A,,,,,ri<.. C""""'''' I " ~ i " "c . 1).";" 1<174
4 3~ PCI ''',,,~ " 1/,,,,,nNNn . ~, h ,x! .. l '<cc~~ 1"-",,,,<-,,,1 C'''''''''k' l o ~i,", " . C" k .~o . 1'lQ<!.
PROBLEMS
4.1. A oc~m is (0 oc d~s igned for fac(o",d [o;tds causing n Jll~,iJllum sh~ar of 44.0
kips. using concr~l~ Wilh t: = 4000 P~i. Proc~~ing on the basis lhallhc con
"el~ dimensi ons will be del~rmi'led by d iagonall~ns ion, :;clecl (h~ appropri.
ale widlh and cffec(ive deplh (a) for a ocam in which no web reinfOKelllem is
10 be uS\.~1. (1)) for a ocam in which only the minimum web r~infOK~me nt is
provided . as giv~n by Eq , (4.13), and Ie) for a oc~m in which web reinfOK~
nlem pro\'id~s she~r slrenglh V, ~ 2V,. Follow Ihe ACI Cod~ rLXJuir~men(S.
and leI d = 2b in e~ch casc, Calculalions lHay oc b:w:d on lhe more apPrQxi
Jll~te valu~ of Ve given by f.q. (4. [21 ,
4. 2. A rL"Cwngu[ar beam having I> = 12 in. arid d = 22 in , spans 20 fl face-lOface
of ~imple surror(s, It is ",inforn~1 for flexure wilh t h",~ No. II (No. 36) WI>
lhat cominue u"imerrupIL~ll0 (h~ ~nds of lhe span. It is (0 carry scrvice dead
load () ~ 1.63 k ip~fI (including sclf.weighl) and scrvice live [o;td () ~
3.26 kips/fl. bmh uniformly diSlrib\Jled al ong lhe span , Des ign the shear rein.
forc~nlen(. using No.3 (No. [0) venical U Slirrups, Th~ mor~ appro~imale F.q,
(4.[2b) for V, may oc used. Malerial strenglhs are ] ; = 4000 psi and!, =
60.000 psi.
4.J. Red~sign the ,hear I'('inrorcernent for Ihe ocarn of Problem 4, 2. basing V, on
lh" mor" accuml" Eq. (4.12a). Com111cm on your results . ".. ilh respecl 10
desigTilinle and probabl~ cOllslruclion COSI diITcrenc~.
4.4. A ocarn or 11 in. widlh and elT~"liw dep(h of 16 in , canies a faclored uni
fonnly distribuled load or 5.3 bps/ft. mcluding ;lS Own weigh!. in addilion 10
a c~Tllral. coTicenlraled factored load of 12 kips, II SpHIlS 18 fl . and reslraining
o..loootc..,_ , ... ;"01 80_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
162 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 4
end momenls at full factoJed load are 137 ft-kips at each support . It is rein -
forced with three No. 9 (No. 29) I>ap; for ooth positive and negative bending.
If I: = 4000 psi, through what pan of the b.:am is weI> reinforcement theoret-
ically required (a) if Eq. (4 . 12b) is used, (b) if Eq. (4.12t1) is u"-,,P Comment.
4.S. What effect would an addit ional do(:kwise momell! of 176 ft-kip" at tl,., righl
, upport have on II", require"",m for .[",ar rei nforcerr>ent detennined in part (a )
of Problem 4.4"
4.6. Design the weI> reinforcement for the beam of P,ol>[cm 4.4. with Vc deter-
mined hy the more approximate ACI <-"quation. using No. 3 (No. 10) vertical
,tinups with!, = 60,000 psi.
4.7. [Nsign Ihe web rcinforoxm~ OII for (h~ benm of Problcm 4.S. with Vc dder
mined by Ihe more npproximale ACI <-'qumio". using No. 3 (No. 10) ,'crtical
s(inups wi(hl, - 60.000 psi.
4.S. The beam of Problem 4.2 will be subje<.tetllo a factorcd axial comprcs~ion
load of IJ2 kip, on the 12 X 25 in gros> cross ' l-etion . in addition 10 (be load,
deS{"ribed earlier. What is tl>e effec'l on cOflcrele , [",ar Sire"gtl> VC (II) hy too
more accura(e ACI equation. (b) hy the mOre approximate ACI "'luation?
4.9. The b.:am of Prohlcm 4.2 wil l be ,uhjc-eted to a faw",~d axial ten;;io" load of
66 kips on the 12 X 25 in gross cross seetion , in add ilion 10 the loads desc ri bed
earlier. What is the effect on concrele shear strength Vc (a) by the ",ore a,'cu -
mtC ACI "'luation, (b) by the more conservative ACI approach?
4.10. Redesign the shear reinforcement for (hi! beam of Problem 4.2 using the mod
ified compression tield (heory wi(b (,j) .,,,,,,-, = 0.90 and (1)) _ , = 0.75.
4. I I. A precas( concrele beam bavi ng crossSI.'Ction dimen~ions h ~ lOin . and /j -
24 in . is designed 10 aCI in a compo~i(e sense wilh a caHinplacc lOp slab bav.
ing depth hj = 5 in . an{l width 48 in. At fac(on:d l<Xlds, (he maximum com
pressi~e stress in the flange a( midspan is 2400 psi: at (he supports oflhe 28 f(
simple span the flange force mUSI be 7.ero. Vertical U slinups providerl for
flexural ~bear will be eMended into (he slab and suitably anchoroo 10 provide
also for (ransfer of the flange force by shear.friction. I'itld (be minimum num
ber of No.4 (No. 13) stirrups tha( mUSI be provided, based on shear.friction
n:quiremen(s. Concrele in ooth precaSI and ca~t.in.place parts will have];-
4000 psi and}; = 60.000 p"i. The top surface of the precas( web will be inlen.
(ionally rougheJloo accord ing (0 the ACI C<:><k definition.
4.1 2. Redesign the beamend reinforceme nt of b am ple 4.6. gh'en (bal a roller sup
port will be provided SO that N. = O.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
-
. ........... - I THI
BOND,ANCHORAGE,AND
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
, 5.1 F UNDAMENTALS OF F LEXURAL B ONO
If the reinforced concrete beam of Fig. 5. I" were con.' tructed using plain muad rein -
forcing hars, and. funherraore. if those har, were to be greased or OIm:rwise. lubricated
bdore the concrete were ca<l, the h<eam "'ould be wry linle stronger than if it were
built of plain concrete, withour reinforcement. If a load were applied. as shown in
Fig. 5.1 b, the burs would tend to maintain their original length as the beam deflects.
n.e bars would ,lip longitud inally with respc'et to the adja,:ent concr~te. which would
eXp"rienl" ten sile 'tr~in due to l1exure. Prop'"ition 2 of Senion 1.8. tm: ~ssumptiol\
tlmt the .tr~in in an embedded reinforcing bar is til.: .arne as that in the ~umlU"ding
mncrete, would not he valid . For reinforced concrete 10 behave as intended. it is e<!len -
tial that bondfo",,,. be devdopt..'<1 on the interface between <'oncrete and steel, such a~
to prevent signifi<'ant sl ip from oc.:urring at that inrerf~ce.
Figure 5.1 c shows the bond force, rbar act on the ",,,,crete at the interface as a
result of bending. while Fig. S.ld shows the ,-~ual and opP'><ite lxmd fOfl'es acting OIl
the reinforcement. It i, thrQugh the ""-tion of these inrerf",,-e bond forces that the slip
indicat,,{1 in Fig. ,~.Ib is pre,-ented.
Son'" year~ ago. when plain bars without surfaCtl dcf"'mation, were used, ini -
tial hond ,t"'ngth was pnlVid..'<I OIlly by the relativdy weak chemical adhesion mid
rnechunical friction between sted and concrete. Once adhesion and static friction were
oven'onle "t larger loads. smal l amounts of <lip led to interlocking of the n"tural
rough""" of the har with rbe concrete. However, this natur~l bond strengrh is so low
th"t in h<eam, reinforced with plain baN. the tx>nd betw"en "ted alid concrete was fre-
quently bmken . Such a ~am will collapse a, tt~ bar i~ pulled rhmugh tile connere.
To prevent thi,. end anchorage wa.s pmvilkd. ('h icf1y in rbe form of hoob. as in
Fig. S.2 . If the anchorage is adequate , such a beam will nOt collap"" even if the bOlld
is bmken m'er the entire length helween anchorages. TIli s is so hecau!;e the member
",,-IS a, a ti~d ar,-h. a, shown in Fig ..~.2 . wirh the ullcr.tCk"d COncrete shown shalk'<l
repre!;enting the arch ami the anchored bars the tie rod. In thi s ca."". over the length in
whi('h Iht.' tx",d i, broken. bond forces are "'.'rO. Th is means tilat ov~r the entire
unhonded length the for,,, in rbe steel is constant and equal to T = M""" jd. As a mn -
!le<.!uence. the total steel dongation in su('h beams is larger than in beams in which
txmd is pre",,,',-'<I . resuhi ng in larger deflection, "nd greate r crack width, .
To imprQve this situation. defonlled bars are ItOW universally used in tt~ Unil<'u nding concrete and result in greatly increased
txmd slrength. It i< then po,,-sible in most caS<.', to di 'peltS<.' with <peei"l anchorage
devkes such as ho"ks. In additi on. <T~ck widths a, well a, &11<.'('rioIlS art.' reduccd.
1(j]
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 5.3

F(>rec< ""tin8 ''" domen<al c c""o
length of be.m : (oj free-bod)'
,Lctch of rcin!i".,ed CO"",''',,
ele ment: (hJ free-body ,ke1ch
of ;t,,<01 dement ,,
,.,
'I
If U is the magnitude <)ft~ I"':al hond for~", per unit kngth nf bar, then, hy sum -
ming horiwntal forces
Udr=dT ,h)
Thus
U~ -
"'d, (.~. IJ
indicating that th~ local unit bond forc~ i, proponional to th~ mte o f "hange of bar
force along the span. Altematively, ,ub'tituting F..q. (a) in Eq. (5.1). the unit bond forc~
can be written as
I .1M
U= - - 'e)
jt! Jx
from which
U= -
v (5.2)
jd
Equation (5.2) i, the "cla,tic tr~cked section e~u"tion" for flaural bond force . and it
indicates that the bond force per unit length i~ pmponional to the. ~har at a particular
section, i.e .. to the rate of chang~ of bending m"""'I11.
Not~ that Eq. (5 .2) "pplies to the 1m.';"" bars in a concrete '-"n~ that i, "!;'urn~..!
to be fully cmtked, with 1h~ connete re,isting no tension. It "pplie" therefore, {o [he
tensile bars in simple 'pans. or, in continuous spans. cither to the bonom bar' in [he
positive bending region between inflection points or {o {he top bars in the neguti,'e
bending region betw~en {~ inflection point' and the sUP(X'"s. It do,,, not apply to
co mpression reinf"'''''ment. for which it can be shown {hat the flexur~1 bond forces are
,-e ry low.
b. Actual Distribution of Flexural Bond Force
Th~ aClu,,1 di stribution of bond fo rce along dcfonned reinforcing bars i, much more
co mplex than that represented by Eq. (5.2), "nd F..q. (5 . I) provides a better basi., fm
o..loo ot c..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
164 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 5
FIGU IU : 5. 1 ( eoocr"te
Bond fnrce, due u) (10,=:
1 1
(oj bean) before loading'
(h) ",,,,,,,)mincd ,lip octw","
COI\Cfete.OO """I: ( e) I>or>d
R",nforcing bar)
fore<, ""ting nn ,'("',,,et,,
(d ) bond f"",., acting 011
>ted. 1 '
End slip P
"1;.- j
,k;--''--A
'"
f-------l 101
---------- (dl
FIG URE 5.2

li.d-arch ><1;00 in a beam
with linl< or nl> Ix>n<l.
-- ------
___ ____1 ____ _----
jd
' - - - - - - - - - - LitUe Or no bond --------~"
a. Bond Force Base d on Simple Cracked Section Analysis

In a shOM piece of a beam of lenglh <lx_ such as shown in Fig . 5.30 . Ihe mOlnenl 31 one
end wi]l g~nera lly d iffer frOmlh m at lhe olhcr end by a small amOunl 11M. Iflhis pic(~
is isolaled. and if one assu mcs Ihal. after (rac king, Ihe ",n(rele docs nOI res iSI any len -
sio Slrcsses. Ille inlernal forc~s arc Ihose shown in Fig. 5.3<1. The cha nge in bcmiig
moOlC OlI 11;11 prod u(es a change in Ihe oor force
dT = dM (0)
jd
whcrcjd is lhe illlernallewr ann bclweenlcnsile ad compressive forcc rCSu l l~ItIS .
Sin(.., Ihc bar or oors must be in equilibrium, Ihis change in bar force is rcs isl~ d 31 lhe
(Olllaci surface belwccn steel ami (OnerelC by an equal and Opposile force produced
by bond. as indicalCd by Fig. 5.3b.
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 5..1
M(lH_l~::_Hl)M
Variat;'M1 of >toe! and bond
fo",,,, in" reinforced
<'<>""""< ,ocmi>cr .ubj",-~ " ,
pure bending: (oj e""ked
"""",IC "1;m"n" (h) bond
fOf'<'" ae1 ;ng "" reinfordng
I I
1 (a) 1
bar, (c) vari"t;o" of 1<",;k
force io . teel: (d) ".Ii.lion I I
of bond fo"--,, .1000g 'ICc!. I I
__ :4 - - ---------:--- ---f
1 / U forces 00 bar 1
r--- --I = --- ----- -- =1--- ---
1 (b) 1
I I
I I
I I
Steellension T
,,'
''I
understanding beam behavior. Figure 5.4 shows a benm segment suhjcct to [lUre bend -
ing, n,~ COncrel~ fnils 1<:> r~si'l Icnsil~ slres..'<C. only where the ""Iual crnr:k is local<ed:
there lhe sk,<,l I~n,ion is maximum and ha, the vnlue predicled h)" simpl e lheory:
T = M jd' Belw""n c",,:ks, the c-oncr~le doe" re siS] moderale amounl, of ten,ion.
introduced by bond fOKe, ""ting along the interf",,~ in Ih~ diredion slK""n in
Fig. SAn. This redu"", II", len,ile force in the st~eI. as illustraled by Fig, SAc. From
Eq. (.~.I). il i, dear thai U i, proportional ([) the mlc of change of bar fOKe, and Ihu,
will vnry as .lrown in Fig. SAd: unil bond force, are highest where the slop" of Ihe
'teel forc" CUl\" is greate,,, and are zero where II", ,lop" is 1.ero. Very high local bond
fOKes adjacent 10 cT.lch have been measured in lC,l, (Refs. 5.1 nnd 5.2). They ille so
high Ihat inevimbly SlMne ,hI' <:>Ceul'S betw~'<'n cOnc-rele and sicel :idjacem ([) each cmck,
Beam, arc seldom subj~'{'t ([) pure bending rnomem; tlrey genemlly carry tr~ns
verse 1<XlII, pnxluc-ing ~hear and mo"",nt thai vnry nl()ng Ihe span. Figure S.5a sl"""s
a beam cnrrying a di~tributL'd load. The nac-king indicated i, typical. The st~eI force
T pK'<licted by si mple cmcked SI.'Ction analy,is is proponi()nal to the """nent diagmm
and is n, ,I",wn by the da,hl'<lline in Fig. 55h. H()wev~r. the actual value or T is Ie"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
-
. ........... - I THI
FIGUIU : 5.5 'i_

Eff-~ of Ikxur:ll e".:h
j~!
00 bood foo;", in beam,
(a) I><"m w;,h fk,uml
crack" jb) "motion of
I LlI U IJ
oensik fOfe" T in , oed along
'p.n: (d ,1Iri.tioo of bood
Im[;--Of--H
,,~, " , ,
fOfecpof uni, ieng,h U .Iong
' pon.
, ,I (a) I
, "'I
I I
I I I I I
,'-"",<.Ym
I ,. M I
i ~J"1,
I I I
(b) I
,
,
,
u -~ ,
,
~
Ihan that predinoo by the ,i mple analysi, everywbere exc~pt nt the actunl crack I"oca-
tions. TIle actunl vrniation ofT is slK)wn by tbe wlid lill" of Fig . 551>, In Fig. 5.5<:. tl'"
bond force, predick.... by II", 'implitied theory nre shown by the da,h~..-:I lin~. and t""
actual varintio" shown by the solid line. Note thnt th~ value of U i, ~'<junl to that givell
by Eq. (5.2) only at IIK)se locations where the ,1,,1'" of the ,teel force diagr~m ~'<junl,
that of the 'imple theory. Elsewh"re, if the ,lope is greater than assumed. the loenl
Ix",d force is grealer: if the slope is less. locallx",d force is I~", Ju st to the left of t""
cracks, for the present exnmple, U i, mucb higher thnn pIL.... icled by Eq. (5.2), and ill
all pmbability will re,ult in loenl bond failure. Ju,t to the right ofthecmcks, U is much
lower than pIL.... icled, nnd in fact is g~nerally negative wry dose to the cmel<: i.e .. the
Ix",d forces n('! in the reverse diIL..:tion .
It is evident that actual bond forc~, in heams henr very link relation to those pre-
dicted by Eq. (.~,2) ",,"-ept in the g~neml sense that they are higl""t in the resioos of
high shear.
''"' " 5.2 B ONO STRENGTH AND D EVELOPMENT L ENGTH
For reinforcing hars in tension. two tyJl"s of bond fai lure have been 010"",,"'"'. The first
i, direc/ pulloUT of the har. which occurs when ample confinement is provided by II",
,urroundi ng concrete . This l-ould he cxJl"cted when relatively ,mall diameter hap; are
used with sufficiently large concrete cover di,tances and bar 'p"'--ing . The sen",d tyl'"
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
of failur~ is ,'plill;" S of th~ concrete aI!Hlg the bar when cov~r, confin~mem. or bar
,pacing is in,ufficiemlO resist the lakral {"onerde ten. ion resulting from the ,,'edging
effect <;If the bar d~forrnations. Presem-day design methods require that bolh p<lssible
failure mod~s be auount..-d fOf.
a. Bond Strength
If the bar is ,ufticiently confioc-d hy a mass of sUffi>llnding conc"'te. the n, as the ten -
sile foree on the bar i, increased, adbe,ive hond anti friction are over.","",. tl", con -
crete ~wntually crushes locally ahead of the bar defomlations, aad har pullout results.
n.e su rrounding concret~ remains inta,-t, exc"pt for the {"rushing thal ta~", place
ahead of the rihs immediately adjacent to the bar interface. For m!xl~m ddonned bars .
adhe,ion anti friction ar~ mudl Ie" impOnant than the mechanical im"rlock of the
ddonnations with tlk: surrounding (xlncr"te.
Bond failur~ resulting from splitting of the concr~te is 1ll0'" common in beams
th"" direct pull"u!. Such 'plitting Conk:S mainly from wedging action when the ribs of
th" defomlt.-d bar, bear against the concrete (R~fs. 5.3 and 5.4). It may {)C,,-ur eithe r in
a ,"rtical plane as in Fig. 5.6<1 o r horizolll"lly in the plane of the han; as in Fig. 5.6h.
n.e horizontal type of sp litting of Fig 5.6h frequ~ntly begins at a diagonal crack. In
thi, Case. as discu,sed in conn"'"tion with Fig. 4.7h and ,hown in Fi g. 4.1. dowet
aetion increase' the tend~n,"y toward splitting. n,i, intlicates lhat shear and \>olld fail -
ures are often intri{"ateiy interrelated.
Wh<'n pullout ",sistance is overcon", '" when splitting ha, sp",ad all th" way to
tl'" ~nd of an unanchored bar. compl"te Ix",d failure occurs. Sliding of th~ Me~1 ",Ia-
ti"e to tl'" n:"'c",te leads to immediate collapse of the '-"'am.
If one considers the large local Yariation, of h!H\d fmt'e caused by fl~xuml and
diagonal craeks (see Figs. 5.4 and 55). it h.,cornes dear that local hond failures irnrne-
di"tely adj",,-em to cmeks wilt ofleo occur at loads ~"()().idcmbly below the failure load
of the '-"'am. n",se local failu res result in small local ,lips and !;orne widening of
cmd.:s and inc r"ase of d~flection' . bUl wi lt be harmle" as long as failure d,,,,s not
pmpagale al I along the bar. with resullarlt tOml ,I i". In f""-t, as discussed in ""nne(;tio"
with Fig. 5.2, when end am-horage is reliahl,,_ Ixmd c,," be sev"fl-d along the entire
length of the bar. excluding tl", anchorages, wilhoul ~ndangering the carrying {"apac-
it y of tl", beam. End and" ""ge ,"an be proyided hy hooks a, ,ugg",t"d by Fig. 5.2 or.
FI GU IU: 5.6
Splitting of '"()!>eITte alonl\
reinforcement.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
-
. ........... - I THI
FIGUIU: 5.7
Dl:\dopmcnt length _ I I
much IIK)re commonly, by "xtelKling tt;.;, 'tmight bar a sufficient distane~ from tt;.;,
poim of maximum slress.
Ext en~iw testing (Refs. 5.5 10 5.11), using beam specimen" has "stablished
limiting valu"s of bond strenglh. This les,ing provides Ih~ basi, for ,'urrent design
requirement'.
b. Development length
The preceding di""u ~si"n sugg",t, II", concepl of de,'el"l'",ent 1""1:1" of a reinror,'ing
bar. The d~vdopll",nt I"ngth is defined as that knglh of "mhl>dm"nt r""''''$ary to
devdOjl tt;.;, full te,,-,ile strength of the bar, cotttroll"d by either pullout or spl itting.
With refe rence 10 Fig. 5_7, th" momettt, and therefore th" sK"I _<tress, is ~videntally
rmximum at point a (negk'Cting th~ weight of the beam) and z~ro at Ihe sU P!"'" ' _ If
the bar ,tress is J; at a, then the total tension fOf('e " oj, must be lran,f"rred from tt;.;,
bar to Ih" coneret" in th~ di"at"''' I by bond for,,,s. Tn fully develop the " r"ngth o f
tl'" bar, Ab.r;., the distance I must be at least "'Jual to the development I"ngth of the bar.
",tablishl>d by t",t,_ In the beam of Fig_ 5.7. if the actual length I is <~ual to or greater
than tt;.;, development I"ngtb IJo no pr"malure bond fa ilure will occur. TI'3t is, the ""am
will fail in bending or ,hear mther than by bond f" ilure. This will be so even if in It;.;,
,-icinity of cracks k.;;al slip may have occurred over small regions alnng the I><:am _
It is """n that the main ""-juiremettt for safety against bond failure i, this: the
length of tl", bar, from any point of giv"n steel stre_" (j; Of at mo,t J;) 10 its ,..,arby
free "nd mu_" be at teast ~qual to it> development length . If this requ iren"'nl is ,ati,-
fied, the magnitude of the nominal flexural bond force along the beam, as given by Eq.
(5.2), is o f o"ty s"cond"ry im!")rtance, ,ir= the int~grit y of th~ n",mber is "nsured
"ven in the face of possibl" minor local bond f~ilures. Howewr, if the aclual available
l~ngth is inade<.juate for full Uc"elopn"'nl, s pecial and,orag~, ~uch as by hooh" mu",
"" p,,:wilkd.
c. Factors Influencing Development Length

Experimental research has identified the factor, thaI in nu~nc" de"elopment length.
and anatysis of th~ test data ha, re,u lted in the empirical equation, used in present
design practi,,,. 111e most basic factors will be dear fmm review of the preceding
par~graphs and indude ,"oncre", ten,ile strength, co"er distan"". spa<"ing of lhe rein -
forcing bars. and the presenc" oflran,,-erse ,tel'l reinforcement.
Clearly, the len.,il" .'1'''''8111 of the connde is irnponanl because the IIK"t ,"om-
mon type of bond failure in beams is the type of 'plitting shown in Fig_5.6. Although
tensile strength ill"" nOl "ppear explicitly in experimentally d~rived equations for
dnelojln"'nl length (see St.'Ction 5.3). the term Ie appears in the d~nominator of
lOOse equation, and reflects the innu~nce of concrde ten,ile strength_
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
As di,,--us.<;cd in ~tion 2,9. the fracture energ)' of concrete pl~y' an imponam

mle in bond failure because a splitt ing crack must p"IfIagate after it has fOrTll<ed. Si nce
fracture energy i, largely independent of mmpre,si"e strength. bond strength
increase, more slowly than the I" ~ and as data for higher-strength concrete, ha,
1x'CO",e "vailableJ; II. ha, Ix..,n ,hown to provide a belter representation of the dft.'(-t
o f concrete 'trength on Ixltld than fr (Refs. 5. 12 to 5.14). Thi, point is remgnized
hy ACI Committ"" 408. Bond and De",k'pment of Reinforcement (Rd. _'i.15). in pm-
po,,-..-:I design expres,ion, ba,,-..J on / ; 11. and within the ACI Code . which sets an upper
limit On the value of fr for u>e in design.
For lightweight concrete,. the tensile strength i, usu"lIy Ie" than fOJ nonnal -
density concrete having the ,am" compre"ive 'trength: accordingly. if lightweight con -
crete is u>ed. development lengths mu ,t be increased. Altematively. if split-cylinder
'trength i, known or specifi<-..J for lightweight coocrete. it can be inc-orporated in
dnelojlment length ~uation' a, follows. For nonnal concrete. the sjllit-.:ylindcr ten -
,ile ,trength / ", i, generally taken "s / N= 6 .' /1' If the split-cylinder strength/", i,
known for a pan icu lar lightweight concrete. then fr in the development length "'jua-
tions can be repiac"d by /" 6.'.
C",'er di.<f(IIIce-----eonvention"lIy measur<-..-:I from the c<,l1Ia of the bar to the near-
c~t ("(>ncrde face and "",a,,,red eitl"'r in the plane of the bars or pc'l"'ndicular to that
plm",-also innuenc-e, splitting. Clearly, if the vertical or horizontal cove r i,
increas"d . more ("(,nc re te is available to re,ist the tension resulting fmm the wedging
dfect of tl", deforTll<ed bal';. r",ism~ to splitti ng is irnpmved . ~nd development
length is Ie,",
Similarly. Fig. 5.61> illustr.ltes that if the '",r "I",dnX is increased (e .g ., if only
two in,tead of tm"" bars are used). more cOnc-rete pcr bar would be available 10 resist
horizontal splin ing (Ref 5.16). In be~m'. tJap; are typicall y spaced alxlUt "'''' or two
har diameters apan. On th" other hanJ. fOJ slabs . footings, and certain other types of
member. bar spacings are typically mueh greate r. and the requi,,-..-:I development l ~n gth
is ,,-..Juct...J.
TnlJJ.>Tas" l"I'in/orcemelll. such as th~t pr<wided by stirrups of tl'" types shown
in Fig. 4.8. improves tl", re,istance of ten,ile bars to both vertical or IKlrizOnlal split-
ting f"ilure becau,., the tensi Ie force in the tran,ve r>e st""l tends to prevent opening of
the actual or potential crack. n", dfrtti\'enes~ of su,-h trdn,,,,,= reinforcerr>em
depends on its cms'!-,,-'Ctional area "m! spac-ing along tl'" devdopme nt length. It,
effectivene" docs n<K depe nd otl it. yield strength /". beca use transverse reinforce-
ment rardy yield, during a Ixllld fai lure (Refs . 5.1 2 t<, 5. 15). The yield strength of the
tran",'erse stt...,I/,.,. howe,,,,,. is presently used in the bond provi,ions of tl'" ACI C<Kk.
Based on the results of a statistic-al analysi, of test data (Ref. 5.10). with appro-
priat.e simplification" the length IJ IK.>c<l<-..J to develop stress /. in a reinforcing bar may
be expressed as
3 j,
d. (5.3)
40 <' + K"
d,
where db = bar diameter
c = smaller of minimum cowr or one-half of bar spacing ""'u." "'"d III
allier (!f /Jo,
K" = A"/,, (1 .~OO.",). whi,-h represe nts effect of confining re inforc" ment
A" = area of trdn,verse reinforcen"'nt r10nnai to plane of splitting through tbe
bars being developed
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
~... spacing of transverse reinforeemem

" - number of bars developood or spliced at same location
Equation (5.3) captures thoc eff~cts of concrete strength. conerelC cover. and
transwrsc reinforccmcm on /,J and serves as lhc basis for de sign in the 2002 ACI Cod:;.
For full de\'Clopmem of the bar./, is sct equal to J,..
In addition !O the faclors just discussed . other intluences havc oc"en idell!ified.
Vertico/bu, /o('<IIi"" relative 10 beam depth has been found to haw an effect (Ref.
5.17). If b.1fS are placed in the beam forms during conSlruetion such thm a substantial
depth of concrete is placed bclo,",' lhose bars. there is a lenocncy for excess water.
often used in the mi .~ for workabilily. and for entrapped air!O risc to lhc!Op oflhe con
crete during. vibration . Ai r and wmer tend!O accumulate on the underside of the hars.
Tests have sho ..... n a significant loss in bond strength for b.1fS with more than 12 in. of
fresh concrete cast benealh them. and accordingly to.: development icnglh must be
increased. This eff~ct increases as the slump of the concrele increases and is greatest
for bars cast ncar the upper sunace of a concrete placement.
/;..,,,,.n-c(~lU'd rein/ofLing iJd'.I are used regularly i n proj~'Ct s where the struclUre
may be suhjected 10 coHosi,'c environmental conditions or deicing chemicals, such as
for h ig~ way bridge decks and p.1r~ing garagcs. Studics have shown lhat bond Slreng.t~
is reduced bccausc lhe epo,xy coming reduccs the friction between the concrete and the
har. and lhc required devclopmem length mUSl be incr.::ased subswntially (Refs. 5.18
to 5.22). Early evidenec sho" ..xl thm if cover and bar spacing were large, the elfecl of
the epoxy coating. would not be so pronounc~'d, and as a result. a smallcr increase was
fell justifi(.xl under thesc conditions (Ref. 5.19). Although laler rescareh (Ref. 5.12)
docs not suppon thi s conclusion. provisions !O allow for a smaller increase remain in
the ACI Code. Sincc the bond strenglh of epoxy -coated bars is already reduced
hecausc of lac~ of adhesion. an upper limi t has been established for thc product or
dc"ciopme1l1 length factors accounting for vel1ical bar location and epoxy coaling.
Not infrequemly, lensile reinforcement somewhat in excess or lhc calcul~t~d
r.:qu iremcnt will be provid ..xl. c.g .. as a result of upward rounding. As whcn hars arc
selected or when minimum steel r~'<Iuircmcllls govcrn. Logically. in lhis case, the
requ ired devclopmem icngth may he reduced hy the ratio of steel area req uired 10 steel
are .. actually provided. l1JC modification for XC<'.H rt';i/forcl''''~'11 should be applied
only whcre anchorage or devclopmem for the full yield 6!renglh of the bar is not
requ ired .
Finally. based on bars with very shon developme nt icngth s (most with ,'alues of
1,,. d b < 15). it was obsel"\"l'd that SIIIOI/U dh,llll'lU hurl. required lower developmcll1
lengths than predicted by Eq. (5". '\8 a result the ro:quired develoPInt:1l1 icngths for
No.6 (No. 19) and smaller lxIrs were red uced below the values I\."quired hy Eq. (5.3).'
Refer~nc~ 5.15 presents a detn ilcd diseussion oflhe factors thm control the bond
and developmcnt of reinforcing bars in tension. E~cept as noted. these influertCes arc
accoum(.xl for in 1he hasic tquation for devdopmcm icngth in the 2002 ACI Code. All
modification faclors for de"clopmcm icngth arc (kfmed e~plicitly in the Code. with
appropriat ~ remiclions . Details are given nex!.
TI,,' us< (>f 1"1. (5.3) h k,., ,~ tu<~ ,of I, II, I IT.tty u...xn"im",e. ,r., ,,,",1 ,.a1"" <>f 000.l " ",,,,,'h , oJ "we. " '1'f'Cl" tIuo, , k ..,", ,,,I,,,, , ~ '.
r." 1>,' u,,"<J ".r,'l y " " t~"lu"""" of 'N rt.,., ll> roc ,m"'l ""'" .,i,h '"" . ..,...Ii,,",Jt..d """,,", k," " .. (/. d. ~ (6). t., ...,"".,-, h" ,,,",,." ,hoo ,r.,
"",d3t f"'~i ,~ .. in ,I... An 0...., for ,m.Un t>iif; ;, "" .iu"i!iOO \~d'. S I ~. j . 15. """ ~ .l J). tk.c."", of '"" "",.,"""".,.;,~ ""'"R: '" ,Ilt ' TrWl
"" ~>vi," ... N:t 0.,",",,,,, 400 "',,,,,.,,,'Tl<I,
(~l'f . 5. t ~ ) that M"'"be "I'!'i inl i. Jt~ i liJl .
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
'- _. 5_3 A C I CODE P ROVISIO N S FOR D EVElOPMENT

OF T ENSIO N R EINFORC EMENT
TIle approach 10 bond sirengih incorpor~lcd in Ihe 2002 AC I Code follows frolll lhe
discussion presc nled in Seclion 5.2. The futxlamcmal requircmcnl is Ihm Ihe calcu -
Imoo force in Ihe reinforeemenl al each seclion of a rdnforced concrel~ Incmo.:r IllUSt
he developed on each side of Ihm scclion by adequalc eillbedmcm length, hooh.
nloOchanical anchorag~. or a combinalion of Ihesc. 10 ensure againsl pullout l ocal high
I>ond forccs. such as arc ~nown 10 exisl adjaccm 10 crac~s in bemus. ar.: nOI consid-
ered 10 be signifocalli. Generally. the forcc 10 be developed is calcu lalc'{\ based on lhe
yield Slress in thc reinforccmclll; i.c .. tnc bar S1rcnglh is 10 be fully developed.
In Ihe 2002 ACI Code. Ihe requiredde"eiopmemlenglh fordcfonncd bars in len -
sion is based on Eq , (5.J). A single oosic equmion is given thai indudes aillhe influ -
ences diSl:us,,'{\ in Scclion 5.2 and Ihus app.oars highly complex because of ilS indu -
siveness. However. il docs pennil lhe designer 10 see Ihe clfects of ailihe comrolling
variables and allows more rigorous caiculalion of the required de"elopmcm lenglh
when il is crilical. TllC ACI Code also includes simplifoed equalions Ihal can be used
for mOSI cases in ordinary design, provided Ihm son..., reslrictions arc acceplc'{\ on har
spacing. cover values. alld minimum lransvcrsc reinforcemcnl. These a[(enmlive cqua-
lions can be funher simplified for normal -densilY concr.:1C and uncoaled bars. '
In IJ\c following presc illmion of de\'ClopnlCnI Icnglh. Ihe basic ACI equmion is
given firsl and ils lerms are defined and discussed. A ncr Ihis. Ihe alternmivc equalions.
also pan of Ihe 2002 ACI Code . are presenlcd , NOle Ihal. in any case, developn...,m
Icnglh IJ mUSI nOI be less Ihan 12 in ,
a. Basic Equation for Development of Tension Bars

According 10 ACI Code 12.2, ... for defonn~'d hars or defonned wire.
,- _I, ~'Z
40 fr ~+K"
(5,4)
d,
in which the lenn k + K,,) d. shall not b.llak~n g~ater Ihan 2.5. In Eq. (5.4). terms
a~ defmed and .'alues established as follows.
~reinforITrlwnt location fador

HorilOmal reinforcement so placed that more than 12 In , of fr<,sh
conCrvle is cast in the rnernb.?r below tlw dcwlopnwm length or
splice: 1.3
Other reinfor'''JIlcllt J.O
~coating factor
Epoxy-coated bars or " 'ires with cOY<'f kss than .1db or clear
sp.1Cing k-ss than M /): L5
All other cpoxy~=ted bars or wires: 1.2
Tllh t","' ~'ml ~h ,,, Jo..-;Tk""",", kniO" wrrc>J'<"'<i' e,,""ly ~ . ,I>: ,\(1 Gok ",,., ,,~... r,,,- v,. ,<
<II< ",,,'nl>o,;' .. <>f ('("".... in ,he..
c.k" lotion., Tho.' HO... dt-taibl ",k'.I....., oy I'~. {4.t2t!1 i, "",I"i f," ""opoIl.,;,td <lc.illn ( ~", ,,, :;r," " " ;, t,\l~ .." f(~ "",,, ,,,,I t''''''' ~Jt "
.......... '" of th,.. ",'<'tl '" "" ok"I",,' the ll( ~"'ni ,,>, ,lOi.hle; .. ' ""'" i"",,-, I. ' ~>rIO' ,he' Span, 1'<.. ,,,.jinOry <I<';lIn. ""''I'"" illl' ,~"' ,"'(nil """"'."f
...
" buo hul< .fIrt"lI. ,..., .il"" ...... bilLn.1f< .~" i " L' ..... mu "",,,,,,-.IIi,,, ",,'t!,
l'.ij. (4 l ! b, j,
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I IHI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Uncoated re inforcement: '.0

Howe\'er, the product of n,,<-': 0.81
No.7 (No. 22) and larger b'lT>: 1.0
= lightweight aggregate {'oncrete fanor
When lightweight aggregate coocretc is uS'-'<I: 1.3
Howewr. whenic, is 'p'-"<"ified, ,hall be pennitted to be taken a,
6.7 [.. j" but no( les, than 1.0.
When nOflnal weight ~~ln,'rete is used : 1.0
e = spa"ing or cover dimen,i<Hl. in .
Use the smaller of either the di~tance from the ,'enter of the ltar 10 the neareSt
con{'rete ,urface or one-half the c"nter-to-ccnter s(XIcing of the Ilars tJ.,i ng
developed.
K" = tmn,verse reinforcement index: Alrj,, ' ( J 500.<11)
where AIT = total {'ross-",clional area of all Imn"",,rse reinforcement that i,
within the spa"ing., and that cro,seS the potential plane of ,pi it-
ting through the reinforcement tJ.,ing developed , in 1
j" = specified yield strength of tr~nsverse reinforcemenT. psi
.< = maximum spacing of transverse reiniorcemem with in IJ eenter-",-
center, in.
I! = number of Ix",> or wires tJ.,ing dc""loped along the plane of splitting
It shall be permitted to use KIT = 0 as a de'ign simplification ewn if tmnswrse rein -

forcement is present.
n.e limit of2.5 on (e + K,,) d. is imposed to avoid pullout failure. With that term
ta k"n ..-qual to its limit of2.5. eval uat ion of Eq. (5.4) results in IJ = O.03d~j, /.,. the
experimenta lly derived limit found in earlier AC I Oxle, when pullout fai lu re control s.
Note Ihat in F..<j. (5 .4) and in all otru,r ACI Code eq~ati on' relating to the development
length and 'plices of reinforceme nt . mille.' 'if Ie a".. "ot to he /ilkI''' s'''''ter tha"
100 p., ; beca use of the lack of experimental evidence on bond strengths obtainabk
with concreteS having compre"iv" 'tr~ngth in exces> of 10.000 psi atth" time that
Eqs. (5.3) and ($. 4) were formulatt.'<I . More """'ent tests with coocrete with value, of
f: to 16.000 p'i juslify this limitation.
b. Simplified Equations for Development Length

Calculation of required de\'clopn"'nt length (i n tern" of har diameter) by Eq . (5.4)
fl"<juire, that the tern. (e + K,,) db be "akulated ror each particular (Olllbination o r
m ver. spacin g. and lr.m!iverSC reinforc~lllem. Altematively. according to the Code. a
simplifi~d form of Eq. (5.4) may be used in which (e + K,,) db i, set .."qual to I 5. pm-
vilkd that cena in restrictions are placed 011 mver. 'pa(ing. and 1r~"S"e rse reinfor~,<,-
11"'''t. Two cases of pr.Jclical imr<manL'<' ~re:
(a) Minimum dear <"over of I.OJb. minimum dcar spacing of I.fMb. and at least the
Code required minimum ,timlps or tie, (see Section 4.5b) thmughout I.
(b) Minimum dear cover of l.fMb and minimum dear 'pacing of 2flb
, !let c"""ti,,,,, 4O ~ ,,~,~, ...,oo, ":oJ ",, ,~. t.(I r, ~ , It NT .il(" N>OO ' .. 0' ['."J11....... t ",i<knl'o. '1'1>: IIU 0 0k "01 "" ,~. n.li. "'""'""'" .,itl ""
",,"{) in",nat rot""'"
o..loo ot c..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
TABLE 5.1
Simplified tension development length in bar diameters according to the 2002 ACI
Code
No_ 6 (No. 19) and
smal hl< bars and No.7 (No. 22)
deformed wires and larg er bars
Ck .. ,p>cing of bars being do"doped or , pliC<!d
"'- d.. de .. co,'.r '" d,.,nd stirrups or ties "-
th'oughou' I. no< I"" than tile C<:>de minimum
Clear 'pocing of barS being dc"dopcd or <plic'Cd Same '" a."","

'" M" and ,k:>r COve, '" d,
,ase., -'1, 31>

Othe,
50l ". 40 1.
For eilh.:r of lhese common cases. il is easily confirm~'d from Eq. (5.4) Ihal. for No.7
(No. 22) and lar~wr t>ars :
J~.
- - - . d, (5.5a)
20 f,o
and for No.6 (No. (9) bars and smaller (wilh - 0.8):
J,
(5.51
25 f,o
If lhesc restri clions on spncing are nOI nk:l. Ihcn, provided Ihal Code-imposed mini-
mum spacing f"<.'quircnk:nI& MC nk:! (s.:e Seclion J.6c). Ihe Icrm k + K,,),til> will have
a value nOI Icss Iha n 1.0 (ralher Ihan 1.5 as before) whelher or not Irn ns~ersc sleel is
used. TIlC values given by Eqs. (5.5u) nnd (S.5b) are then mu lt iplicd by Ihc f!\Ctor
1.5-1.0.
Thus if Ihe designer !\Ccepl, certain restriclions on bar cover, sjXlCing. and Irans-
vcrse r.:infofCetn.::nl. simplified cJ lcul~tion of dc\'clopmcnl r~XJuirernems is possible.
The simplified cqu~tions ~re summ~rizcd in Tabk 5. I.
Funher simplificntion is possible for thc mOSI cornmon condilion of no"n~l
de nsi ly concrele and uncoated reinforcement . Thcn - and in Table S.I la~ e the val ue
1.0. and the dcveloprnent lenglhs_ in terms of b.1f diarnclers. an: sim ply a funClion of
J.J;. ~J1d lhe bar location faclOr - . TIl us devclOpnk:11I k nglhs are easily wbulated for
Ihe usual cornbin~ l ions of rn ~ lcriJ I sirengths and bonorn or top bars and for the reslric-
lions on bar sjXlcing, covcr. and transverse sl~ci dcfitll'd.' Results arc given in Table
A. 10 of Ap~ndi .~ A.
Regardless of w heth~r dcvcioprncntlcnglh is calculnt~'d using Ihc basic Eq . (S .4)
or Ihe more approxirnale Eqs . (~.5u) and (5.5&) . de~elop1Hc nt lenglh m~y be reduc~d
, N,., ,h. ,. for """"okn' ",reTCott. , .... tenn "'I' I>.a, i< o"""tJ h ""Y 11<"-;"",,01 "'-inford "" hw- pI","1 ,,'i!h nlOl'(' .ho" 12 in. ,of f.."h ",""",,< ('.>!
'''I' "'"'.
1>...,... ,,", <1<>"1",,,,,,,, . len~'h ,~ <pi ..,,,, 'l1>i, tkfmilir .. "")' ft'I'Ji,,' th'" Nu; ,d "j,,,I)' ""or the t-.""" ,~ "-"" " ","b<~ t-.. ",,,","tJ .,
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
where ",inforccm"nt in n flexural member is in excess of Ihat r"'juired by analysis,

except wh~r~ nncborage or d~\'e1opme nl fo r f. is sl"'cifically required or the rein
force=nI is designed for a region of high ",is",ic ri,k_ According II> the ACI Code,
the reduction i, made according to the ralio (A, r"'-juired A, pmvided).
EXAM PLE S. I 1k.'elo p""'nI length In tension. Figure ~ . 8 ,how.

a he,moenlum" joint in a ,ontinooo;
building fraOlC, Based on fH'OIC aJ1all'si,. lhe negali'-e s'eel req uired,t the end of ,he bearn
is 2_90 in' : Iwo No II (No_ 36) bars "'" used . providing A , - 3_12 in'_ Beam din",mions
,re b = 10 in .. d = 18 in .. and h = 2 1 in. The <ksign will incl"de r->u. ~ (No, 10) Slirrups
space-d four ,r 3 in .. followed by a "",,>13.1,\ 5 in . 'pacing in lhe region ofl h~ ,ullJlOl1. with
1.5 in, dcar CU"ff. Normaldensily C"'K,,~'e i, lu be used, wilh!: ~ 4000 psi.,nd reinforc
ing bars have/,. - 60.000 psi. Find lhe minimum di'lance I" al which Ihe negali,'. bar, ,an
be cui ulf. b,sed "" d~"elopOlC"1 uf lhe required >leel are" at lhe face uf lhe cul umn (a) uSing
lhe si mplified equalion, of Table 5.1 , (h) u,i ng Table A. 10. of Arf"'lldix A. arod (d u,ing lhe
b,sic Eq, (5,4).
S()'.\ f[1"~. C-""di~g fOf laternl 'pocin.g in lhe No. 11 (Nu, ~6) bars de1ermi "es Ihall""
dear distance belween the bars is 10 - 2( 150 ... O..IR ... 1.4 I) - 3.42 in_. or 2.43 li",e, lhe
bar diameler d . The d~", cu'"'' uf lhe No. II (No. 36) bars lu lhe side r""" uf ,he beaJll is
1.50 ... O_.lR - 1.88 in_. or l..H bar dian"'I'rs, and lhal'" lhe lop of 1M beam i. 1.(10 -
1.4 1 1 = 2.30 in .. or 1.63 bar di'J1oel~rs, The", dimen,ion, """,I ,he reslriC1iuns sla'oo in
lhe "",o"d row of Table _So1_ T)..,,, for lop bars. uncoaled. mid wilh noonal-den,ily CO"""'le,
we Ila"e lhe "I,,", of = 1.3. = 1.0.'00 = 1,0. From Table 5. 1:
60.000 X U X 1.0 X 1.0
I. - 1.41 - 62 )( 1.41 - 87 in_
10 4(j(1O
Thi, ,3.1, be rt.'il L!Ced by I).., ratio of >1",,1 requirt.'iI 10 Ihal pro"ided, '" lhal lhe fi na l de,'dop-
0ICn! 'eng,h is 87 X 2,91} ~.12 = 8 1 i~ .
Allemali\'ely, fmm lhe lower portion of Table A_I 0, IJ J. - 62 . The ",quirt.'iI lenglh 10
roint uf cutuff i, 62 X 1.4' X 2.90 3, 12 = 8 1 in .. before,a,
The Loore accurale r"l_ (_SA) will 001'1 lie used_ The centerlocenter spacing oflhe No_ II
(No. 36) bars is 10 - 2(1.50 ... 0..'18 ... [,41 2) = 4,8.,. onehalfofw hich is 2.42 in. The
side CO"""' 10 bar centerline is I.'KI ... O_~8 ... IA 1 2 - 2.59 in_ , a.1d I).., lop cov""' i, .HIO in,
The ,maliesl of lhe", Ih.-.:" dillaIl<;'" l'Ontruls. aoo c ~ 2,42 in. I'olenlial sp lil1ing wuuld be
FI GU RE SlI
B>r <klails 01 beamcolu "Ut No. 10 (No. 32)
joint fo< bar developmen,
e'"ntpl ...
1- --1
" #-~
2 No. 11 (No, 36) "-
#-~ '. 'I

rn, T T :-~,1 ,,_
Z" dea r
- 4'+0
If-I I I I I I I
t--+
L_-:t -1-1.LL_.L
,,,- ,-I Jj
1
:1==::::1: ~ No, 11 (No. 36) No_ 3 (No_ 10)

s~rrups
Ii- -:\ No.4 (No. 13) ~es
" I
,'I
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
in lroe horiwmal plane of lroe bars. and in ea!culaling A ~ Iwo lime, lile slirrup bar "rea i,
used.' llas..'d (til 'he No.3 (No. 10) slim'ps :1l Sin. ,pocing:
K _ 0, I I X2X60J1OO _ _ " I K" _ 2.42 + 0,88 _ 2_3--1

O 88
" I5((IX~X2 J. IAI
This is less Ihan the limil '-alue of 2.5. l 'hcn fTOm Eq, (5 .4 ):
'-''"''' '''1 - ,j() x 1.4 J - 55,] in ,
and ,he rlXluin:J de,'doponen, ie ng,h i, 55.7 x 2.90-3,1 2 - 52 in, rathcrllwn 81 in, as
before. C learly. lroe u", of Ihe more ",,"role Eq_ (5 ,4) I"'rmilS a romidcmble reduelion
in ,Ie,'doponen, Icn~'h. hen 'hough ilS use r~Qui re, muc)' n\(lre lime and effon . i, is jus
lifoed if lhe design is 10 be repealed many limes in a slru,lU rc.
AN CHORAGE OF T ENSION B ARS BY H OOKS
a. Standard Dimensions
h, Ihe e"em Ihul Ihe desired lensile Siress in " bar cannOl be dewloped by bond alolle.
il is necessary 10 provide spedul anchomge all h~ ends of Ihe bar. usually by meanS o f
a 90 or a 1800 hook, TIle dinwnsions and bend radii for such hooks haw Ix",n Sian-
danli~ed in AC I Code 7. 1 as follows (see Fig. 5 ,9):
I . A 1800 bend plus all ~Alension of al leasl 4 bar dianlelers. bUI nOi less lImn 2~ in,
al llle free end of Ihe bar. or
2. A 90 0 berld plu s an CAlensiun of al leasl 12 bar dia",el~rs al the fn.'<l end of llle
bar. or
3. For slirrup and li~ anchurage only:
(a) For No. 5 ( No. 16) bars and ,malin, a 90" bend plu, an eXI ~nsiUl' of mle,,1 6
bar diameler, al lhe fre.., end of m., bar. Of
(h) For No" 6. 7. and 8 ( Nos. 19.22. and 25) bars. a 90" bend plus:m cAlension of
al leaSI 12 bar diamCle", al 11", frc~ ~nd ofille bar. or
(i') For Nu , 8 (Nu, 25) bar. and .maller, a D5" bend plus an exlension of al1eas1 6
bar diameler, al lhe fre.., end of m., bar.
TI,e mini1llum diameter of bend. measured oll,he inside of IIw bill'. for slandard
hooks Oilier IlmJl for slilTYps or lies in sizes Nos. 3 Ihrough 5 (Nos, 10 Ihrough 16).
should lx' 1101 less Ihan IIIe ~alues show" in Table 5.2. For sl ilTYp and Ii,' hooks. for
bar sizes Nu. 5 (No. 16) and smaller. IIIe inside diarnder of bend should nOI be less
Ihan 4 bar dimne,ers. according 10 'lie AC! Code.
When wdded wire reinforcemeno (s1II001h or defunlled wires) is used for slir-
rups or lies . IIIe inside diameler of bend s hou ld nOI be less Illan 4 wire diamelers for
defunned wire larger Ihan D6 alld 2 wire diamelers for all OIher wires. Bends wilh an
inside diameter of less Ihun 8 wire d;an\el~rs shou ld ,101 be less lhall 4 wire dianlelers
from Ihe neareSI wdded imerseclioll.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I .....,.........,_ I THI
o..loootc..,_ D...h p " "'t..p
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 5.9 r- 1 2db ~
rJ"" ,rI
Standard bar "~)b: (UI main
reinforcenlenl; (1)) "irrup'
and ,ie.',
---J ~ db ---J ~ dl>

,'
No. S (No. 16) Nos. 6. 7.or8

00' or smaller (Nos. HI. 22. or 25)
---J ~ db '"'
---J ~d~ ---J ~ do
1"
TABLE 5.2
Minimum diameters of bend for standard hooks
B~r Size Minimum Diameter
No<, 3 {hroogh 8 (No<, JO ,hroogh 25) 6 t>.>. di,n""",,,
N",.9. H},.nd II ,N",. 29 . .12. and .16) 8 bar di'''''''e",
No<, 14 an<l 18 (No<, 43 and ~7) JO bar J; " me(~",
b. Development Length and Modification Factors

for Hooked Bars
Hoo~cd bars resist pulioul t>y {he combin~d actions of bond ~Iong {II" ,(raigh{ kngth
of bar leading to the hoo); :md andlOrage provided by tltt: hook. Tests indicate that the
main c:wse offail urc of hooked bars in tension is splining of the concretc in t~ plane
of the hook. This spl illing is due to the very high stresses ill the concrete inside of (he
hoo);; (~SC stresses nre in f1u~nced nminly t>y the har diameter db for ~ given tensile
force. and the radius of bar bend. Resistance to splining has bc'en found to depend on
the concrete cover for the hoo); ~d har. measured laterally from the edge of the mem-
ocr to the bar perpendicular to the plane of the hoo~. and measured to the top (or bot-
tom) of the member from th~ point where the hook start~. paraliel to (~plJne of t~
hoo); , If these distances must oc small. the strength of the anchorage can be substan-
tially increased by providing confinement st.:cl in the form of closed stirrups or tics.
ACI Code 12.5 provisions for hoo~cd bars in tcnsion arc bnsed on rCSt:~rch sum-
marized in Refs, 5.8 and 5.9. The Code requirements accou nt for the combined con-
tribulion of bond along the straight bar leading to the hoo~. pl us the hooked anchor-
agc. A towl development length IJII is dcf1tl1xl as shown in Fig. 5.10 and is measur~d
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
17S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 5
FIGUIU: S. I O
Bar detail< for dc'1:lopmcnl
of standard hooks.
4db for Nos J throogh 8 (Nos 10 through 25) bars

5dbfor Nos. 91ttroogl> 11 (Nos. 29 throogh 36) bars
"'"'i_ 6dblor Nos. 14 and 18 (Nos. 43 and 57) bars
from the critical .~('\ion 10 the farthest point on tit" bar. paml!d 1(, the 'traight pan of
the bar. For standard hooks. as shown in Fig. 5.9. the development "'nglll is
0.02 i, (5.6)
Ie
wilh .. 1.2 for cpoXY-Co.1k'd rcinforccmcm and .. 1.3 for lightwcight aggregat~
concrete. For olhcr cases. and are taken as 1.0.
The devciopmcnt length I,,. should he multiplied by ccrtain applicable modify
ing factors. summarized in Tnblc 5">. TI1Cse factors an: combiocd as approprial~: e.g"
if sidc co,'cr of at leasl 2j, in. is providc'd for a 180-' hook. and if. in add ilion. tics are
provided. 1hc dc,'doptncnt length is mu ltiplied by the prodUCI of 0.7 and 0.8. Tn any
case. Ihe lenglh Id~ is nOl to he less Ihan 8 IxIr diamclers and nOl less Ihnn 6 in.
Trnnsversc confiocnloOlll sleci is essent inl if Ihe full bar slrenglh mUSI be devel
oped wilh minimum concrele confinCnlCll1. such as when hooks may be required allhe
ends of a simply suppon,-'d ocam or wher.: a beam in n continuous siruciure frames
in(O an end column and docs nOI cXlcnd paSI lhe column or when b~rs mUSI oc
anchored in a short canlilevcr. as shown ,n Fig. 5.11 (Rd . 5. 11). Accord ing 10 AC I
Codc 12.5.4. for hars hooked at Ihe discominuous cnds of mcmocrs wilh bolh silk
cover ~nd 101' or bonom covcr less than 2f in .. hoo~s mllSI he cnclosed with clos~d
slirrups or lies along Ille fu 11 developmcm lenglh, ns shown in Fig. 5.1 I. Thc sp~cing
of Ihe confinement sted must nOI cxceed J limes the diatncler of 1hc hooh'd har db'
~nd the rlrsl slirru p or lie !l1USI cnclose thc hem portion of lhe hoo~ wilhin a dislance
'-'<lUall0 '1Ib of Ihe oUlsidc of lhc hend. In such cases. lhe faclor 0.8 of Tahk 5.3 docs
nOI apply.
c. Mechanical AnchQrage
For somc spL"Cial cases. c.g.. m thc cnds of main flcxural reinforccment in dccp ocmns.
Ih~re is nOI room for hooks or the tK"Ccssary confincmem steel. and special nk:chani
cal nnchoragc devices muSI oc used . These mny consisl of welded plales. manufac
lured devices. or Theadcd bars. lhe adequacy of which mUSI be eSlablished by leS1S.
[Nvcioptnt::nI of reinforcclllCnt, when such devices are cmployed. may consisl of lhe
combincd contributions of bond along Ilk: icnglh of Ilk: bar leading 10 llle crilical sec
lion. plu s that of the nloOchanical anchoragc; Ihal is to say. lhe 10lal resislancc is the
sum of Ilk: parIS.
o..loootc..,_
_, -
. .......... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
TABLE 5.3
Developme nt lengths for hooked defo rme d bars in tension
0.02 j.
/I. Modine.tion f,.;t"" .pplied to I..

I'or No, I I INo . .16) aod >!nal ler bar hooh ,",'itll side <'o>or (nonnal (Q
pl."" of hook) not I"" lh " 21 in",.tId for 90" """",-, wi,h ""'.. '
on bar 0,"","; 011 be)'OIIJ """"'- nO< Ie" tban 2 in.
For 90' IlOOks of No. II (No, )6) and ,mailer bars 'hot are ei,he, "
.!>Closed within ties or "im'!" pefJ>Ondkular to ,he 1>." being
developed. ,paced "01 greater ,ha" Jd. along ,be de,-dop"'.'"
lenglh I.. of the hook: or .!>C1osed wilhin t ;", or ,timJP5 parallel
10 U>< bar b<-ing <k",'dopcd. 'POl'ed 1001 greate' than 3d, alOltg ltlc
length of the tail <"en,ioo of the"""" plu, bend 0."
For ISIY hoots of No. I I (No. 36) and ,m,lIcr bar, ,h., ,."
end"""d within tie; or " irrups perpeodi{'ular to the M being
de"eioped. '1'1<1 not grc..tcr (h,n Jd, along ,he development
length 140 of 11>< hoo/..
Whe,e a,,,,hornge or deydopmem for j, i, nOl speeifie.lly ""lui red.
re inforcement in e.",."
of th.", required by .n,lysi,
For epo'Y' coJled bars u

I'or OIber bars
"
For "po>y-co.led bars u
I'or nonnal-weigl" {,01""ele
"
FIGUKE 5.11 Ties or S~ITUPS
T r.m,YcrSe reinfo,,:cmcn' required
requirement' at
d i<c,,,,,inUOll' cnd;; of ~ I~
m,,,,,be,, "ilh small d,
<'oyer di""",,c>.
,
J L~,~ .. 2d~ Secti"" a-if
EX .... ",lI'L.E 5.2 o..wlopn,.,nt of hookffi b~rs in tension. Rd..mng to the re."H'OIUlnn joinl shown in
Fig ..~ _ 8. the No. 11 (No . .16) n"g.ti"e borg are to]x, extended into ,he column and tenni
nmoo in a slJrnJard 90" I>00I<, ke"p ing 2 in. dear 10 the OtllSide face of the ('(J1"",n. The col
umn width in (he dire<;(ion of beam wid ,h is 16 in. Find the minimum length of embedment
o r the hook past the <'OI"mn face. and 'IJeCify the hook details.
St ~ P \jld;}ppllu puok>q P;)JOI.pUt t>q IIY4S 'uolss;)JdlllOJ JO 1I013;)J Y OIUI P."IpUJ1XJ
J I 'pUY IUJUI;})JOIUI;)J lYlilpOI 13UOI411,,, Snonuol uro ~ IIt4S 'UOISUJI JO UOI3;)J n m il l
PJplIJl~" J! IIlJUPJJ0.lU!;)J lYJ\jS SY py 01 lUt>q s.mq IYUlpnl13uOl ''>ll'~ '31" UI It '11lq
l~ulpn 1l3uo l Y :>sopUJ 1I~4s dnllils O'Jldl]IO!U 10 Jl ';}ldulIS U JO UOllJod snonlillUO:>
;)tjl UI put>q 4"0" 'Spll~ p;lJ04JUU U?~."l;)(j 'lUll ] JJ4unj SJ'.I!Jads I'~ I "PO.) [.)V
'(I~ I'~ '31" Ul U"045 su "m 'J -'f'!l'ftIO'O

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:(9'~) -\>:I liq UJ,'!lI' Sl .~00l! I"O!JJ~.\ "'II JO "I'!' )~J "'-11 01 J~q 0'11 ~WI~
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,md'mt" ~,,]IIn.L)mus :U:HDNO:J.m N~)I Km W I
_.__._-.
" !Ii'j
~
....,-.. .. ""!Noa
~
...-..," 1" 1' ' 0
IM<~"'-l " -. j ' _~OO--""!N
o..loootc..,_
_, -
. .......... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU : S. l l
J . dr!,
[J
ACI r"'lu ire,,,,,,," for >tirrup 0.014
'11<00<'8"' ia) No. 5 (No, ~ ,
{I;
16) Mirrul"' aoo ,,,,,,I lor. and
,'.I",. 6.
7, and 8 (N"" 19. 22,
and 25 ) stirrup< ... ith ),ield
m"s> OOIexceooing
4(),000 I"i; (h ) N.",. 6, 7, "I ,or
'00 8 'Iimor> iNO.<. 19.22.
,nd 25 ) with }'idd me"
."eeding 40.000 psi:
(r ) wide be.m with multiple.
leg 1I Slirrups: (a) pairs of
1I >tirrur> """'ing a cI".;cd
""il. See Fig, 5.9 for
."onlali,'< ;i.,lIlard hook
[JJ o (o1
,",1.il"
'"
,peeifit.-d fOJ development I ~ nglh, Pairs of U-s1irrups or Ii", so plal'ed as (() form a
dosed unit ,hall t,., conside red pruperl)' splict.-d when lenglh of lap" are 1.314 as in
Fig. 5. 12./. In members al leasl 18 in. deep , suth splices nre considered ad~qualle if Ihe
,tirrup legs ~x1end lhe full dep1h of 1he member.
Othe r provision, are contained in the ACI Code relating (() the use of welded
wi r~ rei nforcemem. which is ""melime~ u""d fOJ web reinforcemem in precasl and
p""t res",d concrete beams,
_, 5.6 W ELDED W IRE REI NFO RCEME NT
Tensile <Ieel con,isling of welded wire reinfor""mem (oflen rderred (() a, weld~-d wi",
fnbric). wilh eill,~r ddormed Or sm<x,1h wire,. is comnKonly used in ",,,,-way and Iwo-
wny sbhs nml certain OIlier Iypes of members (sec Senion 2.15). For drjimtlcd wi r~
r~inforcet!lem, some of the de\'dopr""m is assignt.-d 10 11", wdded cross wires and
,Orne 10 the embedded leng1h o f Ihe deformed wire. Atmrding 10 AC I C ode 12.7. lhe
developme m length of welded deformed wi", ",inforceme m "",a,ured from the poim
o f lhe n itical senion 10 11", end of the wire is compU!~d as Ihe produn of lhe ,1e\'eI -
op",em leng1h Id from Table 'i. 1 OJ from the more ""curalle F..q . (5 .4) and 11", appro-
priate m<odification fano r or faclOrs rela1 c-d 10 Ih""" equations. ~xcept tha11he epoxy
coating faclOr is 1a""' n as 1.0 nnd the developn"'nt l~ng1h is not (() be Ie," 1ltan 8 in,
Additionall y. for welded defoml<.-d wire rei nforcement wilh at least one ,' ross wire
wi1hin Ihe d,:velopmem leng11t and ,,0( I~ss than 2 in . from IIt~ poi m "f the critical ",c-
tion , a wir" fahric fac/(Jr ~qual to tI", greater of
f" - 35.000
(5.7a)
f,
(5.7h)
,'-,
call t,., applied. wi",,,, ". , i, the lateral spacing of lhe wire being developed: bul thi~
factor r~ not exce~d 1.0. For wdde<l wire deformed reinf(>n.-e n",nt Wi1h no cr<)'lS
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
UI2 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 5
wi re, within tm, development length or wilh a 'ingle eros, wire Ie" than 2 in. from
1m, poi nt of Ihe critical section, lhe wire fallric factor i, taken \0 be equal 10 1.0 and
the devdop""'nt le"glh detennined:l.' for lhe deformed wi re.
For ,,",,,,,or"
welded wire reinforcen"'ni, development is ~~l",idered to he pro-
vided hy embedment of two ero" wir"" wilh Ihe clo,e r wire not less than 2 in. from
the nitical Sl>etio". Howeve r, lhe dewlop""'nt length "",asured from the niti,'al "",c-
tion to the outennosl cro'" wire i, not to he I"" than
A. I,
I" - O , 27 ~ (S.S)
"." I,
according to ACt Code 12.8, where Awis the crosssectional area of an individ uul wire
to be de"elop<.xI or ,pliced . Moditicarion facrors pertaining to exces, reinforcement
and lightweighl COllcrete may be applied, bur I" i, not to be less Ihan 6 in . for the
,moorh welded wire reinforcement.'
, , 5.7 DE VElOPMENT OF B ARS IN COMPRESSION
Reinforcemenr may be l"i;Xjuired to dewlop its compressive strength by embedment

under various circum' tances. e.g .. where Nrs transfer thdr share of column load, to a
supporting foot ing or where lap splice~ are made of compression bars in col um n (S<:e
Section 5. 11). In rhe case of bars in compression. a pan of the total fOKe is (ransferred
by bond al ong the embedded length. a nd a part is transferred by end bearing of the
NT> on the concrele. Because the surrounding cOllcrete i~ relatively free of cracb and
because of (he beneficial dfect of end bearing. ~hortcr ba~ic development lengths arc
permissible for compression Nrs (han for tension bars. If transverse confil)Cment Heel
is presen(, such I1l' spiral column reinforcement or special spiral steel around un indio
vidual Nr. the required developmen( length i~ further reduced. Hools ,uch us are
,hown in Fig. 5.9 are !WI effective in 1ransferri ng compression frOIll bars to concrete.
and, if present for other reasons, should be disregard<.,<l in determining required
emb<.,<lmem length,
According to ACl Code 12.3. Ihe development length in compressi on i, the
greater of
0.02/,
(S.9a)
1>
I",. = 0.00031, d, (5.91
Modificalion factors summaril~d in part B of Tub Ie 5 ,4. as applicabl~. ar~ appl i ~d to
the de"elopmenl I~ngt li in compression 10 obtain the .'aJue of dewlopmell t lellglli IJe
10 be used ln design , In 110 CaS~ is IJ to be less thall 8 in .. accord ing 10 the ACI C!Xk,
Bask and modified compressiw dewlopn",m I~nt'ths are giwn in Table A.II of
Appendix A.
, _, 5.8 B UNDLED BA RS
It was pointed Out in Section 3.6<: that it is soll"'tirtklS advantag,ous to "bundl~" I~n
sile reinforc~n1ent in large beams, wilh two, three, or four Imrs in COllt3Ct, 10 provide
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
TABLE 5.4
Development lengths for deformed bars in compression
0,02/
." ~ d,
h
2: 0.00m/, d,
fl. Modification f,.,l"" 10 b< 'W'ied '0 I...

A, req"ifed
Reinf<><eem"n' in e'ce" of Ihat ",quired hy "n,ly,i,
A, pro"itkd
Reinforce",.m .""Iosed ,,"';Ih in 'pira l
fCinforccIDCnl n<MIe" ,han *in. diameter and
001 mor< Ih," 4 in, pitch Of "ilhin No, 4 (No. I~ )
li ' p;K'<d", n<~ n\Ore ,h,n 4 in . on crn' .", !I.n
for ilnproved placement of concrete around and betwe.:n bundl ~s of bars. Bar bundles
are lypically lri~ngular or L shaped for tilree t>ars. and square for four. When bars are
eUl off in a bundkd group. lhe cutoff points must be staggered at least 40 diamelers.
The developmcnl1cngtil of individual bars wi th in a bun dl e. for both lension and com
pression. is (hat of (he individual bar increased by 20 perccl11 for a lhrce-bar bundle
and 33 pcrcelll for a four-bar bundle. 10 account for (he probable deficiency of bond a(
(he insid~ of (he bar group.
B AR CUTOFF AND B END POINTS IN BE AMS
Chapter 3 deall with monk:nts. fkxural stresses. eoncre(~ dink:nsions. and longitudi
nal bar are:ts at (he crilical monlCnl s.cc(ions of ocams , These Crilical moment seclions
arc gcnerally a( lhe facc of (he supports (ncgalivc bending) and ncar lhe middk of (he
span (positivc bending) , Occasionally. haunclk:d members h~"ing \'~ riabl c dcplh or
widlh arc used so Ihal Ihc COllCr<:le flexural capac;ly will agree more closely wi th lhe
va rialion of bending momCIl1 along a span or series of spans , Usually. howcver. pris
malic beams wilh conSlal11 concrele cross' se<:lion dimensions arc used 10 simplify
fOrlnwork and til us 10 reduce COS1.
The sled rcquirenICn1. on Ihc Olil~r hand. is easily varied in acCOrdatlCC wilh
r.:quirelllcl1ls for flexure. and ;t is common prJC1icc eilher 10 eut off bars where Ihcy
arc no longer nc.::d~d 10 resist Slress or. som~l ink:s inlhe case of cOl1linuous beal11s. 10
bend up the OOno1 steel (usually al 45) so Ihal ;1 proviocs (ensile rcinforccl1k:11I al
Ihe lOp of the beam ov~r lhe sup]X>rts.
a. Theoretical Points of Cutoff Of Bend

The l~nsile force 10 be resish:d by the reil1forcclllCnl at any eross scC1ioll is
.
1 - ,t,/, - --=-M
where M is lilc vJl ue of bending IlIO1~nl m Ihal scclion and ~ is (he inlcrlmlle"~r mm
of Ihc resislingnlOnlCnl. TIle lc~cr arlll ~ vari es only wilhin narrow limils and is never
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
less than II", value at the maximum -moment section. Conse'luemly. the ten,ile force
Can he ta ken wi th good accur""y directly proportional to the bending nK)menL Since
it i, de,irabl~ to design '<0 that the stt...,1 everywhere in tl'" beam is as r>early fully
'tres..,J as possible. it follows that the re'lui r.,J steel area is wry nearly proportional
to II", bending ]))()))",nt.
To illustrate. the moment diagmm for a unifom)ly I",,,k'<f simple-span heam
,hown in Fig. 5. l3<1 can he used a, a ,teel -requ irement diagram. At the ",,,,,imum-
moment section. 100 I"'rcent of the tensile steel is Tl,<!u ired (0 I"'rce nt can be di,con -
tinued or hent). while at II", ,upports. 0 pereent of the s~1 is theoretically re'luired
(I {)() I"'r""nt can he di,continued or hent). The pe rcentage of bars that could he dis-
continued elsewhere almlg the span is obtainable diTl'Ctly from the moment diagmm.
<lm"'n to scale . To faci litate the determination of clll<;>ff or be nd point. for si mpk
'pan Grdph A.2 of Apl"'ndix A has been prepared. It represents a half-moment dia-
gram for a unifon))ly loaded si mple span.
To determine cutoff o r hend points fOJ ,"ominuou, heam,. the mon",nt diagmm,
resu Iting fmm loading for maximum span moment and ma~irnurn ,upport m{lrT)l'nt an"
FIG URE 5.13 Moment

nar ~u,ofT 1"";"''' from
momenl di ag~.ilII'
diagram .
""
~
0
,
"
c
",",.
0
~ -
I ;0 <: ;0
I
-+-----------r-
I

I I ~ ,,
Thoorelk:al cut po;ols
0
""
lor ' /3 01 A.
Theoretk:al cut po;nts
lor additional '/3 01 A.
(.,
Diagram lor
maximum span
moment 0
" .;:, "

;0 0
c
" ",.,
~
0
""
Theoretk:al wt peW"ts
lor ' /201 A. " ,. ,
;0 ,
0

ma ximum support
moments
"
0
("
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
llm"'n. A IlIon",nl envd"pe resull< Ihnl ddi!",. th" rang" "I' values "f nwnlent at any
><-><olion . Cutoff or bend points can be fourKl from the appropriate momem {"un,e as for
'impl" spans. Figure 5, I 3h illuSlfllles, for example, a mminuou, beam wi!h mOIT",111
enveloP<' resuh ing from ahemate loadings to produce maximum !ipan and maximum
,uppon moments. The I",;alion, of !Itt: points m which 50 percent Qf lhe ootlom and
lop ",,'d may theoretically be discontinu<'ad",!. <"<lIltinuQus reinforced C'Ctncretc
heams of fairly regular span may be designed using moment coeffici"m, (see Tabk
12. 1). These C<)Cfficiems, analogQU' to the numerical cOITstant in !he expr""ion -}uL l
for ,i mple-beam hemting rIKlInent, give a conservnlive approximalion of span and sup-
pon moment' for <"<)Iltinuous beams. When snch <"<>efficient< are used in design. (' ut-
off and bend poi nt< may conveniemly be found from Graph A. 3 of Appendix A,
Moment curves mrresponding to tl", "an,,,,s 'pan and support-molllem coefficiem,
are giwn at the top and bo ttom of the chart, res!",,"tiwly.
Alternatively. if mo"",m, are foulld by frame analysis ratl",r than ffQm ACt
moment <"<",fficients. the location along the 'pan where hending moment reduces 10
any panicular value (e,g .. a, detcrnlined by the har gfQUp after some bars are (' ut off).
or to zero. i, easily mmputed by ,tatics.
b. Practical Considerations and ACI Code Requirements

Actually. in no case slK>uld the t"'lSile steel be discontinu<'<otion 4,4 ~nd , hown in Fig. 4.9. when diagonal
tension cra(' k" fonn. an intenml redistribution of fon-es occur!; in a beam. Prior to
cracking. the 'teel t~nsile force at any JKlint is proponional to the nKHltt:m at a veni -
cal ",nion passing through the JKlil11. Howewr, after tl", crack has fomlt.-d, the tensile
force in the .<t,..,1 at the crolCk i~ govem<.-d by the IlK"nenl at a section nearer midspan.
whi(' h rna,. be much larger. Funh",nnore, tm, octualnKnnent diagram may differ from
that use<J as a de!;;gn hasi" due to approximation of the real loads. approx;malions in
the analysi., or the superimJK""d effect of "ettlen"'nt or iat"ml loads . In recognitim!
of these facts, ACI Cod" 12.10 'I->{juires that "wry bar sl",uld be continued at least a
di stan('e (.><Iualt o tltt: effective depth of the beam or 12 har diameters (w hichever is
klf!:"'r) beyond the point at which it is theoretically no longer requir<'<i to resist wess.
In addition, it is neces"",), that the calclJlat~-d W'e " in the steel at each ",ctim!
be devdopt'd by ade~u~te "mb<.-dded length or end a""horage, or a combination of the
two. For the usual case. with no special end nndKlrdg", th i, o",ao s that the ful l dewl -
opn"'nt length IJ mUSt be provided be)-ond nitical section' at whkh peak ~tress exist~
in the ha",. The", critical ",ctimlS are 1o,-,ate<.l at JKlints of maxi m um m"nlent and at
JKlims where adjacem terntinated reinfoK"n"'nt i$ no longer needed to resist bending.'
Funher reflecting the pos.<ible dmng" in peak -stress location. AC I OxJe 12.1 1
'I-'<luir~s that at least one-third Qf the posit;v,,-nK"'lem steel (on"'-founh ;n continuou,
"
'-11>< ACI O >k i ' "nbi~",." '0 ~'''-1''-''-'~ ..~ <Ioc "",'n';oo Im~", J ,.- 12.1, b '0 "" :oddeJ ~, ''''' """i.w Jt;."!<,!,,,,,,,,, i<"l:,h I~ Til<' C,od<
C''''' '''''''''ory pmt'"" ,II<' ,.i<w , ~ .. ,he"" ""lui"".,,,,-, ~ ... t... 'or<-,i'''I''""J, . 00 11;, ~ ,t. h" "'"n 1""r-=J ,.. ,.... ",i,. 11,"",,,,,r, <Ioc
"'ion",,, ju;t 1'""><",,>1 ",,,,,,Ji"l: !"A,iNe >lufl> in "'""".. "or",." or _I "Ie.,., Ji>loil>ut" .. """'" kao- ,~ ,Ii< "'K'lo,"", that ,I... ,",
~u i ",'r.,"" ,II<",IJ "" >Uf'.... mf'."'->1. !n ""'h """', ,'.,h Nr "'.. !d r.., "","nocO Ji~.,.-c I, P'u, ,I>: "",",<r (,f ,I ,or tld, "-'l""'" ,r.., f'." ~
>I",,> 10.:.......
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
'pans) musl t:.: clHltinu~d unimerrupled along th" same face <;If the t:.:am a distance at
lea,t 6 in. imo the 'UppOr1. When a flexural """mher is a part of a primal)' bteral l""d
re,isting ,)'stelll, "",itive-lllol1lellt reinforcement re<juir~d to t:.: extended into the sup-
p<:>rt mu St he aoc!U)I'-'<110 de",!op die yi eld stre" gth of the bars at the face of suppon to
ac.:oum for the ""ssibi!ity of reversal of IIlQlllcnt at the support<. According to ACJ c<ule
!2.12, at least one-third of the tota! reinfoTI:ement pmvidt.'<l for negative ITK)ITJent at d",
,upport must be extcndt.'<l beyond the extre"", "",itio" of the point of inl1<.,(,tion a di,-
tallce oot !ess than onc-sixtt...,nth the dear span. or Ii. or ! 2./", ",hid",,-er is great",t
Requirenle"l. for bar--cuwff Of bend -poim !o;;mion, arc summariZ<.'<l in Fig. 5. 14.
!f "egative bap; L are to be c'ut off, the'Y must extend a full de,'elopn"'nt length 16 heyond
the fac'e of the support, In addition. they "lU~t cxt<end a distance d or 1Mb beyond tI",
theoretical ""int of cut<;>ff defined by the moment diagram. The remaining negative bar>
AI (at !ea't ont.~thinl or the tOla! "egati"e area) mu,t extend at least IJ btryolld the theo-
retica! JlOini of cutoff ofbap; L and in addition Illust extend ,I, 12d~, or I. 16 (whi chever
is greatest) pa't the point or inflc'CIion of the ncgative-n"':>n>eni diagram.
!f the positive bars N are to be cut off. they mu,t pmjt"'t IJ paSt the point of theo-
retical Ill,nimulll IIlQment. as well as Ii or 12.1b heyond the cutoff ""int fmlll tI", positi,'e-
FIGURE 5. 14 Face of
Ihr ,uu,ff rcquirom<ntO <.>f support Th&o<etical Ii of spao
,lie ACI Code, positive
I
-"
- - - - - - - - Moment
I capacity
I of bars 0
I
I
I
Moment I
capacity I
ofbarsM - I
I
I
I Greatest o! d, ! 2 dl>
I 1.,116 lor at least
l ' /30!(- A,)
.. rs~
dor 12 db
~,~ FI
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
if r-
-,
~( --.::: j r- d0(1~ Ba rs 0
6"10< at least 'I. of ( +
('/310 , simple spans) I
'.
'. .1
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
moment diagram_"", remaining positi~e Ixm; 0 mu,t cxterKl/d past the theoretical point
of nnoff of bars Nand nm,t extend at lea't 6 in. into the faee of the support.
When bars are cut ofT in n tension 1.0n". there is a tendency toward the fomultion
of premature fln uml and diagonal ten,im, {'r.ICh in the vicinity of ti", cut end _Thi,
may r~suh in a reJuclion of ,mear {'apacity and a loss in ov~ral l ductilily of the beam.
ACI Code 12.10 requires ,pecial p,,-'Caulions. ,pecifying Ihal no flexural bar shall be
termilL1k'<l in n ten,ion zo"., ulliess olle of the following "')lid ilion, is satisfied:
1. nle shear is not o~er two-thirds oflhe design strcnglh - II.

2. Stirrups in excess of those nonnally required are provided oVer a distance along
each terminated bar from (he poim of cu!Off equal (0 -; d. l1tcse "binder" stirrups
sh~1I provide an area Ay a: 60 /J.s/,. In addi(jon . lhe slirrup slXlcing shall nol
exceed d- 8- o' where - is (he ratio of lhe area of lxIrs cut off !O (he lo(al area of
hars at the S1.-.:tion.
3. The continuing bars. if No. II (No. 36) or smaller. provide Iwice (he area rcquired
for fl~xure al that po int and the shear docs not exceed three quarters of the design
strenglh II, .
As an allernativc to cutting offlhe steel. ten,ion bars may be anchored by bend

ing them acroSS the weh and making them eominuous with the reinforcemem on the
opposite face . Although this leads to some complication in delailing and placing the
steel. Ihus adding to conslruction cost some engine""rs prefer the arrangement bt.-.:au5e
adck'd insurance is provided against the spread of diagonal (ension cracks. In somc
cases. particularly for rel~tive l y (kep beams ,n .... hieh a large percentage of Ir.: total
hollom stcr:1 is 10 he bent, it may be impossible 10 locate the bendup point for houom
hars far enough from the support for the same bars 10 I....""t (he rcquir~me n(s for top
steel. l1tc theoretical points of bend should be eheded carefully for bolh bonom and
top Sle",1.
ilecause (he delermination of cutoff or bend points may be rather l~dious, pm
ticularly for frallles Ihal haw been alla l yz~d by elasl ie mdhods rather than by Illoment
cocftkients. Illany designers specify Ihat hars be cut off or bent al more or less arbi
trari ly detin ..'d points thm experienc~ has pfQV~n (0 be safe. For nearly equal span s.
unifomlly loaded. in .... hieh not mofC than ahou( onehalf the tensile slcr:1 is to be cuI
off or benl. the locations shown in Fig. 5.15 are satisfactory. NOI~ . in Fig. 5.15. lhal
the beam at the exterior support a( thc left is shown to be si mply supported . If (he heam
is monolithic with exterior columns or wilh a concrete wall at Ihat end. delails for a
typical interior span could be used ror lhe end span as well.
c. Special Requirements near the Point of Zero Moment

While the basic requ'l>!lnt:nt for flexural (ensile reinfore~lllell! is thaI a full de"ciop'
mcnt lenglh IJ be provided beyolld the point where Ihe har is assullled fully stressed
to /.. this requirelllcll! may ,,,,, be sullkient to ens ure safety against hotld diS(f~ss .
Figure 5. 16 shows the momenl and shear diagram rcprescntativc of a uniformly loaded
continuous beam. Positi"e bars provid..--d to resist (he maximum monlCll! al c are
required to have a full de\'ClopnlCnt length beyond (he point c. measur..'d in the dircc
tion of decrea,ing IllOm~nt. Thus IJ in the limi(ing case could be exaclly ",qua l to the
distance from point C !O the point of inflc.;tion. However. ir Ihat I'.'quiremeli! were
exacl ly met. then al poinl/!. hal fway from C!O the point of innection. those bars would
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 5. 15
~
~ C; l
r~ ~I r~
r'- ~
Cu,,,ff or bend poi"" f"r
""" in appro.imatd)'
- __ __ 1 ____ ....
----- 1.--..........
"'Iual 'p,n, ",i,h ~ ~
r -
~
unif... mly di,{rib.ncd
load,
~ -
~ ~ c,~
6- L
Jr" c, ~I
",
'---- c, ~
~' 1 ,.I i J~ c, _ _---'_I
",
FIG U RE 5.16 , ,
Dewlopm"m leng{h
"'qui"'"l<"' at poi"' of
, ,
,
infl{ioo .
M
ol M"~
--'
, loflecboll J>O'nt
I I
I I
I I I
I
tGj
(a)
'.f--"-.<
I Id I
I
I
I
I I I
I I
'. I
''I
ha,'e on ly half {heir development lenglh rentaining, whereas {he mon",nI would be
{hree -quan~rs of {hn{ at point c. and {hree-quaners of lhe hnr fo,""" must )'e{ be devd -
op"d . Thi, situat ion arise, whene,'cr {he moment, O,'cr {he development leng{h an"
greater Ihan {hose C"Om:sl'onding {o a linear K-duclion 10 1.em. n,ercf",~. the problem
is a (-Oncem in the positive-momem region of cominuou, uniformly loaded spnns, oot
n<;lt in {he negntive-Olnmem "'ginn,
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
n,~ bond force U per unil lenglh alollg the t~n,il~ reinforcement in a beam i,
U = dT,k where dT is the change in bar ten,ion in the I~ngth dx. Since dT = dM z.
tbis can be written
<1M
U --
,," (a)
tbat is, tI", IX)J1d force I"'r unil length of bar. generated by bending. i, pro[>Onional 10
the ,lope of the moment diagram. In reference 10 Fig. 5. 16i1, tbe maximum bond forre
U in tbe po,itive mom~m r~gion would tberdore be at the point of inflection, rutd U
would graduall y dimini,h along the beam loward poim c. Clearly, a conseT\'atiw
approach in evalualing adt."'-juacy in bond for tho", ha" that are co",inutld a. rar a, the
point of in fled ion (not necessarily the ful l A, rr<:>vid~d for M. at poinl e) would he to
requin:- that Ihe bond resi,lance. whith is assumed to increase linearly along tbe bar
from it, end. would be governed by Ihe maximum r~te of n1<)ntent increase. i.e., the
maximum slope dM d( of tt", ITIO=nt diagr~m. which for positiw bending is st.",n 10
ottur at the intleclion point.
From dem~ntary m..'Chanie" il is known thaI tI", slope of the ITIO""'nt diagram
al any poilll is e'lual to tI", value of Ihe sbear force at Ihat poinL Therefore. with ref-
erellc..., 10 Fig. 5. 16. tI", .Iope of tI", Illlllltent diagram altbe poinl of intlecliol1 is V,.
A da,hl-d line may therefore he drawn tangent 1<:> lhe monlCm curve m tbe poilll of
intll'Clion having Ih~ slope equal!() tI", value of sbear force V" n",n if M. i, tbe nom -
i nal flexural Slrenglh provided by Iho", bars Ihat exwnd to lhe point of intlection. rutd
if the nllm",nl diagram were con",ry"tivei)' a~,um,--d 10 vary linariy alol1g Ih" da'h<--d
line tange nt to tbe a<"lual moment l' urV~. fromlhe hasic retation Ihal M, " = V. ' a dis-
lance" is e"abti,bed:
M,
" . -V. (h)
If the bars in que"ion were fully stressed at a diSlance" 10 lbe right of Ihe point of
intll'Clion. and if the mon",niS diminished li,,,,arly to II", poilll of infl""lion, a, sug-
ge>!ed by !l", dashc-d line, tI",n bond failure would nOl occur if the developmem length
14 did not eXl'eed II", di,tance ll . n", actual l!1I)ll"'nt~ are less Ihan indical"d by 11",
dashed line, so Ihe requiremelll i, on Ihe safe side .
If lbe baJ'i eX1~nd past Ihe [>Oint of intlenion IOward Ihe ,upl"m. as is alway,
requ ired. then the nlen,ion can"" l"<>unted as contrihUling toward satisfying lbe
requirernent for ~mbedded length. Arbitmrily, according 10 ACt Code 12,11, a I~nglh
pa"lhe poi'" of intlenion nOl grealer than Ihe larger of Ihe ""am d~plh d Or 12 lime,
the bar diameter db may"" l'oul11ed I<;>ward s:uisf)'ing the r"'luiremenL Thu" 11",
requ irement for I~nsile OOJ'i at Ihe [>Oint of inflection i, Ihat
M
1, < -V' + 1 (5.10)
,
wl",re Mn = nominal fl~xuml str~nglh assuming all reinfQfcel1"'''' a1 seclion 1<) ""
'Ir~ssed to j ,
V. = fanored sh~ar force al section
la = embedded lenglh of har pasl pI)int of zem moment, but n0110 nc~..,d
the greater of d or 1:1:1.
A Correspooo i ng ,ituation OCcurs ncar Ih" 'uppons of simple spans carrying uni -
fonn loads, and similar r"'luiremelll' must be irnl")sc,.L H",... ever. bt:cau", of Ih~ ""ne-
ficial ef'fe~1 of venicall'omp", ,,iml in the n)ncret~ allhe ~nd of a ,imply supported
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
span, which t~nds 10 prevclU spl ining and bond failure along the oors, t~ valuc ,11,' V.
may be incrcas..>d 30 perc~111 for such cases, according 10 AC I Code 12.11. Thus. at the
cnds of a sil11ply supponcd spml. t~ rcquirem~1U for Icnsion reinforcemel1t is
M,
Id:s L3 - +I, (5.11 )
V,
TIle conscqu~ncc of these special requ irements al thoc poill1 of zero moment is
that. in some cases. smaller bar sizcs must be used to obtain smaller I,," cvcn Ihough
n:qu iremcl1ls for development past the point of maxi mum stress arc met.
It may he c"ident from fCview of Seclions 5.9b and 5,9\: Ihat the delermination
of cutoff or bend poims in flexural l1ICll1ocrs is complicated and can be cxtrenICly
timc-consuming in design. It is importam 10 ~ecp lhe mallcr in perspecti"e and 10 rec-
ogni<e thaI the overall COSI of construclion will oc increased "cry lillie if sol11e hms
an: slightly longer Ihan absolulcly necessary. accord ing to calculation. or as diclated
hy ACI Code provi sions. In addition, simplicity in construction is a desired goal. and
can, in i(self. producc compensating cost savings, Accordingly. many engineers in
pr.ICtice continue <III posilivc n:inforcemcnt i1\(0 the face of the suppons toc requin:d
6 in. and extcnd <III negative n:inforcement Ihe requ il\.>d distance PHSt the poilUS of
inflection. rather than using staggered cutoff points,
d. Structural Integrity Provisions

Experience ",ilh ,tructures that have ~n subjech.'<l (0 damage to a major .upponing
de"",m. such as a column. owing 10 :,,_ cid~m Or abnormal loading has indical<-'<l lhat
total collapse can be prevented thmugh relalivel y minor change, in bar detailing. If
some reinforccnICnt. pmpcrly confined, is carried <"<>nlinuously through a support,
then even if tbal support i, danmg<-'<l or destroyed, catenaf)-' anion of the beams can
prevent tOlal collapse. In gen~ra1. if heam~ have bottom and tor sted m<-..,ting or
exceeding the rc<tuiremems su mmarized in Senions 5.% and 5.9\:. and if binding steel
is pmvided in the form of pml"'rly ddailed sti rrups. then that talenary acti<;111 can usu -
ally he ensured,
According to ACI Code 7.13.2. heams at tI", perimeter of the structure must ha\'~
continuous reinforc~ment <'onsisting of nt least one-sixlh Qf the t~nsion rei nforcerr>em
required for n~galive mon",nt at the support, but not Ie" than two oors. and at lea,t
one-<Juarter of tbe tension rein foreeme m required for positive moment at mid'pan. but
not les..~ than two bam. The <'ominunu, reinfOJ<'cnICnt must be cndQ"-'(\ by Ihe cOmers
of U stirrup, having not I~" than 135 hook> around n"'tinuou, top bars or by one-
piece dosed stirrups wilh mil Ie" than 1350 hwks around orle of Ih~ continuous top
ham, Although 'pacing of suth slirru!" is n,1I spc<'ified. the reqnirements for minimum
shear """I giv~n in SLoetion 45b pmvide guidance in regions where ,hear does not
require closer 'pa<'ing. Stirrup, rIL...'<l mil be extended Ihrough the joints. The required
continuily of longitudinal steel can be prQvided with top reinforcement spliced at
mid'pan, and bottom reinforcement spli,'ed at or near tbe supports (see Section 5, II a),
In OII",r than perinICter heams. when stirrups as deSl;ribt.'<l in tlIC pn."-'<ling par~
graph are not provid<-'<l. at least {)!lC-quart~r of tbe posilive-moment r~inforcerr>em
required at mid'pan, but not less than two bam, must be continuous or spliced over or
near the support with a Class A tension splice. and al noncontinuous supports must he
terminated Wilh a slandard I",ok.
Note thaI tbese provisions rc<tuire very little additional sted in the ,truclure. AI
least one-qnaner of tile bottolll bars must he exknded 6 in . into 1he snpport by Qlher
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
AC I Cod~ pnwisi"n,; {h~ strul'mr~1 integrity prQvi,ion, merely r~quire {hat lhe", bar>
he made continuous Qr splic<--d . Similarly. other AC I Code provision, require that at
teast Qn~- lhird of the negatiw bar> he extended a cenain minimum distance pasl {he
point of illfle<'1ion; 1he slruc{ural integrily provision, for perime1er heam, r"'luir~ on ly
that half of th"se bars be funher extended and spliced :u mid'pan.
" 5.10 INTEGRATED B EAM D ESIGN EXAMPLE
In thi, ami in the pre<'eding chaplers, the ",veml a,pec{~ of d", de'igo of rein forced
concrete beams have been ,mdied more or Ie" separately' first {he fkxur~1 de'ign,
then de'ign for shear. and finally for b"nd and anch"r~ge. The following example i,
preselUed {o show how the various require"",nL. for beams. which are ofIe" in '''''''''
respect, conflining. are sat i,fied in the oWr::lll design of a ",presentative memher.
I nlegraled d .. lgn ot T bea m. A floor <y<tem con,i,{, of , ingle 'pan T ~aJ'" 8 f{ on cen
{~rs. sUpp<n1ed by \2 in, m"sonry ",.11, spac.:d m 2~ n between in,ide races, 1l1C general
anang"llIen{;, ,hnwn;n Fig. S. 1 7~ . A 5 in. monoli{hk slab carries a uniformly di>(rib(l1ed
>en';".., li"e load of 165 p,f, ThI: T beams. in addilion 10 {he slab 1000 and {heiro".-n "'ci~ht .
IlIUS] carry hI<> 16.000 Il.>equip",.n{ loads applied m'"," {he ,{em Of l,",T beam 3 n fmm ,he
"",0 cem~rli"" as shown, A c'Ompl"{e deSign is {o be p""'i(kd for {ll<: T beam" USing c'On
crete of 4000 psi strength and bars w'ill! 60,000 p,i yield Mre"
St " .lJ (,(o ~ . ACC<lrd;ng {o ,he ACt Code, {be 'pan I~ng{h ;$ to be {a~eu as lhe ct~"' span plm
{he beam deptb , OO{ need no! ",ceed {I><: dista!lCe bc1ween {I><: cemm of support" The 1m
(<"f IlI"Ov;,jon con{mls; n {hi, cose. alld the dfecri,,, 'pan ;, 26 fl. E,{imatinl!: {he beam web
dimension, {o be 12 X 24 in .. d oe cakulat"d aoo t'a<.wred dead loods are
Sial.>,
-
,x 150X7=440 11.>ft
Bea",:
"
12 X 24
I~O - 300
'" K'. - 740 II.> ft
I ,2K'. = 890 II.> f{
TI><: uniformly distributed I;ve load is
K', ~ 165 X 8 - 1:120 11.> ft
1.6n', - 2tI01I.>f{
Live load O''erlood faclOr> are al'(Jtie;l {o (he 1"'O concemrn{t:d loads {o obtain p. " t6.000
X 1.6 = 2ViXllb. Fac{ored load' are ,umm"riZ<'d in Fig . 5.17/>.
In li"u of otl><:r comrotti'tg criteria. {he to:am web dimen,ion, witt to: sel""tt:d 00 {he
h",j, of war. The left and right reaction, under fac{ored load are 2~ . 6 -'- 3.00 X l.l - 64.6
kirs. With the clT""ti,'e beam depth estimated to to: 20 in .. (he ma,irnu," ,l,cartm.t rlCed be
considered in d5ign;, 6.1.6 - H IO(O.50 + 167) - 581 kip, . Although the ACt Code lle"
mit' V,", h~h as 8 j; h.d. {bi, ""wld require very hea"y web rt'int'm;cm" '1! . A lo".-er
I;m;{ of 4 J~ h. d wilt he adopted. With V, - 2 j; h. d th;,~{, ;n a maximum V. -
b J:.b,d. Theni>wd=V. 6 J:. =58,100 6XO.75 4000 =2O-tin' ,Cros',;ec
(;onal dimen,;o", h. - 12 in . aoo J - t 8 in. are selec{ed. providing a lotal hea'" depth of
22 in. The assumed deoo load of the to:am need ,101 be re"iscd.
1 Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1 . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . _ 1 THI
o...o.otc..,,_ D... h p " "'t..p
Equipment loads
16kip.<; 16 kips
Mason ry wal~
sectkmA- A
~ ,I~11::-''='=
' ::""~'~'=='= 26.0' --:'::::=::""~'~'==~j,ll--l'O'
6.0'
1
Elevalion view
,,' r - - - - 14 ,70'- - - - - - ,
2.00'
64.6 kips ,
1
58.6 kips
25.6 25.6 ,
1
kips kips
,
1
j 1 ''''' ..'''''
__ 1
J! 1IIIIIIIIIl 11111!l 2Q,Skips i - - - - - - - + --f~

,
9.0 kips ~
,I, ,I.
1
1.--10' 6' 10'-----.1

(0, I. 10,00' .1. 3.oo,--J
,,'
. ,_ 4 No.3(No.l0)
1 .1 2 USlirrUPS@4t"
,',,' 1
~ 2No3(No. l0)
1"
,,'
FIG UIU : 5.17
T beam d<,ign f.,.- Example ~3.
According 10 Iht Code, Ihe dfcC1iw flangt widlh b is Ihe smaliesl of lite Ihree q"an1 ili~ '
,
~ ~ 26X 12 ~78in,
,
1M, -t " . - 80 -t 12 - 92 in.
Cenkrli'>e 'pacing - 96 in.
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The forsl comrols in Ihis ca .... Th<' maximum moment is al midspan. wllere
M, ~ ~ X 3.00 X 26' -+ 25 .6 X 10 = ~lOfI~ips

A",,,ning for lIial Ihal ' he <'1r.:&s-bIOC l dcpoh will O!<lual ,he ,lab 'hiclnes' leads 10
-
' , -J,d
.--i'M,"--c.
,,2
neo'C'c'o':CC'f'... -
0.90 X 60 X 15.5 .
7.:1lin '
Th"n
" ~ 0 .8 V; b 0.85 X -l X 78
1 .6~ in .
The siress-block depth is seen 10 be less Ihan lhe slab <lepth; reclangular beam equatioos are
."Iid. An in'IJrOw,1 OClem,;nalion of A, is
510 X I2
A = - 6.60 in'
, 0.90X60XI7. 11
A ~hed conti,ms thai Ihis is wellbel()W Ihe maximum permi{ted reinforceme nl ralio. I'OUf
No.9 (No. 29) plm four No. 8 (No. 2~) bar. wi ll be used. pro" i din~ a wtal area of 7. 14 in'.
They will be orranged in 1"10 row_, as sho,,'n in Fig. 5.1 7<1, wilh NO. 9 (No. 29) bars at tile
outer end of each "","'. Beam width 1>.. i, ad"'luote for this bar "rran~"""'nt.
While lhe ACI Code permils discontinualion of 1"o.lhinl,, of I""
longitooi ,,,,1 reinforce_
",,,m fo< simpl" 'paT". in tile prese nl ~aSC il i, ,onwnient 10 diS{'Qminue only II", upper layer
Qf Sled. cOllsiSii ng Q[ ()fIe-half Qf lile total area. Tile moment capacilY of llIe member .fler
tile upper layer of bars hal be<:n discontin ued is then found ;
3 .~7x60 08'
" - 0.8Sx4xn - .110.
, .
M. - A.i, II - -" , - 0.90 X .l..~7 X 60 X 18Ji6 X 12 - JOOfI.kJp,
For lhe pre"'ni case. wilh a """""Ill

diagram resulting from rombineJ dislributed and con-
CC"IT~t<:d loads. 'he po;nl al which tile "pplioo 1110"-':111 is equal 10 Ihis an'OUnl o>uSI 00 cal-
culaloo. (In tl><' ca", of unifonnly loaded beam,. Graph, A,2 and A3 in Appendix ,\ are
helpful.) If ~ is the di\tance from the suppon cenlerline 10 Ihe poim at w~ich Ihe OOome"1 is
.lOO fl - ~ijlS. lilen
3.00..-'
6H...- - ~ - -'00
.< - 5.30
The upper !lars m",1 he COllli" ued al Iea'i d - 1.50 fI or I'M, - 1.1.' fI Ileyond Ihi, ,heo_
reti~al point of cutoff. In addition. IIle full d<welop""'nt lenglh I. muSt be pro"idcd l"'Illhe
maximummomem seclion al "hich lile Slr~" in !he bars 10 be cUi is ... ,umOO 10 be f,
Be",."", of lhe llea"y cu"",,,olml<:d load , ncar tile mid,pan. the ~nt of peak stress will toe
assumed 10 be . t I"" <:oocemmled load miller Ihan . t midspan. For lhe four urper bars,
assumi,'8 1.50 in . dear cO"er to tile ouI,ide of tile No. :1 (No. 10) SlirrujlS. the dear side
COl'''' is 1.50 + 0.)8 - 1.88 in .. or 1.66.1,. Assuming equal dear spoc ing bel,,'een .11 four
bal!.. Ihat dcar 'pacing is 111.00 - 2 X (1 .50 -+ 0.38 -+ 1.13 -+ 1.(0)] 3 ~ I.n in .. Qr
1.1&1. "'Qling Ih.1 I"" AC I Code l'ffIuireme",s for minimum ,Iirrujl<,re mel. il is ciearlh,l
all restric1ions for lhe use of the 'implified cqu~tion for "".dopment leoglh are mel . From
Table .~ . I (Seelion 53). tile l'ffIuired dev~lopment length i,
W.OOO
I. = 1.13 ~ 47 X 1.13 ~ ~3 in.
20 4000
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
or 4,42 Ii. Th",. tilt: bars mu,t be "ont inued at lea't ),00 + 4,42 - 7,42 Ii palt the midspan
mint, but in additionlhey must C()IlIi""" to a point 5 .30 - 1.50 = .l.SO tl from the suppon
cent~,lin;" TI", second requirement <'"OIl1roll and tile upper layo< of tilt: bars will be termi
nated. as sltov.'n in Fig ..~.17, . .1 .30 ft from the ,uflIlOI1 foce. llte hou",n layer of bars wH I
be ~'t" ndcd to" point 3 in. lro", tilt: ~"d of til<: be.,,,.
providing 5,55 Ii embedment pa,t tI'e
c,;tkal >eelion fo< cutOlf of the "IlP"r bars. Thi s exceed, the dev~lopn"'nt l~ngt h of the lower
set of bars, cQnli rmin.g that cutoff and .'temi"" req uiremem, are mct,
Note thot a si mpler de<;ign, u,ing , 'C1)' lillIe extra 'te~l. would re,u lt from ".lending all
~igh t po,iti\'e bars into tile suppon . WIle111er 01" IlOl tile ~ ebbonue c.kulJtion, and more
complicated plac~",ent are justified would del",nd largely on the number Qf repetitions of
tile "" si~n in the t01al Slrm1 ure.
Cbe,, ~ ing by r", . (5.12) to en,u", that the ,,"ntinued "'eel i. of,uffideotly ,mall dian",
rer det"... ni ,,,,, thor
.H J x 12
U +3~ 83in,
M.'
Tile OClua! I. of 53 in. meet,this restric,ion,
Sioc. rhe cut bars are located in t ht> ten,ion lone. '[",cial bindirtg ,[inul" will be used to
conlrol crock;"g; these will be >eloxrc-d afrcr rhe 'lOnna! shear re;nf(On:c"'enr 1I.1S OCcn
derermined
The shear diagram rewiri ng from apvlic~tion of focrorc<J loa<ls i, sll<)wn in F;~, 5. 17r ,
The she", ooot,;but;oo of rhe ,,"ncrer~ i,
v" _ 0.75 x 2 4lXlO X 12 X 18 - 20500 Ib

Thu, web .... infOl"<"eme nt m",t be pro"ided for rhar pan of the ,hear diagram ,hown 'haded,
No, 3 (No, 10) srim,ps will ~ scIOCI~d , Tile noa,,"'u'" S]1oci1\~,sr n01 e,.;c~OO J2 -
9 in .. 24 in .. or AJ, (0.75 [, I>~) ~ 0.22 X 60.000 to.7S 4lXlO X 12) _ 23 in . '"
AJ, 5Ob ~ - o,n X 60.000 5(1 X 12 _ 22 in. '11", firsr criterion ,,"nrrol> her.:, Fnr n:fcr.
ence, from Eq. (4 , 14<,) the hypolhetical 'linup 'pad ng ~r rhe ,uJlllOl"l i,
0.75 X o,n X 60 X 18
.. ~ ~ 4.04in.
64,6 - 20.~
and ar 2 ft imc"""I, alOllg the span.
.', - ~
4.68 in.
5 . ~5 in,
"
"- 6.8.1 in.
"- 8.87 in.
.", - 12.64 in.
The spoc ing oced IlOl be closer (tOl" rhar required 2.00 fl from rile suwort cenrerline, In
addition. ,rirrups are IlOl '''Iuired pasr rhe point of applkarioo of c<JnCentr01t"d load, ,ilKX"'
beyOll([ rhlt poinl rhe . IIe", is kss rha,r hulf of V,. 'Il,c final spacing of wnical srim,l"
selecred i,
I 'pac.:,r 2 in, = 2 in,
J Space"[ 4 in, = 2~ in,
S Space"[ ~ in, = 40 in,
5 sp.'\C~ ar 9 in, - 45 in
Total - 115 in. - 9 ft 1 in. from rhe foce of the
,uppon(121 in. ~ lOft I in. frum
rhe SUIlJlOT1 centerline)
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
Two No . .l (No. 10) longitudinal bars will Ix- added to n"",t allChorage requirements and fix
U;;: top of Ihe ;(irrups.
In addilion 10 the sMa< n'inforce ,"cm just SJl<>cifioo, it is necessary to pro\'ide extra "'eb
reinfor"""'cnl Ol'cr a di,laT><:e equal 10 ~ ,i, or 13.5 in .. from the Cui ends of Ihe discorllimu.'d
stl,.,!. 1lIe 'p",ing of thi' extra web ",info"el1lel11 mu,1 1101 exceed d g ~ 18 (8 X !) ~
4.5 in, In :lddili1:ln, the area of added .lIed wilhi" the di,wncc s mu,t not be less th.,n Wb.~-J;
~ 60 X 12 X 4.5 W,OOJ ~ 0.0')4 in'. For rom'cnience, No.3 lNo. 10j 'tirrup' will be used
for thi, PUIlIOSC also, ("'(wid ing a" area of 0,22 in' in the di stancc s, '1lIC pl'lCcnlCnl of the
four extra 'tirrup' i, sltown in Fig. 5. 17,.
BA R SP LIC ES
In general. reinforcing bars are stocked by suppliers in lengths of 60 fl for bars from
No . 5 to No . 18 (No. 16 to No. 57 ), and in 20 or 40 ft lengths for smaller sizes. For
this reason, and tx'Cause II is often more convenient to work with shorter bar leugths,
it is frequ~utly necessary 10 splice bars in the field. Splices in reiuforcemem at points
of maximum stress should be a.-oidctl, and wh"n splices ar u>&J th,,~y ~hould be Slag-
g~red. although neitller condition is practical. for example, in compn'ssion spli,'es in
columns.
Spli~s for No. t I (No . 36) bars and snmller are usually made simply by lapping
the bar> a ,uffil' i~m distance to tran,fer ,tre" by bond from one bar to the other. 11",
lapped bar, are usually placlxl in contact and lightly wirlxl "" tbat tbey stay in position
as the cOnnete is plnced. Ahemativdy, 'plil'ing may be accomplished by wdding or
by ,Ieeve, or mecbanical devices. ACI Code 12.14.2 prohibits use of tapped splice,
for bars larger than No. II (NQ. 3b). except that No. 14 and No. 18 (No. 4 3 and NQ.
57) bar> may be lapped in mmpression witb No. II (No. 36) and smaller bar, per AC I
Code 12.16.2 and 15.8.2.3. For bar, thnt will ,'lliI)' only l'Ompre"ion. it is p'",ible to
trnnsfer load by end bearing of >quare cut end" iftbe bars are n,'curalely held in posi -
tion by a sl"",'e or OII",r device.
Lap ,pi ice, ofhar> in butldles are based on II", lap 'plice lenglh rl'Guired for indi -
vidual ban; within tbe bundle but must be increased in I~ngth by 20 percent for three-
bar bundle, and by 33 percent for four-bar bundles because of II", reduclxl effectiw
perimeter. Individual bar splices wilbin a bundle should nol overlnp. and entire hun -
dies mu,t not he bp ,pi iced .
ACl'Ording to ACI OK!.: 12.14.3. welded spli~, must develop at lea'l 125 per-
cent Qf the spe,'ified yield ,trengtb of Ibe bar. 'J'be same rl'Guiremeni applies 1<> full
mechanical conneclion'. This ensure, thai an overloaded spliced bar would fail by
dUClile yielding in the region away from the splice. rather than at the 'ph,'e where bri t-
tle failure i, likely. Mt.',:banical connection, of No. S (No. 16) and smaller bars not
meeting tbis rl'Guiremem may be uS<.'<:m
length {d' In tllC process of calculating {d' the usual mooi!icalion faclocs are applied
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
except that the reduction fanor for ""cn.~ reinforcement should not be applied
oc'Causc that factor is already accOIJmed for in the splice spec-ifi cation _
Two differem cla..,ificnlion. of lap splices are established , <:om:sponding to the
minimum length of lap required: a CIn" A spli<:e require, a lap or I_O/d' and a <:lass 8
'plice requi re, a lap of L31d. In eilher case, a minimum length of 12 in_ app lie . Lap
'plice,. in general, mu,t be <:Ia." 8 splice,. according to ACI C<Kk 12. 1'i.2. except thn!
cla.<s A splices are allowed when the area of reinfon:en",m provided is at last twice
that "'quired by analy,is over the e ntire length of the splice and when one -half or Ie"
of Ihe total reinforcement is spliced within tl>e r"<Juired lap length. The effc'Ct of thes.:
requirements is \() encourage designers to locate splices away from regions of maxi -
mum stres,. to a locati,"l where the actual s\<-", I area is at least twice that requi red by
analysi,. and to 'tagge r splices.
Spiral re inforcemenl is spli ce"! with a lap of 4&1. for unCQatcd bars and 72.:1. for
epoxy-e-cxne..! bar>. in ac.:ordance with ACI C<Kk 7.10.4,5. The lap for epoxy -mated
bars i, reduced to 4&lb if the bars arc anchore..! with a ,tllildard stirrup or tie h(K)!.:.
b. Compression Splices
Reinf"'''ing bar~ in compre;;,ion are spliced mainly in columns. where hars are nlmt
often terminated just al,,:we each floo.- or every Other fl'K)'- This is done panly for con -
Slronioo com-enience. to avoid bandl ing a(ill supporting very long column bars, but it
is alsodol1C to pennit <~)Iumn steel area 1<> be reduced in Sleps. as loads becon", lighte r
at higher fl'K"'.
Compres,ion bars may be spliced by lapping, by direct end bearinG. OJ by weld -
ing or mechanical ,k"ices that pmvide p()~i t ive conned ion_ 11", minimum length o f
lap for cornpn:ssion spli<'e$ i, set ""'curding to ACI Code 12.16:
For bars with j; :s 60.000 psi 0.00051,<11>
For bars with /, 60JXXl psi -0 ,00091, - 24 d .
but nm Ie" than 12 in . For /; less than 3000 p,i, the re<juired lap is in<;reas~-d by one-
thi rd . Wl>en b"rs of d iffe rent size are bp splin..! in c-ompress;on. the ~plice length is
to be the larger of the (I;,velopment length of the brger \Xlr and the splk" len gth of the
sma ller bur. In exception to the u,ual restriction on lap 'plices for large diameter bars.
No, 14 "nd No. 11\ b"rs m"y be lap spiked to No. 11 and smaller bars.
Direc-t end bearing of the bars ha~ been found by te,t and expe rienre to be an
eff<-,<-,tiw rn"an, for tran,m itting compression, In ,u<-h a c-ase. the bars muSt be held in
pmper "Iignn"'nt by n suitable devic,, _ The bar er"l, must tenninate in /lat surf"""s
within I.'i o of a right angle. and the bars must be fitted within 3" of full bearing after
a'>e",hly. ncconling toACI Code 12.16,4. TIes. do>ed ,tirrups. or spiral~ must be used,
c. Column Splices
Lap 'plices , hun -weide..! sp!ic-es. rneehanical connection,. or end-hearing ,pi icc, may
be u>ed in c-olumn,. with certain restrictim". Reinforcing Ixm; in columns may he sub-
jected to <-ompres~ion or ten~ion. Qr, for diffe rent load combination" both tensiQn lliId
co",pression. Atcordingly. column splice, mu,t confonn in some cases to the requi re-
ments for compression splices onl)" or tension 'plice, only or to r"quireme nls for both,
ACI Code 12.17 T<'<Juires that a minimum ten,ion <"Upa<-ity be provided in each face of
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
all ~~llumns, eyen wher~ analysis indicates a:>mpression only. Ordinal)' eompressiw
lap splices pmvide sufficient ten,ile re,i,tance , hut end -be:uing splices may require
additi<;lI1al hars for ten,ion. unlcs..~ the spl ices are staggc r'-"<I .
For lap 'pli<'e,. where the har 'tr~" du~ to factored loads i, ~x'mpression. ("01 -
umn lap spli<"Cs mu,t conform to the rcquirem~ nts pre""nt,-"<I in s,,("tion 'i . llb for <'Om-
pression ,pi ice,. Wbere th~ ,t",ss i, tension and does not ex""<."<1 0.5/ lap splice, must
be Clas..~ B if more than half the haTS are splitoo at any section. or Class A if half or
fe"-er are splic~"<1 and alternate lap sp lices are staggered hy 'd'
If the stress is ten,ion
and exceed, 0 .5[,.. then lap spli<'e, must he Cb" B, ac<'ording to ACI Code .
If !atcr~l ties are used throughuut the splice length having an area of at least
0.001511.,', wl",re .' is the spacing of tie, and /, i, th~ ""crall thick""ss of the member.
the ""luired splice length rnay be multipli~d hy 0.83 but mu st nlll be less than 12 in.
If spiml reinforc~ment eonfine, II", splice. the length required may be multiplied hy
0. 75 hut again must not be I~" than 12 in .
End-hearing splices, as descri bed above, may be used for col umn haTS stre,sed
in compression. if the splices are 'tagger~d or additional haTS are provided at splice
location,. n,~ continuing hm> in each f",-'~ mu,t have a t~nsile strength of not less th""
0.25/,. time, the area of reinforcement in that face.
As mentioned in Se<"lio" 5. llb, <'oluHm 'pl ic~s are a:>mmonly made ju,t ahow
a f1(Klr. Howeve r. fo r frame, sUhj'-"CIed to lateral load" a beller location i, withi n the
~"Cnter half of the column height, where II", moments due to lateral load, are much
lower than at 1100r Incl. Su,' h pla<'ement is mandatory fo r columns in "special
moment fran",,' designed for seismic load,. as will be di,cussed in Chapter 20.
EXA,\1PLE 5.-1 Cmnp ressl"n splle. or e"lumn I"I' ln ron '.nl..'t. In reference to Fig ..~.8. foor No. 11 (No
36) col u",n bar> frofO tile floor below arc to be l"p spliced "'ith four No. 10 (No. 32) col-
UfOn bars from all(",,,. and tile spl ice is '0 be made j ust olx",e 3 c""'truction joint at floor
t~vd. Tile col untn. measuring 12 io. X 21 in. in CroSS section. will be SUbject to ~ompres
,j"" only for all load combinations. Tran,,'erse reinforcement con,i)" of No.4 (No. Ll) ties
at 16 in, spacing. All wnic.l bars may be "" umoo to be fu lly stressed. C.kulJle til<:
required splice I"ngth. Material 'trengIh, Oft/.. - 60,000 p,i and f; - 4000 p,i,
S().tT n"~ . 1lte lenglh of tile splice TIlU,t be tile larger of the de"dop",,,n, I"ngth of lhe
No. II (No. 36) bars "00 the 'plice length of the No. 10 (No . 32) b.,r.;. Frn- the No. I I (No.
:1-6) bar.;. tbe de,"lopmen,l"ngth is equal to the larger of the vol"'" oI)tained with Eq<. (.~.9d)
and (5.9h):
0.02 x 60.000
I"" E 1.4 1 ~ 27 in.
I.. ~ """
0.0003 X 60.000 X 1.41 = :L~ in.
The first cri( erion C01't roi;. No modificati"" foc\Ol"1o appty. For U.e No. to (No. 32) b.1rs, ttle
coml'fC"ion splice length i; 0.0005 X 60.000 X 1.27 ~ 38 in. III tile check for use of tile
modif,cation factor for tied columns, Uo: cri1ical cotu mn din.en,iO!l is 2 tin .. lnd tlle required
"ffl'Cti,~ tie are, is lhus 0.0015 X 21 X 16 ~ 0.50 in'. The No . 4 (Nil. Ll) tios pro"ide an
lrea of 01,1)" 0.20 X 2 - 0.40 in', SO lhe reduct ion factor of 0.83 cannot be 3pp licd to the
splice length. Thus tile compre.ssion splice length of .1 8 in .. which exceed, tile development
tcngth of 27 in. for the No. I t (No. 36) b",!, controts llere, 3,wl a t.,p sptil'C of 38 in. is
required. Not~ that if tr.e spacing of the ties at tr.e splice wore reducoo to !1.8 in. or Ie" (s.ay
J2 in.), the "X1uired lap would be reduced to :18 X 0.83 - 32 io. This would s.aw Sleel. amI.
althoogh placement c",t wDUld incrt"S<' <lightly. wDUld pro!>abl y r~pr~S<'nt tile more eco-
nomica! desi~n,
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
REFERENCES
~.1 K. M. Main" "Mea",rml<1II of the l);'tribu, ... ofT<" ~lr """ I~>rld ~"''''.'' .".. ~ Kdnf,lfi'rlll B",,: 1.
An. .'01. 2.1, no. 3, 19:\1, r1I. 22~ _2~2.
S.! 11 . 11. Nil"",. "IJll<mol.'k:.;w'mclll .... 11ood Slip," J.Ao. vol. ifJ.I1". 1. ]\111.1'1'. 4.\9-441
5.,. Y. Go,." "Cr~:k>! _ in Con"".~, "" .. I1<II)o.'f~'\l Temion )1""." J. Ao. "(~. (01, no. 4. 1911. 1>(1.
W _ 2~L
H. I ,\ . I.u",and!' G<r~ <ly. "M,"<~."i<~ ofllood and Slipo! l)o:fono.-.J liar< in C"""",,,:' J. ~C" .' .. . M.
oo.JI.I96J,pp. J II J2 L
~ . ~. I' M. l"ll!"soo and J. N. '1 fo."""",.,. "l)" Wk'l'melll l."n ~ 1ll of Ilij;h ~''''n ~ 1ll Rdnfor",,,,, 1\"-,, in Bood,"
1. AO "~ . 5\1. no. 1. 1962, !'fl. Sll1-'!11.
~-"- K h M>tfo.-y and D. W",,,,,in. '"I","" ii "' ~'" or JIood in 11<:"", and 1'1111.-"" S!"-i,,,.-n, w;,h Il; ~ ~ .
Stn:nl Kun[orc;n, H""," 1. 110. ",1. 31. no. 9. 1% 1. 1'1'. Ufll 1090
~ . 1. "":1 Cmunin", :I!!. "11<>00 S,,,,,. -The SUIO o( lh< lin." J. AO. ,,~ . H 00. 11 . 1%6. !'fl. I 11,1_ 1 IW.
~.~ IIC! C,""mi,,,,, 408. "S<Jue.,,-J IAWk)I'''l<III. S~I"" . and Stand",J Ik oOk 1'I'O',;,ion, for IAfu,meJ U""
in lion, ...:' nor", ,",1.. "". I. "" . 7. 197<1.1'1'. 4-1-16
~.9 l . 0. Jir,.. L A liII:<. and P Gcr"dy. "1UI"...1e f ... 'u~~,"",-.J lJ.,,,,,I,,,,,,,.:m. Spli"'. and S!and.ru 1-\001;
1'Tm'i<1oo' for I-'< for" ~-.J U"" in l,n,ioo:' C",,,", ,,,,I.. ,.,~ . I, 00 1. 1919, pp. -11-6 L
~.I0 C. O . Or""iu" . I. O . J,,,,.... 1 l. E. Hn"<n. '11 R...~I " .. ioo of ,he k>o !,.,. 011 I)o,~'<k""",,,, 1-'-'"~tIr and
~plk",:' l ~C/, "<>1. 14. ,-" . .1. 19n 1'1'- 114 122
~.I1 L II. Lo". S. II. Mi" " , and N. K. (""",in. '"L'tuf\llc>!o and Al'I'lbt .... of IAwl",,"'"1""" l ,ap S~""
1" ~ l h I~ol'i ,ion, for B= in n,n, ... ," ~ CI StfTKt. J., v<>I . 90, 00. 4, 1'1'1.1, pp. ]9J.-l()t,.
~.12 I). I...."'m, .'o1. L lOOlen. E. K. loun. _ J. IJIO. ''Spiic-c S'''-'f\Ilth o/lli0r Rel.,i", KiliAn'll Remfordn~
1~: ' ,tCJ 5,rnct. J . ,,~ . H no. I. 1'1%, pp. ~S _ I01.
S.D lJ. 1>"".-in. l. luo .'o1. L Ibolen. aI1<Ill. K. IJun. "lh~k'f'lllClII L" n~th Cri", n. fOf C""," 'n,ion:li and
Il ~h R,[" i,'e R i ~ Area Reinfo,d"" 11:>",," AO S",.<1. J. , , .. . y,. no. 1, 1996. PI'. 341- .1W
~.I4 l . ,(00 "00 D. D.,,,,m, "Spii'" S""n~'h o(;orl',,1]Iioo. 1 :raJ H I~h ReI"'i", Kib II",. Bar> in No,mal and
Ilih S"' " ~'h Conen1C," 1ICJ SI'lKt J., ,Q{. 91. no . 4. 2<XXl. 1'1'. 6 .~ 1 1>11
~.IS IICI c. .. uni,",,' 4(AS, H.-J and IXI"Iop.""u <f Stro.~ht K'inj""-",,,,,m, in r ... ,km . tlCl 408K.Q).
II",,oc.., CO",",," In";,"", , F..-uri"""", Il ills, MI. 2003
~.I~ 1'. M. I"<'~II ")IL "Sm.1I B., Spod"i\ or l'",,,_ 11 Iklnoll'n>blcm for Ill< Ihi ~ ,"-T." l AO. ,,~. 14. DO. 9.
19n 1'1'. 4.1~ "".W
S.l 7 I' K. leaN)" IJ. Mit,hell. and ...,. S. Mi,,,. "I",~ " ".t ioo " f 'k,,, Uar Effect, in B,""m!.." AO StrJIC'. J..
"" 85. "0 . J. l~ ;<g . [III. 2SI _2S7
~.1 ~ K. G. M>lfo.-y . oJ J. I!. Cllf" ... -I~>nd of C"",xl Kr> in l \>ocrt"!C.'" 1. S",,,',. iii,. liSLE
"". 101. no . HI. 1~76. 11[1 21S 22 ~ .
~.I9 K. A. r"","< and l. O . Jifia, "jlol1<l S"'n ~ th or EpoxyCoakd K<infordn~ H=." AO Mutu . J .. ,,~ . 1!6.
"" . 1.1989, pp. l o 7 _ J1~.
UO Il. S. flam..:I. l . O. )"". 000 N. L JeI'aukl. 'An,:fo."",,'C S"'n~'h of L",,,y'{",,,,,xl H"'*'--.J U""." ACI
Sm<Cf. J.. ,'01. '10. 110.1. l'I'll 1>(1. 110 111.
S.2 1 II. II. Ghaf!>r;' O . C. Choi. D. D.""',", >rnJ S. L M.:CM., "11<.00 of l'I"'I)"C"",'d Rdnforwr.,,,,
C""". o.>1i"" PD.i,"". Slump, IU>J Co,,,,>l idaOioo," ,tCl S,rnct. J .. .,~ . 91, "',. 1. IWI, r"f'. 5~ - 68.
U2 C. I. 11<>r,T. S. S.I'R1i'n"" "i ~. I). I...."'m. and S. L M.-c.t.:, " j~ >nd of L",,,y.cookxl R",nfo,,'"'''''"'
Splk"':' 1IU S""",- J., ,,~. \10, 00. I. 1993. 1'1'- ~ 102
~.!) lJ. n.,win IU>J J. Zoo. "0;""","", of I-'ro!>o><'d l'1unl"""' tlCl .11~ ie ACi JI8V2!);",'.",,,,, and
U"'"fe,' c,,,,a ,,,,I..
,'01. 2-<, 110. l. 2002, PI'. Y1. 9.1. 97- IUI
PROBLEMS
5. 1. TIle short b,)am shown in Fig. P5.1 carllllel'i.'rs from a supporting column a( (he
lef1. II mu,l carry a cakulal~d dead load of 2,0 kipslfl including i(s own weighl
and n servi live load of 3,0 kipslft. Tensile l1~xura l reinforrr,.,.,.,nl consis1s of
lwo No. II (No. 36) bars at a 21,n , e!T~c1ived..>plh. Tmns\erse No. J (No. 10)
U slirrups ,,ith 1.5 in. cowr arc provided at lh" following spacings from (he
face of llkl column: 4 in .. 3 al 8 in .. 5 al 105 in.
(a) If llw flexural and shear steel user,. = 60.000 psi and if lhe beam uses con
CrNe havingf/ = 3000 psi. check 10 sec if prop.'r &\elopmem lenglh carl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
-
. .......... ,- I THI
b.: pmvidc..J for the No. II (No. 36) bars. Use tbe simplified devdopr""m
lengtb equation,.
(b) Recalculate tbe requiroo devdopmelll lengtb for the beam bar, u,ing th"
ba,ic Eq. (5.4). Comment 00 your re,ult,.
fc) If the column material strength, are!, = 60,000 psi and I; = 5000 psi.
check to see if adequate embedment can be provided within the (olumn for
the No. II (No. 36) bars. If hooks are requin...J, specify detaik..J dimensions.
FIGU RE PS. l
! No. 11 {No. 36)
,-- r-----.I "I

t
2' clear
- -- 3" c~r----J :21"
D
96"~
n
~ 20" ,1,
5.2. The beam shown in Fig. P5.2 is simply supponed with a clear spao of 24.7~ Ii
and is to "nITY a distributed dead load of 0.72 ldpslfl including its own weighl.
and he load of 1.08 kips/ft. unfactorcd. in service. The reinrorccmem consisls
of thre"" No. 10 (No. 32) oors at a 16 in. df..:ti,.., d~pth. ont of which is 10 be
discontinued "here no long~r nNXlcd. "!at~rial strengths spe.:ified aro: !. -
60.000 psi and/; .. 4000 psi. No.3 (No. 10) sl irrups are UM.xI with a covcror
I.~ in. at spacing less Ihan ACI Code maximum.
FIG UR E PS.2 1 No. 10 (No. 32)

r- 13"1
,rI-D
2 No. 10 (No. 32)
.~ T~ ~ Llc .
l'.O" ---J . 1 , - - - 24'.9" ,I ~ 1" 0"
(a) Calculate the point where the center bar can b.: di,cmllinUt...J.
(b) Check to b.: Sure that adequate e mb.:dded length is pmvided for continued
and di,nHltinued bar,.
(e) Check special requirements at the suppon. where M, = O.
(d) If No. 3 (No. lOJ bars are u=l for tr:nl""Crse reinforcement, 'pecify sP<-...ial
reinfoll'ing detail, in the vicinity where the No. 10 (No. 32) bar i, cut off.
(e) Comment on th" prnctical aspects of tI", pmpo,,-..J de'ign. Would you rec-
ommend ('utting of the sl<-..,l as suggested? Could two bars b.: di"'ontinued
mther than <Hle~
S.3. Figure J>5.J shows tb.: column reinforcement f", a 16 in. diameter concret~
columll. withl, = 60.000 p,i and/; = 5000 psi. Analysis uftk building fran",
indicate, a required A, = 7.10 in 1 in the lo"'er column and 5.60 in l in th~ upper
i
"olumn. Spiral reinfon."Cment consi,ts of a in. diameter md with a 2 in. pitch.
Column ban "'" to b.: spliced just above the construction joint at the /l<K)[
levd. a, shown in the ,ketch. Calculate the minimum pennitt<-..J I~ngth of
'plic~ .
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
r1G Uk E 1'5.3
No,3 (No , 10) t-;t:::lV 6No. 9 (No. 29) bars
H~
spi ra] at 2" pitch
~"" 1
"~~ '"-"
r- ,'", , e-
'" "+.
EO;:; t- 6No.l o (No. 32) ba rs
5.4. Thc shon camilever shown in Fig. 1'5.4 camcs a heavy concell1raled load 6 in.
from ils OUler cod. Flexural mmlysi s indicales Ihal 111I"<.:c No.8 (No. 2~) l>ars
are required. suilably anchorc"d in Ihe supponing wall and eXlending 10 a poinl
no closer Ihan 2 ,n. from Ihe (roc cnd , Thc bars will be funy slresscd 10/, a1
Ihe fixed suppon. 1 "~CS1igale Ihe need for hooks and IraJ1SVCl"SC confinclJ)cll1
sled allile righ t cnd of Ihe 1Il~mlxr. Malcrial slrenglhs arcJ.. - 60.000 psi aod
f; - 4000 psi. If hooks and 1ransverre sl~c1 arc required. show delail s in a
SkCICh ,
FIGU RE 1'5.4
." P..
..
-- ===i~r
Minimum 2" oover ...J f.-
- - 40"'
110-. .1
5.5. A com inunu"slnp wall footing i, shown in cn", section in Fig.I'S.S. It is pro
po><--d Ihat kJ1sile reinforl'Cment be provioc"d u,ing No, 8 (No, 25) !mrs at 16
in, 'paci ng along the length <;If the wall. 10 provide a !mr area of 0.S9 in'/ft. 'Jbo;,
hars hav~ >lrengthf, = 60,000 psi aJ1d Ihe fOOling concrete ha,!,' = 3000 psi,
n.., critical ><-"Ction for bending is a,"umed to be at II.., face o f the , upponed
wall. and 11", eff<."C1ive "epth 10 the lensile s\<...,1 is 12 in . Ch""k to el1'ur~ thai
,ufficient dne!opn.., nt lenglh is a,'ailable for the No_ 8 (No. 2S) bars , aJ1d if
hooks are requircd. skelch del ails of 1m, hook> giving di men,ion"
NOIe: If hooks arc rcquin."<I for 11", No_ 8 (No_ 2S) hars. prepare an alter
nale design using bars having Ihe same area per fOOl but of ,mailer diameler
,uth Ihat h'K)h cou ld be eli minaled; u"" the largest har size possihle to mini
mize I!.., co.,1 of stc..,1 plncemell1.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I .....,.........,_ I THI
o..loootc..,_ D... h p " "'t..p
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Design and ddail all splices, following ACI Code provision,_ Splice, "'ill boo:
SfJggered, wi( h no more fhJn foor bars ~plin-d at any S<."Ction _A lw. irwestigate
thc need for spcci~ 1 anchorage at (he outer cnds of main reinforccmcm, Jnd
specify demils of special anchorage if reQuired. Material Slrenglils are", =
60.000 p'i ;mdf; = 5000 psi.
FIG URE 1'5.7 p" - 465 kips P" - 465 kips
) 2 No. 11 (No. 36) (3 rows)
l.Y
o..loootc..,_
..... .........,-
, I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
r1G Uk E 1'05.05
""
- ,"
"I' '""I' , "-
---,wall
E 16'
( NO.8 (No. 2~) bars at 16" s;:>acing
5.6. The cOll1inuous beam shown in Fig. PS.6 has been designed!O carry a service
d.:ad load of 2.2S kips/ft including s.:lf weighl. and s.:rvice I,,'e load of 3.25
kips/f(. I-lexural design has bt'Cn based on ACI momell1 cocfficicnb of a nd rt
-It. at the face of support and midspan respectively. n::sulting in a concrete sec
tion wi th b .. 14 in. and II - 22 ,n oNegative reinforcenk:fI1 at Ihe suppon face
is provi<kd by four No. 10 (No. 32) bars. which will be CUt otT in pairs where
no longer required by the AC I Code. POsili"e bHrs consist of four No . 8 (No .
25) bars. which will also be CUI off in pairs. Spc"Cify the exact poill1 of cutoff
for all negan"e and positive steel. Specify also any supp1clllcll1ary web rcin
forccmell1 that may be required. Check for satisfaction of ACI Cod.: rt.'quirc
ments at the point of inflection and suggest modificmions of rcinforeenk:1l1 if
appropriate. Material strengths are / , - 6O.(x)() psi and Ii - 4(X)() psi.
rlGU RE PS.6 4 No. 10 (No. 32) 4 No. 10 (No. 32)
_1__________ ~~~~~f~--
__
----------- ------------------
4 No.8 (No. 25)
I,___- - - "'-0" - - _
05.7. Figure ('5.7 ,hows a d~ep transfer girder that came, two heavy column loads
at ;tS OUler ends from a high.rise concrete building. Groundfloor columns
must he offsel 8 II as shown . The loading produces an essentially constJIl1
mOt1~nl (t1<)gl~1 self-weight of ginkr) calling for a concrete seclion wilh
b = 22 in. and b = 50 in .. with main tcnsile reinforcement at the top of the
ginkr comprised of 12 No. II (No . .,6) bars ;n three layers of four bars each .
The tllaxlttluttl 3"3ilable bar length tS 60 f1. so lensik' splices must be provid~d.
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SERVICEABILITY
, 6.1 INTRODU CTIO N
Chapler.; J, 4, and 5 hu\'~ dealt mainl)' with the str~ngth de'ign o f reinfor~-ed conn"te
beams. "" I~tIKKl, have been develo""d to ~n<ure that beams wi ll have a proper ,af~ty
Il"'rgin against failure in fluure or shear. or due to inade~uate borrd arrd andKlmge of
the reinforcern"nt. TI", member has been assull",d to be at a hyprnhetical owr1oad
Slate for this purpo",_
It i, also important that member perfonnance in normal service be ,ati,fa<:tory.
when loads are tho", actually ex""cted to act, i.~., wh~n load factoN are 1.0. TI,i, is
not guarante~d simply hy providing adequate strength. Service load d~nectio"s umler
full load may be ~xtessivdy large, or long-tenn dellenioos due to suslai,,,,d 10llih may
Cause damage_ Teosion trlli: ks in beams may be wide enough to be visually disturb-
ing. and in some <'as", may reduc~ the dumbility of the stru ,-lUre. The", arKl other
que,tions, such as vibration or fatigue, require ('on,idemtion _
S~",iceability slUdies are carried out ba",d OIl elastic theo,)', with stre"""s in
both com-rete and ,teel assumed to be pmponional to 'train. The concrete on the ten -
sion side of tl", nCUlml axis may be a<~un",d uncra,:ked. partially cr.1cked, or ful ly
cracked, del"'nding on the load, and material StrengthS (",,~ $eetion 3.3)_
In early reinforced concrete designs, questio"s of ",,,,i<'eahil it), were dealt with
indir"'-'tly. by limi ting tl", ,tre'!;e~ in co""rete and sted at s~rvk-e loads to the rather
con",,,'ati,'" valucs that had resulted in satisfactory I"'rformance. In contrast. with <'ur-
rem design methods that pennit more ,I"nder member> thmugh ",ore a<:cumte aSse,,-
11",,,t of capaci ty, ~ml with higher-strength mat ~rial, funher contributing to tl", trend
t(}Ward ""aller member siz"" such indirect n",thod, no longer wurl<. n", <'urr~nt
approa,-h is to inYe,tigate service load era"king and denl>etion, ~I""--ifi<'al l y, after pm-
portioning "",mber> bas<--d 0" strength r"'luire""'nt~ _
In thi , chapt"r, method~ will be d~vc1of'<'d to ellSure that tI", cracks assoc iated
with flexure of reinforced concret~ beams ar~ narrow and well distribut<--d, and that
SIKlrt aoo 10llg-term defl~>etions ~ t load, up to tI", full "'rvi~.., load are not objection -
ably large _
-....., . 6.2 CRACKIN G IN F LEXURAL M EM8ERS
AU rei nforc~d cur!Crete beams cr~ck. g~nemlly staning at load, well below ",.-vic"
level. arId possibly e ~en prior to loading due to restrairu.-d shrinkage. Fluural cr""k-
ing due to load, is n01 only inevi tahle, but actuaUy n~'CC"~')' for the rein forceme nt to
be u",d efTl>etive!y. Prior to tI", formation of flexural cra,'k " the stcet stress i, no ",ore
20]
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
2W IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 6
Ihan II limes the stress in Ihe adjacent COIICfCle. where t! is Ihe mooulJr rlllio. E,- Ec
For malerials common in current practice, n is approximalely 8. Thus. when the con
crele is dose 10 its lnodulus of rupture of aboul 500 psi. the ~K""I Slress will be only
8 x 500 " 4000 psi. far 100 low to oc very dkclive as reinforcement AI nOfmal ser
vice loods. steel stresses 8 or 9 tinlC~ Ihal value can be expc<:lcd.
In a well-dt:signl"<i beam. flexural cracks are f,ne. socalled hairline crack s.
almost invisible 10 Ihe casual observer. and they permil lill ie if any corrosion of the
reinforcement As loads are gradually hICreased above the cracking load. both lhe
numocr and widlh of cracks inuease. and al service lood level a maximum widlh of
crack of aboul 0.016 in. is typical. If loads arc funher iIICn:ased. crack widths increase
funher. allhough Ihe number of cracks is mon: or less siable.
Cracking of conerele is a random process. highly vari:lble and influelICed by
many faclors . Because of Ihe complex ity of Ihe problem. presenl mcthoos for pn:dict
iug crack widths are bas..>d primarily on lest obscrvations. Most equal ions Ihal have
been de,'clopc--d prwici Ihe 1'r1)/)"ille m"xi",,,,,, cmck ....id/h. which usu:dly TlICWIS thai
about 90 percem of Ihe crack widths HI Ihe member are below the ca1culalcd valu~.
However. isolalcd cracks cxcecd ing Iwice the compuled widlh can solHelimes occur
(Ref. 6.1) ,
a. Variables Affecting Width of Cracks

In ttle discussion oflhe impon:mre of J good bond oclwren slc-.:::1 alKi COIICn:le in Section
5.1. it was poimw OUI Ihal if proper end anchorage is provided. a ocam will nOI fail
prematurcly. even Ihough Ihe bond is destroyed along the enlire span. However. crack
widths wil l oc greala Ihan for an olhem-ise idemical ocam in which good resistance
10 slip is provided along Ihe length of the sp:m , In general. beams wilh smooth rou nd
txtrs will display a relalivcly small numocr of ralher wide croc ks ,n sefviee. while
ocJms wilh good slip rcsislalICe ensured by propo.:r surface deformalions on the bars
will show a 1:ITger number of very fine. aimosl invisible crocks. Because of Ihis
i mprownlC~l . reinforcing bars in current practice are always provided wilh surface
deformations. the maximum spacing and minimum heighl of which arc eSlablished by
ASTM Specifications A 615. A 706. Jnd A 996 ,
A second variable of import alICe is Ihe stress in the reinforce nlCnI , Siudies by
Gergely and Lutz and olhers (Refs. 6.2 10 6.4) hJve confirmed illal crack wid, h is pro
ponionallo /,". where I, is Ihe sleel Slress and t! is an exponenllhal vari~s in Ihe range
from aooul 1,0 to 1.4. For stc'Cl Slresscs in the range of proclical inlerest. say from 20
10 .,6 ksi. 11 mJY oc taken l"<lual 10 1.0. The steel Slress is easily compuled based on
elastic crackedsection analysis (Seclion J.3b). Altemali,dy./, may be laken equal 10
0.601, according 10 ACI Cod~ 10,6.4.
Exp..:rimenls by Broms (Ref. 6.5) and olhers ha"e shown Ihat bolh crack spacing
and crack widlh are relalcd to Ihe concrete cover distance d, . measured from Ihe cen
ler of the bar 10 Ihe face of the concrete. In gcncral. increasing Ihe co"cr i'ICreascs the
spaci ng of cracks a.nd also increascs crack widlh. Funhermore. Ihe dislribulion of the
reinforce1HCnI in Ihe lens ion zo~ of Ihe beam is impomnl, Generally. to co ntrol
cracking. il is ocner 10 usc a larger numocr of smaJlerdiameler txtrs 10 provide lhe
required A, Ih~n to use Ihe minimum number of larger bars. and Ihe bars should be
well dislribuled over the tensile zone of the concrete. For deep lIexural members, Ihi s
i nc1udes addil ional rcinforcelllCnI on Ihe sides of Ihe web to prevenl CoKcss;"e surfacc
crack widlhs aoove Ihe level of Ihe main naural reinforcenlCni.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
S ERVICEAB1LIT\' lOS
FI GU IU: 6.1
G<"l1",'ri~ basi. of crock
,,-idlh c.klll", ",",.
Effectiv<) tension
area 01 concrete
") '0}
b. Equations for Crack Width

A number of ",,!,",s,ion, for maximum crac k widlh hav" be~n """eloped haS<.'{1 on lhe
statistical analy~is of experimental data, Two expre~,i{)[" Ihat llave figured promi -
nently in the dndnpment of the cTdc'k contml pmvision, in II", ACI Code ar" Iho""
devdoped by Gergely aoo LUlL (Ref 62) and Fm,eh (Rd. 6.4) for the maximum
crnek widlh at Ihe lension fare of a beam, They are. respectively.
(6.1 )
and
f, ,
Ii' = 2000 - (6.2)
E, 2
where w = mnximum widlh of crack. t hous~ndlh inche,
f, = steel wess Jllood for which crack width is 10 be determined. ksi .
t.", = modul us of elaslicity of steel. ksi
The ooUidric pararnel<'Ts am shown lh Fig. 6.1 and ~ as follows:
de =Ihickn~ss or concn:le cover measured from lension face 10 ce nter of bar
daresl 10 (hul face . in,
= ralio of dis(~nccs from l~nsion face and from SI~cI centroid to neutral
axi~. equal to h~ 'ii
A = concrel~ ~rea surrounding on~ bar. equal to 10lal effective lenS ion an:a of
concrel~ SUlTounding n:inforceme"l and having S,~I1-": centroid. divided
by number of bars. in'
" ~ ma.,illlum bar spacing. in.
Equalions (6, I) and (6 ,2). which apply only to beams in "ltich d<'fonnc'{[ bars ar~ os~d.
indud~ all of lh~ faclOTs jusl naJ1l~d as having an !1nponam inf1 u ~rlce on lhe widlh of
cracks: s1c~1 Slr~ss . coner~l~ cowr. and the distribulion of lite r~inforcelll~1II in lht'
conerd~ I~nsil~ zo n~ , In addition. lhe factor is added 10 account for lh~ inm,a~ in
cmd. "idlh "ilh dislance from lh~ n~" !ral axis (see Fig. 6.lb).
c. Cyclic and Sustained Load Effects

BOlh cyclic and s"slain~d loading ocmunl for Increasing crack widlh. While lhere is a
larg~amounl of seaner in t ~Sl dala. results of faligu~ leSlS and suslain~d loading leSIS
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I IHI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
indil'at~ ttmt a doubting of cracl width can be exptXted with time (Rd. 6.1). Under
most condiTions, The spacing of crach does not change WiTh time at COlISlant levds of
sustaint.od stre" or l'ydic sTress r.mge.
_. 6.3 ACI C ODE P ROVISION S fOR C RAC K C O NTRO L
In view of the mndom nature of cracking and the wide scatter of crack width meas-
urements. e,'en und~r lab"r~tO<y con<Jitions. nack width is l'ontmlled in the ACI Code
by establishing a "mxi mum ccnt~r-t(}-center spacing " for the r~infofl'ement dosest to
the surfa<.~ o f a tension member a, a function o f the bar ,tre" under service ('o ndi -
tion., ); (in hi) and the dMr ' :OW' I' fmm the nearest surface in t~n sion to the surface
of the flexural tension reinforcement c,
.\' = _"_0 _ 2,5,'" :5 12 36 ( td)

j, j,
11", choice of dearl'",'er cc' rather than the cover to the center of the bar dc' was made
to si mplify design, sinl'" this allows ." to be independent of bar si7.e. As a n",sequenc~,
maxil11ul11lT.lCk widthS will be so"",what greater for larger hars than for smaller hars,
As shown in F..q, (6.3). the ACI Code sets an upper limit OIl ., of 12(36/, ). 11",
stress j, is calculaTed hy dividing the se"'ice load mOlllent hy the product of the area
of reinforcement and the int~fTlalmoment arl11. as shown in Eq. 0.8). AI!<efTlatiydy.
the ACI Code pefTllit~ /, to be taken as 60 peKent of The specified yield mength /,__ For
member; with only a single har, ." is taken as tI", width of the ext re"", !<ension face.
Figure 6.2il compares the vatues of spacing., ohtained using Eqs . (6.1 ) and (6.2)
for a beam containing No.8 (No. 25) reinforcing hars, for/,= 36 hi" = I ,2. and a
maximul11 IT.lCk width", = 0.016 in" tn the values calcutak"{1 using F..q, (6.3).
Eqmtion, (6.1 ) and (6,2) give identical spacings for two values of dear cover, hut 'ig-
nificantly different spacings for other values o f {', __ Equation (6.3) provides a pmctical
compmmise betw""n the value, of .\' that are calculated using the two experimentally
hascd expre"ion,. The equati on is plotted in Fig. 6.2b for j, = 24, 36. and 45 hi. cor-
responding to 0.60/. for Grade 40, 60, and 75 bar~. re'pel,tivel y.
ACI Oxic 10.6,5 poinT~ out that the limitation on .' in Eq. (6.3) is not sufficieot
for structures suhject to very aggre5.~ive exposure or designed to be watertight. In soch
case~ "special inv~stigatinns or precautions" are r~quired, These include the use of
expressiotlS such as Eqs. (b. 1) and (6,2) to determine t]", prolmble maximum cmck
width. Further guidance is given in Ref. 6.1 .
Whenl'oncrete T beam flanges are ill tension. as in the negati"e-l11on"'l11 region
of ~~'"tinuous T beams, concentraTion of the reinfor{-ement over tl", "'eh may result in
excessive crack width in tt'" overhanging slah, eyen though cracks di"-""tl)' over tI",
weh are fi,,,, and wel l distrihuted. To prevent this, the tensile reinfoKemem should be
distributed lwer the width of th" !1ange, rdther than wncentmted. However. because of
shear lag. tbe Quter bar> in such a distrihutinn would be con,iderahly less highly
stres,,-od than those di"-""tly over th" w~h. producing an uneconomical design. As a rea-
sonable compmmise. ACI Oxle 10.b.6 ~uires That the tension reinforcement in soch
cases be distrihuted over the e/Tective flange width or a width equal to one-!<elllh the
span. whil' hever is smaller. If the effect ive flange width excaod, one-tenth tI", spa n,
some IQngitudinal r~infofl'en",111 must be pmvilli.od in the outer portion, of the flange,
The amount of such additional reinforcement i, left to the diM.""'tion of lhe <ksigner; it
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SERVICEAB1LIT\" 207
FIGUIU : 6.2
M:uimum bar 'pacing ,' . " ,,
dear co"er: (a) C"mpari>on ,,
of E4'. (6.1). 16.21, "rod 1(3) ,
for we - 0.016 in .. /. - " ---
-~
36 koi, - 1.2. bar ,iz., - .5
No, 8 (N". 2.~ ); (bJ Eq. (6 ..1)
for f, - 24, .16, arod 45 hi,
"e
, "
"
)~"" ~
corre>poonding 10 0.60[, for , { EQ . (6.2)
Gnt<k 40. 60, on<l 7 ~ EQ. (6. ; )
reinforcement respecli",I)', , ~,
(Pun (Il) aftu R~f 6.6.1 '"
'--~ ~r----
..f EQ, (6,3)
, " ,
("
"
'"
.5
"
"
'" "-
," "
, ""
0

"
,
''""I" "
r"v--- f. -
~ f. _ 24 ksi
"
36 ksi
f._ 45 kSi A
, "- "-
" '",
o
o ,
"
Clear cover ce. In ,
('I
"
, ,
,hou ld al leaS! be Ihe equivalent of lem rer.uure reinforcemern for lhe slab (st'C $ection
13.3). and is oflen taken a, Iwil'" Ihnt amourn.
For beams wil li relatively deep webs, some reinf"rtrmem shou ld be placed near
Ihe wnical faces of the weh to cOlll rol II", widlh of <TdCh in Ihe COllcrete Icn,ion zn,,,,
ab",'e tl", lewl of the main reinforeeme nt . Willlout such "eel. cr.lck widlhs in Ihe ,,'eh
wide r Ihan Ih",", at Ille lewl of Ihemaillbar.lIa~eheenob ... r..<."<I . An"Qrding in ACI
Code 10.6. 7. if the <kplh of Ihe web exu'C<.h 36 in .. longitudinal ",kin" reinforcement
mu,t be unifnmlly di,tribuk"<l along both ,ide face, of the membe r for a distan e", ,I 2
nearest Ihe flexural ten,;on st""l. The spoci ng "", betw~'Cn longitudinal bn,,; or wire,.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
20S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r"
each with ar~a Ab used as skin reinforcemcnt must not exc~..."d t~ lenst of ,/ 2. 12 in ..
and 1000 At- (d - .10). The IUIIII area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces
need not exn..."d onehnlf th~ area of the r~quircd flexural t~nsile reinforcement , The
contribution of the skin ,t~cl 10 flexural strength is usually disregartkd. although it
mny be includcd in the strength c~kulations if a strain compatibility analysis is used
to establish the stress in the skin steel at the flexural failure load.
Figure 6.21> provid~s a cOI1"cnicnt design aid for determining the rlwximum
ccnt~r-to...:ent~r bar spacing as a function of dear cover for the usual case u",'<l in
design,!, - 0.6[,.. From ~ praetic~1 point of "iew, it is e~en more helpful to know the
minimum number of bars across the width of a beam stem that is nc~dc'<l to satisfy the
ACI Code requirements for crack cOlllrol. That number dc~nds on side covcr. as well
as dear cov~r 10 the tension face. and is dependent on bar size. Table A.8 in Appcndi .~
A gives the l11inimum number of bars across a beJIll ,tem for IWO common cases. 2 in.
c1~ar COWT on the sides and bollOI11. which corresponds 10 using No . .1 or No.4 (No.
10 or No. 13) sti1n!ps. and If in, clcar co"er on the sides and bollOI11, represent ing
beams in which no stirrups arc used.
EXAMPl E 6.1 Ch ... ~ C,dC~ control cr jl"ri~ . Figure 6.3 soo....'s Ilk: main flexural reinfo.-c"""'nt al mid
'pan for 3 T girder in 3 higlHi", building 1""1 carrie, a ",r',i", load moment of 7760 in.lip'_
TIl dear ~o,,"r on Ilk: side and botlom of the beam ,Iem i, 2} in. Delenlli"" if tlk: b.:am
nleels tile "mel control criteria in lhe Act Code
S",, \! rt,,~, Since tile "eplh 0(1I1e web is Ie .. than 36 in_. ' l in rei nforcemen t is tlO1 nttded
To checllhe bar 'pacing ~ri1eria. 111e Sle.:l SlresS ca n be "'I imaloo do,"'y by ml ing lhe imer'
nalle.'er ann equal to tile distance J - hf 2:
f _ M,
, "',.J h,- 2
(Altemately. the ACi Code I",,,nils ",ing/' - 0_60};.. gi"illg 36.0 hi,)
U,ingj, in Eq, (6.3) g;'e.
W) 5.10
" = - - 25" = - - - 2.5 X 2,}5 = 10.4 in.
j, .H.6 -
By i",peelion. it is de" thalthi. ",<]uirenlem i. sali,ftl"<l for lhe beam, If the "'5"lt, had
been "nbvorable_ a redesign using a la'le' oun,bcr of ;rllaJlerdia""",,' bars would h.we
been indic31oo.
tFIl.".
FIGUIU<: 6.3
T beam fo,- m,d width
determination in
Example 6. L
I.
{
_ l-!'_
I.
10 No, a (No. 25)

".

1
J
,- '"
--I
f
o..loootc..,_
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SE RVI CEA B1Lln' 209
" -.. 6.4 CONTROL OF D EFLECTIONS
In addilion 10 limi1alions on crac~ing. described in Ihe pl'.'C~ding scclions. i( is usual ly

necessary 10 impose certain con(rols on deflc'C(ions of beams (0 ensure serviceahili(y.
Excessivc d~fl~'C(ions can lead (0 cmding of suprorlcd walls and parli(ions. ill fin i ng
doors and windows. poor roof drainage. misalignmenl of sensi(iw machinery and
equipment or visually otfensive sag. It is imponanl. 1l1ereforc. 10 main(ain cOlHrol of
dctleclion s. in one way or anolher. SO (ha( memhers designed main ly for s(rengtl1 al
prcscribo.'d overloads will also perform well in nonnal service .
TIlere arc presemly (wo approaches toddlcclion COnlrol. The firs( is indireci and
consis(s in sening sui(ablc upper limi(s on (Ile span deplh ralio . Thi s is simple. and il
is salisfaclory in many cases where spans. loads and load disuihotions. and memher
sizes and proponions fall in the usual ranges . O (herwise. i( is esscnlial (0 calcula(c
dctleclion s and (0 compare Ihose predic(ed "a lucs wi(h specific limita(ions (hm may
he imposed by cooes or by special requiremenls.
It will become dear. in (he se<;(ions (hal fol low. 111 ,11 caicuiaJions can. a( besl.
provide a guide (0 proooble oc(ual dd1ccliolls. Thi s is so hecause of ullcenain(ies
regarding material propenies. effecls of cracking. and lood hislory for the member
under consideralion. E ~tremc prccision in (he calculations. Ihercfore, is nC\'eT jus(i
fled . hecause highly accura(e resuh s arc unlikely. Howe"er. i( is senerally sufficient 10
know. for c~ample. (hat (J\c dct1ce(ion under lood w,1I be ahoul t in. rather (han 2 in"
while i( is relalivcly uni lllponan( 10 know whc(her ;1 will aClually be ~ in. ra(ller (han
tin.
TIle deflcc(ions of concan an: generally (hose (hal oceur during Ihe normal ser
vice life of the member. In servic~. a member sustains (Ile full dead load. plus some
fraclion or all oflhe specified service live load. SafelY provisions of (he AC I Code and
similar design specifica(ions ensur.: (hal. under loads up to (he full service load .
s(resses in b01I1 steci and concrete remain wilhin the elastic ranges . ConSi-'<juem ly.
dctlcclion s Ihal occur a( once upon applica(ion of load. the so called immedi<llr "eJkr
lions. can he calculmed based on (he propt:nies ei(her of the uncT'"...:ked cias(ic mem
her. (he crocked cias(ic member. or SOlnc combinmioll oflhesc (sec &'C(ion 3.3 ).
It was poinh.'d OUI in Seclion s 2.8 and 2.11. how~\'Cr. (ha( in add i( ion (0 co,jCfC(e
dcformalions (hal occur ilnlncdia(cly whcn lood is applied. (here ar.: mher defonna
(ions lha( lake place gradually o"~r WI cx(cndcd period of (ilnc. These (inlC dependcnt
defonnalion s arc chiefly due to eoncr.:le erc~p and shrinkage. As a resuh of (hese
influences. rei nforeed conerele members cOnl inue 10 d.:flcc( ,, i(h lhe passag.e of (ime .
long lerm deflcc(ions continue over a perioo of sc"eral years. and may e\'Cmually be
(WO or lnore (illles the inilial cias(ic defleclions . Clearly. nlC(hoos for pr.:dic(ing bolh
ins(anlaneOUS and timc dependem (kflec(ions are cssenlial.
" -.. 6.5 IMMEDIATE D EFLECTIONS
Elas(ic do.::fleClions can be expressed in (he general fonn

110ads. spans. suppons
EI
where 1 is (he flexural rigidi(y and ! (loads. spans. suppons) is a function of (he par.
(icular load. span. and suppon arrangemem. For inslancc. (he deflection of a unifonnly
loadc-d simple beam is 51<" " 384E1. so thai! " 1<"' 384. Similar deflcclion ~'qu:Hions
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
have """n labulm~d or can ~a,ily k computed for man)' mher loadings and spun
arrangemem,. simple. fixed. or cmn inuoo . and the c{me'pondingjfunctions can k
de!ennillL..!. 11", panil-ular problem in reinforc.,.j concrete suuclures i, therefQre II",
de!enninati<;111 of II", appropriate flex ur::ll rigidity EI for a n"'mkr consisting of two
material> with prope" ies and behavior as widely different as steel and C<H1cre!e .
If the maximum moment in a flexur~1 member is so small that the ten,ile siress
in the collCrete does lIot exCt...,d the modulu, of rupture j,. no !1ex umllension lTdCh
will OCCUL The full. uncmcked secl ion is then a"aibble for resisling sire" and pro-
viding rigidity. 11,is ,tage of loading has 1>0..><:11 analyzed in Seclion 3,3a. In agreernem
wilh thi , analy,is. lhe effecl ive mon",nt of ine"ia for Ihis low mnge of load, is thai of
Ihe u"cflIcked Imn,formed seclion I" , and E is Ihe modulu, of l-Onerele E, as given by
Eq. (2.3). Correspondingly. for thi, load range .
f-
" -
E,I",
(a)
At hi gher loads. flexural lension {-ra,,};, are fonned. In add ilion. if shear st resses
exceed v" l"'''' Eq. (4.3)J and web reinforcemem is employed 10 resiS! them. diago nal
cracks can exi,t at servi{-e load,. In lhe region of nexur.11 lTJ<;ks. Ik position of the
neU1r~1 axis varies: directly at ea{-h cmck it is k';;aI'..! at the level caicuiak..! for lhe
cmcked tran,fonned section (see Seclion 3.3h): midway belween crach it d ips to a
loeati"" dose r to Illat caiculaled for the uncr::lcked irdn sfom",d section . Corresl'0nd -
ingly. flex ural -tension cnu: king cau~s the eff,"<Otive f!K",,,,nt of inertia to k Ihat of the
cmcked transfomll><l ","<Otion in the imm,..!iale neighborhood of tlexural -len~i!K\
cmcks. and d ose r to Ihal of 11", uncracked Ir,lflsfom>ed section midway belw~en
cmd.:s, with a gr.1dual tmnsilioo ""1\\I""n these extremes.
It is seen thai tl'" value of tl", loc al nK)n",nt of inertia varie' in those portion, o f
the ""am in wbich Ihe ""ndin g moment exceed, the era,-};in g moment of Ihe section
II _ j, l",
(6.4)
. " ,
I'
where )', is the di,tance fmm the neutr~1 axi s 10 the len,ion face and j, i, the modulu,
of rupture. The exact variation of I del"'nds on the ,hal'" of lbe moment diagram and
o n the crack panem. and i, difficult 1<;1 detennine. This make, an exact den ..-ction cal -
culation imp<,ssible.
However. exten,ively document<-"! ,tudie, (Ref. 6,7) have ,hown thai de!1e,- -
tion, .lk occurring in a beam aft~r Ihe maximum moment M . has reach~d and
exc ..",<k..! the cra,-};ing moment M ,., can be calculated hy using an effective moment
<;If inertia I,: that i,"
(h)
where
I, - (6.5)
and I,Tis lhe moment of inenia of Ihe cmc ked transfooned section.
In Fig. 6.4 . lhe effective moment of ine"ia. g i"en by Eq. (65). is piQUed a.~ a
function ofille rdtio /II. AI" (the "-"Cipmcal ofdle moment ral io used in Ihe equali on).
It i, ,,-,en lhat. f<;lf value, of maximum ilKlment M. less than tl", lTdcking moment M'T"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
S ERVICEAB1L1T\' 2 11
FIGU IU: 6..1

Variat;'M1 of I, with mo",,,nt
ralio.
1-----,-- __ L '" _____ --
---y------==~
'.
, ,
M.
M.
FIGUItE 6.5
Ddle<:' ;on of a "';"(0'0<"<1
cOIl<rde beam .
," NooIiooar
matena l
I,
range
,
,
>
\ M,
o ~--~--~------------~
o ;1, :l~
D<!flection. ;1
(ha( is.!>t. M,~ less than 1.0.1, .. ' ",. Wi(h increasing values of Mo' I, ~ppfoachcs f,r
and for valu es of Mo .11" of 3 or more. I, is allnos( (he same as "'r Typic:d val u~s of
,II" M" at full s.:rvice load range from abou( 1.5 (0 3.
Figure 6.5 shows (he grow(h of deflections wj1h increasing momcn1 for a simple
s(XIn beam. and illus(rmes the usc of Eq. (6.5) . For nlOnlCnts no larg~r than M,r deflec
(ions arc prac(ically proponional to moments and the deflec(ion at which cnlcking
begins is oo(aillCd from Eq. (a) wi(h M - M,~. A( largeT moments. theeftC\;tive lnoloont
of incrtia I, becomes progrcssi"cly smaller. according to Eq . (6.5). arid deflec(ions are
found by Eq. (b) fOf (he load Icvel of im~rcs!. The nlOnlCnt Ml might correspond (0 (he
full service load. for exampk. while (he moment M , would represen( the dead load
tllOmcnt for a (ypical casco A nlOlllCn( dcflcction curve cOlTCSponding to (he linc Ej"
o..loootc..,_
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212 IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 6
represents an up!"'r bound for ddl~clion~. consi,lent with Fig . 6.4. except that at load,
somewhat beyond lhe "'''''ic~ load. Ihe nonlinear respons~ of Sl ed or c"onerele or bolh
cause~ a funher nonlinear iocrease in deflenimlS.
Nme that 10 calculate the increment of defl""tion due to live load. cau,ing a
moment inc"rea", All - AI ,. a two-,tep computation is reynired : the first for den ..,.- lion
a l due to h~ and lkad load, and the second for deflection a, due to dead load alolle.
e""h with the appropriate value of f,. TI",n the den"'-"Iion increment <lue to live load i,
found. "'luallo a! - a ,.
M",t reinforc"ed concrete 'pan, are continu'llls, not simply suppuned. The con -
""pts jusl introduced for simple span, can be applied, bul the moment diagram for a
gi ven span will include both negative and positive region,. renecting II", rotational
restr.!im provided at the ends of the spans by continuous fran", aClion, The efTecti\'~
moment of i,,,,nia for a continU!llls span can be fouoo by a simpk averag in g proce-
dure. according to the ACI OKk. that will be described in Section 6.7c.
A fundan",ntal problem for cominnou, spans is that, alt hough Ihe deflenimlS are
ba>e<J on the moment diagram. that nK",,,,nt diagmm de!",n<.k in tum. o n the flexural
rigidity Ef for each member of the fr.!nJe . The flexural rigidity de!",,,,I, o n the extent
o f crac"kin g. as has been dern<."'~trated. Cr.!cking. in tum, de!",nd~ on lhe ntomem,.
whic"h ar~ 10 be foulld. The circular nature o f the problem is ~videnL
OIJe cou ld use an ite rative procedure. initially basing II", frame anal)',is on
uncT.!ckt.-d concrete n",mbers. delcnnining the momems, calculating efT~cli\'e Eftenn,
for all n",rnbers, theo recalculating lllonJents. adjusling the Ef values . etc. The proce"
could be continued for as many iteration, as oe."lL-d. until ("hanges are nol 'ignificant,
Howe\'er, ,uch an approach would be ex!",n,ive and tinJe-consuming. even wilh ("0"'-
pUler use .
Usmlly. a very appmximate appmach is adopted. Member nexur.!1 stifTne,,,,,
for the fr~me analy,is a re ba>ed simply on pro!",nie, of uncr~cked rectangular con -
crete cross ",<-1ions. TI,i, can be defended noling that the moment, in a .,.lIll inuou,
frame de!",,,,1 only on lhe reimil'<' value, of EI in it, melllbers, not the "b.,,,lure val -
ue,. Hence. if a consist~nt assurnpti<;IIl, i ,e" uncr""ked seelion. is u>e<J for all members.
the result, should be valid . Although crac king is cen ainly nK)re pre"a!ellt in beam,
than in columns, Ihu, reducing lhe relative EI for the beams. thi, is ('om!",n,ated to a
large extent, in typical cases, hy the sliffening dT~cI of the flange> in the positiw
bending regions of continuous T beam cOllSlruction. TI,i, subject is discussed at
grt'ater length in Section 125.
_, 6.6 DEFlECTIONS D UE TO L ONG-T ERM L OADS
Initial deflections are increa~d significantly if load, are sustairJe<J over a long !",riod
of lime, due to the efT..>cls of shrinkage and creep. The'e two effec"iS are u,ually c"o",-
bined in deflection calcu lation,. CR'eP generally dominates , but for some ty!"" of
members. shrinkage den ..,.- lions are large and should be n>llside r..-d scpar.!tel)' ("",
$ection 6.8) .
It was pointc-d out in Section 2.8 that creep defonnalion, of ~'()Ilcrde are diret"tly
proponional \() the compressive stress up to and beyond tile u,ual service load mnge.
n",y inc"rea", asymptotically with tir"" and. fOJ the san", ,aess, are larger for low-
'trength than for high-,trength ('{,"cretes. The ratio of additional lirne-de!",nde nt Slmin
to initial clastic Slr.!in is given by the creep coefficient C", (,ee Table 2.1),
For a reinforced co!l{"rete beam, the long-ternl defonnation is much nK)re ("om-
plicak-d Ihan for an axially loadc-d cylinder. bec"ause while tI'" concrete creeps under
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I T....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SE RVICEAB1LIT\' 213
FIG UIU: 6.6

Eff-~ uf CO""""" <ITOP ,m
cU"'J(ure: (0) beam ero"
sec,ion , (hJ "min" Cracked
(cl , Ires" " M<l (000<5. e~Slic
{A,~""Ni f""" II.! n!llI1 ral a-is
,
6 .11.1
~_LL- ___ ------j_Ai.

"' '.
(01
'" '"
sustained load. the sled docs no\. The silualion in a reinforced COllcrele hcam is illus
lraloo by Fig, 6.6. Und<!r suslain~d lood. 100 inilial main - , allhe lOp face Oflhc beam
illcreases. due 10 creep. by lh~ atllOUnl - r while lh~ slrain , in lhc Sled is cssell1i:dly
unchanged. Because th~ rota(ion of the s(rain dis(ribu(ion diagram is lh~rcfore about a
poill1 at the lc,'cI of (he s(ed. rather th:m abou( (h~cracked ~Instic neutral nxis. lhe neu
(ral nxis movcs down as a result of cre.:p. and
, ,
(<I)
demons(raling (hat (he usu:d cr~p cocfficicll1s could no( be applied (0 ini(ial curva
(ures (0 obtain creep curvatures (hence defk<;(ions).
The situa1ion is funher cOll1plica(~d. Due 10 the lowering of (he n~ulral axis asso
cimcd with cre~p (sec Fig. 6.61 and (he resul1ing increase in compression area. (he
compressive s(ress rt'<luircd to produce a givcn resul(ant C (0 ~"quilibrJ(~ T - A./, is
less than before. in contras( to the siwmion in J creep leS( of a compressed cylinder.
because 1he ocam C"':l'P occurs a( a gradually diminishing S(ress. On (he o(her hand.
wi(h the TlCW lower neu(ral axis. (he ,mernJ l le\'~r ann hc(wccn compressh'e :11Id len
sile result ant forces is less. calling for an increase in both resultan(s for a conSl:IIl(
momen\. This. in !Urn. wi ll requ,re a small increase in Slress . and hence s1rain . ,n 1he
s(ccl; 1hus. , is n01 conSlall1 as assumed originally.
Bcc:mse of such complexi(ics. it is necessary in prac(ice to calcu Ime addi(ionJI.
(ime dep.:ooell1 ddlC(;1ions of beams due 10 Crt-ep (and shrinkage) using a simplified.
empirical approach by wh ich (he ini(ial clastic dcfloc(ions arc multipl ied by a factor
(0 oblain the addi(ionnllong (ime dcflcclions. Values of for usc in design arc based
on long-(erm dclle<:(ion da1a for reinfornxl concre(e beams {Refs, 6.8 (0 6 , II). Thus
wlle~::; ,
- (6.6)
is Ihe ,uUiirilmallong(errn dellec(ion dUl' to (he combin~d elTect of creep and
shrinkag~ . and ::;1is (he initial daslic dcflecrion cakulat ~d b)' (he rne(hods d<!scri~d
trl Section 6 ,5 .
The c()()mci~m depends on (he d uration of Ihe susmirwd Imld , It also d~perlds
on whelher Ih~ ~arn has only ~inforc~rnen( A, Oil the knsion sid<!. or whdh cr adlli
(ionallongilttdirml rdnforc~ment A; is proyid~d on the compr~ssion si<k. In the lat l~r
case . the 10Ilg- (~nlt delll'ctions are m ueh red uced , This is so because when no com-
pression ~illforl'ern~n( is providexl. Ih ~ compression COnere1e is subjec( to uure-
s(raincxl e~ep and shrinkag". On the o(her hand. sioc'<l sl~cI is nOl subjecl to e~~p. If
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
additional bars are locnted do"" to the compre"ion face. they will resist and th"rehy
reduce tl", amount of creep nnd shrinkage and lhe corresponding defk"Cti<;IIl (Rd.
6.11 ). C<:>nlpression st",,1 may be included for this reason ~Ione . Spe,-ilic v~lues of .
u,,-~ to accounl for tl", inlluence of <T"ep and compression reinforcen"'nt, will he
given in &"Ction 6.7.
If a beam carries ~ cenain suslai""d load W (e.g" the dead load plus lhe avemge
traffic load on a bridge) nod is suhject to a shon -tenn heavy live h~d P (e.g .. th"
weight of an unusually hea,-y ,-chide). Ihe mnximum total dell<-'Cti"n under this cOm-
hined loading is o/Jlai""d as foliows:
I. Calculate tl'" instantaneous dellection Ll.,., ,-aused by the suslai""d load IV by
methods gi"en in &~tion 05.
2. Calculat~ tl'" additionallong-tem, delleCtion caused by IV: i.e
ro ' n.
3, nlen the tOlal dctl.xtion caused by the sustained part of the load is

4. In ca!culm ing the additional insmntm",ou, deflection caused by the shon -tenn
load f'. aeconm must be taken of the fael that the load-dell<-'Ction relati on after
cmcking i, nonlinear. as illummed hy Fig. 6.5. Hen""
where tI. . ,p,is the total instantaneous defleclion thai would he ohtain<..-.! if IV and
f' were applied simuitm",ously. calcu1ak~ by using I, delenni""d fOJ the momem
cau'led hy IV + p_
5. Then the tOial dellection under the sustained load plus heavy shon -term lo"d is
. +

In calculntions of dellections, cnreful anention must be paid 10 the load history.
i.e .. the time ""que nee in which londs are applied. as well as to the magni tude of th"
loads. The ,hort-lenn peak load on the hridge girder just descrihed might he applied
early in the life of the member. before lime-dependent dellectim" had taken place,
Similarl)'. for building,. heav)' lo"ds ,uch as Slacked ",alerial are often placed during
con'truction. n",sc temp<>rdry loads l11a)' be t.'qual to. or even g remer than. lhe de'ign
li,'c lond, n", ,tate of <T.lCking will cOITe'pond to the maximllm /' Jad dmt was carried,
and the sustained lond dell'-'Ction. on whieh tl", long -tenn effects are ha,,-~, would CQr-
resp<md to that cr.lCk<-~ cQndili,m, I, for lhe maximum load reached ,hould he u",d to
recakulate the ,u.tain<-~ load dell<-"Ction befor~ calculating long-term effect .
Thi, wilt he iltustrdted referring to Fig. 6,7. ,howing tl", load-delle<'!ion plO! for
a hoilding gird"r Ihat i, designed to carry a spe,-ilied dead and live load . A,,-~unJe firsl
that tl", dead and live load, increa", nKlTK>tonically. As lhe full dead load IVJ i,
applied. the load ddleclion ,-urvc follows lhe path 0-1, and tl", dead load ""Ileelion.
tI.", is found u,ing I" calculated from Eq. (6.5). with M. = Md' The tin",-dependenl
effect of Ihe dead load would be aJ' As li\'e load is then ~pplied. path 1-2 would he
followed. Live load delle<,tion. a,. wou ld he found in two sleps, as described in
Senim' 6.5. firsl f",ding tl. J " hased 01' I.!. with Mo in F..q, (6.5) equal to MJ " . and then
,uht r~cting dead load deflection tl. J .
If, on the Olher hand, shol1 -tenn con'tru,-lion loads were applied. then renKlved.
the deflection pad! 1-2-3 WQuid be followed. Then. under dead load only. the resulling
deflection would he d ' Note thai this defle<"1ion <-an he found in one step u,ing I~'d'
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
S ERVICEAB1LIT\' 2 1S
FIGUIU : 6.7 Eel. ,

Eel" Eel.~
Eff-~ of load hi""l)" on
det1=ion of J b..ilding
gildcT.
// /I
/ /I
, / /,,
w,
, , ::J
/
/1'
:/
0
~. &,
!J.d. I I
but with I" cO<re.<I"HldinS to the maximum I"ad re:K-h~d. The long- t~nn ddk.:tio/1 now
would be J- significantly Iwgt'f than bef",,,. Should the full de<ign Ii ...! load then be
applied, the deflectio" would follow path 3-4. and th~ liYe load ""f1el,t ion would be Ie.,'."
than for the first casco It. too, can be calculat~d hy a .<imple or",-step l'akulation u,ing
W, ulone, in thi, ca"" and with nK)n",m of inertia e~ual to 1,2.
Clearly. in cakuluting dell~ctio"s. th" engineer must anticipate, a~ nearly as 1""-
sihle, hoth the magnitude and time-sequence of the loadings. Alt hough IO/1g-t~rrn
dd lel,tio", are often ,-a1culatcd assuming monotoni,- loading. with hoth immediate
and long-term " ffeds of d~ad load occurring before applicmion of live load. in many
cascs this is not reali~tic
_. 6.7 AC I CODE PROVISIONS fOR CONTROL Of D EflECTIO N S
a. Minimum Depth-Spa n Ratios

As l",in1<.'<1 out in Section 6.4. two approache, to <kflection control are in current u"',
"oth accepta"le under the pr""i,ion, o f the ACI Code. within prescribed limit,. 11",
'impler of th~sc is to impo>c restriction, on the minimum mernllcr depth II. rebtiye to
the 'pan I, tQeosure that the hoeam wilt hoe sufficiently stiff Ihat defl""lio", are unlikely
to cause prrmlems in service. Defledion, are greatly influ~ntt.'<I hy support cOlldition,
(e,g .. a simply sUPl",rted unifQrmly loaded heam will defl.,.:t 5 ti"",s as much a, an
Qtherwise identical ""am with fi~ed SUPl"lflS j, so minimum depths ",usl vary "epend -
ing on conditions of restraint at the end, oflhe S)XlflS.
According 10 ACI Code 9.5 .2, th" minimum depth, of Ta"le 6.1 apply to on,,-
wny cOllSlruction nm supponing or anachl'<llo panition, or othe r constructioo likely
to be damage" hy large deflections. unles, co"'pumtion of deflection, indicate, a
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
216 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 6
TABLE 6.1
Minimum thickness of nonprestressed beams or one-way slabs unless deflections are
computed
Minimum Thickness.
Member Simply One End Both Ends
Supported Continuou s Continuou s C<I"tileve r
Members not supporting or atta ched to partitio ns o r othe r
const ruction likely to Iw damilged by l<l' ge deflections
Solid ()f'le-way 'labs 120 1 24 128 110
Ik,m, or ribkd ",.e-way ' labs
'" I 18.5 121
"
le,,,, r deplh can be used without adven;e dTl"el, . Value, giwn in Table 6.1 are to be
u,,-"<I directly for nonnal -weight connde witb we = 14.~ I'd and reinfof('enJent with
I. = 60,000 psi. For membe.-. u,ing ligln,,'eigbt concrete with ""n'ity in Ihe mnge
from 90 to 120 pef, 11", ,-alue, of Table 6.1 slKlUld be multiplied by (I.M - 0 .005,,', )
2: 1.09. For yield 'trength' other than tiO.OOO psi, tbe \'alues ,IKlUld be multiplied by
(0,4 + f, 100.(00).
b. Calculation of Immediate Deflections

When there i, "",-"<110 use member depth, ~hallower than are rermittl"<l by Table 6. 1.
or when members ,uppon construClion thai is likely 10 be damaged by large den~c
tion,. or for presl r~,sed membe.-., defleclion, must be cakulated and compared with
limiting valu~s (sec Secti"n 6.7e). The cakuiation of deflection,. when requin."<I. pro-
"",-"<I, along the Ii"", de<cribed in Senion, 6.5 and 6.6. For design purposes, the
moment of 11", u!lcracked trdnsfon1Jed ""'ti<;", ' ", l'an be replacl"<l by that of the gro"
connde "-"etion '" ".,glocting reinforl"lIlent, witlKlUt ",rio", error. With thi, simpli -
fication. Eqs. (6,4) and (6.5) are replocl"<l by the following:
1,1.
M C' - -.1'- (6.7)
,
and
I, - ,-
n.e moJulu, of rupture for nonnal -weight concretc;s to he la""n equal 10
I , .. 7.5 " (6,9<1)
For lightwcight concrete. the modulus of rupture may 110t be known, but Ihc splil'
cylinder strenglh f., is often specified and ddermincd by teslS , For normal weight con
cretes. Ihe spl it cylinder strength is gellcr~lly assumed to be lro - 6 ,7 I. Accord
ingly. in Eq , (6 ,9,,). 1., 6,7 can be substituted for I for the pufJXISC of caiculaling
the modulus of ruplUre , TlICIl for lightweight concrele, if In is howil.
/ , =75J~,
.. 6.7
=
l.l
2/" (6.%)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SERVICEAB1Lln- 2 17
where!" 6.7 is nOI 10 exceed h aceordi~g 10 ACI Code 95.2. In lieu of leSI infor
malion on lensile strenglh.j, can b.: cakulaled by Eq. (6.9/1) muhiplicd hy 0.75 for
""alllighlweigllt" COllerele and 0.~5 for 5aJldlighlweighf concrele.
c. Continuous Spans
For conlinuous spans. ACI Code 9.~ . 2 calls for a simple average of "a lues oolain~d
from Eq . (6.8) for Ihe cnlical POSilivc and negalivc' l11ol11em scclions. i.c ..
/, = 0.501,~ + 0.25 /" + I,)
where 1,.. is the eff~ctive moment of inertia for the midspan section and I" and I,)
those for the negati"e-mome1l1 ,",ctim" at the respecti"e b.:mn ends , each cakulated
from Eq . (6.8) using lhe applicable "alue of Mo' It is shown in Ref. 6.12 thai a SOme-
what impro"L"<i result can be had for cominunus prismati c members using a weightffl
average for beams Willi both ends ("ominuou. of
I, = 0.701,~ + 0.15 /" + 1'1 (6. lOb)
and for ocallls with one end comin uous and Ihe olher simply SUpportffl of
I, ~ 0.851,.. + 0.1:;1" (6. I(k)

where 1" is the efTec!i"e moment of inertia a! the continuous end. The AC I Code , as
an <ljl!ion. also permi!, use of I, for continu<lu, prisma!ic ocams to be taken equal to
the "alue obtain<-"<i from Eq. (6.8) at midspan: for l'anti levers, I, cakulated a1 !he sup-
port ",,tion rna)' be oscd.
Afler I, is found. den""tion-, may be computed u,i ng the mome nt -area method
(Ref. 6.11). wi!h due regard for rotation' or the !angcm to the clastic CUTVe at the sup-
ports. In g~IJeraL i" computing lhe maxim um ddlec!i"", the loading prod ucing the
maximu m positiy~ moment may b.: u,<--d. and tbe midspan dell""tion may nom,ally he
u~ as an aCl-eptahle appmx imati"" of lhe maximum dellec tio" . C.Jeffici~ nt , fm
dd lel'!ion cakulation such as derived by Rran><)n in Ref 6.7 are helpfuL For mem -
hers whe re supports may he considered fu lly tixed or bingffl. handbook L><luation. fm
dd lel'! ion$ may be used.
d. Long-Term Deflection Multipliers
On th" ba.,i, of empirical studies (Refs. 6.7. 6.9, and 6 .11 ). AC I Cod~ 9.5.2 s pecific,
that udditiOlUlI long-term ""Il<-"<-,tiOl1S <l., du~ !o the combined cff",ts o f e r<-",p a ,ld
shrinkage shall be calculated by multiplying 1M immediate dell<-"Ction <l.i by the fat:lm
(6 . II)
I + SO
where ' - A; bd and is a tinICdejXOOcm cocflkicnllhat "aries as shown in Fig. 6 .8 .
In Eq. (6.11). the quantil}' 1 (1 + 50 ') is a reduclion faclor lhal is cssemially a SC"C'
tion property. rellcel in)! the bcnclkial clTcCI of compression rdnforc~tl1cm A:
in reduc
ing longlcrm defkctions. whereas is a malenal propc"y depending on creep alXl
stlTi nkagc characteristics. For simple and continuous spans. t h~ value of 'used in Eq .
(6.11) should he that al lhe midspan section. according to the AC I Code, or Ihm at the
support for camile"crs. Equmion (6.11) mid the "alues of gi"cn by Fig . 6 .8 apply 10
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
2 1S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 6
FIGU,''';at;,m
Timt; IU: 6.8 of f", long. 2,0 I---=::::::::::::::::::::C=~l
IW1\ defleclio",.
f 10
Dura~on of load, months
bolh oormal ... eigln and light ...eight concrete beams. lhe additional. tillled.:pcnd~111
dclk<;tions :m: thus found using values of from Eq. (6. 11) in Eq, (6,6) ,
Valu~s of given in the ACI Code and Commcl11ary are s.~lisfaclory for ordinary
beJIllS and onc way slabs. bUI may result in un<lo.:reslim31ion of timcd~pcndcl11 dd1cc
tions of two way slabs. for ... hich Branson has suggcsted a liveyear "alu~ of - 3.0
(Ref. 6,7) ,
Research by Paulson. Nilson. and Hovcr Indicales thm Eq, (6. I I)do.:s not prop
erly reDecl Ihe reduced creep Ihal is characlcrisl;c of higr.:rstrenglh concretes (Ref.
6.14). As indiealed in Table 2.1. Ihe creep eo.:ffieient for high strength concrete may
lie as low as one half Ille ,'alue for normal concrete , Clearly. the 10ng terl11 dcDcclion
of highslrcngth concr.:le beams under suslaincd load. expressed as a ralio of imme
diale claslic deflcction. cOlTCspondingly will be less. This suggesls a lower ,'alue of
the malerialmoditier in Eq. (6. 11) and Fig , 6 ,8 , O n the other hand. in highslrength
concrete beams. the in fl uence of compression steel in reducing creep deDcclions is
I~ss pronounced. r~"quiring an adjustmel11 in the seclion mod ifier I (I + 50 'j in thai
equation ,
Based on 10ng terl11 tests involving six ~xpcrimental programs. the follo ... ing
modified form of Eq . (6 , I I) is rccolll1l1cn<lo.:d (Ref. 6.14):
- ~;C (6.12)
I + '"
in which
= 1.4 - j, 10.(00
0.4 :S :S 1.0 (6.1.1)
n,e proposed equation giws r~suhs id"ntical 10 Eq, (6.11 ) for concrete strenglhs of
4000 psi and ""low. and much improwd prOOictio"s for concrete strengths betw~cn
4000 and 12.000 psi.
e. Permissible Deflections
To ensure salisfactory perfoI1nance In s..>rvice. ACI Cod~ 9 .5,2 impo~s certain limits
on d.:llections calculated :l<'Cording to the p1"OCedures just described, nt~~ limits are
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
S ERVICEAB1Lln" 2 19
TABLE 6,2
Maximum allowable computed deflections
Ty~ of Member Deflection to Be Con$idered Deflection
limitat ion
11.1 roof' oot ,upporli"g or atloci><d Ir"",edi,k detlecli"" due 10 the ,
to OOfI'lruc lural ekm<n], likel~ 10 live 10><1 L
Ix- damaged by I~~ defl"",;"", '"
Fi""" noI supporting or '!loci><d '0 Immediate deflec,i"" d.. '0 the Ii,. ,
nO"structural demenl, li~ely 10 Ix-
d,maged by large defle<o,i"",
'''''' , -
;'"
lI.oof or noor C""strocli"" ,upponi"S
or Jltoched to """,illlCon.1 elements
Ihal!,," of the total <kfkdioll
occurring .fI.r 'Iloch"",n' of the -
,
Ii ~dy to b< damaged by largo
defledion,
oo"s!J"Uclural den"'''l' (,u,n of
lhe longtime deflec,;on "l>< to all
.""
Roof or floor COIOStroct;OIl ,upporti"S
or.It,,,,hed to IIOIlSIIlIC,ura) elemen"
.uslaillCd load, and th. ;mo",d;"e
rIeIlmion due to any odd;liona) Ii",
-
,
UOIlikd) to Ix- dantaged b)' large
defledion,
''''''' '"
g.ivcn in Table 6.2 . Lill1ilS depend on whelOcr or nOI Ihe Int:mocr supports or is
allached 10 o(llCr nonslruclUral clcnlCots. nnd whclhcr or nOI lhose nonSlruclural cle-
nlCots nrc li~dy 10 be d.1lnngc'd by larg~ dcfkclions. WIICn long-lcrm dcDcclions are
compuled, Ihal ]XIn of Ihe deDc<:lion Ihm occurs befor.: allachmenl of lhe nonslruclural
clenlCllls mny be deduclcd: informalion from Fig. 6.S is useful for lhis purpose. l1JC
lasllwo Ii mils of Table 6 .2 ll1ay oc e~ceedcd ufldcr certain condilions. according 10 lhe
ACI Code.
EX,\ MI'I. E 6.2 Dcll..li" n cak1.la tion. ll>e beam ,nown in Fig. 6.9 is" pan of IIIe 1100r S}'lem of an
apartmenl hou", all<! is ,big""d to carry calculated dead load ~ ." of 1.6~ lips/ft aoo a Ie'
,ice Jive load " '/ of 3.3 kipoJf1. Ofille 100al h e load. 20 [,<,""enl i, SUSlaincd in nluure, whil~
80 percenl will be al'I'I'ed onl)' imennil1eml), OIW tile life of tile ,truelure . Under full dead
and li'e load . IIIe "",,,,,,", diagram is ., sh..",~ i~ Fig. 6.'k. The beam will surpo" lIOn
structural Jl:1nition, thaI woold be damaged if lorge deflections ""re 10 ocrur. 1lIcy will be
installe<! ,ho<tly an~r conSlnlction shoring is re"",,ed and dead load, lake efr""I, bill oofore
,ignifieanl creep ocrurs. Calculate thai p.1l1 of 11", tOlal Mtlection thm woold ad,e rsely
aft.,l tne panilions, i.~ .. the ,um of longli"''' detl~~lio~ due 10 dead .nd panial live load
ph" tile ;mme<!iaIC ddl""lion due 10 IIIe non," 'lained Jl:1" of lhe li,c load . Matenal
,1"'"8ths =1: E.1.()()(I psi and!, K 60 ~si.
S\JI.InI"N. r", Ihe spiXified ""uenals. E, = 57.000 .1.()()(1 = 3.60 X let [lSi. and with
E, - 2<) X 10" 1"1. tile modular ratio n - 8. The ",ooul", of ruj>lu", I, - 7.5 4000 -
474 psi . ll>e effe<.,i,c "",me'" of i""nia will be cakulated for IIIe I1>"1[""nl diagrJl1l ,oo""n
in Fig. 6.9c corre<;jIOIIding to 1he full "",ice load. on the basi' that the e'lem of cracling
will be go'.:mOO b) lhe full sen..i... load. even tlJou!'-h Ihat Iood is intennil1ent. In lhe JlOsiliw-
tllO<l","l region. IIIe centroidal axis of IIIe ~n<:racked T ",((iOll of Fig. 6.9h is foo"" by la~
ing momenl, about tile lop ,urface. 10 he m 7.66 in. del'llt. and I, ~ 33,160 in' . By similar
Il",an,. tile cemmidal axi, of tile crack<! tran,formed T .'Ction sho,,'" i" rig. 6.9J is I""rued
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
220 IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 6
FIGU IU: 6.9

Con,inuo,-" T beam fo.-
r - - - - - 26.00' - - - - - - ,
deflection calculalions in 2 - No. 9 (No. 29) 2 - No. 9 (No. 29)
E.. mpk 6 .2 2 - No.9 (No. 29) 2 - No, 9 (No. 2'9)
l - No. l 1 l - No.l 1
(No. 36) (No. 36)
2 - No , 9 (No, 29)
2 - No. 6 (No, 25) contnUOllS I
1 . - - - - 25.00' ------J,
,.}
162 II-kips
---t 367 ftkips
2~5ft-k;PS I
,O} 'e)
'I ~
r=:c:r=r
I' 75"
~ f1A. - 2a.54
W
'o} ,.}
3.7., in. below the top oftbe slab and /" - 10.8110 in'. Tl>t cracking moment is tl\<n foooo
by meanS of Eq. (6,7):
33.1110
M " _ 414 x- - x -I- _ 78 fI kips
16.84 12.000
Wilh M" M. = 78 162 = 0 ,481. ltie effect;,'e mome nt of inenia in ltie J'Os;t;,'e be nding
region is fOll1ld from liq. (6,8 ) 10 be
I. - OA81' X 3UllO + 1- 0 .481" X 10,860 - anOin '
In lhe negati"e beooing "'gion. 1M gros, moment of i""nia will be based on ItIt: rec1angu
lar ,",elion shown in Fig. 6.9h. Fo< this area. Ille centroid is 12 . 2.~ in . from lhe top surface
and /, = 17.200 i"', For lhe croc ked tran,fO<1ned J.eC1ion ,hown in Fig. 6,<).\ lhe ~.nl",ida'
axis is found. taking mot,,,,m, aboollhe bottom surface, to be 8 .6.~ in. from that level. a,~l
I,,~ IL'66i"' ,T1Jen
17.200 I
M " _ 474 X - , - X - - _ 55,5 fl _kips
1. 25 12.00:1
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SE RVICEA B1LIT\' 22 1
gi'-in~ .11", .11, = 55,~ 225 ~ 0.247 . Th"" for (he neg.(iv,,rnomcn! regions,
' , - 0.247' X 11.200 + 1 - 0,247' X 11.366 - liAS!) in'
.
The awrage '-alue of I, (0 be used in calcula(ion of deflec(iOl1 is
" ~ ~2 1~.110 +
, 11,450 ~ 12.28~,"
I( il ne' ( n.:ce~ry (0 find (he lu;lainc(l-lood dcflec,io.-' mu lliplicr giwn by Eq , (0.1l) a,lll
Fig. 0.8, For (he ]>Osilh'e bending zone. w ilh 00 compression reinforcen""I, "" = 2.00.
For com'cnicnl referencc . It.; <kflec'ion of lhe " "-,,,,ber under r,,1 1<k:>d p illS Ii,'c load of
4.95 kiJlSlft. corres]>Onding to llot> ",omen! diagram of Fig 6.!k. will Ix found, Making use
of the IIIomenl-"re. principles.
12.5X ~ X - 225 X 12,S X 6,25 . --

7620
7620 X 172 8
f X381X
12.5
"
~ 0,298 in.
3600 X 12,285
a,
Using Ihis ligure a basis. Ihe (ime-<lepen<lent I"'rtioll of dead load defleclion (Ihe only p.rt
o f 11.. 100al thai would off""l lhe paniliom) i,
I.M
J = 0.298 X - - X 2.00 = 0 ,199 in.
4.95
",hi le the SUIlI of lhe immedime and li","-dependent deflec(ion due 10 ItIt: ,,,sloined portion
o f lhe Jj,e load is
.n
0.1 = 0.298 X - - X 0,2{I X 3.00 = 0.119 in,
- 4,9~
and the in\laruaro:oos <k:f1ecljon due 10 applK:aliorr of Ihe ,hon-Icon pooiOr1 of the hw load is
.1..1
0..... - 0.29B X - - X 0.80 - 0.159 in.
4.95
Thus II><: lOla) defiCClion (hal would adverScl)' alfe~l llle p"rtilions. from the lime they are
installed umil alilong.li "", and subSjuent in,!antao>eou, <kfleclion, ha\'c occurred, i.
: 0.199 + 0,119 + 0 .1~ 9 = 0.477 in.
For comparison, It..< limit:l(ion i'nj>OSCd by tile ACI Code in such cireumsw roces is /- 480 =
26 X 12 480 - 0.650 in .. indic'ling Ih31 lIIe sliff'>e" "fthe rroJ>OSCd "'ember; ufticient.
II may be noled that ... bti,-ely li11 le error would haw Ix",n introduce<! in the alxwe .elu-
lion if the crnrked"",tion '1l<)I1>enl nf it1Cf1i. had ","cn used for bnIh ]>O,i(i,e and negmive
sections rdlher than I,. Significant savings in computational elf,," ,,'w ld reS"IIOO, If h,,.
!of" .11, is less Ihan:t, use of I,., wou ld almo'( al,,'oys he oc""p1able . 11 .hould "'" noled fur.
Iller th,t compulation of (he moment of inertia for both "rKnocked and {'Ta<:k ed ""'lim" is
gre3!ly focilitaled by de,ign aid, lih thm' indoded in Rd 6.15
--. , 6.B D EFlECTIO N S DU E TO SHR INKA GE AND T EMPERATURE CHANGES
Concrel~ shrinkage wi II pmduce compres~ive su-ess i" th" longitudinal reinforcemcnt

in h<eam, and slabs and c'luilihr.l1 ing l~"Sj Ie sl r~SS in the co"cr~te. If. as u,ua!. th" rein -
forcement i, not .ymmel rically pla~"d with re.<pel"1 to 11,,-, concrew cemmid , Ihen
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
'hrinbgc will pnK!uce cur\'alUre and corresponding defledion. 11", deflt."dions will
he in Ihe ,an", direclion a< th= produced Ily the load,. if Ihe reinforcement is main ly
on the side of tI", m~l11her subject 10 flexuml lens ion .
Shrinbg~ defleclion is not usmlly calculated separ~Ie!)'. bul i, combined with
creep defleclion. according 10 ACI Code procedures ("-"" Seclion 6.7d). Howe\'~r.
there ar~ circumstan{"C, where a "'par.He and more accumle estimalio n of .hrinkage
deflection may be n,-..:-essary_ pani,oularly for thin. lightly loaded slall,. Compre"ion
,tee!. while it ha, only a small effect in redu,"ing immediale elastic deflenions. con -
trihule, ,ignificillnly in reducing deflection, du~ 10 shrinbg~ (:I., wdl:l.' c"'"'p). and
is ''''!Ieti"",. added f<;lr Ihi, reason.
Curvalure, due to shrinkage of connele in illl un,ymmelrically reinforced con -
crele member can he found hy the ficlitious tensile force metllod (Rd. 6.7). Figu,,",
6. 10.:, .IK)w, Ih~ memher ITO" ",nioll. wilh compression 'Ieel area A, illid le",ile slt...,1
area A,. at depth s d ' and d. respectively. from the lOp surfnc~. In Fig. b.IOh. the con -
crele and sted nrc imagined 10 be tempomrily separaled. so Ihat II", e<mcrel<e CM
assume ils free shrinkngt simi n 'h' Then a fictiliou, compre~,iv~ force T" =
A., + A.,.' ""E, is applied 10 the <lee!. al Ih~ cemroid of all the hars. a distillice e helow
the coocrele cemmid. such Ihat tI", Sled ~hortening will cun!y ~qual the free shrink-
age slmin of Ihe (on",ete. The equil ibraling I~",ion force 7;, is then applied to Ihe
rec"'nbil1~d section. a, in Fig. 6.IOc. This produ,"e, a lIlolllent T",'" and lhe corre-
,ponding shrinkage curvature is
n", effects <;If (oncrde cracking and c"'"'P (OInpli,nte Ihe analysi bul comparison'
with experimental data (Ref 6.7) indicate that g<KKl results can he ob1ained using ".
and '8 for Ihe ul1crncked gmss ,'Oncrete seCiion and hy u,ing a reduced modulus E"
t
'-"<Juallo Eo I<> acn}unt for "''-"''p. 111U~
(6.14 )
where E,. i. the u.ual ,'alue of <'Oncrete roodulu. given by Eq. (2 ..')'
Empirical rrk'thod. are also u><)d. in place of tl~ fictilious len.ile force method.
to cakulat~ shrinkag~ curvatures. n~se methods ar~ baS-l'tl On Ih~ simple but reason
able proposition Ihat the shrinkage curvature is a dire...t funClion of lhe free shrinbge
and steel percentage. and an IIlwrse fundion of the S-l...tion deplh (Rd. 6.7). Bnmsorl
FIG URE 6.10

Shrinkage c",,.Wre of a
""nforced ,ooc""" boom
Of ,lab: (a) """ ""'lion:
(b) (re< .hrinbg<. <train;
(c) shrinkage ' u,vature.
'0' '" 'e'

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
suggesls Ihal for steel percentage (1' - I") s 3 percelll (where p " 100;\, /x/ atxl p' -
IOOA; 1I<f).
- 07~'p -f' " 1' - 1'

'" 'II I'
and for(p - I") > 3 percent,
.. - h" (6.151
With shrin kage curvature calculal~-d by either nl<:tho<l. Ilk: corresponding mem
ber deneetion can be ddcnnillcd hy any cOIl"enient means such as Ihe mOnk:lIlarea
or conjugalebeam nl<:thO<1. If sled percentages and ccccntricilies nrc conSlam along
Ihe span, Ihe Ikfleelioll . ,~ resu li ing from Ihe ~hr illb gc curVaiure can be Iklcnnincd
from
'" .. K". ,J' (6.16)

where K,. i, a coefficient equal 10 0.500 for cantile\'~r~. 0.125 for ,impk <pans. 0.06$
for int~rior 'pan, o f continuous beams. and OJI90 for end 'pans of continuous beam~
(Ref. 6.7),
EXAMPl E 6.3 Sh rinkMge ddlection. Calculate the mid'pan detl.1ion of" simply s"J>POI1cd beam of
20 fI span due (0 shri nbge of the co""We for "hich ", . 780 X !O With reference (0
Fi g. 6. 10<1, h ~ 10 in .. J = 17. ~ in .. h = 20 in . A, = 3.00 in'. arnJ A, = 0, The elastic mod
uli areEc ., .6 X HY'p;ionJE, 29 X 1000psL
s"', \! ,.,,,~. Ily Ihe fie(ilio", (en,H. force method.

1:. - .H lO x 780 x 10 ' X 29 x 10" - 67.900lb
and from Eq. (6, 14) wilh I, = 6670.
2 x 67.900 x 75
- - 424x 10
.. ~.6X ICf x rx.70 .
whil. from Eq. (6, 16) Wilh K... ~ 0.!2.~ for (110 ,impl. ,pall.
,, - 0.12~ X 42 ,'; x 10 X 240' ~ O..>05 ;n.
AIICmalively. by Branson', approximate Eq, (6.15,,) wilh I' = 100 X 3 115 = 1.7 per-
cent alld 1" O.
"K O.7X780X 10 ' 1.7 L J . 32.~x 10'
"
compare<! "';lh 42 .4 X 10 ob!ain<.\l by 1110 equ; vakn11~nsile fon:e "..,lhod, Considering
(110 ulle~n, i ll!ie< ,ueh a, (110 df.os of crocking aoo cre.p. (110 aW"',im'le aW"'och con
usuall y to: oonsidewd "'ti,foc1O<y.
o.:floctions will be produced as a resu lt of diffcfClI1ial temperatures "aryi"g

from lOp to bottom of a member also. Such variation will result i" a Slrai" varialion
with 11k:l11ber depth thm may usually be assumed to be linear, For such C:\SCS. tile
deflection due 10 diffcr.:mial tcmperature can be calculated using Eq, (6.16) in which
'" is replaced by <l T h. where the thermal coxfficiem for concrete may be wken
as 5.5 x 10 p.:r OF and!J.T is the tcmperature diffcrell1ial in degrees Fahrenheit from
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
one sid~ to the other. The presenct of Ihe reinforcemenl has linle influence on curva-
tures and defleclions resuhing from differential temperature>, because lhe thermal
codfici~nt for the sl<...,1 (65 X 10 OJ is \"Cry do", to that for coocrelc.
_, 6.9 M OME NT VS. CURVATURE FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE S ECTIONS
Ahhough it is nol needed expli<'illy in ordinary design and is not a part of ACI Cod"
pmt,-"<Iures, Ihe rebtion betw ....,,, mOmelll applied to a giwn beam ~cli<;1t1 and til<'
resulting curvature, through the full rnnge of loading 10 fai lu re, is important in se",ral
contexts, Jt is hasi<' to tlte siudy of "I<'mber ductility. understanding the develop",ent
of pbs tic hinges. arKI aC<~lunting for til<' rediSiriootioll of eiaSli c 111<)]]I<'n" that ()c.:u"
in ",ost reinforc~d ('oncrete structures befor" coilaI'''' (see Senioll 12.9).
It will be ,,-,<,ailed. with refere'Ke to Fig. 6.11. that curvature is defined as til<'
angle change per unit length at any giv~n location along the axi, of a memDer sub-
, jected to bending load"
, (6. 17)
where .. unit curv:uure :md r - radius of curvat ure. With the stress-slrain relation-
sh ips for steel and concrde. n::pn::scnted in idealized fortn in Fig. 6.12<1 and b. respec-
ti~cly. and the usual assumptions regarding perfcci bond and plane sections. it is pos-
Unit ~g th sible 10 calculate th~ relation retween moment and curvature for a typical
underreinfon::cd concrete beam section. subj~ct to flexural crac~ing. as follows ,
FIG UIU<: 6.11 Figur~ 6.1311 show s the 1ransformcd cross sccI;on of a rectangular. tensile
Un i' curva'u", "","I'ing from
reinforc~>d beam in the uocrac~ed clastic stage of loading. with sleel r.:pr.:scntcd by
""ndin8 of be,," secliOll, the equ i"aknt concrde areJ "A ,. i.e" with area (11 - I}A , added outside of the rcclan
gular concrct~ stion.' lltt: ncutral a.\ is. a distance c j below the top surface of the
beJm. is easily found (sec Seclion 3.3a). In thc lil11iting case. Ihc COllCrele stress m the
tension face is Just equal 10 the modulus of rupture j , and the strain is . , - j,' Ec-
The steel is well helow yield at this suge. which can bcconfirmcd by com pUling. from
the strain di:lgra'l1, the steel strain , .. . " . wher.: ' " is the concrete sirain al the level
of the SK"{;1. 11 is e:18ily confirmed. also. tbm the nm.xil11ul11 concrete compressive stn::SS
will be wel l below the proponi onal Iil11it. The cur~alUre is seen. in Fig. 6.13IJ. 10 De
, (6. 1Rj
" <,
and the corresponding Illomenl is
AI = /,1.. (6.19)
" c:
where I", is Ihe 1110ment of inerlia of the uncrac~cd transformed section , Equm ions
(6 ,18) and (6.19) provide the ,nformation necdc-d to plot poim I of the 1l101llell1
cun'murc graph of Fig. 6.16<,.
, N,. , th.t ,',"np""~'" R'i "f"MJT"'''. (~ "," lurk lay,,,,, of 1c",i". frinl<",'", ...'m . ' 00 ".-ily oc ,n.:I.....-J in ,too """Iy.;' ..i' ~ "" ",,,,nt;.1
".,opIi<otioo.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I rHl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 6.1l

Idealized 'Ire",,,....i" cun..'
0 sleel: (hJ coocro:le.
I"
'.
Strain c
''I
FIGURE 6.13
!JIICrxkcd beam i" ,he
el,,(ie "'nge of loadi"8'
(a) 'mJl<f'H1",-~1 ero,. ",-',io[l;
(hJ slrai"" (cl '("'S5e' aoo ,1 1 - c
ti"'-......
'Hs:~-i ~, -- I
I" 1" I')
When (cnsile cracking occurs at Ihe 5<'<:(ion. (he s(ifflless is imtlk:dia(ely r~>duccd.
and curvature incre~scs 10 point 2 in Fig. 6. 16 with no increase in momcnt. The ~n~ly
sis now is based on lhe cracked transfomk:d 5<'<:lion of Fig . 6.1 4". wilh steel repre-
sc nl~d hy lhe transfonned area IIA, and t~nsion concrete deleted. Th~ cracked. ~Ias{ic
neutral axis distance '-' , - til is easily found by Ihe usual nk:lhods (s~'1! Section.l '>b).
In the I,miling c:\SC. Ihe concrele strain JUSl reaches the proponionallimit, ~s shown in
Fig. 6.14b. and. lypic~lly. the sl~'1:1 is stil l below lhe yidd strain. The curvmure is e~s
ily computed by
_ _ a _
L "
(6 .20)
" C, Cj
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 6.14

Cra<:kod beam in ,b.; da"i<
range of ""leri,1 '"'POO"':
(a) Iransf""ocd em.. "",Ii"",
Ih) SIr.in" (c) ,lresses.JId
ror"".
(b)
") '"~
and Ihe corresponding moment is
M" = + f"kjlJ,d' (6.21 )
as wa, deriwd in Section ).3h. Thi s prO\'ides poim 3 in Fig. 6.16. The CUlY.uure a1
point 2 can now he found from lhe mlio M" AI".
Next. the cracked. inela'lic stagc of loading is shown in Fig. 6.15. Here lhe con -
crele i, well inm the indn'lic rdnge. alllxlllgh Ihe sleel ha., nO! yel yielded. The neu -
Iral axis deplh c, i, less lhan II", da.,tic kd and is changing Willl increa.,ing load a, Ihe
,hal'" of the concrele sire" dislrihulion changes and Ihe Sl""] ,Ires, change,.
I! is nOw ~xll1venielll 10 adopl a nun",rical repre>entalion o f the ~x,"nele cOm-
pressi"e 'Ires, di'lrihution. 10 lind bolh Ihe Imal mnnele compressive foree C and Ih"
locnlion of ils ,'emmid, for any arlJilr.uily ",Ieded value <;If maximulll concrete ~Iraill
I in thi s mng". The compre"ive strain diagr~m is dividt."<l into an arbitrary numher of
,lc1" (e .g .. fou r. in Fig. 6. I 5h). and the corre'ponding compressive ,Iresse, for each
'Irain read from the ,Ire<>-strain cUl'.-e of Fig. 6.12h. TI,e slepwi", repre>entation of
lhe aClual continuous sire" bloc k is integraled numericnlly 10 Iiml C. and it, poinl of
application is located. laking moments of the connde forces ahoU1 II", lOp of the seC-
lion. The basi,' equilihrium rNJuirement. C = T. then can he used to find lhe cOITecl
locnlion of Ihe neutral axis. for lhe panicular compr""ive sl r~i!l ",Ieded, following an
iteralive procedure .
nG URE 6.1 5
CrackeJ bean> with """,""Ie
in lhe incia'li" range of .-
1= c
, I"
loaJ;ng: (a) cr"" """lion;
(b) >lmin>: (e) ",..,<>cs and -- ! =-
foe;.
- ~.- f--- - - --L'::::::::':::J
'"~ '"~ '"~

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
S ERVICEAB1L1T\" 227
n,~ ~mjr~ p~" l'~n be ,ummari1.lxl as follows:

I. Sd""t any top face cuncret" s!rdin ' , in lhe inelastic "U1ge, i.e .. betw~..,n " alld . '
2. A"urne the neutrdl axis d~pth. a dislallce c, below the lOp rac".
3. From tire str~ill diagram geometry. <ldermi"e , = <> .
4. Compute j, = ,E,. but oS J;, and T = A,/,.
5. Detenlline C by int~grating numerically urKkr ,he C<lIlCrel~ SIf"SS distribution
cu",e .
6. Chec k 10 >t-.., if C = T. If Ilot, lire neulml axis must re adjusted upward or down -
ward. for th~ parTiculm cO!lcrel~ Slrdin that was ,deCI.,J in step I. until e<luilib-
riurn is ,ati!;fi~d, This det~rmines the con",t value or " ,.
Curvnture can thell he found frol11
w, --,
c, (6.22)
n", im"mal te\"~r ann z from tl", ~"l11roid of the colln",e 'tr~" distribution to tt", I"n -
,;1" resultnnt. Fig. 6. 15c. is <:altulnted. after which
M",,, - C: - T~ (6 ,23)
The sequence o f step' I Ihrough 6 i, then repca,"xl for newly seled~d vnlues o f
cuncrcte Slmin ' ,. 1lIe end result will he a series of point" ,u<;h a,4. 5. 6, mid 7 in
Fig. 6.16. The li",; t oflhe rnomem -cu",'",ure plot is reach~d whel1lhe co,,<:rete tor
face s!r~in equal, "mrrc,pondillg to "oim 7, The ,,~el would he well past the yield
' train at thi, loading. and at the yield <Ire." .
It is imponam to be awm" or the difT~r"nce betw,..,,, a mon",m-~Il i t ,'u.-vature
plot, <uch as Fig . 6. 16, and a ",oll",nt -rotatio" diagram for the hinging region of a rein -
forced concrete b"arn. Th" billging r~gi<)n IIormally includ~s a numrer of disn"'e
cmcks . oot retween those <:mch. Ih" u!lcr~d,.,J conCrete r.,Juces the <leel stra;n.lead -
ing to wbat i, I~nn~d the rensi"n .riffmill/! df,,,,!. The result is that the tOlal mtario!!
at Ihe hinge i, mutb l~s.< tban would he calcu lated by multiplying the ,' ur\'ature "."
FI G UIU: 6. 16
Momen' "",,'"'",C reia,ion
for ton'ile-reinf<>r<:e<l be.m,
, ' --- Failure
',,'__---C::::~__::~::-~
, ! -- Ste~ y;etdiog
-- P r opo"ionallim~
ot COllCrete
Curvature ifJ
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
22S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T UR .<; Lnapl<r 6
unit length at the cracked section by t h~ ohserv~d or a"umed I~ngth of the hinging
region . Furthermore. the ,harp inn ea", in unit curvature shown in Fig. 6.16 at C11Ic k-
ing would not be seen on tI", ITI{,=nt -rutation plot. only a ,mall. hut prugressi,"c,
reduct;';", of the ,lope of the diagram.
REFERENCES
6 1 IIC! C,",""ill'" 224. '-C,",'rol ,0( Cn.: ' ; n~ in C' ....'me S,,,,, t "R~ (11(1 l24f{.(l II." ~ CI Mom",/ 'f
C,,' ,o.." /'rllC'iu. I"'" 2. ",ocri<.. C,""-",,,, In" i, " " .. F1IfT,unl'l'"' Hill;. MI.::OOJ.
6.2 p, G,,,,dy """ L ,\. L"". "M..illlw" ('r.Id Width in R<rnlorml C,nT"'" lle., , 1lII ~k """'''." in
C"."''' Mec/i<m""'-'. ,"Id C""m~ "f Cmcti"g i. C""",,,, SI'.2(). """""'''" C'''''T' "< I",i,,"<, Iklwl!.
MI. 1%8. 1'\'. t-17,
6.l. P. B. K_.n<! ,"" H. M.H<d. "H'I11 S'''',,>,th I)"" " CO"""" ,, ~"i" t.",,,,",' ", -I".n 4: Coorn~ of
Cmd Jnt." J"""",I. I'C" k<",,,,,'h and I).--",'k'l'l""n' 1"''''''''00<>. wi .1. 00. I. 1%3. 1'1', I~-l~ .
~ . ~ . M. J. I-'R",-h ."",.t..~ 1.001; .. C ,~.. ki"li and Cr.d C""""I in ~d n r.-ortr:d Coon t'tc," ~CJ Sir""', J , " .
96. no. 1. 1m . 1'\'. .17--4-12.
65. II. II, Ilm",>. "C' a<'k Wi<II" .ru C.... k S[Ci"ll In l<ei.I,.",'II C,,,,,:n1" M",,',..,,: j, ~CJ, ,., ~, ~1. "" 10,
1\165.1'1'. 12J7-1256
6,6, 1$'1 0 .. ,,,",,,,,, J I ~. "iJi" ', ,,;,," ,~ I~ , ,,,,,,,'II ~(.. i".. ",'0 il " , IJ1"" Cod< ~''1o rrcm< "'' I,,,. S'IU('
",,,I C"'I<'",,,' (,",CI 3IS ~'$ and C,"nrr~''''1J' (,",C I .11S~ 9.1)." C"",", 1"'1 .. '>I, 21, "" .\ , 1m , 1'1'
.1I g l -l l~ .4~
6.7 D. E. 0",""-",, ikftm'JaI;c", ofC,,,,,,,,,, s,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ~k{m.~' llill . Nt... Yor\;. 1977.
~.8 . M'! (;00"';'1 ~35, "C",urn of Ikl1<,.-,""' in Cm .",-" S'rocou"" (IICI .35R ~5 ): ~ C/ M<UU<aJ of
C,,,,,,,,",,
/,,,~"k, . l'.;n S.II" ",",'" C,"""'tC IM,i,"w. 1'. 'llLi"ll'''" Hill>. MI , 2003
6.~ . W. W Yo .00 G Wint"'. -- I"''' n,"",',.,' .ru 1 ~",>, Tirr.., 1>:1k<;,j"n' ,0( Rdnh" ... J 0""',,-1<' lka,m
Unde, Wor\;,,,,, 1,,,,,1>:' 1. ~CI. ,. , ~, 57, no. I. 1960.1'1'. N-:IO.
~.IO . ,",U C"wlUm" 20'1. "Pro.ll<,.", ,>f (;""1' Shri " ..~ .nd '1<011"""'''''' t:!Tl~' " i" C_me S,""-'" .... ,
(llet 2O'J R ~2)... ~C/ M lIIlou of C,_m. ",,,,tic. t .... I, 2003.
6.11 . II, "- !Jr.""... '-co."r>'<"~" S""I Effl~1 , .. 1-''''>l11m< 1...lleai,,",." j, ~CJ , ,,~, ~ . U, ~, 1971. PII.
SSS-SS'J.
6.12. An C'"'"'"'W 4) 5, "1"''1''.,00 ~i, .. , hy O.m'li"", ~35 k' M:l IJ" IIJ;"" C"d< lind Com",,"'lIfJ'
l'n~' ;'~ "" '"' 1).:Ikt, ~""," J, ~CI. ,.,~ . 75. "" . 6. J",,, 1975. 1'1', 2N-rn,
6.11. c. It ~.m ;, J II. 1>., 1"" . lind S, U, ~ ". fk""",,,n' S,""' t .,,~ .-I",u.,~i".1Il eJ . M,tm.~"'lil l . No..... Y,~k.
1991.
~.14 . K. 1",.1"",, 1\, 11 , Nil" ......... K C. II",,-~. "I'm ~ " l\;n" l"' fI<~" ir", of H i l:-h ,~1r"nl'l ~ Conm1e f ... ",,,,,'
~C/ "'01,,;"1.. J"""",I. "'~, g~ . 00. 2, 1991, I'\' t\l1-2OI>
6.1 ~ C/(SI l/,mJhml;, \>th eJ .. (onm", ~ d " f",,-i", S,,,,,I I"",,"",. St'h",,,.ro'l'. 11 _ 2m 2.
PROBLEMS
6.1. A rectangular beam of width b = 12 in .. effL'{"tive d~pth d = 20.5 in .. and total
depth II = 23 in . spans 18.5 ft betwee n simple suppons. It will carry a mm-
puted dead load of 1.27 kiPS/ft including self-weight. plus a ser.'iLe live lond
of 2.69 kip'lift. Reinfor",ment cOllsists of four evenly spaced No. 8 (No, 25 )
hars in one mw. The dear cowr on the sides is 2 in. Material strengths are f, =
6O.cxx) psi and!; = 4iXXl p,i. -
(a) Compute tI", ,tress in the steel m full ser.'ice load, and using the Gergely-
LUl1. l><juation estimate the maxi mum crack width.
(b) C<mf"m the ,uitability oftl", pmposed design based on Fig. (6.3).
6.2. To save ,t~eI -h andling costs. an altemative design is pmposed for the beam in
Problem 6.1. using two No. 10 (No. 32) G rade 75 bars to pmvidc appro~ i
mately th~ .arne steel 'trength as tI", originally propo",d four No. 8 (No. 25 )
Grade 60 hap;. Check to detennin~ if tl,., redesigned beam is satisfactory wilh
respect tQ crac king ncconling to the ACt Oxk What ITI{xlification could you
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SERVICEABIL IT\" 229
,uggest thaI would minillliz~ the numher of hars to reduct COSI, yel satisfy
reGuirerr>el11s of cmek comrol?
6.3, For the beam in I'roh lem 6. I :
(a) Calculate the incremem of de/k'<-1ion resu Iling from Ihe first application of
the short -term live load.
(b) Find the creep p<m ion of the sustaillc'<.l load delleelion plus the immediate
de/let'l ion due to li,'e lood.
(c) Compare your results wilh the limitation, illlfl"'S<'d by the ACI Code, as
surmnarized in Table 6.2.
A"nme thallhe beam is a part of a floor syslern and supports cinder block
partitions ,u>ptible to IT""king if deflt.'dions arc excessive.
6.4. A beam having h = 12 in .. d = 21.5 in .. and II = 24 in. is reinforced with dlfe"
No. II (No. 36) bars. Mat erial ,trenglh, aref, = 60,000 psi andf; = .tooo psi.
It is nsed on a 28 ft simple 'pan to carry a lotal se",ice load of 2.t30 Iblft. For
thi, "",Illbe r. the suslained loads include self-weight of the beam plus addi -
tional superimp<'''-'<.l dead load of .~ 10 Iblft, plus 400 Iblft representing thm part
of the live load that acls more or Ie" continuou,ly. such as furniture, <-'<juip-
memo and time-average occupan,'y load. The remaining 1220 Iblft live load
consists of slKm-<iumtion loads, ,uth as the brief peak load in the corridor, of
an offi ce building at the end of a working day.
(a) FirnJ the iocrcment of defloction under su,tain<-'<.l loads d ue H, creep.
(b) Find the additional deflection increme l11 due 10 II", intermillem pan of II",
Ii"" load.
In your calculmiolls. you may assume that the peak load is applied aimusl
immediately after the building is placc'<.l in ",rvice. then reapplied intermil-
tentl y. Compare wi th ACt Code li llli l~ from Table 6.2. A~sume Ihm. for th i,
long-spM fl'Klr beam. consHuttion ddail, arc provided that will avoid damage
to supported eleme nts due to deflenions. If ACI Code limitations ar~ not met.
what changes would you re(orm!lernJ to imp",,"e the d~,ign?
6.5. A reinforcc'{l concrele beam is ,'ontinuou, ove r Iwo <-'<jual 22 fl 'pans, simply
,upported at the Iwo eXlerior support" and fully continuous at the interior sup-
port. Connete crus,!-,,-'Ction dimen,io"s are b = 10 in., II = 22 in .. and d =
195 in . for hmh p<lSil ive and negative bending region,. P'lSitiw reinforcement
in each span con,isiS of Iwo No.9 (No. 29) bars . and negative reinforcen",nt
at the interior support is made up of three No. 10 (No. 32 ) bars. No (ompre,-
,ion si<-'CI i, used. Matenal 'trength' are j, = 6O,<XlO psi andf; = 5<XlO psi.
nil' beam will carry a service live load, applied early in the life of the mem-
ber. of 1800 lb/ft distributed uni formly ove r bmh spalls; 20 percenl <:If this load
will be sus mined Illore or lcs.~ permane ntl y. while the rest is inkrr!litl ell! . TI",
total service dead load is 1000 Ihlf! including self-,,'eight.
(a) FirnJ the immediate ddlectio" when shores arc removed and the full dead
load is applied .
(b) Find the long -term deflenioll under sustained load.
(c) Find the increme nt of defloction " 'l,,,n the ,hort-terrn part of the live lond
is applied.
Compare with ACI C,xle deflection limil,; piping and brittle conduil' are
tarried lhat would be damaged hy brg~ defle("!i!HlS. Note Illat midspan deflec-
tion may be used as a dose appmximm ioll of maximum deflection.
6.6. Recakulme the deflections of Problem 65 based !HI tl", assumption that 20
percent of Ihe live load represent' tl", nonnal se""i,'e colldil ion of loading and
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 6
is sustained 1110'" OJ Ie" continuously. while the remaining 80 percent i~ a

,h<m tenn peak loading that would probhly not he applied until most creep
deflection~ have ,,,,,-'urred, Compar~ with your earlier re<ults.
6.7. The tensile",inforced rectangular heam shown in Fig. Pti.7 i< made using s(eel
with /, = 6OJ)OO psi and E, = 29,000.000 psi, A perf.....,tly plastic ",spon!;!:
after yielding CUn be assumed. The ,-onc",te ha, a stress str~in curY~ in ,'om
pre"ion that may he appmximated h)' tl'" pambola/c= ];[2 , 0 - ( , " ofI.
wi",,,, f.. and "are the st ress and ~(rain in the mn,'",(e, The variahle 0 is the
,train at tl", peak ,tre" = 0.002. and]; = 4000 psi. The ultimate strain in tl",
Concrel~ is 0,00], The con,-",(e ""polKl, ela,tically in tension up to (he mod
ulns of rupture /, = 475 psi, BaSt...J on lhis information. plot a curve re1miog
applied moment to unit curvature al a section ,uhjected to flexural ,-mcking,
Label poi!!!s corresponding to first 'T.lcking. firsl yielding of ,k..,1. and peak
Illomen!.
FIG URE 1'6.7
31'00, tOjNo.32)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,.wo,.; .... .,... ... I THI
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

FOR TORSION
, 7,1 INTROD UCTIO N
R~inf",,,~d concret~ m~mbers are commonly <ubj,-"{'t~d to bending lllOlllenK to tmns-

,-eTSe shears ~!;s()<;imed with those hcnding mom~nt S, and. in the case o( columns, to
axial forees oft~n cOlllhined with bending and <hear. In addition. t"",ional forc~s may
act , t~nding to twi,t a memher ahout its longitudinal axis. Su(-h torsional (mees sel -
dom act alone and are almost alwa)" concurrent with hend ing rnO\n~nt and tmnsverse
sl",ar, and so"",ti"",s with axial force as wdl.
For "lnny years. to.-"ion was regarded as a secolldary ~tTect and was not consid-
ered aplicitly in de'ign-it, influence !xing ahimrbed in the o,,~rall factor of safe ty
o( rather (,(mservativdy designed structures. Current methods of anal ysis ~nd desig n,
hO\l-'evcr, have resuh~d in I~s, conservatism, leading to somewhat smallcr n"'l1lhcr~
tlmt. in many caseS. must he reinforced to increase lorsional strength. In addition. lhere
is increasing use of structural ""'mhers for which tOrsion i, a central featur~ of behav-
ior ; examples inl-Iude (-ur\'ed hridge girders , eccentri cally loadt.-d tx)X Ileam,. and hel -
ical stai rway slabs. The de.<ign pHjoet.'<.lure, in the ACI Code were first pmpo<;<.-d in
Switzerland (Refs. 7.1 and 7,2) and are abo inl-Iuded in the Eumpean and Can adian
"KKkI COOl'S (Ref.. 7.3 and 7, 4).
It is useful in cOllsidering t"",ion to distinguish !xtwe~n primary and secmidary
t"",ion in reinforeal Concret~ S1ructur~' . f>r'''wry tor"'rm. s<",,,,ti,,,,,s tall l-d eq"i/ih-
r;w" lor.';o" Of wUirally d,'ler"';"" I" torsi"n. exists when tl", extemal load ha.< no
a1t~mative load path I.>ut muSt Ix. suppon<--d by torsion. For su< ;h cases. the torsiol!
re'luired to maint"in Stalil- ~'lu ilibrium (-an he uniquely detennin<.-d. All "'[1mI'll' is the
cantilevered slub of Fig. 7.l a. Load, applied to the slab surface cause twi~ting
moments "', 10 aet along lhe l~ngth of the supporting beam. These are cquilihrated hy
tl'" resisting tOTl.jue T provided at the col umns. Without the torsional moments_ the
Stru(-Iure will collap,.,.
10 cOntraSt to thi s condition, ",<c<uu/m), lor";",,, [I\sO called c""'/Ji,libil;ty Ion;""
or .''Wl;cally ;nd,'lerlllinlllc IOrsirm. ari"" f"'lIl !he requirement, of contin uity, i.e ..
mmpatibility of IIdonnation l>etw,-,<,n adjacent pam; of a struou re. For this '-ase. the
torsional mOIl",nlS cannot he foulld based on slatic e'luilihrium alo"". Disregard of con -
tinuit), in the <k<ign wil l oti~n lead to ext~nsivc cracking. but g~ncrally wi ll n01 cause
collapse. An internal readjustnlem of f()fcc< is u<ually p05.<ible and [Ill a1t~m[lti\'e "'lui-
lihTium of forces fomid. An example of secon<,lary t""ion i~ found in tile spand rel or
alg~ !xam supponing a nJ<lIKllilhi,- concret~ slab. slKlwn in Fig, 7.1 b , If the spandrel
!xam is ")I1;iorlally "itT and suilahly reinforced. and if the ,-olur",,, can pmvide the nec-
essary resi>ti ng to"!ue T. th~n the slab momcm, will approximate those fOf a rigid exte-
rior support as shown in Fig. 7.1,'. However. if the beam ha.~ Iink torsional "itTnc,~ mid
2.11
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,.w o,.;.... .,... ... I THI
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 7.1

Ton;"",,1 <ff,,-~,;n
re inforced concrete:
(a) primary ,,< "'!uilihrium
,=ioo al a "'Milo'-ered
, lab: (b) '>C<... ,ndary <><
compalibilily lorsion al
"n edge hearn: (c) . lab
moments ife4~e b:.m i
.. iff '"",;(mally: (d, ,Ial>
"",,,,,,ms if edge bea", is 1"1
Ik,;blc '''''';<mally
,
,
101
A B A B
ptA lei 1'1
inadtXluale wrsional reinforcement. C11Id.:ing will occur 10 funher redul-e its IO.-sional
,Iiffr,e .., and the ,lab moment, will approxi,mte t/w'" for a hillgl"<l edge, as slKlwn ill
Fig. 7. ld. If the slab is desig ncd to resi,t the altered moment diagram, colla""" will
not OCcur (~ di>l'u"i<Kl in Sa-lioll 12.10).
Altbough current k'Chnique, for analysis pennit Ihe reali,tic evaluation of tor-
,ional moments (OJ stali,-at1y indeterminate conditions as well as detenninate, de,ign -
ers often neglt'Ct >l'C'lndal)' wrsional e ff~'Ct, whcn wrsioml Stres"" are low and alte r-
nalive equilibrium states ar~ possible. Thi s is permiuffl according to Ih" ACI Code and
many other de'igo 'p'-'Cifi,-ations. On lhe other hand, when I<lNional si rengih is an
e~"'ntial feature of Ihe design , such as for the bridge shown in Fig. 7.2. 'p'-'Cial amly-
,is and sp'-'Cial tor,ional reinforcement i, requi rffl, as de<ITihed in lhe remainder of
thi, chapter.
_, 7.2 T ORSION IN P LAIN CONCRETE M EMBERS
Figure 7.3 shows a ponion of a prismatic ",e",her subjecled to l'<jual and o p""sile
torques Tal Ih" ends. If the material is ela.~til', SL Vetlant', tor,ion theory indicate, that
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, l _W ........ .,... ... I THI
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ANA LYS IS AN I) 1).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 233
FIG UIU: 7.2

Curved ,-.,.,tinoo", b<am
I>ridge. Las Vegas. N",'>da.
<k.';gncd fvr " ><>i,,nal effect!
(C""",," ~ (1",Ja.w C"'''''''
A.,,,.,i.;lu...)
FIG URE 7.3

Sir... "" ~.u",d by 101";011 .
(0)
torsional shear <tresse, are di<tributed ove r {he n o" section. a, shown in Fig. 7_3b.
n,~ largest , h"ar stres,,", {"-,,ur at 1m, middle of th" wilk faces. If th" ""'t"rial defomlS
i nela<tically. a, upec{ed for concre1e. d", 'tr~" distributioll is doser {O thai ,hown by
tbe dashed line .
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 7
FIGUIU: 7..1
Thin walkd tuh.o un<kT
(onioo.
Shear
"~
Shear stresse, in pairs act on ~n cI~,nem al or near tl'" wide s~rface . as shown in
Fig. 7.3". As explained in strength of male rials lexts. thi, Slale of sIr"" mrresp<Hlds
t() ",",ual tension and ~x)mpression stresses on the fates of an den",,", al 45" 10 the
direclion of shear. The,., ind ined tension streSses are of the same kind a., those c"u",d
by transverse shear. di,,'ussed in Section 4.2. Howe,"r. in Ih" <"as.. of tOrsion . since
the torsional ,hear Slre,,,,s are of oppmite sign on opp<"ing ,ide, of th" m"m""r
(Fig. 7.31. the corresponding diagonal I~nsion Stresses are at right angles to each
mher (Fig. 73u).
When th~ diagonal tension .<tresses exceed the t~nsile resistance of lhe conl"f~te .
a crac k forms al ""''''' accid~n1all)' weuker local ion and spread, immediately acro~s
th~ beam. TI", value of tor"ue corr~<p<,"ding to the formation of thi, diagonal era,"k is
known a, tl"" cmckill!: rorque Ter
1lIere are several ways of analyzing memhers subj<'<1..d 10 to!>ion . TI"" nonlinear
stres., di<triootion show n b)' the dotted lin~' in Fig. 7.31> I~nd, il",lf to the u", of the
Ihin-wullnlll<he. .1f'lU."e Iru.,"., IIrw/O!:.\". Using Ihi\ analogy. the shear 'tre~ses amlre"t,>d
as constant o"er a fini1e thitknes., I "mund the periphery of the .nemller. "lIowing the
beam to be represented by an ",",ui"alent tuhe. a.s ,hown in Fig. 7.4. Wilhin lhe walls of
the tuhe. tor""" is resimed by the 'hear flow 'I. which lms unit, of fmCtlper unit le ngth .
In the analogy. q is treated as a <"OIIStant affi\Jnd the perin""ter of the tube . As shown in
Fig. 7.4. the result"nts of the individual comp<lfl"nt~ of shear now "re locat..d witll in
tt", wall, of the tube- and a<"1 along l"ngth, )"o in the wrti<"al wall , and along length' x"
in the hurizont,,1 wall,. w;th.\"" and Xu measured at Ihe ccnt~ r of the w"n,.
1lIe relationsh;p between t h~ applied 1Orqu" alld the st",ar flow Can he ohia;n,..!
by sum",ing the nKlments ahout the "xial cent~r1ine of the tube, giving
(0)
wh~re the two krms on til<' right-hand side r~pr~sent the contributions of th~ horizon-
tal and wnical walls to the resting torque. r~spc>diwl y. Thus .
(h)
11"" product x,Yo reprewnts the area <'ndosed by th" shear flow pmh Au' giving
and
T
q = -- (d)
2Av
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
A NA LYSIS A NI) 1).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 235
Note thaI. allhough A, i, an ara, il derive, from the mQn"'nl calculmiml ,hown in F..q,
(a) above. TIIU', Ao is applicable for hollow box sections. a, well as solid seclion" and
in sudl ,-a"" inclu<ks the area of lhe celliral "Qid,
For a tube wall thickness I, the unit shear ,tress acting within lhe walls of the
tUhe is
-----
<, T
2A,)
(7_1 )
As sbown ill Fig. 7.3". the principat len-<it~ sUess . Thus. th~ concrete will
cmck only when = j,.. the len,ite strength of COllcrel". C",,,id,,ring Ihat con -
crete i~ under hiaxial t"n;;ioll and compr"ssion. j, c~n he ",,,,.,,,, ,,'alively repre!<Cnled
by 4 je rather than the Hlue typically used for tl", nK><lulu, of rupture of connete,
whi,-h is taken as f, = 7.5 j; for lIormal--dt!n;;ily concrete. Substituling '"
4 j; in Eq. (7.1) and 'l<)lving for T gi,-" , the value oftl", cnl<'killg torque :
7;-,=4 /.< 2AJ (7.2)
Rememhering thai Au represents dte aNa enclosed by the slwar flow path, Ao
muSI be SOllle fraction of the area enclosed by Ihe outside perimeter of Ihe full con-
crete cross seclion A'1" The "alue of I can, in general, bt, approximated as a fraction of
th~ ralio Aq, l'w where I',p is Ihe perimeter of Ihe cross section. For solid members
wilh reclangular cross S<-'Ctions, 1 is Iypical ly one-sixth to olle-fourth of Ihc' minimum
width. Usi ng a val u ~ of one fourth for a r1I~r1Iber wilh a widl h'IO-d~pth ralio of 0.5
f t
)'ie1ds a value of Ac approAimately equal 10 Acp- For Ill<' sam~ member, I = A.p'p._p,
Using Ihese va lu"s for A" and 1 in Eq, (7.2) giws
- -"
A'
J> in-Ib (7. 3)
I',p
It has """n fOl1nd that Eq. 0 .3) give, a re~",,"able e,timate Qf Ihe crac king to.-que of
""lid rei nforced coocrete members regard Ie" of the emss-..,crional shape. For hollow
,,->ctions, T" in Eq. (7.3) shol1ld be red uced by the ratio A, A'1" ,,-here A ~ is the g rQ"
emss ""-tion of the eoncrct~, i.e .. nol including tbe area of the void, (Ref. 7.5).
, _, 7.3 T ORSIO N IN R EI NFO RCED C O N CRETE M EMBERS
To resi,t tor"ion for "alues of T allove T.~ reinforc~mcnt mu,t con,ist of closely
'p",-,-"<I stirrup' and longitudinal hars . Test' have shown Ihat longitudinal hars alOl'"
hardly increase the to,-,;ional strength. with test resull, showing an impmwmcnt of a1
most 15 percent (Ref. 7.5). This is understandallie because the ollly way in whieh lon -
gitudinal steel can di renly cOll1ribute to torsional strength is lIy dowel aClion, which
is panicu !arly wem. and unreliable if 10ngilUdinai 'plitting along bar<; i, n01 restr.lined
by tr.lnwcrse reinfoTl:emenL Thus, tl", torsional 'trcngth of n"'mhers reinfor,-ed only
with longitudinal , t".,1 is satisfactori ly. and sOlllewh~t con", ,,'ativeiy. predined by
Eqs. (7.2) and 0 3).
When me mbers ~re adequately rein forced. a, in Fig. 7.5". the concrete erac-k> a1
a lorque thaI is '-'q ual 10 or only somewhat largc r than in an unreinforc~" fonll a spiral pal1em, a, ,hown in Fig. 7.5b. Upon
crackillg. the lQrsion~l resistance of the conn ete dmps to alxJut half of that Qf till:
uncT.lcked ",emher, the re maimkr being now resisted by reillforeen",m, This redistri-
bution of intcmal resi,tallc'e is reflectoo in the torque-twist cu,,-e (Fig. 7.6). which a1
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 7
FIGUIU: 7.5
Roinfofl:od ","'C"""O beam
i" tOfSi",, : (0) t""ion.1
reinforce"",n" (b) ,,,,,ion"1
crach
1'1
FIGURE 7.6
-r""l"".twi,t cun", in
,
reinforced c"",,,ete ""'mber.
lhe {"r.>eking Ulrque ,hows conlinued Iwist ~ , constam wrque umit tbe imem~1 for<..-e,
have oc'Cn "..!istributffl from Ihe ("oncrete Ul Ihe steel. A, Ihe ,,'''"lion npproaches till:
ultimnte Inad. the concrele out,ide lhe reinforcing cage (T.lch and begin' to spall off.
{"ontriooting progressi,'Cly les, 10 the lOrsion~1 capacity of lhe member.
TeSls show thnt. aft~r cr~c king. 1111: ara en("lose<.J by lhe ,he~r path is defined hy
the dimension, -'C" and .f " Illl:asured to the c~merlilll: of tt", OUlermosl do,,-..! Imn~\"ers.:
reinforce""'n!. ratl",r than Ul lhe cent~r of tI", lube wall, as before . The"" dimen,ion,
define lhe gross area A", = .[~\'" and lhe shear perimeler r. = 2(x" + .l'oJ mensured a1
lhe Sl c'Ci centerline.
All nlysi~ of the tor,ionai resi,t~nce of lhe membe r i, aid ....! hy trealing the mem-
be r a, a spa("e truss consisting of 'pi r~1 cOllCf"I,' di"8(JIIul.< th~1 are able Ul la ke lond
pamJld but not perpendicular 10 d,e Ulrsional CT.>eh. IranS\'erse l<!n';O/l li~ "",,"/,,r.'
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, l . w Oy<i .... .,... ... I THI
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
A NA LYSIS A N!) !).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 237
FIG UIU: 7.7 Sti rJ\Jps

Spac< tru" analogy.
Concrete
compression
stn.rts
Ihm arc provided by d05<'<1 slirrups or lies. and 1<'115;'''' duml,! thaI ali: providc-d by
longiludinal reinforeement. T he hollo,",'tube. space Iruss analogy represents a simpli
fication of aClual behavior. since. as will be demonstraled. the calculated lorsional
slrength is co nt rolled by Ihe slr~nglh of lhe lransverse reinforeemem . indelknocnl of
concrele slrenglh , Such a simplitic31ion wilt be used here because il aids understand
ing. although il greal ly undeli:slimatcs torsional capacity and docs not reflect lhe
higher torsional capacilies obtained with higher concrele sll\:nglhs (Refs. 7.6 and 7.7) ,
With rekrencc 10 Fig. 7.7. the lorsional resistance provided by a member wilh a
rectangular cross sl'Clion can be reprcscnled as Ihe sum of Ihe conlrihutions of lhe
shears in each of the four walls of Ihe equi"alent hollow lube , TIle contribulion of lhe
shear acting in the right-hand \"Cnical wall of lhe lUbe 10 Ihe lorsional resistance. for
example. is
V .r.
T, - - (a)
2
Following a procedure simibr 10 that u,,--d for analyzing the variable angle truss
shear model diM:ussed in Section 4.8 and shown in Fig>. 4.19 and 4.20. the OXjuilib-
rium of a "-'CIion of the vertical waU-wilh one edge parallel 10 a torsional cr~ck wilh
angle -----ean be evalualed using Fig. 7.&1. A,suming that the stirruf'" cTOs,ing th"
crack are yi elding, the shear in the wall under consider~tion is
v .. A/n" (b)
where A, = area of one leg of a dosed stinup

f,.., = yield 'trength of tran",er", ~inf"rcernellt
'n = numbe r of stirrups intercepted by to,-"iollal crac k
SirK'e the horizonUlI projection of the cra,' k is ." 0 cot and" = .\ '0 cot ., wh~r~
is II", slope angl~ of the strut and . is the spacing of th~ stirrups,
AJ"y"
V. - -,- cot (c)
Combining Eqs. (l') and (iI) giH's
(tI)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,_wo,.; .... .,... ... I THI
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 7
FIGU IU: 7.8

B"i, for to,,,;oMI dc'ign-
I) w"kal ton,ion in
stirrup" (~) diagonal
oomrres'joo in ,-."kal \\',11
of bc"m; (c) <quihlMium
diagrom of fo>rce.' due 10
.1><..-
in ' -cni~"1 wall
'" ,,'
It is ea<ily shown th at ~Il idemienl npre_" inn is ohmined for ~m'h horizontal and ver-
tkal wall. Thu ,. summing over all four silks. Ihe nominal capacity of the ><-'Ction is
.. 24.,/',.,1'0-'0
r. = Ii = COl
" '
Noting lhat )',,'0 = A",. and ",arranging ,lightly gi~e,
2t1""AJ,.
r. = , COl (7.4)
The diagonal comp""ssion StrU1S th~t form parallel 10 the lorsional cracks arc
necessary for the equilibrium of the cross ~ection_ As shown in Fig_ 7_8b arid <'. Ihc
horizontal componenl of compre~~ion in the StrU1S in lhe '-~rtical wall must be L'quih.
braled by an axial Icnsilc force ;IN,_ Rased on the a~sumed uniform diSlribution of
sh~ar flow around the perimetcr orlhe n""mber, the (liagonal SIn:sses in th~ StrU1S must
be uniformly distribuled, resu lt ing in a lin~ of action of lhc resu ltant axial force thai
coiocide~ wilh lilt: mi(lheig.hl of the wall. Referring 10 Fig_7_&-. lilt: tOlal contribUlion
of the righi-hand vertical wall 10 Ihe change in ax ial force of the member due 10 lhe
prC'leoce oflorsion i~
AJ~.\'o ,
N. = V.. cot ~
,
- - - en!'
Again, summing over all four ,ities. the 1<>tal increa'le in axial force for the ",emher is
, AJ"
N= N-, = -j-- 2 -.. " . " cot' +,. (7.'ia)
AJ"p.
N=
, COIl (7.Sh)
where I'. j, lhe p"rimet~r of lhe cell1~rline of the doscd St;rru p<; _
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
A NA LYSIS A NI) 1).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 239
longilUdin31 rcinforcCllICIli musl be providwlo carry the added a.x ial force !IN.
If Ihat sl~cl is desigm.xllo yidd. then
A,f,,{'. ,
A , ~ - - - cot- (7.6)
," s
and
A, /,,. ,
A, - ----:-
., f'. ["
- COl"' (7.7)
wh"re AI = !Olal area of longiludinal reinforcement to resi,1 tor>;ion. in l

/., = yi eld sirengih of longiludinal tor>;ional reinforcemenl. psi
II has heen fovnd cxrerimenlally Ihal. afler nacking . It", efTe';livc area cndoscd
by Ihe sl",ar 11m" palh i, ,,,,,,,,,whal tess than II", value of A"" used in the pre\"i()u~
development . It is recommended in Rd. 7.7 Ihat Ihe redut~"<l value be taken a, A" =
O.85A, ... where . il will be recallcd. A"" is the area enclosed by Ihc cente rline of lhe
IranSVCI'<C reinforccment . TI,is recomn~ndalion is incmporal l"<l in the AC I Code (see
Seclion 7.5) and in a modified fonn of F.q. (7.4 ) wilh A" sulmit uk"<l (or A"". II has fur-
ther ht,cn foumJ experimentally that the Ihickncss of the ~"<.juivaJe nt lUbe alloads ncar
ultimate is closely approxinmtcd by T = A"", r. wherc 1'. is thc rerillieter of A"" .
" .... 7.4 T ORSION P lUS SHE AR
Members are rarcly subjeel~d 10 torsion alonc . Th~ pre"alent si tuation is Ihat of a
healn subjeello Ihe usual l1exuralloolncnls and sht:ar forces . which, in addilion . ",USI
also rcsisllOrsionalIOOlncnlS. In an uncracked member. shear forces as well as lorque
produce shear stn:sscs. In ~ emehxl Incmt>.:r. both shear and lorsion increase lhe
forccs in the diagonal Slru1S (Figs. 4.20./ and 7.SII). Ihey increase Ihe width of diago
nal cracks. and lhey iner.:asc the forces required ,n the Iransversc reinforcen~nt (Figs .
4.20<> and 7.&,).
Using ,he usua l r~pr~senlalion for reinforced eOl\Crel~. the nominal shcar str~ss
caused by an appl ied shear force V is ,. . V lI.d. ll1C shear Slress caused by IOrsion.
given in Eq. (7 .1 ) is , . T (2;\;) . As shown in Fig 7.9" for /w/ll>k' ,<'<:1;(111.'. lhesc
Slresscs an: d ireel1y addit ive on one side or the Il~mbcr. Thus. for a cracked eoncrcle
cross seclion wilh Ao O.S5A"" and 1- A",,l'h' Ihe ma.ximuIH shear Siress can be
exprcsSt.'d as
- ,.+ - -V
- + -Tr',
-- (7.8)
".,1 I.7A;;'
FIGUIU<: 7.9
Addilion of "",i,.,,1 and
,-"
,he.. m ... se" tal hollow
,,i"" , (b) ..,lid >cc,i<)n
(A'~1J'I,J f~"" ~, t: 7.7.1 uDIt uDu UI
I I
I_.J
Itt j j j j
Torsional Shea r To """",,1 "'~,

stresses s1resse'S s1resse'S s tresses
", ",
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
For a nJo.:mlxr wilh a solid ...."uio". Fig. 7.9b. r is predominalcly dislribulcd

around lhe perimcl~r, as repr.:semc"d by Ih~ hollow lulx analogy. bullhe full cross sec
lion comribules 10 carrying '" Comp,1risons wilh expcrinJo.:nla1 resu lls show Ihal Eq .
(7 .8) is sonJo.:whal overconscrvalive for solid St.~lions and Ihal a ~l1er reprcscillalion
for ma.\ i mum shear Slress is provided by Ihe square rool of the sum of Ihe squares of
Ihe nominal shear Slresscs:
v + -Ii'.
-- 0 9)
"lA,'..
Equation, (7.8) and (7.9) St"", ~s a measure of Ihe shear 'tres",,-, in til" con<'rele
und~r botll ",,,,ic~ and ultimale loading.
- , 7.S ACI CODE P ROVISIONS FOR T ORSIO N DESIG N
The basic principles UpOll which ACI Code design provisions arc bascd ha"e b.:cn pre
scnltd in Ihe pt"<.~~>ding St.~lions. AC I Code 11 ,6.3 ,5 safely provisions I"t'quire Ihal
r (7,10)
wh~re T. = r~'<luircd IOrsionul strenglh at factorcd loods
T. ~ noltunallorsional slreltglh of member
The streuglh rc..:!uction faclor = 0.75 applies for lorsiolt. T" IS based on Eq. (7 .4)
wilh ,t" Substjluled for A"". Ihus
(7.11)
In accordance with ACI Code 11,6.2. seclion, I,x-ated Ie.. Ihan a diSlance dfrom
the face of ~ SUppOfl may be ru,'igned for lhe >:till" torsional momell1 T. as Illat n"n-
pUled al ~ dislance d. recognizing lhe beuefi einl effeelS of 'UppOI1 compre"ion,
However. if a conc~nlrated tor'luc is applied within thi s dis1:lIlce. th~ cr1licn! se<'lioo
musl be taken allhe fac" ofd", suppon. Th~sc pmvi,ions parallel those used in sl",ar
design. For beams suppofling ,lahs such as are ,hown in Fig. 7.1. lhe torsional load -
ing from Ihe ,lah may be lfealed as hoeing unifonnly distributed along lhe beam.
a. T Beams and Box Sections

For T beams. a ponion of till: overhanging flang~ <"<,"Irihules 10 lhe cmcking torsional
capacily and . if reinforc'ed wilh cio",d stirrups. to Ih~ tor,jonal slrenglh. An'ording to
ACIOx!.: 11.6.1. lhe c<Hl1rihuling widlll of Ihe overllanging flang" on eilher side of
the web i, e'lu~1 10 the 'lIl~lIer of ( J ) lhe pmjeelion of d", be~m above or below till:
,lab. whichever is greal"r. and (2) four times Ihe slnb Ihickne<>. These nileria are till:
,ame as Iho", u".,..:! for IWo -w~y .lab, wilh beam,. illuslmled in Fi g. 13. 10. As with
,olid seclions. A cp for box ",("[im". wid, or without f1ang~s. represents Ihe aren
endosed by Ihe outside perinll:ter of Ihe concrele section.
Afl"r lorsimla! (Tacking. Ih~ applied ">r'lue is resi" ....:! by till: ponion of Ihe ,",c-
tion represell1ed by A"".the area encio",d by lhoe centerline of till: oulennoSl dosed
tran",'erse lorsimln! reinforc"ment A"" for ",,:!angular. box. and T seclions i, illns-
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
ANA LYS IS AN I) 1).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 2~1
FI GU IU: 7. 10
Dl:fin't,on of A",. (A.kJp1M
f~ "" /1,1 7.7.)
A"" - shaded area

1fT
Irat<'<l in Fig. 7.lD. For seclions with flang~s, the Code does not rt'<luire that II", ",c-
lion u",d to ~'tahli,h A", coincide with Ihat u,,-"<l to estnhli.h A"".
b, Minimal Torsion
If the fanored torsional moment T. does not exc~"ed fr -A;,p" . to"ionnl effects
may he negl~<,t<'<l. a<'Coruing to ACI Code 1106.1. Thi, lower limit i, 25 perc~nt of II",
cmeking to"lue, given by Eq. (7.3). r""uced by Ihe factor ,a, usual. for design pur-
PO"'" The presence of tor~iollnl mmnent at or below thi s limit will haw a lIegligibl~
eff~ct on the fl~xural and shear str~ngth of the member.
For members subjected to an axial load N. (po,ili~e in compression), tor-
,iOllal effect' m!.v be neglened when T. doe, nOt exe~ed fr A;p p"
I + N, 4A , if _ For holk.w ,ections (with Or without axial load). Acp must be
replaced by the gm" area of the concrde A, to detemli"" if torsional effect. ma)' be
negl~ct~d, Thi s has the eff~ct of multiplying 2'i perc~nt of the cr.,,:];ing lorqu~ by II",
mtio A. A", twicL'-one~ to account for th~ r""union in cr~eking torque for hollow
,,->ctio", fmm the value ,hown in Eq. (7.3) and a second time to account for the tr~n
, ition from tbe cirt' ular inter~ction of ('Ombin<'<l ,bear ami torsion ,Ire,"", in F..q. (7.9)
10 tI", linar intemction represenk"<l b)' Eq. 0 .8 ).
c. Equilibrium versus Compatibility Torsion
A distinclion is made in the ACI Cooe between <'quilibriurn (prima')') torsion and
compatibility (S<.>colldar)'l torsion. For the first condition, de,cribed earlier with ref-
erence to Fig. 7. la. the ,upponing member "",-,I be designed 10 provide the torsiunal
resistrulce r<'quired b)' ,Iatic equilibrium. For "-'CQndary torsion re,ulting from <'Om-
patibilit), ",<!uirement'. shown in Fi g. 7.1 b. it is assumed thai cracking will result in
a r.."<li,tribution of internal force.: and acmrdin),\ to ACI Cooe 11 .6.2 . the maxi -
mum torsional moment T. may be reduc~"<l to 4 fr A .~ p" , or 4 fr A;p Pcp
I + N, 4A , fc for 1lI,,,nbers subjeck"<l to axial lo:W. In the <'ase of [",liow sec-
lion" A", i, /lot rep1a<'-"<l by A~.TI!e design moments and sheap; in the supported mem-
ber must be :wj",k"<l ",-'COrdingl),. TI!e rt"<luccd value of T, pennitted by the ACI C<Xk i,
inlended to approximate the tONional cracking .trength of the supporting beam, for com-
bint."<l tONional ill,,1 flexurallo:Wing. n", large roIali<HlS that occur at essenlially <UlStant
lorsi<Hoal load 'muld re,ult in significant redistribulion of intenml forces, justifying use
of II", redu<,-"<l \'alue for d""lign of tI", torsi<Hlalllll'mber and the supported elen",nts.
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
d. Limitations on Shear Stress

Based largely on empirical observations, the width of d iagonal cmds caused by com
hined shear and torsion under JUliet lowls can tk limited by limiting the calculat~d
shear stress under file/oml sileaf lind Um.'iOlI (Ref. 7.4) so that
V,
- + 8 fc (7 ,12)
h~.l
v"'" in F..q, (7,}2) corresp<mds to the upper limit~ on ~hcar cap""ity described in
$eni,"l 4.5d, Combining Eq. (7 .12) wilh Eq. (7.8) pro\'id~, limit, on lhe nos,
""ctional dimen,ion, of /wl/ow .,eel;,,,,.l. in accordance wilh ACI Code 11.6.3.
~
&,.1
+ 8 J~ (7.1 J)
Likewise. for .lOlid sed;"'H. combining Eq. (7.12) wilh Eq. (7.9) giws
+ (/.14)
Either member dimensions or concrete slr.:ngth must be increased if the criteria

in Eq , (7.1 J ) or (7.14) a.-.: ~Ol salislkd.
ACI Code ) 1,6.3 requ ires that. if the wall thickness varies around Ihe perimeIer
of a hollow se<:lion. Eq. (7.13) mUSI he evalualed at the location where the leli-hand
si<lc of Ihe expression is a maximum , If the walilhickness is less Ihan the assumed
value or I used in Ihe dc"e)opmem of Eq. (7.8) AoId'b. lhe aClUal value of I tnUSI be
USl.xI in Ihe calculation oflorsional shear Slress. As a r.:su l1. Ihc second lenn on the left
hand si(1e of Eq. (7.13) mUSI tk lakeH as
T.
I.7A,*
where I ;S Ihe thi,'kness of the wall of the hollow ""clioo at thc local;o" where the
,trc,,,,,, are heing cheekLxI.
e. Reinforcement for Torsion

lne nominal torsional strength j, givcn by F..q. 0 .11 ).
2A"",f" ,
1:" =
, tot (7.11 )
According to ACI Code 11.6.3. th~ angle may assume any value betw ....,n 30
and 60. w;lh a value of = 45 sugg~sl.,.j . Thc area en('loscd by thc ~hear now AG
may bc dderm int.xI by anal)"i' using procedures ,uch as ,uggested in Rd. 7.8. OJ Ao
may be taken a, ''qual to 0.85A,,,,. Combining Eq. 0 .1 1) Wilh Eq. (7.10). the r~quir~d
cross-St.'dional area of one stirrup I~g for tors;on is
'/ ;$
" , ~ ~'f-c:-
2 A,j". col
(7.15)
The Code limits /". to a maximum of 60.000 psi for reasons of crack cotmol.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, l . W ........ .,... ... I T_
o..loootc..,_ T... .
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
ANA LYS IS AN ]) ]).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 2 43
FI GU IU: 7. 11 Confinemenl Coofinemeol No confinemenl-

Stim'p.ti"."d kmgitudinal from slab ( from slab --~1 135" hooks
re inforcement fo< torsion :
LJi
(a) . p.mdrd beam with
O.nges on 011< , itle;
(b) interio.- beam; (c) i...,latro
reclangular beam; (d) "'ide
, pondrd beam; kl T beam
wilh lO1'> ional reinf".w mem
,,'
i
D,,'
in O"'g"".
'"
1" ,.,
nt~ reinforcement prQvided fm torsion must re ,-ombintXl Wilh Ihal requin.-d for
,hear. Based on lhe lypi,-allwo -I~ g stirrup, lhis may be ~xpressed a,
A,." A,. A,
, = - + 2-
l' l'
(1.16)
As described in Seclion 7.3. lhe lr~nswrse stirrup, used for IOrsi,maf reinfmce-
mell1muSl be of a dosed form 10 provide lhe required len,ile capacily aCTO" lhe diag-
onal cracks of all fa,-e, Qf lhe beam. U-shaped sl irrup' commonly used for tr~n sve r",
,hear reinforcement are nol suilable fm torsional reinfoKemem. On lht: O1lrer hand.
one -piece dosed stirrup, make field a.sembly of beam reinforcen",nl difficul1. and for
praclical reas,"" to.-,ional slirrups are gt:nerally lwo-pit'Ce stirrur-li~s. as showo in
Fig. 7. 11. A U-'haped stirrup is combi"c-d Wilh a horizontal lOp bar. suilabl y anchored,
B~caus~ roncrelc out.ide Ihe reinforcing ~age l~nds 10 spall off when I"" mem-
ber is ,ubje<-led 10 high lorque. lmnsverse lor<;iona1 reinforcement must be anchored
wilhin lbe concre1e rore (Ref. 7.9). ACI Code f 1.6,4 "-'<juices thaI stirrups or lies used
for transverse IQngiludinal reinforct:men1I11USl be "nchortXl Wilh a 1350 standard hook
around a longiludinal bar. unless Ihe concrete sumrunding lht: anchorage i, restr~ined
againsl 'palling by a flange or a ,lab. in which case 90" slandard hooks may be used.
a, shown in Fig. 7.lla, b, and iI. Overlapping U-shaptXl slirrup'. such a, shown in
Fig. 5.12</, may n01 be used. If flanges :m" induded in lite computalion of torsional
,Irenglh fnr T or L-shapt.-d bean", dosed torsional stirrups mu,1 be pro\'idt.-d in 11",
thnges, as s!Klwn in Fig. 7.ll e.
n"" "-'<juired spa<-ing of dosed slirrups. salisfying F..q, (7 .16), is sele('(~d for lhe
lrial design based (HI Slandard bar sizt:s,
To comrol spir~1 cracking, lhe maximum 'pa<-ing of torsional stirrup" should nm
exceed P. 3 or 12 in .. whic""\'er is smaller. In addilion, for melllrers requiring bolh
,hear and torsion reinforce"""m. lhe minimum area of dO><.-d stirrups is ~quaf 10
- h ...' b,,,\-
A,_ + 2A , = 0.75 /, - 2:50 - (7.17)
/", /",
a~'Cording 10 ACl Code 11.6.5.
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
n,~ nr~a of longitudi nal bar r~inforc~mel11 A, lrtJuired to resist lorsion is giv~n
hy Eq. (7 .7 ), wh~re must h~ve the same value u..,.,] to c~lculate A,. The term A, ., in
Eq. 0 .7) ,hould he tuken a, the vnlue calculated using Eq. (7.15), nOi modified basOO
o n minimum tr~nSver;c 'teel r"'lu ireme Oi s. ACI C,xle 11.6.3I"'nnits lhe portion of A ,
in lhe flexur~l cmnpre5);ion zone to be red uced by ~n amOUI11 ~'lual to M . (0.9d/-..,).
where M , i, the fnctored moment aCling at tbe ,,-'Ction in combinalion witb T.
Based on nn ~v~luali"n of the I"'rfonn~nce of reinforced ('oncrete beam torsional
te" s)ll'Cimen" ACI C,xle 11.6.'i re'luire, thm A, !lot be less thnn
(7. 1R)
where AJ ., 2: 25b. j", with j,~ in p,i.

'!'he spacing o(the longitudinal bar.; should not exceed 12 in ., and they should
he distriootcd nround the perimet~r of tbe cross section to mntrol cracking. The bars
may not he l~ss thnn NQ. 3 (No. 10) in size nor have a di an "'ter less than 0.042 tin""
the 'pacing of th~ tran",er"" stirrups. At least "'''' longitudin~l bar rnuSI be placed m
enth comer of the stirrups. Carefu l ane",ion mu,t be paid 10 the anchor~ge of longi -
t!ldinal IQrsimlnl reinforc'eUlent '0 lhat il is ~ble 10 devdop ilS yidd strenglh at Ih~ fnce
of the supporting column" whe re tof'lional nlOl1",nfs are often maximum.
Reinforcement r"'l uired for torsion may be combined wilh Ihat ""-luired for mher
force" providt.'<I that the area furnished is the sum of the individuall y n'<luin'<l area, and
that the most restrictive ""-luirements Qf spacing ~nd pla('emem are 11"''- Ac('(,,-ding to
ACI Ox'" 11.6.6, lorsion~l reinforce me", muSI be pnl\'i<kd at least a dislance h, + ,/
heyond th~ point lhe'''-dic'~lIy re'lui red, where h, is lhe width of Ih~t pan of the cross
"-'Clion containing the dosOO slirrups resisting tor'lion. According to the provision, of lhe
ACI Ox"'. II", point at which II", torsional reinforc~rncll! is no looger n,<!uin'<l i, II",
point at which T. !. rI .;'.p,p. or T. < Ie A~" P'r 1 + N. 4A, Ie .
for members ,uhjected 10 a~ial load. The value is 25 I"'rcell! of Ihe cmtking "'rque,
reduc"Cd hy the factor . ~s given in $e<.,tion 7.5b.
n,~ subject of lorsional <k,ign of pre,tressed concrete is not tre ated here, oot , a,
presell!~d in ACt O x'" 11.6, it differs only in c~nain d~lails fmmlhe nlx",e presema-
tion for nonpres1f~"ed reinforced l'!lIlcrel<e beams.
f. Lightweight Concrete
As discus5t.'d in Section 4 . 5~ , Ihe AC I Code r~",ognizcs that lillh(wcight COllCrete pos-
sesses low~r tcnsile strength than nonnaJ-wcight concrete of the same compressive
strength. The provisions in ACI CJX1c 11 ,2 apply the san'>e Crileria to n>emocrs loodc'd
in torsion as 10 n...,mbcrs loaded in shear: In 6.7 is suhstitUlcd for " in all ~pplicab1c
equations , wilh the addi(ional restriction Ihat In' 6.7 shall not c~cCt-'d Ii . If Ihc spl ii -
cylinder S1Tcnlllh I" is not a"ailable_ Ie must oc multiplied by 0.75 for all-1ightwdghl
coocrelC and hy 0.85 for s,1nd-1ightweighl concrele,
g_ Design for Torsion

Designing a reinforc't.'<Ic'Ollcrele flexural member fOf 10['lioll inml ,'e, a serie, of 'tep'.
1lIe following "",uenee ensures that clli:h is c()v~red:
I, Detennin~ if the f~clored t()f'lu~ is less lhan Ie A;~ P<p , or Ie A':' Pcp
1 + N, .fA, Ie . for n"'mbers subj~c1t.'<I IQ axi~ll<;l:ld . If"" torsion may be
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,."""0,.;.... .,... ... I THI
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
ANA LYSIS ANI) 1).:.sm N FOR TORSION 2~ S
negb:ted, If m,L pn"-'-..,d with the design. Note Ihat in this .tep, port ion, of over-
hanging flanges. as defined in S..'Ction 7'sa, IllUst be included in tI", cakula1ion
of A", and I"r
2. If the torsion is ,,'olllpatihility torsion. ralher than equilihri um torsion, a,
de'!Crihc~in ~.",tiolls 7.1 and 1)<'1Ihe maximum fattored toryue may be red uced
to 4 fr A" Pcr ,or" t..Ac, l'e? I + No 4A . Ie for membe" !iuh-
jected to axial load, with the 1!1(1Il"'nt~ and ,hears in lhe sUpp<lrl<'d membe"
adjusled a,'cordingly, F..quilibrium torsion cannot be adjusled.
J. Cbeck II", >hear .tres>es in Ihe >eelk", under combi"'.... torsion and ",,,,ar u,ing
the criteria of Senion 7.5d.
4. Cakulatc Ihe ".-qui"-.... 1r.lllS\'erse reinfor<'Ctl",nt for torsion using Eq . (7 .15) and
,hear using Eq . (4.14<,). Comhine A, and A, using Eq. (7 .1 6).
5. Cbeck thaI the minimum Imn,verse reinfortrmelll requirernem, are met fo r both
torsion and shear. lne", include the maximum spat ing. as ru"erit.,d in Seclion,
7.5e and 4.'ld. and minimum ara. as giwn in Eq. 0 .17).
6. Cakulate the required longitudinal torsional reinforcen"'nt A, u,inS the larger of
the ,-alue, given in Eq !i. (7 ,7 ) 1100 (7. 18). and s,,"isfy Ihe spa<' ing and bar size
requiremenl s give n in Seclion 7.5e. lne portion of A, in Ihe flexural compre"ion
zone may t., reduced hy M. (0.90[,,), providing lhal F..q. (7.1 8) and the 'pacing
and har size requi rement, an" &alisfied .
7. Continue lO"ional ",inf~lLement h, + ,} pasl the poim where T. i, less than
Ii A;p P'r ' or t.,A ,~ Pc. 1 + N, 4A t };. . for members suhj",' ted
to axial load .
EXAM I'L E 7.1 o.,;j~1l for torsi"" .. ith sMa.. 'Ille 2~ Ii ,pan bo:am shown in Fig, 7,12., and I> carrie, a
monolilhk ,lab ca ntile""ring 6 fl pa'i lile bo:.m cemerline. The re,ulling L llea", ,uppor!$ a
li"c load of 900 Iblft "I()JI~ Ihe bo:am cente,line plm 50 psf uniformly distriooled O,'e, tile
uPI"" slab surface . The effect;,'. Mf>lh 10 ,he fle>ural steel "emtoid is 21 .5 in .. ond lhe di,
tanCe from lhe bo:.m , u,faces to the c~mruid of stirrup ,wei is 17 in. Mmmol strenglh, are
/: - .-';000 p,i and/. - 60.000 psi Design the lorsi"".1 and 'hear reinforcemenl fo< 'he
bo:an>.
S()U f [1"~. Applying AU load fOClors g;' -es the slab load a,
1.2"'. ~ 1.2 X 75 X 5.5 ~ 495 Ib ft

1.6"1 - 1.6 X 50 X 5.5 - 440 lb ft
Tmal ~ 935 Ib fI al 3,25 fl eccentric;I)'
whil~ the bean> carries directly
1,2,,', = 1.2 X 300 ~ .160 Ib fl

1,6~'I- I .6 900+50 - 152011;> fl
Total = \880 Ib !i
Thus. lhe uniformly di'lriootoo 103Il on the bo:am i, 2S15 Iblh> a<.1ing (()8ether Wilh" uni
fo<mly dimiooled lorque of 9.,5 X 3.25 - .1040 fllblfl. AI lhe face of lile column, the
<k,ign sh~ar (on:., i, V. = 2.S15 X 28 2 = 39.4 kip,. At the "on", locmion. the design lor-
si""ol moment is T. - lJ140 X 28 2 - 42.6 ft. ki ps.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, 1,_"""0,.;.... .,... ... 1THI
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU: 7. 1l
Sll<ar and "",i,m dc>ign
exan'ple, !<-I- - " '---';1 ,I' r- 5"-----,
'-6"-----1---
t;J' 'l;J 'rt

2"t ~
-01 I.-
I
r"
,.j " (OJ
'" '" 1riitr;:37.2

,m,.,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,,' ''I
""""
I,
,
" I,
" ,
'0
0
~
' -.;
~
2" + 9sp, @5"

"
17 sp. @ 7"
0
0 , , , , " "
Dista nce from suppor1 lace, It
"j
The ,'ariatioo of 1', aoo T. Wilh di.lance from Ill< face oflbt- supponitlg column i. g"'~n
by Fig. 7. 12c and J. ""recti,'dy. TIle ,'aluo:s of V, and J~ alth(: c'1'ilical design SCClioo , a di\-
tonce d from lhe column face, are
12.21
V, ~ 39.4 X - ,,- ~ 34.4 kips
" _ 4'6
.. 12.21 _
X ~ lP
. f '
I"klp,
o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ANA LYS IS AN I) 1).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 2 47
Fortheetr<:tivebt:,",.A,.p ~ 12 x 24 + 6X IS ~ 396 in' and/J.-, ~ 2 X 24 + 2 x 30

108 in. According to the ACI Code. torsi()ll may be ""glwed if T. s 0./5 X
.sooo 3%' loti J2.000 ~ 6,4 (lkips.Torsion mu,1 de:lfly bt: <considered in 11", Jlfesem
ca,.,. Sillce the tof'>ionnl resi>ta~ of the beam is required for "'luilibrium. 110 r~duclioll ill
T. may bt: made.
Bet"", de>igning lhe lorsional reinforeemenl, lhe secl;OI1 will be checked for adequacy
in ",<:orda",-", with Eq. (7. 14). Although A" waS caku lO1ed coo,idcring the flange to chcc~
if lorsioo could be neg]""red (as required by ACt 0xIe I 1.6. I ). sOJ b""luem calculations for
service"bilit)' .nd ,trength will neglect tl", nange .nd no torsional reinforcer""nt will be
rrovidcd in the nange. '-orrefere",e. b..J - 12 X 21 .5 - 258 in' . With 11 in . co,'er 10 the
,'cnter of the stirrup bars from all faces . .f" ~ 12 - 3.5 ~ 8.5 in, and ) '" ~ 24.0 - 3.5 ~
20.5 in. Thu,. A", - 8.5 X 20.5 - 174 in' . A, - 0.8.~ X 174 - 1.. 8 in1. and I'. -
2(8.5 +
2{),5) ~ 58 in, Usin~ Eq. (7. 141.
5000 +8 .sooo
0.5W bi s 0.530 hi
Threfore, the cros, se<:tioo is o f adeq uate sile for the gi\-en concrete stren~th,
The values of A, and A, wil l nov.' he c.lculated at the column face (for rdere~ only)
Using Eq. (7. 15) arnJ choosing = 45' .
-oo"',',,',',,,'c','",,-,
~
2xO.7.~ X I48x60X
- O.mS-h
for one leg of. closed wrti,"1 Slirrup, or 0,0761l,,' for ,"'-0 legs,
~ ,bear capacit)' of the concrete alon(". obtained using Eq. (4. 12M. is
0 ./5 x 2 .sooo X 2~8

1000 - 274 kip'
From Eq. ( 4, I ""). the web rcinfom;c'IICm for tranwer>e ,hear. gain OOIllf'l'too at tl", col umn
face. is
V - V.. , 39,4 - 27.4,
A ~ - 0.0124,
, f" d 0.7~ X 60 X 21.~
10 he provilk."d in 'wo ~~rtical ic1!s.

The calculated value of A, will deerea", 1;n<""ly to zero at tile mid'pan. arnJ tile calcu-
la'cd ,'a lue of A, will dcc'reasc linearly 10 '.cro 4,26 ft frolll lhe face of lhe ,,'ppon . the l)I)in'
at which V. ~ I'~ Thm. tbe total aroa to be pf'{",ided b y the two wrticallegs is
,
2.4., + A, ~ 0.076&.' 1 - 14
for 0 '" x s 4.26 ft . where ~ i, ,he di'tance from 1M foce Of lbe fotJppor1. and
,
2.4., + A, - 0.0768, 1- 14
for 4.26 s x:s 14 ft.

o..loootc..,_ T....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Numocr 4 (NO. 13) dosed stirrups ",ill provide a 100ai are.1 ill 11>0; 1"'-' leg, ofU,4(J in',
For lA, -I- A, ~ 0,4{) in', {he required sp"'i "~ a{ d and a{ 2 fl intervals along {m' span ean
be found u,ing 'he given rela{ionship, tx'lwcen \tirrup are.1 "",I ,.,.",ing:
.', -
.,', -
5.39 in .
5.52 in
"- 7. 19io.
.,', -
"-
9 . 11
I U in. '"
,"1<' - J g2 in.
Tllese ,-alues of . are plott<d in Fig 7. 12<. ACI pr<I\'isiom for m,,,imum sp"'ing ,hoold ,lOW
.
be cll<:ded. F", 10(';ioo reinforocmen!. "'" maxim um spacing is III<: s ",all~r o f
r. ~8
- ~ - ~7.25 i n,
"
or 12 in .. ..... h"re~s for ,IIear rcinf"",emen{, lIIe maximum spacing isd 2 ~ 10,75 in.::;; 24
in. Tile mosl reslrinive prov;<ion i< {lie fir>!. ond 1M maximum 'pacing of 7.25 in . j< plO{.
I~d in Fig, 7.1k Stirrups re{W""n {lie fac" Ofl)!" suppon and {lie dim""", d can re spaced
at ,.~ ~ ""u[{ing ">acing require",,,,,{, are .hown by llle ",lid line in It.: f,gu",. These
requirements are "",{ in a prael;CJI way by No. 4 (No, D) d,-,,<d stirrups. lilt: ti r>! plJCed
2 in. from the fac~ of lhe eolu ", n. followed by 9 .{ 5 in. spocing and 17 at 7 in. spacing
AC<.'()rdin~ 10 tile ACI Code, , {irrups may be di",'OminllCd al llIe poinl where V, < V, 2
(4.9 ft from tile 'pan eenlerline) or (1), -I- ti) - 2.8 fl pa'{ {lie poin> a{ which T, <
T. A;.- I'" . TIle lall~r poi,,, is paSI III<: centerline of lilt: me",ber: Iherefore. mi~imum
'tirrups are required {hroughoul {he 'pan . ~ minimum web '!eel pr<I\kkd. 0..10 in' . .ali,
tie, {he ACI Code minimum ~ 0 .75 T.
h .s/" ~ 0.7~ 5000 12 X 76O,OJO = 0 .074 in'
'" 5Oh .,/w - ~O X 12 X 7 6O.0J0 _ 0070 in' .
Th" longitudinal Sled ",q ui red for lorsiofl al a dis{a",'e ti from llIe cohllTm fac" is rom"
fIU{ed oed. A{ [h.{ localion
L79
- 0 ,0335
and fron, liq. (7 ,7)

"
A, _ 0 .0335 x 58 x ~ x I' _ 1.94 in'
w ith a (O!alllO! Ie" Ihon ~iw" by Eq. 0.18). in .. hieh A, " is 001 10 be lak~n les; (han
25 X 1260.(0) - 0.005.
5 5000 x 396 60,
A, ..... ~ 60 X 1(0) - 0.0.' -'5 X 58 X 60 = 0.19 in"
Acconling to llIe ,\C[ Code, Ihe spocillg must no! e."ccd 12 in .. "rod 111e b"" may nO! be
Ie" {hon No. J (No. 10) in .ize nor hove 0 diamt!e1" Ie" !It."
0 .042, - 0.29 in . Rei nforcemen{
will be plJCed at {he lop. middcplh, and bottom of {he m.. mber-----each le"ello (lrO\'ide IlO! Ies,
U\3/1 1.94 .1 - O.M in'. T,,o NO.6 (No. 19) bar> \\'ill be usffi a{ midtklMh. ao<l rei nforcement
10 bo placed for nexu", \\'ill be i""rcas.ed by O.M in' at lilt: top and bottom of {be member.
Although A, reduces in d ireel proportion 10 A, and. llence. ~",a",s li,,,,arly '{arting at ti
tro", {he face of llIe column 10 (he midspan. for simpl ici{y o f con,ulIClion lhe add.:d ban;
and {lie i""",,,,,,,,{ in lbe flexural ""d
will be m.imai""d 1hroughou{ lhe leng{h of {lie m,,,n
ber, Allhough ,\Cf Code 11.6.:l Slale, {hm A, may be de,,,,ased in tle,u,"1 """ preSsion
Zllllt' by an anlOun{ e<Jual to M. (0.941,,). lh.{ re<iue{ion will 001 be ma<Ie IIere . A,lequa,e
~mbedmen1 ","S( be pr(widcd pa'llbe (ace of llIe COlumn to tully <kvcl"!'/" in Ihe bars al
{hat I"".{ion
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
A NA LYSIS A NI) 1).:.sm N FOR TO RSION 2~9
REFERENCES
1.1 1'. I"'\II<~ :m<l B. 1 "ur!lmallll . Ullin""" S""n~lh ,00 l)c>ign 0( Kd"rOffi'~ C'>rICfl.1, lie",,,, i" f<~,,,,,,
1UldIIeIklill;," I",. A,,,,,". II'-"(~ "IIlISt""". f"t. !'uN ..11 1. I.rid. 1911.pp. 107 131
l.2 II. 'lbu~;"""," . 'Jo,,',>nal Strcn~lh of Kd.f,>m.' t!...J 1'r<"rL,>'oC<lIIe.m> CUI APPlOIiCh." ;n C",",,,,,
II<-.,a": u.s. ,111<1 fun"""" !'m"ia,. SI' W. 1919. A"",icon ConCITI< i"" i"". l)Cuoi . MI. Pfl.
117_143.
7.3. CEBFI!' M"wl C(><w IWO. 1ll<1ffia. '1'<11<011. J.'nlnn. IWL
1.4 CSII COOUI,jt"" 1123..1. 1)<'i8" '1 C_,.'/< Sir","'""" Conadian SI>rIdarJ, A"""i:u.)(I. Etoolcol <.
0 ",.00, !\1\4. p. 199
1.S r T C lb . "Iook.n o( StruClurai Concfl.1e---lIchavio.- 0( Rd "f,~,...d Coocn'l< IkctaJ l ~" l .. Mmlt>..'f>.."
in Jimw.ufS""","ml Come"". SI' 18, 1<,1(<1. A._,'on l\""'r<t< 1"~ i'"I<. j).-trni MI, P!'. ~{, 1 )(j{,.
7.6 A. H. M>ll<Jd, Disc. o f "I-'<-,i"" of')',n'on" by J. G . M",'l;rCiO< llld M. G. Gho..,; .. Illd 7.h .o.CI
S,,,,c< J.. v'OI. ~.1, 00. I, I9%, Pfl. 142- 143.
n J. G. M"'-{;"'~or onJ M. (;. (mon<im. "I)c"," 0( '''.'''",." .o.CI SlY"",. I . ,,~. '12. no. 1. 199'. I'P
2 1~ _ 22 1
n r 'J c. H>u. "She.. Ik,..' Looo.' in 'Jor .... 0( Rdnf",,','(j C,>rIC"'''','' J. Sir..... J:nN__ v'oI . 11 0.00. II. 1990.
Pfl.3l\J6-3126.
1.9 I). Mitclicll IUld M. J' C<~lill>. "I)L". l i.~ for "",ion.'" J. AD, ",I. n 00. 9. 1976. Pfl. SQ(,_SI L
PROBLEMS
7.1. ,\ beam ofr~Clangularcross S<-'<:tion having h = 22 in. and h = 15 in. is 10
carry a toml faclOred load of 3500 Iblft uniformly dislributed owr i!s 26 f!
span. and m addition the beam will be subjected to it unifonnly distritxn~d tor-
sion of 1750 ft lblft al factored loods. Closed stirrup-lies will be used to pro-
"ide for Ilexuml shear and IOrsion. placed ,,:ith tile stirrup steel centroid
1.75 in, from each concrel~ face , The corresponding Ilexural eff~c!iw lkplh
will be approximately 12.5 in. Design the lranswrse reinforcement for this
beam and calculate tl~ incr~mcnt of 10ngilUdinai st~eI area needed 10 provide
for lorsion using/; = 4000 psi and!, = 60,000 psi.
7.2. Archilectural and cI~aranc~ requ irernenls call for the use of a transf~r girder.
shown in Fig, P7 ,2. spanning 20 fl betw~n supponing column faces , The
gird~r must carry from above a concerllrm~d column load of 17.5 kips ill
midspan. app lied with eccentricity 2 ft from Ihe girder centerline. (Load fac-
tors are already indutkd. as is an allowanoo for gird~r self-weight.) The mem-
FIGUIU: P7.2
Trnn,fCT gir<kT: (<I) 'op v'iew;
(hi fro(\( .-;""" (d side "iew. ~ U
~
I )
20 kips 20 kips
II
j
N[tj"
U I.-- ,. ' I. ,. -----J
U ----.j 1--10'
(0) I')
o..loootc..,_ T. . . .
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
her is (0 have dimcnsion s b .. 10 in .. I, .. 20 in .. So" 6.5 in ...vo .. 16.5 in ..

and d - 17 in. Supponing columns pro~ide full IOrsional rigidily: flexural
rigidily a1 the ends of thc span ean be assulnN to develop 40 perccnt of the
l1la .~ in,un' 1110111entlhat would be oolainoo if the girder were simply supponcd.
Design bolh transvcrse and longitudinal sl~'C1 for the beam. Malerial strengths
are f; .. 5000 psi and!, - 60.000 psi.
7.3. The beam shown in eross section in Fig. 1'7..1 is a Iypical in1~rior 1lI~llIher of a
continuous building fmllle ..... ilh slxm 30 fI belw.xn suppon faces. At factored
loads. it will carry a unifonnly dislributed vcnicalload of 3100 lbllt acl ing
sinlUltancously wilh a uniformly distribulcd torsion of 2600 ft-Iblft. Tmnwasc
reinforcement for shcar and torsion will consist of No.4 (No. U ) Stirrup-lies.
as shown. with 1.5 in. clear to all concrete fac~s. lhe cfkctiw dCPlh 10 t1ex
ural steel is taken cqual to 22.5 in. for both negalivc and positi\"C bend ing
r.:gion s. D\:sign thc trans~crse rei nforcelllcnt for socar and (Orsio11. and calcu
laic Ihc longitudinal stcr:1 to be added 10 Ihc llexural r.:quircmcnts to provide
for torsion. Torsional reinforccmcnI will bc provided only in the web. nOI in
the tlangcs. Mal~rial strengths arc!; .. 4000 psi and!, .. 60.000 psi.
FIG UKE ''7.3
t3) Slirrupties
7.4. n", singl~-span T beam bridge d~scribe<.J in Problem 3.1 4 is reinfort'e<.l for
t1exun: with four No. 10 (No. 32) bars in two layers. which cuntinue unint~r
rurted into tbe ,uppmls, permitting a "'''''ic~ li\'~ load of l.50 kips/f( (0 be <.-ar-
ried. in addition to the dead luad of 0.93 kip/ft. induding self-weight. Assun",
now that onl)' half tbat live load ans but that it is applied over only half the
width of tl'" member. entirely to the rigbt of the ",,-tiun centerlille. De'ign the
trans"erse rei nforcement for ,hear and tor,iOIl . and cakulate (he modified lon -
gitudinal 'teel needed for tbi s e"centric load conditiun. Torsional r~inforce
mem Can be pnwided in the slab if needed. as wel l as in the web. Stirrup--ti~,
will be No. 3 or No.4 (No. 10 or No. 13) bars. with 1.5 in. d ear to all COncrete
fac~s. Supp"ns pnwide no restmim agai n,t flexural rotation, but ,k, provide
full re,traim against twi,t. Show a sketch uf your filial design . detailing all
reinfurcement. Material strengths arc as given fur Problem 3. 14.
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
SHORT COLUMNS
, 8.1 INTROD UCTIO N: AXI AL C OMP RESSION
Column. are ddined a, membef'i Ihat carry loads ,'hiefly in compr~s,ion. Usually
columns carry bending moments a, well. about O!l" Of both ax", of the cru,s -,tion.
and the beading action omy produce tensile force, ""er a pan of 11m cn"" section.
Even in such ,-a"". col umn~ are generally referred to as compre"ion n~mlkrs.
becau", th" compre"'ion forces dominale their behaviOf. In addition 10 th" mosl com-
monlype of comf\r~s<;ion m~mber. i,e" ,-en i"al clement' in ,tTU'-lures. comf\r~s<;ion
membef'i indu"" ",ch ribs. rigid frame memlJer, intlin<-..J Of Olherwi",. compression
dement. in lrusses. shelh. Of flOnion, thereof that ,-aITY axial <'omprcssion. and olbe r
fonn,. In Ihis chapter lhe lerm cO/UIPI" will be used interchangeably wilh Ihe terrn
,.omp"". ..i"" me",ba. fOf brevity and in confonnity wilh ge neral "-''''ge.
Three types of reinforced concrete compress ion members are in use:
I. Members reinfo,,-ed with longiludinal bar, and lateral tics.
2. Membe", reinforced wid, longiludinal bars and continuous spiral,.
J . Composite compression members rei nfofced longitudinall)' Wilh structural steel
,hape'. pipe. or tubing. Wilh or ",ill...,,,, addilional longitudinal bars. and vari ou,
types of lateral reinforcement.
Types I and 2 are by far the mosl connnon. and n..."t of the di!;<.'us,ion of Ihi,
chapter will refer to them.
1lIe main reinfon:ement in ,'oluTlms is longitudinal. p;1r~lId to the direction of
the load. ami enosists of hars arr:mgeil in a "luare. rectangular. or ci T<'ular pattem. as
was shown in Fig. 1.1 5. Figure 8.1 shows an ironworker lightening splices for the
ttl"in reinforcing sleel during con'tTUclion of the 6O-stmy Bunk of Americ[l Corpmme
Center in Charlotte. Nonh Carolina, The ratio of 10ngiluJinal sleel area A." to gross
mncrete cross "-'Clion A~ i, in the rdn ge from 0.01 100.08. acconling to ACI Code
10.9. I. 1lIe lower 1imit i, ,,,,cessary to ensure resistance 10 bending mom"nts not
:K'<~,unk..J for in Ihe "nalysis and to reduce the eflect' of creep and sh rinkage of the
<~m(rete und~r sustained mmpression . Ratios higher Ih an 0,08 nOl only"'" Ur\{,<X,-
nomical. hut uho would cause diffi,-uhy ,,,,-ing to Gonges!ion of lhe reinforc~ment.
pankularly where Ihe steel mUSI be spli'''d. Most ""Iumn, are designed with rdlios
below 0.04 . Larger-diameter bars arc u",d to reduce pla,-"mem cOst, and to "void
unnecessary conge~ti()n. Tbe spetial iarge--<Jiameler No. 14 and No. 18 (No. 43 and
No, 57) bar, are produced m"inly fm u'" in column,. According to ACI Code 10.9.2.
a minimum of four longitudinal hars is r(.><luired when the haTS "re endo,,-'<.l by spaced
rect"ngular Of cin:ular ties. and a minimum of six hars must be u." ,d when lhe lo"gi -
tIIdinal bars arc ~Il<:]("ed by a ,'o"linuous spiml.
251
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FI GU IU: 8. 1
Rcinfofl:emcnt for prima,y
col""'" of 6O-m .. y B,nk of
Ameri", C''''P''''''" Cc nt<r in
OJJlone. Nonh Carolin .
{n.""." '1'1IW'" J' M,~",'
",,,/,-1'' '''''''<>,)
Column, may oc divided ir!lo IWO broad calegories: "hort r;o/U""M" for which lhe
Slrenglh i, governed by lhe sl renglh of Ihe maleriah and 11", geometry of Ihe cross ",c-
lion. and "/e",/a ("O/mno " , for which Ihe strenglh may oc 'ignificantly rcduced by lal -
ellli defk'Clions. A numher of years ago. an AC I-ASCE suryey indicated tlml 90 per-
~-errt of column_ , bnKcd again_<1 sidesway and 40 per(:em of unbmc~x! ,;olumns could
be <k'igned as shon columns. En""tiYe b{eral bllleing. which prcvents relative lateral
moven",nl of tl'" IWO elld~ of a cOlumn. is l'onnnonly pr(wid"d by ,hear wall s. elc\'a-
tor and stairwell shun s. diagonal bmting. or a cm"bination of tl",,,,. Although ,lender
~x)lumns are more common now because of the wider use of high-'tn:nglh material s
and improved mel hods o f dirnen,ioning memhers. il is slilllrue Ihal mosl colwnns in
ordinary Plal'lice can be con,iden:d shon l"Olumn,_ Onl)' ,hon columns will be di,-
cu,,,-x! in Ihis dUlpler; lhe effects of slenderness in reducing column 'In:nglh will he
l"O\'en:d in Chapter 9.
The ochavior of ,hon, axially loaded compn:ssion member> waS discu,,,,d in
S~L'1ion 1.9 in inlroducing Ihe basic aspects of n:inforc<-x! l'onen:t"_ It is sugg~st~d lhat
the earlier malerial be r~viewed at Ihis point, In $e{-tion 1.9. il was demO"-'lmled lllat.
for 1"'1i~r loads for whil'h bmh materials rcmain daslic-. rhe s{eel tarrit, a n:lativcly
small ponioo of the 100alload, 11", sIL>e1 't ressf, is "'lual to" Ii"",. lhe concrete slrcss,
f, = "f, (8. 1)
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
SHORT COL.UMNS 253
where" .. E,' Ec is the modular l";1(jo. In this range the axial load P is given by
(802)
where the tcrm in brae~ ets is the ar..:a of the tran sformed section (sce Fig. 1. 17).
Equation s (S.2) and (801 ) can be used to tind concrcte and stcel stresses respectively.
for given loads. pro"ided both materials remain clastic. Example I . I demonstratw
the use of thesc equations.
In Section 1.9. it was funher shown that the nominal strength of an axial ly
loadc'd column can be found. I\:cognizing the nonlinear responsc of bolh material s. by
p. = O.8Y/ A, + A,,/ , (8.3a)
p. = O.8Y" A1 - A" + A,J, (8.31
i.e" by summing Ihe slrength contributions of the IWO components of the column. At
this stage. the steel carri~s a significantly larger fraction of the load than was th~ case
at lower total 1000.
The calculation of the nominal strength of an a.\ially loaded column was demon
stratw in Section 1.9.
According to AC i Code 10.3.6. the dc., il:ll ;"/"'111:1" of an axially loadt.'d column
is to be found b.1scd on Eq. (8.3&) with the introduction of certain strength r..:duction
factors. Th~ ACI factors arc lower for columns than for beams. retle<:ting their gremcr
importancc in a structure. A beam fail ure would normally allect only a local region.
whereas a column failure could resu lt in the Coll:lpse of the entire structure. In addi
tion. these factors retlN:t dilferences in th~ behJvior of tied columns and spirJlly rein
forced column s that will be discussed in Se<:tion 8.2. A basic factor of 0.70 is used
for spirally reinforced columns. and 0.65 for tied column s. vs. - 0.90 for mool
beams.
A fun her limitation on column strength is imposed by ACI Cod~ 10.3.6 (() allow
for accidental ecccntricities of loading not considered in the analysis. This is done by
imposing an upp.:r limit on the axial land that is less Ihan the calculale'd design
strength. Thi s upper limit is tMen as 0.85 times the design strength for spirally rein
forced columns, and 0.80 tilm:S the calculated str..:ngth for tiexi columns. Thus. accord
ing to ACI Code 10.3.6. for spirally r..:inforced columns
f',,,,,,,. = 0.1\5 0.85/, A, - Au + j~A~

with - 0.70. For tied columns
(8,41
with - 0.65.
. _. 8.2 LATERAL TIES AND SPIRALS
Figure 1.15 shows cross sections of the simplest types of columns. spirally reinforced
or pro"i<kd wi(h lateral tics. Other cross sections frequently found ,11 buildings and
bridges are shown in Fig. 8.2. In general. in members with larg~ axial forces and smnll
moment~. longiwdinal bnrs are spaced more or less uniformly around the perimc(er
(Fig. 8.2<, to <I). When bending moments arc IMgc. much of the longiwdinal st~cl is
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 8.2
Dom
Tie ammgcmcOl> r",- "'tu,,",
and ""'Ia"gular columns,
,-, ,,' Spacing < 6" Spaang > 6"
'"
Dom ,-,
'I
Spacing < 6" Spacing > 6"
,I(
", (0,
conccmmled a1 the faces of highest comp",,,ion or tellsion, i.e., at maximum dis-

tances from the axi, of hending (Fig. 8.2<, to 10). Specific recommended patterns for
mall)' combination, and arrangement' of bars are fournJ in Rds. 8 .1 and 8,2. In heav-
ily loaded ('olullms ",ith large sted per<'<'ntages, II", resu l! of a large numher of bars.
each of them p'''itioned and held irnJividuaUy by ties, i, sted congeslion in Ihe form,
and difficulties in placing the concrete. In such cases, burnJled bars are fR'<]uemly
employed. Bundles ",,"sist of IltR'e or four bars tied in dire,:t comatt, ",ired, or otru,r-
",i", faslened together. These are usuall)' placed ill the ('omers, Test' ha", ~hOWll that
adequaldy bundled hars act as one unit: i.e" Ihey are detailed as if a bundle con,ti -
tuted a single round bar of area equal to the sum of the burnJled bar>.
Latcml reinfor~'<'ment, in the form of individual relatively widely spaced lies or
a ('ominuou, do",1 y spaced spiml, ser",. seveml functions. For one, such ",inforce-
mell1 is "",.-ded to hold the longitudinal bars in ]lOsitioll in the fonn, ",hi Ie the concrete
is heing plac<.-d. For this purpose, longitudinal and tr~n"'er;e steel i, wi",d together
to form cages, which are then m,w<.-d into the forms and properly positioned hefo",
placing the COllcrete. For another. tranSVerse rein forceme nt i. r,,-",--ded to prevent the
highly stres><.-d, slender longitudinal bars from buckling out",ard by bursting the thin
concrete ",we"
Closely spaced 'piral' ser", these two functions. Tie" ",hich call he arrang~d
and spa('ed in variou, "'ays. must he so designed that these two requirements are met.
TI,i, meam that the spacing must he sufficiently small to prevent buckling hetwee"
tie, and thm, in any tie plane, a sufficient numher of ties must he provid<.-d to position
and hold all bars. On th" oth"r hand, in eolumns witb many longitudinal bars, if tho:
"OIU11111 "'-'etion is cri,,,,,",s,,,d by too mall)" ties. they il11erfere with the placement of
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHO RT CO L UMNS 2SS
eoncrde inlhe fon11s. To 'I<:hie,'e ""'-'quale (ying yel hold (he numhoer of lie~ 1o a min-
i mum, ACt Oxle 7.10.5 give, d", (ollowing rules for lie arrangement:
All bars of li~d column, ,holl be cndosed by kun"'li~s. 01 lea,l No. 3 (No. 10) in ,ize
(OJ longimdinal bars up ((} No. 10 (No, 32), ,nd a( ka'i No. ,f (No. 13) in size for No"
II , 14. and 18 ( N<:>s. 36.H and 57) and bundled loogitud inal bars, The spaci~g oflhe
lies shall nul exceed 16 diamelcrs of l""gi1Udin~1 ban;. 48 diam,,(ers of lie bars. llOT Iii<:
ic"l dimension of lhe column. The tics sha ll be so :IIT1lnged (hal ewry romer and aller
nme iongimdinol bar 'hall ha"e lalcrnl '"p]lOn pro,-i<le;j b)' lhe "'OmI:r of J lie h."ing an
included a~gle Of11Ol more Ihan 13~', and no bar shall be f"nher Ihan I'> in, dear on eilher
side from , uch a Ia(er~ny supported bar. Dt<forrned wire or welded wire fab<i~ of cqui"
alem area ",a)' be used insle,d of lies, W\1eTe Ihe bars arc localed around the periphery
of J ~ircl . 'Onll'lel. circular (ies may be used,
For 'pir~lIy rdnforced l"(Jlumn, ACt Code 7.10.4 reqlliremems for b(er~l reinror~..,
p
n","t nmy he summarized~, follow~,
*
Spirals 'hall con,iS! of a col1lin"o", bar or wi", nOi less Ihan in. in diamelcf. and II,e
clear spacing belwe..n IUm, oflhe ,piT"dlmu'l 001 c.cecd 3 in . I10r be t",s Ihan tin,
III addiTion. a minimum mlio of 'piral sleel i~ imposed such thai Ihe ,truC!ur.t1 per-
formance of Ihe column is significam ly improved, WiTh re'pect Ul b01h ultimale load
and Ihe Iype of failure, C'Ompan-d wilh an OTherwise idemi,al lied column,
n", structural effect of a 'piral i, easily visualized by mn.idering as a m!xld a
'teel drum fined Wilh sand (Fi g. 8.3). When a load is placed on the .and , a laleral pre,-
,ure is exen..-d hy Ihe 'land on Ihe drum, which causes hoop lension in the 'ted wall,
n", load on Ihe sand can be innea,,--d unTillhe hoop tension Decon",s large enough to
~
bUNI Ihe drum. the sand pile alone, ifnot C'Onfinl'<i in Ihe drum, would have been able
to suppon hantly any load. A ,ylindrical concrele ,olumn. 10 be sure, does have a def-
iniTe st renglh wilhout any laleral confinement. As il is hoeing loaded. il ,honens longi -
j j tudinally and expands laterally. depending on ('ois"}(1" ralio. A dosely 'pacl-d spiml
confining II", column coun!emels the expansion, as did Ihe sleel drum in Ihe (!Iodel.
nG URE 8.3 This causes h<x,p lens ion in the 'Ipir.tl, while the ,arryi ng ,apaciTy of Ihe C'Onfined mn -
Model for ""lion of J 'rrim!. erele in lhe core is gre~dy increased. Failure occurs only when tm, 'piral s1<..,1 yields,
whil' h g reatly redutts its confining dTl'Ct. or when il fr.>eture,.
A li ..-d C'Olumn faih al the load gi"en by Eq. (8.3" or b). At thi, load lhe C'Oncrcle
fail s by ,rushing and shearing OUl"'anl along indined planes, and The longitudinal
'teel b)' buckling out",ard hetwt.'en ties (Fig. 8.4). In a spiral ly reinforl't.-d C'Olumll.
when the san", load i, reach<.-d. II", longitudinal 'Ileel and Ihe ,'oncrele wilhin lhe <Xlre
are prC\'emed frum moving outward by Ihe 'piral. n", connete in Ihe outer sl",II , ho",-
e"er, not heing !io confined, d"", f~il: i.e., the oUl er ,1",11 spalls off when lhe load 1',
is reach<.-d. h i, at thi, smge Ihal Ihe wnfining aclion of Ihe 'piml ha, a ,ignifi tam
dfe,l, and if si7-'1bl e spiral ' Ieel is provide!!. lhe load IImt will ultimalely f~il the col -
umn by causing Ihe spiml 'teel 10 yield or fmClure can be much larger Ihan lhal ~1
",hil'h d", shell spalled off. Funhcrmore, Ihe axial slr.tinlimil whcn lhe column fail,
",ill be mud, grealer Ihan OThe rwise: Ihe Ulnghne'!, of II", column ha, been much
inl"Teased.
In comr~'I1 10 lhe pmctiC'C in some foreign mumrie,. il is re~>ned in the Uniled
Slates lhal any ex,e" capacil)' beyond d", 'palling load of lhe shell i, ",asled hecause
Ihe me(!lber, although not aemally fail ..-d, would no longer be wnsiden-d servi~..,able,
For Ihi, reason, lhe ACI Code provide, a minimum spir.tl reinforcement of such an
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
anKlur,t Ihat its conuihution HI the <"arrying (apacity i, just slightly 1aI),\~r Ihan that of
the concrete in Ih~ shdl. The siluation is beSI undeThtOlxJ fmm Fig. 8.5. which (om-
pares the I"'rfonnanct of a tied mlumn wi th that of a ,piral column who,,", 'palling
Ir----,I load i, <"Gual to tht ultim at~ load of the tied column . TI", failure of tl", ti~-d column i,
II II abrupt and complete.TIli, is true. to almosl the ,arne deg""' . of a 'piral column with
II II a 'piral '0 light Ibat ii, 'trength contribUli,m is conside rably less Iban Ihe strength klSl
II II
IL ___ -.JI in the spall~d shell. With a heavy 'pirallhe rcvc"", i, lru~, and with con,iderahle pri'"
1,---,1 ddonnation lhe spalled column would fail at a higher lood. The HACI 'pir~I: il>
II II ,trengtb contribution abmn mml"'nsating fOJ that los. in lhe ,palled shell. hardly
II II
increa,es Ihe ultimale load . Howe,"er. by prevem ing in'tamaneous crushing of con -
" crete and buckling of 'teel. il produce, a more gradual and duetile failure. i.e .. a
toughe r colu mn.
It ha., heen foum. eXl"'rimentally (Refs. 8.3 to 8.5) that the increase in compre<-
,iw slrength of thc core conerele in a (olun", provided through the ('{mfini ng dfec't of
'piral ,1<...,1 is closely re}lfe""'nt l-d by the ~qualion
1/ - 0. 85 I: = 4.0/; (ol
where /.* = compre$siw Si ren gth of spirally confmed <~Ire ('oncrete
0.85 J; = cornpressiw slrength of concrete if unconfined
I;= ImeTaI <~",fmenlent Slress in core ("<)ncrcte prodUCl"<l by spiral
n", confinement 'Ire"l; i, calculated assu ming that the 'piml 't!lel reaches its yield
,tress I, wben the column ewntually fail<. Wilh rderence to Fig. 8.6, a h'K1P len,ion
analysis of an idealized model o f a shon segme nt of colum" (~,"fin~-d by one tum of
later.1I 'led show, that
2A,,J,,
I, = -- 'hl
d, ..<
whe", A.'j' = cmss-secti(Hlal area of spiral wire
i., = yield 'trength of spirJI st!lel
FIG U RE 8.'1 d, = outside diameter of 'pir~l
Foil"re of " tk<! colu",,,. ., = spa('ing or pitch of spiral wire
~' I G U RE 8.5 Heavy spiral

Ikha,i(lf of 'pi rally Spiral column
rcinfoR"Cd ."d ,iro col um",. shell spalls
ACI spiral
Ligh1 spiral
Failure 01 columns
bed Or wi1h very
ligh! spirals
longnudinal s1ra in (shortening)

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHO RT CO L UMNS 257
A volumetric ratio is defined a, lhe ratio of tl", volume of spiral s!<eel to the volume of
Core concrete:
from which
- ,
2 d,.A", ..
(c,
Substituting t~ ,aIUt,of A", from Eq. (c) into Eq. (b) resu l" in
,f;.
FIG URE 8.6 f, = 2 (d)
Coof"",mem of COfe COIICfet<

d .. to hoop ","sio". To find the right amount of spiral steel one calculat~s
Slrength comribution of t~ shell " 0.S5f: (A . - A..)

wh~re A, and Ac are. resp.xtivdy. (he gros~ and core concrete areas. Then SUbsli(Ul i ng
the confinemem stress from Eq. (d) imo Eq. (a) and mu lt iplying by the core concr.:te
area.
Strength provided by the spira l " 2 ,/,A, (J)
Thc Nisis for lhc design of the spiral is thm t~ Strength gJin provided by the spir~1
,hould bt> at I ~ast equal to lhat lost wlwJl tlw ,h,,11 spall~. so combining Eqs . (e) and
(f),
from which
(8)
Accnrding tn the ACI O"k this re,ult is rounded upward slightly. and ACI Code
10.9.1 ,tutes that the ratio of spiral reinforeemen1 shall not be less than
A,
045
. -A, - (S-5)
It is furthcr sl ipulm~d in the ACI Code thaI!, 111USI nOl be lakcn great~r than 60.000
p.i .
It follows from this o:kwlopnwn1 that lwo conc"ntrically lo:uJed column,
d~signed to the ACI Cod~. on~ tied and on~ with spiral but otlwr..ise ident ical. will
fail at about tlw same load. th~ fortlwr In a su{[(kn and brittle mannt.'T. lh~ iatkr grad-
ually with prior spalling of th~ shdl and with rnor~ ducti1~ behavior. This advantagG
of the spiral column is much less pronounced if th.> load is applt.>d with Slgnificant
~'<.=ntricity or when ~nding from other sourCe, tS pre&m simu ltaneously WIth Ulnal
load . For this reason. whil~ tli.> ACI Cod<l p..-nltits somewhat larg~r d~sign loads on
,pirallhan on ti~d columns w~n the momentS am small or z~ro (. '"' 0.70 for spindly
rcinforced columns vs. 0.65 for ti~d). the diff~rcnce tS nOl large. and it is evcn
fu rther reduced for large cccel11ricities. for which appro:lchcs 0.90 for both.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
258. IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r II
n,~ design of .piral r~infOT('en"'nl according to the ACI OxJc provi,ion. is ea.-
ily reduc(od 10 tabular fonn, as in Table A .14 of Appendix A.
, _. 8.3 C OMPRESS IO N P LUS B EN DIN G OF R ECTAN GULAR C OLU MN S
Memocrs that are axially. i.e . (,()Ilcentrically. compressed occur mrely. if ev~r. in
buildings and otber structures . Components ,u('h a, colu mn, and arche, ("hietly carry
load, in compre"ion. bul simultaneous ocnding is almo,1 always presem. Bending
montemS are caused by (,ominuity. i.e .. b)" Ihe foct Ihat bui Iding columns are parts of
monolilhic frnmcs in which the support montent, of Ihe girders llfI' partly re,isl<'<1 by
the abutting columns. by lransverse loads such as wind fOTce . by loads carried ""cen -
trically on ("olun", brackets. or in arches when Ihe arch axi, does not coincide wilh Ih~
pressure lille. Even wh~n design calculations .how a ""'mocr to he loooJed purely axi -
ally. ineviw.ble i mperf('Ctions of con,truclim, will inuuducc ""'cenuicilies and con>e-
<juem ocnding in the me",t,.,r as built. FOT Ihis rea,on "",mhers Ihat must t,., de'igned
for simuitaneous compression and t,.,nding are \'Cry fre<ju~nt in almost all type, of
('oncrele ,tructure,.
When a ntember i, ,ubjected to combin(od axial compression P and moment M.
,uch as in Fig. 8.7". it is u,ually convenient to replac~ the axial load and llIo"",m with
an e<jualload P applied at ~ccentricily (! = M P. a. in Fig. 8.7h. 11", two loading> ar~
,tatically e<juivalent. Al l columns may then t,., dassifi<-od in tenm of the "'Iuivalent
<-"<-"Centricily. Those ha"ing relalively .mall <' are generally charao:1eriz~d by compres-
,ion over tI", entire concrel~ ",clion, and if O\'erload~d will fai I by crushing of the con -
crele aCl'l>J11panied hy yielding of lhe .1<Je1 in ("ompre"i"n on tI", more heavily loaded
,ide. Column, wilh large ecce ntricily are subjecl to len, ion over at leasl a part of Ihe
,,-'Ction. and if overloaded may fail due 10 tensile yielding of Ih~ 'I!lel on the ,ide far-
thesl from Ihe load.
For (-olurnn,. load stage, helow lite ultimate are g~neml1y nol ; mronan!. Cr""k-
;ng of concrele. even fOT columns wilh large (':emricily. is u,ualiy not a ",n""s pmb-
lem. and lal~ral ddle(-liOlls at service load le~e1s are ",ldorn. if e~e r. a faclor. De'ign
of column' is li>erefOTe ba"-,,l on Ihe faCI(}fed load. which mu,1 not nceed the de'ign
,trenglh. a, usual. i.e"
(8.6.:1)
(8.6h)
FIG URE 8.7

Equ ivaJem <"<..nniei,y or e=Mp.) p
" ,Iumll load
I-'-i
I,
I
{" (b)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHO RT CO l. UM NS 259
" -.. 8.4 STRAI N COMPATIB ILITY AN ALYSI S A N D INTERACT IO N DI AGRAMS
Figure 8.&, shows a member looded parallel to ils a.xis by a compressi"c forcc p. at
an c'<Xcmricily e nloOasured from Ihe cemerline. The distrihulion of strains at a section
aa along its icnglh. at incipient failure. i, shown in Fig. 8,811. With plane seelions
assumed to remain plane. eoncret~ Slrains vary Ii nearly with dislance from Ihe neulral
axis. which is located a distancc c frolll the more heavily loaded side of the member,
With ful l comlxnibility of deformalions. the steel sirains at any location arc Ih~ smne
as the sirains in lhe adjacent concrele: Ihus. if the ullimme concrete sirain is . Ihe
Slrain in lhe bars ncarcot Ihe load is ,. while thai in th~ lens ion hars at th~ far side is
. ,. Compression sted wilh area A, and lension steel with area A, are located al dis
lances d ' and d. respectively. from Ihe compression fac~.
The corrcsponding siresses and forces are shown in Fig. S.lk. Just as for simple
rending. Ihe aclual concrele compressive stress dislrib\,l1ion is replac~d by an cqui,a
lellt rectangular dislribution ha"ig depth" ... Ie. A large number oftcsts 0 columns
with a "ariety of shapes has shown Ihat th~ strengths computc'{\ on Ihis oasis are in sal
is/:'lCtory agreement wilh tCSI resu lt s (Ref. 8.6),
Eq uilibrium oclw~en eXlerna l and intanal a.xial forees sllo".- in Fig. 8.&
requ ires Ihal
I', = O.85j;.(,b + AJ; - A,j; (8.7)
Also. the momellt about Ihe centerl ine of Ihe seclion of the internal stresses and forces
OlUSI be equal and opposite 10 Ihe Illolncm of Ihe ~x lernal forc~ " . so thai
" + A,j,
2 "
- - d
2
+ A,j, d - - "
2
(8.8)
FI GU R E 8.11
Column ,ubje<llo eccemrk
<X)mp..<>ion : (d) k>:>d<d
column, II ",ain Width - b
dislribu,ion a' c,ion ""'''
(c) ,Ire,,,,, and fox"",",
""m;n,l """glb
(0) "~I
I')
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
n,~se = the two ba~ic l~u i librium rdations for rectangular ",-"centrical!y compre~sed
members,
n", fact that Ihe pr~""n<"e of the compression reioforcement A, h"s dispku:ed a
corresponding amOum of connete of =a A, is neglected in writing Illese <'<Iual;ons,
If nece"ar),. panicutarl y fQr large reinforcement mtio'. <H'" can al'CQUnl fQr this ,'cry
, im ply, Evid~ntly. in the abo"e equations a nOllex;stenl {""ncrete compression force of
amount A, 0.85/,,' ha.~ been ;lIc1ud~d a, acting in the displac..'" ,-",,"neW at the level
of th~ compre"ion sled. Thi, excess force can be re111o"ed in holh ..~uations by mul -
tiplying A" by f,' - 0.85/" r~t her than hy f, .
For large ecce ntri cil;e, . failure is initialed hy yielding of Ihe len,ion ,teel A,.
H~nce. for Ih i, case./, = f" When the concrete re",-"hes its ull;rrul1e strain . ' the <"om -
pression s1<..,1 mayor may not have yielded; Ihis musl be delermined hased on cOm-
patibilily of 'Imin" For ,mall e("('entri<"itie, the CQnc rete wi l! reach ilS limit strain
before Ihe tension 'teel starts yidding ; in fact. Ihe bars on Ihe side of the {"olunm far-
ther from the lo"d may be in cmnpre"ion. not tension. For .",,,I! e<-",entrieitie . too.
the analy,is mu ,t be 00"-'" on compatihility of !itrains hetween th~ 'teel and the adja-
<"Cnt concrele,
For a given eccentricily det~rm;ned from Ihe fra",e a nalysi, (i,e .. e = AI. P.) il
i, po"ible to st)I"e Eq" (8.7) and (8.8) for tI'" load p. and rnmn~nt M , Ihat would
resuh in failure a., follows , 111 both "'<Iuminns, f ,. /,. and (I can be expressed in t~rms
of a single unknown c. the distance to the neulml axi" This i, ea,il)' don~ ba.",d on
the geometry of tl", 'trai n diagmm . wi th tak~n equal 10 O.OO} a!i usual. and u,ing
the ,tress-slrdin {"ur.'e of the r~inforceme nt , nJe result is Ihm tI", two '-'<Iuations con -
tain only two unkllown,. f'. and c. and can be solved for tho", ""lues ,i mu ltm1Lously.
However. 10 ,k, st, in pmnice would be {"ornplicated algebraically. particularly because
o f Ihe rlt....... to in("{)rporate lbe limitf" on bodt f, and/"
A better approach. [lfoviding the basis for practical d~sign. is to CQnslruct a
"rrengrh ;memt:t;on diagram defining d", failure load and failure mo ment for a given
column for tI'" full mnge of eccemri<"itie, from I.ero to infinity. For any eccemricity.
there i!i a un ique pair of value, of p. and M. thm will produce Ihe ,t"te of illcipiem
failure. TI,at pai r of "alue, can be plotted a.~ a point on a gmph relating P, and /II
,uth a., shown in Fi g. 8,9. A series of ,u l'h cak-nlations. each corresponding to a dif-
FIGU IU: 8.9

In""a<,tion diagmm for
oo01inal col"",n strength in Cornprassiort failu re range
<X)mbi<ICd bcooing 000 axi,l
'''''' ." , / M
ii / Radiallinas show constant a - p"
c " / "
/
/
" ,
/
/
/
/ Tension failure range
/
1:.
' ~~::::::=-~=::::--~M"
a m"" Mo
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SHO RT CO L UM NS 26 1
fe"'nt eccentricity. will result in a cur\'e ha"ing a shnpe typically as shown in Fig. 8.9,
On such a diagr~"', any radial li"e "'p",sent, a p1lr1icular eccentricity e = M P. For
that en'entricity. gr.K!ually inl'rasing the load will define a load path a, shown. and
whe" that load path reache, the limit curve. fnilure will result, Nute thnt the venil'al
axis l'om:sponds to e = O. and Po is thc capacity of the column if CQncenlfically
luadcd. as given hy Eq. (8.3b). TI", hmizolllal axis mITe'porn.!> to an intinite valuc of
e. i.c .. pu", hending at mOmcnt l'apacity Mo. Small eccentricities will producc failu",
gown\ed hy <:oncrete ,"omp",ssion , while large eccentri<:ities givc a failu", triggered
hy yielding of thc tension steel.
For a given {"olunUl, selected fur trinl. the interaction diagram is most casi Iy con -
,tru,'1<...J by >electing sun'c"i"e ehui,'c, of neutr~1 axi, distan,'c c. from infinity (axial
luad wi th '-'<'("entri{"ity 0) to a very \rnnll ,".tlue found by trial to give 1'. = 0 (purc heTKI -
ing). For each selected vnlue of (". the sted strain, and s!Tesses and tl", cor,e",te forre
a", easily calcu lated as folluws. For the tension st"d,
J - "
, (8.9)
J- c
I, = ,E, - -,.- -S J~, (8.10)
while for the compression sted.
- t' -
" - d
d
(S,I I)
/, = ,E,-- ,- '/, (8.12)
The concrele Siress Nock has depth

,,- ,t' ::S h (S,I J)
and eonSl,<!uemly the <:oocrete compressive resullant is
C .. O, S~J-:<I/) (S,14 )
The nominal axial force p. and nominal Inometil ,11, corresponding to tlte selecled
neutral axis location Can then be calculntc"d from Eqs, (8.7) and (8.8). res!"-xi ;vely. and
th uS a single point on the strenglh intcraction di~gratl1 is establishcd. Thc calculmions
arc then rcpeated for successive choices of llCutral axis to establ ish the curve defining
the m~ngth limits. such as Fig. 8.9 , The calcu lmion s. of a rcpelitivc nmurc, are ~asily
program111~'{j for thc computer or performed using a sprc:tdshcct.
-. 8.5 B ALAN CED F AtLURE
As alrcldy noted. the i111craction cur~e is divided into a compression fai lurc range and
a ICnsion failure range.' It is useful to def,ne ",hm is termed a /"d"m:ed!aU,,,..' mode
and corresponding ecccntricity eo with the load PI> and moment Mb acling ,n combi
nalionlo producc failurc. with the cor)Crere reaching ilS limit strain at preci sely lhe
, th' ~"f1R> <,,",p'mi'''' )iul.", m,,1I' .00 ,,,'-'.'" fi"'""

""'~, .R: used f,.-I,", [JOfJJ\"" of >"'lIlnl dc"''';pli"" 000 "'" lIi"i .-, In"TI '"'-'''''' '
CO'U~~I<J.n<! romp""i(.. """,u~jd l:li t.R', . ., ok,,-riM! in (n.pI,~ .1 :md x..'lioo 8,9
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
,ame in,lall! that lhe I~nsile s!<eel on the far side of the column reaches yield stmin,
111;' point Olllh~ inter""lion diagmm is the dividing point bdw ....,n {'ol1lpression fail -
ure (,mall eccentricitie,) and ten,ion failur~ (laI&~ ,-,"el11riciti~,).
lne ,'alues of 1'; arKI Mb are easily computed with reference 10 Fig. 8.8, For bal -
anu..! failur~.
c=r,,=d - -;'- (8.15)

+ -'
and
" = ", = r", (8.16)
E'lnalion, (8.9) throngh (8 .1 4) are tl"'n used to obtain the Sled stres'es and the com-
pressi"e resultant. a fter which". and.w" are found from E<j!i. (8.7) and (8.8).
It is to be rK)t~d that, in cOntr.JSt to beam de.<ign, one ("an not r,,"ltrin column
design' such that yidding failure mlher tlmn crushing failure would alwa)" be the result
of o""rloading. lne type of fai lure for a ,;olurnn del"'nds OIl tl", value of ",-"centricity e.
which in lum is definet! hy the load analy,is of the building or other SlructU"'.
It is iml'0nam to oh""rv~. in Fig. 8.9, that in the region of compr~!isi()n failure
the larger the axial load " , . the smaller the moment M, that the section is able to su,-
tain before failing. HoweYer. in 11", region of tension failure the rev",,,,, i, Hue; the
larger the axial load. the larger lhe simultan ..ou, moroerrt {'apacity. Thi, is easily
unders1<KKI. In the c"ompre,sion fai lur~ region. failure occurs through oveNmining o f
the concrele. 11le larger lhe COllcrete compressive sir.Jin caused by the axial load alone .
tl", smaller the margin of addilional sHain available for the add<..>d compre,sion caused
by bending. On the other hand, in tile ten ,inn fail ure reginn. yielding of the ,teel ini -
tiates failure. If the memixr is IOa<kd in simple bending 10 the (Joim at which yidding
begin' in the tension sled. and if an axial {'ompre",ion load i< tl"'n atld,,d . the 'teel
~xlmpressive streSses ~au,~>d by this load will .<u(1erimpose On the previous tensile
stre;;se,. This ret!uces the lotal 'ted Slfess to a value helow ilS yield strength,
COl1st'luemly. an add itional momem can now he sustained of ~uch magnitude that the
comhination of lhe sted 'tres.' fmm the axial load a,1d the increased moment again
read",s the yield strength .
Th~ lypical shal'" of a column imeraction diagram shown in Fig. 8.9 has impor-
tan! de.<ign implication,. In the range of ten,ion failure. a n!dll<'lio" in <lxial 1<",,/ may
pnxluce failure for a giwn moment. In carrying Out a frame analysi,. the de'igner
must conside r all {'ombin3tion, of loading that may (K:Cur. including that which would
pmduce minimum axial load pair<>d with a given I1101)lent (the sl"'ci!ic load combina-
tions are spe("ified in ACt Code 8.8 and de-cri\>ed in Seetion 12.1). Only that anK)unt
or compression thai is certain 10 be present ,hould be used in calculatil1g the ("apacity
of a column subje<"l to a given rtKlmenL
EXA M I'I. E H. l Col" mn st rength in teraction diagram. ,\ 12 x 20 in, culumn is ~infon:ed "'ith four No,
9 (No. 29) bars of area 1.0 in' each. ~ in each rort1er a, ,hown in I'ig. B.IOu . l'I>e concrete
c"ytirKiff >trer<glh isr; - -1.(XXJ psi and th., Meel yield >trer<glh i, 60 ~,i. Detffmi'te (,,) tlte
load p . " mon.-m ,\I" and corresp<l,lding eccentrioity~. for bola"".,d failure: (/,)!be load and
rno<ncnl for rep",,,,ntotiv. point in the te"sioo (,i] urc region of the imernc1ion curve;
(e) the load and m'm.-nt for a repre"'''tative point in tbe romrre"iOl1 failure region: (,I) the
axial load strenglh for zero ecc~ntricity, Then (e) 'ke1ch the strength interneli"n diagram for
thi' column. Fin:llly. (f) tksign !M tmn,,,,,,,", reinforcen.-m, ba<ed on ACt Code "",,,i,ions
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SHORT COLUMNS 263
,,' "'"
~600
0'
'00 - P~ - 357
' 00
''I
/II/alias
I' 'I
J 111111~U"'"
,,'
FIGURE 8. 10
C"lumn in"me,i"" diagram 1(1< " "mplo 8.1: (01 em .. "",i,,., (b) >or.. in di",ioo,ion, (r) "rosse,
,00 force" (J) strenglh imeraclion di,gram.
S()Un'lON.
(<I) 'I1IC 'IC"lral a>is for Ihe t",IHhCc<1 failure condilion is easily foun,1 from Hq , (8,15) wilh
. - O.OO.1.nd . - 6029,000 - 0,0021:
o.om
c. ~ 17.~ X 0.0051 ~ 10.3 in.
gi"ing' "Tessblock d.:plh" - 0,85 X 10,3 - 8,76 in. F", ,he balanced fail ure condi
rion, by d"finilion." - 1-... TIle compre"il'e .reel srre" is found from Eq (8 .12):
10..1 - 2,5
f, = 0.003 X 19.000 - 6.5.9 hi bm :5 60 hi
10. .1
c""linnin~ thai the rompn:ssiml ,I.:el. 100. i, at the yield. '!lle ~"()ncret" compres,i'"
resultant is
C - 0.85 x" x 8.76 x 12 - 357 kips
lbe balallceillood Pb is Ihen fo und from Eq, (8.7) to be
p. - .157 + 1.0 X 60 - 2.0 X 60 - 357 kips
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I IHl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
and the balaJlced moment from F..q, (8.81 is

M. E 357 10 - 4,38 -+ 2,0 X 6O JO - 2.5 -+ 2,0 X 60 17.5 - 10
- 3806in.kip< - .1li ft.~ip<
The ,,,,.,...,ponding eccentricily of load is 10.66 in e. -

(h) Any choice of c ,malla Own (', = 10.3 in. will gi'" a point in the tcnsiOil fai l"", n'gion
of the inleroction eu"", with ec,,,ntridty larger than ~Ir For example. eh()()<;e C - 5.0
in. By ddinitiOll,/, ~ j, .. TIl<! compres,i,'c Itcd StreSS is fOl,nd 10 be
5,0 - 2.5
[, = 0,003 X 29.000 S,O = 43.5 ksi
Wilh the >1res<hlock depih" - 0.85 X 5.0 X 4.25, lhe rom"...",;,,, resultant is C -
0. ~ 5x .. X 4, 25 X 12 = 173 kip, . Theil fro", Eq. (8 ,7).lhe thru" is
p. - 17.1 ... 20 X 41.5 - 2.0 X 60 - 140 kip'
and the mome'" capacily from Eq, (8.8) is
M. _ 173 10 - 2.12 + 2.0 X 43.S 10 - 2.5 ... 2.0 X 60 17,S - 10
= 2916 in-kip< = 243 (lkip<
giving cc'ttntricily e - 2916 140 - 20.83 in .. we ll abo,'e the bala"<.,<:d ,'alue.
t,,) NO\<'selecting a,' nl"e ,'''Xu l/u", <', to de monstrate a compression failure polm on
the imcrOClion Cllr~c . choo>c " - 18,0 in .. for "hich " - 0.85 X 18.0 _ 15,3 in, The
compressiv~ concrete resultant i, C = 0.S5 X 4 X 15 ..1 X 12 = 614 kip<. From Eq,
(8.10) ,he .\!ress in 'he steel 31 ,he left side of 11\0 col,, "'n i,
17.5 - 18.0
j, - 0.003 x 29.000 - - 2t,i
18.0
Note Ihal IItt> ne~ali"e ~allie of!, indicales corrt"Ctly Illat A, is in ooml""ssiOIl if c is
gn:at(.'T ,h.,n d. as in lhe present C3>C. n,c oo",p",ssi~~ stccl soress is found from Eq,
(IU 2)tobe
18.0 - 2.5
j, = 0.003 X 29.000 = 75 ksi :S 60 ksi
18.0
'l1\On lhe C'(llurnn capocity is
p. = 624 + 2,0 X 60 -+ 2,OX 2 = 748 kip<
M. - 624 10 - 7_65 + 2_0 X 60 10 - 2_5 - 2.0 X 2 17_5 - 10
- 2336 in.kips - 195 fl \;ip<
gi,ing eccentricity" - 2-' .16 748 - -' _12 in
(d) The axial sln:nf',lh of III< column if oo",,~n lrically looded corresponds to (' = '" and
~ - 0_ For this co.",.
p. = 0.85 X 4 X 11 X 2{) -+ 4.0 X 60 = 1056 kips
Note thai, for this o., well as lhe P""<',ding colculations, ,ubtraction of W concrete di,
plOCt<d b)' Ihe Sleel has be<:n neglecl.:d . For oompaJison. if III< deduclio" w~r~ made in
lhe la,t ealculatiOll:
p. = 0,85 X 4 12 X 20 - 4 -+ 4.0 X 60 = 1(l.t2 kip'
The error in negl.olinS this &ilucliOll is only 1 p<:tc,nt in this co."" Ihe differeMe s en
emily Can be I>t"glccled. e,c~pI perhaps for c'(Ilumns wilh r~ i nforccm"nl ralios dose 10
the maximum of8 l"'ILent In lhe case of design aids. howe"e-<. sueh as those ~"Ied
in Refs. 8.2 and 8.7 and dis<'Usscd in S-.:t1iOll g, 1O. the <kducliOil is u>ually j""ludt-d for
all rdnforcement roli",_
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SHORT COLUMNS 265
(d From Ihl> calculalion, jusl compleled. Jl1u, 'imilar reptliliw caicul:uion, Ihal will no!
be Eiwn here. Ihe ,u.. nglll iJl!er."'liOl' ~urw of Fig. K 10.1 i, c'O/I,m"'led. Now Iii< char-
acleri>!;" ,hape. de,;crlbed e31li ... lhe localion oflhe balanced failure poinl as well a,
lhe ",mall ..'C~e n1Ticilf aoo "Ia'l'e cccenirieilf' [><lims jU'1 found, aoo II><: .. ialload
capacilY
If) In lhe process of dewloping a slrenglh imeroction cur.... il is pos,ible 1o ",led lhe "01-
ues of ,Ieel SI111i n ",.1, dorIC in \ler (<I). for use in \lep; (I and (c) , Sdceling ,
uniqudy establishes Ihe ReUiral axi, deplh c. a, shown by Eq', (8 ,9) and (8.1 5). ond i,
useful in 'k.~"""i"in& M, and I'. for ,'alues of Sled Slmin Ihal COrrcspontllo changes in
IIIe ,m>nglh redOCli,," foclor . as will be di,;cu,sed in Seclion 8 ,9.
(g) The de,ign Of l1'c wl um n lie, will be carried oUI followi ng lhe ACI Code r<;'lriClions,
For Iho minimum ptrmilled lie diomeler of i in .. used wil h NO.9 INo , 29) longilUdinnl
bars lo""in& a dia'rlCl>:J' of 1,128 in a I'(II"mn ,he lea" ,limcnsion of which is 12 in __ lhe
lie 'pacing i, nol 10 exc""d,
;
J8X - ~ 18 in,
"
16 X 1.128 = 18.05 in.
h ~ 12 in,
The lasl ""triction comrol, in Ihi, OJse. and No. ~ (No. 10) tie, will be used al 12 in,
spacing, d"lailed 3S ,hown in I'ig. 8, lOa. NOIe [hal [II;, pennined spacing 3S con[mlled
by I!l;, firsl and ""'"000 ~rilcria. I ~ in .. mU\l be reduced beca"", of III;, 12 in, culumn
d;men,ion. indical;ng ,hal 3 s,wing in lie ,led could be realized "'lng 3 smaller (ie
diame1~r; how",,"r. Ihi' ,",'Ould no! ,neel lhe ACI Code remiclion on II><: mini",u", lie
di.meler in Ihi, en",.
~ 8.6 D ISTRIBUTED REINFORCEMENT
When large bending Illl",,,,ol, are pre>cnt, il is nll)st L"COnomi("allO cOnL'entr.lte all or
mosl of Ihe sleel along the onle r face, par.illd 10 Ihe axis of bending. Su,'h armnge-
mell1s are shown in Fig. 8.2e In II . On Ihe nlher hand. with ,mall ""eentriciti~, so dun
axial compression i, predominant. and when a small crOS, seClion i, desired. il is often
advall1agcous 10 place tI", sted more unifom,ly around the perimcler, as in Fig. 8.211
10 d. In Ihis case, 'pe("ial anention mu st !J.t, paid In the inte rmediale bars, i.e .. those Ihal
are nnl placed aklllg the 1"'0 faces that are ",osl highly 'tre,,,,'<.l . This is '0 beeause
when tI", ultimate load is read>e<J. the stre,,,,, in tI",se inlern>e<Jiate bars are usually
below tl", yield point. ewn though II", bars along one o r bOlh an""", faces may be
yielding. Thi~ situation can !J.t, analyzed by a si mple and ''''''ious extension of Ihe pre-
vious analysis bast.'<.l (1) compalibilily of slmins, A strength int"""lion diagram may
be mn,lrueled j usl as befor~. A sequence of ,'hoice, of neUlral axis localion r",ulis in
a set of paired values of p. and AI,. "ach corresponding l<> a panicular ,,("eentricily of
load.
EXA'\11'L.E H,2 Anal),si. or .......,"II1"' lIy loaded column "'ith dislrilxlled ""oro"'.., .... nl. The ,ol"",n
in Fig. 8. 11" is reinforced wilh len No. I 1 (No, 36) bars dimil!(ned around lhe perimeter as
sllow". l.oalJ 1'. ,,'; 11 be applied wilh \'CCemri~ity e abootlhe wong axi" Mmerial 'lrenglh,
are!; - 6000 psi 3nd{" - 75 l si. Fiod lhe load 300 11lOI,,,,n! corre.'JlOI,ding 10 a failure (loin!
wilh Re ulr.iI axis c - 18 in. from the right face.
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FIGU IU: 8. 11
Column in Ex.mpk S.2:
(oj cross =fion, (~J sfrain
Ji>1ribution, V).In""" and
forc.
-----+-~~~
1
A" A" ~.~ A"
,-
i'i
'"
iOi
j
('i
SOO.IJrl<>S. W hen lhe roncrete reaches its limil s{min of 0.003. {he strain disn"ibu{ioo is
Ihal ;I\owrl in Fig. 8.llh. II>c !... ~;n, at !loc localiOrl, of II>c four bnr groups arc fOllnd frolll
similar lrian~les. aftl"f which {Ite slre5ses are fOllnd b}' m"lliplying strains by , - 29.000 hi
applyinl1 Ihe lin,;1 ,'ahoc I,:
" - 0.00258 I" - 75 .0 hi compre,,;on
,,- 0.001 42 j" - 41 ,2 l si C(ln,prcs,ion
" ~ 0.00025 j" K 7.3 ksi <"Omprcssioo
" = 0.00091 j" = 26,4 ksj lensioll
ForI.: - 6000 p,i. J ~ 0.75 " nd 1"" ikp{h o f {he eqoiv"l~m rec{angula, SIreS. block is" =
0.7~ X 1R - 13.5 in. TI>c concrete compress;,'. ,""SUIt""l is C - 0.85 x 6 X 13.5 X 12 -
826 kips. and lhe ""I"'<li'. 'Ieel fon;cs in Fig, S. llc a,e ;
C, L = 4 ,68 X 7~ .O = 351 kip'
C" = 3.12 X 4 1.2 = 129 kip.
C,; = 3,]2 X 7.3 = 23 kips
T" - 4.68 X 26,4 - 124lJp'
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The a,ial load and n..,ment that would rrodllCe failure for a ""ulral ""is 18 in. from the right
bee am fOlUld by (he oo,iuus c-'tenlimos of l:.ql, 18.7) and (8,8 );
P, - 826 -I- 35( -I- 129 -I- 23 - 124 - (2{l5 ki",
AI, _ 82613- 6,75 -I- :15( 13- 2,5 .,. 129 13 - 9,$ - 23 13 -9.5
-1-12413 - 2.5
~ IO.520in-ki",
~ 877 ft-kip,
TIl com,pondi"!, eox",mncit)' i, e ~ 10520 1205 - 8.13 in. OIher poinls on tt><: intcr",,
tion diagram can be ""mpUled in a sinrilar way
Two gen~ralnllldusion' can be made fmm this ,,,ample:

I. Even with the rdatively small ~"C~ntrkity of ahout "''''-third of the depth of tOO
settion. only the bars of group I just bardy re"ched th~ir yield stmin. ~nd nln -
sequ eml y their yield stress. All othe r bar groups of the relatively high -strength
sted tlmt was used arc stres",d f~r below their yield strenGth. which would "I so
have flet,n t""" for gnmp I for a slightly I~rger ",-,centricity. It follow, that tl'" use
of the more aPl'nsi"e high -strength s1<...,1 is ~n",omical in symmetrically rein -
forced colum", only (or very small eccent ricitie,. e .g .. in tile lower ~tOrie, of tall
buildings.
2. The <,'(lntrihution o( the imenn"diat" bars of groups 2 and 3 to both 1', and M. is
quite smalloc"Cause o f their low <tresses. Aga; n. inte rmed iate bars. except ~s they
are ~,--d ({) hold ties;n place, are ~"Conomical only fOJ column, with "ery small
cc~"ntricitie,.
_. 8.7 U NSYMMETRtCAL R EINFORCEME NT
Mo,t reinforced mnnete columns are symmetrically reinforced al>out the axi, of
bending. However, for , ome cases, !iuch a. tbe column, of rigid ronal fr.ulles in which
the moment, are uniaxial and til" occentricity large. it i, llIore economic'al to use an
unsymmetrical pattern of bars, with most oftlte bars on the tension side soch a, shown
in Fig. It 12. Such column, c'an be analyzed by the 5:1"''
,train compatibility approach
as "escribed above. Ho"'e\'er. for an unsymmetric'ally reinforced column to be loaded
concentric'ally. tl'" load must pass through a point known a, the I'hmic c~tUmid. TI",
plastic centroid is d~fin~d as the point of application of tbe ",suhant force for tile (01 -
Ullin (ross section (induding (oncr~tc and s(eci forces) if (he column is comprc>s~d
uniformly to the failure strain = O.()()} o\'er its entire cnlSs ,,-"Ctioll. F..ccentricity of
the applied lood must be mea<ur~-d with re spect to the pbstic centroid. because only
tben will e = 0 corr~sl'0nd 10 an axiall""d with no mOment. TIle location of the pb<-
tic c'~mroid for rhe ('oluum of Fig . 8 .12 i, th" resuhant of the three internal fore", to
be accounted for. h, distance (rom the left face i,
(8.17)
0.85/"l>h + A,/, + A,f.
Clearly. in a symnletrieal ly reinforced cross section. the plastic centroid and the geo
metric center coincide .
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FIGUIU : 8. l l
P1,,-"i~ """!rOid of an
u"')'nlmetrkally feinfOfCW
",Ium"
, ~ : =jl
r +-~-+
, '
+~-+-+
PC '
L+-+-+
[J..J J.
ffffffffffm' O.851~
ililililUf"-'
_, 8.8 CIRCULAR COLU MN S
It was m..:mioncd in S..:ction 8.2 Ih~t wh..:n load eec..:mricities arc smal l. spirally rein
forced columns show greater toughness. i...: .. greater duclility. Ihan tied columns.
alt hough this difference falks OUI as the c<:centrici ty is increas.:d , For this reason. as
discussed in Section 8.2. the AC I Code provides a more favorable l"t"<1uction factor -
0.70 for spiral columns. compared with - 0.65 for tied columns. Also. the maxi
mum stipulated design load for entirely or nearly axially loalkd members is lal'ller for
spiral ly reinforced lnembers than fOT comparable tied IlICmb.:rs (sce Section 8.9), It
follows that spirally reinforced columns pennit a somewhat more economical utiliza
tion of the materials. particulJrly for small calculated eccemricitics. A funher advan .
tage lies in the foct that the circular shape is frequently dC.\ired by the archite..:t.
Figure 8.13 shows the cross scction of a spirally reinforced column , Si x or more
longitudinal bars of equal size arc provided for longitudinal reinforcement. Ikpending
on column dianICter, The slra in distrihution at the instant at which lhe ultimate load is
reachc"<1 is shown in Fig. 8, I Jb. Bar groups 2 and 3 are S<"\ln to be strained to much
smaller va lu~s than groups I and 4. The stresses in the four har groups arc easily
found. For any of the bars wilh strains in e.~cess of yield strain , - J,. E,. the stress
at failure is evidently th~ yield stress of tile bar. For hars wi th smaller strains. tile stress
is found from .!; - . ,E"
On ~ then has the intemal forc~s shown in Fig. 8.13('. They must be in forc~ and
moment ~"quilibrium with the nominal strength p. , It will be not~>d that the situation is
analogous to that discussed in Sections 8.4 to 8,6 for rectangular columns ,
Calculations can be carried out exactly as in Example 8.1. except that for circular
columns the concrete compression zone subject to the equivalent rcctangul~r stress
distribution has th~ shape of a segment of a circle. sho .... n shadc--d ,n Fig. 8.1.1(1 ,
Although the shape of the compression lOne and the strain variation in the dif
ferent groups of bars make longhand calculations awkward. no n~w principles arc
i II\"OI\'l"<1 and computer solution s :lrc easily dcvdopcd ,
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FIGU IU : 8. 13
Cirmlar <"Iumn with
comrre"'joo pi", bend ing.
(.)
,,,
,
I
lei ! a- 13 t C
"-'
J J
A.. f
I
JJ
A.~f'l I A.2f'2 A.,I.,
O. B5lc
j
Po
,
Desi gn or analysis of spimlly reinforcL'<i columns is usually carri~d out by means

ofd~,ig n aids, such a, Gmphs A.I] to A.16 of Appendix A. Additional tabt~s and
graphs ar~ available , ~.g., in Ref 8.7. In devcloping suth design aids, the emire steel
area is often a.,"umed to be arranged in a uniform, contentri,' ring. mtller than t,.,ing
conccmmted in the anual bar lo(;atiofls; this ,implifies calculations without noticeably
affecting resull, if the column contains m lea." eight longitudinal ba". When fewer
bars are u",d, the im~mtti<;", eurye should t,., ,'alculat.ed based on the weakest orien -
tation in bending .
It slK>uld t,., noted that . to qualify for the nK'''' favomble safety pmvisions for
spiral eolumns, the reinforecment ratio of the spiral must t,., at least "'Iual to that given
by Eq. (8.5) for reasons discussed in Senion 8.2.
_. 8.9 AC I C ODE P ROV ISIONS FOR C OLUM N D ESIG N
For column,. as for all me",t,.,rs lk'igned according to the ACt C,xle. ad"'luate ""fdy
margins are establi~hed by applying load factor,; to the ",,,,ic~ load, mxl strength
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reduelion faclors 10 Ihe nominal Sircnglhs. Thu s. for columns. P, 2: P, and

M.2: M, are Ihc basic safcIY cril~ria. For 0l1OS1 mcmb.:rs subjecllo a.xial compression
or compression plus flex ure (comprcssion,colllroll.xl 11Icmbers. as dcscribed in
Chapler .. Ihc AC I Cod.: provides basic r.xluclion faclOrs :
.. 0.65 for tied columns
- 0.70 for spiral ly reinfore~d columns
Thc spre:w bt:lwcen Ih~sc IWO valucs ren~~ts Ih~ added safcly furnishcd by Ih~ greatcr
loughness of spirally reinforced columns.
Thc re arc various reasons why lhe valu~s forcolumllS are lowcr Ihan Ihose for
flex ure or shear (0.90 and 0.75. respeclively). One is thaI Ihe sirenglil of underrcin
foreed flexural members is not much affe<:lcd by varialions in concrclC sirength. since
;1 depends primarily on Ih~ yicld slrenglh of Ihe steel. wh,le thc slrcngth of axially
loadc-d members depends strongly on the concrel~ compressive slrenglh. Because lhe
cylinder Slrength of COlICrCle undcr site condilions is less closely cOllirolkxllhnn lhe
yidd slrenglh of mjllproduc~>d SI~cI. 3 13rg~r occasional slrenglh deficiency muSI be
allowcd for. This is panicularly lruc for columns, in which coocrClC. ocing placed
froillthe lOp down in a long. narrow form. is more subjcci 10 segregalion Ihan in hor
izonlal ly caSI b.:ams. MOfCOwr. ckclrical and olner conduilS are frequemly loca1~xI in
building columns: Ihi s r.xluc~s lheir cfkcliw cross seclions. oflcn 10 an ~XI~1lI
unknown 10 Ihe designer, c"cn Ihough Ihis is poor pracI;c~ and reslricled t>y Ihe ACI
Code. Finally. Ihe consequcnces of a column failure. say in a low~r slory. would be
more cataslrophic Iha n IhJI of a singk beam in a tloor systcm in Ihe same building.
For high eccelllriciti~s. as Ihe eccelliricily increases from ~I> 10 infini ly (pure
bending). Ihc ACl Codc recognizes Ihal lhe member beha"cs progressi vely more li ke
a flcxural fllCmb.:r and less lik e a col umn. As describt:d in Chapler.>. Ihis is acknowl
Lxlgcd in ACI Cod.: 9.3.2 by providing a linear lransilion in - from valucs ofO.6~ and
0.70 to 0.90 as the nel tensile slrain in Ihe CJ;lrenlC I~nsile sl~'1:1 - I increases from/,.-E,
(which may be taken as 0.002 for Gradc 60 reinforcemelll) 10 0.005.
AI Ihe OIher eXlreme. for columns wilh vcry small or zero calculalcd ccccillrici
lies. Ihe ACI Code recognizes lilat Jccidenlal COnSlrUClion mis.~1igTi nlCnIS and otilcr
unforeseen faclOfS may produce aClual cccell1rici lics in exccss of IllCsc small design
values. AIso. Ihe concr~IC slrcnglh under high, suslaincd axial loads may be sonlCwhal
smaller Ihan Ihe shonlerm cylinder strenglh. Th~re fore. regardless of Ihe magnitude
of Ih~ cakulal~xI ccccmricily. ACI Cod.: 10.3.5 limils Ihe maxim um design slrcnglh 10
0.80 Po for lied columns (wilh - 0.65) aJw 10 0.85 "0 for spirally reinforced
columns (with - 0.70). whcre Po is Ihe nominal strcnglh of Ille axially lood~d col
umn wjlh l~ro l~cell1ricily [5<-'1: Eq. (8 .4)].
The clTcets of Ihc safelY provisions of lhe AC I Code ar~ shown in Fig. 8.14. The
solid curve label.xl "nominal slrenglh'" is Ihe saine as Fig. 8.9 and reprcscll1s Ihe :lclual
carrying capacily. as nearly as can be prcdicKxI. The sl000th curvc shown panially
dashed. then solid. then dashl'<i, represems the basic dcsign sirength obtain.:d t>y
reducing Ihe nominal slrenglhs p. and M,. for each eccenlricily. by .. 0.65 for li.xl
columns and - .. 0.70 for spiral columns. nlC hori101lIai cutoff al " 0 rcprcsems the
maximum design lo.1d slipulal"xI in Ihe ACI Code for small ccccntricil ies. i.c .. large
axial loads . as jusl discussed. AI Ihc olher end. for large eccc1llricities. i.c .. small axial
loads, Ihe ACI Codc permils a linear lransilion of - from 0.65 or 0.70. :lpplicable for
- I :s /,- E, (or 0.002 for Grade 60 reinforcement) 10 0.90:H I" 0.005. By definition.
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SHO RT CO L UMNS 27 1
FI GU IU: 8. 14 P
ACt <aFe,), prtwi,ion,
Ties: </> - 0.65: () - 0.80
superimposed on col""'"
Spirals: </> - 0.70; " - 0.85
""'"gill i"tor"",i" diagram. P,
Nomina l strength
k E, m the balanced condition. TIle elkct of the

. I - tr~nsition in is sho",n at the
lower right end of the design strength curvc. '
_. 8.10 DE SIG N At DS
TIle design of eccentrically looded col umns using the stra in compatibility mC!hod of
analysis descrihed requires thm a trial column be selected. The trial column is then
investigated to determine if it is adcqua l~ to carry any combination of p. and M. thm
may act on it should the Structur.: be overloaded. i.e .. to sce if". and /If. from the
analysis of the structure, when plou~d on a strength intemction diagram such as Fig.
8.14. fall within the region bounded by the curve labeled nACI design Slr.:ngth."
Furthermore. economical design r."quires that lhe cOl11roll ing combinm ion of p. and
,11, be dose 10 the limit curvc. If these conditions arc nOl mel. a new column mUSl be
selecled for trial.
While a simple computer program or sprcadsheet can be developed. based on the
strain compat ibilit y analysis. to calculate poil11s on the design strength curvc. and even
to plot the curve. for any trial column . in practice design aids are U5c'd such as are
available in handbooks and special volumes publishood by the American Concrete
Institute (Ref. 8.7) and the Concrctc Reinforcing Steci lnsti1Utc (Ref. 8(2). They cover
the mOSt freq ue nt practical eases. such as symmcuically reinforced rectangular and
square columns and circular sp irally reinforced columns. Tl1cr.: arc also a number of
commercially available computer progmms (e.g .. I'CACOLUMN, Portland Cemel11
Association. Skok.ic . III inois. and H BCOL UMN . Concrete Reinforcing Stcel InstilUte.
Schaumoorg.lllinois).
...."Ile !lie 1<-""",,1 1",<," "f ,I>:- Act eWe ,,1(1) 1"\",,,,-,,,, Td .. in~ '0 ,,-,,,,,,,je "~",,, ", i, ,kll< onJ l"ruJj ,...... ally " .. <oJ. ,to..' <lid "-",,, II ;; . .... '"
"rJll,dy <h,p! C'( "UO,," Oc"i.., ,"'.,'" 1"lk""i"" .. ' di;tem;ni< rOl)"'''''t I,,,,. .. ;, ,10;" ... ,,,,.-.1
in [,il!. ~.14 . tonv",-.I ,,~" " '" ..r<'y p",\i,~ .. ,.
,,~"I"D ~ in ,,, .,,b Oc~; iJO (",'>0 OpprI,..-iotdy R'Jamj '0 'oc ,In'''II,h <u"..,. """,kl be ,,,,,pkr ., "'" .n..t """" .... ".. wII> ...ell
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GrapllS A.5 through A.16 of Appendix A are ,ep,e"'ntati,'C of col umn de'ign
cham (such as found in Rd . 8.7), in this case for ('{)flnet~ withj.: = 4000 psi and st~eI
wilh yield ,trength j" = 60 bi, for , 'arying cov~r distances .' Ref~ ,"nce 8.7 include,
dmns fOJ a bmad range of material strenglh,. Graph, A.S Ihrough A. 8 are drawn fOJ
rectangular columns with , einfOJ("en"'llI dislributed around the ('{)Iumn perimet~r:
Graphs A.9 through A.12 are fo, re("tangula, columns wilh reinfo,cement along Iwo
opposite fac~s. Circular column, with hap; in a ("ircular pa1t~ m are ,hown in Graph,
A.13 through A. 16.
n,~ graphs are SCen IQ ('{)flsist of nominal 'trength inter;":lion ,'unfe, of the typo:
,hown in Fig . 8.14. HIm'",,'er, instead of piQuing p" v~"u, M", ,xlrrcsponding param-
eters ha~e been used to make Ihe ("hans m<Jre genera lly appli("abl", i.e . load is plou"d
as K, = P, (f; A.), while n")fnent is exp, essed as R. = P.e U-; A! . Familie, of
c urve, ar" dmwn fOJ variou, values of ~ = A" A. hetw"en 0.0 1 and 0.08, nle graph,
also include r~dial line, r"p,,,""nting different ecce ntricily ralios e h, as well as lill~'
, eprese nt ing diff"rem ratio, of stressf, 'f" or ,'alue, of sirain " I = 0.002 and 0.005 in
the ext ,enle ten,ion sleeL
Chan. such as these permit the direct design of ",:centrically loaded column'
throughout tile common mnge of ,trenglh and geomelri(" variables. TIley rnay he used
in one of two ways a, follows. For a given factored load p. and equivalent L'<X'Cntric-
ity e = /II, p.'
I. (a ) Select tri al cross S<.'<'tion dinleosions h and II (refer 10 Fig. 8.8).
(b) Calculate the ralio ' based on rt."-luired ("""'" distunces I() the bar centroids.
and sd""t lhe C<lrrc'ponding column design chart.
(e) Calculate K. = p. ( J;:A~ ) and R. = P,e (, J;AiJ, w""reA, = M.
(d ) From the graph. for tile values fm",d in (c ), read It", required rei nforc~nlem
ratio r
(e) Cakulale Ih~ total sl~d alCa A" = ,bh.
2. (a ) Sd~ct the. reinforcement ratio ~.
(b ) OK)O'" a trial value of" and cakulale e hand
(e) From the. corresponding gr.1ph. read K, = f' . ( j:A, ) alld calcul"te the
'~quire<l Ag ,
(d ) Calculate b = A, h.
(r ) Revise the trial value of h if ",-,<,essary to obtain a well- p,oponi{)fled seclion.
(f) Calculate Ihe total Sled area A" = , ,bb.
Use of Ihe mlul1111 design charts will be illu,tral.,.j in Ex ample, 8.3 and 8, 4.
Othe , design aid, pertaining 10 tie, and spirals . a, well as re("{,mn",ndatiol1s for
,tandard pranice , will be found in Rds. 8.2 and 8.7.
EXAM I'I. E H.3 s.,ted i" " or ",inf.. ",,,,mellt ror column or g;,'en siu. In a th"","story SmIClUre. a" ""Ic-
rior column is I() be de.igned for a ..,,,ice ckad load of 222 l ips, maximum li"e load ()f
333 ~ips. dead load mo",ent of 162 flkips. and ii" e hId ,fl(}lTlCm of 232 (ikips. ll>e mini-
mum Ii,', load mmpatiblc wilh tile fulilive l<>ad "",n\em is 166 ~ips. obtained wben J10 jj,'e
load i, plac.:d on the roof bIlt " full Ii)'" l<>ad i, pl3C<:<l on the "",--ond floor, Archil""tu ... 1Coo-
sideration. require (hat a rectangular rolumn be ,,>ed, with dime"si",,, b - 20 in and h -
25 in,
r,,,-,...,
, GJlIp/l, AS H,""i,h 1\. 16 ,," 'fC "''''.... '1'-"<1 f",,,,,,,.",, "",..," ,.. ""
'I'<,'ilk "" " .. ir_pI>" T"-' ""'.." ,..ru~it dumi'"' in wrv.'"""
,raph,.
''I,:d . lly appiU\'1\! ""or Ill< bal"",,,"<1 kJOd, ,h;rt rr->lliL ,..h<" Nr> ~' i, tu n ,''' en";, >ct';"" r idJ, The ,~Iu<, pro>'kI<J in Ill< "''''T\~~. ore
t""",ly in><n,i';'T to oil< """" "",,""~ of bIir> in Ill< <TO>. "-~" ... onJ 'my be ""<I f, ~ ",,1 ,,00, ",ilh ,,,nil.. bar " ,.. foll"r"',,,,,' , rut ~' ; l h "'mller
or 1iUl<"- OU,,""" ,,1' Ixn,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
(tI) Find tile required column reinforcement for tile condition that tile ful lli ,e load acts,
(b) ClOtt~ to ensure Ihal Ihe column is :l<kqu~te for the CO<ldit;on uf!l() Ii,'e 103<1 O<l tile
~,
Malerial Strenglhs are /; - 4((I(1IlSi and /, - 60.000 psi.
SOl.'Jr1"S.
(tI) Tile column will be designed initially fOf full load. then chl>cked for adequacy wltt-n
liw food is pal1 ially remowd, Acconling 10 the ACt safCly pro\'isiOl". 'he column 'liust
be de,ig""d for a factored load 1'. - I ,1 X 222 t 1,6 x 333 - 799 kips alld a fJClore<!
mO,,,,-'1l1 ,1/, - ).2 X 162 I I ,6 X 2.12 ~ 566 ft ~ ips. A l'(ll"m" 20 X 25 in, is Sill",i.
nl'<l. and reinforeement dislribml'<l around Ihe colum" I"'rinleler will be used . Bar c<>,'cr
is e;l imall'd 10 be 2 ,~ in. from the col"mn f,ICC to 'he IICcll,<:nlcrlitIC fo< c,d, bM. The
COIUIM par"""'le" (a"umin~ bending aOOull1ie strong a,i,) are
I', 799
K. 8 __ 8 ~0. 615
lA, 0.65 X 4 x .500
, _
M.
--- E
566 X 12 ~ 0.209
. h Al> O.M X ~ X 500 X 2~
Wilh 2,5 in, CO'-' '.
lilt: parmtlCter - (25 - 5) 25 - 0.80, For thiS column goo""'t')'
and maleriol slrengths. "mph A.7 of AflPCndi, A oPllli~s. From Ihm fog ure. wil h the
~"kulmed "alue, of K, and R,. ,=
0,024, Thu,. tilt: required reinforcement is A~ ~
0.024 X 500 - 12.00 in' . Tweh'e NO. 9 (No. 29) bars will be used, 0I1e at ~ach conler
and t"o ,,"enly spaced along each face orlh., colu",n. pro"iding A" ~ 12,00 in'.
(b) Wi,h lbe roofli"e load absent tile COIoU10' will corry a factored lood P, - 1.2 X 222 +
1.6 X 166 ~ 532 kips and factored ",o"'e ", M, - ~ nkips . ru; before. Thos. II", col
omn I,,,randers for this cond;!i"" are
K
,
0
".
__
l A, --;~'~n,;-""
"
0.65 X 4 X 500
~ 0,40')
coc"~"""~"~~
, 0 __
M.
-;; : 0.209
/i "',h 0.65 X 4 X .500 X 25
and - 0.80 as before. From Gr.lph A.7 it is found thm a reinforc~",e", r.n;o of
0.016 i, sufticiem for lhi , c<>"dition. ].e",
Ihan that required in pal1 (4 so no ",odin
calion is required.
Sel.-cting No. J (No. 10) lies fo< trial. 11.. maxim um tie spacing must nol e>cttd
48 X 0.375 - 18 in" 16 X 1,128 - 18.05 in.. or 20 in. Sp".>Cin~ is cUfl\rolied by lilt:
diameler rtf the lies, arod No. J (No. 10) ties wil l be u!<'<l at IR i". spacing. in tltt- pat.
tern soown in Fig. 8,2<1,
EXAM PLE 8...1 Selection oI""lum n .1, ro r ~ gh n .... inrO""' ''1 nl ratio. A colomn is to be desigoe<l to
,'arry a f""lored load p. - 481 killS and faclored mo"",nt M. ~ 492 hkips. Malerial
>ltcngths [,. - 60.000 l"i and/; - 4000 psi are <fJeCifoed. C<>;t 'tudie, for the particular
local ion indiCJle that a reinforcement rdlio , of about 0.03 is opIimum, Find I"" TCq uired
dime",;"". h and h of tlte column. Betiding will he aoom the 'tron~ axi . and on arrange
n1m of st",,1 wit h ban; c'OllCemr.ue<l in t"'O laye", adjacent 10 the outer fae", of the col u",n
and paralle l 10 the axi, of hending. ,,illlIe o~t
Su' .<!rtOS. It i, wnw"ienl'o ",llXt a trial column dim.n, ion h. perpe,ldicular to Ihe axis
of bendin8: a ".11"" of k ~ 25 in. will be .. I..:;ted. and a .. umins" c'OIICrele ~OV"r of 2.5 in,
to the bar renters, tile parameter - 0.80. GmpbA.I I of Appe,ldix A applies. r.... the ;toted
o..loootc..,_
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274 IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: ST RUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 8
loads lhe eccemricil j' is ~ - 492 x 12 4RI - 12.) in., and ~h - 12.] 2.~ - 0,49. From
Grnph A. II wilh e h - 0.49 and 1 - 0,03. K. = 1'. t;A, - O. ~ I. For lhe nial dim,,",;on
h - 25 in., Ihe required column ,,,<llh is
/' 481
, - - -"- - - 14.5 in.
IcK.h 065 X 4 X 0.51 X 25
A "",Iomn 15 X 25 in. will be used. for ", Ilich tt.e req uired ,tee l arca is A" ~ 0,03 X 15 X
25 - 11.25 in' . Eigh1 No. II (No. 36) hltS will be lIsed. IJro\'iding A . - 12.48 in' . arranged
in two ia}'er.; of roo, bar.; e""h. sim ilar to tt.e . ket"h ,hown in GrJph A.II ,
'. _. 8.11 B IAXIAL B ENDING
The methods di scu ssed in (tlC pr~,<:edi ng S<.'<:lions pennil rec1angular or square columns
10 I>c <ksigned if bending is prcs-o nl aboUI only one of Ihe pri nciJXII axes. There arc Si1 '
ualions. hy no means exceplional. in which a.xial compression is accompanied by
simultaneous bending aboul bolh pri!lCipal axes of lhe seclion. Soch is Ihe case. for
i nSlance . in comer col umns of buildings wher.: beams and girders fralllc into Ihe col
ulllns in Ihe dir~'<:liollS of bolh "'ails arKI lransfer locir end 111011lCntS into the columns
in t",o perpendicular planes, Similar Io.'ldinllmay occur at inlerior col umns. panicu
larly if lile column layout is im:gular.
The silUalio ",ilh rcSpcc1 10 slrenglh of hia.xially loaded columns is shown in
Fig. 8.15. Let X arKI Y denol~ (he directions of Ihe principal axes of Ihe cross sec1ion ,
F IGU IU : 8. 15
Inte''''' ';''" diagmm for
,
comrre"'joo pi", bia,;. 1
b!:ooinS ' (a) unia,ial bending
1
-I: j1
:1--1"-x
,bom Y ox i.; (b) "ni"iaJ p.
hending aboy, X axi,;
(c) hi'., ial heooing aboot
diagonal ax;'; (J I ino""",i""
,urfoce.
Case (b) (,' 1-,,1-
,
-f'- .,
p
- t 1l-1_
("
o , 0
x
/~~ fT
/0_
~o I
",LL
o ~ '
Plane 01
coostan1 A
Mny (c) e,~
(d)
o..loootc..,_
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SHORT CO L UMNS 27S
In Fig, 8.15". the section is shown subject to bending ahout the )' axis only. with lond
<-'<'<-",ntricitye.. measu",d in the X direnion. The <:orre'ponding 'trength interaction
Cur....e is shown as Case (a) in the th"-,,,-dimcnsionnl sketch in Fig. 8. 15J and i, dr.lwn
in the plane defined hy the axes p. and M ... Such a cnr\'e can be "stablished hy the
u,ual metlKKl~ for uniaxial bending. Similarly. Fi g , 8.ISI, shows bending about the X
axi s !KlIy. with eccentricity ''- measnred in the Y direction. The corresJlOnding intera<"-
tion cur\'e is shown a, Case (h) in the plane of p. and /II", in Fig . S. I 5./. For Case (e).
whi<"h combines X and Y axis hending. the orientation of the resultant eccentricity is
defined hy the angle
= arctan - "=
"
Bending for thi, c~ i, about an axis defined by the angle with resl"'ct \() the X axi,.
TI", angle in Fig. 8.15e e,tablishes a plane in Fig. a.ISd. passing through lhe verti -
cal P, axis and making an angle with the .11", axi,. as ,hown. In that plane. column
,trenglh i, defined h)' the interaction curve lahel<-"<l Case (c). For other \'alues of .
,imi lar <"ur"es are obtai"'."<l to define a 1";1,,,,' mifllre for axial load pins hiaxial bend -
ing, such as shown in Fig. 8. ISJ, The surface is exactly analogous to tI", ;n/emcli""
eUn"e for axial load plus uniaxial hending. Any comhination of p /II.,. and M"
falling inside the surfa<"e can be applied safdy. oot any point falling outside the sur-
face would repre"'nt failure. N!Ke that the failure surface can he de""rihed either hy a
set of curve, dcfin<-'() by radial piane, pas'ing through the P, axis. soch a, ,hown by
Case (e) . or by a set of cur.... es defined by horizontal plane inte~C1ions, ea<"h for a con -
,tam p defining load contours.
C<mstruCling su<"h an interaction surface for a gi"'n column wou ld appear to be
an obviou~ extension of uniaxial hending analysis. In Fi g. 8.1 .~ (". for a selected value
of . ,u<:<-",,,ive dKlices of neutral axi , distance e could he taken. For each. using strain
compatibility and 'tre,,-str~in rdation, 10 establish bar forc~s and tbe connde <"Orn-
pressi"e re,ultam. then using the equilibrium ~,!uati<;",s to find p . M", . and M",.. or",
Can detemline a ,ingle point on the int~raction surfac~. Rel"'titive calculations. easily
done by co"'puter. then esmhlish sufficient points to define the surface . The triangu -
lar or trapezoidal colllpression zone. ,uch as ,hown in Fig. 8.1 'ic. i, a cOl1lpli<"mion,
and in ge neral the strain in each reinforcing har will be different. bUl these feature, can
he incorporak"<l.
The main difficult y. however. is that the r",utral axi, will not. in general. be I"'r-
I"'ndicular to the re,uham eccentricity. drawn from the <"olurnn center to the 100<1 p .
For each ,u<-ce"ive choice of neutral axi,. there are uni,!"" values of 1'., M" . and .11",
and only for sl"'cial en"" will tl'" ratio of ."'1", M., be ,udl that the <-'("C~mricity i'l"'r-
I"'ndicular to the neutral axis chosen for the calculation. The resu lt is that. for su<-=s-
,iv~ dXlices of e for any given . the value of in Fig. 8.I'ie and d will var)'. PoinL' on
the failure surface established in this way will wander up the failure ,u rfa<"e for increas-
ing p JIm representing a plane imerM.'<'tion. as sixlwn for Ca<;e (e) in Fig. 8.ISJ.
III practice. the factored load P, and the factored rlK"nenL~ .11., and M ... tQ be
resi,t~d are known from the frame analysi, of the structure. Therefore, the actu;;1 "alu~
o f = art'tan(M"" M ",) is e'tahlislK."<l. and one needs only the <"urve of Case (c). Fig.
8.15J. to test tl", adequacy of the trial column. An iterative computer method to estab-
lish the interactio)) line for the particular value of that applies will he descrilK."<l in
Se<,"tioIl 8.14.
Alternatively. simple approximate meth<xh are widdy used. These will be
described in &'<'tion, 8.12 and 8. 13.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
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'- _. 8.12 L OAD C O NTOUR M ETHOD
The load contour mClhod is based on rcprcsem ing lhe failure surface of Fig. S.I5</ by
a family of curves corresponding 10 con Slant "alues of". (Rcf. S.8). The general form
of Ihcse curvcs can be approximated by a nondimcnsional int ~raclion equat ion:
M. 011 ....
+ ~
' .0 (8.18)
M~ M .,Aj
where
M., - ",e,
M.", .. M., when 011.,... 0
011., = ".e.,
M,,~ - M", wh,m M '" ~ 0
and I ~nd . ! arc cxpo"ent~ del"'nding 0" "olum" dime",ions. mnount and dist ri bu
lion of steel r~inforecment. Slress 'lrain "hara<.leristics of steel and <-on<.rdC, amount
or concrele cm~r. and Sil.C of bler~1 ties or spiml. Whcn I ! - Ihe sh~pes o f
~uch im",,,<:tion <'(mtours arc as ., hown in Fig. lUI> for s!",<,ifi<' ,alues.
Calculatio"s reported by Bresler in Ref. 8.9 indi"at~ Ihat falls in the r~nge
from 1.15 1U 1.55 for square and r~';tangu l ar columns. Values near the lower end llf
th"t r~nge ar~ the more cllnscrvat;v". Methods and design aids penniUing a more
dd ined estimation of are found in Rd. 8.7.
In practice. the "aJues of P,. M",. and .'II... are known from the analysis of the
SITu<lure. For a trial <'(Ilumn i;<."Ction. the value.' of M",~ and M .o corre"jXlnding (0 the
lo"d P, can ~a~ily he found by the u,ual meth,xls for unia~i,,1 bending. n",n "'pia,
ing M", wilhM... and M.,. with M.,:' andu,;ng ' = '1 - in Eq.(KI8).oraitcr
natively by plntting (M~, ) M~", and (M",. ) M",~ in Fig . 8.1 6, it can he confinneil
FIG U RE 8. 16
1le""'I;"" C<I" "OOrs al
" .."ani P, for ,',rying
IA,hlf'"J j""" /Iff 8.8.,
"
"
1"
I
"
"
;----:C;;-~--;C;;-__;;';_~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
;;--
1.0
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
that a particular comhination of factored mo"",nt, falls within the load COntour (.,.f~
design) or oOL,ide the contOur (failure), and the de'ign m,xiified if neces~l)'.
An approximate aPflroach to th" load (ontour method, in which d", cun:<-'() load
contour is re pre",nk.J by a bilinear approximation. will t,., found in Ref. 8. 10. h lead,
to a "-"'Ihod of Iri,,/ de"is" in which tl'" biaxial bending moment, are rcprescnt<-.J by
an equi,".tlent uniaxial bending mOment. Design chans ba."-"<l on this approximate
approach will t,., found in the ACI &.\'i8" H,mdb(H,k (Ref 8.7). Trial desigH< arrived
at in thi, way should be ch<-'eked for adt.><juaty b)' the load ConWur I11Clhod, descrit,.,d
above, or by the melhod of ret'iprocalload, Ihal follow,.
RECtPROCAL LOAD M ETH OD
A simple, approximate design method developed by Bre,ler (Ref 8.9) has been sati,-
facwrily \'erifi<-.J by ClHnpari,on with resuhs of cxtensi"e test' and at'cumte calcula-
tions (Ref. 8.11), It is noted that the column inter""tion surfal'e in Fig. 8.15.1 can, alter-
nativdy. be plotted a~ a funl'lion of the axial load 1'. and e(cenuicities ~, = M ",_ , I'.
and e,_= M~, f',. as is shown in Fig . 8. 17". The surface 5, of Fig. 8. J 7" can t,., trans-
formed inw an equivabn failure surf",-,e 52' as shown in Fi g. 8.17b, where ~, and ~,
are ploned against I 1', rmher than 1',. Thus, e, = e,_ = 0 corre'ponds 10 Ihe inver...,
of the capacity of Ihe column if il were coll<.:entri<'ally looded, Pu- and thi, is ploued
as point C. For <', = 0 and any given value of e,. tbere is a load 1',,0 (orr~sponding to
moment MrlJ ) tfmt would re,ult in failure. The re<'iprt:>Cal of Ihi, load is plmted a,
point A. Similarly, for e, = 0 and any given "alue of e,_. ther~ is a cenain [,md f'..,{J (cor-
responding to mon",111 M.....J that would cau,", failure. the reciprocal of which is point
B. 'Jbe value, of P~ofJ and f'rlJ are easily established, fOJ known eccentricities of load -
ing applied to a given column, using the n"'tlKKis already established for uniaxial
bending. or using design chan, fOJ uniaxial bending.
FIG UR E 8. 11
[nte""'ti". <u,bt", ti" the
reciprocal load """hod,
Approxim a~ng
plane surtaC<! 5~ ",'1', Actual failure
surface 52
,., 'I
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
27S IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 8
An obliqu~ plane S, is ddin<--d hy Ihe Iinee poims: A. B, and C. This plan~ is used
as an approximalion oflhe adual fai lur~ surface S1' Note IIml, for any poim on Ihe Sur-
fac~ S1 (i.e .. for any given combinalion of ~, and e ,.). Ihe", is a corresponding plane S,.
Thus, lhe approximation of Ihe tru~ failure ,urfat~ S1 in\'ol\'es an infinite number of
plane, Si dekrrnined hy panicular pain; of value, of <', and e ". i.e .. by panicuiar poim,
A. B, and C. .
n", v~ni <' al oruinale I, P u , ,,,-, 10 the true failu", surface will always be n,",",T-
vatively estimated by tl", distance I p'""'"'"' to the oblique plane ABC lextenlk-d),
oc'Caus.e of tl'" ('(,"cave upward eggshell shape of the tru~ fnilure surf:t<'e. In othe r
words, I f'. __ i, alway, great"r than J -('.=>Ct. which means that P,,,,,,,,", is always
less than I' .~,.
Bresler', reciprocnlload <><luation deri"e~ from the g~ometr)' of the approximat-
ing plane. It can be snnwn Ihat
I I I I
- ~ - + - - - (8.19)
I~ p. OJ P,.., It
where p. = approximate value of nominal load in biaxial hending with ..'CCe ntricit i~,
e, and ",.
I'""! = nominai load wh"n only eccentricity e" is pres.em Ie" = 0)
1';", = nominal l<>ad when only eccentri<' ity e, is pre.>cnt le~ = 0)
1'" = nominal load for ~~'nc."urically loadt.-d col umn
Equalion (IU9) has oc..,n found to he acceptably an'umte for design purposes pro-
,-ilkd 1'. "" 0.101',,. It is not reliable wher~ biaxial !.>ending i, prevalent and a~-';I)mpa
nied by an axial fnrce smaller th an " o 10. In the case of such 'tTOngly pre"alent !.>end-
ing. fai lure i, initiat(.>d by yielding of tbe 't~1 in tension. and the situation mrrespOl"'~
to the lowest tenth of the int"metion diagmm of Fig. 8.15<1. In thi, range. it is conser-
,,,tive and accurat~ "nl)ugh tl) negl",(,t the axial force entirely and to eakulate th~ ><-'('-
tion for biaxial bending only.
O,'er ",ost of the mng~ for which t h~ Br61er method is applitahle. above
O. lOP," i, constant . although for "ery small eccentri<'itie, the ACI Code imposes an
upp"r limit on the maximum design strength that has the df(.'Ct off1a!t~ning the upp" r
pan of the column strenglh interaction curve ("'" Senion 8.9 and Graph' A. 5 through
A.IIl of App<:ndix A). When using the Bresler m~thod for biaxial bending. it i, neces-
~ary to u'"' the uniaxinl strength curve Wil /Will th" horizontal cutoff (a, snown hy tbe
lighter lines in the gmphs of Appendi x AJ in obtaining val ueS for u~e in FA!. (8 .1 9). The
,,,Iue of 1'. obtain<'ll in th is way should then he subj ..'(,t 1(, the r~stri " tion, as for uni -
~xial bending. Ihat it ",u~t not exn..,d O.lIO 1'" for ti~d <'olumn, and 0.85 POl for spi -
mlly reinfmc..-d column, .
In a typical d~,ign situation. giwn the size and reinfo n:~me m I)f the tri~1 ,'()iu",n
and th~ load "ccentricities <\ and <', . on" finds hy computation or from design charT~
the nominal loads p.d) and 1'.,,, for uni axial bending around the X and Y axe, r~ !;p'-'('
ti,-ely. and the nomi nnl In"" Po for concentric' Inad ing. Then I I'. i, co mputed from
Eq. (8 .19) and, from that. 1', i, cakuiat<'ll. TIle design r"'luireme m is that the fact()C\.-d
load 1'. mu~t nol n ceed " " as ,"odifi ..-d by th" horizontal cutoff mentioned ahove. if
appli<'able.
EX,\ M I' I. E H.5 u.,;i~n "r c"l" mn f". biuia l t>t nding. Tllc 12 X 20 in. col\,,"" ,hown in Fig. 8.18 is rein
forced with eighl No, 9 (No. 29) bars arranged around ltle column perimeter, providing an
",~a II" E 8.00 in'. A faclored load 1'. of 255 kips il to be aJIPii .d with <'Ccentri.;ti., e. -
3 in. ,nd 'x - 6 in.. os shown. Mruerial .mength< =1; - 4 hi ,ndl, - 60 hi, CMd lhe
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FI GU IU: 8. 18
Column c',,"", >IT1;"n fo.-
E.,mple g,5,
12" 7"
+ +
,
,
I,
p*, '"
- X
L;= L+2.5"
+ +
Ls,j 16 No. 9 (No.29)bars
20'~
atk-quacy of the trial design (a) u,inr. the- reciprocal load metOOd and (b) using tlie load con-
10llr IIICIOOd.
Sm .IJrlOs.
(a) By llie reciprocalloaJ metOOd. first oonsiderin~ bending about the Y a,is, ~ LS 20
- 0.7~. and ~Io - 6 20 - 0,30, Wilh llie reinforeenlCnl mlio of Au M - 8,00 240 -
0.033. using tlie av=gc of Gra phs A.6 ( ~ 0.70) and'\'7 ( ~ 0.80)
p~ 0.62';- 0,66
~ o ,().t / ' . .. ~ o,().t X ~ X 240 ~ 614 kip'
!c A,
~-
f ,.A,
1.11 Po - 1.11 X" X 240 - 1258 kips
T""n for bending about I"" X ax;,. - 7 12 - 0 .58 (say 0.60), and en - :l 12 -
0.25. (jr"ph,\,5 of APf"'ndi, ,\ j,'iw 5
,.~
- ~ 0.65 1'.", ~ 0.65 X 4 X 240 = 62~kips
f,A,
---
l;A,
Po
1.31 1'0 - 1.31 x4x240 _ 1258tips
Sub~liluli"~ II'Io;SC "~l lles in Eq. (8.19) ""nil, ill
- 1 _ -1- , -I- - -I- _ 0.((J144

1'. 624 614 1258 ~
from wh ich p. ~ ~IO kips, Thus, according to lhe Bl\"sler metOOd. th, de'i~n loa<! of
I'. _ 0,65 X ~IO - 267 kips can be applied safely.
(bJ By lhe loa<! comOllr metOOd. fOf Y axi, bending with 1'. ( f; A, ) - 2 ~5 (0.65 x 4 )< 240)
- 0,41, lhc a\'cmge from Graph, '\'6 and A.7 of Append;. A is
0.212 ';- 0,235 0"

~vg - 2 - , ~~4
Heoce. M.,., - 0.224 x 4 x 240 x 20 - 4:m1l in-ki ps. Then for X a.i. bending. with
1'. ( I;"',)-
0,41, as before, from Grapll A.5 .
.II ....
- - - 0.186
!cAl'
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So M"", - 0.IR6 x 4 x 240 x 12 - 2140 in.kips . T!>c foclore<! load ,,,,,n>em, abool
t!>c Y a!ld X ax ..", respocti"ely are
M ", - 255 X 6 - L~30 in.l ip;
,II.. ~ 255 X :J = 7M in-kips
AOOIUa<::y of lhe lrial ,big" will rl(>\\-' be cho:ck ..x1 uS;"g Fq, (8.18) wi,lI an e'po'lCnl
comer\-'mh'dy taken "l"ol {(> 1.15. Tho:n ",ilb M ~ - M~ a!ld M", - .II~. . th;:u "l""-
lion indicaleS
765 0,65 I" 15.'000.65 '"
2140
= 0,5{)2 + 0500 = 1,002
rhis i, close enOllgh {(> 1.0 that the design would be considered s.af~ by the load .\:In-
{our n>ethod al""
10 3CIUai practice. {he values of used in Eq. (8.18) ,hould be ch~cked. for lhe
s)X.'<'ific column . because prlxiic{ions of {hm equalion are quile sensilive 10 changes in
. In Ref. 8.10. it is ,hown Ihal .. log OS log > where values of can be labulated
for specific column gCO{nt::lrics> nmlerial slrenglhs. and load rangcs (see Ref. 8.7). For
Ihe prt:sem cxample. il can be confinnc>d from Ref. 8 ,71h31 .. 0.56 and hcnce ..
, .19. approximalely as chosen ,
One observes Ihal. in Examplc 8.5". aOl,<,ce llIricily in the Y direclion equal 10
50 pcrcelll of thai in the X direction causes a reduction in nominal capJcity of 33 pcr-
ce nl. i.e .. from 614 to" to kips. For cases in which the ratio of ~,<,cellIricities is smaller.
there is some justification for lhe frequclll praClice in framed StrUCtures of Iwglccti ng
the bending momellIS io Ihe direclion of the smaller ~ccentricily. III /lel/erul. bi<Lti<11
/1('mliIlK .'''''JUld 1,<' IOknt ;,,/1) OCi'OIull ,,-lieu Ow el' /i",,,/('d t'('C't'mrid/y ma" Uf'I)r'(J(khel'
or aued.' 0.2.
_. 8.14 COMPUTER AN ALYSIS FOR B IAXIAL B ENDING OF COtuMNS
Although the lo.1d comour method and Ihe rcciprocal load method are widely used in
praclice. each has serious shol1comings. Wilh the load comour method. seleclion of
Ihe appropriale value of Ihe exponcm is made difficu lt by a number of faclors relm-
ing 10 column shape and bar dislribution. For many cases. th~ usual assulnplion Ihal
I - I is a poor approximation. Design aids are available. bullhcy introduce funher
approximalions. e,g" the use of a bilinear represemation of Ihe load contour, The
rcciprocalload melhod is very simple to use. bul the reprcse~wlion of Ihe curved fail -
ure surface by an approximming plane is nOI reliable in lilt: range of large ~~cemrici
lies. where failure is il1itimed by sleel yieldin g.
Wilh the general availabililY of desklop computers . it is bellcr 10 use simpkr
nw(hods (0 oblain fasler. and more e><(lC1. sol ul ions 10 the biaxial column problem,
Such a mNhod is thai devclopt.>d by Ehsani (Ref, 8 ,12). A column slrenglh inlcraclion
curvc is establislwd for a lrial column . exactly analogous 10 Ihc cun'c for axial load
plus uniaxial bending. as d~scrib.:d in Seclions 83 10 8.7. However. Ihe curve is gen -
era(ed for the panicular "alu e of Ihe eccellIricily angle Ihal applies> as delCrininlxi by
Ihe mtio of M." ,'.1", from 1he slrUCtural franw :malysis [St.'e Case (d of Fig. 8 , 15"1.
This is done by laking successi,'c choices of nculral axis di stance. measured in (hi s
case along one face of the column from Ihe mOSI heavily compressed corner. from
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SHO RT CO L UMNS 28 1
vel)' ,mall (large eccentricity) Ul vel)' large (small eccemricity ). tl"'n calculating 1111:
axial force p. and nK)lIIent, M ... and M",_. For each nemral axis di,tance. iteration is
performed with ,ucc-e"ive values of the o rientation angle . Fig. 8.15<:. umil = arc-
tan M ,,_M ., is in agreement with the value of = arctan AI", AI", from the structural
frame analysi,. TIms. one point OIl the curve (,) of Fig . It 15J i, estahli,hed. TIll:
"'-'que IKe of ealcuiatiml' is rel"'ated: another choice of neutral axi , di<;tance is lIIade.
a value of is ",Ieek'(]. the axial forte and moment, arc calculated. is found. and the
value of is iter.ned until is cOlTect. Thu,. the next point is establi shc-d. and '0 on,
until till: comple!<e 'trength imeraction ,'un,e for that panicular value of is complete.
ACI CtK\e safety provisions may then be imflOsed in the usual way, and the adequacy
of tI", propo",d design tested. for the known load and nKlment,. against the de'ign
strength curve for till: trial column.
TI,e n",thod is ohviously impractical for manual calculation. but till: iteratiw
ste", are ea!iily and quickly performed by desktop computers. whi,-h can also provi,\e
a graphical pre"'ntatiOlI of re,ults, Full detail , will he found in Ref. 8,12.
A number of computer p"'gram, for bia~ial bending are available commercially.
suth as PCACOL UMN (Ponland Ce""'nt Association. SkQkie. J1IilK)is ) and HBCOL-
UMN (Concrde Reinforcing Steel lnstitU!e. Schanmburg. Ill inoi,).
, 8.15 B A R S PLICI NG tN C O LUMN S
TIle main veni,-al reinforcen"'nt in colunul> is usually spli,-ed just abo\'e each floor.
or so"",times a! alwmate floo rs, TIlisl"'mlit, the <.-olum" steel area to be reduced pro-
gressi,'Cly at the higher Ic\-ds in a building. wllere lood, are smaller. and in addition
avoids handl ing and supponing vel)' long column bar>. Column steel may he spliced
by lapping. hy butt welding. hy various tyl"" of nk'Chanical connections. or by d irect
end hearing. using special <kviees to ensure pmper alignlllent of ha" .
Spe,'ial attention must he given to the problem <.-, f bar '"''''gestion at splic~s.
Lapping {he bars. for ~xample. effectively douhle, the steel area in the column cross
sectio!! a{ the level of the splite and can result in prohlems placing contrete and
meeting the ACI OKIe requirement for minimum later~1 spacing of bars (L5Jb or
1.5 in .). To avoid difficult),. column s!<eel percentage, are often limited in pra<.-ti,'C to
not more than about 4 percent. or the bars are extended two stories and staggered
spli,'C' are us..-d.
lne most common n"'thod of spli<.-ing column <Ieel is the 'imple lapped bar
splice. with the hap; in contan throughout the lapped length. It is st:J.ndard pmttice to
off"'t tl", lower bars. a, shown in Fig. 8.19. to permit the proper po,itioning of tl",
upper bars. To prevent outward buckling of the har, a{ the bou",n bend point of soch
an offset. with spalling of the concrete COveL it is necessary to provide spe,-ial lateral
reinfQrcen"'nt in the form of extra ties. Acconling to ACI Code 7.8. I. tl'" slope of till:
inclin~-d pan of an off"'t bar mu, t nO! exce~-d I in 6. and lateral steel muSt be provi,\ed
to resi, t It time, tbe horizontal ,-ompOl",nt of the compu!<ed force in the inclined pan
of the offset bar. This special reinforcen",nt must be placed nm mor~ than 6 in. from
the point of bend. a.~ shown in Fig, 8. 19. EI",wllere in tile column. aho"e and below
the fl,xlr. the u,ual spacing rC<.juirement' described in $e<-tion 8,2 apply. except that
tie, mu,t be located nm more than Qne-half tI"" rumnal spating _, above tl", floor.
Where hearn, frame from f'Xlr directi ons into a joint. as shown in Fig. 8.19. ties may
he temlinated not Hlore than 3 in. below tI"" lowest reinforcement in the shallowest of
such beam,. according to ACI Code 7.10.5. If hearn, are nm present on four ,i,\es.
such a, for exterior <.-olul1ms. ties mu,t be placc'(] vertically at the usual spacing
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2S2 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 8
FIGU IU: 8. 1'1

Splic'C detail> at '}'Pic.1
im""", col",,,o. 1- -t
*--
~-~
M, ' .slope \ II II
jl---Ij ------:.....-------i
,
I
\
\
'"
00
Io .. ~ ~
3:"~'
Bottom I \
Of berJd
:I===:::t:
~= '--I
Spec;". ties to ,esOst -1----+
outwa rd ttl
'""
Ihrough Ihe OCplh of Ihe joill1 10 a 1c\'C1 nOI more Ihan one half Ihe usual spacing J
helow Ihe lowesl reinforcenloOn! in lhe slab.
Analogou s rc,{)uiremcll1s arc found in ACI Code 7.10.4 and are illUSlraled in Ref.
8.1 for spirally reinforct.'d columns.
As dis<:ussed in $cclion 5.11. in fmmes subjecled 10 lateral loading. a viable
ailernali"e 10 splicing bnrs jusl abov~ Ihe floor is 10 splice locm in Ihe cenler half of
Ihe col umn heighl. where Ihe mOIllCIl1 due 10 lateral loading is much lower Ihan al
floor level. Splicing ncar midhcighl is mandatory in ""sl><-.:ial moment frames" designed
for seismic loading (Chapler 20). The usc of midheighl splices removes Ihe require
nloOn! for Ihe spc<:ial (les shown in Fig. 8.19 Ix-.:au", benl bnrs arc nOI used .
Column splices are mainly compression splices. although load combinat ions
producing moderale!O large eccell1ricily req uire Ihal splices lransmil len sion as well .
ACI Code 12.17 JlCnnilS splicing by lapping. hun welding. mechanical COlHlCc!Ors. or
end bearing. As discussed in &-':Iion 5.11. Ihe lenglh of compression lap splices may
he redueed in cases where lies or spiral reinforeelncnt lhroughoul IOC lap lenglh nlCCl
spc<:iflC requirements . If Ihe column bnrs are in lens ion. Class A Icnsion lap splices arc
pcrmi((ed if Ihe lensile Slress does nOI e~cCt-'d 0.'51. and less Ihan one-half of Ihe hars
are spliec'd al any se<;lion. Class B lension spliceS are requ,red if lhe lensile siresses
are higher Ihan 0.5j, under faclored loads or where more Ihan one half of Ihe rein
forcemcll1 is spliced al one local ion . When end bearing splices are used. thcy mUSI be
slaggered or add it ional reinforeement mUSI be added so Ihnt Ihe conlinuing bnrs on
each colulllll fac~ possess a lensile sirengih noll~ss than 0.25.1; lilllcs Ihe ar~a of IOC
vertical reinforcenlClli on Ihat fac~ .
Full requirclllell1s for bolh compression and Icnsion lap splic~ s arc discussed in
S~'Clioll 5.11. and lhe design or a compression splic~ in a Iypical col umn is illuslratcd
in Example 5.4.
~. 1. ACilk/(/ifmg Man""l. SI'(>6. """,kao em'Tl.1" I"" "",,,. rllf1" io ~ ".. l1i ll>. MI . 1_
8.2 ellSI fl"';?IJ H"",U>OOt. 90" ,.... .. r"""TrW ~, ," r" i llli S'''''I lo,"i,",,. s.:,","">bu,... II. 2002.
~.l . .... h. Rkh"". 1\. Un","'""" ",1 11.. L Il"",," ..." S'''"Y (Or u., 1'.. lu", ,rl u .......,," oOO<~ U ""!>iO!
U ' "I'rt".>''''' S,n'''''': Un;'" IlL EIlIi . b,p. S'n . Dull. I ~. 1928.
o..loootc..,_
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M . F. h . ~~'h;n. ,\ Br",><J"""~, ""<J F, (), S'''Ie. "Sj>i"ny ~, i "[("",-J Ililih S''''n~'h C"""eo. C"'.""":
j,
AC/. H~. ~I <10. S. 19S-I. W' 4Jl---M!
8.6. A, fl. MOl" "" , t, 1\, K ~,. ,,>0) I ' 1l<>gfO."''''I. "~"" .."g"I'" 0,",'",," S l "--~> I);"~t>,,," .. in UI,i""".
S' <C"'<l, h 1J.,"sn." J. An, ,,~. J!, "" . 8. l""l.w, >l"I5--n~ .
8.7. AClI>t"g" lIa..JII"'*, S1'- 17. An'' ''''''. C,""""," [."iOULe. l"","i~u", fj ill,. MI. IWI,
M F, N. 1',0'0'11 , "'F.il.n' S",-r""", fur M,"",,,, in C,.ni""'"i,"' ....1 n;"i,1 n"oJi " ~,"' l ACt, ,,~ . 61),'"
I, 1%.l.W, 1N- 140.
~~ nII""I,~. 'TI",isn C~ ....,;. [,,. k,';nf"n-.;-oJ U".n,", ",.Ic~ A,;.II , oI ... llIi"i,1 1"' , ~!i"J: / ACt. ,,~
31 . ... , , ~. 1%O.Il'. 4gH'lO,
~ . IO A, I .. I'.... "', J. M . ,~~"'~". iiDJ,\ ( ~ .. w,:n', 'C'f'lO"il) of ~cn , r,,,,,,,, u,,:,,:,,' ~,,{' .. ng"I., M,,,,,,",,,
SUJ>i<>.'l ,n IIi" illll"oJi".i:/ ~Ct. " ' , 63. no. 9, 1966. Pr, 911--'/lJ.
~ II I" N ~' n... ""n"y. "I",~"i~""" "f't.: UI,in" " S""og'" 0'- S4u"'c .oJ I<''''',, ~u''.' C'~u' ''''' u..1eT
l1i"i, lIy h,'C'n":i,, , ..,..,.~" in S",,,p. 1I,ir.jwc/ Co",,..,,, Col"""",. SP- D , AH,,'ri<"n C(...n" I"" ,' ......
1J.;,n". MI , 1\1/\/\. Pr, ?oI}-:!9~,
8. 1!. M, ~ . I",,, " i , "CI\Il few Co" ,",n,: 0",,', hul .. ,.,~,~ , no. 9. 191J6, Il'. 43--47
8 .1. A 16 in . square COI Ulllll is reinforc~,<1 wilh four No. 14 (No. 43) bars. one in
each corner, wilh co~er diSlunces 3 in . to the sl~,<:1 center in each d ireclion,
M at~rial s(reng(hs are!; = 5000 psi aod!; = 60.000 psi. ConSIrUC( the inter.
aclion diagram relaling a.,i~l slreng(h P, aod f1e'ur~1 Slrc ng(h M ". Ben(ling
will be about an axis parallel 10 one fnce. Calculale Ihe coordi na(es for 1'", I'tr
and a( Icast (hree Oiher repreSClllatiw poinls Oll lhe curve.
8 .2. Pl o( th~ design Slrenglh cu rve rel~lillg 1'. and ,II, for the column of !'Toblcm
8.1 . Design and (\etaitlr..: lie s(eel required by the ACt Code. Is Ihe column a
good choice (0 r':SiSl a load 1'. = 540 lips applied wi(h an IX'ceniricity ~ =
4.44 in?
8 .3 . The ~hort colulHn shown in Fig. 1'8.3 will be ~ubjecled (0 an eccentric load
cuusing uniaxial bending about the Y axis . Malerial streng(hs aref... ~ 60 lsi
and/; = 4 h i.
FIG URE 1'8.3 ,

t
I'A.~ 6No~1 (No. 36)'1
t -+- t 1 !
,~ - x
+ +~ i
(<1) Cons(ruc( (he nominal streng(h interac(ion curve for (his column. calcu
lating no kwer lh~n fiw poilUS. including (hose cOlTCsponding (0 pure
bending . pure axial (hrus(. and balanced failure.
(1)) Compare (he calculated values wilh those ohlJ itlL'<i ~sing G raph A.IO in
Appendix A.
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2l!4 IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 8
fc) Show on II", ,a"", drawing the design str~ngth ("urve obtairu."rs,
(d) Design tJ", 1al~r~1 reinfo",emelll for tl'" column, giving ke)' di""'115iol1'
for lies .
SA. nle column slu)wn in Fig. 1'8.4 is subjected to axial load and bending morr>em
cau,ing bending about an axis pamlld to thnt of the rows of hars. Whal
moment would cause d", column to fail if the axial lond applied ,im u han~
ou,ly wa, 'iOO kips? Malerial strengths ar~!/ = 4000 psi and !, = 60 ksi.
nr;URE 1'8.4
I' "'- 'I
+ ,
+
+ +
+
+
+ , +
+
S.5. Whal is the slrength M, of the column of l'mhlem ~.4 if it were loaded in pur~
bending (axial fOKe = 0) nbout one principal axi s?
S.6. C<msuuct the intemnion dingmm relaling P, to M, for the huil di ng column
,hown in Fig. 1'3.6. Bending will be about the axis 'HI. Calculate specifi c
cooruinates for concentric loading (e = 0). fOJ p . and at least three other
poinl,. well dUJSen. on the curve, Malerial strengths are!; = ~OOO psi and!. =
60.000 psi,
t'IGURE 1'8.6 ,
A. - 10 No, 14 (No.4:})
S.? A shon reclangular reinforu"e and will be ,uhjected to high bending ffiomenl,
co",hined with relalivdy low axial load,. ("ausing bending about the strong
axis. Becau'e of the high eccelllric it),. steel is placed unsymmetrically a,
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EoI6 ..
SHO RT CO L UM NS 285
shown, with thr"" No. 14 (No. 43) hars near the tension fnce and two No. I I
(No. 36) bnr; nenr the compression foce. Jl,h terial strengths are /; = 6 hi ""d
j,. = 75 hi. Construct the ('Omplde 'trength imer""tion diagram ploning I', VS.
,14" relating eccemricities (() the plastic cemroid o f the cGlu mn (not the g<'o -
metric ('enter).
e 10 plastic cen1 roid
+ + P"It
+ + ".
+ + ---'-J
3 No, 14 (No.43) 2N011(No. 36)
r1G Uk E 1'8.1 FIGURE 1'8.8

lili TIle square coluonn shown in Fig. PK8 must be dcsigocd for a fac!Orcd aJlinl
load of 130 ~ips, Material strengths arc!; .. 4000 psi and!. - 60,000 psi .
(<I) Scic-.;t the longilUdina l and lranwersc reinforcement for an ecccmricily ~,
.. 2.7 in .
(b ) SdcCl the longitudinal and transwrsc reinforcement for the same ax ial
load with ~, = ~, = 2.7 in.
(c) Constructtl~ strength interaction diagmm and design strength CUf\'es for
til<' rolumn designoo in pan (b), g;"en tlwlhe column will be subjected to
biaxial bending with equal eC(emricities about bo1l1 princijXll axes .
8,9. The square coi llmn shown in Fig. PS. 9 is a comcrcolumn subjecllO a xial load
and biaxial bending. Mmerial strenglhs aref.. = 60.000 psi and/; = 4000 psi.
rTGU R E I'll.? A. _ 4 No. 14 (No. 43)
Neutrat ax;g~f""\
,
I
+
.--- 15"
+!+i' ]
l,Y'-",3
Find the unique combination of p. , AI" . and AI" thnt will produce illcipi
(lI)
em failure with the neulm! axis located as in lhe figure . The cornprcssiw
mDC is shown ,haded. Note that t h~ octual n~utra! axis is shown, nOI the
"'luivalent reclangular Slress hlne\; limit; h"w~\'er, the ,,->ctangulnr stress
hlock rnay be uS<.'<l as lhe basis of ('alculatiGns.
(b) Fi nd d", angle between d", neulm! axis and the eccentricity axis , the lat
ter defiru.'<l as the li,,~ from the ('olurnn cellt~r to lhe point of load .
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2116 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 8
S.IO. For the axial load p. found in Problem &.9. and for the same column. with the
,arne el"Celllricity rotio .., e.. find the value, of M", and /11", that wou td produ,,<,
incipiem failure u,ing the toad lmuour metlK><l . Compare with the ""uhs of
Problem S.9. Take = 1.30. and use the graphs in Appendi~ A. as appropriate.
S.II. For the eccentricities e, and <",. found in Problem 8.9. find the value of axial
load P, that would p,,><luce incipient failure using the ,,-ociprocallood (Bresb)
method. Use the graph, in Appendi~ A. a, appropriate. Compare with th"
resuh, of Problems &.9 and 8.10.
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SLENDER COLUMNS
INTROD UCTIO N
Th~ rtml~ri~1 prescnt~d in Chapt~r 8 pertair><-x1 to concentrically or ~ccel\trical1y loaded

., Iwrr ,."ol"I/!!l.\-, for wllich the str~ngth is governed entirdy by the "rength of the mat~
rials and the g",nnetry of the cmss ,",ctio", " 10st column~ in pre,",nHlay pmtti~", fall
in that category. Huwewr, with the increasing use of high -str~ngth materials and
i mpr<wlxl metlK),h of dimensioning mem),.,rs, it i, now po,,,ihle, for a giwn value of
axial load, with or without ,i multanl'(luS ),.,nding, t() d~'Sign a m\lcll smaller ero'," ><-'C-
tion tlran in the past. This clearly makes for more slender memhers. Jt i, ),.,cau", o f
this, tog~ther with t he. u'" of rrK)re innovative stru(-tuml ';oncept~. that rational and reli -
ahle design pmcedures for slender columns have beenme increasingly important.
A eulurnn is said to],., ~'lel"ler if it, CTll'<s-sectional dimensions are small com -
pared wilh it, length . TIle degree of sle"d~",ess i, generally expresscd in tell'" of the
slenderness ratio I r, where I i, tlr~ unsupp()rt~d length ()f the member and,. i, t],.,
radius of gyr~tion of its en",,, ,",cli ",!. "'lual to TA. For square Or circu lar m"mws.
the value of ,. i, the same about ~ither axis; fur OIh~ r sha!,<,s r is smallest ahout t],.,
minor principal axis. and it is gene rally thi, value that must be used in detem,ining the
slenderness ratio of a free-"anding column.
It has long been kn""in that a member of g",at ,lemlemess will colla!"" under a
smaller comp",ssion load Ihan a .<[,,,,-ky m~mber with the ,arne cm"-sc<;tional din",n -
sions. When a ,tocky m~mber. say witlll r = 10 (e .g .. a square l'olumn ofl~ngth "'lual
to about J times it, cmss-><-'Ctional dimen,ion iI). i~ loa<kd in a, ial compression. it will
fail at tile load given hy Eq. (1\3). ),.,cau", at that load tx>1h conc",te and steel are
st"',><-x1 to tl",ir maxim~m carrying capacity and giw way. resl""ctiveiy. hy crmhing
and hy yielding. If a member with the ,ame tm" section has a slendemes~ r~ti() I r =
loo (e.g .. a squa", mlumn hing~d at txnh end, and of length equal to atx)Ut 10 time,
it, scction dimension). it may fail under an axial load equal to one-half or k" of that
given hy Eq. (1\.3). In thi s (-ase, ,'ollarse is caused b)' buckling, i.e .. hy sudden lateral
displlli:emem of the member between it, ends. with collSC<.juenr o,"erst"",ing of sted
and con(.''''t~ by tl'" bending stre~ses that a", s~!,<,rimpo,,-'{] OIl lhe axial compressive
st""",s.
/l. lo,t column, in pr~ctice are ~ubjected to bending IlK}llIem, as well as axial
loads. as was made dear in Chapter~ . n",,,, nl<lIl",m , pmduce bter~l denl'Ction of a
""'mher betw""n its eoos and may aiso ",suit in relati"e lateral displacement of joint,.
As"x:iated with these lat~ral displaccll",m, a", u'-'''I\(I",~- "'''''<el\l" tbal add to too pri -
mary moment!; and that may h<ecome very large for sl~nder l~)lumn'. leading to fail -
ure. A pr.1ctical definition o f a ,lender column is one for which there is a ~igniticant
287
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
2AA IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 9
reduction in axi~lload capacity b.:cau>c of tm,sc scconillu) IlK)menl~. In the develop-

ment of AC I Code column pmvisions. for example. any r<.-duction g reater than ahout
'i percent is <;onsiderOO significant. r<."<juiring considemt;on of slenderne" eff",t,.
l1Je ACI Code and Commentary contain detailed pmvision, governing tf>.,
de'ign of slell,kr columns. ACI Code 10.11. 10.12. and 10. 13 present appmximat~
rneth'KI, for accounting for slenderne" throogh the use of IIlmllelll magnificatioll /ac>
lOr.. The provi,i!KlS are quite similar 10 those used for 'teel column, designed under
the American Institute of 5t",,1 Con,truction (AISC) Specification. Alternatively. in
ACI Code 10.10. a n1<;lre fundamental approach is endorsed. in which the dT!."Ct of lal-
eml dispta,ements is ac'X1Unt!.-d for dir<."Ctly in the fr~me analysis. Because of the
increasing ,ompkxity of the moment magnification aPl'",ach. as it ha, been r~fined
in r<."Cent yea)';. with its many detailed requirements. and because of the uni,-el'!al
availability of computers in the design office. there i5 increa'ing inkre,t in second-
or<kr analysi' as suggested in ACI Code 10.10. in which the eff,"Ct of lateml di,-
placement, is computed dir<."Ctly.
A, noted. m,,,1 columns in pm("[ice continue 10 he sbun columns. Simpleexpre,-
,ions an: indudt.-d in the ACI Code to determine wl"'ther slenderness eff~cts must b.:
considered. 11",se wi II b.: presented in Section 9.4 following the development of bad.:-
gmund information in Section, 9.2 and 9.3 relating to column buckling and slender-
ness effect,.
- . 9.2 C O N CENTRICALLY LOADED C OLU MN S
The basic information on Ihe behavior of straight. concentrically IOa<k>d slender

columns was developed by Eukr more thnn 200 yenrs ago. In gcn~raliZ<.>d form. it
stales thai such a member wil l fail by buckling at lhc crilicalload
'f:,1
P" - ti'"" (9. 1)
It is seen that the bu,kling load deneases mpidly with incr~asing .,/em/eme..., r{lfi"
kI r (Ref. 9.1).
For the ,imple,t case of a column hinged a! both ends and made of elastic male-
rial. E, ~imply ""COJl1t:S Young"> modulu, and kI is equal to the actual length I of tl'"
column. At the load given by Eq. (9.1). the originally 'traight 11l."n""r buck I~s into a
half sin~ wa'e. as sl","n in Fig. 9.1(1. In this bent ("Qnfiguration. bending mOl1lellls l'y
act at any secti,m such as (I;". is tl", dene"tion at that >!."CIion. The"" d~n~..,ti<;",s con -
tinu~ to incre"-,,, until tl", b.:nding ,treSs caused by the incre,,-~ing mornelll. IOg~ther
with the original compression Slress. owrstr~ ''''' and fails tl", memb.:,.
If the 'tress-st rain cur"" of a shon pie,,, of tm, given member has the sharo:
,hown in Fi g. 9.2<,. a, it would"" for reinforced concr~le columns. E, is equal 10
Youngs modulu,. provid~d that the buckling stress Pc A is below th~ proportional
limit /p. If the str~in is larger than / p' buckling occur, in the inelastic rang~.ln this
case, in Eq. (9.1 ). E, i, the tangent nKxiulus. i.e .. the slope of tl'" t:mg~nt to the ,tres<-
,tmin ,urye. As the stress incre"-",,. E, deerea"". A plot of tf>., buckling load vs. tl",
,l~",krne" ratio, tl", socaUt.-d column cur"". therefore ha, tl", shape given in Fig.
9.2h. which ,how, tf>., reduction in buckling strength with inerea,ing ,I~nderne". For
vcI)" stocky columns. the valu~ of the buckling load. calculat<.-d from F..q. (9.1).
~xc""ds the dire<"l crushing strength of the stocky ,OIUIlUl 1'., giv~n by F..q. (8.3). TI,;,
i, also ,bown in Fig. 9.2". Corre,pondingly. there is a limiting slenJerne" ralio
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I rHl
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COL UM NS 289
FIG UIU : 9. 1
Buclli ng and df,,-~ivc k ng'h
of " jal ly loaded col"","s.
'"
(a) k ~ 1 (b) k - ' I< (e) W < k < l
r
, I < kl <=
L k l - 21
I
I
,,,
I
1P ".J"_---<
(d) k - 2
(kl- r)/"" . For vnlues smaller tllnn th is. fail ure occurs by simple crushing. regardless of
kI r: for values larger lhan (U f) ,.... fai lure occurs by buckling. lhe buckling load or
Slress decreasing for lln::al~r slenderness.
If a member is fi .xcd againsl rolation at oolh ends. il buckles in the shnpe of Fig.
9.11>. wilh inflcction poi nlS (IP) as shown. l1lc ponion betwccnlhe inllcclion poinls is
in pr~"Ciscl y lhe same Siluation as the hinge-ended column of Fig. 9.lu. and lhus. the
''ffi,c/ ; , .~ /engrl, kI of Ihe fixed fixcd column. i.e .. ,he dislance belween inflcclion
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 9.2

Eff-~ of .lerKkm<<< ""
meng'" of .. ially loaded
",Iurnn'
,
I
Crushing Buckli"9
,
lan- ' E
(k l/f)"", kll'
1" '"~
poinls. is s.:en 10 oc kl - 12. Equa!ion (9.1 ) shows Ihal an claslic column fixed a! bolh
ends will carry 4 limes as much 100,d as when hinged.
Columns in real slruclUres arc rnrely eilher hingc"d or fixed bul have ~nds par.
lially reslrained againsl rolalion by abulling memo.:r.;. This is shown schcmal;cally in
Fig. 9 .1<. from which il is st"en Ihm for such member.; the effeclive lenglh H. i.e .. lhe
dislance OCl\wen infkclion poinls. has a value bcl\wen / and r 2. lltc pr~'Cisc "alu e
depends onlhe degrc"e of end remainl. i.e .. on Ihe rmio of Ihe Sliffness 1-1 of the col
umn 10 Ih~ sum of sliffn..:sscs 1-1 of Ihe reSlraining memocrs m bolh ends.
In Ihe columns of Fig. 9 . I {/10 Co il was assumed Iha! on..: end was prev":nled from
moving lalerally relalive 10 Ih..: Olher end . by horizonlal bracing or olherwisc. Inlhis
case. il is scenlhallhe effeclive lenglh kI is always smallcr Ihan (or m mOSI il is l"<jual
(0) lhe reallenglh I.
If a column is f,xed alone e nd and enlirely free al Ihe olher (canlilevcr column
or flagpole). il buckles as shown in Fig. 9.ld. Thai is. Ihe upper end moves lalcndly
wilh rcspccllO Ihe lower. a kind of dcformalion known as sid,',wuy . II buckles ,ilIO a
quarter of a sine wave and is Iherefor~ analogous 10 lhe upper half of Ihc hinged col
umn in Fig. 9.1 <I. The inflc":lion poinls. one al Ihe end of Ihe aclUal column and lhe
olhcr al Ihe imaginary eXlension of the sine wave. arc a dislance 2/ apart. so Ihm lhe
eff':':live lenglh is ~I .. 21.
If Ihe column is rola!ionally f,xed al bolh ends bul o ne cnd can move hlendly
wilh reSIX..:1 10 Ihe olher. il buckles as shown in Fig. 9.1<,. wilh an effc":live lenglh
kl .. I. If one compares Ihis col umn. fixed aI bolh ends bul fr~'C 10 sidesway. wilh a
fixed-fixl"d column Ihal is braced againsl sidesway (Fig. 9.1/J). one sees Ihallhe effee
live lenglh oflhe fonner is Iwice Ihal oflhe lauer. By Eq. (9 . 1). Ihis ,neans Iha( lhe
bud ling slTCnglh of an cla,lic fixed-fixed column Ihal is frc"e 10 sidesway is only on.:
quarter Ihal of Ihc same col umn when braced againsl sidesway. This is an illUSIralion
of lhe general facl Ihm coml'n'Ii';"" tIIm,/JUII Ira 10 Im,Me ill " ,i<ln"",,,' ""xlf are
"1 ...,,.1'.1' um.\ider,,!JI.\ "Wiker Ihan ...1"", Imlecd lIlI"illM ~idc.'....av.
Again. the ends of columns in oclual SlrUClures are rarely eilher hinged. fixed. or
entirely fl\.'C bul are usual ly TCslmincd by abuui ng mcmocrs. If sidesway is nOI pre
vented. buckling occurs as shown in Fig. 9 . lf and Ihe effeclive lenglh. as ocfore.
depends on Ihe degree of remain!. If Ih~ cross ocams arc very rigid comp:U"{~d wilh lhe
I .. sao _
o..loootc..,_
_ I THI
~"" --- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
SL EN m: R CO L UMNS
'"
FIGU IU : 9.3
Rigid.fram< buckling: ! PCI ! PCI Ip" Ip"
I) ,, Po> <: PCI
IH
lateral ly braced,
" ,
(~) unbr...<d_
"
,,
, Brace
kl > 21
U (.,
,,
-'--
/
"" 1"
column , the case of Fig_9.1~ is appruacho..-d and H i, only slightly larger than I. On the
mher hand, if the remaining memile" are extremely flexibk a hinged condition is
appro;u;hed ~t Ix)th ends. Evidently. a column hinged at both e"ds and free to sid6way
is unstable. It will si mply topple. heing unahle to calT)' any load whatever.
In reinfor~-ed concrete stru(tures, o"e is rardy con~med with ,ingle ""'milers
but ratiler with rigi d fran",s of various co nfigurdtions. n ", manner in which the rda-
tio"-' hip' just describe'" atTect the huckl ing bellavior of fran~' is illustrated by the
simple portal frd"'" shown in Fig. 9.3, with loads appli..,,1 concentrically to the
co lumns. If _' ide sway i, prev~nted. ~s indi ('ated schematic'ally by the brace in Fig. 9.3n.
tl", huckling configuration wi ll he as ,hown. n", bU('kl ed sbape of the colullln cOlTe-
sponds 10 that in Fig _9.lc. except that the lower end is hinged _It is seen that the eff"c-
tin' length kI i, smaller than I. On the nther band. if no side,way bra<'in g is providc'"
to an otherwise id~ntical fran~. huc'kling (KTUrs as shown in Fig. 9.3". The col umn i,
in a situation sim ilar to that ~h() wn in Fig_9.ld. upside down, except that the upper end
is nOt fixed hut only partially re'tr.Jin~d hy the ginkr_ It i., see" that the effective length
tI exceeds 21 by an arlKlUnt depending on tl'" degree of ""traim. The huckling strength
depend~ on kI r in the manner ,hown in Fig. 9.2". As a co"SC<.!uence. even tlKlU gh they
are di me,,-,ionally identical. the unbr~ced frame will huckte at a rdd ically ,mailer load
than the hr~ced fr~me.
In summary, the following can be noted:
I. TI,e strength of concentrically looJed col umn, decrease, with increasing slen -
derness ratio kl r.
2. III c'olu mn , that arc hwced "g"in't .,idt'.....'''.'' or that are part, of frames braced
against sidesway, tl'" effeni\'e length k/, i.e ., the di,tance between inflection
poinl,. fall, between 1 2 and I. depending "n the degree of end restraim.
3. TI", effeCTive lengths of columns that are not hwced "!luin't .ide",m,\" Qr that :u~
parts offrdll"" not so br.u:ed are al ways larger thun I, tbe 1110re so the smaller tI",
end re'traint. In consequence, the huckling load of a frame not braced again,t
,ides way i, always substantially smaller tlmn that of the Same fmmc when braced.
'-.. _... 9.3 C OMPRESS tO N P LUS B ENDIN G
Me.st reinforced co!,,-Tde ('ompression members are also subject to simultaneous flex -
ure, cau",d hy tmn,ve"", l<;>ad, <;IT by end mon",nl. owing to continu ity_n", beha"ior of
members subject 10 ,uch combined loading also depend, greatl y on their s""" kmes.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU: 9..1
Momonl' in 'knd<r membe"
,,-ilh ,ornp'ession plus
t.:<KIi nS' \len' in <ingic
\
P
'"'''Ol",e, Mo."",~ - HI/4
P,
M. P;
/
!
J J. due to Ma !
! !
!
'-----'~ 1-- H"
t p < Pc
(0) I"~ ''I
Figure 9,4t1 show, such a llJelflb"r, axially loadL'<l b)' P and b"m b)' L'qual eod
moments M" If no axial load were p,esent, I"" mOlllent Mu in Ihe nJemb"r would b"
conSlanl Ihmughoul and L'quallo tlJe end moment, M ,. Thi, i~ ,;]Io wn in Fig . 9.4b. In
thi. siluali<;IlI, i,e .. in simple b"lIdillg wilhoU1 axial com pre"ion. the nJemher dd lecl'
a~ ,hown by the dashed ru , ,,, of Fig. 9.4" , whe ,e Yu represent. the deflection al any
point cau"'" by bending ollly. When P is applied , the mOment at an)' point incra<;e,
by an amount ~qual to P lime, iI, lever ann. The inna"'" moment, tau", additional
deflections. so thai tb" defl<-",tion curve unde , the si muitalJeou<; action of P and Mu i,
Ihe solid l' urW of Fig. 9,4t1. AI any po int, Ihen. the total mornem is now
M-Mu +P,v (9.2)
i ,e" th.: tolJ I monJem consists of Ihe moment M" Ihal acts in Ihe presence of P and the
additional moment caused by P. equal 10 l' times the defleclion. This is one illustra
tion of the socalled l'. ~ effcct.
A similar silUation is ,hown in Fig. 9.4c. where bending is caused by Ihe trans
vcrse load If. Who.:n l' is al>scnt. the momenl m any point x is Mo - H.t -2. with a max
imum value at midspan L"{jual to !II. 4. TIle corresponding M" diagram is shown in Fig.
9.4t1. When l' is appliL"d, additional moments PI' are caused agJin. di slributlxl as
shown, and the total moment at any poim in the mcm~rconsists of the same two pan s
as in Eq. (9.2).
Thc det1ections .1' of clastic columns of Ihe type shown in Fig. 9.4 can ~ calcu
laled from Ihe d~flections .1'(1- that is, from the deflections of Ihe corresponding hcJlll
without axial load. using the following expression (s.:c, for example, Ref. 9.1) ,
(9.3)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COLUMNS 2'.13
If J. is the den~'Ctioll at the point of maximum moment /If",,,, as shown in Fig ,

9.4. M_can be cakulat~d using Eqs. (9 ,2) and (9.3).
(9.4)
It can be shown (Ref. 9.2 ) that F..q. (9.4) call be written

1+ PI',
/If.." - Mo 'c,'-CP"-p
' ", (9.5)
where is a coefficient that depends on the type of loading and varies betwl"Cn about
.:!:O.20 for most practical cases. Ikcausc 1'.1', is always significamly smaller than I.
the R'Cond term in the num~rator of Eq, (9.5) is small enough to be neglected. Doing
so. one obtains the simplified design l'<luation
M..." = Mo I _ P P, (9.6)
wh~re I (l - 1'. Pc) is known as the ",o",nll ",,,g,,;/;,.,,I;,,,, fiu."lOr. which ~n~cts the
amount by which the moment Mo is magnifioliJ by lh~ presence of a simultaneous aJnal
foree 1',
Sine'e Pc d~creascs with increasing slenderness mtio . it is sc~n from Eq, (9.6)
tha t th~ monwnt M in the member ",creases with the sl~no:knwss ratio kl ,. The SHu-
ation is shown schematically in Fig, 9.5 , It indicates that. for a giwn tmnswrsc load-
ing (i.~ .. a giwn ,'alue of Mo) . all axial fore., P causes a larger additional rnonwilt in a
slend~r roember than in a stocky nrember.
In the two nlembers in Fig. 9.4. th~ largest moment caus.'d by P. nanlely PJ..
adds directly to the maximum .'alue of Mfi. for example.
in Fig, 9.'k l. As P increases. the maximum moment at midspan increases at a rate

faster th~n that of I' in the rnann~r given by Eqs, (9 ,2) and (9.6) and shown in Fig. 9.6,
The m~l11bt:r will fail when the simultaneous values of I' and M bc-,,:ollle C<[ual to 1'.
and .11 the nominal strength of the cross section at the location of I1m~'tnUmI110ment.
FIGU IU : 11.5 M
col""'" mo" .."K
"
------t M,
kIf'
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
20M IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: ST RUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 9
FIGUIU: 11.6 p
Eff-~of .x;.11ood '"'
col""'" ",o"","K
TI,i, din.'C1 addilion of th~ maximum mornem cnused by f' 10 the maximum
moment caused by the tmn,ve rse load . clearly the most unfavomble , itum ion. do"s n01
result for all lyre' of deformations. For in,lallc". the nlember in Fig. 9.7" . Wilh "'qual
and "pp"sile elld m"menl,. ha, the Mo dingr~m sh"wn in Fig. 9 .71>. Th" d"fl"ction,
tau ...,.) hy MQalon~ are ngain magnifted " 'he" an axial h~d P is applied . In Ihi, ta~,
these tkfleelions uoder ,im ultnn,,'ou, bending noo ("{)mpr~ssion can be approximated
by (Ref. 9.1)
y = Yo C, C:-"'"
!> 4f',
(9.7)
By comparison with Eq. (9.3) it is ><len Ihat the deneclion magnification here is much
srnall~r.
The additional mom"nts !\ caused by the axial load are distributcd as shown in
Fig. 9.h-. Ahhough the 1110 moments ar" largest at the cnds. Ihe P-" moments arc seen
FI GURE 9.7
Mo"",,,1S in slender members M,
M"". ~ Mo I Py
",;th )mprr<s;on plu.
bending. bent in dooble
eu,Ya tuft."
(d)
'"
(0) (0 )
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SL ENm: R CO L UM NS 2 '.15
to he largest at '<Hne distanc~ fmm the ~nJ,. o.,pcnding <HI their reiati,'e magnitude,.
the total mOments M = Mo + Py are distrihuted as shown in ~ither Fig. 9.7d or eo In
the former case, d,~ maximum 11IOTIlent continue. to act at the end and to be equal to
AI,: the pre",nee of the axial force. then , doe, nOl resuit in any increa", in the maxi -
mum lIlQment. A1temati~eiy. in rhe case of Fig. 9. 7e, the m""imu11l moment is locatffl
at some di,tance fmm the end; at that location M" is significantly smaller than its max -
imum valu~ M ,. and fw this rea'!on the added moment Py inn ease, the maximum
moment to a value only moderately greater than Me-
Comparing Fig,. 9 A and 9.7, one can gelleralize as follow,. 1bc IIIOIl",nt /II" will
be magnifi~' with that
wi",,,, the ddledion y" is largest. This '''-''UIS in me mbers bem into singk CUfvatU",
hy ,ymmetrical loads w equal end mome nt, . If the two end 11IOTllents of Fig. 9.4<, ar~
unequal but of the ,a"", ,ign. i.e .. proJu eing single l'urvature, M" will still be stmngly
magnified , though not quite '!o much a, f", e'lual end momentS. On tl", other hand. a,
evidem fnnn Fig. 9.7, there will be littl~ or p'><.ihly no magnification if the ~nd
moment s are of 0ppll'!it~ sign and produce an inlleniotl point along the ""'mher.
It can be ,hown (Ref. 9.2) that the way in which moment magnification depelld,
on the relative magnitmk of the two end moments (as in Figs. 9A" and 9.7,,) can hc
expre,,,-'<i hy a lllodification of Eq. (9 .6):
(9.R)
M,
C.. = 0.6 + OA - 20A (9.9)
AI,
Here Ml is the lllllllerically smalkr and M I the nun)!!rically larger of rl'M! two end
nlOll)!!nts: IK!nce. by dcflllition. Mo = MI' The fTaclion MI ' M I is dcfined as positive if
the end nlOIIlcnt~ produce single curvatu", and negative if rl'M!y produce double cllrva
lUre. It is S/.'en thai wlK!n Mr = /lf l _as in Fig. 9.4". COl = 1, w thaI Eq. 19.8) becomes
Eq. (9.6). as ir should. It is to be n01ffl IhJI Fq. (9.9) applil'S 0111.1' 10 lIIemhrn braced
,ide,jw,j,I'. As will become apparent from the diocussionthal follows . fOT 'nem
<I):<lill;'1 _
bers not braced againSI sidcsway, mJ . imum moment magnification usual ly occurs.
that is, C.. = I.
~kmbcrs th~1 are bran'd againSI sidesway include columns that are parts of
structur.:s in which sidesway is pre'.:nt cd in one of various ways: by walls sufficient ly
strong and rigid in their own planes ro dfectivcly prevent horizontJI displJcemcnl; by
special bracing in veT1ical planes: in buildings by designing the utililY core to r.:sist
horizontal loads and furnish bracing to rh~ fran)!!~: or by bracing the frame against
SOil)!! Olher e~sent ially immovable SUppoT1.
If no su<:h bracing is provided, .,ide"way call o.xur ollly for the emill! frame
simu//(itleUU5ly. nOl for illdividual cohan"s in Ihc fran)!!. If this is the case, Ihe corn
bined effccI of bending and J.~ial loa(l is son)!!what differenl from Ihal in bracc'd
columns. As an illustration. con sider the simple porlal frame of Fig. 9.&, subjc'Ct to a
horizonlal load II. such as a win(lload. a'1(1 compression forces P. such as from grav.
ity loads. The rnoments Mo CJus/"d by II alone. in the absence of 1'. are shown in Fig.
9.81>: Ihe corresponding deformation of lhe fTame is given in (lashed curves. Whe n I' is
added. horizontal nlOll",nlS are caused that result in tlK! magnifK'd dcfonnalions shown
in wlid curve!; and in the nlOmcnt diagr~m of Fig. 9.8,1. It is secn that thc maximum
values of Mry bolh pos ilive alld negati"e, and the maximum val ues of the add ili onal
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
2% IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: ST RUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 9
FIGUIU : 9.8 p
P
FiM<! portol frame. I",erally
u"br>eed.
H_ I )
I I
I I
I I
I
I ~"
/!---IP
,,)
'"
(0) 1'1
moment, M,. of the ,ame 'igo occur at 1I",.,.me lo.:;alion,. namdy. at the ends of tl",
colu mn,_n",y arc therefore fully additive. leading 10 a large mo"", nt magnification. In
contr.lSt. if the fran", in Fig. 9.8 is lat.erally br<K"ed and ,"cnicall y loadt.-d. Fig. 9.9 ,IKlw,
that lhe max imum values of lhe two different moments occur in diffe rent localion,; the
moment magoification, if any. is therefore muth smaller. as correctly expre, ...-d hy C...
h ,hould he noted thm the moment, thai cause a frame to ,idesway need not he
tau ...-d hy horizontal load, a.~ in Fig _9.&. Asy ", metries. either of frame configuralion
or venical loading or both. ai,,, resu lt in sidesway displace"",ms_ In thi, case. the
prese" c'C "faxial col umn loads again resuh, in the increased ddk'dion and moment
magnific ation.
In sUlllmary. il can he ,tatt.-d a, follows:
I. In flaural members. tl,., presence of axial c",njlfc"io" cau"" addilional deflt.'C-
tion.< and additional nKHl",n1< l'y. Other th ings being cqual. the allilitional
moments increa.~ with inc rea'ing sle",kme<s Tmio H r.
2. In m~",her., h"'NJ "W,il'-'l .,id...nmy and bent in single cur-..ature. the 11)a~ ima o f
both lypeS of n",,,,,,nl,. M" and 1'.1'. occur at the same or at nearhy location, and
are fully additi,-e; this leads to large moment magnilic ations. If the M" 11)on",01,
re,ull in douhl~ curvalure (i.e .. in the <)<.'\:urrem-e of an innection [loint). lile oppo--
,ite i, true and less or no mo",e01 magnification (,,",\:ur,.
n G URE 9.9 p p
Fbed ron.1 fra '". iarnlly
brnced_ j I
") (0) ,,)

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COL UM NS 2'.17
J . In member., in fmme ., /101 brace,/ "~,,in.\1 .,idesw".". the maximum moments of

ixllh kimk Mo and {'y. almost always o('Cur at the same locations. the end, of the
columns; they are fully additive. regan!!ess of the presence or absence of an
infk-ction point . Here. X,. other things iJ.,ing equal. tl;,;, additional def1ection,
and the c"orre~ponding motnent, increa", with inc"reasing H r .
Thi, discussion is a simplifi~..J pre"'ntation of a fairly complex subj<--ct. 11", pro-

visions of the ACI Cooe regarding slender column, are bas"d on the iJ.,ha,ior and the
corresponding equations that have just been pre"'I11~..J . n",y take account, in an
approximate manner. of tl", additional comple xities that arise from the fan that con -
crete iS!lnt an eintic material. that tension cr~cking changes th" mOment of illenia of
a memiJ.,r. and that under sustained load. creep increa.,"" tl'" ,hQn-tcnn de!lection,
and. therehy. the mOIl",nt, cau~ by the", <k!lections.
, _, 9.4 ACI CRITERIA FOR N EG LECTING OF S LENDERNESS E FFECTS
n", proct...Jure of d"signing slend"r columns is i,,,,vitably lengthy. panicu larly because
it im'olv", a trial- and-em'r process . At the ,a"", time. studies haw shown that m""t
columns in exi,ting buildings are sufficiently stocky that ~Ienderness effects reduce
their capacity only a few rerc"m. As stated in Chapter 8. an ACI-ASCE survey indi -
cated that 90 ren"ent of ("OIUilmS bmced against sway. and 40 percell! of ullhmced
columns. (x)lJld be design~..J a., ,hon columns; i.e .. they could develor "s>entially tl;,;,
full <Toss-sectional strength with liltle Or no reduction from slenderness (Ref. 9.3 ).
Furtl;,;,rmore. laternl bmcing is u,ually pro\'idc..J by shear walls. elevator shaft~. stair-
wells. or other dell",nt, fw which resistance to lateral dd1ection is mud, great.er than
for tl", columos oftl;,;, building frame. It can be moduded that in 1IK"t ca",~ in rein -
forced ("(>ncrete buildings. ,lenderness eff~cts may iJ., neglected .
To rermit th~ designer to di'l"'nsc with the complicated nnaly,i, required for
,lell&r CQluJl1n design for tl;,;,,,,, ordinary ca.ws. ACl Code 10. 12.2 and 10.13.2 jlfovide
limits below which the effects of slemlen",ss are in~ignificant and mny iJ., ""gl.."<-'ted.
n,e", limit, are adjust.ed to result in a maximum una("CQuntt...J reduction in ("()Iumn
capacity of nO more than 5 ""rcen!. s.,pamte limit, are arrlil..J!() braced and unbrnced
fmme,. altematdy described in the ACl Code as ''''"S,,"" alld ."m,l" fmmes . resrec-
tively. Th" Oxle provi~ion' are as follows:
I. For Lx)mpress ion n;emhers in non,way fmmes. the eff~"Ct, of slendeme" nmy
he neglecl<ed when kl. r :5 34 - 12M, ,142' where (34 - 12M, M 1) is !lot taken
greater tban 40.
2. Por compression memhers in sway frames. the effects of ~lendern"" may he
negl~cted when kl, r is less than 22.
In tl;,;,se provision,. k i, tl", eff~"Ctive length factOJ ('lee Section 9 .2); I. i, tl", un'up-
poned lengtb. taken as tbe clear di,tance hetween floor ,labs. heams. or otber mem-
hers providing lateral suppon; .II, is the smaller factored end moment Oil tl", ("om-
pression member. positive if the n",mber is bent in singk ("urvature and negatiw if
hent in double curvature; and Ml is the larger factor"" end moment on the compres-
,ion memher. always po"iti~e.
l1ie r~dim of gymtion r for r~"Ctangular columns may iJ., taken a, 0.3011. where
II is the ","emil emss-wnionnl dimension in the direction in wltid, ,tability i, heing
considered. For circular members. it may be taken as 0.2'i time, the diameter. For
otl;,;,r sllal"'s. r Illay be computtld for tlte gr<)" cOllCrete s<"Ction .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
29S ' W.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 9
In acconJanl'~ with ACl Oxk 10.12. I , k mu,' be taken as 1.0 for "onsway fr.!n"",
unles, a lowe r ,'alue is supponed hy analysis. For sway fr.!Il"'s, k must be detenllin~d
hy analysis in all case" in acconJanc~ with ACI Code 10.13. L The ACI eri..,ri" for
detennining k for both hr.!ccd and nnhr.>Ct.-d columns are discu,,,,-,,I in .x'dioo 9.6.
_. 9.5 ACI CR ITERIA FOR N O N SWAY V ERSUS SWAY FRAMES
n,~ discussion of Section 9.3 dearly ,how, imponant differences in the behavior of
,lender columns in non,way (bmced) frame, and corresronding columns in ,way
(unbr.>eed) frames. ACI Code provision, and Commentary guiddi,,,,s for the approx -
imate de'ign of ~Iende r columns rdlect thi,. and there are separate provisions in each
relating to the importan! pammete'" in n,,,,sway "~S o sway frames. induding mOment
magnification fano", and effeni"e length fano",.
In actual structures , a fmme is seldom either completely brac ..-d Qr compl~"'ly
unbraced. It is necessary. therefore. to deternline in advanl'e if bracing prnvilk-d by
,hear walls. eievatOT and utility 5hafl', stairwells. or other dem~nts is adequate to
restr.!in the fr.!"le against significant swar effects. BQth the ACI Code and Cmmnen-
tary provide guid"""".
As suggested in ACI Commentary 10.11.4. a compression member can be
a" u"led br.!cl-d if it is lotatoo in a stOT)' in whil'h the bracing elements (sllear walls,
etc.) have a stiffness sub,tantial enough I<> limit latera l defk'dion to the exkm that the
column strenglh is no( substantially aff~cl<--d . Snch a ,klermination can oflen be made
by insl""'tion. If not. ACI Code 10. 11.4 provides twO alternate criteria for detennin -
ing if colunU15 and stOTies are trealed as nonswa)' or sway.
To be considered a, a nons way OT bral'ed column. the first criterion r",!u ires that
the increase in colnmn end mon",nt du~ to "-'C<:Ind-o rder ~ffects mu,t not eXl1.'Cd 5 p"r-
~..,nt of th" first-order end Illon",nts. Th~ design~r is free ) ""Iect the method for such
a ,kteTln in~tion.
As an alt ernative, the Code allows a ,tory ) be c<msidered nOns way when the
.,("hilill' i",/ex
Q - - -"- "
, (9.10)
V,;I,
for a slory is nOI gl\:~ler Ihan 0.05. where II'. and V. arc Ihe lOtal faelored v"nical
load and slory shear, respc<:li,dy. for the slory: ac is the first-order rc]aliw deneelion
OClween lhe lOp and lhe bottolll o f Ihe story due 10 V.: and I, is Ihe lenglh of the COIll
pressive member measured eenler-Io-center of the joints in Ihe frame. AC I
Commentary 10.IIA provides the guidance Ihal II'. should be b.~sed on lhe lateral
load ing thm ma.~itl1iz"s Ihe value of "il'.: Ihe case of V 0 is nOI included , In mOSI
cases. Ihis calcu lalion invoh-cs the combinalions of lood faclors i~ Table 1.2 fOT wiOld,
eanhq uak e. or soil prcssure (e.g .. 1.2D + 1.6W + 1,0L + 0 ,5L,),
As show'n in Refs, 9.3 and 9.4. for Q ~ot greater th~n 0 ,6, the slab ilily itl(kx
doscly approximates Ihe ralio 1', P< used in Ihe calcu la tion of Ihe moment magnifica
lion faclor. SO Ihat I (I - 1' l'el can be I\:pl3ccd by I ( 1 - Q ). Thus. for Q - 0 ,05 .
M""" .. 1.05Mo-'
TI,,' ..,. r "",",ok"", of Q 10 i' i'" h m"h",,j ,'''"'--me ,'01, ,, ... ,'on "" ",,'IlOII" r't<,j u<m~' "TlI'"' ;..
~y w lon.. wi'h coo, fi,,'tl "1:';""
rt.'''M.,." """" n in n, y, te, 1'0< 'hI>
"~"H ", . Q - i'A V.'~ Si ...'t V ... - tt." 1a ......1 "iff..,,, of t"" , ul"n.. - lUI I,'. t ... ;U\Nt ;,y ;.....te,
".... ",. ". "",;>1 OS Q - i'.. ([leU! ), I ,', ~ on U"'Uf'!"'f1'-U k"~!h "r <II< "~"m" (t~ "'"1" 0 0>1 ,,, ", 1",1 .. , i', ) 10 - (I.W, .ru I' - 1'" Q -
" . ,19.721 ,; ) t"nplir<d"" i' i',. - 1'. (. 'Ell;) - "0 I U1EII~
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COL UM NS 2'.1'.1
III acconl"""~ with ACI Code 10. 11. I, tl'" ,edion properties of the frame mem-
hoers used to cakulate Q must take into account the effects of axial loads, cracked
region, along the lenglh of the rnemhoer, and Ihe dural ion of the load,. Alternately. tl",
section pmperties may hoe represent"" using the modulu, of elaslicily E,. given in FA!,
(2.3) and lhe following seclion pmperties:
l\-1o D'e llls of inertia

Beam, 0.351.
Column, 0.70/.
Walls-uncrncke<J 0.70/.
-'<.T.lc};ed 0.351.
Flm plates and 11m slnbs 0.25/.
A~, I,OA,
The moments o f i.",nia must hoe divided hy (1 + J)
when suslailled later.!1 loads ",-' t or for stahility checks
(u nder ACI C"de I0 . 13.6-----described in &Ction 9 .7).
where I. and A. are ba,~-d on the gr()S~ cOllcrete cross sectioll . neglecting reinfor~",
rt",nt, and J for calcubting J., in Eq. (9 , 10) is the r:Olio of the maximum f:":I"'OO su,-
tained ,hear within a <tOry to tl'" max imum factored shear in Ihat W)ry to account for
tl'" effeds of creep. As dio;cus",d in S<.'Ction 12.5, ' . fOJ T beam.' can be do""ly
approximated a, 2 times I. for Ihe weh. The redu~",d value, of f given ahove take into
:K'~~)unt lhe effel'l "f lIon l inear material behavior on Ihe effecti\'e stiffness of Ihe mem -
bers. Reference 9 .3 shows Ihat the Oxk valws for moments of inertia undere'limate
tl'" lrue m"n!ent, of inenia and ~'()nsen."'l i\'e1y overestimate second -order effe('[, by
20 to 25 pcr~"'nt for reinforced co",:rete frames .
, _, 9.6 ACI M OM ENT M AG NtF IER M ETHOD FOR N ON SWAY F RAMES
A ,Iend"r reinforced Concret~ column reaches the Ii mit of ii, strcngth when the (Ortl-
hination of l' and M allhe mosl highly siressed section causes that seclion 10 fail. In
ge nem\. f' i, e,sentially constant along lhe length of the memocr. This means that tl",
column appnmd",s failure when. at the mo<l hi ghly stre,sed ",-'Ction, Ihe axial force P
cornhines with a moment M = M""", as giwn hy FA!, (9. g). so that Ihis comhinmion
he'Co"",s equal to". and M" which will cau,,", Ihe se('[iotllO fail. This i, easily "isu -
alized hy means of Fig. 9.10.
For a column of giwn cmss section, Fig. 9.10 presents a typical intern(,tion dia-
gram. For simpli('ity. suppose that the column i, ocnt in single curvature with L'<Jual
L'Cccntri('ities at holh ends . For Ihi s L~ntricity, the strenglh of the emss section i,
gi ven by point A OIl II", interaction curve. If the colum" i, slO.:;};y enough for tl",
moment magnificmion 10 he negligihly ,,,,all. Ihen p .,,,,,*, at point A repre""nts the
memhcr strength oflhe column under tnc simulmn ..ous nK,"",nt AI ..""'.... = t"I'.~.,..,.
On tl", other hand. if Ihe sarne column is sufficiently slender. significant moment
magnifl<'atiml will occur with increasing P. TI)en the n"")!ent at the mosl highly
'tressed ",-'Ction i, M"""" as given by Eq. (9.8), wilh Co. = I because of equal end
L,<-'Centricitics. The solid cun.'-~ in Fig. 9 . to show, Ihe n<;mlinear increa.se of M.." a, /'
increa.se, . The point where this cun.'e intersects lhe internction cun.'e. i.e" point B,
defines tl", n!ember strength "'.>1<""" of the sle nder mlumn, ('omhined with tl", simul -
tan"ously applied end nKm",nt, M" = e,I',.,'.-r If end "","",nts are u"'-'<Jua\. tl", fa('-
tor C.. will be I",s Iha)) I, a, di",-' us""d in Section 9.3.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 9. 10 p
carl)'ing C"pacily.
AC I Cod.: 10.11.1 specifics Ihm axial loads and end momeniS in columns mUSI
be dClermincd by a conv~niional claslic fran", analysis (S<."e Chapl~r 12) using lhe sec
lion properties givcn in S~"Clion 9.5. 11le member is Ihen design~d for Ihal axial load
and a simultaneous magnified column 1110mel1l.
For a nOllS"'ay fram~. Ihe AC I Cod.: l'<lU3lion for magnified momenl. acling ",ilil
Ihe factored axial load p . is "'rillen as follo"'s:
/II, " .. M 1 (9.11 )
",here [he moment magnification factor is
., --ccC'c;~c
, f~ 0.75/~ " (9. 12)
In Eqs. (9 .11) and (9.12). the s ubscript "-,,JenNes a nonsway frame. The 0.75 knn in
Eq. (9 .12) is a "Ijff"~'" rnlue/j,m faelOr. designed to provide a conservati"e estilllate
of P,. TIle crilical load Pco in accordance with Eq. (9.1). is giwn as
'1':1
I'.. - - (9.1 J)
kI,- .)
where I. is deflllcd as lhe unsupported knglh of lhe compression n",mbcr. TIle val ue
of J; in Eq. (9.13) should be SCI ~'quallo 1,0. unless calculated using Ihe "a lues of E,
and f given in Seclion 9 ,5 and proced ures described later in Ihis 5tion ,
In Eq. (9.12). Ihe value of Cor is as previously gi\'~n in Eq. (9.9):
. M,
C; .. - 0,6 + 0.4 - 2: 0.4 (9.9)
/11 ,
for members braced againSI sidesway and ",i thout tnmswrsc loads bet"'een supports.
H~re /If) is lhe larger of the 1"'0 end 1lI0100ntS. and M(M) is posilive "'hen the end
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I rHl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R CO L UMNS 30 1
FIG UIU : 9.1 1

Val"", of C~ for .!onder
col"",". in , way and
d
Sway m
n,,,,,,,,.y frame .. _____ L_ LO - - - - " 7
lrames
0.'
, Nonsway
frames
OA
0'
() - 1,0 +0.5 + 1.0 ~
"
moment, pruducc single rurvat ur~ and n~gati", when they prudul'<' double curvalUre,
n", variation of Coo Wilh ,1,1 , M! i< slKlwn in Fig. 9. 1 L In Eq. (9.12), when the caku -
blt...! "al"" of ., i, 'mall~r than I, it indicateJ; thallI", larg~r of the IwO end moments,
,142' is Ihe large,! mon",m in the col umn, a situation d~pined in Fig. 9.7d.
In this way the ACI Code pruvides for th~ capacity-reduting effens of slend~r
ness in nOn, way fr.nne, by mean, of the mOl""", m~gnification factor .,' Howe",r.
it is wdl known that for column, with no or very small appli~d IllOments. i,e .. axially
or nearly axially lo:illc..! columns. increasing ,Iendeme<> also reduces tI", col umn
strength. For thi, .ituation. ACI Code 10. 12.3 .2 provides that the factored mo"",1lI M!
in F--'I' (9.11) .hall nm be !ak~n I~ss than:
M ,,-- = p.(O,r:, + 0.03h) (9.14)
aboul each axis scparatdy. wh.:rc 0.6 and h arc in inches. For members in which Ml _
exceeds Ml . th~ value of C.. in Eq . (9 ,9) is ta~en equal to 1.0 or is based on the ralio
of lhe computed end moments M , and M,.
Th~ value of EI used in Eq, (9.1 J) to calculate Pc for an individual member must
be bolh accurate and reasonably conservative to accou! for 1he grcat~r variability
illherent "llhe prolMlies of individual columns, as comp,1red 10 the propcnics oflhe
reinforc~>d concrete fralll~, as a whole , The values of EI providl>d in Section 9.5 arc
adcquale for general frame analysis bU1 not for est~blisllillg 1', for individu~l colulllns ,
In hOlllogenwus cl:\Slic n"'mbers. such as st<-"Ill columns, E/,s easily oblailled
from Young's 1110d" Ius and lhc usual rnO'lICl11 of incl1i~. Reinforc~d concrcte columns.
however. arc 110nholllOgcncous. since they con,ist of both st~cI and coocr~te. W h~rcas
steel is suhslal11ially elastic. concrcte is nOl and is. in addition . subject to creep and to
cracking ,flcnsion occurs on the convex sidc of Ihe colullln. All of these factors aff~'Ct
the effecl;vc value of EI for a reinforced concrete nk:mber. It is possible by compuler
l1k:thods to calculat~ fairly rc~listic ~ffcctiw s..:ction propcnies. taking accoul11 of
tllese faclors , Evenlhcse calculm;ons arc no more accurate than tile assumpl;ons on
which th~y arc OOSl>d. On the basis of el:lbonn~ sludies. both analytical and expcri
mental (Rd, 95). the ACI Code requires Illat EI be determined by either
(9 ,15)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
or by the simpler expres..~i(}n
(9.16)
wlwre Eo = mod ulus of elaslidly of ('Oncr~le. psi

I, = momenl of ,,~rtiu of gross seclion of column. in'
E, = modulus of elaslidly of Sk>el = 29.000.000 psi
I" = momenl of inertia of reinforccmenl aboul c~ [\lroidal axis of nl~m~r
cross section. lll'
d = ratio of maximum faclore>d axial SUSIW!Ic>d load 10 maxim um faclored ""ial
load assocbk'<l wilh I ~ same load combinalion (this definilion dirr~rs
from lhal usold in Section 9 .5 10 calculat~ d..,)
The factor d OCCOUnlS approximalely for Ihe dkcts of creep. That is. t~ larger
the sustained loads. the largcr are the creep deformations and corresponding curva
lUres. ConS<.'<!uenlly. lhe larger lhe sustained lo,'1(1s rela1ive 10 the lemporary loads. lhe
smaller the effCClive rigidity. as c orreCl ly reflected in Eqs. (9.15) and (9. 16). Because.
of the IWO materialS. only conerele is subjeCi 10 crecp. and reinforcing sleel as ordi.
narily u~d is nOI. 1he argument can be made Ihatlhe creep para meier I + J should
be applied on ly to the term 0.21-;,1* in Fq. (9.15). However. as e~plaincd in ACI
Commcntary 10.12.3. the creep para meier is applied 10 both terms oc'Cause of lhe
potential for premalUre yiel(ling of steel in columns "ndcr suslai ncd loading .
1I0th Eq~. (9.15) and (9.16) are conservative lower limits for large numbers of
inwstigated aclUalmcmbers (Hef. 9.3). Th e simpler oot more conservJti"e fAt. (9.16)
is not unreasonable for lighl ly reinfOr<:ed members. oot il greatly undcreSlima1eS lhe
effL'Ct of reinfOr<:emenl for more beavily reinfor<:L'd members. i.e .. for tbe ra nge of
higher vali,,-",s. Eqllation 19.15) is more reliable for the enlire range of and defl
nitely prefcrable for medium an{l high values (Hef. 9.6).
A n accurate delcrmination of tbe etYee1ive lenglh foctor k is essential in connL'C
tion wilh Eqs. (9.1 1) and (9. 13). In SeC1i on9.2. it was shown that. for fran1<'S bT:lcc,<l
t
against sidesway (nonsway fT:lmes). k \'ari~s from 10 I. whereas for lal~rally unbracc,<l
frames (sway frames). il varies from I to "'. (te(J<'nding on Ihe {lcgree of rotali onal
restrainl at both ends. This was illustrated in fig. 9 .1. For fTlln1<'~. it is seen that lhis
(tegree of rotational rewaint ck(J<'n{ls on whether the Sliffnesses of Ihe bt:ams framing
inlO the coi ll mn at lop and bollom are large or small compare,<l wilh Ihe Sliffncss of the
colUllln ilself. An approximate wt generally satisfaCIory way of dctenninins ~ is by
n1<'ans of <llig!lm~1II churn based on iOOla1ing lbe given column plu~ allmell1bers fram.
i ng into il al lOp and OO((om. as shown in f ig. 9.1 2. The d/'!:ree (1 emi at each f1!."'''''''1
~lId is = '.(FI /, of col umns) .;- '.(I::J I of tloor members). Only tloor members lha\
are in a plane at e it hcr e,1d of lbe column are 10 be included. The \'aluc of k call be read
directly from lhe chart of Fig. 9.13. as iUustralL'd by the dashed lines.!
It is seen lhat k mUS\ be known before a col lJJ1'" in a framc can be din1<'nsioned.
Yet k depend~ on lhe stiffness 1'-'1 / of tIK: n1<'mbers 10 be din1<'nsi oncd. as well as on
that of the abu({ing l11<'mbers. Thus. the din1<'nsioning proce~s necessarily i,woh'cs
iteration: i.e .. one assun1<'S m~mber si7.<:s. calculat~s member sliffnesses and corre
sponding k values. and then calculates the cril ical oockling 10.'1(1 and more accurale
"It,"",,,,,, w ,.... " I< "f <ha.t> tire "l""~"" [" f 'h< ..... rtm;""'~., M cif,"'h~ kllMlh r"",,,,, . d..wk'f'-d in R,f;. 9. J ,hm" i11 Y.9 , nd , ;W" iD
ACI ( " "",", 01)' 10.1 2.1. I.,"'" no.., ,",',",IMe e, ,,,,,<>;'",, h k an' ~i '~n in Rd. 9. I". Toc """oti,.. , n' no",' , ,,,,,,,.k,,, j" d..~ ~ """",,
('Of,tfl<I"'" >01"'.,,1>.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SL ENm: R CO L UM NS 303
FIGUIU: 9.1l
Section of rig;' i fra me
iJKIt>di n column 10 be
<k.,igncd.
,
Coiumn being
designed

:~\
..,.
10.0
,
. ..,..
""
to.O
"
100.0

,
"

10.0
.,
."
"100.0
.,
.. ~
~
~~
"' .
,.
" . ".
....
.... ..'.'. ....
~
Oll ~~~ '88 10.0
..
'.' ..,
~
.. ,.
....
..., ..,
..,. --
----- - - - ,.
,.
.,
.. " ..
.. .
"
'.' '.'
(a) Nonsway!ramas (b ) Sway frames
FIGUKE 9.13
Alignmen, chartS fo.- d f.-ct;,'c kngth f""lO" t .
member siz", o n 1/", basi s of these Ie valu", umil a"umed and final member siz",
coincide or are s:lIisfactoril)' dose, The stiffness 1 ' should be cakufatoo ha. ed on
the Yalu"s of E, and' gi ven in Se"tion 9.'i . and , he spa" le ngth, of 1he n",mbe", and '<
I should be meas urt.-d center-to-Center of the joinl~.
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EoI6 ..
IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 9
An outl ine of the separale step' in the analysis/design p",,,,-'<iure for non,w"y
frame, follow, along the", lill""
l. Sck<:t a trial col umn seclion to carry the faclor.:d Jxial lo:ld p. and moment M.
- ,II) from Ih" clastic firsl ordt:r frame analysi s. assuming short column behav .
ior and following lhe procedures of Chapler 8.
2. o.:l~rmine if Ihe frame should be considered as nonsway or sway. using Ihe cri
leria of Seclion 9..'i.
3. Find Ihe unsuppor1~>d lenglh I, .
4 . For lhe Irial column. clled for consideralion of s1cndcnlcss effecls using lhe cri
leria of Seclion 9.4 wilhk - 1.0.
S. If slenderness is lemm ivcly found 10 be imponant. rcfi~ Ihe calculalion of k
IxIscd on Ihe alignment chan in Fig. 9.1 .1". wilh member sliffilCsscs Ell (Seclion
9.5) and rOlalional r.:slrainl factors ba",,">d on lrial member sizcs. Recheck
againsl Ihe slenderness crileria.
6. If momenlS from Ihe frame analysis :lrc small . check 10 delermine iflhe minimum
moment from Eq. (9.14) comrols.
7. Odculate lhe cqw 'alen! uniform momenl faclor C.. from Eq. (9.9).
S. Calculate d. f from Eq. (9.15) or (9.16). and I'e from Eq. (9 . 13) for lhe lrial col
unm.
9. Calculale Ihe moment magnification faclor " from Eq. (9.12) and magnified
momenl Me from Eq. (9.11 ).
10. Check lhe adequacy of lhe column 10 resisl axial load and magnifil>d nlOnJen!.
using lhe column design chans of Appendix A in lhe usual way. Revise Ihe col
umn seclion and reinforcement if ncc~ssary .
Il. If column dimensions arc altered. repem Ihe calculalions for k. . and 1', ba",,'<i
on Ihe new cross ",,"lion. Delermine Ihe revised moment magnilicalion faclOr and
eheck Ihe adeqoacy of Ihe ~w design.
EXA'\lI'L.E 9. 1 DesiWO of 1\ slenMr col"mn in ~ nollS"ay f.-d m~. Figure 9. 14 shows a" elevation ,iew
o f a multi'to<)" cn,,,,retc frame building. with 48 in . wid" X 12 in. <ker' bea"" OIl all col
umn lines. carrying t,,o"'"y ,tab flOOfS and roof. TIle de" heigl,t of the COlumn, i, I ~ ti.
lnlerior (olu mns are temathely dimensioned at 18 X 18 in .. aoo titerinr columns at 16 X
16 in. TllC lrame is effe<:tivdy brn<."d against sway by stair aoo de'",,,, sh.aft' h,,ing con
eWe wall, that are monolithic with the floors. localM iu the building cnrners ( not , llOwn in
the f,gure). The Stn":ture ,,; 11 be Wbje<.1Cd to ' enical <load aoo liw loads. Trial calculations
hy firstorder analysi' i,~licale that tM patteno o f live loading ,hown in Fig. 9.14. with full
load distribution 00 roof aoo upper /loors and a ched,eTboard patte", adjoc"", to column 0.
[If'Oduces maximum ,non",ms with , ing[" CUf\'ature in that column. at nearly maximum axia l
load. o.ad load, oc1 on all spans. Sen;.." load valu"s of <kad aoo liw load a~;"l f()fce aoo
momen1< for lit" typical interior column C) are as folklw.:
IHud load /J., ... load

P .. 230 kips I' .. 173 kip"
M, = 2 fj.kip" M , = 108 fI.kips
M , - -2 tikip' ,II , - lOOflkips
The COlumn is subje<:ted to double C""."tu re under <kad load alone aoo single cu"am ....
under li"e load.
DeSign <"Olumn C~. "sing lhe Act mOJn.. n! magnifter ",ethod. Use' ; ~ 4(X)() p"i and!, ~
60.000 psi.
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COL UM NS 3()S
r ,
FIG UIU: 9.14
Cone,",c building fro"", I<>r
E.,mple'l, I,
,
" ,, CoIuJrnn C3
V
,
,
L" "A "B" c"
~ ~
D " ~
," ,"
T-
' - - - - - - 51><1)'5 at 24 ' - 120 -----~
St" ,IJl'''N. Illc CQlu"'" ,,ill Cor;! be <Je.';gf\\.'(1 as a sI>OI1 c'(Ilumn. assuming nQ slcmlemcss
eflect With the awlicOlion of the u,ualload f:>rtO<'>.
/', ~ 1.2 x 230 + 1.6 x I n ~ .~~3 kips
,II, ~ 1.2 x 2 + 1.6 x lOll ~ 175 1\~ipS
For"n 18 x 18 in. colum". wilh tl> 1. ~ in. dear to tile oUlside SI""I, No ..1 (No. 10) s,ie
rurs. and (.>sun""') No. to (N". 32) longitudinal Meel:
= 18.00 - 2 x 1.50 - 2 X 0.38 - 1.27 \ 8 = 0.72
Grnph A ,6 for = 0,70. wi,h bar:s amnogoo aroond lhe ,'(Ilul11" perim"ter. will be used, Then
-leA,
". - O.M~"",,'
X 4 X=.12-1
. ~ - 06..%
.
M. 17S X I2
--- = = 0.138
/i A,h 0.65 X 4 x .12~ X 18
and from ,he graph ' = 0,02. Thi, is low enough that an iocrease in st".,1 area could be
made. if I">CCe.Wlry. 1'1 allow for slcnOCrness. and lhe 18 x 18 in, ~o"crcle dimensions will
be ret.ine<!,
For an initial ched on slenderness. all dfe~'iw leng'h f"",or k - 1.0 will be used. Then
/d. = LO X D x 12 =28.9
r 0.3 X \8
For a braced f"" n.,. ,he "pper limi, for shon co lumn beha-'ior i,
M , = .~ - 12
~ - " - c"'CC;XC;-- ;'C:-+C;"'," ';;;:',OOc =2:1.2
,II, 1.2 X 2+1.6 X 108
The ~akul alc"d ,'aluc of 28,<) e,cec,ls Ihis. SO .llcndemcss mUSI"" con,i,i<:red in lhe ,ie,ign,
A Illore refined calculation of th., ellecti",' I.,ng,h factor k is thus calit><! for.
Ikca"", t: is Ihe same for~ol""'n am1 OClms. il wili be carICclcd ill Ihe stiffness caku
lations. For 'hi' >I"p. tbe colul11n moment of i""nia is 0.71, = 0,7 X 18 X IS' 12 =
6124 in'. g;"ing ric - 6124 (14 X 12) - 36.5 in'. " or the OC"ms. lhe rl'IQn",m of incnj~
will be taken as 0351. where ' I is taken as 2 times the gro" rl'IQnlCnt of inertia of 'h" web,
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
Thus, 0.3~1. ~ O.J~ X 2 X ~S X 12'- 12 = ~838 in' . nd II = ~838(2~ X 12) = 16.8 in '.
Rotational "'''lrain! foctoo; at Itle tOl>.nd bonom o f column C) are Itle same aoo are
36..~ + 36.5
,= 16.8 + 16.8
=2.17
From Fig, 9. J:x. for II>t: br"",d fro",e. tl>t: "al"e of ~ is 0.87 . m her than 1.0 a, used previ
oosly. Consequ"nllj\
11, _ ,o"""",~,";~"C';" = 15.1

, 0.3XJ8
This i, still abow th" limil yolu" of n.3.
continuing thai slenderness mu, 1 be coosidered.
A check will now be ",>de
(If minimu'" moment A~c'()l"(\i" ~ 10 f"l, (9 ,14). ,11,,..._
553 X (0.6 + 0,0 .1 X 18) !2 = 5.1 ft-kips. It is sec"
that this does 001 control.
The c'OCOleicnl C.. can "OW be fOlu\lJ from Eq, (9 ,9) wilh M I - I ,2 X (-2) + I ,6 X 100
158 ft kip, andM, = 1.2 X 2 + 1,6 X 108 = 175 ft lips:
158
C. - 0.6 + (lAm - 0.96
N""I the factor " willt>e foond baled on the rotin o f {he maximum f;lC1ore<.i ,ustained a.ial
load ({he fIK10red dead load in (his ~asc) 10 tlk: maximum r",,'lOrcd a~ia l load:
,
For " relmi"dy luw reinfort""nen{ roliu. unt< estimated to be in the rong~ uf 0.02 10 0.03. I)",
more 3fJPffiXim3{e Eq. (9.16) for EI will be u>ed, . nd
0.4 X 3.60 X 10' X 18 X 18 ' 12

EI ~ "'':~''''~''Cc,"'''''-'''-'' ~ 8.-10 X 10' in' lb
I + 0,50
The critkal buckling load is found from r"l. (9.13) {o be
'EI 'x 8.40 X 10'
, ' -l.!.
- -- - "i'-';'CC~C0
l -0,87 X 13 X 12 '
= ~.5O X Iff Ib
The mum"nt magn ification fa<1or can flUW be found from Eq, (9.12 ).
c. 0.%
Ll5
I - 553 0,75 X 4500
T huS ,he n:q"ired axial "n:ngth oflhe column is I'. - 553 ~il's (as bdore). "hile!1Ie mag
nifil-d design moment is Me ~ ~,M, ~ 1.15 X 175 - 201 fl-kips. With ref"rence 'gain {o
lhe c'OI",,," <1i:sign chan 1\.6 with
~~ 10l X I2 =0.159
L A,h 0.05 X 4 X .124 X 18
;t is seen !lIat Ihe 1'C(ju;re,1 n:inforcclllC!I1 ratio is i'lCrea>ed from 0.020 10 0.026 because of
.ltndeme5'. l 11e steel are. now rt."quired is
A ~ ~ 0,026 X 324 = 8.42 in'
which can be pro"ided using foor No. 10 (No, :12) and four No.9 (No, 29) bars (A~ =
9.08 in'). arranged as shown in Fig . 9,15, N"mber.1 (No. 10) 'ies wil l be u>ed al a sPlICing
n()( {o ""reed the I"as{ di,nen. ion of{'" ool umn (18 in .). 48 tie diame1"" 118 in.). or 16 bar
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R CO L UMNS 307
r
FIG UIU: 9.15 r----1 8"' ~
emu <cel'o" of column <-"'3.
E.,mple'l, I,
~ I-' 4 No 10 (No. 32) corners
L
IS" 4 No 9 (No. 29) sides
r No. 3 (No, 10) lies@ IS"
eHla, COver 1~,.
(lianlClcrs (18 i".). Single lics al 18 in. s]>;>ci"g. as sll(l",n in lhe fIgure. will nlCCIn.'(luire-
me"IS of lhe ACI Code,
Further refmeme,,'s in Ihe deSign c""ld. of COOfSe. he made by recakulaling Ilk: crilieal
buckling load using Eq. (9.15). This eXIra "ep i, no! ju"ifi"<l hen: ilttausc lhe column , Ien_
derness is barely ."'we lhe "pre' limil for sllon column bella"ior and Ih., momcn1 mag"ili
calion is nol great
-. 9.7 ACI M OME NT M AGNIFIER M ETHOD FOR SWAY F RAM ES
1lIe imponarn differences in heh~vior between columns brac,-~ again" side,way and
mlumns for which ,idesway is p<",-,ible were diS{"u~",d in Sections 9.2 and 93. 1lIe
critical lo~d for a column I',. dep<md, on the efre.:ti"e length H . and although lbe
dfc-eli"c leng1l1 factor k falls il<etween 0.5 and 1.0 for braced column,. it is bclween
1.0 and '" for columll ~ Ihat are unbraced (see Fig,. 9.1 and 9.13). Con.~'luen1ly. an
unhraCt.~ ~'(,Iumn will bm'kle aI a mudl "mailer load than will a braced column thul i,
Oth"rwi", idemicaL
Column, ,uhjecllo "ide"way do not lIonmlly 'taml alone bul are pun of a suuc-
tural 'yslem induding floor, and roof. A floor or n)Of is nomlally very stifT in ils OWl!
plane. COl!~uently, all column, aI a given ,lory level in a sUuctu", a", ,uhje,t to
e,sentially i<kntieal ,way displacements: i.e .. 'ilksway of a panicolar <tory c~n occur
only by ,im uitu"""u, "neml motion o f all column s of th"l slmy. Clearly. all columns
al a given level must be considered logether in e\'uluating ,Iendi.'mes~ efTc-et' relating
to ,id,,,way,
On Ihe <>Iher hand. il is also possihle fm a single column in a sway frame to
huckle individual! y un<kr gravity load,. th" ends of Ihe column being held ugainSi rel -
ali\'c lalerallllovemeni by OIhe r. sti ff"r column, allhe sarni.' fl,xn lewL Thi, f'O",ibil -
il y. re<ulling in magnific'atiml of "on;;way momen!, due 10 gra"ity 10""", musl ulso be
consilkred in Ihe analysis and <k'ign of '!~!lIler c'olumns in unbraced frame,.
The ACt momen! magnifier appmoK"h can 'Ii ll be used. bul in frames ,ubjt'~1 to
sidi.',way. il is n"",-"",,,,),. according to AC! Code 10.13.3. to separat" lilt.' loads ",ting
on a ,Iruelu", into Iwo categories: load, that ",sull in "0 appreci.hle ,idesway and load,
thai resull ill app-eiahle side,way. Clearly Iwo separ~le frdn", analy"'s are required.
one for loads of each Iyl"'. In genemL gr~vily load" al"1in g on ",ason"bly ,ymmetrical
frames pmduc'e little sway, and II", ~ffc>et, of gravity load may tt",,,,fore he placed ill
th" lirst ,ategor)". Thi, i, confim",d hy te,ts and analyses in Ref. 9. 11 Ihal SIK>W thullhe
sway magnification of gravity ",o",,,ms by lbe sway mulliplier i, unwarram"d.
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EoI6 ..
lOS IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 9
n,~ maximum magnified muJ1lCm, cau><-xl by sway loading occur at tl'" ends of
lhe <"olu nm_ but tbose due to gmvity load, may occur somewh~", in tb~ midheight of
tbe column. the exact location of the !auer varying de!",nding on the end mmnel11,.
Becau,~ magnified gmvity moments and magnifi<xl sway mOments d<;> not ocCu r at thc
,ame l,,<:ation. the argument can he made that . in most cuses . no magnification ,hould
he applied to the non,way mo"",nts wh~n sway 111011tem, are con~idered: that is. it i,
unl ikely that the actual maximum nll)!!Iem will exceed th~ sum of tl'" nonmagnified
gmvity 1111}11",nt and toc magnified sway moment . Consequemly. for cases involving
,ides way. FAj. (9. 11) is replaced by
(9.17)
(9.18)
where /1f t .. smaller factored end moment on compression memocr
/If ) - larg~r factored end moment 011 compression nlClllocr
"',., .. factored end 1ll0lllenl on compression mcmocr al the end al which "' I
acts. due 10 loads thaI eausc no appreciable sides way. calculated using a
fi rsl order claslic frmne analysi s
"'"" - factored end 1l1011"'nl on compression IHCmocr at th~ end al which "')
acts. duc 10 loads (hat causc no appreciable sidcsway. calculated using a
firsl -order elastic frame analysi s
/lf h .. factored end 1l101llCnl on compression IHCmocr al lhe cnd al which "' I
acts. due 10 loads (hal cau,., appreciable sides way. calculated using a
firsl order clastic frame analysi s
/If ), .. factored end 111011lCnl on cotnpression IHCmocr at lhe end al which "')
acts. duc 10 loads (hm causc appreciable sidcsway. calculated using a
firsl order clastic frame analysi s
. .. 1l101l1Cn( magnificalion faclor for frames nOt hrac~d against sides way. 10
reflect lat~ral drift resulting from la lcral (and somdimes gravity) Io.'ws
The ne~d to l"akulate M , as well as M) will be ~xplained ,h,ml)'.
AC I Cod" 10.13.4 provide, three alternate nlCthO<ls for cakulating the magni -
fied swa)' rnom~ nt s. ,/11,.
With the fi rst alt<,mative , II", column end T11IlI1lCms are (akulat(.xl using a secooo -
order analysis b",,,,d on the n",mher stilTnesscs giwn in $.xtion 9 .5.
With the ><,,-'ond altemati,e. the magnified sway momem, are cakulated a,
M
~ --'- dl (9.19)
I - Q '
where Q;" the stability index c akuia1<.'{1 u<ing Eq. (9. 10). The ACI C<KIe limits appli -
cation ofFAj. (9. 19) to values of , = 1 (1 - Q):5 1.5. On~ ofth<'otllCr twO alt~mat e
It,,,thOOs muSt be u''ll for higher ,"alues of "
For the tbird alternative, tbe ACI COOe !",nnits th~ magni fi ed sway mOm~nt to
he calculated as
. .\1= --;- __-;.,I,=~~ 2:M, (9.20)
.< , I p. 0.75 P,
in whicb "if', i, 11", [(lIal axial load on all column, and "i P, i, the t<;>tal critical buck -
ling load for all columns in II", ,tory under con,ideration. As with Eq. (9.12), tlte 0 .75
factor in FAj. (9.20) i, a stilTness r~duction factor to provide a collscryat ive est imate of
the critical buckling load, P,. The indiyidual ,'aloes of " < are calculated using FAj.
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COL UM NS 309
(9.13) with efTecti,'" length fano", Ie for unbraced fr,lInes (Fig. 9 . lJb) and value, of
EJ from Eq. (9.15) or (9. 16).
For tI", three alternate method, used to calculate , M,. the factor dis defilled
different ly Ihan it is for nonsway frame,. As de>cribed earlier, in St...:lion 9,5, for ,way
frame, d is th" ratio of the maximum f""tored susmined she:u wilhin a stQr)' Hl tl",
maximum fanored sl",ar in that Story. Thus. for mo,t a]>plicatiQIlS, J = 0 fQr the pur-
flO'" of calculating , M,. In unusual situatiQns, d '" 0 will occur, such as a building
localed on a sloping site thaI is subj~..:led to soil pre"ure on a single side (Refs, 9 . 12
and 9.13).
It is noted in ACI Cmnment:uy 10.1 3A that the I11<Hnent magnifier procedure may
underestimate tho: magnifi~-d momem for CQluJ11ns in stmcture, that undergo 'ignific:un
torsional di'pl""ement under lateral load. The di>crepancy i, greatest for columns far-
the,t from the ~'emer Qf twi,t. The Coml1"'ntar), suggests thal three-dimellsiQnal ",'('olld-
order analysis sl1<lUld be ~'()flsidered in su~' h cases.
Equation, (19.17) alld (19 .18) are based on the assumption that the maximum
moments in ~'olul1m' in ,way fr~mes are the end n1<,ments. However, as shown ill Fig,
9.7e, the maximum l110nlent may occur at any point along a length of a column. A,
described in Ref. 9,1 4 , for \'alues of
,~5
", ---
p
(9 ,21)

!c A ,
tile maximum moment is likdy to nceed the valu" cakulaled in Eq . (9.18) by more
thao 5 p"r~nt. T,) account for the additiooallllom;,nt magnification , AC I Code 10.135
re<luire, that under the conditions represented hy tile ine<lual ity in FAj, (9.21), columns
must be d~<igned as 110".""".1' ,'o lllllm." based on Eq,. (9. II ), (9 , 13). and (9.9). with M,
and M ! cakulated u,ing FAjs. (9. I 7) and (9. 18 J. respt.'('\ivdy. 11,., smaller n1<,ment. M ,.
is used in Eq . (9.9) to caku late C... . J is defi""d for the load ,'onlllin~!ion under cun -
sideratiml. and k is detined for a ,,,,m...
'il)'!,.,,"'''.
To prote<:t again!;t sidesway b"" kl ing of ~n entire <tory under gr.t\'ity load, alone.
ACI Code 10.13.6 places additional restrictions on sway fr~mes. n,e fonn of the
restnc!ion depend, on the "",thod osed h, cakulat" . ,At,:
I, When ,M, is computed based on a secooo -order etasti,' analysis , the r~tiQ Qf the
second -order lateral deflections 'Q the fiT'lt-Qrder tateml deflenions under 1,40 +
I.n plus lateral ICIad shall not excet.-d 2S
2, When ,AI, i, computed using Eq . (9 . 19), the value of Q using 'LP. for l AD +
1.7L shall not excet.-d 0,60. [This rorresponds 10 , = I ( I - Q) = 2S]
J, When ,M, i, computed using Eq. (9.20), ,cumpuled using 'LP. and 'LP< corre-
,ponding to lAD + 1.7L shall he posilive and shall not n,'eed 2.5,
For allthre" methods of "he"king "idesway i"-'tabi lity under gravity loads, J is
calc~ lated for the full Story as the ratio of tl'" maximum fru:tmoo s~s!ai",--d axial load
to the maximum fa~10red axial load for tl,., ,tory, rather than a.< the r,ni o o f ma ~ imum
factored <u<t~ined ,hear within the .<lUry tQ maximum factored ,hear in the ,tory, and
tile grm'ity load 'LP. is hased on lAD + 1.7L. rather than 1.20 + 1.6Lor 1.20 +
I .Ot.' Metltod ( I ) inn)lve, twO analyses, one first-order and "'''' secooo-{,rder, for the
, Ih' Iood r",'""" 1.4 """ I.J, ~'"kh ~' ,'f< "",J h J<ad anJ Ii,... k...t, "~[>.~1 i""ly, in !let C,>k> rri<~ ,,, 2002. tIa'~ !>cen n1,;n1 in ,he' 2002
!lU C(>k rur tni> [>.>rti< .. (>f ,he' ,kook",,~> '.k" I "' ~", ',
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
,tructure und~r faclOred gmvity load. plu. bteml load. Any rea'nnabl~ lateral load
distribution can be u,,--d for the analyses. The ratio of the dell~>ction frum the second -
or<kr analysis to tl>" delledion from the first -order analysis i, limited to a value of 2,5,
For m"thod (2), the \'alu" of Q cak-ulated in FAj, (9. 10) can be conservatively
modifit.-d for use in the stability d"",1,: by multipl)'ing by
IAD+l.7L 1+
(a)
1.2D + LOL +
where the sub,cripts A and \' represent d ba!ie<J on total ,tory axial load and total story
,hear. r"'p'-'Ctivdy. ACt Commelllary 10.13.6 point, nut that if Q from Eq. (9.10) is
less than or ~'<Jual \() 0,2. the stability cIK'Ck i, satisfied. Thi, conservative limit on Q
from F--'J. (9. 10) is based orl assumed value, of . oN = 0 and J.I = I (i .e" all axial load
is sustained) and an L 0 rntin of 2. Assuming that the live load is twice the dead load.
1.4 X I+1.7x2 + 1
0.20 1.2 X I + 1.0 X 2 . 060
+0
exactly satisfying th~ upp"r limit. Q = 0.6. in ACi Code 10.13,6, If Q from FAj, (9.10)
is somewhat greater than 0.2. the actual ,'alues of O. L ",. oN should be used to
detennine Q for the stability check.
For method (3), can be cakubtl-d from in Eq. (9.20) I>y multiplying the
original ~I'. :iI', term by the same term as u",d tn modify Q 1"-,,, Eq. (a)] . ACt Com-
mentary 10.13.6 points out thal. although , = 2.5 is \'ery high. the value is sele<:ted
to offset the con.>crvati sm inherent in the rnon",nt magnifier pn:><:ooure. In any ca",. if
the appropriate re ,triction is ,'iolated, the structure mu,t be stiffened.
n", seq uence of design steps for slender columns in swa)' fran"" i, si milar to
that outl ined in Section 9.6 for nonsway fran",s, except for the Tl,<!uirement that load,
be separak-d into gr.:l\'ily loads, which are assumed to produce no sway. and horizon -
tal loads producing sway. Separate frame analyses are required. and different equi'"d-
len! length factors k and cre~p coeiTIcients J- along with exira d,e('ks 'p'-'Cified for
Eq. (9.21) and for the possihility of ,idesway instahility under gmvity loads. must he
applied. It will be noted that ""<"OTding to ACI Code 9.2 (see also Table 1.2 ofChapler
II. if wind effects II' are included in the design, four possible factoK-d I""d combina-
tions are \() he appli~-d:
U = L2D+ L6L
U " 1.20 + 1.6 L, or S or N + 0 .811'
U= 1.2D + 1.611' + LOL + O.5 L, orSor R
U .. 0.90 + 1.6 LV
Similar provision~ are included for cas<:s wh<:re earthquakc loads arc 10 bo: considered,
This rcpreS<:nt~ a significant complication in (he sway frame analysis: however, 1he
factored loads can bo: scparat~d int o gravity effl'C~ and sway cffec1s. as required, and
u 8eparat~ analy8is can Ix pcrforn""d for each,
It is important 10 realilC 1hat, for sway frames, 11t~ !>f(lmS musll", de., 1gllfd for
lite IO/ill m(l!-:II;jinl eml mOOIf"IS of rlw cmn"n's,';(JJj meml""s "I Ih~ joilll. Even
though the columns may bo: very rigid. ifplaSlic hinges were 10 form in 1he restrain.
ing bo:ams wjace'" to (he joi"ts. 1he eff~clivc colu"''' kngth would bo: greatly
increased and 1he critical column load much reduced.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R CO L UMNS 3 11
n,~ chuic'e of which of Ihe Ih,,,,, a l!emal~ m~lhods 10 use for calculaling , ,M,
depends upon lhe d~si,,-~ I~vd of ac'Curacr and Ihe avai labl~ analyti cal Hx,ls.
Second -ord~r analysis (discuss..,J in mo,~ detail in S,,{1ioo 9 .8) provides th"
most accur~lc estimate of th~ magnified sway nKJrnent, but requires more ,ophi,ti -
catcd t"dmiqu"s, 11", ~xtra effort 't.'qui,,-~ fo' ,",cood-order analysi., howe\'~r. usually
produ"", a superior de'ign. 11", "",ond altemali,\.', Eq. (9.19) , will in mo,t cases he
the ~asic~tlO apply. since mamx analysi~ i, used for \'inually all fr~""'s 10 detem,i,,,,
member rore"s unde, gravity and later.I1 loading . Such an analysi, aUlOmatically gen -
erate, the valu" of .:1", lhe fi,-,;[-{mk, relati\'e deflec,tio" within a SlOTy. allowing Q 10
he calculak"{1 for each slory within a structure, 11", Ihird alternative, Eq. (9.20). i,
,etainc~ wilh minor mooification, from previous versio"s "f the ACI OxJc. A~ wilt he
de'!Km>lrak~ in lhe following nample. calculations u~ing Eq. (9.20) are more k~iou,
than tho", ",-..,oc~ for Eq. (9.19) but do nm "-'quire knowledge <:If .:lo' Application of
Eq. (9.19) i, limiled by Ihe C,xle to value, of ,:5 IS Fo, :> I __~, application of
Eq. (9.20) is ""lIldalOry if a "-"'''nd -orde, analy,is i, not u",d .
EXAM PLE 9.2 \)Sigll or a slender ~o lum" In a s ... a~' fram.,. Consider now th31 the coocret~ btlilding
f",me of fua)1'pie 9.1 ""I, as ~aJfrn"". without the ""i,,,,.n, or ele\',,,or sh"ft, de><ribed
e:nli". An inilial e"alu",ion i, carried (lUI "sing lhe "",mil,,, din",mions o"d reinfo""n>ent
giwn in Example 9. 1, 'Tlle ",inforcemcnt fo, lhe inlerior I S x 18 in. ,olumm. SnOW " in Fig,
9. I;, COIl,isl> of foor No. 10 (No. 32) liar> "' tbe rome" and foor NO. 9 (No. 29) hars al the
,'ente, of each 'ide. R~inforcemenl for Ihe .xlerior 16 X 16 in . columns cOIl,is" of eiEhl
NO.8 (No. 2; ) bars diS1tiooloo in" n\[lm"" 'imilor 10 Ihal ,bo"," for the I""gilodi",,] rdn
forc"''''''''t in Fig. 9.1~ . The ooiM ing ,..ill be ,"bjccIO!d 10 gm ' "i ty dead and liv. load, and "Of,
i",mal ",i oo 10"''''" Elaslic firstorde-r analy,i, "f III<.' fran",", "","ice load, (all load foetors
= 1.0) u,inE lilt.' ,"~Iu," of E and I defined in Seclion <),5 Mi"os the following ",su i" al the
Ihird '(01)':
Cols. A.I 101,,1 P_I C,1i,. [1.1 "n,! J C<A,,. CJ and D./
"-
I',.~
II5kips
00 l ips
:': 30 kip,
230 ~ip,
173 ~ips
230 kip'
17.> kip'
:':6
',~ :':ISl<ip' ~ip s
V .., S.5 kips 11 ki p' II ~ips

M ,.."" 2 ftkip,
.\I'ii>' 108 ft.kip,
,11, .w
"',..,
"" ....
. :': 84 ft~ips
- 2 fl.kips
100 ftkip,
MI. .., :':70ft. ki l"
To 'implify the analy<i" roof lood, ",jJj nOl he mn'idered. The reiali,'e lateral defleclion for
lhe Ihird "Of)' unde, 100ai wind ,hear V."", = 5~ kips is 0.76 in,
Columll 0 i, to be designed for the crilicalloading condilion , "'ing}; = 4000 psi and
1, - 60.000 psi as before.
S()'.UT1 "~. The column ,ize and reinforcemenl mu<1 sali,fy requirements for each of the
fOIl, load conditions TlOted aoo\'e,
Initially. a check is nllltk to 'ott if a sway fra me onalysi, is required. 1"11< factored .bear
V. = 1.6 X V . ... = 1.6 X ~5 = sa ~ips, The rurrespooding defk>("{ion Ct." = 1.6 x 0,76 =
1.22 in. Ti>e 1<)131 faclored a., ;al forre ()fJ li>e"~ is obtained u,ing the load tabk
Colu",n,A3 and flo 1', - 1.2 X 115 -'- LO X <)f) - 228 kip'
Colu",n, 83. 0. D3. and D: 1', - 1.2 X 230 -'- 1.0 X 173 - 449 kips
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
3 12 IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 9
NOlo that in thi' Cas<' th'> value; of p.;.,! in the colum", a", not considered ,ince they can-
cel out for 'he noor as" whole. i.e.. -r,p.... _ O. '111",. :i:p. _ 2 x 228 ... 4 x 449 -
2252 kip". and the ,robiHty index is
Q _ ~ _ 2252 x 1.22 - 0. 19
Vj, 88x14 X 12
S;oc. Q > O.D.S. sway frame a!!alys;,;s "'lU;rt'd for th;, 'tory.
(II) G,...~' il y I..... <ls unly. All col" mn\ in sway frarne, mu,1 firs/Ix cOrlsidered a, bracW
column, under grn"ity load, acting alone. i.e .. for U = 1.20 + 1.6L. This cru.",k has already
been made foreoh",," C3 ill harnpl<: 9.1.
(bl era"il)' plus wind loads.. Three add;t;onalload combination, muS! be considered
",h.." wind clTOCIS ,or" incl,,<I.:<I: U - 1.2D + I ,6(1-, or S or R) + O.S W U - 1.2D ... I ,6W
... I.OL'" O.5(L, or S or RJ. and U = 0.00 + 1,6W By inspl.",tion. the second of these will
cOrl trol for ,hi, case. and ,he cohers w;1I '>01 be cons;dert'<1 f"nher. I'rom bamplc 9.1. ,
,= 2,1 7, With ",ference totlle ali~nm"nt chan;n F;~. 9-'~b. the effect;,'e lengt h factor for
an ""braced fnune k - l.b--I a,1lI
II, _
r
"C"""C;-;
'C'c';-,'c2 _ 47.4
O.l X I8
Th;, ;s mueh above tilt: limit '1I1~ of 22 foc ,hon column behavi",. in an "nbraced f.."""
(This should be no surprise sioc~ kl. r - 25 .1 for column C.l in the braced con<lilio".) rw
sway I'm"", analy';s. the load, mu>! be 5epa"K"1l into grav;ly load, aoo ,way load,. and the
.ppropri al ~ magnif>cation factOf mu,t be computed and .pplioo to the ,way m,,,,,,,m,. The
faclored end mom"ntS result;ng from tile 1IOO,W')' load, on col umn C3 aro
M, .. - 11 X - 2 -t- 1.0 X 100 - 98ft.kip"
M,., E 1.2 X 2 + 1.0 X 108 ~ 110 fl kip"
1""'-' sv.-ay efkel' w;1I amplify llle T""menl,
M,, - L6 - 70 - -I 12ft.kip"
M" ~ 1.6 X !14 ~ 134 ii-kip"
For lhe p~rpo<eS of co"'pari",n , Ihe magnified ,way ",o"",nl, will he calculated ba." ,d on
both Q [Eq , (9.1911 and :::'f'. -r,f', [Eq , (9.20) ).
Using Eq. (9.1 9).
M .-_, _ _1>4
,M,, _ __ - . _ IMfIkip'
I - Q 0 ,81 ' ,
To use Eq. (9.20). the critical load, m",t be calcu lated for ~ach of lhe columns as fol-
I(lWS, h >r col umn, ,13 and n .
Columns: I ~ 0.7/, ~ 0.7 X 16 X 16' 12 = ,82.1 in'
and I " ~ 3823 I~ X 12 : 22.8 ;n'
llearns: 1 _ 4838in' ''ndl-l, _ 16,8inJ
Rotal;onal "'stra;nt factor, for th;, case. with two columns and o"e beam f",m;ng into the
)oi",. l.re
22.R -I- 12.8
.- - 2.7 1
16.8
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R CO L UMNS 313
,,"hic~. w'lh r~fc"'nce 10 Ihe "Ii gnmen! chart for unbr:lc<:d frames. ~ives k = 1.77. For wind
load. ,j - O. Sinee reinforcem"m has been inilially ",1."led for o n" column. EI will be caT
(UI0100 using Eq. (9. 15).
EI ~ 0.2E, I, + E,J" ~ 0.2 X 3.6 X 10' X 16 X 16' 12 + 2<) X 10' X 6 X 0.79 X 6.6'
- 9.92 X 10' in' .lb

Tht>n lile mlical load is
For columns 83. Cl. D.l. aoo E.l. fmm " .. Iier caleulaliau> fot col"mn CJ . t - 1,64 fOO" tbe
''''ay loading cas<:. For 1m,,,, columns.
EI - 0, 2 x .\.6 x: 10' x 18 x 18' ,12 + 29 x 10' 4 x 1. 27 X 6.4 ' +1 x 1.0 x: 6.5'
- 14.8 x 10' in'-Ib

' x: 14.R x: 10'
" - -C~'C~:-C:-C~
I.64 X I3 X I2
. - 2.62 x: 10' lb
Thus. for all of lbe columns al Ihi' 1e,'cT of llIe 'Iruel"re.

P, = 2 X I~!o + 4 x: 2620 = 13.500l.:il"
and fin:1l1y. 1m, magnified s,,"a)' "",mems for both lbe lop and llie bot!Om of column C3 art"
- 112
,M" E
M"
I'. 0.75 ,., 22 52 0,75 x 13.500
~ - 144 flkip,
,M" ~ , .If"
p. 0.75
"
, '"
0.222 - 172 h-kips
n
Tlie values of , .\/, are higher baS<.'<1 O!l 'il'. 'iI', (hall Ihey are based O!l Q ( 1 f(.kips "s,
1M ft-k;JIS for ,.II,,). ''''phas;zing ll1e CO!l",,,'al;ve nature of Ihe llIomen l llIagnifier
awrooch based 01' EQ. (9.20). The Jesi~" will PI"O<.'<!e(\ usin, II", less <onsc",.,i,'. value of
,M"
The 101.1 III"gnif,ed n)(Hl>enlS are
M , - 98 - US - -40ft.kip,
.II, - l !O + 1M - 275 fi.kip,
combine<.! will> fa<;l"",d axial load p. - 459 ~ips (IIOW including L6P.;,.,). In refe-re,>ee 10
Gnoph A.6 w;lO colullIn par"""'lffS
P, 459
- '- '-' -, - 0,65 X --I X 324 - 0.545 hi
~ _ 275 X 12
- 0218 hi
J. A,h 0,6,S X 4 X 324 X
'"
;1 is seen IOJI = 0.030. This is sl;g]OIly higher Ih:tJ111ie '111"" of 0.026 ""I";",d for colu",n
Cl in" braced frame Tile required 'lee[ area of
A" ~ 0,03 X 32--1 ~ 9.72 in'
will be pmvi,t..'<1 u,in, eighl No, 10 (No , 32) bars. arrallgoo as shown in fig. 9.16. Spacing
of No, .1 (No. 10) lies mu,l 001 eJlceed lhe leaS! di""'I\,i"" of llie oolumn. 48 lie diameler .
or 16 m.,i"~" di m"lers. The s<:con(! crilCriO" comm"- an(! No, 3 (No, 10) lieS 011 18 in,
spacing w;1I be used;n llie pan..n Shov.l1 in Fig. 9.16.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
314 IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 9
r".
FIG UIU: 9.16 r----1 8"' ~
emu <cel'"'' of column {."'3.
E.,mple'l.2.
~~ 8N0 1 0(No,32)bars
L r No. 3 (No. 10) lies@ IS"
C~rcover It"
Two more checks are requirt'<ilo complete lite design. Firs!. in accordance wilh Eq.
(9.2 1) higher rnag.nificd r""rncol mult be calcul"l~d "sing Ihe val,,,,,, of At, and M , and
Eq" (9.J I). (9.1 .1), and (9.9) if I, r 3.S P./, A" In (his ca""I, r ~ 1.1 12 (03 X 18)
- 29 compmcd 10 35 459 4 X 32~ - W. indica,ing Ihal the curre", analysis and
design are s:uisfaclOry.
A >el.wKI check is rll...."k."<I l(l prott.X:1 :lgain,1 ,idesway insl:lbili ly (If lite en,i", SIQr"y "oder
grJ\'ily lrods. Wlten Q i, used 10 c",np<lle ,At,. Q may OO! exceed 0.60, For lhi' check. lite
momenlS of irll."J1 ia used 10 calculale 4 " for uSC in Eq. (9.10) m"" be di,'idcd by I + d-
with ~ equal 10 lhe mlio of (he su"ained fac(orc'<i ,xialloadlO (he maxi mum faclOrt"<l axial
load .,nd "P, m"ll be ~,s<,..d 0" 1.4/J + I.n. This che<:l is sa,i,'kd willrool furtlrer calcu
lation, how,"er. if (he "aloe of Q from Eq . (9.10) does nol exceed 0.20. Since Q based on
Eq. (9.10) i; O. 19. tile stabilil~ check is satisfied for the Ihird SlQr"y.
" 9.8 SECOND-ORDER ANALYSI S FOR SLENDERNESS EFFE CTS
h mJy be evident from the prL'<;L"ling e'~mplcs thai. although the ACI momenl mag-
nifier melhod works well eno~ gh for non,way frames, its ~pplicalion 10 sway fran"!s
is complicaled, with many opportunities for error. especially when Eq. (9.20) is used
10 calculate ,M,.
With lhe universal av~ilabi li(y of compUlers in design offices . and becJuse of lhe
complexity of the momenl magnifier method, it is advamagcous 10 ~rp ly rational
S<,.,<;ondorder frame analysis, or p. t>. ~nalysis, in which the effecls of lateral derleclion
on momems. axial forces . and. in \Urn. la(eral ddlc,<;(ions are computed direC11y. "T"h.!
result ing momems and deflections include the effecls of slenderness. and so Ihe prob-
lem is striclly nonli!H!ar.
Second-order analysis is encouraged in generJI by AC I Code 10.10. 1 a nd in par_
ticular for sway frames by AC I Code 10.11.4.1. A second-order ~nalysis is required by
AC I Code 10.11.5 for all compression members wilh (", r grealer lhan 100.
According \0 Ihe Code. such analyses "shall be oosed 011 (he factored forces ~nd
mome nts from a secondorder analysis considering m~teri~1 nonline~ri(y and crack -
ing, as wdl a, the effecls of n"!mber curvat ure and laleral drift, durJtion of lhe loads.
shrink~ge and c"-"'p . and imcraelion with lhe supponing found~tion ." Member dimen -
sions used in the secondorder anJlysis mUSI be wilhin 10 percenl of (he fmal dimen -
sions. Olherwise, the frame mUSl be reanJlyzed . AC I Code 10. 10. I requires th~1 lhe
s<",<;ondorder ~nalysis procedure be one th~1 provides J strength prediction lhal is in
"subSlantial agt\.'Cmenf wilh lest rcsulls for reinforced concrcle col umns in sWlical ly
;nOClcnninntc frames . AC I Commentary 10.10.1 suggests lbat a prediclion wilhin l.'i
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
SLEN m:R COL UM NS 3 15
percent oflhe lesl resuits i, ,atisfactory.1t also ,uggesl' that a ,tiffne" r<'iluction fac-
tor .' of 0.80 be used 10 provide ('on,istency with the second-ord~r analy,is for ,way
frame, ,\t:scribed ill ACI Code 10.13.4.1.
Satisfying all oflhe reqoirements of ACI Code 10.10. 1 on a member-by -nlember
ba,is would be highly inefJicieni. As pointed out ill Ref 9.14. the key requirement for
EJ values for second-order frame analy,is i, Ihat they be representative of member
,tiffness jusl prior to failure. The valu~s of E and J in &'Ction 9.5 (ACI Code 10. 11 . I)
meet that requirement and incl ude a ,tiffne" reduction factor of 0.875 (Ref 9. I 4) . The
value of the ,tiffness reduction factor and the nK"'lenl, of inenia in &'Ction 9.5 an:
higher than the faclor 0.75 in F..qs, (9 .12) and (9. 19) and the effeclive values of J in
Eqs. (9. L~) and (9. 16). respectively. bo:cause of the inherently lower variability in tile
total ,tiffne" of a franle <;-ompare<i \0 Ihat of an indi\'idual member. ACl Code 10.13.4
autlKlrize, Ihe u~ of E and I from Seclion 9.5 in S<.'COnd-order analyses 10 dderrni'le
magnified ,way mOments,
A rational ,",cond-order analysis gives a beuer approximalion of actual mmnent,
and force, than lhe nK",,,,m magnifier n",thoo. Difference, arc parricularly ,ignifi cant
for irregulnr fr~mes, for frame, subj<-'Ct (() 'igllifKam sway force,. and for lightl y
braced frames. There may be important economies in the resulting design.
Pr~ctical melhods for performing a full second-order analy,is are describt.-d ill
the Iiter~lUre (Refs. 9.3, 9.15, 9. 16, 9.17, and 9.18 10 "ame a few). and general- pur]lo~
programs that perform a full nonlinear analy,is including swa)' dfocts nre commer-
<;-ially available. Exi,ting linear first -order analysi, program" however, can be modi -
fied I<l pr<xluce acceptable re,u ll'. TI,is requires all itemti,'c approach. whid, can bo:
,ummarized as follow .
Figure 9.17a shows a ,imple frame subjeo 10 lateral loads Hand venicalload,
1'. The lateral def1eclion <l. is cakulat<'il by ordinary fint-order analysi,. As the fr~n'"
is dispiae<--d iat~rally. Ihe column end moments musl equilibrale lhe lateral load., and
a moment equal \0 Cll')<l.:
(9.22 )
wh~re <l. is lhe lateral deflection oflhe lOp Oflhc framc with respect 10 Ihe bonom, and
'iP is the SoPH of lhe "~rtical Forces 3Cl ing. The momem 'i,,<l. in a given story can be
represented by equivalent shear forc~s ('i,,)<l. I,. where I, is the Mory height. as shown
in Fig , 9.17/1. These shears gh'e al1 ovcrtuming moment equal 10 that of the loads"
acting at a displaeet)1em <l..
Fig. 9,17(' shows Ihe story shears acting in a three-story fratne. The algebraic
sum of the story shears from the columns above Jnd below a given !1oor correspond
in effecllo a sway force <If{ acl ing on ,hal t1oor, For ~x3mple, 31 the second floor the
sway force is
(9.23)
n,e sway forces mu,t be adlk-d to tI", applied lateral force H at any ,tory Ind, and
the structure i, then reanalyz<'il. giving new def1('Ctions and increaS<."{1 nK)",enl, . If tI",
later~1 deflecti,"" increase significantly (say IlKlre than 5 percent), !lew tlH ,way
forces are computed, and the ,tructure is reanalyn-d for lhe sum of tI", applied lateral
forces and the new ",'ay force, . heralion is continued until change, are in,ignificant,
Generally one or Iwo cycles of iteration are adequate for strunures <:If reasonable lat-
eral ,tiffne" (Ref. 9.3).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
p p
11
-i--------ij
H
1 I.
J dH' _ r , , ,'-
H_
=
t p
Tp "~:" 1= j= 1= 3'" slory
colu mns
,-, ,'-
1 ,.
dH:J o:( ~
..L .i-
j~ j~
--
~' P;!,
T H
1
OP,o,
I, \
2"" story
columns
1= / /
d~ ---:~ ~
.L- :;:L, 2"" floor

~
I.
':P,o, 1" story
:~~ .H~C- ~"~J

- -,,' -
I, \ columns
___
FIG U RE 9.11
'"
B,,;, for item!;". I';!, ONlI)";s: ( ~ I ,eni<: "00 lal.r,l lrod, on ,,,,,tango .,. fra",e : (h) ,e,1 101"",1 forc", 1/ and lic!;l"," ' ' '''ar
ti"","", dH; (I:) three .,,,,,y fmmo ,ubject '" .wa), fo"-,, . l""t.!pU',II """ 11'1- 9. H_ I
It is no(ed in Ref. 9.15 (hat acolT~-.;(ion mus( be made in (he analysis (0 account
for lhe differences in sh~pe hc(ween lhc I'!J momem di~grnm tha( has (he smnc .hape
as (he del1eck'd column. and the mOlncm diagr.nll associalcd wilh lhc I'!J../ forces.
which is linear OC(Wc"e1l (he joints at (he column ends. The area of (ht aclUai !'!J.
momem diagrnm is larger (hall (he linear C{)uivaJcm rcprcsentation . ~nd consequem ly
Imeral deflec(ions will be larg~r. The dilkr~nce will ~al)' depending on (he r.:lmive
s(i ffllcsses oflhe column and (he bcmns framing imo (he join(s. In Ref. 9.15 . i( is sug-
ges(ed (hat the increased lIeflcclion can bc accoun1c'{\ for by (aking (hc sway forccs dfl
as 15 percenl grcaler (han (tIC calcula(ed "~Iue for each i(era(ion. Iteration and (he 15
pef(CO( incrcase in deflec(ion nrc nOl required if lhc program pcrfonns a full nonlin -
ear geonlClric analysis . sillCc lhc!'!J. momcnlS are calcul~(~d in full.
TIIC accuracy oflhe results of a I'-!J. a nalysi s wililk s(rongly influenced by (he
values of nlCmbcr SliffllCss used. by fOUllda(ioll rola(ions. if any. and by lhc cffec(s of
concwc cretp. In conn ..",(ion willl creep ctfcC1S. la(crallooos causing signitican( sway
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo _ I THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SL EN m: R CO L UM NS 3 17
are u,uall y winJ OJ eanhyuake loads of , hon d uration, w cree p etTen, are minima l.
In ge neral, the use of sway frames to re,ist ,<Il,<w i",!d later,!l load<;, e,g .. from ~anh or
liquid pressures, is not recomme nded, and it ,,~}Uld be p rd~rahlc to include sl",ar
wall , or otl",r eI~ment' to re, ist these load,.
~. L S. P. '!i"",,a,nlo "><l J. M. ( .."". T"'",''j of El<w;c ,~,"hilir)'. Jd cd .. Mc{;r.w_ Ifi!t. r w YoB:. t%'!
'1.2 T V.(,,],..-.1'.,. (,'it.). (,'"iok ", 5,ulnhr}' lk, iK" Cri,-';" f'" M,".I ,Im",'.'''. ~th ,'<I" loltn " , ~,,' & 'i<.".
N,",,' Y"'". 1?J ~.
'I.; I . G . ~b.:(] "'ll'K "",t S. h . If."". "S_h,)' IIn.t)',i, lli:! lle-"~ " " I C"" ""-....' F,,,,,,",,." J. ,<;,,,,",- lJi~.
lI'i !; l ~ ,,~. to.' - "0. H tl). t'ln . rP. t 'l53-t~ 11
~A S._M . A. ! .>i . 00 I . ( ;. M.o:( ;"1"K. -( ;"K,.,tr", N"" li""",;'k , in lJ nho ....~'<l Mul,i,w,), 1'1'" "."." l Sir"",
E"~ .. II S!;I~ I'oj . HI-!. ,,.,. II 1'-"!3. 1'1' , ,"s _2"""-
~_, I. G . M .<fi ",~ ' K . J. f, H"-~" . ....1 E. O . l'f",,. "IJo..~ill" o( Sic",." C,"""'''' C(~"" " " : 1. Act. ,,~ . 6 7.
..,. 1. 1'170. rP. 6 _2M
'1.6 I . ( i . Mri",-)"",. V. II. Odh,"''Il . ",1 S. Ii 11"10'" "/\ RITmin" "", ,0( ,be EI V.I"" f,,,
S htd<~
n ~" m"': ' N<'"fim:M 0_.... " ('~liu""-'. ,\""'ti....... (, ....--rel0 I n ~ iO " " . l)coroi,. 1 ~7 ' . rP. 1_ 4\1.
'1.7 {,,.}, 'f I'Men", fl" "" 'i1"'dum' U" If ,,""""'. I'..n L "IJe,ill" M. 'ctiab .,-.,j W.d, ,,,,",...,ip"
{I:I'IIO: ('all I 19 71). HriH;h SL>ndaru, ("~iw ' i< ... 1.. " .1,,".
)qn
~.~ Vol. B. ( '".,,,,,,,,. "1I.wy-", ""'1 1l<-"; 0 of 1I, ;" f" .",,1 COf"-""-'" C<>Iu,,,,,';' H._""'n.h H,'i>'''' No . .'<1. I '.>j"-~
41 .OZIJ. ('<,,,,," ....
1 ('"",,"-"0 A,"..
' i"..... 1..",,100. I ~ n
~.~ II. w. Fu,Ioo~ . "( '<>Iom" Slcndo.'/ll<',.. ....1 C","" f,,.
Il<-";o:' 1. ACt. " '~' Nt "". I. 1~ 7 1 rP. 9_1 ~
Y.I I!. M. \':>11")' . nd 1'. [Jum,,c"" E'I""'"'" 1<1 Al i ~ n m<fl' Cham f(. l:<>Iu"", I h i~" :' oy I..
IJiwl. W._S. Kini. ""d 1'.'_1'. CII"n. AU.II"',, '. L "'~. 91. "" . 2. M ...-Ar<. lW-/. 1'1'. ' 29_B O.
'1.11. I . S. I b n!. D. C U"'n ~. "",I I- E. Il''''n. " 1l;lln 1",1;"",;."" fnom 1"", o( Uno,..ced Mulhl"""'1 C""'-'<C'"
f,o.,,,-,-" G ..". 1m'.. I ()/. 3. ,n ). ! Y~ L 1'1'. J 7_ 47
~. U. 8u iu/i"~ rmk H'4"j",,,,,,",-, for .I'""",urtJ' C"",:rm. ,\ I:! ~I X ~12. lime,,,,,,,, C()IlCfl'k I" "i,"",-
F"'tlIin~oo I fill,. M I, 2< m
~.I l. (;''''''''''''''I')' "" H";W"~ Cmk 1/,,1";"''"'''''''''' c"'",,,...
.\'"",'"~', ACl ,I ~R -{I'.lIme,"''''' 0 ,.",,<",
In>l""'''. l""'n ini"Ofl llilb . M(. ll))2 (puI>li>.llcJ '" I"" oj' II,!. '1.1, ).
Y.1 4. J. (i. M,"--(;"'i'K. " Il<,ii" of Sic"",,, <;"""""0 Column, _ Rel-;,i,,,,!." AU S,ruc,. l . ..~ . '!(). fIQ. 3. IWl.
rP. lOl_)(1-!
Y . I ~. I . Ii . M>ct '"-'i'''. R'Utfi",M C""""''' . .,,1 00 .. 1're .. " ",_ lb li. UN'<-" ,, ,"kl lc Ril"'. 1'1. I\>,!1
~ .I 6 II. R. W'K><l. J). 11c'",,",,". " ><l l' F A ,"" , ~ . "l,:," umll D''-<i~ " 0)' /'_Il<II, ~ 1o<Id ." I'me .'.ICC. I"~ . 1112.
.. ,. ST:!. 1'176. rP 4 ~ 7 -!'(o.
'1.17 .1'""".
U. R. 10'...1. J). 11c':w\i,'\J . "",\ 1'. F. ,\J;.,n,. " I'" "h<, 1I'l'-~' " of I)",,jg " 11)' I' llell. Mod" L" 1. In" ..
lI 'il'Ji. ,,~. 1112. "0 . STl. 19 1~. 1'1'. 4l; 7-.'I~)
'1.1 ~ R. W F"' loo~. - 1I.';,,,,,,l lInaI),-,,, ,0( Mul,;"", y C""""-"" s,,,,," ""', . 0",,'. 1",1.. ""I. 3. 0". 6. 19M I. rP
:'11-35.
9.1. n,~ 15 x 15 in. column sh(}wn in Fig. 1'9. 1 must extend from f'Klting level to
the se,'(}nd f1'Klr of a hrac~d fmme ,trunu re with an unsupp(}nOO I~ngth of 20,5
fl. EXl~rior exposure requires 2 in . clear cowr for the outenno, ' Sk'Cl. Analysi,
indicate, the criti"al loading correspo nd, with the following service load s:
(a) from dead loads, P = 170 ki p" M ,,,,, = 29 fl-kips, M ",. = 14. 5 fl -bp"
(h) from live loads, f' = 100 kips , AI.", = 50 fl -kips , AIo.. = 25 fl -kips, with
the column hent in doubl~ {'urv~lU'" as ~hown . The eff<-'Ctive I"nglh factor k
detennin<.'<1 using Fig. 9.1 3a is 0.90, Material 'tr~ngths are f; = 4000 psi nnJ
f. = 60,000 psi, Using tl", ACI mo ment-mag nifier method, determine whelhe r
the column is adequal~ 10 resiSl these load, .
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3 UI IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 9
r1G Uk E 1'9.1 p
j
M~
r
l
W
r--t 5 ~
~~ 6 No. 10(NO. 32) ba rs
--
r
lu - 20.5'
2" clear cove r
(.)
NO.3 (No. 10) ties
L M~
t
p
(0)
9.2. The siructure shown in Fig. P9 .211 r<XJuires lall slclI(kr columns at the len side.
II is Ful ly t>raced t>y socar wall s on Ihe right. All columns arc 16 x 16 in .. as
shown in Fig. P9.2h. and all beams are 24 x 18 in. wilh 6 in . monolilhic tloor
SI:lb. as in Fig. P9.2c. Trial c:dculations c~1l For col umn rcinForccmell1 as
shown. Ah~rnalc lood analysis indical~s Ihe crilical condilion wilh columnAB
r-- 22' I 22 '-----r-- 12 '-1
,
Shear wall
"L ci7 zi7

(.)
r r---- 16" ~
~~ 6No.l1 (N<>.36) bars IU

,,- '" "'" " l
l
W
~ No. 3(No, 10)lies

,-Clea r cover I I, ,I
t~
"'-
('I (e)
r1G URE 1'9.2

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SLEN m: R CO LUMNS 3 19
hocnt ill single l"urVa!ure, and ,crvil"" loads and ITKHlrelll, a, follows: from dend
loads, I' = 139 kip" AI.", = til ft-kip"MI<>< = 41 ft-kips; from liw load, I' =
93 kip" /'4""" = 41 ft -kips, M.,. = 27 ft-kips . Material strengths aref; = 4000
p,i "".If, = 60,000 psi. Is the propoSlxl l'Olunm, reinfmced as shown. ,atis-
factmy for thi s load condit;';",? Use Eq. (9 . 16) to calculate 1 for the column.
9.3. Refine the calculation, of Problem 9,2, u,ing Eq. (9.1 5) to l"alcubte 1 fm the
column. The reinfo,"",mem will hoc as given in Problem 9,2, Com""'llI on yo",
result,.
9.4. An interior column in a braced frame has an unsupponed length of 20 ft nnd
carri", the following service load fmee, and moments: (a) from dend lond,.
I' = I go kips. M"", = 28 ft -kips, M/,oj = - 28 ft -kips: (I}) from live loads.!' =
220 kips . M"., = 112 ft -kips. M"" = 112 ft-kips, with the signs of the momelll,
repre",ming d';lUble cU""atur~ under dead load and single Curvature under liw
load. Rotational restr.lim factor> at the top and bottom may be taken ~ual to
1.0. Design n "luare tied ,"olurnn to resiS! these londs, with n reinforl"elllem
ratio of nJJo\Jt 0.02. Use / ; = 4000 psi and f , = 60,000 psi.
9.S. n,e first three fhx"s of n multi,tory building are shown in Fig. P9,5. The lat-
eralload resist ing frame lXlnsist, of 20 X 20 in. exterior column,. 24 X 24 ill,
interior columns, nnd 36 in. wide X 24 ill. deep girder>. The centcr-t<l--Celller
column height is Iti ft. For the Sl'<'(Hld -,wry colu mns, the service grnvity dead
and live load, anJ the horizmual wind loads based on an elastic first -order
analysi, of the f",me nre:
Col." A2 ",,,I E2 Col.I". B2 ,mJ D2 Col. C2
"-
PIi"
348 kips
137 kips
!: 19 kips
757 kip,
307 kip,
!:9 kip,
688
295
o
kip,
kip,
kip,
1','04
V.ioo1 6.5 kips 13.5 kip, 13.5 kip,
All""'" 31 ft-kip'
M l .",. 161 ft-kip'
Ml.o;o4 105 ft-kip'
M (""'" - 34 ft-kip'
Al L/;', 108 ft-kip'
M L ",o4 - 98 ft-kip'
A matrix analysi, fm the total unfactm"d wind shear of 53.5 kips, using val -
ue, of anJI specified in Section 9.5. indicate!; that th" relative later,,1 ddlt.'<'-
tion of the ''Cond story is 0.24 in. Iksign columns 82 and f)2 using Eq. (9. 19)
to cakulate ,M,. I\-lat~rial strength, arc j,: = 4000 psi and]; = 60,000 psi.
rlG UR E P9.S
, Cot~B2
, ./
,
""
ABC
"" "" "D7 "E7
~1'--- 4baysat40' ~ 160' ---~,1
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9.6. Rcp,:aI Problem 9.5 using Eq. (9.20) 10 calculmc ,M,. Comlnel1l on your
resu lts .
9.7. Rcd~sign column C3 from E.~ample 9.2 for a s!Ory ho.:ight of 16 ft. a column
unsupportoo knglh of 15 fl. and a relalive laleral displaccllIcl1l of IItt: Ihird
siory of 1.10 in. Loads :md other dimensions remain unchanged.
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STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS
10.1 INTRODU CTION
R~inf",,,~d coocret~ !Jt,alll theory is ba~ on l~ui libriulll. cOIllp"tibility. and the con -
stitutive behavior of tl'" material s. st~el and concrete. Of p"nicu lar imp<mance is 1!Jt,
assumption that "rain varies linearly thmugh the depth of a member and that. as a
result. p1m'" sections remain plane. Thi s as~ulllption is validated by St. Venant's prin -
ciple. which stipulates that strains induce"! by disl'<mtinuities in load or in member
cross section ,'a,), in an appmxi matdy linear f""hion at distances great~r than or "'lual
to the greatest cr\ls., - ~tional dimen,ion h fmm the p<)int of load application. St.
Venan( s prinl-iple unJerIi~, tl'" d~vdopment of beam th~'tlry a, pre",nrl-d in ChaPlers
I a"d.1.
SL Venant's principle, however. d"", nm apply at points cI~r than the distance
" to discontinuities in appl ied load or geomet,),. n,is leads to the identification of so-
caIkd d'.,contim,iry rt'/:iOM;- within reinforCt."! concret~ "",mbers near conCentratl..!
loads, openings. Of changes in cmss ,""ction. Because of their geometry. the ful l vol -
u"", of d~",p beams and <"olunl!! bmckets qual ity as discontinuity regions. ntu'. rein -
forced concrete ,tructures may he divid~"! into regions wh~re beam theory is valid .
often referr~..!to as B- I"f'~;""-'-' and regions where discontinuiti~, aff~l-t n",,,,beT behav-
ior. known as D-reg'''' .... A number of D-region, are illustrated in Fig. 10.1.
At low str~sses , whi:n the Concret~ i" elastic and unna<:ked, the stre,ses within
D-regions may be computed using finite clement analysis and eiasti<:ity tl,,-",,')'. When
concr~te cracks. tM strain field is disruPled. cau,ing a redistriilution of the internal
forces. Once this happens. it is f'OS,ible to represent the internal forces within discon -
tinuity regions using a statically deten11;nate truss. referred to as a .,md-and-ti IIuxlel.
This all(}ws a complex desig" problem to be greatly simpli fi ed- prod"'"i" g a safe >olu -
tion that sati sfies statics. As shown ;n Fig. 10.2. 'trut -and -tk nmdel s co" sist of con -
crete compre~sion Mrur.', Si<'C] ten,ion I;e.,. and joints tlmt a,-" rderred 1ll a~ mJ</"/
ame.' (for consistency of presentation. struts are represent~..! b)' dashed lines allJ tics
are represented hy solid lines).
.... _... 10.2 DeV el OPME NT OF STRUT- AN D- T tE M ODELS
Strut -and -tie nl<l<leb ",volved ill th" early 1980<; in Europe (Refs . 10.1 to lOA ). Their
use i, pennil1ed by ACI Cod~ R.3.4 a"d detined in Appendix A oftbe Code (Ref. 10.5).
As deli ned. slrut-and-tie modd s divide ""-,,,,ben; into I)-regions and B-regiorK A D-
regio" is that p<mion of a member that is withi" a distaJ,,"e equal 1(, the member hi:igln
321
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FIGU IU: 10,1

G<"m<lri~ aod load
diS<OIl{i"ui{i.s fOf D-regiOll'. ~f
,
I.- ~ - 0, I-- .. 2h ------l
~ -'
(a) Geometric discont inu ities
,
/
t:;:::i-"
(b) Loading discontinurties
FI GURE 10.2
S{rul-"od-l >e modd .
Idealized prismatic
strut of width w
R R
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~TRlJf_M\[)_Tl E MOIH:U. 323
h' from a force or g~omC(ric disconlinuity, as shown in Fig. 10.1. B-regions are. in
g~naal. any portions of a member outside of D-rcgions , TIlC assumption is Ihat within
B-regions stress varies lill~arly through Ihe member cross section and plane sections
remain plane.
Strut-and-tie modds are applied wilhi~ D-regions, Modds consist of struts and
ties connected at nodal zones that arc cap:,blc of trnnsfcrring loads to the supports or
adjaccm B-reg ion s, The cross-sectional dimcnsions of Ihc Slruts :md ties arc desig-
nated as thickness and width. Thickness b is pcrpclidicular to the plan<:: of the truss
model alid width", is measur .."d in the plane of lhe model. as shown ill Fig. 10.2.
a_ Struts
A strul is an internal compression member. 11 may consist of a single clemell1. parnl-
Icl elements. or a fan-shaped compression field. Alollg its lenglh. a strul may be rec-
tangular or holl/C-S/WI"'''. in " 'hich case the compression field spreads btcrally
belween nOlbl zones, as shown ill Fig , 10,), For design PUll'oses. a strul is typic:tlly
idcaliz .."d as a prism:t1ic member bctwlXn I wo nodes. The dimensions of the cross sec-
tion of the Slrut arc eSlablished by the contact area oclwecn the strut and the nodal
zone. Bonl c-shaped strub arc wider at the center than at the ends and form where lhe
compression field is free to spread laternlly. As the compression zone spreads along
the lenglh of boHle-sha)X"d Slruts. lensile stresses perpcndicul:u 10 the axis of the stfut
may resu lt in longitudinal cracking , For simplicity in design, boHle-shaped struts Jre
id~aliz .."d as having lin~arly tapered ends and uniform center seclions , TIlC linear laper
is laken at a slope of 1:2 to the axis of Ihe compression force, as shown ill Fig. IO,]b.
The capacity of a strut is a function of the effective concrete compressive slrength_
which is aff.:cled by laternl stresses withi 1\ the struts. Because of longitudinal splilling.
boule-sha)X"d strulS arc weake r than Tt'Ctangular struts. c~cn though they possess a
larger cross section at mid length. Transverse rei nforcel1lcnt is designed to control lon-
gitudinal spliHing and proportiollt!d using a slrut-and-tic model thaI forms within the
stlll i clement_ as shown in Fig. 10.]/!.
FIGUIU: 10,)
IIo!tk.sn'l"'d "rut
,.) (0)
"h<'" .,
' The AU C,.1e ,I<.'fi"'-" D_"..~ i"" ,""",I "" Il., " . ,,,,,,-, bo; ~ h' h ,.. dhliw ,I<.f!lh ". roo" " ~b"'-'" ;, f""'id,..d u" , " ,. J . 1 ....' m<mbo,
h;,
r.,,'i\h, "",,1 io ,hi. 'ex, bo""" ,,, ;, ;, em,,-'f'-";""'. ""~Y' ,Ie'i" jo~ 1"'1!<'f U-"-'P>" ,tun ,h" <leli",,1 ~)' ,r." olf,,,li,,, ,1o.."P'h ,I.
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b. Ties
A lie is a Icnsion member wilhin a SIn<I -and -lie mod::l. Tics consisl of reinforcel1lem
(preSlresscd or nonprcslressed) plus a ponion of Ihe concrele Ihal is eoneenlric wilh
and surrounds Ihe a~is of the lic . TIle surround ing concrete defines the lie area and lhe
region available to anchor Ihe lie. For desig.n purposes. it is assumed that Ihe concrete
within Ihe tic docs nOI carry any tensile force. Even Ihough the IGnsilc capacity of the
concwe is not uS'-'{\ in design, il assists in reducing lie deformation at service load.
c. Nodal Zones
Nod::s are poims ..... ithin strut-and-tie model s ..... here the .>.Xes of Slruts. tics_ and con -
centra lcd loads intersect A nodal zone is the volul11e of conerele around a node ..... here
force transfer occurs. A nodal zone may be trealed as a single region or may be sub-
divided il1lo lWO smaller zones to equ ilibra lc forces. For example. the nodal zone
sho ..... n in Fig. IOAli is subdivided. as sho ..... n in Fig. IOAI}. "here two reactions HI and
H, equilibrate the "erlieal componcms of strut forces C1 and C! .
For equilibrium. at leasl three forces must act on a node. Nodes are classified by
the sig.n of these forces (Fig. 10.5). Thus. a C-C-C node resists Ihrec compressive
forces and a C-C-T nooe rcsists t ..... o cOll1pressive forces and OllC lensilc force . Both
FIG UIU<: 10,4 c,

of nodal .."r.c,_
Subdivi'i(~l
R
(a) Noda l zone
(b) Subdivided nodal zone

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~T RlJf_M\[)Tl E M OIH:U. 325
FIGU IU : 10,5 c, ,,
C
Claif",,,iofl or nod", ,, ,
C---tR, ~T ,
'c 'c
{al CCC rIOde
T T
{cl CT.Tnode (d) T.T_TrIOde
I~nsilc and compressi~e forces place nodes in compression oc-cuuse lensile forces are
IrcalOO as if Ihey PMS Ihrough Ih~ node Jnd apply a compressive force on Ille f:lf sid~.
or anchorage face . Thus. wilhin lhe plane of a slrul-and-lie model IfUSS . nodal zones
arc considered 10 he in a Siale of hrumsr,,/ic compression, as shown in Fig. 10.6</.
Nodal zone dimensions "',,1' "'.... and .... _, are proportional to the applied compressive
forces. The dimension of one side of a nodal zone is ohen delerminlxl ooscd on lhe
contacl area of Ihe 10.1d. for e~mnple by a bearing plale. column base. or beam sup
pon . The dimensions of Ihe remaining sides arc eSlablished 10 maintain a COnSI Jnt
kvcl of stress I' within Ihe node . By sek'Cling nodal zone dimensions Ihal are propor
lionallO the applied loads. the siresses on Ihe fac~s of the nodal zone arc equal. '
The lenglh of a hydroslalic zone is oflen nOI adc-quale 10 allow for anchorage of
lie rei nforcement . For Ihis reason . an alnu/rd "ou,,/ ~(/o(". defilled by the interseclion
of Ihe nodal zone and the asr.ociawd strul (shown in lighl shading in Fig. 10.6,1> and el.
is used . An eXlend~d nodal zone mJY be regarded as thaI portion of the o"crlap region
belween struts and lies Ihal is nOI already coum~d as pan of a primary node . It
increases Ihe lenglh wilhin which Ihe lensile force from Ih~ tic can be Iransfe1T~xl 10
Ihe concrete and. thus. defines Ihe available anchorage I~nglh for li~s. Ties may be
dcvelopo.:d outside of Ihe nodal and eXlend~d nodal zones if needed, as shown 10 the
lofl of the node in Fig. 10.6<:.
, 10.3 $TRUT-AND-T IE D ES IGN M ETHODOLOGY
Strutand lio models arc uSt-xl in sewral ways during Ihe design process. At Ihe elm
U'fl1u<l1 design level. skelching a sirut -and-lie modd provides insight inlo structural
behavior and detailing requiremell1s. 8<amples of conceptual design can be ~n in the
de ~elop1llell1 of COlUll"CliQIl wtails in Chapter II . Slrul-and-lie models may be used 10
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3 26 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 10
(a) Geometry
EXleoded
nodal zone
Critical section
Ior~opment
c 01tie re' nforcemeot

c
(b) Tension force ancho1ed by plate (e) Tension force anchored tJy bond
FIG URE 10.6

Nooal """" .oJ "nended ood,lzOlleS.
mlidme design ddail,. such as f<;lf special reinfmcen"'l11 configuralions. Finally. ,trut-
and -lie models may fonn the basis fOJ detailed design of a me mber.
Applitalion of a delailed strut -a nd -t i~ model inn)!"e, comp letioll of the follow-
ing step'.
I. Define and is"bt~ the D-regions.
2. Comput~ the force resultant s on each D-r~gion boundal)".
3. Sd~tt a truss model to tmnsfer Ihe for~"", acms., a D-reginn.
4. Select dimensions for SIr\J I-and-tie nodal zones.
5. Verify the c"pacity of the slrul bolh al mid lenglh and at the nodal interface.
6. Design Ihe lies and tl'" tie anch()r~ge.
7. Prepare design delai!, and check min imum reinforcemenl requirement"
As will be de.><:ribed shortly. lbe de'ign pmce.. require, inieranion belwL..,n Illes.:
,Iep'.
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~TRlJf_M\[) Tl E MOIH:U. 327
According to ACI Code A.l.6. design using n strut-and-tie model r~quires that
F, ~ P, ( 10. 1)
where F. = r'll"lored ron..,. a,,"ting in strut, tie, bearing area. or nodal zone
F. = nnminnl capacity or strut. ti~. or nodal zone
= slre"gth-rt.'d~ction factor
In add ition to strength criteria. scrvice level perrormance most be considcred in

design hecausc strutandtie modds. ",hieh are haS'-'{\ 011 str~ngth. do not necessarily
satisfy serviceability r~'{)uiremen1s. To thi s end. the spacing of reinforcement within
ties shou ld be cheekcd using Eq. (6.3). ACI Codc 11.8.3 limits the nominal shear
strength of deep beatHS to 10 Ji b,d, This lim it should he chec~cd prior to beginni ng
a ddailcd design . as dcscrihed in Section lOAd.
a. O.region
AD-region eXlend, on Ix,th ,ides or n diMOontinuity a dislance equal to the n~mber
h~ight h. AI georn~tri<: di",.,ntinuilies , a Oregion may ha"e different dim""nsions Oil
either side of the discontinuity. as ~IK,wn in Fig. 10.1.
b. Force Resultants on O.region Boundaries

Onc"" the O-region is defined. th~ next step im'ol.'es determining th~ magnilude. loca-
tioll. and direction of th~ resultant forces acting on th~ Oregion boundaries , TheS'-'
forces serv~ as input for the strut-andtie modd and assist in estahlishing the geome-
try of the truss model. WI~n one fac., of a Dregion is loaded with a unifonn or lin-
early varylllg stress fidd. or when a face is loaded b)' bellding of a concrete section. it
may lx' n~cessary to subdivide the boundary into segments corresponding to S1rutS or
tics and then to compute the r6ul1ant force on each segment. as shown in Fig. 10.7,
For exmllpl~. i1\ Fig. 10.7". Ihe distribuk'<lload along the tOP of tlk) dc.>p beam is r~p
re~ nted by four mncentmted loads. and the str~sses at the beam-column interf~ arc
repn.'sented by concentrakd reactions. In Fig , 10,7". tlk) mo~nts at the fan's of th,'
beam-column joim are r~pr~sented by coupl~s consisling of tensile and wmpressiv~
forc.s actmg 31 the interfaces bdw~~n th., nlo'mbers and the joint.
c. The Truss Model
Th~ truss represcnting the struIand-tie model must fot within th~ ~m'c\Ope defin<.'{\ by
(he n region. The selection of st'\l(S and tics is made al (he discretion of the designer
and, therefore. multiple wl utions are possible. The layout of a truss model is con-
s(r:;til\o!d by lhe gL"On-..:tric requirement (hal struts muSt inICr&."ct on ly at nodal 7.0110:>. Tics
may cross struts. An efkclive model will represent a minimum energy distribution
(hrough the nregion (Refs. 10. I and lOA). i.e . wilhin Ihe model, forces shoul(l foll ow
the stiffest load path. Because struts are Iypically much Sliffer than lies. a model with
a minim um number of tcnsi on lies is generally preferred. Alternalive (rUSS models
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
32S IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 10
FIG UIU: 10,7

R<<olut;on or ron", in
D-regioo.
Applied load Fmoo resultants

(a) Dislributed load a~ied 10 a deep beam
Applied load R><oo resu~anlS
(b) Moment resisting comer
1
FIG URE 10.8
Ahema!iw, for a <k<p beanl
tru" m.,ocL
1 1
(a) Loading (b) Prelerred model
(c) loeHicient kJad path (d ) IllOOIl"IIlabbiti load path
for a d....,p beam"", ,"ompared in ng. 10.8. Figure IO.8a shows a tk..,p beam suhj&ted
10 a concentrated load al midspan. Figure IO.Sh shows the preferred strut-and-lie "Killl
for thi, beam and l<Xtding condition. In this case, strut~ carry the load direnly to IKKbl
regions at the ,uppons, whid, are. in turn. ,"onneded by a 'ingle tension tie. 1nc IlKKlei
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
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~TRlJf_M\ [)Tl E MOIH:U. 329
in Fig. 1O.8e ,IK'w, an ineffoctive load path. with a sing le mllt GlIl)'ing the load to a
node m the botto])) of the beam that is suppol1ed hy two diagonal ten,ion ties. w-hich
are. in tum. supp<mtld by ven;cal strul, ovcr the supp<'"'. In this in.tanc". the number
of transfer points and tension tie,;s greater. a,;s tl,., flex;b;lity of tl,.,tru",. indicating
a ",IUlion that is much less dft.'(-tive than that shown in Fig. 1O.8h. La.~t l y. F;g. 10.&1
;lIu,trates a nKKlei with ]))ultiple ,trutS and ties. Th;s panicubr layoot ;, not only
unduly c-,"nplex . but inclu'ks an up!"'r t~nsion tie that will be cff~cti\'e only after exten -
,;ve yielding and poss;ble failure of the lower tension tie.
n,coretically. there may be a un;que minimum energy ,olutiotl for a strul-and -
tie model. i'ral'!;cally. any ]))odelthat sati,fies equ;lihrium and pays attention to struc-
tural S\;m,.,,-~ will pm"e ""t;sfaetDr)'. Using the rat;ollale just discu,S<.-d alklWs tl,.,
des;g""r to selo".- t a logital nKKieI tllm effect;"ely mobilizes tic, and minimizes the polen -
t;al for ex""ssi"e cracking. Fin;tc demcnt analyses and ,olutions base d on the theory
of elasticity (or the full structure can pmvide an i nd;cation nf where maxi mum ,trcsse,
OCCur, A truss model that pm"ide, struts in regions of high l'{,mpres,;on and ties in
region, of high tension based on these analy"" w;IL ;n gelleml. prm';de an efficient
load path.
d. Selecting Dimensions for Struts and Nodal Zones

nle struts. lies. and nodal zones within the truss Ihat represents a strut-and-tie nKKlei
have finite width, that mu,1 be mn,idered when select;ng the din,.,n,ions of the truss,
n,e width of each truss member de""nd, on tl,., magnitude of the forc"s and tl,.,
di mens;ons o f the adjoin; ng element s, An external element. such as a bearing plale '"
column, c-an ser'.-e to define a nodal zone. If th~ bearing area ;, too smali . a high hydro-
,tatic pressure r~,ults, and the corresponding width of tl", strul, w;1I nOl be sufficient
to carry the applied load. Thc 'OIUlioo in Ihis case is to increase the size of the bear-
;ng s urface and. thu,. reduce th~ contnct pre~sures. Some designers ;ntent;onally sel~<1
,trulS and t"xles that are large enough to ke~p tl,., comprcssive stre'se~ low; in thi,
case. only the len<ion ties require detai led design. To minimize <T.lCking and to reduc"
co"'plic-a\;ofls Ihat may result from ;ncompntibility;n the deformation, due to ,trulS
,honen;ng and tie, elongat;ng in nearly the ,ame plnne. 1hc nngle between Strut. and
tie, at a IKKie should he greater than 2 .~ o.
lne desi gn of IUKlal zones is based on the assumption that the pr;nc;pal 'tr~'''''
within the interS<.'Ct;ng struts and ties are par.tUci to tl,., axes of these truss memhers,
nle width. of the ~truts and tie, are. ;n ger",mL pmp<,";onalto the magnitude of tl,.,
force in tl,., elernents, If twO Or more strul. n>ll"erge on the same f",-". such as shown
;n Fi g. 10.9" nnd b.;t is ger"'mlly neces"")' to ",solve the forces into a single forc"
and to orient the face of the nodal zone '0 that it ;s ""rpend;cular to the co",bined
force. as sh'lWn in Fig. 10.9, and ,I. Some geometric arrange",.,nt s preclnde establish -
;ng a purdy hydrostatic n,xle. In these cases. the width of the strut i, d~lermined by
the geometry of the bearing plate", tensi on tie. as ,hown in Fig. 10.IOa.
n,e thickness of the strut. tie, and n,xlal'.onc is typically "'IuallO the Ihickness
of the member. If the thickness of tl,., bearing area is less than th~ thicknes, of tl,.,
member. ;t may be nec-.,,;sary to reduce the strut and tie tbicknes, or to add re;nforce-
ment ""'l"'ndicular \(} tbe principal plane of the memDer to add confi,,.,ment and pre-
vent splitt;ng. In Ihis ;nstanc-e. a <trut -and -t;e n"xlel may be used to detennine tl,.,
requ;rernents for transverse reinforcemem in a manner that is s;milar 10 that uS<.-d 10
reinforce bottle-shaped slrul,.
o..loootc..,_
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330 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 10
FIGU IU : 10,?
R<<olu,ion or ron", in IlOCW
loneS.
,
---of',
,,
/
--
'"-T-'
,, , ,
(bl Foor forces acting
node D
, Of]
{al Struts At: and t:C

may be r8~aced by AC
---- ---0(
,I
/
ld) Equivalent node

with 'e~ved forces
(c) Equivalent node
e. Capacity of Struts
Sirul capacily is based on bolh Ihe strenglh of Ihe strUI ilself and Ihe strength of the
nod~llo rl e , If a Slrut docs not have sufficient capacity. Ihe design must oc revised by
providing compression reinforcement or by increasing Ihe sizc of Ihe nodal zone. This
may. in IUrn. affecllhe size of Ihe bearing plate or column.
f. Design of TIes and Anchorage
To control cracking in a Drcgion. lies are d.:signcd so Ihalthe stress Jllthe reinforce
menl is below yield al scrviee loads. The geomelry of lhe tic must be selected so thai
Ihe reinforcement fits wilhin Ihe tic dimensions.
Anchorage for lies is provid.:d wilhin the nodal :md cxtended nodal zones plus
regions on Ihe f:(r side of Ihe node Ihat may be available bas<-d on lhe g~'Oloolry oflhe
memocr. Figure 10,10/1 illustrales an eXlended nodal ZOllo.' and Ihe length ~vailahle for
anchorJge of tics 10 , In Ihis case. Ihe lie is eXlendcd 10 the left of lhe nodal zone 10
allow for full development of the reinforcement. The shJpc of lhe ex tended nodal zooe
is a function of Ihe strut angle and the widlh of the tic we Figure 10.IOa illuslrates
Ihe geomelry and dimensions of ~ CCT node wilh a tension lie Ihat conwins multi
pic layers of rcinforCelllClll. Figure 10.101> shows a C- T- T nodal zone. If insuftlcient
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
~TRlJf_M\ [)Tl E MOIH:U. 33 1
sin 0 Exte nded r.od<Il zone
5OOioo
lor developme nt
of reinforcement (b) crrnoOe
(a) CC T noOe with eccen1tic s trut
FIG URE 18.10

Exl<nded fIO<I.1J .on. <lefinilioo.
length is ~v~il"bl~ to anchor th~ r~inforc~mcn! within the nudal a lld extemk..J nodal
'-"n~'. the reinforc~mem mu,1 al~nd beyond lhe node or ~ hook or mechanical anch",
must be used 10 fully develop Ih~ reinforl"ment.
g. Design Details and Minimum Reinforcement Requirements

A complete d~,ign ind udes v~riflcati(}n tl",t (1) ti" n;inforcement can be placed in the
settion. (2) nodal zoneS are con lir..,.j hy compressive forces or I~nsion lies. and OJ
minimum reinforcement requi r~ment' are satisfied. R~i !lforcemen! wilhin ties must
meel the AC I Code requirements for har s[Xll'ing (see Section 3.61') and iiI within the
overall widlh and Ihickness of the lie. Tie demils should he reviewed 1(, ensure that lies
are adeq uately develope d OIl Ihe far side of nodes by tension development length.
hooks, or Illedmnil'al anchorage. Shear r~inforcemenl rl'quiremem, are satisfIed by
ensuring thai the f"clOred she"r is Ie" than the ACt Cllde maximum, as described in
Ch~pter 4 , longitudinal cracking of bottle-shar~d SlrutS is cOnlmlled, or th~ minimum
reinforl"mem requirement;; described in Section lOAd are mel.
_, 10.4 ACI PR OVtS tO N S FOR S TRUT-A ND-T IE M ODE LS
AC I Cooe App"ndix A pmvides guidance for sizing strulS, nodes, and lies. It add resses
the p"rfolll",nce of highly stresSl,,1 compression zolles Ih~1 may be adja<:em to or ,'rossed
hy cracks in a me mber, lhe effect of slresses in nodal zones , and the requirements for
Ix",d and an,' horage IIf lies. 'J'he effeclive compressive ~lrel1glh of ,'Onerele O.8'if:
is modili ..'<1 by a faclllr to a",-,,)Un! fw the effel'ts of c racks (caused by spreading
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
<")[npre"i"~ re,uitam,) and <"<"'fming reinforcen"'ni in sHuts and the andlOrage <;tf ti~,
in nodal zone"
n", balance of tbis seclion de,,:rihcs the slep> needed to calculale lhe ('''racity
of struls, verify nodal zones, and design tic, and tic anchorage, A strength-rc..-:luclion
factor = 0. 75 is uS<...-:I for ,trul', tic" mxlal zones, and bearing area."
a. Strength of Struts
n", .tr~nglh of a slrut i, limitNl based on tbe 'trength of the concrele inlhe , Irut and
tbe 'Irength of the nodal zone, al Ihe ends of the slrut. The n<;lminal cOl!lpre"iv~
'trength of a ,trut F., i, givcn a,
(10,2)
where !C. is the effedive compressive ~trength of tI", concrete in a slrul or nodal zo",e
and A, i, the cr<)<;, -S<.,(,t;onal arca at "'''' end of tl", strut, which is equal to the pmduCi
of the strut thickness and tl", ,trut width, The dTenive strength of concrete in a ~uut i,
f", 0,85 ,I: ( 10,3)
wl",re ' ,is a fa,'tor that accoullls for the effect. of cracling and confining reinforce-
ment within lhe ,trut, with valu~, ranging from 1.0 for a strul willl a unifonn crm,-
">etio",,1 arca over it, I~ngth 10 OA for strut. in tension ""'mhcrs or tl", len,ion flange,
of members (Table 10.1), Imem",diale values inelude 0,75 for ,trut, with a width at
midsenioll that is larger than tl", width at lhe nod~. (bottle-shaped ,trub) that an:
crossed Ily tran,,'erse reinfor,'ement 1<> resist tl", ir.I1lSvcrse t~n,ile force resulting from
the n>rnpressive force 'pread ing in the .trut and 0.6, for bnttle-shaf"-..-:I slruts wilhoul
the r"'luin,..-:I tran,,'erse rcinfofl'en",m, w'here is II", correnion factor related 10 the
unit weight of cOnCrete: 1.0 for normal -weight nmcrel<e, 0 ,85 for sand-lightweighl
concrel~, and 0.75 for all -lightweight ,'onerele. ,= 0,6() for all other cases, as wilen
pamHei diag'mal cmd... divide Ihe web strul, Or when diag<;mal crack.. are likely to
tnm and cross a Strut, as shuwn in Fig. 10.! I.
CornpreSSi<Kl s1<.",1 may be ndtk..-:l to increase lhe strength of a strut, so that
,",., - /,.Ac + A;f; (lOA)
where I; i, based on the slmin in the Concrete at peak SIres" For Gmdes 40 and 6()
reinforc-emem.j; = (."
TABLE 10.1
values for strut strength
Conditk>n
5'1\11 wi.h uniform c",", sect'"" 0'''' it, enli'e leng1n ,.,
S"u, wi.to (he wid,h at mid"""ion lar~" than !hi: ",idlll at ,Ioe nooes O,7~
(OOI,te,hared",,") " .... ",i,h .. infOf<ement sa(i,fying '''''''''''''' 'equi .. "",n"

Strut with doe ",iJlll al mid""dion 1M)!<r man ,ho ",idlh'l ,h" 1I<XIe, 0.60
(OOI(le-shared "",t) ..... ",'nf{>fCcn",", 001 sa(i,fying t,,",,e .... n:<juirem<nlS
5,,",, in ,,,,,.ion ,... mber.; or in !he ""osi"" nang" of "",,,,btn;
All (Hn.r case" Fig. 10, I I ''''
'W
<>j . . h 1.0'-'.... ~ , "' I,~ c.;gh ' " '""""c, 1),#5 r". "'n.J - li~~ I ..~igN """"'''0, """ (I,n f,. " l-li i"''''''t!'l
0""''''''''
o..loootc..,_
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~T RlJf_M\[) Tl E M OIH: U. 333
FIGUIU: 10,11 Cracks

Boam IT.>Cling "",,,I"'on' {o,-
, - 0.6.
Struts
(a) Struts in beam with inclined cracks paralfel to strut
StMS
(bl Struts crossed by skew c,acks
To de'ign trans,"e"", reinfor,,,,,,,,nt for bottle-shaped ,truts. ACI O,,1e A.3.3

I"'nnilS the a<sump/ion that the C<lmf\f~"i\"e fOR" in the ,trutJ; spread, at a ,lope of
two l!Klgitudinallo "ne millS verse along th" axis "f the strut. a, shown in Fig. 10.3b.
J:
For S 6000 psi. the ACt Code consi""rs the transverse reinforcem"nt R"<juirement
to be satisfied if the strut is crussed hy Ia)'ers of reinforc""",m that ",tisfy
-A" si n 2: 0003 (10.5)

h'''1 ' ..
where A~ is the total area of reinforcement at spacing .f, in a layer of reinforcement
with hars at an angle i to the axis of the Slrut, and b is Ihe thickness of the strut . The
reinfor~"mem may be I"'rpc,idicular to the Sirut axis or may be plal....-d in an orthogo-
nal grid panem. The subscript i denotes the layer of reinforcement. The values .f, and
,arc ,hown in Fig. 10.12.
The AC I Code provides no deaf guidance to indicate when a 'trul should he enn -
sidercd as rl"Ctangular or bOllle-shal"'d. Some reseafl."hcrs suggeSt that horizontal
struts be represenk-d '"' re"langular and indir,,--d siruts repre""nte<J as hottle-sh"l"'d
(Ref. 10.6). Others si mply a<sunlC" Ix>ttle -shal"'d strut w;1I develop. using the lower
value, of , for design (Ref. 10.7). Examples in thi, text U'!e rectangular horizontal
strutS and Ixmle-shaped inelined struts.
b. Strength of Nodal Zones

Th~ nominal compress ive stre!!gth of a nodal z"ne i,
F"" = j",A, (10.6)
o..loootc..,_
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IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 10
FI GUIU: 10,1l
o.:"il, of rcinfOf'-'Cmcnt
crossing. SInn.
hoondary
",h~re f.... is the ctfocli\'~ ~Ircllglh of lh~ concrcle in Ihc nodal lOne and A. is (I) lhe
area of Ihc foce of Ihe nodal zone laken perpendicular 10 Ihe line of aClion oflhc forcc
from Ih~ S(r'UI or lie or (2) lhe area of a scclion llIrough Ihe nodal zone lakcn perpen
dicular 10 Ihc line of nclion of Ihe resullam force on Ihe scclioll. The laner condilion
occurs when mulliplc SINIS ;merscci J node. as shown in Fig. 10.9.
The efkelive conerele Slrenglh in a nodal lOne is
(10.7)
",h~re f.: is lhe eornpr~ssi\'e slrcnglll oflhe eonCre1e in Ihe nodal lOne. and is J fae
lOr Ihal reflC(;ls lhe degl\.'C of disruplion in nodal woos due 10 lhe ineompalibilily of
lensile slrains in lies wilh eompressiw slrains in SlnllS, .... 1.0 for CCC nodes.
0.80 for CCTnodcs . and 0.60 for CTT or T TTnodes. Values of are summarized
in Table 10.2.
c. Strength of Ties
n.e nominal <tre"gth of ties F.. is the sum of the st rengths of tl'" reinfoR"ing sted mJd
prestressing steel withi n the tie .
F.. = A"f, + Av.(/.. + !J.fr) (l0.8)
where A,., = area of rdnforeing 't~el
f., = yield strength of rei"forc ing sted
A " = area of prestressing sted. if any
t
. =
= elfect;ve StresS in prestressing sted
inc"rea'IC in prestressing sleel stress due to faclt)red load
1)..,sum fl"" + !J.fv must hoe Ie" than or equal to the )'idd stress of tt;.;, prestressing rein
foree"",,,! f,,,,. A v, is zero for n<mprestres",d members. 1).., value of !J.jp may be found
hy analy<is, or, in lieu of format Joalysis. ACI Code AA.l allows a yalue 60,()()() psi
to hoe US<."<.I for bonded teodons and 10.()()() psi to be uS<."<.I for unbonded tendOlls.
o..loootc..,_
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~TRlJf_M\ [)Tl E MOIH:U. 335
TABLE 10.2
values for node strength
N o d~1 Zone Co ndition C I~ s sifiCiltion
Ik>tJn<k<l by "ruts or bearing arc, C CC '.0

"o.:;llOfiog 0"" tie C CT 0."
A,"'horing I"" or ",ore ,i", en' otT-T-T 0.'"
Th~ dfenivc width of a lie w, depend, on lhe dislribulion or lhe lie reinror~'C
"",n1. If Ihe reinfoR'C"",nl in a lie i~ placed in a .<ingle layer. lhe eff\.'etive width or a
lie may he lake n as the diam"ler of the largesl hal'! in II", lie plu., Iwic'" the cOw r to
II", surface of tl", har~. Altematively. II", width of a Ik may lJ<, laken as t h~ widlh of
I)", anchor plale., The praclical uppe r limit for lie width "'" ","-, i< equal 10 II", widlh
eorresponding 10 the widlh of a hydrostatic n"dal zone giwn ~s
F.
w,_, = b'
,.. (10.9)
where f ... i,< t h~ effeclive nodal '.0"" compres,ive ,tre,s given in F.q. (10.6) and b is lhe
Ihick nes., of Ihe strut.
T,es must be anchored before II",y leav~ II", eXlended nodal zone at a point
delin"J hy lhe ""ntruid of the haPi in I)", tie and II", eXlen,;on of Ihe outli,,,,. of eilher
II", slrul or II", hearing are~. as shown in Fig. 10.) O. If I)", coml>ined lengthS of lhe
nodal zone and eXlended n"d,1 zone are inadequale 10 pro"ide for de"elop""'"' of lhe
reinfoK'<'!llCnt . addilional anchorage may be obtain~-d b)' eXlending lhe reinforcen",nt
beyond Ihe nodal zone, using 90 h'Klh. or by using a mechanic'al an,"ho .. If the lie is
an,;hor~-d wilh a 90 hook. the hooks Should be ('(mfined by reinforcement ~xlending
0
into the Ileam from ~uppon i ng memhePi 10 ,void 'plitting of the ('(mcrele within lhe
an,"horage region.
d. ACI Shear Requirements for Deep Beams

Beams with clear 'p,n, Ie,. Ihan or equal 10 4 times the tOlal memller depth or with
mncemrnted lo"d, pla~-ed within Iwi c-e I)", memher depth or a -,upp"n are classified
a, d<xp beams. according I() AC I Cod" 11.7 and 11.8.' Examples of deep beam' are
,tK)Wn in Fig. )0.13. ACt Cod~ 11.8.2 allow-, ,uch membe rs 10 he d~signed either by
u,ing a nonl;,,,,ar an,ly.i, or I>y applying the slrul-and-!ie n",lhod of ACt Code
Appendix A. While solution, I>a<e.d on ",,,, linear slrain di,tributi()n, ille availal>le
(Ref. 10.8).!he strul -and -li" appruach allow, a rJtional design ,olution.
AC I C<KIe 11,8,3 specifies Ihat the nomina! Sheill in a d~ep he"m may nOi e,ceed
10 Ih.d. wl",re h. is II", widlh of the weI> and II i, lhe elT~clive depth, ACI Code
10.8,4 and 10,8.5 pT\lvide minimum ~Ied "''lui ren",,,t, for h()rizo m,,1 "nd wnical
reinfor~-e!llCnt within a <leep beam. The minimum reinforcement perpendicu lar to a
'pan i,
(10,10)
,.,.m
'"11>< ACt 0>k ""'-~ ... "",-ify ,ile " .. ~"i'ud< ,,1' ,,., '''IIl'<Ol!nllt-.l k>Oil "' " """" '0'" s.,.',,,..
"00;1 1'-,--.J.1l 't> im"" ,,., 00.1' 1><.. " of t t ,~,
...
A h d ,~' "" ~<",, t joJ~,..., ", " "-'fl"n-.l ,f
k_"'''-.ioi<to<Ie """""" "",-.1 1<>Oil " p",,--N ., H", end ,,(" ""m" tl<.'-1' he'"" OC" I" >1,,)' "'~ t>:
n~ui.w in 'hi> , h"","...
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
FIGUIU: 10,13
Dl:cp beam ])"'Sio",.
I
""~//" t 1
1.=//=/ ~'~=lj
(a) Deep beam wilh L '" 411
'
ii
I I
1, I
ii j
I , -,+-1,- , --I I-- ,--l
(b) Deep beam with a '" 211
where.f is Ihe spacing of Ihe reinforremem. The minimum reinfo",emem parallel to a

'pan is
(l0.11)
where " 2 is the spacing of tl'" reinforcernem perpendic' ular 10 the longitudinal rein -
forcemen!. Spacings . and .! may not exc'eed d 5 or 12 in . ACI Code 11.8.6 allow, F--'!.
(l0 __~) to be u><-xl in lieu of Eqs. (10. 10) and (10.11). Fo r suul-and-tie model,. b.
~'<Juals the Ihickne" of the elemem b.
" 10.5 A pPLI CAT IO N S
Whi Ie there are a number of I"",ible applications for a strut-and-tie model. ACI Code
I 1.8 and I 1.9 specifically allow <illep boeam alld column brac kd design to boe com-
pleted with thi, method. The following example, examine the ddails of deep boeam,
and dapp<..xl beam end design by the strut-alld -lie method . Additional examples of
'Irut -and-tie Ill<xleling may boe found in Chapter II and in Refs. 10.9 and 10.10.
a. Dee p Beams
Deep beam, repre",nl one of the principal application, of strul-and-tie m,xlds, ,ince
lbe ahemative under ACI Code 11.8 i, a nonlinear analysi,. Two examples of deep
boeam d"'ign are pre""m~xl next One Ihat indude, the application of concenl ral~d
loads al Ihe uppe r surface of a lran,fe r ginkr and a secQnam. A tra",f~r girder is to cali)' two 2~ in . square col"mns, each " 'ith factored
loads of 1200 kip,; locat.d althe tI,ird points of ilj 36 ft 'po". as SOOW1l in Fig. 10.14.1. The
beam ba. 0 lhick""" of2 ft and a 1000J height of 12 ft. De,ign the beam for.he given loads,
igno.-ing the ,,,If'''cig)lI. using/;~ 500J psi and/, ~ 6(1,000 psi .
S<'l.tn'lON. lllc .pant""~h rJtio f..- tlle beam is .l. thercb}' quol ifying it as a <kep 000)1[.
A <trut a .. lti" <olution will lie used.
I"-iinilion of U."'gion
All of the suppo", and loads are within h of each OIher or the suppo",. SO the e nt ire struc
Ture may I>e characTerized a, . [).r~g io" . lllc Thick""" of The >!ruTS and Tie< i, "'lual to lhe
Ihid""", of the beam b ~ H in. A""mi"g an .tTe<:Tive depth d = 0.% = 0.9 x 12 = 10.8 ft
in The middle Third of The lIe.m, The maximum de,igll ,hear C.paciTy of The lie.", i, v.-
10 j;1>. d ~ 0. 7~ x 10 500J X 24 X 10.g X 12 1000 ~ IMO kips. This i, greater T!tan
V. - 1200 kip'. Thus. lhe design may conTinue.
r "no. "",ultanll; on D- ... gion bound .ri..
T)", 1200 kip column IrrJds on The upper face of The beam are "'Iuilibrated by 1200 kip reac
lion, alThe ,upports, a, sho,,'n in Fig 10.141>. Based OIl all o"umed cenTerTo-ccntet di"an""
1200 kips 1200 ~ip s
A A
24 X 24 in. cojumns
b .
'"
,11'-1
1200 ~ips
--"."-----11 1200 kips 1200 kips 1200 kips
(a) Beam dimensions and loading (b) Beam internallorces and trial truss mcxlel
No.5 (No. 16) No.5 {No. 16)
@ 10in. @ lOin.
each face each lace 24 X 24 in
I column
;" ___ ~~ _____ No.4 (No. 13) ba rs n

~; - - - n - - - - - - @4in. eachend
- @
"' - ~l-_ II
II ~-tit
~ \~.--=ti=ff~-----=-~~-::;=---=-"=~ ,JJ;
U 24 >< 24in.
cojumn
'-..... 22 No. l l (No. 36). 1
bars W1th 90' hooks
nodal zone
in live laye rs
(c) Schematic showing wictths of struts, ~es. (d ) Aeinlorwmenl details
and fIOdes in finallflJss ~
~' I GURE 10. 14

Deep beam design for b an)pi< 10.1.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
3JS IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 10
Ixlween lhe horiwnlll ;(rul ar~1 11>0; ' ie of 0,81. Ihe trial diagonal \lru" form al art anMie
~ 38.66' ar<! "any" load of 1921 kips. A horizontal 1500 kip ,o"'pression slmt mns
belwc",n Ihe IwO col,,"'n loa ..s ar'l(l a 1500 lil' Icnsion lie ""'S be1we;:n 11>0; bOllo'" nodes.
Th ~ Irus. model
Ila>ed on 11>0; oc~'" gC011\CII)' ar<! loodiltg, a , ingle IruSS is "rllicicnl 10 carry 11>0; col umn
loads. as shown in Fig. 10.Ik. The lru" haS" trapezoidal shape. This is an acceptable soJu-
lion sirlCC lhe tIOdcs In.: TlOllnrC pin, and in,labilily wilhin 111C 1'1 rt<; oflhe Iruss is r>OI a con-
"em in a slrut-and-tie mode!. The tru .. geomc ll)' is established by t be assumed imelWClion
of 11>0; SIMS and ties and u>Cd 10 delcnnin"
Sdt'<, ing dimen.;orlS rur . tmlar>d """"I .on,'"
The nod:ll SIT'C>S II is OCICIIltiOild by lhe :wcmgc "n.:ss ooJer Ihe colo "'''s. Thus. /' - 1200
kips (24 in, X 24 in.) ~ 2.08 ksi, The width of strul ac. four<! U,inr-II. is
~'..- ~ F0< (f> X 1') ~ 1500 /24 X 2,08) = 30.0 in.
Similorl y. w.. _ 38 ,~ in. and "'"' _ 30.0 in, The (enler'lo-cenICT diswnce hctwccn Ihe hor-
i'OIltal slrut d, ' alld lhe lie is 12 - :1.0 12 = 9.~ h. or 0.7911. The an~le belween lhe diag-
onal . "01 "f> and Ihe lie is n'ul 38 ,3. Using an angle of 38.1Y' gi,'cs a n.:"ised forcc in 1111'1
"I> of 19~9 kil". Similarly. lhe ,,",'iscd f{)f{"e in strut "c and the tie is 15., 6 kil" ... hile tht>
widlhs an.: re,i>Cd 10 "'''' - 39.0 in .. and w,.. and "',~ - .J.O,7 in, (Nole: Afl~r ile11lliol1. the
acmal angle becomes 38.2' . Thc valu,> of )lUY i, conse,,'ati,'e and is. thus. retail>e{],)
Cal""'ilJ ohlrul'
The horilOtIt.ll >1",1 ,K will be assumed 10 haw a unifon" cross ;ccli()l'. while II", {!iagOll :11
>lruts will be considered as boItle-shaped tx'('ausc of the gn'ater widlh a"allab"'. Strul "apac-
ily is g;"en in Foqs. (10.2) and (10.3). whiCh. "hen combined . gi "e f'" - ,0.85/:w,l>.
whtre w, is the widlh of the ,Irut and , is 1,0 for a rectangular strut For ,Irut "c.
f~, _ 0,75 X 1.0 X 0.85 X SOC(l X .J.O.7 X 24 1000- 2:\49 . ips > 153~ kips
Therefore. ,trut ac is adequate, Similarly. for Slrul of>.
Po. - 0.75 X 0,75 X 0.S5 X 5(k)) X 39.0 X 24 I!XX) - 2238 kips> 1949 kips
From Eq,. ( 10.6) and ( 10.7). the capacity of the nodal lOne is f". = f:
. 0,85 w,f>, At
d, aCCC nodo:. - 1,0, and al P. a ccr
nodo.'. - 0 ,80. "Ill"" the capoc;ly of 5Irul
a/) i, established 01 tIOdc II ar<!
F.. ~ 0,75 X 0.00 X 0.85 X 5(k)) X 39.0 X 24 I!XX) = 2387 kil" .. 1949 kip,
Similarly. Ihe nodal end capocilY of Slrul d " is 2349 kipI with - 1.0. Thus. lhe ell"",ity
01 t ht> end o f the ,truts ar<! al the nodes nceeds the flK'lOred load,. ar<! thus. lhe struts a ....
arlc<lua!e.
Oesign I"" .nd anchorog.
The lie design collsists of thft>e stel". selection of lhe area ohtcel. de,ign or lhe a""horage.
and ~alirl",iOtllh31 11>0; lio: tits wilhin lhe a,'ailablo: lie "idlh. 'Iloe SIc.;1 :In.:a is COrnputed as
A, = F.. f, ~ 1536 (0,75 X (0) ~ :\4.1 in' . This i, satisfol>d by using 22 No. 11 (No. 36)
bars. ha"ing' a 10011 area of A, - :\4.3 in' . Placing lhe bars in t wO layers of fo,c bars an,1 three
loy,>rs of foor bars. while allowing for 2.5 in. dear "over 10 the boIlOm of the beam and 4~
de"" '>PJCing OClw""n laycrs. ",,<ulls in a totallic widlh of 5 X IAI + 4 X 4,5 + 2 X 2.5 -
.lO.O in .. matching lhe tie dimen,ion.
The anchora~c length /0 for No, I I (No. 36) bars (from Table A.I (I in APllCndix Aj is 4M.
~ 59.2 in, Th,' length oflhe nodal zone and eXiended nodal zone is 24 + 0.5 X )0.7 cOl .18.0"
- 43 ,6 in __ whieh is kss Ihan /d' The he~n' gWr1li:11)' docs 1101 all(><.\- lhe lie rci"forcemCTIIIO
c.'tend linearly beyond lhe tIOdc; therefore. 90' hooks or mechanical :mchors arc requin>d
OIl lhe No. II (No. 36) 1m", Place"'en! delails are covered in Il'e ne,t "'clion. Allowing
I.~ in. co,'er Ot1lhe 'ides. No.5 INo , 16) tran"ersc ol1d horiwntal rei nforcemcnt. :... d U,
sp.'\Cing oclween No. II ( No. 36) bars, fl,'c No. II (No, 36) bars require a 100ai thiCkness of
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
~TRlJf_M\[)Tl E MOIH:U. 339
b".. ~ 2 x I.~ + 4 x 0,62~ + 4 Sp:l<:e-s @ 2 X 1.4 1 + 5 Dars x 1.41 = 23 .8 i~ .. which

fils wilh;n lhe 24 in. beam Ihid"".,.
o..ign de' ail,.nd minimum ...,infon.""",e"1 ""Iui ... me.. "
ACI CC><le 11.8.6 requires Ihal shear ",in(orc~men! in deep beams salisfy (a) IXJlh Eqs,
(10.10) and (10.11) or (h) Eq. (10,5). Using Eq. (10.10). lhe minim um required v~"i_
,'al ,Ieel i, A".?:: 0.0025/", ~ 0.0025 X 24 X 12 ~ 0,72 in'lfl. This is !alislied by Nu, 5
(No , 16) bar, at 10 in. placed on each fac~. gi,'ing a l<>IaJ area of reinfo=menl ~qual 10
0.74 in'I(I . Similarly. using Eq, (l0.11). Ihe hQrilUn{al reinforcemenl is rI" .?:: 0,00 151", ~
0.00 15 X 24 X 12 - 0.4] in'lfl , which is !ali,fi~d ",ing Nc>, 4 (No 1]) Dars 01 lOin. placed
00 oach (ac~. gi\'ing 0,48 in' I(1.
Equ ation (10,5) produce, , jmilar .~J req uirements. U,ing lhe re j nforc~ment sel"'led
using Eq,. (10, 10) and (10.1 I ), I","Q NO.5 (No, 16) bars ( = 38,0') give rI , ~ 0,62 in' and
IWO NO.4 (No. 1]1 bars ( - 52.0') gi>'e A" - 0.40 in' . Equalion (lO.5) berotne$
A, .
- "n , -
b.1',
~" v
-,,<,-. u
,0
0.62 'in 49.1 " ... 0,40 'in 38 ,0"
- 0.00306 000.1 req'd
Thi' ensures IMI ",fficienl reinforcement i, presenl 10 C<lnlroliongilll<linal splining in Ihe

boule-shaped >1m!>,", "'eli as sali,fying minimum rcinforcem"m .-equiremenls.
The large number of No , 11 (No. 36) bars ","iii require ei{M' the use of mechanical
a!IChong~ Of Slagg~,;ng lhe IOC"liQn of lhe booh, Mc'Chanical a!IChor!; requi", kss 'pace
and would be prefernh lc for wnC1"<'le plaremenl, t;.JI are often more expensive Ihan "an<lard
boob. Figur~ 10. 14<1 siiow. SI"l'8ered books for 11.. ti",) de,ign. In addilion, horilUl11'"
U_shaped NO. 4 (No, 13) bar, are plaoed al 4 in. (3d, - 3 X 1.41 in. - 4,13 in.) acto." lhe
~"d of lhe bea'" IQ contine Ihe No, II (No. 36) 1I00I;,. The fmal be"m ()clails ar" giw" in
Fig.IO.14d.
Ix,.,p beam wilh disl r)l>uled load .... In addilion 10 lhe wtIC,mr.l1ed loads, lhe lr:tJlsfe,
girder from bamplc 10. 1 "ameS a di,nibu1ed faclOred load of 3.96 kips/Ii applied along i15
101' Ng", as .hown in Fig. 10,15<,. De,ign for the gi.-"n load" plus Ihe self.weigh{, ",ing f;
~ :1000 psi and t; ~ bO,OOO psi.
S()UTft"~' The fact<.>red ..,If weigh{ Qf lhe beam is I ,2 (12 fl X 2 ft X 0, 15 kips/fi'l ~ 4 ..U
l iPS/ft . Thus. lhe lOla) foclored distrit;.Jled load is 4 . .12 + .196 - 8.28 l iPS/ft. resulling in a
Mal f""'I<.>red load of 8.28 kips/ft X 37.7 Ii ~ 312 kips. appm,imaldy Lll"'rCe"l Qf lhe col
umn loads. The ",Iution foliow" Examp le 10.1 and accounl, for lhe dislribuled loads , r'Of
Ihis ","mple. lhe wlfwcighl of {he beam i, coo,bint:d ""ilh lhe supo:,; mposed dead load. A
mure consen'ali.-" ",IUlion cOlJ)d place the self.weigh{ al the bono", of lhe heam and eor_
re.pood;n~ly iocr"a", Ill" \'enical lension lie requiremenll 10 {r.m,fe" lbe \rrdd 10 Ihe lop
nang,. The lOp plocemem i, used in Ihi' case because lhe self.weighl;s a ,mali percentage
Q( lhe 1",,,1 load and lhe cooo;;enlrdlOO fom;e, are rnu"e<l . Iighlly 10w;",1 lhe center of (Il"
heam for a consenali.-" place"",nt
o.finllion of D.ngion
The enl ;r" beam is a J)TCgion. as siiown in Fig, 10.15<,. The llIa,imu", fa.;wrcd sheaT in lhe
beam is V. ~ 1200 ... 312 2 = 1J60 ~ij>S < 10 1:1..,1 = 1650 kips. lhe mJ> imum deSign
shear using d - 10.8 fl. Thus. Ihe de.ign can cOnlinu,.
runo. "",ultanis on I)..,..gion bound.ri..
Tl", 1200 kip culum" load, are lbe sam" as in Example 10, I; nowever. lhe lower col"mn
reaeli",,, are equal 10 1360 kip', Maintaining lhe san", luv.. "r column ,ize giv~' a Sir,,,, at
lhe beam-colum n inwrf""" of I' ~ BbO,(24 X 24) = 2,36 ksi,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ OF CO NC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 10
, , , ,
, ,- / ,1 / " / 11:/ ", ' ",
/

~
g l .,/ / ~// ~/ -$/
. I ~~
,,<t- ~ ~" ~"
"'I ",.~
'" <o,J
~
iff' l" I
I I / /
:/
i f "//"
! ( /,/
II '/ ,... , ..- /
jll/ ;';c ' ..:
-, -'
I
1200 kips
3.96 k;psJft
1200 kips
r- 12' 0" -----..\.- 12' 0" -----..\.- 12'0" ----1
I " 1200 kips
IIIAIIIA jOtj "'p'

1200 kips
.,
24 X 24 in columns
) /~,-~ _ _
,,/8( I} s-:lIB7;'i
,! /-'/" -- , ,; " - ,<'-\\
;
, '" to " "; " 1661 kip< '-,,~

/If/
..
iT---------n
!l Tension
- - - CompreSSIOn
.l
11-- -- "'-~ -_____1,t ! !
1360 kips 1360 kips 1360 kips 1360 kips
(a) Bea m dime nsions and Ioadi"ll (b) Beam internal lorces and truss model
No. 5 (No. 16) No, 5 (No. 16)

it 10 in, o l Oin,
each/ace each lace 24 x 24h
columns
___ +1---
" _____ No. 4 (No. 13) bars n
---ii-----
~L II
\~!k=-~_=W_~~~_~~~~~~~~~J =
.0 columns
~4 in. squa re
@ 4 11l, eachend
" ~4 No. 11 (No. 36) ,

00(1; w~h 90' hooks
in live laye(1;
l--.--~
1.
u
(e) Struts, ties, and nodes (d) Re inforcement details
FIGUIU : 10,15
Deep beam wi th Ji>1ribu'ed load, for Example 10.2.
The " cess '-'" 'he column node e"nnO)l cxc'ttJ 'he cffoXti,'c CO"(TCIC strenglh. 1'0<.1 DC
, """
,O.S5[; = 0 ,75 x 0.80 x 0,8~ x 5000 1000 = 2 ,~ 5 hi
-n ..:r.:("",. II1c 0011"'" rol ull'" of24 x 24 in .. gj~ing p - 1360 (U x 24) - 2.36 lsi < 2,55 lsi.
is :><kq UJlC, A, in Example 10.1.1be c~mcr - I(}-cenler di,,,,oce bclwe~n the horiwmal strul
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
~TRlJf_M\ [)Tl E MOIH:U. 34 1
TABLE 10.3
Diagonal strut properties and force s for Exa mple 10.2
V~rtical Slope, Axial Strut End Horizontal
Strut l oad, kips d~9re~s load, kips , in. Capacity, kips F orc~,
kips
""' 1200
.14,7
38.0
74.1
1919
36.1
14.4
OM
0.7S
O.U .,., 1974
J(;,7
1536
.H
" ", (iU 19.9 1.4 1 0,15 81.0 39.1
'.
"
;;
TQ\a1 tie f=<'
52.1
34, 7
114
49,4
59.3
~9 ..1
68.6
"'"
20.2
L21
0.11
0.36
0,75
0.75
07~
.,

M.'
40,4
20,2
44.(;
ID.'
10..1
''''
and 1M horizontal Ii t mid'l'.n is l"',n 9.5 fI to compoJle the 'I"P" of the , Inn dx a.
38,0". The "~"ical dimension fOf StrulS "I!. I>,~. aoo eg is ""um.>d to be IO, ~ Ii because they
are an<:hored close-r to the lop e<lge of the beam.
The !Dtal dislJibmed 100II of 312 ~ips i, repr~,.med by nine ]4,7 kip conc.:ntr~ted loads
plared 01 .1 f1 center<. as ,ho", n in Fig. 10.1 51>. [)j"riooted loads can he grouped 01 the db"",_
tion of the <Jt,sigr>:r, It would be "'lually "'ti,faclO!)' ro groop 11., m into 12 10<lb. ph;ed one per
fOOl. or combi"" some load with the column loads. 1be lood, are not romhi n.ed with the col_
umn load, in thi' e"''''pk to illu'trnte design fOf disvibuted load . U,in8 the 8eome1ric I.yout
o f the I",ch. Slrut """ tie forces are romponed and sunullarized in 1'ig. 1O.15h and T.ble 10..1
Th. tm", m "d~ 1

In addilion to the SInn, aoo tie, ""."Ied 10 ~arry tbe colu",n lood,. , mns aoo tie. 10 carry ttlt:
distributed load. are IK)W indlKkd in the ltuss. The dimibuted loads bt1ween lhe cojumm
are c.m~d by . trut, to the botto", chonl: ten,ion lie' then tran,fer tbe ,'enic.) c""'po>lt:ot
of the load 10 the top chord, while the horizon!al compone"l is tran'ferred 10 the bot!()I1l tie.
TI", E""metJ)' of tbe >trut, i,; selected to allow ten,ion tie, to be placed venica lly, Hoc 10"",
01 node. u , h. and , . I><t,,'een the column and the ,uppon cre.te a fan of compre"ion ''''liS
to rIO<le~. a, s"ov.' n in l'i8. 10. 15hand,'.
Sdeet;ng dim.n,i,.,," ro r . 1TOl and .,ooallOn<s
The forces in the "fan" ,trut, are ""-",d on tbe g""m"tl)' of tl>< ,;trut>. The width, Of1he "ruts
"I!. bg. aoo ('8 "r~ cOll1puted based on the conta<.1 "'"" at rIO<le g. hecau", 11", capacily of a
CCT node (at 1he 10""", end) i, low~r than that of a ecc
node (01 lhe u"I'"r endl. 1be
stre" on the colu",n at nodt: g i, f' = 2.36 ksi. To mailotain <'DnM ant SireS, in the node . trut
"X has a width w.. - F. pb - 36 . 1 (2.36 x: 24) - 0.64 in . The dim"n,iOl1s of ,;trut, t'h and
fl. with 00 c"""'"lmed load, a<.1iog di"""ly 011 eitber ~oo, are governed by the nodal ~3p",,
;ty. ,;nre lhe node, h .00 i are C T T ,l<l<k.,
wit h - OliO (Table 10.2 ). r-or
" x""'ple, for
,trut rh.p ~ /", ~ 0,7 ~ X 0,8 ~ X O.bO X 5000 1000 ~ 1.91 k,i a"" width "' - f'. ph
- 40.4 (1 .91 X 24) - 0.88 in. !n thi,co."'.the design capacity will exaclly equal the fac _
tore<lload. The re",aining st", t width" gcom"tri~s. aoo loads "'" su mmarilC'd in Table 10,],
Capa<il y ot strut,
B~ inspection, 1M 'tres<e< ill the fan ,t",,, <lg. bX. and "X will be critkal as bottle.,hared
"not,. U,ing = 0.75 for a CC TmxJt, and = 0 ,7~. ,tn,t "I! has a deSign cap"cit)' F.....
,0.8V: M'" " - 0.7 .~ x: 0.75 x: 0.8 ~ x: 5000 x: 0.6-1 x: 24 1000 - 367 ~i",. "hkh i.
gr~atcr than the "pplit! lood of 3(;. 1 kip', The , lnot c"p""itie, arc s\l mnmrizcd in Table 10.3 ,
In allc""'. the de,ign menglh F.. exceeds the applied forces aoo tbe slrut. are adeq u.te
I ""'i~n I.... ~ nd anchor-ag.

Tie desigIl i, 'imilar to that in E<am"le 10 , I. ~xceln that the additional horizontal t), ,,,,t
from the d i'lributed load, i""rea"" the foree to 1661 ~ irs . The required are. of stttl for lhe
ti~ i,A, = r~ I"~ ~ 1661 (0.7~ X 60) ~ ](;.9 in' or 24 No. II (No. 36) bars, ,\ , in Eumple
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
342 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapler 10
10. I. 90' hook; will be ""l"irOOIO oneOOr Ih,> li~. 1lIe 'Ieel will be placed in rOOf la)er, of
f,,~bm'S _1I1d O<le layer of To"r bars. hampk 10.1 ,ali"'al~d Ih~1 'he ,..,i nforc~mcnl will fil
in lhe availabl~ spaco .
The ,enical lie 1m carrie; :4.7 ~ ips. 11,c n:quire<J .orca of sled for Ihis lie i,A, - F~ ! .
~ :>4.7 (0.75 x (0) ~ 0 .77 in'. Dimiooloo >leel i, >eleeled f(lf venical ties beeau,"" th~
plocemcm of Ihe >lnus "'", arbilfary due 10 the a'SllIIIptions made in modeling the di\tri b-
uted load. Thus. the 0.77 in' i, di'triooloo o'-er 3 feet. the cenler-to-cenler spacing u>Cd for
lhe di\triblllcd 1000. The minimum reinforcement in E~ample 10.1. No.5 (No. 16) bnrs 31
10 in. OIl each fac~. jlf"<l,ides lhe required steol.
u."ign .... ails and miDimu", rei,,(orc'menl ""Iuirem."t.

The minimum rcinforcemem I'C(luirctnenl' from hamrlc 10.1 ",m.,in "'Khangc>d. The r,na1
delail, are shown in FiF. 10. 1SU.
A comparison of EJ.:unpl ~s 10.1 and 10.2 demOn5lml~S Ihe sensili,ily of Ihe

design 10 Ihe applied loading. TIw add il ion of Ihe disuibukd load resulted in atl
increase in II,., horizonlal lie reinforc~l1Ient . alt hough II,., wrtical reinforcernenl,
which in Ih" case of E~arnple 10.2 serves as th~ wrti~al tic steel. rerllains unch~nged .
b. Oapped beam ends

P",'<:asl and preslresS<)d eOIiCTelC bemus often hme ""l'l'nl or nOldled ends. such as
shown ill Fig. 10.16. 10 reduce the noor-Io-noor heighl of buildillgs. The recess allows
slrunuml owrlap betwc..,n Ihe main beams and the floor beams. While lite dapped end
is alhalllag~>ous in controlling building noor-Io-noor heighl. il creales two slruclural
probll'rlIs. Firsl. Ihe shear al Ihc end of II,., beam Illust be carried by a much smaller
5<.'<:lioll. and second. 1/", n",chanism of load Irallsfer IIU"Ough Ihe tlolch,'d w ne is dif-
licull to represent usi ng cOI1\"emiollal design lechniques. As a resull . dapped-end
beams lend Ihemsehcs 10 ""sign using sirul-and lie mo""ls.
EXAMPLE 10.3 Iksign or a d81're<l beam end. A 24 in. deep precast cllOCrele T beam has a 10 in. thick
web Ihal carries faclored end reaclions of67 kips in Ihe "~n ical di",crion a,ld 13 l ips in II'e
hOOzMtal direction. as ,hown in FiF. 10.16<1. Ttl<> beam etld is IIOlched 10 in. \"Ortically aoo
8 in. along the be.,m a~is. n'e I~"" is 111lnsferr~<1 (0 the suppon lhrough a 4 )( 10 in. bear-
ing plate.. o.,sisn the end reinf""'>lnent using!; ~ 5OC(I j1Si aoo!, = 60.000 j1Si.
SOl.tmo~ . 1lIe combination of the concentMed load and the geometric disrortrinuity ,llg_
g~st the use of a SlTut-aJod-tie solution.
'kfinilion or () "'gio"
1lIe [)..region for this beam is apllrOx;matdy 01R'" \truclural delllh in front lhe ~nd of the
IIOlch . 1lIe bearing plale will I\:,,e longitudin~1 reinforcerne"t v.dded to il to all",, for load
lransfer. 1lIeret""'. rile eff~C l i\e deplh at ,ile nOlch;, takn os 13.0 in . 11>< maximum allow_
ab]e,hearcapacityisl', = V. = 10 t.1>,d = 0.75)( 10 5OC(IX lO X 13.01000=
6K9 kijlS. Thi' e~c""ds IIR'" 67 kip applied 1000. "" the =tion is adequare to proceed wilh
lhe lIcsign.
For<'< m;ull.,,(S 0" U-r<-gion oo.,,,d3ri,,, .,," Ih.lruss p.oo.1
Three J'O',ible truss layoots are considered. os ,hown in Fig. 10. 1M. Option I includes a
'enical slrul and a diagonal t""sion li~ to the lo"'e, chord of II><: beam. The ["cscnee of $C"-
ernl I~n,ion lies in thi' mooel '''gge'ts thar Ihi, is "o1 a minim " m energy >o lution. Option 2
indude, a diagonal rompress;ve Slrul aoo" 'enical hanger to Ir,msfcr the load 10 lhe bOI-
tom chord of , .... beam. 1lIe cOinpre"ion Slrut helow the dal'P"d endltan,fors Itle kn.ile
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
~T RlJf_M\[)Tl E M OIH:U. 343
(a) Beam Sec!Ooo and loads
,, , ,,
, ,, , , ,, ,,
1;'\ ,""" , ,
/
IX "" /
/
, /
/
,
I')
'" ''I
(b) Memative Iruss models
,,
" '"
"
3 No.5 (No. 16)
closed slirrups @ 2 in.
I.v
2 No 8 (No. 25) X 5'- ' 1-,
1--c 56\ !,i/ ",~dad to plate
I-~ // (":l3.7' /
A... 2,2B ;n2, 90' hook or
mechanical aochor
, ,
(e) Truss g&OIll{llry and loads (d) Fitlal end desi')ll
FI GURE 10.1 6
DJ p\Jed beam eoJ design fDr uanlpl. 10..1.
reaclion 10 lile main lor'giludinal \lcd. Ol~ior' 3 i'lelude, an inlernal triangular IruSS to bal-
ance lhe reactiOil wi,hin the imerior of the beam. Balaocirl~ nodal forces al arl indetemlinale
inlerior four.mernber join, p<:e> difli~"llie, in joint "CI "ilin~. but may be ,!e,ir:tbtc if COIl-
c"ntrale<!loads an applie<!10 the top flang'. Option 2 is sck..-ted as tm. design choice based
Oil ils ; implicil}, ,,,><.I limiled number of IcnsiOll lieS, 'n," dimcn,ions of Ihe tl'll arc sl>own
in Fig. 10.16<'. and [tie truss forces are summarize<! in Tab le lOA.
S"'''''l ing dim'n;i"", ror slrul ~,Id """_ I zOn"

The nodal w nc stress is eSll'bli\hcd at IIIe bearing ptate, The SlrelS is!, _ V, A, _ 67(4 X
10) = 1,68 h;, 11Ie calculations fOf strut all follow, and lhe remaining strul and tie width.
and c<1l'a<:itics arc giwn in "[able lOA. F~ .. - V. sin - 6?- si n 56,30 - 80,5 lips. The
>lrut width i; w.. = F.... (p X 10): 4.79 in,
Cat'8<'itJ o(;lrul,
The SlTUI des ign capacity is ba;cd on lhe ,lre"8-lh of a boilie-sl"pcd \In,\ ( , - 0.75), I'or
, lrut (lb. F .... = .0.851; w..h : 0.7~ x 0,15 x 0.85 x 5.0 x 4.79 x !O = 114 ..5 kip',
T hi, ",eccds lile atll'iied load of &J5 kips. >0 lhe stT"1 is J<lequat~, The remaining llrul
o..loootc..,_
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IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 10
TABLE 10.4
Strut and tie properties and forces for Example 10.3
Member F ON;~, Capacity. Required, Provid~d.
M ~mb~r kips , in. kips in' in' R~inforcement
""
Sirul ,,' 0 .7~ 0.' .,., 4.79 114.6
'f '.0 0.' ~.,
'.M 67.8
"'f 0.75
0.75 "0.' 120.8
."
7.19
4.79
171.9
114.6
l ie ,,'
"".
57.7
67.0
.1.43
3.99
1.28
1.49
1.58
1. 86
2
3
No.8
No.5
(No. 25)
(No. 16)
,,' 100.5
67.0
5.98
,m 2.28
1.49
2.37 3
:l
No.8
No.5
(No. 25)
(No. 16)
ix" 1. 86
h .. '''',M:mdk "". LlIR" No. ~ IN" 16) >lirrur>-> ~'ilh .~" kIlH .... h.A, .1 "irrul>' x 2 I<~' x UJI in' _ I.Sfi in'
'Toe d~ i, "n c,'''''",''' ,~!I>o "'.;"k~i"""n"l ""of"""",.., ....... m" ~ h.," an '"~. '"' US in' ..... " 91Y' ""'" ... '''''''',n" ..1.'''''''~ >l ...,... d. II
,I>: ""'" ":in"''''''n,,,~ i, ,",.fr"", .. , ...,i liOry ",iM,,,,,,,,,,ni ,,"')' "" """"u,
design ,apocities are ,ummarile,j in Tab l" 10.4. All e.\ceed ,"" applied forc~s. a, ,,"OUld be
expected with the low nodal stre., us<:<! in tho, <k,ign.
I)...,il:" I;" and "n<huroy"

For tic hd. A, - f',... i; - 67 (0, 7~ x (0) - 1.49 in', Three N(>, ~ (N(>. 16) Slinup, jl<"Qo
,ide 1.86 in' (>f steel. The maximum width for tie M is w'" : F'" I'b : 67.0 (1 .68 X 10)
- 3.99 in . 'Three No. ~ (NO , 16) Slirrups may be I'l"nxi wilhin a 100ai ",id,h (>f2,7 in, and.
Ihus. fit within the maximum tie width for M . Tie lI< carries both the horiwmal C<lm(lOllt"nt
(>f "n" ,,/> and I"" 13 kip horiwn,.1 reac,ion, 'j).crcforc. F 0 - 67 x g. 12 + 13.0 - 57,7
kips. ll."<Iuiring an area of sleel equal 10 1.28 in'. which is pro,ided by 1"'0 No.8 (No. 25)
bars . ... "" ancho"'ge leng,h (>f Ihe 'ies c..ttcd, ,)'" .vail,'bic nodal di men,i(>"" Il",rcforc. ,ie
<1< i, wel<kd to t"" plate m node" and has a full development length 10 lilt> ri~ht of node!
'l1cs hd a,1d ix arc OC1ailcd a; d<:>Sed ,Iinup" ... "" an:a of ,"e..,1 and II", >eleele<! b,1T si,,,,, for
lhe lies are taoolau-d in Table 10.4. Stirrups for tie lid are 8fOupe<llogcther and should t>e
added '0 any normal shear reinforc..,,,,Cni from Ihe Bregio" (>f ,lie beam,
()osiR" d e l ~;1s and minimum ,..infOfUmenl n'<!ui,..",eMs
Sinn lib tran,fers a horiwmal thrusl 10 node d. Welding the reinforcement for tie,,~ to lhe
plale "nd'lO', ,he lic. 001 il is l'II)f sufficicnllO en,ure ,ha' 1)'C hori,.<:>nlal C<ln'p(>ncn' of Ihe
strut foree i, transferred to the tic, Two solut;oos are possible. first the plale at node" may
be rcpl:lced wil h a >le'(:l angle, 1\ 3.5 in. 1,,11 leg is needed 1(> coot;,,,, 'he nod.,1 'rIC wid' ,",
Altemali\.ely.a m<>re common pra<1ice in the precast industry. headed studs are welded to
I"" pla'c and I"" COI'Ineclion i, deSigncd by Ihe ,hear fricliOl'l principles described in Seelion
4.9. Headed 'tud, ha"e" yield Sfre" of 5O.0XI p;i and a coeffi.ient of frictiOl1 t>eIWffll
COrICIl.i<' a,1d ,1(...,1 of 0, 7, 'Il'us. ,he arca of SI "d, req"ill.,<IIO ""i'l II", loori'.OI11:11 c(>ml'lOnents
of strut ,,/, is A>/ = V", f, = 67(8 12) (0.75 X 50 X 0.7) = 1.70 in'. Four.ll4 in, diJl"-
e'er X 5 in. loo' g ho:.'ldcd ,Iuds wilt be used 10 pro"ide 1.76 in' . The ~ in, knglh places Ille
head of tile stud oubi<k" of the nodal zOlle width .
'l1e dg i, an e"ensi(>n of ,he main I(>ngi'udi nal rci nforc'en'li:nl, I\n arca (>! Gr:l\le 60 \1(....,1
2: 2,28 in' is IIff<led to pro\';de I"" force in th<o tie. which should also be chc<"ked against
,"" reinforcemcnl rcquir~mcn" for mon...,,,, in 1I'1i: Brcgiool. A 90' to.x>k or med'lanical
anchor is required at node d 10 pro"ide full development of the force in li~ dg, If the beam
is prestTC.Isro. 'I..: IWSlfC>sing SIi....,1 and lhe :lCCO"'raoying comp<C>sion in II", e'OncrclC jl<"Qo
,ide an equi'alenl anchorng'o.
Minim"", reinforcemenl in I"" dapped e,wl is A, .... - 0,OO2~1> , - 0.OO2~ X 10 X 12
30..10 in'lft. This i, satisfied b)' No, 4 INo, 13) bars at 12 in. Since the S1eel in tie M
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
~TRlJf_M\[) Tl E MOIH:U; 345
exceeds {his. no furtltt-r ""illf"",,,m.rl! is .,.,.,<Ied. 11Ie final ronnec1ion is de{ailed in Fig,
1O.1(i../,
11Ie examples in Ihis seClion illws{raIe Oolh {he nle1hodology of slrularl{J.{ie design
and Ihe imporlance of undcrsland ing {he delail ing reuiremCn(S needed 10 (r;msfer forces
al nodes. Failure {o appn.",iale Ihe need 10 provide anchorage for {he lie in Example 10.1
or 10 supply {hrusl resi~wnce for lhe ,lruts in Example 10.3 can lead 10 failure. In {he
cxample~. {he ron(ac( area was used 10 eSlablish Ihe hydroslalic nod.ll pressure. As dis-
,ussed. an L"<lually accep{able wlUlion would havc been 10 seleCl {he ma:<: 01';';0. K, S<:~f,-r. M J,,,,,,,,~,,i . h,w..-d. Coo"i" ,", D">i~. (If Slo'l>l'r u.... c"'-'O.,,,,," J. 1'0, " .
3! ..., . .1, M.y-Ju"" 1 ~7.1'I'. 74-(50
10.2. P. ~ ! "~i. - r",,, ~hld , in I),,; .. i li ~: C""e /",1 .. ,.,~, 7. "'. II. 19~~, f'Il. 66---73
10.3 P. M,~ i. ""n,,.;c l\,,~, ( R<i" ......~"<i 0""-"",,, I,,.ig ." J. An V(~ . ~" " ', I, 1~5. 1'1', 46---~ .
10.4. ), So:hl,., " , .. I K. S<:~f". "r\".~" ..... D,,, ilini of S"'""I< .... I Co"O-" [, U' i "~ s{",,~-n. Mood':'
5tn<e< Ii"xj",~r. " . tY'J . .. ,." ~t.,,: " 1'1'1 1. I.' W '
1n.5. R",'W,"~ C'-'<k Ncquj"'"""'SjQr Sm"-'urn/ C"""",,, ""J 0."1"'' '''''''', '\f'fI<"1<Ii., A, .\O 31S-02 . ..1,\0
3 1 8"~1!. "" ..,,;,,",, 0 ..."'" In"i{.,<. I .""'i "~''''' lIi ll" MI. !em
10.6. C 1\1 , Uri"" ..... S. Ak"""" -- ""mr~' lac 1~'P 1\('.", I),,;,ill-" i. """ ..... " ... 0 ~' il " ,\C I JII!-!(_rl."
r:"""I"'" fi" ,I", l)e, isn '1 Sm",",,,/ 0"",.." wi," 5,,,,,-,,,,<i-Ti, 1>/,,1,1,'. ,\CI SP !ell!. K..-I-lld "
~"i n"d (..... I. ,\"-..,-;",,, C""""'Il' I o~ i,.,". F.,-,,,i "~"'" flill', MI . ;>(Xl!. "I', 6.l----lIO,
10.7 I" C ~""'''' .",1 H. SI""'lI<~. -b"''I'1< 5, l)oxp 11< .. " wi, h (Jrc"i,&:' F'''''I'''' r", ,/" l);>sI8" '1
S'n<e'~",' C,"",.." wjr/o S"w",,"ITi, M'-'<kl. '\0 ~P !()Il. K.tI_l kin, Ro i ..",~ {("<i.J. " " .....,..
C""""'C I"" i,",<. ",,,"'ingl'" Ihll;, MI, !ell!. Pr. 1;>9-101-1,
10.8. l. (h".... 11. O"",-.y,...:r G "",",,~. "S l "~"" i" 1-"..." lk.",,," T","" <lKt:, ,,,.. 118. 1953, p. 1\8Ii.
IO.q r~",~d,, fi" ,he l)e, ig" '1 SIn,,,.,.,,/ 0""",,, ~'i'" 5",,,,,'14-11, I>/o,kl,. ,\CI SP !ell!. K..-I_Hci "
Rci",,'k ("d.l. "",,'tic,. C"""""" loq i,", . F"" " i .~''''' lIill,. MI, N)!
1(1.1(1 J '~!"'~"'-g< ... IM'1/<"n.. 1 0"""",,, ,\t"h,", ~~ "",I /),..,;~,,- 3n1 ,-d.. I""" ~" H, II. Urrx-r s..JJ~I<i,c~.
NJ.I'l9),
PROBLEMS
10.1. A deep beam wilh (he dimen~ions and m~{erial propel1ies given in Example
10.1 cnrrie~ a sinSle 24 x 24 in. column wi th a fa'lOred load of 1600 kips
located 12 ft from {he left end . Design {he beam using a s{rul-and-{ie ,olulion
{hat includes lhe self_weighl of Ihe be~m. In your wlUlion. incluck (a) a skCICh
of (he load path and truss layout. (b) {he sizes and geoITIClry of Ihe s{rUIS, lies,
and nodal zones. and (c) a wmple{e slel(h of Ihe final design,
10.2. Redesign {he wlumn bracket shown in Example 11.5 using Ihe ~{rul-and-{ie
melhod. Your Slru{andlie modd m~y be wscd on rig. 11.23 . Mn{eriul prop-
enies remain Ihe same as in Example 11.5.
10.3. A 36 in. oc'<!p ,ingle T beam wilh a dappcd end has a web thic kness of 6 in,
The f;><;wred end reaclions are 82 kips in Ihe venkal direction and 18 kips in
{he hori7.0nlal dircC1ion, The hori7.0nla1 force pla,es Ihe beam in tension. TIie
beam end i~ notched 12 in. high by 10 in. along {he beam a xis. I:!':sign (he end
,onncclion using a bearing pla le {hal is.~ in. wide with a {hic~ness equ~ 1 {olhal
of {he wd>. Adjust lhe hearing pla{e sizc if flucssary, Spccitlcd malerial
s{renglhs areJ; = 6000 psi and}; = 60.000 psi.
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 10
lOA. A Imn,fer gird~r ha, an m~rall deplh of II fl and span, 22 ft belw""n column
,uppons. In addition to il, own ,,eighl. it will pick up a uniforml)" disnibuted
factored load of 3.8 kiPS/ft from th~ floor ab<w~ and will carr) a 14 X 14 in.
column del ivering a concentrated factored load of 1000 kip' from flo",,, abow
at midspan. The ginler width must be equal to Or less {han 16 in. Design tho:
beam for the given loads. Find the girder width and (he area and geometry of
tie S{tlel. and spedf)" {he placcment ddails. Mat.erial 'trengtll' are /.: = 5000
psi and!, = 60.000 psi .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
DESIGN OF REINFORCEMENT
AT JOINTS
11.1 INTROD UCTIO N
/l.lost reinfo",-"d COflcrete failure", occur nOi bc'Cause of any inadequacie. in analy,is "f
the strutture OJ in Iksign of til<' members but be(-ause of inaok><1uate attenlion to til<'
detailing of reinforcement /I.Io~t " ften, the pmhbn i, at the coone.:tions " f main
stru(-tur~1 denl<'nt' (Rd. ILl),
There is an increasing tendency in modem stru('[ur,,1 pr..ctice for the engineer to
rely upoo a detailer, employ<..! hy tIl<' reinforcing har fahricator, to pnwilk tbe joint
design. Certainly, in many cases. >!andard detail, such a, th"", found in the ACI
Detailing Manual (Ref. 11.2) can be followed, hut "n ly the design enginl..,r, with tbe
complete re sults of analy",is of the structure at hand. can make thi s judgment. In many
other (-a"", sl""'ial requirements for force lransfer requir~ that joi nt detail, be fully
sl""'ified on the engineering drawing', including bend ('onfigurations and cutoff point~
for main \K'Tl> and pruvision of supplementary rein forceme nt.
The rosic r"'luirement at joint, is that all of the forces existing at til<' end, of tbe
memhe" mU.' t be translllitt(.>d thruugh the joint to th~ supporting nJelllbers. Cmnplex
Sire" "at", ex;"t at the jun(,tion ,,{ beams and columns, for example, that mu,t be rt.'C-
ognil.ed in designing the reinforccnJenl. Sharp discontinuitie, ,,,--cur in the. d irt.,(,t ioo "I'
internal f"rces. and it i, e",<entialto place rein{orcing haTS, properly anchmed, to resi>!
the resulting ten,ion. Some frequemly used coo",--"<Otion Iktails, when te!;ted. haye been
{ound to pnwide as little as 10 I"'rcent of the strength le<!uired (Refs. 11.1 and 11.3).
In recenl year" imponant re.",arch has been dir~<:tl>d 1<w.'ard estahlishing a bet -
ter hasis for joint de.ign (Refs, IIA and 11.5). Full -scale tests of beam-column joints
have k..! to impruved de,ign n",thod, ,ucll a, those de,eribed in Rn;",,,,"(mdmion ., for
or
D"Yign Rellm-Co/mlll' J"i/l1,' in Mono/ithic Rein!"w"d COllcn'te Slm,;tu",.,-, reported
hy ACI -ASCE Commilletl ]52 (Ref. 11.6). Although tll<'y ar~ not a pan of tl'" ACI
Code. such recommendations provide a hasis for tlJc safe design of heam-~'olu"m
joints both for ordinary mnstruc!ion and for bui Idings subj~~1 to ",ismic forces. Other
test, have given valuahle in,ight into tbe iJ<,havior of beam-girder joint" wall jUllc-
tion.<, and Otl"'r joi nt mnfigurations, thus proyiding a sound hasis {or design.
Pr.K'tical ity of the joint design should nnt be overlooked. Beam rei nforcement
entering a beam-column joint mU'1 clear the venical col umn bars, and tin",ly consid -
erntinn of thi s ract in selecting "I<'mher widths and har Sil.e and spilcing can avoid
m,tly delay, in the field. Similarl,., heam steel and ginkr sleeL inle"ecting at righl
angles at a typi(-al beam-girder-column joint, cannot be in the s" me horizontal pi"""
a, tlley emer the joint. Figure 11.1 illust r~tes II", congestion of reinforcing han; at soch
347
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r II
FIG UIU: 11.1

S'ed <''''8<>';00", be.m _
girdcr..:ol"rnn joi","
an imer><-"elion. Concrel~ placen"'nt in such a region is diffi,'uh at h"st. hul i, assisted

with the use of pla,ticizer admixtures.
Mo,t of this chapler treal, the design of joint region, for typical ,"ominuous-
frame monolithic structure, thai"'" designed according to the strength TIXIuiremems
of the ACI Code for gmvity loads or normal wind load,. ]oims cotuIL"eting ,,"",111""rs
lhat muSt sustain slrength under r<-'versal, of def.:>rtnntion imo the inelastic range. a, in
earthquake" represent a ""par.lte category and are covered in Chapler 20. Brackels
and corbel,. although they ar~ mo,t often a pan of preca,t buildings rather than nK"'O-
lithic con<uuction. have features in COlllnKm with monolithic joim" and the", wi II h"
covered here.
_. 11.2 B EAM-C O LUMN J OINTS
A /"'wn-co/uml1 joint is <kfined as the portion of a colu",n within d,e depth of II",
""ams thai fmme into il. Formerly. Ihe design o f motK)lilhic joints wa, limited 10 pro-
vid ing adequate andKlr.lge for the rcinfor,"ernel11. Howe,er. the in<:reasing use of high-
streng!h concrde. resulting in smaller mernh"r cross ><-"etion,. and th" use of larger-
diameter and higher -strenglh "'inforcing bars now R'quire that IlK)Te alklllion he gi ven
to joim design and detailing . Although very little guidaoKe is p"",ided by the ACI
Code, the ACI -ASCE Co",mittee 3$2 report RecolJllJle"dmitm.\"for Des;;;" of II"",,, -
Co/",,,,, joillls in MomJ/irhic Rt'infort"ed Concrere Stmctuf'<'.' (Ref. 11 .6) provides a
ha,is for the design of joinl' in hoth ordinary strunures and strunures required to
resist heavy cyeli," loading imo the ineiostic mnge .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU: 11.2 Column

Tn>ieal m<>nolilhic interior
beam-column joinl . Beam 4 .
800m 1 -
a. Classification of Joints
RefefCnce 11 .6 classifies sllucwral joim& il](o IWO calegories. A TWe , joim conneCIS
members in an ordinary strUClure desigrll-d on Ihe basis of sirengih. according 10 lhe
main!>ody oflheACI Code. 10 resisl gravily ad nonnal wind load . A TIp" 2 joim con
n.:C1S members designed 10 have sustained slrenglh under deformalion reversals into lhe
inelaslic range. such as memOcrs in a struclure designed for earthquake motions. very
high winds. or blasl eff.xls . Only Type I joints will be considered inlhis chapler.
Figure 11.2 shows a Iypical i"t~ri,,' joil1l in a monolilhic reinforc~-d concrele
frame. wilh beams I and 2 framing imo opposile faces oflhe column and Ocams 3 and
4 fmming inlo Ihe column faces in Ihe perpendicu lar d ireclion. An extaior joi"t would
include Ocams I. 2.:1Ild .1. or in some cases only beams I and 2. A WOOl" joim would
inelude only OCJIllS I and 3. or occasionally only a single beam I . A joilll nmy have
Ocams framing illio il from IWO p.:rpendicular direclions as shown . bul for purposes of
an~lysis and design each direclion can be considered separarely.
b. Joint Loads and Resulting Forces
The join! Tl'gion muSI be d~sign~-d 10 resisl forces Ihal rhe ocams and column lransfer
10 the join!. including axial loads. bendin g. lorsion . and shear. Figure 11 .3d shows
joimload.\ acring on the free body of a typical join! of a fmme subj~'C1 10 gmvily loads.
wilh 1l101nt::I1iS ,111 and Ml acring on 0pl'0Sile faces. in the opposing sensc. In gencral
Ihese moments will be ufll'qual. wilh their di ffcrerlCe cquilibrat~-d by the sum oflhe
colun)nmomenls MJ and ,11,. Fig ure 11.3& shows Ihe resulling forces 10 be I r~nsmil
led through Ihe join!. Similarly. Fig. IIA<I shows lhe loads on a joim in a slfuClure
subjected 10 sidesway loadi ng. The correspondi ng joint forces nrc shown in Fig. I lAb .
Only for very heavy lalemlloooing. such as from seismic forces. would Ihe monlClI\S
aCling on opposile faces of rhe joint aCI in Ihe smnt:: scnsc. as shown here. producing
very high horizontal shears wilhin lhe joint.
According 10 Ihe recommendmions t>y Commillce 352. the forces 10 be consid
ered in d~signing joint regions are nOI Ihose oclermiMd from the con~entional frame
anJlysis; mther. Ihey arc cakulal~d bascd on Ihe ,romin,,/ Jlm'gtlrJ "f lire mem/JerJ.
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3 50 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r II
M,,,"",
- ',
M,(t '.j)M.
"
'.- ' --"'M.
"I
"1
'. 1'1
FIGU R E 11.4
loint load< ."d fOR.." ... ,ulting from
I"teral Jood>: (~) forces aod moments
'OJ on the fr<o Ixxly ()f joint; (h) ""'olting
nG U RE II.] im.rnal forces.
Joint load,.oo fOfCeS ""01Iin8 from g,avily
lo".h: (a) forr.." and mt)!J>cnlS On the he
body of a joint ... gion: (b\ ... ,ullin8 ime,nal
fon.-e.,.
Wher" a Iypicnl und~rreinfof("ed benm meels lhe cnlumn face. Ihe !ension fOf("e from
lhe negative moment ,einforce",em at Ihe top of Ihe bea", i, to be taken as T = A ,f,-
and the CQlIlpression fOf("e at d,e face is fnn" equilibrium C = T. not Ihe nomin,,1 <."0"'-
pressi,'e capacily of the con<."rete. The design ",Omem applied allhe joinl face is thai
<."orresponding to lhes.: "'<lximu", for,e,. M. = M. = A,f,(d - " 2). mille, dUIII tha!
from lhe ovemll nnalysi, of lhe frame. Note IImllhe indu'ion of lhe u,ual sirength
,edUCli<."ln f"'-'lor would he unmn>crvalive in 11", p,,,,,,m case because il would
redu,"" 11", force, f()J which the joint i, 1<> be de'igned: il i, Ihereforc not included in
Ihis <."alcula!ion.
Wid, 11", momem npplied 10 each joim f",-" found in lhi s wny. lhe mrrespondi ng
colum" fo,ee, for joim design <Ire Iho", f<."l'ce' r"'luired to k""p ll1e conned ion in ..-qui -
librium. To illuslmte. lhe column ,hem" V1 and V. of Fig,. 11.3<1 and 11.4" are caku -
ialed based on Ih" free body of lhe <."olumn hel"' ....,n infl""lion poim,. a, shown in Fig.
11.5.11", infledion poims generally can be assumed a1 colu",n midheight. a, shown.
o..loootc..,_
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-
I ",D.......
...........
I THI
FI GU IU: 11.5
F"",.lxxly dia~mm of an
im"""r col",,,,, "00 join'
f
,
region
/,
1--- M, < M.( ) M,
c. Shear Strength of a Joint
A joint subject to th" forccs shown in Figs. 113/1 or I IA/I will dc"clop a panern of
diagonal cTocking owing 10 the diagonal tcnsilc stresses that result from the 110nnal
forces and shears. as indicat~d t>y those figures. nle approach used by Commine.: 352
is 10 limit the shear force on a horizomal plane through the joi11l10 a value establi shed
t>y tcsts , The design basis is
v. s- v. (11.1)
where V. is tlJC applied shear force. V. is the nominal shenT strength of the joint. and
is lai<cn ~'quallO 0.75.
Thc shear force V. is to be caleulah.-d on a horizontal plane at midheight of tllC
joint. such as plane '/-{I of Fig. I J 3/) or plane /I-b of Fig. 11.4/). by summing hori
zontal forces octing on tlJC joint above lhat planc. For cxample. in Fig. I 1.31> the joint
shear 011 plane ,HI is
and in Fig. IIAb. lhe joint shear on plane b b is

V. - T, + C1 -V)
-T, + Tl -VJ
The nominal shcar strength V, is given by Ihe equation
V .. - /; /I), (11.2)
where /II is the eff.xthc joint width in inches. h is the thickncss

_ in inches of thc col
unUl in the dire<:tion of the load being considered. and Ie is exprcsSl-d in psi unit s.
Thc value off; used in Eq. (11 ,2) is 110110 be taken grcat~r than 6000 psi. c"cnlhough
the aClUal slrength may be larg~r. b.:cause of the lacl; of research informmion on con
ncctions using high strength concrete. As discussed ill Owpler 20. AC I Code 21.~ fol
lows similar proc(-durcs for the dcsign of joints in moment resislant frames. the only
difference being that lower values for the coefficient are recon1lllCnd~d ,
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3 52 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r II
The coxfficicnt - in Eq . (11 .2) depends on Ille confinemenl ofille join! provided
by the beams framing into it, as follows:
Gra, 'lly frao'es '\\oo,ell' resisting frames

Interior joi nl .. 24 .. 20
Exlerior joim - 20 - 15
Conler joim - IS .. 12
The definilions of interior, e.xterior. and corner joi IIts were dis.:usscd in Seclion
Il.2a ~nd shown in Fig. I 1.2. However. there arc restrictions to be applied for pur
poses of delermining as follows:
I . An intaior )0;111 has beams framing imo all four sides of the join!. However. 10
i
he classified as an imenor joill1, Ihe beams should cover at least Ihe "idth of the
col umn. and the total dcplh of the shailowcsi beam should nOI be less than lhe i
10lal deplh of Ille d~pesl be~m . Imerior joi nlS Ihal do nOI salisfy Ihis requ irement
should be classitkd as <'xla;of jo'-"Is.
2. An exla;o' joint has at leasllwo !>cams framing ill10 opposile sides of the joint.
However, 10 be classilkd as an eXlerior join!. lhe widlhs oflhe be~ms on the IWO
t
opposile faces of Ihe joint should cover al leasl Ihe width of the column . and lhe
deplhs of lhesc IWO beams should be nOI less Ihan ~ Ihe 10lal dcplh of the deepesl
heam framing inlo the join!. loims thai do not salisfy this requirement should be
classified as ~'oma j(.;tlIs .
For joints wilh beams framing in from IWO perpendicular d irections. as for a Iyp
ical inlerior jo in!. the horizomal shear should be cl1C-.;~cd indcpendenlly in each dircc
lion . Although such a joint is dcsigllCd 10 resisl shear in IWO direclions . only one clas
sitkalioll is made for the joint in tllis case (i.e .. only one va lue of is sclcclcd based
on the joim classific3lion. and that value is used 10 compute V. when chcc~ing lhe
design shear capacity in each dircclion).
According 10 Commit1ce 352 rccomnlCndalions. lhe cfkcli\'C joint widlll hl lO be
USl.'d in Eq. (1 1.2) depends on the Iransversc width of Ihe t>.:ams th ai frame in10 lhe
col um n as well as lhe lr.1ns\"crsc width of the column . With regard 10 Ihe heam widlh
"b' if Iherc is a single booam fr~ming into the column in Ihe load dircclion . then bb is
Ihe width of Ihal beam. If Ihen: arc IWO beams in Ihe direClion of shear, one framing
into each column face. then I" is the n\'efage of Ihe IWO beam widths. In rderence 10
Fig. 11.6<1. whcn the beam widlh is less Ihan lhe column widlh, lhe cfkcli\'C joint
width is Ih~ averag~ of Ihe beam width and column widlh . hut it should nOI exceed lhe
heam widlh plus one-half lhe column .:leplh h on each side of lhe beam. That is.
b" + h,. ( 11.3)

hj - 2
"'"
Iflhe beam frames Dush wilh onc foce oflhe column. as is common for eXlerior joints,
Ihe same crileria resuh in an effective joi nt width of
/>- .. h,'c+c""'
, " 2 """ (11.4)
as shown in Fig. 11.61,. If the beam widlh I)" <'.{('udJ' the column width (permi l1~d for
Type I joims only). Ihe cffecli,c joi nt widlh III is equnlto the column widlh he as
shown in Fig. 11.6<:.
o..loo ot c..,_
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Direction
of loading
! DireClk>n
of loading -
Column
bi - (bb + bell2 bi - (bb+bd I 2

and .. (bb + h) and " (bb+ h I 2 )
,,' ", ,,'

FIGUR E 11.6
Detcrmi",ti"" or dfeet i,.., joint width h; lal imorior joint; ( h ) e>t"rior or comer joint; (e ) beam wider thllll <r>lumn.
d. Confinement and Transverse Joint Reinforcement
TIIC successful performa nce of a bcnmoolumn joint d~pt:nds Slrongly on the lateral
oontlnement of (tlC joint ConfincnlCn! has two benefits: (a) tnc eore concrete is
strengthcned nnd its strain capncity impro'oo. and (b) the vcrticnl column bnrs are
prcvcmed from buc~ ling out wnrd. Conjjncmen! can be proviocd cither by tnc ocalns
thm fr~ll1e inlO tnc joi nt or by 8pt:cial col umn ties provided within the join! region.
ConfinenlCnt by bemns is ill ustrated in Fig. 11.7. According (0 Commi ttee .,.<;2
recommendmions. if benIHs frame into four sides of tnc joint. ns in Fig. 11 .7". ade
qua(e confinclllClH is provided if each benm width is a( leas( ttnc width of (J\c imer
sccted column farx n1)(\ if no more than 4 in. of column foce is e .~po5<xl on ei(her side of
(he ocam. Where bcnms jranlC in(o only (wo sides ofthc joint. as in Fig. 11 .711, aocqun(e
nG URE 11.7
Coofr nen", m of joint
I I "T
,--<'--r
,
,
,
,
...
J
'.l- f- } ,,
<"Ooc",lC by lx,.,n" (a)
r-
'.I- f- )
confrnem"nt in X and Y -
diroclion" (b) <r>nfincm""t
.
"
in X direction ooly. X X
1 1
.. 4"
M ~
b.
'.
by " thy
.. 4"
'b)
bx .. -thx
,,)
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3 54 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r II
confinement can be assumt."<l i/1 the dif't!ctioll of III" he,,,,,.,

if the beam widths a r~ a1
1
least the colomn width and no more than 4 in . of ('Oneret" is exposed on either ,ide
of the bcanIS. In the mher direction. tr~""'e r~ reinforcer""nt mu,t b., provided for
confinement The presence of a third b.,am. but not a founh. in the perpendicular
di",,-,tion docs not modify the r~quiremem for tr~""'e r~ reinforcement.
If adc-quate ('onfinerr>em is not provided by heams according to the", criteria.
then mm,verse reinforce""'nt must bc [lfovided. If confinement s!<eel i, needed. it
must "",et all the u,ual ".-quirement. for column ties (see Section 8.2) . In addit ion,
there must b., at lea't two layers of tic, hetw,,",n tm, top and bottom flexural 't~el in
the bea m, at the joint. and the vertical ('enter-to-cente r spacing of the~ ties mu>! not
exC'eed 12 ill. If the beam--columBjoint is part of the primary system for resisting Bon -
",is mic lateral loods. this maximum spacing is reduced tn 6 in . For joint, that are not
confim."<l hy beams Oil four sides. AC I C,xle 11. 11 ".-quires that the tics ,ati,fy F..q.
(4.13).
e. Anchorage and Development of Beam Reinforcement

For interior joints. normal ly Ihe flexural reinforcement in a beam enlering one face of
Ihe joint is continued through lhe joinllo OCCOtHe the Ikxuml slcel for Ihe beatH elller
ing lhe opposile face. Therdore. for loadings associal~d with Type I joints. pulloul is
unlikely. and no special rccoOlltHcndlitions are made, Howe"er. for eXlerior or eOTllcr
joims, wh~re one or morc oflhe beams do 001 continue ocyond the joint. a problem of
har anchorage e~ iSIS, The crilical section for de"elopment of Ihe yield strenglh of lhe
ocain sleel is al Ihe face of Ille col umn . Column dimensions seldom permit de"elop'
men! of lhe steel emeting lhe joim hy straiglll embedmelll alone. and hoob are usu
nlly n(X'dcd for lhe negmive ocam reinforlXlocnt. Ninely dcgn:e hooh arc used, wilh
Ihe hook extending lOv;ard and ocyond Ihe middeplh of lhe joint. If lhe boltom hars
en!~ring Ihe joi nl n~td 10 d~vclop Iheir Slrenglh AJ. m Ihe face of Ihe joint. as they do
if the beam is a ]XIrt of a primary laleral lood resisling syslem , they should have 90"
hooh al so. in Ihis case wrned upward to extend toward Ihe middeplh of Ihe joint.
Requirclocms for devc10pmclII of hooked hars give n in Chapl~r 5 arc applicable in
oolh cas.:s. including modification factors for eonerele cover and for enclosure with
lies or SIIrrops,
n.e ""I..nor joint ,hown in Fig. 11.8 is" part of a con

Design of .'It'rlor 'f)''''' 1 JoI nt.
tinu"",. moooli thic. rcinfon;ed co"cret~ fr.tme <k,ig""d to resist gr.",it) hid, only. "lem
b<, "'Clion di"",",sions b X hand reinforcement< are a, , llOw". The fmme SIOO)' h<ighl i, 11
Ii. ","te".1 strengths are f; ~ 4(X)J psi and!. ~ 60.000 psi. Design ll>ejoint, following I)'"
recommendation, or the Comminee 3~! reJlO'1.
S"'.\! n"~. FiN ,I>e joinl gffin"'try must b< cardully loid oot. to I>e ,ure that beam bats
and column bars do nOl i n t~rf"re with one aOOlher and that pkK.~,,,,, n t and "ibration of lhe
cOllCrel~ are practical . I" thi, ca.",. bar layoot is simplified by malin, the column 4 in. wider
tba" lhe beams. Column stcd i, placed with lhe us"a) 1.5 in. of cOfICrete oot,ide of the No.4
(No . 13) tie,. Beom lop and bottom bars arc placed ju,t imid. the Ollie, column bar,. n.e
'liglll off"'t of the cenler top t>.:.m ba,-,; 10 "'(lid tl>e center co lumn bars is of no Concern.
Top bars of the s]hllO<ird beams ore placed just onder Ihe lop nonnal beam bars, ""cepl for
the ouler spandrel bar. which is aoove the hook shown in FiB . I \ .Sb. Bottom ba" enter tl>e
joint at diff=nt le,'e]. "'il!>out inle,ference.
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FIGU IU : 11.8 ,T,y- Spandrel beams

ExlC,;", beam..:"lumn j<,i,,' T
for E,ample II. I: (a) plan I I 3 No.
16" )< 28"
11 (No. 36) lop
1:~~fF=;';;;
No. 8 (No. 25) bonom
vicw: (bl c"'" 'C,i""
,hfOOgh ,,,,oJ1 beam:
I~ Normal beam
Ie) ",,",' >cc,i"" 'hmugh 16" x 24"
"""maJ De,n" N04< (h" No.4{No_13)
3 No. 10 (No. 32) top
beam 'liITtlp$ and colum" ~es
2 No. 7 (No, 22) bonom
lie, o.mide of the joint are
"'~ ,how,,_ Column
20"" x 20"'
6 No_ 11 (No. 36)
story heighl - 12'
'"
I I I I I I
2 sets I I I I I I
No.4(No_13) j
~es r-
-- -- --
I? ttl It-ti
L
1-+-=
I H
TT --
I I I III
'" I"
No iulCll(1<1lge probk ,'" cxiSI for ltlc span,lrd beam "))) rei nforce"..;:nl. wh ich is C<I,,{ in_
UOllS Ihrou~h lhe joint. Howe"er. lhe oormal beam lop sleel muS! be pro\'ided "'ilh hook, {o
dewlop i,~ yicM slre"glh a' ,I..;: f"", of Ihe column. Keferring ((1 Table 5,3. ,I..;: Ixlsic dc,d-
o"mem length for No. 10 (No. :12) hooked bars i,
0.D2 f , 0.02 X I x 1 x 6O.00J

I. - 1.27 - 24_1 in.
i.
"""
Being inside (be column b.lrs.!be beam top bar, ha ..~ side co",r of 1.5 + 0_5 + 1.4 = 3.4 in,
This c.,cced\ 2,5 in .. w a nl<)llifiCl'lion f:>etor of 0,7 is applicable. and tlle required hook
de,,,lop,,,,,m leng{h i,
I.. = IJ_I )< 0.7 = 16,9 in.
If (he hook~d b.lrs are carried down just in.ide lbe column li~s. tbe aclual embedded length
is 20,0 - 1, 5 - 0.5 = 18.0 in .. c.<c'Ceding 16_9 in .. w <le,'elopmcm is ensured , None of tbe
beams are a pan of lbe ,,"mary. lalera) load--resiS!i"~ 'yswm of lhe fr:tme. so the OOitom
bars , in lply C3n be c:lrricd 6 in. jllto llle face of 'he join l 3nd stl)Pl'<'d,
Next lhe sbear str~"~t h o f {he joint must be chc'Cked, In {he d ir""liOll of {be spandrel
be",ns. mO"..;:"I. appl ied 10 'he join! will be abo'" lhe same al~1 :>et ing in the (lpp<:ile ;.ensc.
so \-~ry lin le joint ,bear i, eXpe<'led in {hat dire<:{ioo. Howe\'er. {he nonnal beam will sub--
~Ct lhe joint to hori,ntal shears. In rcfcTCI>CC 10 Fi g. I 1_9". which shows a 1J-ct,-boJy \ kCtCh
o f lbe lop half of {he joint, tbe maximum force from lbe beam lop sleel is
AJ. - 3_81 X flO - 229 t ip'

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3 56 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r II
FIGUIU : 1I.?
B"j, of ",Iumn ,he..-for
E.,mple 1I. !: (II) horizoolal 30.7 kips
tim."("S "" joint fre<. bod)"
JA
1t:
-
,~eKh, (h) rrce-bod)" s~elch a (. 229 kips
of <"<>Iumn 1><''''00'' inn: t ~)fl
368ft -kips
poinl'.
Vo
'"~
The joi nl IlIOnlCnl is C~IC"I.1lcxl bosexl 01' Ihis Icnsile fortt. '1l1C normal beam cffcchw de .... h
is d: 24 .0 - I . ~ - 0.5 - 1.27 2 = 21.4 in. and wilh sl1... ss block d<>JI!h" = AJ, 0.85J:b.
- 129(0.85 X 4 X 16) _ 4.21 ill .. llIedesign m01ll(;nl i,
o 229 4.21
AI =M =A'
,J ,
J - -2 , -
" 21.4 - -
, : 368 fl-kips
COluml1 ,llClrs corresponding 10 'his joinl mOlilent are found haloed on ,he free bod)' of ,he
a,
column bel"''''" a"umed midheight innecli"" poin!s. shown in Fig. ! 1.9b: V"" B 368 12
- 30.7 kips. Then ."m ming loon,nl.,1 fon:es 011 111.: joint .,bo,c tllC mi<lde!'lh pl~"" ,N' . the
join! sDear in lhe di"",rion of the oormal be,m i.
v, - 229 - .10.7 - l%kips

For IlU'l"""s of calculating lhe joint shear "',ngtD. lhe joint can he classified as e~ler:ior.
beeau,", t"" 16 i". " 'idln of tt-.. spandrd beam, e,ceoo. ~ rhe column width of 15 in .. and
lhe 'pandrels .,.., lhe dttpesl heams fmming inlo lhe joim Thu,. - 20. The efreclive joinl
",idlll is
b, + h, 16+20
h - --- -
" , 18in.
h!JI not 10 exceed b, + h - 16 + 20 - 36 in .. "'hich doe, not mnlml . Then the nominal aI~1
design ,h~ar Slrength, of the joim are re'I""'lively
I'. ~ f- , hI' ~ 20 "

-4000 X I ~ X 1000 ~ 45~ kips
V. : 0.75 X 4~5 = j4 1 ~i ps
The applied shear V, - 198 tip' doe, nO! exceed the design strenglh. '" ,hear i, "Iisfael",),
Coofinemem is p,,-wided in rhe direcri"" of the spandrel beams by tl>e beam, rhemscl,",

beuu,", lhe spandrel width of 16 in . e~co:ed> lhe column widlh and 110 n.."...lh.an 4 in. of col
umn face i ,posed on either side. How",..... in doe diret1i"" of the oormal beam. COIll,nemem
mm.1 he pmvidL-d by ,0101l1n lie, wilhin Ihe joi nt. Two sel, of NO. 4 (No. 13) lies will he pr0-
vided. as ,twv. n in Fi g. 11 .&, and h. The ck"rdi"'allC~ berween column bar; is 5 . ~ <) in. be",.
less thJJ, 6 in .. so ;lricll y speaking lhe ,inglc. leg Cl"O'i' lie is lIot requirOO. Howe"e,. il will
improve lr.c joim COIlI'n""",nt. 8Um! 'gain't outward buckling of tile re111ml No. II (No. 36)
eolumll bar. and add liule 10 li1e rost of """s1ruClion. so il will be 'pecified a, ,ho"'11 in Fig
11 .&'. The Ii", satisfy Eq. (4 . 13) St"eral rimes 0'..... Note lhat a 90" hooI; 3t one end. mrher
Ihan the U5" bend ,Iiown. "'O(Ild meel ACI Code lie anchorage ""luireme-nts and WO\Ild focil.
;l~le >1", 1 fabricalion.
o..loo ot c..,_
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FIGUIU : 11.10
Column 24" X 24"
in"'';.,.- beam ",lum" joint
BNo. I4 (No.43)
for fu.mple 11. 2: (a) plan
No. 4 (No. 13) litis
vicw: (bl "'-~i()fl through
beam.
~~=
Beams 14" x 20"
4 No. 10 (No. 32) lop
2 No. 9 (No. 29) bottom
'"~
I i I
I I
rr
--L ,No.4
00"{No. 13)
I I I
--,- ] tes
I
.=. I @ 6"
I i I
'"~
E Xi\ C\.IP LE 11.2 i)esigtl of Interlar T)' ~ 1 j oint. Fogure 11 .10 shows a proposed interior join! of a rein
forced ,,,,,,,rele bu ilding. wilh beam "nd column dimensioo, and r<inforcement as indicaled .
The building frame i, 10 cali)' grovily loads and noonal wind load . Des ign aold delail ,he
joint reinforce ment
S< 'l.lnW N. Because lhe joint is to be a pa rt of lhe primary. blerJlload-resiSling ,y"elH .

be,m IlOllom /l:m as ,,'ell os lop bar< are carried >lraighl lhroogh lhe join! for anchorage. In
such case, . il is usually ~\),weniem 10 1,1' splice Ihe bOliom 51<,..1 n;,ar lhe ruim of inflcClioo
of (he beams .
In Fig. I I . 10.:. and h. lop and OOllom beam bats ellleriltg ,he joint i" 0111: di .....~ion mu"
pa", re' llCClively. Hilder mid over lhe corre'pcHlding bar, in the I"'!)Jelldkular dittttwn . It
will be .ssumed that this lIas bel<n recogniz.:d by adj" slin~ the dfeCliw ""rehs in ,""signing
the beams. Ikcause the column is 10 in . wider lhan the beams, the ouler beam bars can be
passed in,i"" ,he "'flier column bar> withou, imerfcrence. r""f b .-s ate used for ,he beam
lop Sled in order to avoid interference with tile center coi ll mn bar.
E""n the combination uf normal wind loading wilh grav ity lood, , lIoold not produce large
unbalaOCtXl 1110111,,111 (10 "J'IlOSi1e f""'" of (hi , interior ".,Iumn. alld il can be "fel y a"" ,,,,,,1
that joim >l"'", will not tie crili<:aL H o"'e'~r. COIlfilll:'llCm of {he joint "1!iolt by the tleams i,
col1,idered il1adequa/c Meau", (a) the beam width of 14 in. i, Ie than -i Ihe column width
of 24 in .. and (b) the c'posed rolumn face out,ide the beam i, (24 - 14) 1 ~ 5 in .. "'hich
exceed, lhe 4 i,l- limit. Consequentl y. If"3n,,',,,,,, colu m"li.., mU' t be added within the joint
for ,oofim:n"'nt. FIlf the 24 in . "Iuan: ~"<)Iumn, the spa<:ing ret"'"" " the wnic.al bars ~x=d,
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35S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r II
6 in .. '" it is nece,.ary. according f(} the ,\CI C<><k>. to pro\'ide tie, to '"JlIKlfl the intenne<li-
ale ban; as wcll as lhe romerb.,n;. Three lics are used pcr l<:t. a> shown in Fig. 11.10.., Sim:e
lhe join! i, " pall of 1m' l'l~ral Ioad-resi'ting ,yslem. lhe llIax;mom venicol spacing of lhese
lic selS is bin. I'our SCI, wilhin lhe joi1l1. as il~lica'e. are a<.Icq"alc 10 salisfy
Ihis requil't'mem,
f. WideBeam Joints
In mu hislOry buildings. 10 redu~~ Ihe conslruclion deplh of cach floor nnd 10 reduce
Ihe overall buildill h~ihl. wid~ shallow beams are somelimes used. loinl design in
Cases where Ihe beams are wid", Ihan Ih~ COIOIlIIi ililroduces SOnte illlrxmant <'Once pIS
lIot addressed in Ihe Commiu,,'t' 352 report. although 1110,1 of lh~ rt'port's pro\'isions
can be app1i~d. II i, importmll 10 equilibr~l~ all of Ihe forcoJs applioo 10 lite joint. 111e
I~nsion from lh~ 101' bars in Ihe osoal cal<:. wilh beam willth 110 greal~r Ihan llle col-
omll. wi II be ~'<.joilibmt~d by lhe horizonlal componenl of a diagonal <'Ompressioll Slrul
wilhin II", joint. 111e diagonal ,'Ompressioll at Ihe ~lIds of lite Slrut. ill 10m. is ~'<.joili
bmled by Ihe beam compression and II", Ihrusl from Ih~ column , (S ~e S~clion 11 ,3 for
a more ~'Omplel~ lIescriplion of Ih~ slruland-li~ IlIO<leL) If the ouler bars of Ilk) nor-
mal beum pas, mm-ide of th~ column. as Ihey mighl in wid~-beam lksigns. IIIe diag-
onal >lrul a1>o will be oulsitW of lite colomll. wilh no equilibraling vertical compre,-
sion mils upper and low<'r ends. The ool~r parts of 11", beam would 1~lIlIlO ,hear off,
resulling in pre11lalur~ failun.'.
Two possibiliti~s <,xiSI 100wrco11le Ihi s problem. 1111' firsl requires lilat all of llle
beam lOp sk't'l be placed wllhin lile widlh of Ihe column. and preferably in,id~ llle
ooler column bars. Second. if the normal beam bars are carried ouLSitW Ihe joint. ver-
lical stirrup" can be pmvide<.l Ihmugh Ihe joim region to calT)' Ihe wnieal componem
of lhrust fmm the compression slru!.
In exlreme but not onusual cases. very wilk beams ar~ 0><''<1. ,",,,em! lintes wider
Ihan Ihe column. with beam lIepth only aboul 2 limes lhe slab depth. In such e","". a
,afe basi, for joim lIesign is [() lreal the wid" beam as a sbh and follow the re<'Om-
mcndalion, for ,lab-column {'onneetions eontain~'! fro"ity load" Hcre Ille beam,
in each dire,lion are 8 in, wider Ihanlhe c0rre5ponding colullUl dimen,iOll. Check lhe pro-
IlOS<.xl joim geometry and ,lIe~r >!renglh. and ,k;i gn Ihe I""'swrsc joint reinforc'Clnent.
Malerial sl",ngths =!: = 4OC(I psi alld!. = 6O.OCWJ psi, Slory height is 12 f!.
SOI.UTION. fXll' 1M present c,se. allnonnal beam lop >lui i, passed in,ide lhe core oflhe
joinl. 1er>II;n,'liog ;11 9(1) hooks al the ", .. ,ide of Ille ""Iurlln, 'lOp ,led in Ille ,p,)rldrel reams
is cominuous Ihrough 1m' joint bul is also carried inside Ihe joint core, Bottom beam bars.
in each case. can be spread "CTOSs lbe widlh of lhe beam. and Illey are carried onl}' 6 in. inlO
lhe joint for lhe normal beam because the joinl is nOl a part of Ihe primary. loteml load-
resisting syslem, The boIlom slX"'''rel rea", ban; are com;truc'd 10 pnwide SlnK'l"rnl
imegrity (ACI Code 7. U). Beam stirrups ou1Side of lhe joint. not shown in Fig, I L I L would
re carried (JIIL,ide of the ",net bollom "MS and rent up, They would require small-diamClcr
h",iwmal bars inside the hook; for p!ll!l<"f onchonge at lhe uppt"f end, of th'>ir vertic,llegs.
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-
I ",D.......
...........
I THI
FIGU IU: 11.11 Colum n 20" x 24

ExlC,;", beam..:" lumn j<,in' o No. 11 (No. 36)
fo r fuample 11.3: (a) plan story height 12'
vicw: (bl "'-~i()fl 'h mugh
,p,nd,el be.m : (c) ={ion
Ihrough nont\lIJ beam.
""",./- Normal beam
".~W
4 No. 10 (No. 32) l op
3 No. 7 (No. 22) bol1om
Spalldr~ beams
20 )( 20"
4 No. 10 (No, 32) l op
(a ) 3 NO.7 (No. 22) OOltom
I I I I I I
I I I I I I
--
2 &Its
No.4 (No. 13)
[ 1fH 1=+-'1"
I I I
ties 0 t 2"
.H'--+
-- -Io-,-lo-1-_ ---
II I I I I I
Iii I I i I
'I ",
Cllecking {he required denolapment lenglh of {he No. 10 ( No. 32) lop bars of 1M IlOfmat
be.,", gi ,'cs
0.Q2 f, 0.Q2 X I X I )( 60.000
I... ~ 1.27 ~ 14. 1 in.
Ie "'.
\Vi{h laleral co"er wel l in exceS$ of 2.5 in .. a mod ilkali"" foclor of 0.7 is al'plkable, a,~1
{Ik: ",'<",sary hook <1<,,.lopn,..m \cnglh i,
1",,_ 24.1 x O,7 - t6.9'o.

If {he hook s .re carried down in the plane of lhe OIl{er column hars, {he .,".ilahle emheil
",em is 20.0 - \, 5 - 0.5 ~ 18.0 in .. c,c"cding 'Ik: !!,ini",u lll required cmlx>dmem,
Moments from {he ,,,andrei, O il eil her .i<le of {he joint will be oboo ' equal. so no joi nt
,n.,ar probl~m e,;S\\ in {h al dire.;{ion, In {Ik: direction of {he OOfTnal beam, ,lk:ar m",{ be
checked. The !emHe foo;e '1'I,li<:d by {he {Of! bars i,AJ, - 5.08 X 60 - J05 ki ps. Tbe depth
o f !he be~m compressiw "res , block is " ~ AJ,- O:8; I.>. ~ 305 (O,8S X 4 X 32) ~
2.80 in .. and {he corresponding moment i,
,,305 2.80
M _ M - A "f d- -2 - _12 . t76-
. -2- _ 4 Ph
ki'"
,.~
Column sllt'ars are based on a f".., body co.-re'jIOIId ing 10 {hat of Fig. 11 .'Jh. and art' <"quol
{o VroI - 412 t 2 - yl.:\ ' ips. n,,,,. (be joint ,bear at mi<ldcfllh i, V. - .J.05 - 34.3 -
270 kips.
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IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r II
The 'pandrel beam, I,,,,,,ide full -widlh joinl confmcmem in lheir direclion. andlhe joim
can be dassed as e'lcriof. >0 - 20. In lhe pc"",ndi,ulardi",ction. when Ihe beam widlh
""ereds the column widlh. lhejoinl widlh bj is to be talcn equal to lhe column width (24 io.
in Ihe present case)_11,,, nom in l .1nd de.lign shear "","glhs a'" re,pecli\'Cly
V, - Ii b,h - 20 4000 X 24 X 20 1000 - W7 kijlS
V, = 0.75 x flJ7 ~ 4 5.~ kip'
B"",u", lhe de,ign 'I"'''glll is "",,11 a[>",-e the "Wlied shear of 270 kijlS. the ,hear ""-lu i",
n",m is mel
Tr,mw"r", ronlinemc nl "eel "'">I
be provided in the dire<:lion of Ihe oonnal beam,
belween!he 101' a,~ll>otlom har> oflbe normal beam. wilh _'pacing not 10 ".ered 12 in. Two
>e1, of No.4 (No. 13) ,;olumn Ii., will be used. as.oown in Fig. 11.11. In addilion to lbe
hOOJl around ,he oul,id< h:ors. a .lingle_kg """ lie is requi.-N for tM middl~ column bars
beeau,", II>< dear disw",e beIW",," colum n bars .x"""ds 6 in. TI>< ' ies Slliisfy Eq. (4. 13).
-. 11.3 STRUT-AND-TI E M ODEL FOR J OINT BEH AVIOR
Although Ihe Cornrnilk'C ..S2 repon (Ref. 11.6) is an imponant COntribulion 10 lhe safe
desigo of joinls of cenain Slandard configuralions. Ihe recornmendmions are based
mainly on leSI resuhs. Cons.:quelllly. Ihey muSI 00 reSiriclCd 10 joi nlS whose geomelry
dosely mmches Ihal oflhe lesled joillls. This leads 10 ninny se~mingly arbilrary g~"O
melric limilalions. and lilll~ guidance is provided for Ihe design of joims Ihal may nOI
med these limilm ions. An illuslralion of Ihis is Ihe wide-beam joil1l discusStxl in
SoxI;on II .2f. Such joints are mentioned only wry briefly in Ihe repon.
Good physical lnodds Jre a"Jilable for many aspects of reinforc~d concrel~
behavior- for example. for predicling lhe Ikxural slrenglh of a beam or Ihe sireng lh
of an eccemrically looded column- bul no clem physical model is evidem in Ih~
COlllmill~e 352 I"l.'collilnendmions for Ih~ behavior of a joim. For Ihis reasoll. among
OIlwrs. increasing alknlioll is being giwn 10 Ih" Slrul andlie moods. d~scribed in
Chapl~r 10. as a basis for Ih" design of Dregions m joinls.
The esst'mial fealures of a StrUl-alid-l i ~ modd of joinl behavior may be under
slO<Xi wilh refer~m-e 10 Fig. 11.12. which shows a joinl of a frame subjc'd 10 laleral
loading. wilh clockwise momenlS from Ihe beams c'<juilibraled hy eoullierdockwise
monwnlS from Ih" columns. The lirt~ of aClion of Ilw horizontal forces C I and Tl illter-
St'<:IS Ihm of lhe venical forces CJ and TJ. m a lIod,,1 ~o"". where Ihe resulta nt force is
l'<juilibralCd by a diagonal w",p",.\.I;OI1 , trUi wilhin lhe joint Al lhe lower end of lhe
Sinn, Ihe diagona l compression equilibrates the resullant of Ihe horizonlal forces TI
and C l and Ihe vertical forces T, and C,. The I~nsion bars mUSI be well anchored by
eXlcnsion inlO and Ihrough Ihe joint or in Ihe case of discontinuous bars (such as lhe
lOp ooam sleel in an eXlerior joim) by hooks. ll-.e concrele wilhin Ihe nodal zone is
subjecled 10 a biaxial or. in rmmy cases. J triaxial .lIme of Slress.
Wilh Ihis simple model, lhe flow of forces in a joim is easily visualized, salis-
faclion of Ihe requiremenlS of equilihri um is confirmed. and the need for I'roper
anchorage of bars is emphasiz("<i. [n a complele slrut-and-lic model analysis. Ihrough
proper allenlion 10 ddorll1Jlions wilhin Ihe joint scrvice:lbilily is ensured Ihrough
comrol of cracking.
According 10 II!.: strul-and-lie modd. lhe ma in function of Ihe colum n lies required
wilhin Ihe joilll region by conventional design I'rocedures. in addilion 10 prevcll1ing
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FIGUIU : 11.12
S'ruHnd,i< modd (o,-
beha" ior of a be.m.rolunl"
JOIn'.
comP~~'j':":":'J;Il~,,____t1;i7=,~ens~~es
C, ~ _ T~
NO""
Nodal j
! ,~
zona
c,
oUlward blt(kl,ng of Ihe venic~1 column bars. is 10 confine the concr.:le in the com
pr.:ssion Strut. ther.:hy improving both ilS S(fcnglh alld dUClility. and to control the
cmcking Ihm may occur owing to diagonal tension perpendiculnr to thc a.\ i s of the
compression strut. Thc main load is carricd by the uniaxially 10wJc'd strulS and lies.
TIle strulandtie modclnOl on ly provides valuable insights into the hchavior of
ordinary beamcolumn joints but also represents an imponal1l1oo1 for the design of
joims that fall oUl sidc of the limitc(\ range of those considered ,n Ref. 11.6. In Ihe sec
tions of thi s chapter that follow. a number oflypeS of joi ms will be considered lhal
occur conHllonly ,n reinforced concrete S1Tuct ures. for which lhe strut -~nd -tic moelels
pro,'ide essennal aid in developing proper bar details.
. _ 11.4 B EAM-TO-GIRDER J OINTS
Commonly in concrete construction. secondary floor beams an: supponed by primary

girders . as sho ..... n in Fig. II.I~" afld h. II is often assum~-d that Ihe reaclion from the
floor beam is more or less uniformly distribut ..-d through thc depth of thc imcrfaee
hetween heam and girder. This ineom.'Ct assumption is perhaps encouragc(\ by Ihe ACI
Code " V, + V;' approach to shcardesign . ..... hich makes use of a nominal average shear
stress in the concrete. ~c .. Vc b. d. suggesting a un iform distribution of shear Str.:ss
through the beam wch.
1lle ,"-'Iual ..""havior of a diagon~lIy cr~ckcd '-"'~m. as indic~I(.>d b)' test,. is quile
difTerem. and Ihe now of for~-e, can be represcmed in '!(,m,""hm simplifi"'d form by
th" lruSs model of lhe '-"'am .<hown in Fig. I I. I 3.-- (Ref. 1I.n n.e main reaoion i~
delivcre<l from bt:arn 10 girder hy a diagonal l'ompress;o" ~trut tIm. which ~pplies il~
thrust near the bol1o", of the carrying girder. Failur" to flTovide for Ihi, Ihrusl may
result in splitting ofT the concrete at the bolfom of the girder follow~-d by collapse of
the beam. A graphic example of lock of ~oPPOTi for diagonal compressi on ltthc june
lion of a beam and ilS supponing girder is shown in Hg. 11.14.
Proper d~tailing of ,teel in the region of ,uch a joint requires the use of well.
nnchor.:d "'hanger"' stirrups in Ihe gird~r. as shown in Fig. 11.13<1 and h to pro vid~ for
the downward thrust of the compression wut at the end of lhe beam (Refs. 11.8 and
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362 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: ST RUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r II
FIG UIU : 11.13 Hanger

Main ginkr "'I'porting stirrups
/ Hange, stinups
",,,,,,,,1,,1)' beam : (0) efOSS I' 'I
section tilr<JUgh ginkr
,1Jo>..'illj! honge, >tim.p>:
(b) crt ... "'ction through
rh9 ~rt-A~,;::=:+
11111!j
, +, =H
, 1
"
=+,
I
r'f1'1,
I, I !" I I
be,m: (d In", "1Ode1
.hQwing t"""fer <If beam
load 10 gi,<kr al load "'".,
l ~ -1--+-4-+
J--f"'W-l-l-
I I ""'.U"
, "-- 8eam
l
,.,
ultimate; (JI Irm. model '-. GI rder Shear strrups
,1Jo>..'ing I","'fer of load
into ,he girder.
,I I
/ ! \ \
! \
, / \ ,
Hange' stirrup ,..action
"~I ''I
FIG UR E 11 .1-1
Failu,e d"" 10 lock of support
for diagonal cor"pre"'ion in
beam-gink" join1. (CO/mesH>!
...,. I' Coil, .' , I!njw,.,~.if
r.',"",V.)
11.9). Tl>ese 'Iirrups se,ve as lension !i~s to Ir~n'rnil II", re~clion of die he~rn 111 the
'''''''pression zone of II", ginler. where il can he "'lui libr~ted by diagollUll"(}mpre"io"
,ITU1' in the gi rder. The hanger slirrups, which are r"'luired ill "ddiri"" to the normal
girder ,Iinup, "-><juir~d for ,hear. can he designed bnsed on "'Iuilibr~ting pan or nil or
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rne reacriml from the heam . ,,"iln the hanger sl ;rrup' assumed ro he stresSt.-d to rhei r
yield 'tress/,. al the fa,tored load ,{age.
TIle <!rut-and -tie m,xld nllo,,", visualization of the transfe r of {he hea m load
almlg tile girder as St.'en in Fig. 11. 13J./. The compression struts op and 'I' com plele {lJe
,hear transfe r into {he gi rder. The orientation of these compression suu ts del"nds on
the loeation of the beam relaliw to the girder eoo.
Ifthe beam and girder are {he s;une de pth. {he hangefi should ra ke the full reaC-
tion . However. if {he heam depth is much less tha n {hat of (he gi rder. hangers lIlay
pro"e u"necessary. h is suggestt.-d in Ref. 11 . 10 that hanger stirrup' be placed to resisl
a downward force of V:.
where
V', = -". V 0 1.5)

",
Here h. i, {he "epth of !lie beam. h~ i, the dep1h of {he carrying girder. as indicated by
Fig. 11.1 3. and V i, (he end read ion r<.'('ei"ed from the hearn,
Hangers w;1I also be unnece"aJ)' if {he fac!Ored beam ,hear is less than V, (a,
i, usually the case for one-way joists, for example). hecause in such a Case diagonal
cracks woold nOl fOlI11 in the supponed membe r, The predict;ons of the truss model
wou ld nOl he vnlid. and the reanion would he lIlore !Iearly unif';>n ll through the depth,
The hanger slirrup' ,hould pass around the main flexural reinfof<."emenr of {lJe
girder. as sho,,"n in Fig . 11.13. If the beam and girde r have the same depth. {he main
tlex ural bars in the girder shou ld pass helow those emering {he connecl;on from {he
heam 10 provide {he n.:st possible rencrion p ia{fonn for {he diagonal compression strut,
, 11.5 LEDGE G tRDERS
Fn.'<juel11ly in precast concrete consnu{'{ion. an L or inve"~-d T girder is used to p"'-

vide a seat. or ledge. to suppon pn.>easr be,um fr.l!ning into the clUT)'ing girder fmm
the perpe ndicular d ;reclion. Typica l ledge gird~r cross sections are shown in
Fig. I I.IS. 11", ~nd reaction of {he n.:ams inmxluces a heavy {'on{'entm{ed load near
the b,,{{om of such girders . requiring special reinfor{'ement in {he pmjecri ng k-<Ige ""d
in 11", girder weh.
FIG URE 11 .15 Spand rel Inter>o<

Lc dge girder. carT)'ing girde r girder
P''''''''
T beams: (til l girder
\
Jl<O"iding ,,"CriOf ,upport for
Tbe,,,,, (h) inv. " ed T ~i rde '
carrying ' w<) T oc.m
reacrion . ""m ""m ""m
" Bearing
po' " Bealing
p",
(., 10'
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IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R ~: n: ST RUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r II
FIG UIU : 11.16

S'ruHnd,i< modd {o,-
beha" ior of in>'erted T ledF,e
girdcT: (al ginkrcro<'
r "'""'i
s tiffiljls
"""Ii"", (/') sklo 01",1IIioo,
R
Bearing
~
/1111\,
""'''
=~
I I
Lcd
I \ ~
=,
=-
Compre sSlOll
strut
"Comp ression
,~
,,' '"
1ne <ksign of such reinforcement is f:u:ililaled through use of ~ slrul and lie
model, as il luslraled in Fig. I I. 16. n", downward reaclion of 11m supponed !Jt,am ne
ales a ~x)mpression fan in lhe ledge that disuibuleS II", reaclion along a lenglh greale r
Ihan thai of 11m rearing piale . as shown in Fig. II.IM. The horizomal compone nt, o f
Ihe fan are equil ihrated hy a compre"ion slrul along II", lower flange of the gi rder.
In the cmss "'clio" view of Fig. I I. Ifill. Ihe downward Ihrusl unde r the hearing
plale is equi lihmled hy a diagon~1 compre,sion 'Irul. wilh Ihe outward Ihrusl al lhe top
of tl", strut causi ng tension in Ihe uppe r horizontal leg of dosed hoop stirrup, in the
lower pan of Ihe girder. In many cases . a shon ,trul'lural sted angle is u",d just under
tl", beari ng plale. and tl", main tie at the lOp of the ledge is welded to the angle to
en,ure positi"e anchorage. At the ho{{om of the diagon~1 strut. tl'" horizontal ~x)mpo
nelll oflhru~t i, l"<lu ilihmled by the opposing thrust fn"n lhe other side. and the veni
cal l'omponent causes lens ion in slirrups that e~tend to tl", lOp oflhe girder. 1nese sli r
rups are u ..."{1 in addition to tho"" requi red for girder shear. Pmpe r anth()r~ge al the
nodes is ensured hy p;ls,ing longitudinal hars inside Ihe bend, of hoth Set, of 'Ii rrups.
EXM. lI' LE I I A Inw rtw T b<-~ m r<>nn ...1i" n d~s i gn . The inv"noo T be"m """wn in Fig, 11,17" ,uPl'o",
40 fl long. 12 fl wide double T beam, . Tbe Widlh of the doohle T <lem i< 4 . 7~ in . and lhe
bearing plme is b in. long. Th" dead 1000 of the dooble T is 71 rsf. including ,,,If'''~ighl .
and Ih~ be,,,, carri~, a live 1000 of 40 psf. A 1lori1.Oniai force is lake" equ.l (0 20 f!""I'ent of
t"" venical reaclion, De,ign the reinforcemenl in Ih" ;n,'moo T m tlk: double T bearing
point Material propertie. are j; - 6000 rsi and j , - 60.000 rsi.
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2 No. 4 (No. 13) a t 4 in.

at each connecbon
I
"
~ 1,"
Bearing
p~\ As-wme
'"
~J l"/
2 No.4 (No. 13)
(a)
,
,.
I
1-2'"
"
S!fut ar.d-~e mod~
5~ 4 "
1
"I
f iGURE 11. 17
SIrul andlit mood f{J< Enmpk t t A.
S()l.ln"lON. The f>ctared loads on lile beam SU'm for a 6 ft lrioo1>ry widlh are
q. ~ 1.2 x 71 + 1.6X4O~ 149p,j
H. _ 0.t 49v>f X 6 fi X 40ft 2 - 17.9 ~iv>
f. ~ 0.2 X 17.9 ~ 3.6 k ips

The bearinJ!. arc:l "nder (I..;: <Joubtc T icg is 6 in. by 4.75 in. - 285 in'. gi ,-ing 3 n(xtal bear
ing ,1"",,
of
]").9
" - - - - 063ksi
28.5 .
which is well below lhe nominal Cai'OCily of lhe oodes and bonleshaped Of reclan~u l ar
,\nIlS. Illc low stress is used 10 demon'ltal" an al' c""-'Iiw >(>luliOll melhodQlOJ!.Y. fly using
lile low slress.lhe no<le and ,lrul Capacilies are adequale by in'pc..-lion, howe\'er.l11< sizo of
Slnll cd mu,l be conr,nlll;d. Soh'ing fOf Ihl; gC<:lnICII)- and f()l"(:e!; in fi g. I I . 17b. T.. -
15.9 kips. T< E 17.9 k ips. alld ,trut "~I carrie, F", ~ 12.3 kips. The Ihickness of the Slrul is
as,u,n! as 4.75 in .. Ihe S.'''IC as tile bearing plate. Therefore. lbe wi,IIIt of WIn cd is
12..1
w", - -4 11;"
0.63 >( 4.75 . .
Thi, i. slight ly"""" thall tho 4 in. "sullled. A minor Il1Odilic01ion to the be,ring "re"
w()Uld make lhis ac""ptahl" theIT"f"",. ' M design contin~' wilh tbe selecled geometry. The
required area of st",,1 for tie ~h i~
T.. 15.9
A.~ - = =0 ..15 in '
f,. 0.75 >( 60
which is sotisfled by using two No.4 (No. I,) bars welded to e:K'h bearing plaw. For tie Jf.
f", 17.9 . ,
'. - - ,-
. K 0.75 >( 60 ~ 0.40 III '
which is. also. met ~'ing lwo No. ~ (No. 13) clos..d 5tinups al 4 in. on <"em..,- at ~ach load
point
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366 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r II
'- _. 11.6 CORNERS A ND T J OIN TS

In many cO{l1lnon types of reinforced concrete structures. nlOllIcnts and other forres
must be tr.lnsmilled aroond corners. SonJoO examples. shown in Fig. 11.18. include gable
frnmcs. retaining walls. liquid s{(>rnge lanks. and largc bo~ cul~ens. Reinforcement
delailing at Inc corners is rardy obvious. A comprd...,nsi"" experilncntal study of such
joinls by Nilsson and Losberg (Ref. 113) showed Ihm many commonly used joint
delails will Ir.ltlsm it only a small frnclion of Iheir assumed strength. Ideall y. the joint
should resisl a moment al least as large as the calculmed failure nlOnlCIH of lhe IlJoOmocrs
fr.ltHing imo il (i.e.. lhejoim effide"c\' should he al least 100 pereem). Tests have shown
Ihal. for COl11nlOn reinforcing delails. joint efticiellCY may be as low as 30 percent.
Corner joinls may be subj ..'CICd 10 opening moments. causing l1cxural lens ion on
Ihe inside of the joim. or closing moments. causing tension on Ihe outside. GelICrally.
Ihe first case is the more difllcuilio doolail properly.
Consider. for example. a corner joint subjectoo 10 opening nlOmenlS. such as an
exterior conlCr of Ihe liquid Slora.'!e lanl:. shown in Ihe plan vicw in Fig. 11.ISd. Fi.'!ure
11.19<1 shows the syslem of forees acling on such a corner. The reinforcing lxIr pallern
shown is "or recommended. Formalion of erne\;: I. rndialing inward frol11the corner.
is perhaps obvious. Crack 2. which nlny lead to spliuing off Ihe oU\sidoo comcr. may
not be so obvious. Howe""r. Ihe res"llmn of tnc two compressive forces C. ha"ing a
magnilude C 2. is equilibra(ed by lhe resu lt ant t~nsion T 2. These tWO forces. one
applied ncar tnc OUler corner and on~ ncar the inner corner. r~'<luirc high tensile str..:ss
oclwcen the IWO. leading 10 formnlion of crack 2 as shown. Tltc smnc conclusion is
reacht.xI considerin.'! a s111all concrete clemen( A in Ihe corner. !t is suhjccled 10 IOC
shearing forces shown as a result of the forees C and T from Ihe emering nlCmOCrs .
TIle resultan( of Ihese sheari ng SIr..:sscs is 45" prillCipal lens ion across the comer. con
fimting fOrmalion of crack 2.
One may. al first. oc templed 10 add an L-shapcd lxIr around the ou(side of IOC
corner in an aucmpt 10 confine tlte outer concrcte. Such a b.1r would serve no purpose.
however. because the bar would be in comprcssion and may actually assist in pushing
HG URE 11.111 Grav~y loads

Stroc!Ure. "'i,h rome"
,ubjcc' '" opening <>r d",ing
JE
momems: til) gable franK"":
~ =;-,
(b) <an h.,..,',"ning ,.."11:
-
(e) liquid 'IOfJg~ tank: pressure
UquOd
(il) pi '" vitoW of muloi,'<l1
liquid ,{(>rage lank (e) lJrp.e
~
box colyen.
"I 1" 1<1
Earth
88 DD Id) I"I
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FI GU RE 11.19
Comer join' ,ui:>j<c' ",
opening "'''','''",S:
(0) "",ding in"n improperly
,bi8""d joi"t' (h) stM-,od-
,ie m.>del of join, bcha,'ior Element A
.~
to(
----
""
ii"
c ,
t j
c ,
lei (0)
( ! (~
I )
<? ....
I( 1/
/
I
c-IC==='
I
I
I
-,c===,
I
~-jc===, I',
I 'I
I I I
I (,
I I I I I
I I I
I I I I
lei 1'1 Ie) (0) Ie)
H(;U RE 11.20
E/focre,,,,ie, of c'""'" joim, , "bjec' 10 opening I>lOn"'o" for "ario", rei"forcing detail" (a) 32 )l<="1: (h) 68 perce"1: (e) 77
pcn:<nl; (d) K7 p<"-'enl; VI I 15 pe,,-"Cnl. (AjI Rtj: 11.3.1
lhe corner off TIie strul-and-tie model of Fig. 11 .191> prnvi<k, valuable in'i ghl into
Ibe ""'''led reillforcement. indicating that , in addilion III wdl-anchmed lellsile bars 10
Iransmil the forces T inlo Ihe joint, SOli'" form of mdial reinforcement is required 10
permil tbe compressi'" forces C III "tum tm, comer."
Test re<uh, for a large lIumber of joint, wilb alternative bar delai], are reponed
in Ref 11.3. Compamlive efficiencies for SOli'" specific detail,. relating Ihe maximum
mome", Ir.lIIslIIilled hy lbe comer joi", to Ihe flexuml capacilY of!l", enlering ""'111-
bers. are sUlllmari""d in Fig. 11 .20.. III all cases. Ihe reillfort'Cme", mlio of the entef-
ing members is o.. 75 percenL Figure 11.20.. i, a simple dCI~il. prob~bly o flen u,,-'II. but
it p"",ide, joint effici~""y of only 32 percenl. The delnil, in Fig. 11.2Ob. reinforced
with bent bar> ill Ibe form of h~irpin' with lbe plnne of the hooks pamllel 10 the insill"
foc" of!l", joi",. provides efficiency of 68perl-enl. In Fi g. 11.2Oc, Ihe maill reinforcc-
me", is 'impl)" loo ped and continued OUI the other leg oftbe joiot. r",ultillg in an effi -
eiellc)" of 77percenL The sOIl",whnt similar detail ,hown ill Fi g. II.lOtI. in whi,-h II",
bars entering ItJe joint are lenllinaled wilh sepamle loops. giws an efficiell,-y of 87
percell!. n,e hest performallce resllits fmm Ihe delail shown in Fig. II .2{k-the >:in",
as in Fi g. 11 .20.:1 ex<"pI for Ihe addition of a diagonal bar. This illlpmves joint effi -
eiellc)" 10 115 percent. so Ihat the joint is actually ,Imllger than Ihe desig n 'trength of
the member> fmming inl<> il. It wa, determined experimentally thaI ItJe are~ o f ItJe
diagonal har should he about one-hnlf Ihal of tbe lIIaill reinforce""'nt.
n", joints belw""n the "enienl wnll and lK>rizo",al base slab of retaining wall,
(sec Fig. 11.18b) are also subject.ed 100pellillg IllIlIIlent . Test. of such j<:>inl. ('I)lIr"m
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36S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: ST RUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r II
FIGUIU : 11.21
, ,
,
, ,~
Compara';I'< dIi,-ieoci", of , ,
---;t--r----
T ;0;'''' '" b....1to be"dinS
""
---~-T;---
, ,
m",ncnt: (a l 24 '0 40 percen' , , ,
<lep'ooin8 OIl .. inf<'fCemem ,
ratio; (I,) ~2 '0 110 perren, U U
<lep'nd in~
ra';o. {~ft"
00 reinforcemenl
Rff /l.J,I " , 'OJ
FIGURE n,2 2
'r joint be"",';,,, "'b.... d
'0 mome"t: {oj be,>ding
mom"n' ,nd n:,ultin8 ,he..-
fOl'<"'; (~) mOI-anO-lie
mood
'--'
M
,,' ,OJ
lhe benefit of pia,"i"g n diagon~1 bnr ,imilnr to Fig. 11 .20... Rel~ini"g wall bar detail,
will "" discussed funher in Chapter 17.
T joints als" may be slIbjeck"<.l IQ bendi"g "",,,,,,ms _,uch ~s if only one cell or
Ihe multiple-cell liquid '{{)r~ge tnn k of Fig. 11, 1&1 we re fill~d. Test~ of such joint"
reponed in Ref. 11.3. agai n indicnte the impon nnce of pml"'r detailing. The reinfon:-
ing hnr arrangement ,h<;>wn in Fig . 11.21". whidl i, "''''''Ii"",s seetl. I"'nnits n joint
efficiency of only 24 10 40 I"'rcent. but the 'imple rearr~ngement shown in Fig. I 1.21 I:>
imprQws Ihe efficiency to between 82 ~nd 110 pe rcent, In bOlh cases, efficiency
depends upon the main rei"forcement raliQ in Ihe entering mem""rs_ with highest effi -
ciency corresponding 10 the low~st tensile reinforcement mliQ.
A ,trut-nnd -lie m",leI for the T joint confi rm, the research re,uh~ presented
above. Figure I I .22a "ho w, th~1 n clock wise nKlment upplied 10 the stern Qf the T i,
resisled by shear force, at the i"nenilKl poims of the T-top. TI", ,trut -""d-lie nK><lel i"
Fig. 11,221> denrl y shows Ihat Ihe ,tem reinforcemem mllsl hook to lhe lefl for Ih"
joint 10 be effeclive, just as ,h,m'n in Fig . 11 .211:>.
Joi"t, subjeck"<.l to dosing moments. wilh main reinfOT,'ement p"ssi"g around
the COTner close to Ihe oUi,ide face. ,"ause few d~tailing probl ~ms he,'ause Ihe mai"
tension ,teel fmm lhe entering membel> call be c~rried around Ihe ouL,ide of Ihe cm-
nc r. Th~re i" h,mever. a risk of splini"g the co[l{"rele in II", plm", of Ihe hem!. or con -
crele crushing insi,k II", bend. n,e efficien,'y Qf ,u l"h jQitlL, can he impmved by
incre~sing Ihe bend radiu, of the bar.
_. 11.7 B RACKETS A N D C O RBelS
Brackets such as ,hown in Fig. II ,23<, ~re wide ly used in precast cOllstruclion for .up-
poning precasl heams at the col umns . When Ihey projeci from a ,,"nil. rnther Ihan from
a colunul. Ihey ille properly called ~"()rhcls_ although Ihe two tenns nre Qflen used i"ter-
changeably. Bmckels me desig ned main ly 10 pm"i,k for Ihe "enical reaction II. ~t II",
end of the ,upponed hearn. but unl"" special pr<-"CaUlions nrc I~ ken tQ avoid horizon -
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FIGU IU : 11.23
Steel
Tn,;cal reinforced mRCrctc
"raekel: (a) loa<h "nd
,,,0
Main steel A . Tension 1""5 -
rcinforccmcnl; (b) "m' .nd
tit II1O<IeI for internal (0 ....
Compresskln
Framing baf5 Siruts
,,' I, cI
'"
tal forc~s cau=l by r~strain~d .hrinbg~. cre~p (in the ca", of prestre,,,'<l beam,). or
tem""rature change. they must als.o resist a horizontal force N"".
$t",,1 bearing plates or angles are g~nerally u",d on the top surfa,'e of the brack-
ets. as shown. to provid~ a uniform Contact .urface and to di~tribute th~ reaction. A
corresponding steel bearing plate or angle is usmlly pmvided at the lower cOmer of
the supported member. If the Iwo plat~s are welded together. horizontal forLe~ clearly
mu st be allowed for in tbe lk'ign. E\'~n with Teflon or elastollleri(' bearing pad,. fric-
tional force, will de~elop due to "olumdric change.
n", suu('tur~1 ""rformance of a bracket can be "i,ualiz~d easily by means of tI",
,trut -and-tie nKilll shown in Fi g. 11 .23h. The downward thru,t of tl", load V, is equil -
ibral~d by the venical cmnpm",nt of the reaction fmm the diagonal compression strut
thaI cillTies the l(}ad down into the column. The outward thru,t nt the 101' of the strut
is balanc~d hy the t~nsion in the hori1.Ontal tie bar> aCmss the top of the bracket; the",
also take th,: ten,ion, if any. imparted by tl", hori1.Ontal rorce Not. At the left ~nd of the
horizontal ti~, th~ tension i, equilibrated by the hori1.Ontal component of thrust fmm
the "",'ond co"'press;';", strut ,hown. The "enical component or this thru.t r<'quires tI",
tensi le forn, shown acting downward at the Idt ,ide or the supprlfling column .
n", steel r<'quired, according to the ,trut-and -tie model. i, ,hown in Fig. 11.23.1.
lne main bars A, muS! be ('awfully anchored becau", they ,,,,,-xl to d~velop ti",ir full
yield stw"gthf,. directly under the load V" and for this rca"", they are usually welded
to tl", underside of 1he bearing angle ""d a 90" h"ok is pmvidt.,,1 for anchorag~ at II",
left ,ide. C)"",d hoop bars with area A . confine the concrete in the two compression
,trut, and resi st a t~ndency (or splitting in a directio1l par~lId to th~ thrust. The fram-
ing bars shown are u.ually of abOU11 he same dian"'t~r a, the stirrup" and "'r....e rnainly
to impmve the stirrup anchorage a1 II", out~r face of the bracket.
n", brackd may al,o be co"sidered as a very sbon cantil~ven.'<l ream, with flex -
ural 1en,ion at the column f""",, re,isk'<l by the top bars A,. Eill",r "'mcept will result
in about the 5:1,"" area of main reinforcement.
A ",<-xlnd I'o"ible mode of failure is by direct ,hear along a plane more or Ie"
flush with the yenical f",-'~ of the rnain part of the column. Shear-friction reinforce-
ment cros,ins ,u eh a (T.lCk (sec &'Ction 4.9) would include the area A, pr""iously
placed ill the top tk nnd the =a A. from the hoop" bel(}w it. Other fnilure '!Kills
i nclud~ flexural tens;';", fai lure. with yidding of tI", top bars follm,"ed by crushing of
the concrde at the hottom of the bra"ket: crushing of the concrde miller the bearing
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angl~ (particularly if end rOlatio" of the supported heam cause, tl", foree V. to he
applied too dose to the out er comer of the hmcket); and directten,ion failure. if tl",
twrizontal fOll:e N", is larger than ,mticipak'<.L
l1Je pmvisions of ACI Code 11.9 for the de'ign of bmc-kets and com.,l~ haw
Ix",n developed mainly ba.<;cd on test~ (Refs. I 1.9. I 1.1 I . and 11 .1 2) and relate to II",
tlex uml model of bracket hdmvioL They apply to brac-ket' and corhels with a ,I",ar
'pan mtio e d of 1.0 or less (see Fig. II .23t1). 11", di,tance d i, r""asu,,-'<.l at the col -
umn face. and the depth at the outside edge of the hearing area mu,t nm be less than
O.5d. Th~ usual "esign basi, i, employed. i.e .. M,:S M . and V, :S V and for
hmckds and com.,ls (for which shear dominates the de~ign). i, to be taken equal to
0.75 for alt strength cakulatimlS. including flexure and diroct tension a, wdl as ,hear.
l1Je ""'tion at th~ face of the supporting column must simu itaneou,l), resi,t the
,hear V, . the moment M. = V,e + N",(h - dl. and the horizontal tension N" ,. Unle"
'peeial precaution, are taken. a horizontal tension not less than 20 percent of the ver-
tical re:u:tion must he assumed to "".. This tensile foree i, to be r~garded a.~ li\'e load.
and a load factor of 1.6 , hou td be applied.
An anu>ont of st",,1 AJ to re,i,t the lIIo",ent M. ca" he found by the usual meth -
od, for flexural de'ign. Thus.
(l1.6)
where a = AJi" 0.8V;h. An additional area of Sled A, must he p"wided to resi,t the
tensile component ,;,[ fOKe :
(11.7)
The total area "-'<Juired fln"jlexllre (lI1d direct Ten.,i"" at the top of the brac-ket is thus
( I U\)
De'ign for ,hear i" ba,,-"<I on the ,hear-frininn metl",d of Section 4.9. and the
tOlal shear-friction r~infor"ernent A'I i, f,,~nd by
V
A - -'- (11.9)
'f I.
where lhe frielion factor for monol ilhie eonSlruelion is lAO for normal -weighl con
crelC. 1.19 for sand- lighlweig~1 eonercle. and 1.0~ for all -lighlweighl concrelC. The
value of V .. V. mUSl nOI exceed Ihe smalkr ofO.2/;/,. d or 800b .. d al lhe sup
port face for normal -weighl concrete or the smaller of (0.2 - O.07t d )f; bd or (800 -
28Ot' d )/Jd for lighn..-cighl concrele. Then. according 10 ACI Code 11.9. Ihe 101al area
rcqu ired/or slwi/f pillS dire, '1 In/siol/ al Ihe lOp of Ihe brac~et is
(11.10)
with the remaining pan of A'f placed in form of do",d hoop' h"ing area A. in tl",
lower part of the brac-ket. as shown in Fig. 11.23".
Thus. tl", total steel area A" required at tl", topofthe brackd is equal to the larger
of the valu~, given by Eq. ( 11.8) or (11. I0). An additi<;",al re'triction. that A,I must not
he less than O'(J4(f: f,.)bd. i, intended to avoid the possibility of sudden failure upon
fOfTlUltiotl of a flauml tensile cT.I"k at the KIp of the br.lcket.
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According 10 lhe AC I Code. ck.S'-..J hoop stirrup" ha"ing area A, (""" Fi g,

11 .23a) nm Ie" limn Q.5(A,. - A. ) must he pmvidt...J and be uniformly disnibU!ed
within two-thirds of the effecti,'C deplh adjace m to and paralld 10 A" This req uirement
is rlKlre clearly .tated a. follows:
I
,"
> - A (l 1.1 I)
EXM. lI' LE 11 .5 iHsigp of ~"1ll un," brHcket. A ~ol"mH brackct having lh" ge""",1 f",!Ures sllown in Fig,
1 U4 i, to he desi~""d to carry the end reaclio n from a long"pan fl"'<"'1 girder. Vertical
reactions from .ervice dead and live l<XKIs are 2~ kip' and ~ I kif'S. resro:<1iwly. applied 31
~ - 5.5 in. from lhe oolonu\ face. A steel bearing plale will be IlI"Ovi(\ed for lbe girder, w~ich
will rest dircclly on a 5 X .l X i in, sleel a"gle "rI"'hore<l all11e outcr comer of lh" brackel,
Broclel reinforcemcnI ,,ill include main s~1 A, welded 10 the uode,."i"" of lhe 'leel angle,
closed Iloop Slim,ps h"'ing total area A. dislribU!ed approprialdy through lho: bracket deplh.
and f.. m'ng bar< in a "ertical plane ,,,,.r
lhe ouler face . Select 3llJlf"Ol"iale CO'lCrel" dimen
'ions. and design and detail all reinfor,enlCnl. Motenal sl""'glhs are/; = ~ psi and!, =
60.000 psi.
St".tm()~. The ,'.rtk.1 factored lood 10 be carried is

Y. - 1.2 X 2S + 1.6 X 5 1 - 112kips
In (he ~oce of a roller or 10" friNion sUllJlO!1 pad, a hori1.OIlt:Ulen,ile f""e of
N", - 0.10 x 112 - 22.4 kips
wi ll be il",luded. Acconl i n~ (0 ,~ ,be ... frielion pro,;,ionl of (be ACt Cod<:. (be nom;nal
shear s1ren~d,
V, muSt not ",,,,eed O.2[.hd or SOOhJ. \>" ;th/: ~ 5000 psi. lhe second I;mil
comru!>. Then, Wilh Y. - Y. and w;lh [he column W;dlh h - 12 in__
III - 0.75 x: 0.800 X IU
from which" = 15.56 in. E'timal ing 1 in. from the cenl".,- of IDe main ,1"..1 10 (he lop sur-
face oflbe !>rackel, a lotal deplh h - 17 in. wil l be ",Iccled, with J approximately equal (0
16 in .. the ex."'l "ahlc <k;]lCndin ~ on ,he bar ,liamci<;r chosen for A,. If., 45' slope is "",d,
M indicated in Fig. 11 .14. lhe bracket <k;p1 h al the oUlside of 1M bearing area will be 8 in.
Th;, is not less than 0.5" - 8.0 'n..
as requ;red. For lhe brockel geomch)' ",Ieeled. ~ d -
5.5 16 - 0,34. This does not ~xceed lhe 1.0 1i mil i"'f'05<'d by lhe AC I Code.
FIGURE 11.24
Column br-'''''ko[ design
",. n'ple,
5" X 3" x r steel angle
2' dea r
Fram ing ba rs
l _ _~_"~_ Column 12"' X 14"
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The total shear friction sted is foooo from Eq, ( 11.9):
' 'J ----

'. ""c"""',-OO"
/, O.i5 x IAx60
1.78 in'
M, = V,e + IV"" h - ,/
- 112 X 5.5 + 22 ,.f X I - 638 kips
The Mplh of the flexural compressiorl stress block will be estim:ued to be 1 in .. so. from Eq.
(11.6).
" - ,ci' -
" ".~-,
I. d ,,2
c;<co<~",,"Cc::-;o
n
0.75 X 60 16 1.0
- 0,95 in''
Chcck inJ!. the StI'CSs block depth ~,cs
Art, 0.95 X 60
e - --- - 1.12 in
O ,g~fb 0,85 X ~ X 12
so tht> re"ised stul area is
6-'8
,If = = 0.92 in"
0.7S X 60 16 - 0.56
Tile lensik for<:c of n..t kips fC(juires an additional Stcel lrea. from FA!. (1 1.7), of
, --N.f . 12.4
0.75 X 60
= O.~O in '
Thus. from Eq,. (II ,8) and (II , 10). respe<:tively. the total steel ,rca al the top of the br:lcket
muM nOl be Icss tha"
A, '" Af + A. = 0.92 + 0,50 = 1.42 in'
nor less Iha n

2 2
A i: - A . +A _ - X 1.78 + 0.5O - 1.69i,,'
'3 " " :\
The second "-'luirement control; here. T ".. minimum steel requirement of
A, _ _ OJ ~. hd - OJ X ~I X 12 X 16 - 0.64 in'
is sec"~ "". 10 CO<llrol , " lOIal uf Ihree Nt>, 7 (No. 22) b.,,,,, pro,iding A, - I ,80 in' . will be
"""
Clo>cd hoop Sicel having a to\.11 area A. "01 less Ihan O,5(A, - A,J '"'lSI be rro"i<lo;d,
Thus.
A. i: 0.5..11 - O.~ X 0,92 - 0.46 in'
'M
A. " 0,5 X -32 'I of ~ -3, X 1.78 K O.60i"'
The sc'Cond req"irenlC"t ''()I\lmls , Th ree No, 3 (No. 10) closed hox>ps will be rro"ided. gi" ing
i
total "re, A. = 0 .66 in'. 111eS<' must 1:0.' placed within of the effecti\'e dept h of the main st,-"I,
"Sj~'1Cing of 2.5 in, will be ;a1;\f,'IClo,y as i!l(!;c~I(:d in Fig. I I ,24. " pai' of No. 3 (No, 10)
framing bar!. will be added at the inside COITlCf of the hox>ps to imp.-"''> ancl>orage. as shown,
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AlIChora~of lhe No.7 (No, 22) bars "'ill Ix- provided al lhe righl "rld by welding 10 lhe
unOCrside of III.., SiC'<:1 angle and al the Icf' end by a Mandard ?O" bend (;cc fi g. 5.10), The
basic dcwlopmenl lenglh for hoo~ed bars (Table ~.3) is
/", - om 'J;
/,
d.- 0.02 x I X I X 60.000
087.~ - 14.8 in
T"" modilicali,,~ facwl'S Jpply her~, The lim is 0.7. prm'ided m l~aSI 2 i~ . CO'.r is m"in-
tained ,I lhe ",Id rtf lhe hook, ,00 lhe ,.,rond i, (req uired A,)' (provided A, I - 1.69 1.80 -
0.94. 11m. III< req uired Oe\elop".,nI knglh paSl11l< face of III< column i,
I... ~ IU X 0,7 X 0,94 ~ 9.74 in.
'Ibi, requirement is easily m,,{' n .. hook ""I"n,i"" will be 12<1, ~ 12 x O.M75 ~ 10,5 in,
For 1M hoop bars.' 'I,.<lard 1'35" hook.", , 1Io",n in Fig. 5.%. will be usN
REFERENCES
11.1 '"R,"nf",,",,.! Coo"-"'o De,ii n 1.."I ..1e, '\Pf"''''' ,~' IJc1," 1 ,: !;RSI I"ii ...'-'fin~ I""" ,,,,,, C,,,,."';1t,,,.
r;,I<Ia I",.. \., . 1(1 .... , I I%K. I'f'. 21_22
11.2 AU /).",uli"K M""""r. ilCl Spo.''';,1 I,"blie.".", SIY<I. A,,"' ...... I;<"'''''''e In"" ,,,'. F"""inl:"" ltiIL<.
MI. lw.!.
ILl I. It . E. Nil,,,,,, .00 A. IA>;l>..~~. "'kdnf(ofCc'<i 1;<...."", eo"...",
""d I," ..., S "~jo.u"'l '" IIc'tldinl:
M",,,, .. ." l .I1r""'. Ih,'.. A!iU, \ ', ~. H)!. 00. S1'';. I ~1~. I'f'. 1, 2'l-- I:!54
! 1,4 D. l'. Moioh<iL "",I J. O. J1,,.. ... ~,", ~''''n;' " "f kdnf(If{'w C"""",,,' Ik.>rn.(',. " ",,, CO<l ."~ ' """." 1.
"".". J);,'.. A'!;E. ""I. 11)1. ))" . ST II . 1'I$I.l'I'. 2227_1244
1 U J . (;. I, M""""" .00 J. O. J,,, . -A S'ody ,~ . H' ....,,1 II.,. A""ho.",; ." in 11< '''n.(,~","" J,>in " ." 1. Ac/.
"" . 1!..., . ~. 1'J1~.!'I' . I ~~'!("'.
11.6 ,\("j A'Ch C,""",;"", .152. kcc..""",,,,",," ..,, f(~ Ib;~" o( II<"""C,~","" """n" ; 0 M,... liLhic Rc'in-
f( ~c"d C"""",. S'"",,"rc... (AU J51R ) A"~'ric... ('0"""-" I",,;'",e. 1'''''''inll''''' Hill>. MI. 19'11. 18 I'f'.
1!.7 N. ';. A",~.,.,.,.. "",I J A. R.m;,,,,. "IM," j in ~ ,i ~1i,rur Reinf",,"""""':' ACl S,,,,,,,
1. ,,~ . M. "". ,.
IY>I'J. I'f'. .'<)1_' "
! J.~ k . 1':IIt: ,00 T I',uley. R';"ji",:e,J C""",..,, .<;,,,,,,,"",,. "''''',
\\';~' y. />:,'W y"d:. !Y1~ .
11 .9. I. B. K,j/. ",1 C. 11. Rath "'(:''''"","'00'1> in l'h'''"'' l'",,,,,,o S L ""''''f''~''''n~rn o( Com"I,.- 1.
/',...,,,.,,,,,.,[ 0 ..... , I ." " oj . 10. "" . I I%'~. I'f'. 1f0..41
II 10. A. It . M,,,.,,,, "",I J F Sho..'t\. '" I (~ "" Beo"""n Roinfoo.",,! C'""""'" ~k",hon ol ,jmjlar l)Croll." Ac/
5,,,,,,,. 1.. ,,~ . !!,'" oi Re i nf(~cC<l C(JfIO."rc,..- C.,..OoI,: 1.
/'"", ....,.,.,[ 0_' I"." .. ",I. 2l. "" . 2. 1 ~76. I'f'. 52_71
II 12. A. H M,,"'''' . " ()"''' ~ n I'mpoW' r. .. R' i "f(~c"'t Con<""" ()""")< . l 1'f'f." N,'.>,J ('""", I,b'. y," . li.
n".3. 1916 . 1'1'. 1 ~ _ 2 ' .
PROBLEMS
11.1. An im~rior Type I joim. which is 10 be (;onsiden."<I a part " I' Ihe primary laI~ral
lo"d- resi<ling sySlem , i, I" ),., d"'igned . TI .. I b in. square colum n, wilh mai n
SI~el (On,isling of four No. I I (No. 36) bar,.
is in!ersecI~d by IW" 12 X 18 in,
),.,ams in the X direnion. reinfor(ed with lhree No. 10 ( No. 32) lop bars and
Ihre~ N(}. R ( No, 25) bonom bars. In lire Y direclion. t),.,re ar~ two 12 X 22 in.
girders . reinforccd with Ihre~ No. I I (No ..16) I"p h= and Ihn."e No. 9 (No.
29) bOllom ban;. C"ncrele cove r is 2 ..~ in . 10 II", <'cmer of Ihe ~X<"epl I'm bar,.
II", top <I~eJ in Ihe girders , which i, c arncd jusl under t),., top Sled of I),.,
),.,ams. [)"sign and ddail II", joint usingj; = 4(XX)]lSi a",,/, = 60,000 f\'i.
Spe<'ify placc"",m of all bars and ( utofT poim,. .
11. 2. A typical eXlerior join! of Ihe building of Problem 11.1 is identicalm II", ime-
rior j()im excepl Ihal the 12 X 18 in . ),.,am ()ccurs ()n ""e side of 1),., (olunm
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
374 IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r II
only: !h~ gird~rs fran", into two opl'osile fa~..,s, a, before. All reinforcen-..,nt i,
the same as for Ihe joint of Pmblem II. J. o.,sign and detail the joint, specify-
ing bar placen-..,nt, ('utolT point,. and ,ktails ,uch a, har hook dimensions.
11.3. l1Je precast columns of a pmpo,,-..-:! parking gamge will in{'<>rl'orate sy",n-..,tri -
cal bracket, [() carry the end reactions of shon girders Ihat, in turn. carry long-
'pan precasl. prestressed double T floor unit,. The girder reaclion, will be
applied 6 in. from lhe column face, as ,hown in Fig. PIl.3. and a lotal width
of brackel of 9 in. must be provided for pmper bearing. Column widtb in the
perpendicular direction is 20 in. Service load reactions appli~d at the lOp face
of the br~ckels are 45 kip, <kad load and 36 kips live load. Select all unspeci -
fied conerde dimension, and design and ddail the reinforcen-..,nt. A {'orner
angle is sugge,ted a1 the oUie r lOp <'<.lge of the br.>eket. Col umn malerial
'trength' are f,' = 6000 psi and/,. = 60.000 psi.
FIGUIU: 1'11 .3
1l.4. The slem of a 60 ft l"ng. R ft wide .' imply , upponed 'ingle T beam rests on the
ledge of 11", invert~d T beam !;hown in Fig. 1'11.4. The T beam has a bearing
area 6 in. thick and 4 in. parallel to the axis of the T The appli~..-:! service load
is 85 psf dead load. inclUding self-weight, and 50 psf live load. o."ign the cnn -
ne(,tion detail und~r Ihe stem using/; = .~OOO psi and{,. = 60,000 psi.
FIGUI{E 1'11.4
1'0'"
~--~j
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
' 1-'-'1..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE
BEAMS AND FRAMES
, __ 12.1 C O NTINUI TY
Th~ individual "~mbers that compose a steel or timber structure are fabricated or <'ut
sepamtc1)' and joi,,~d IOgdher by riv~ts . bolts. weld.<. or nail s. Unless the joints arc
' I""'ially d,,'igned for rigidity. they are 100 flexible to Ir.lIlsfer momellis of signilic ant
magni lude frum one member 10 anOther. In ,;ontr~SI. in reinfo".-.....J <~",crete struclures.
as much of Ihe toncrete as is pr~clical is placed in one single op"ralion , Reinforei ng
Sleel is nOllerminalcd at the end~ of a member but is ext~nded Ihrou gh the joints into
adjacem membe rs. At <"<",slruction joints. spt'{'ial can, is taken 10 bond Ihe new con -
crete 10 Ih~ old hy cardu lly cleaning the IaUe r. by exlending lhe reinforeellleni through
Ihe joint. a nd hy other mea ns. As a result . reinforced concrele Struclure, u., ually rep-
resent monol ilhic. orcontinuoos. UlliiS. A l()ad applied at one location causes defor-
"",tion and stress at all <>ll~r locations. Even in preeasl tonnde con slruclio". which
reselllbl~s Sled cOtlStruGiion in that individual ""'Illbers arc hruu ghllO lhe joh ,ile and
joined in Ihe lidd. conn,..,tion, arc oflen designed 10 pruvide for the Imnsfer o f
moment as well as shear and axial load. pnKlucing at least panial <'ontinuily.
The effeci of continuily is lIlosl simply ill",mated hy a comi nuous beam. such a,
, hown in Fig. 12.lu. Wi th ,impl~ span s. soch as provided in many lypeS of steel eun -
Slrunioll. orlly Ihe loaded membe r CD would ddorm. and all olher members of lhe
Slru,"lure would remain straight But wilh continuily from one " ",,,,ber to II", neXi
Ihrough Ihe suppon rcgi,ms. as ill a rei nfon:ed concrete ' Irunure. Ihe diwntion c1lused
hy a load on one single .']>.1n is s<-",n to 'pread 10 all OII",r 'pan,. although tl", magni -
IUd" of ddormali<l" decrease, wit h in,"r~a~ing di stance from IIle l<lad<'<l m~mbe r. All
m"mbe" of the six -span struclure are suhjeCI to curvature. and thus al So 10 bellding
moment. as a resu lt of loading ' pao CD.
Similarly. for the rigid-joint~d fran", of Fig. 12.11>, Ihe distortion caused hy a
I<",d o n lhe ,ingle membe r GH spreads 1<> all beam.' and atl columns. alt hoogh. a,
bc fore. the effect decreases wilh increasing di~lanc~ from tl", I<",d. All llI"mhe" arc
, uhjeci to bending n"}lnell1. ewn Ihou gh Ihey may carry no tr.msv~rse lo.ad.
If horizontal forc~s. suth as forc~s caused by wind or sei , mi," action. <1<:1 on a
fr:'m~. it defomlS a, i tlustrak..J hy Fig. 12.lc, Here . i<K>. all meonbers of IIle frnm~ dis-
IOn. evcn lhough the forces act oo ly on the lefl side: IIle amount of diSlortion is seen
10 be ltoe same for all corresponding o",onbers. r~gardless of Ihei r dislan"" from the
poims of load ing. in cOtli raSI to the ease of "enical loadinG . A me mber sud, a~ EH.
e ven wilhout a directly applied Ir:on"'e",,, load. will experience defo.-rnalions a nd
as,ociat~d l>ending moment .
III .(mil"ally d~termi"ale Mrm"lIIre.\', su,"h as simple-span beams. the defk..,led
' hape mid Ih~ llIon",nt , and ,hears depend only on Ihe Iype and magnitode "flhe loadS
J75
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
376 ' W..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 12
FIGU IU: 12. ' w

"'ape of
DdlITtcd
;;;; $" '." ";;;;- ;;;; ;;;;
coot;"lIOO' "",m, and
!rime.
,
&;
8 C 0 F
~
G
(.)
- ,I ,
G w H ,
, ,
,
,0
~ ' F
T- ? T- :; "~
(0)
,
j - j 1
G / H / , /
/
/ - /
~,
/
/ / /
/0 / /F
1
/ / /
/8
T- ? T- '7 N ~
(,(
and the dimen,ions of the memhoer. In contra51, ins!",ctintl of th" ,'Imica/I." ind<!lemli-
!!ate ,< /rJU"lllws ill Fig. 12.1 shows tha1the defledion curve of any melllhoer depend,
n<;ll only on the loads bUl also ntl the joint rota1ions, who"" rruJgnitude, in tum de!",nd
on th" distortion o f adjacent. rigidly mnnen",] nlem~. For a rigid joint soch a5 join!
H in the fml1le ,hown in Fig. 12.11> or c. allthc mt3tion, at the near "nds <;If nil mem-
hoers fmming into that joint musl he lhoe same. For a <-Orr""t design of ~~'n!inuou,
hoeams and fmmes, it is nidelltl)' nece,-",,), 10 det~nnine nl()[lI~nl'. sheurs. and thrus!>
"onsidering thoe effect of continuity at lhe joints.
n,e det~nnination of these internal force, in continuou,ly r<!inforced CQncret"
,trunures i, u,ually tms.,d <;In t!/',-,Tic ana/pi" of the strue-lUre 31 factored load, with
methods that will be described in &>etions 12,2 lhnlUgh 12,'i. Such analy,is require,
kn<;lwk-dge of the ('TOss-sectional di"lensions of tl", memhoers.l>lemhoer dimensions,.,-.,
inili~lIy .,slirruJled during prelirninar)' design, which is &",rihed ill S<>etion 12.6 along
Wilh guidelines for eSlablishing member proponion,. For checking the resu lis of more
exact analysis. lhe approximate ""'th"<h of Section 12.7 are useful. For many struc-
tures, 3 full ela>1ic analy,is is not justified, ~nd the ACI cocfticient method of analy,i,
des..-rihed ill &>eli<;ln 12.8 provid.," an adcqume basi, ft)[ design moment, and >hears.
Before failure, reinfor<-cd cOllcre1e seni()ll~ are u,ually "apabl~ of con,ider~ble
inelastic rotation 31 nearly constant m",nel11. as w~s described ill Section 6,9. Thi, !"" -
I r....
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
' 1-'-'1.....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSI S OF INDEn:R MINATE 8EAMS A N !) FRA MES 377
mit~ a ",di.\'lri!>utiOl' "f ehmic IIUII"CI1i." and provides lhe basi, for I'hwic "''''/.1'.,;" of
heams. frames, and ,labs. Plastic analysis wi II be developed in Section 12,9 for hearn,
and fr~rn'" and in Chap(ers 14 and IS for slabs.
. 12.2 LOAD tN G
lne individual members of a structural frnme must be design~..-:I for the worst cmnbi -
nation of loads that can reasonably be expeded ( 0 occur during it, useful life. Internal
momems, ,I",ars, and thrus(s are brought about hy (he ~'ombin,-..J dfect of dead and
li,'e loads, plus other loads , such as wind and canhq uake, a, diseussed in S~"Ction 1.7.
While dead loads are con,tant , live load, su(' h as floor loods from human ottupancy
GlTl be pl,,,:ed in vario", ways , some of which will result in larger efftl'lS than others,
In add ition. (he various comhina(ions o f factm~"{II""ds specified in Tahle 1.2 must be
used to detennine the load ('ases that govern membe r design. The subje('( of load
placement will be a<klressed first
a. Placement of Loads
In Fig. 12.la onl)' s pan CD is 1","k..J hy li,'e load. 11", di,tonions ,;,f the variQus fr.m",
members are seen tQ be largest in, ~nd im",,-..Jiately adjacent to. tl", loadL..J span and
to dtl'ra"" rapidly wi(h increas ing distan('e from the load. Si nc" bending moments are
proportional to curvatures , the moment~ in more remme memhers are correspond -
ingly smalle r than those in, m close to, tl", loaded <pan. However, the loading showo
FIG U RE 12.2
Alterna(e Ii". load ins, f(>f I I I I I I
maximum d h",,,.
, B' il e' 10 E' p
I I I I
, 'B
IC '0 . 'E I I I I
, "
I
B"
-
(I ",
, ,
0' ' E"
P"
I I I I
1 111
"J {bl
L J- I I I I
c,l , 0' I I I I
, 18,:..
- 'E'
c;C
-10
, 'B JIE I I I I I
'B" (Ic 0" , E" I I I
1 ,
"
1 111
IFI (OJ
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
37S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 12
in Fig. 11.2" doe, not produce Ihe maximum possible positive mon",nt in CD. In faCi.
if additionnlli", lood were plnced on 'pan AB. thi s 'pan would bend down, HC would
bend up. and CD itself would hend down in the <;ame manner. although to a les",r
degree. a, it is bent by it s own lond. Hence. the po,itive mon",nt in CD i, increa",d if
AB and. by II", san", ra",,"i"g. EF are looded ,imultnneously. By expanding II", ,;m",
rea"Hling to the other lIIemhers of the fmme. one cnn ea'il)" see that the checkerboard
pattem of live load shown in Fig . I 2.2b produces the larg"st possible positi", mo""'nt'.
not only in CD. but in all loaded 'pan,. Hence. two such ('heckerboard (XIltems ar~
required to obtain the maximum positi,-e ITlOn",nts in nil spans,
In add itio" to maximum 'pan moment,. it is often ne('essary to im'estigate min-
imum .pan moment,. Dead load. acting ns it dt"'S on all span,. u,oally produce, only
I""itive span moment" However, live load. pla(-ed as in Fi g. 12.2i., and even nlO'" so
in Fig. 12.2b. is seen to bend the unlonded sl"'n5 upward. i.e .. to produce negatiw
momentS in the 'pan. If the", negative li,-e load mo"",nt, are lruger than the genemlly
po,iti,'c dead load monlCnts. a gi"'n ginkr. depending Oil load position. may be .ub-
ject at one time to I",.itive '(XIn lIIoments and at another to negative 'pan moment,. It
mu,t bc de.igned to with,tand both Iypes of 1II0ments; i.e .. it muSt he fumished with
ten,ile ,t!lel at both top and holtom. Thu,. the looding of Fig. 12.2b, in addition to giv-
ing maximum 'pan moment, in the londed sl"'n,. gi,'e, lIIinimulII s(XIn moments in II",
unloaded span,.
Maximum negative moments at the ,up[XlI1' of the girders are ohtai!lcd. On the
other hand. if loads are plat'-"<l on the two 'pan, adjacent to the particular ,uppon and
in a corres[X>nding (XIttern on the more remote girders. A "'I"'rate loading scheme of
this type i, then "-"<Juired for eaeh sup[X,rt for which maximum negative nH'ment~ are
to he (-omputed.
In each column. the largest momelll, occllr at the top or !:x,llom. Whi Ie the load -
ing ,hown in Fig. 12.2, resllll, in large momem, at the ends of columns CC and DIY .
the reader can easily be convinced that the", monlent, are funller augnlented if addi -
tionalloads are plat-ed a, shown in Fig. 12.20.
It is >een fTOIII thi , brief di,,-'us,ion that. to cnlculate the maximum possible
moments at all critical point. of a fr~nle. hc load mu,t be placed in a g reat variety of
difTerem sc-he mes. In mQst pmtti(-al case,. however. ~~>n,ider~l ion of the relatiw mag-
nitude of dfocts will pennit limitatiQn of analysi, to a smali numher of signifi tant
cases.
b. Load Combinations
TIle ACt Code require~ that .trunures be designed for a number of load comhinatiotls.
as di,eus!ied in Seclion 1.7. Thu,. for example . factored load combinntion, might
include (I) dead plu, li,~ load. (2) dead plu, fluid plu, temperature plus li\'e plu, soil
plu s snow load. nnd (3) three possible combinations that include dend, live. and wind
load. with ""'Ie of the combinations including snow. rain. soil. and nH,f li,'e load,
Whi Ie each of tile comoimlion, may be (onsidered as an individual loading condition.
experien"" ha, ,hown thnt tIle 1II0st effi(ient technique involve. sepamte analyse, for
each of the ba,ic l"ads without lood faclor,. that i,. a full analysis for unfactored dead
load only. sel"'rate analyses for the ,'ariou, live load distribution, desc-ribed in Section
12.2i. and "'pamte analyses for each of the other load. (wind. ,now. el c,). Once the
sepamte analy"', nre l-ompleted. it i. a simple mntter 10 combi"e the results using II",
app"'priate load factor for each Iype of load, Thi. procedure is most advnntageou,
oc-cause. for example. live load may "-"<Iuire a load factor of 1.6 for one combination.
I r....
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS O F INDEn:RMI NATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRIBI ES 379
a ,'alue of 1.0 for anoth~r, and a ,'alue of 0,5 for yet another. Once th" fo"",s have bee"
cakuiatoo for ea(' h comhinatioll. tI", ('ombirmtion of loads that govern, for each mern
hocr can usually be identifi~d by inspection.
. 12.3 S IMPLIFICATION S tN FRAME ANA LY SIS
Consi<kring the complexity of many prdctical huilding frames and the n(..,d to account
for the possihility of aitemati,'e loadings, there is ~videlllJy a need to simplify. This
can hoc done by means of certain approximation, that allow the determination of
11IOmellls with r~a"",able a~'Curdcy while substantially reducing Ihe amount of cOm
put at ion .
Numerous trial computations have shown thaI, for huilding frame, with a rea
""nably regular Qutline, not inHljving unusual a,ymmelr)' of loading OJ .hape, tI",
influence of ,ide.way cau,,-od by ' -enicalload, can hoc neglecled. In that ('a",. moments
due !() vertical loods are determined with ,ufficient accumcy by dividing Ihe emi",
fmme into simple r subfrdn!C., Each of thes.: ,'onsists of one l'(Hllinuous liCam. plus tI",
top and bottom columns fmming into that panicuiar beam. Placing the he loads on
the beam in Ihe nll><t unfavordble manner pem,il' sufficiently ",-'curate determination
of all liCam nllmlent', as welt as tile """'lent, at the lOp end, of 'he bottom CCllumns
and the bottom end, ,;,[ the lOp columns. For thi, panial structure, the far ends of tI",
column, are ('onsideroo fixed, except for such firsf.!'j{)()r or basement ('olunms where
snil and foundatimll'(lIlditions dictate the assumption of hinged end . Su('h an approach
is explicitly permitted by ACi Code 8.9, which specifies the following for fl,")r and
nlllf ""'mbers:
I, The li,'e load may be con,idered 10 "" applied only to U>e floor or roof undereo",id.
erali",), aoo 'he far end, of column, built integrally \\-il h tile structure may be con,id
~red fi=l
> The arrangen>ent of Ii"., load may he limited 10 combination, of (a) faclored dead lood
on all sp""s wilh full faclored liv" load <)0) Iwo adjacent ,pans, and (b) fa.;lored dead
load 01) all <pan, with full faclored live load on allema,e spa'''.
When i'lYe,tigating the maximum n~gati"e nll)",ent at any joint, negligibl~ error
will resu lt if the joi nt' ><-'Cond removed in each direction are con,ideKod to be ,'om
pleleiy f,~ed. Similarly. in <kt~rmini"g maximum Or minimum 'pan !!11",,,,nt,, tI!C
joint. at the far ends of the adjacent spans may he consitkred fixed. Thus, individual
pon;';",. of a frnme ,;,[ many """nbe" may be investi gated separdteiy.
Figure 12.3 demonstrdles II", application of the ACI Code r"'luirements for liw
load on a three'pan subfran!C. 11!C loading in Fig. 12,3/, result, in maximum I"l'litive
moments in tl", exterior spa ns, the minimum I"><itive nll",!Cnt in the c~nt"r span. and
the maximum negative ",oments at the interior faces of the exterior column,. The
loading ,hown in Fig. 12.31, results in tl'" maximum po,itive momem in tl'" ('enter
span and minimum po,itive 11IOmems in tl!C exterior spans . The loading in Fig. 12.1c
resu It, in maximum negative moment m both face. of the interior colum"~. Since the
structure is symmetrical, values of mo=nt mid shear obtained for the loading slll)W"
in Fig. 12.3(' apply to the right s;d~ of the ,tructure", well as the left Due to tl", sim
plicity of this strucI"re , jQint~ away fmm the 'pans of inter~st ar~ n<;lt treated as fixed,
Moments arKI shears used for design are determined by cQmbining tl'" moment
and ,1!Car diagrams for ti", individual load ,'ase, 10 <:>btain tl", maximum value, along
~""h span I~ngth, The resuiting ~nvdope moment m)d .I",ar diagrdms are shown in
Fig,. 12,3<1 and e, re'peclively. The moment and shear envelopes (note th~ rdnge of
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1 -'-'1 .....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
FIG UIU: 12.3

Subfrn"", loading a< required
b)' ,KI Code 8.9: Loading
Ii" (a) m.uimum po,ili>'<
"""",,"Is in lhe "Ienor
'pon,. ,he minimum P'>"iti>..,
moment in lhe "enler SPO".
"nJ th~ ",",imum ""goti,., I")
",,,mems al 111< imerior fa<e,
of ,he <,,<rior ",rumn>;
(h) """<in,",,, posil;".
mom<ut in the center 'P.n
,1><1 mini",um po,i,iv.
moments in tl>< extcrior
spans;.nd (d " ' axinw,,,
"'gati,'c mom<nl at both
[""OS of (he inleri", (0)
~olu"u": (J) en,do.,.
mom.,,' diag"m,
('I en>'dope ,hear J iagrom.
(DI . al><l LL "'I""sen'
f""IOttd dtat! "nd Ike loads.
""p<c';w ly.)
Ie)
Loading b
l'l
I')
I"ili"n, for poinls of i"fl~clioll and point' of zero ,hear) are US<,."<.l nOl Ollly 10 d~-;ig"
Ihe critical s<""etion, hut 10 delennine cUlOfT point' for fle~ural reinfor~..,mem a nd
CI."<juiren",ms fo r shear r"inforc'cn",m,
In regard 10 column,. ACl Code ~.~ indicates:
I. Column> .hall be de.ig'>ed to ""iSI ,he axial tOrres from factored I""",, Oil all !loors
or roof and ,he m"~imum '110"" "' from faclored loods on a ';n81~ alljocent 'pan of
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1 -'-'1 .....
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ANALYSIS O F INDEn:RMI NATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRIBIES 38 1
troe floor or roof under consioi<'ralion. The loading condilion gi"iog the maximum ralio
of moment 10 axial load sh:lll also be consid<>red.
2. In frame. or comi"uoos constroclion. consideralion shall be gi'"e" 10 the dfed of
unbaboced floor or roof loads on both exterior and interior columns and of eccentric
loading due 10 OIher canses,
3. In computing nlOm,nts in eolwnn , dno to gra.'ity loading. lhe for ends of colwnn.
ooill ill1egrally wilh lhe sl,"emre may be con,idered fhed.
4. The resistance 10 IllOnients al any floor 01" roof I"vel shall be IlfO\'idcd by dimi oo ling
troe monlem between columns immedialely 000\'0 and below the gi""n floor in pro-
JIOI1ion 10 lhe relative col umn 'liffne.. and rondilions of ""Ira illl,
Allhough il is n{){ addrt>.~d in Ih" AC I Code. axiallood, On column, are u,u -
ally ddcnnined ba~d on the column tribumry area . which are lkfin"d bmed 011 Ihe
midspan of flexural n"'l11~rs framing into each column. TIle axial load from Ihe Irib
utary area is used in Iksigll. wilh thencepliol1 offirsl interior colul1lll'. which are Iyp"-
ically desiglled for all extra 10 [1t'Tc'enl axial load 10 account for the higl",r sllear
expecled in Ihe fkxural mem~rs fmmillg illio Ihe exlerior face o f firsl int~rior
columns. TIle use of this procoour~ 10 ddermi,,,, aAialloods due to gravity is conser
valive (nOie lIlll tl", lOIal wnicalload eAee~ds tlk factored loods on th~ stru{'tu re) and
is ad~quately c10~ to tlk valu\ls that would be obtaincd from a more delailcd franle
analysis.
METH ODS FOR E LASTIC ANALYSIS
Many mel hods havc been <leveloped over lhe years for Ihc elastic analysis of continu-
ous beams and frames . Tl1e S<rcalled classical n"'lhods (Ref. 12. 1). such as applica-
lion of the Iheorem of Ihree 1l)()Il....,niS. Ihc n....,lhod of Icasl work (Cmnigliano \ second
Iheorem), and thc general method of consiSlent deformalion. will prove useful only in
Ihc analysis of continuous beams having few spans or of vcry simple frames. For lhe
more complicaled cases gcnerally cncountcrc><1 ill prac1ice. such mClhods prove
exceedingly tcdious. and ahernalive approaches are preferred.
For many years momem di stribUlion (Ref. 12.1) provided the basic analylical
1001 for the analysis of indetcrminatc concretc beams and frames . originally wilh lhe
aid of tllc slidc rule and Ialcr with handheld programmable calculmors. For reiali,'dy
small problcms. momeni dislri\xJlion may slill provide Ihe n1OS1 rapid rcsullS. arKi it is
oftell used in current praclice . However. wilh Ihe widespreru:J availabi lily of compul-
crs. manual melhods ha'"C been rcplaecd largely by matrix analysis. which provides
rapid sol ulions wilh a high degrec of accuracy (Rcfs. 12.2 and 12.J).
Approximalc l1Ielhods of analysis_ based eilher on careful skelehes of Ihe shape
of the defoTlnt.xI slruclUre under lood or On n)()I11Cm coeffieicms. slill providc a tncans
for rapid eSlimalion of imernal forces and momenlS (Ref. 12.4), Such cSlimales are
useful in preliminary design and in dlee~ing morc e~ael solulions for gross errors lhal
might resuh from input errors. In slruclures of minor i mponallCc. appro.~ il1l31ions may
cven pro"ide Ihe basis for final design.
In view of IOC number of excellcm lexts now available Ihat trem mClhods of analy-
sis (Refs. 12.1 10 12.4 10 name jusl a kw). Ihe preSoOIH discussion will be coofined to an
e"alumion of lhe usefu lness of sc"cral of lhe 11101"1: imponalll of lhese. wilh particular rcf-
erence to lhe a nalysis of reinforced concrele Slructures , Certain idealiZlltions a rK! approx-
immions Ihm facilil31C lhe solulion in praClical cases will be described in nlOI"C delail ,
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
'1 -'-'1 ..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
a. Moment Distribution
In 1932. Hardy Cross developed 1hc melhod of momem dislliblHion 10 sol "C problems
in frame analysis Ihat invoh'e many unknown joim displac~lnellis and ro1a!ions. For
the ncxtlhree decades. momelll dislriootion provided the standard lHCans in engineer
ing om ces for the analysis of inddenninate fram~s. Even now. il serves as the basic
analytical 1001 if eompuler faeililies ar.: not a~ailable.
In Ihe momcnt diSiribution I....,thod (Ref. 12.1). the fixed end moments for each
IHCmber arc modified in a series of cycles. each con~crging on the precise final result.
to account for rotation and translation of the joints. TIle resulting series can be Icnni
nated whcne''eT one reaches the deg,,-'" of accuracy r.::quircd. After member end
momoOllts are obtaincd. allmcmiJcr Slress resultants can be ohtained from the laws of
stm ics.
It has tx"Cn found hy comparative analyses thaI. exccpt in unusual cases. building
fmme moments found by modifying fixcdend nlOllIenlS by only two cycles of n1OmCIl1
dimibution wil l be sutlicicntly oc(Urate for design purposes (Ref. 12.5).
b. Matrix Analysis
Usc of matrix th~ory ma~es it possible to reduce the detaikd nunk:rical opcnnions
required in the analysis of an i ndetenninate siructure to systematic processes of matrix
manipulalion thai can be performed autom:Hically and rapidly by computer. Such
nIClhods l~nni t the mpid solution of problems involving large numbers of unknowns .
As a consequenc~. less rcl iance is pl:lced on special k-.:hniques limited to cenain types
of proNems. and powerful melhods of general applicability have cmerged. such as the
direci stifTness method (Refs. 12.2 and 12.3). By such means. an "cxacf' detcrmina
tion of int~mal forces throughoul an entire huilding fmnlC can be ohlai nc'd q uickly and
at smal l expense. Three-dimcnsional fmlne analysis is possible wherc rC"quired . A
large number of altenmlive loadings can 0.: considered. including dynam ic loods.
Some engineering firms prefer 10 wrilc and maill1ain their own progmms for
structural analysis panicularly suited 10 Iheir n.:cds . However. mOSI make usc of read
ily available programs IhJt can be u",'<1 for a broad range of problems. Inpul- includ
ing loads. material propcnies. siructumi geolnclry. and nlCmocr dimensions- is pro
vidc'd hy the user. onen in an ill1eractiH' nlOd~ . Output includes join! dispiacenl<!ll1s
and rot:Hions. plus Inom~liI. shear. and thrust at critical sections Ihroughout the Slruc
ture. A number of programs are J\'ailable. e.g .. PCAFRAME (Ponland CCIlIClil
Associ Jtion. Skokie. Illinoi s) and olhers from numerous private finn s. Most of these
programs perform analysis of two or thrc'C-dink:nsional framed structures subjeci to
static ordynamic 10:lds. shear walls. and otocr elcnlCliIs in a smal l fraclion of the til....,
fornk:rly required. providing results to a high degree of :ICCUracy. Gcnerally. ordinary
desktop compulers suHice.
"- 12.5 IDEAliZATION OF THE STRUCTURE
1\ is seldom possible for thc enginl'Cr to analyze an aclUal complex redundalil struc
ture. AlnlOSI without exception. cena in idealizations must be llIade in devising an ana
Iylical nlOdel. so that the analysis will be praclicaJly possible. Thus. thr~"CdimensiQnal
memo.:rs an: n::pn::sented by stmight hnes. generally coincidcliI wi th the actual c~n
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS O F INDEn:RMI NATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRIBIES 383
troidal axi,. Suppom are idealized as rollers, hinges. or rigid joint,. Lo ,uh actually
di,uihuted over a finile area are assumed to be point loads. In thr<-'e-dimen,ional
framed structure,. analysis is oft~n limi1<-oJ to plane frames, each of which is as~umed
to act indeJlCmkntly.
In the idealization of reinfOJc'ed contrete frame,. certain que,tion, "-"<Juire 'pe-
cial ~Xlmment . n", most important of these JlCrtain to dYedi"e span length,. df~ctiw
moments of inertia. and condition< of ,uppon.
a. Effective Span length

In eiaslie frame analysi,. a ~trudure is u,ualiy represent<--d by a ~imple line diagram,
based di,,"',lSionally on the centerline di<taoces boetween columns and boetween f]'K>r
boeams, Actually, the depths of boeams and the width, of columns (in the plm'" of tl",
fran",) amount to sizable fraction, of the respective length, of these memboers, their
clear lengths are lherefore con,i,krahly smaller than their centerline di<tan~",,'
boetween joints.
It is evident that the u,ual a"umption in fr~me anal}"i' that the memhers are
prismatic'. with Con<lant moment of inertia be,wecn centerlines, is not <tridly COIT<-"Ct,
A boeam inte,-,;ecling a column may be prismatic up to the column face. but from that
point to the colu",n centerline it has a greatly increased depth. with a moment of iner-
tia that could be con,idered intini1e compared wilh that of the remainder of Ihe span,
A similar variation in width and nK)fnent of inertia is obtained for the co lumns. Thus.
to boe ,trictly cOITed . the actual ,".!rialion in memher depth should boe conside,,-"<i in the
analysis . Qualitati\'ely, this w,;mld increase heam support moment, ""'''''''hm and
d<-"Crease span nK)!nenl,. In addition. it is awarent that the critical section for de'ign
for negalive hending would he at the fa""" of the suppo rt. and not at the centerline,
,ince for all pracrical pU'l""'" an unlimited dfl"Ctive depth is ohtained in the boeam
aemss the width of the ,uppon.
It will be obse,,;ed that, in rhe case of the ~xllumn'. the nK"''''''' gradient is n01
very sttlep. '" that tl", difference betw<-",n centerline moment and th" moment arrh" top
or bottom face of Ihe heam i, <mall and can in most case, be disregarded. However, tk
,jope of the moment diagrmn for rhe beam i, usually qui", steep in the region of tl",
,upport. and there will boe a <uhstmnial difference boetwecn the support centerlir",
moment and fnce mon",nt If rh" former were used in pmportioning tI", n",mboer. an
unnecessaril)' l"'8e section would result It is desirable, tboen. to redul'C support
moments found by el",tic analysis to account for the finite width of tm, 'UPJll'rt.~.
In Fig. 12.4, the chan ge in moment be,ween the supJllm l'emerli,,,, and the ,up-
port fact: will he equal to the area under the ,hear diagram hetw<-",n those two JlIlinl>.
For knife-edge ,upport" Ihis ,hear area is seen to he very nearly equal to VaL 2,
Actually. however, tl", reanion is distriboted in some unlmown w"y acro" the width
of lhe sUPJllln . Thi, will have the eff""t o f mo di fying lboe shear diagram "s slKlwn by
the da,hl-d Jine; it h"s bo,.",n p"'1"""d that tbe red""ed area boe taken as equal 10 VaL 3.
lne fact rhat tl", reaLiion i, distributed will modi fy tl", moment di"gr~m as well as the
,hear diagmm. causing a ,Iighr munding of the negalive mometlt peak. as ,hown in
the figure, and the reduction of VaL .3 is pmperly applied 10 rhe mOmetlt diagram "fler
the peak has bo,.",n rounded, This will give nearly the same face moment "s would be
oblained by deducting the amo unt \. ,L 2 from the peak mo ment.
Allot]",r effect is presetlt. however, the modification of rhe mon",nt diagr~m due
to the increased mon",01 of inertia of the beam at the column. This eff",t i, ,imilar to
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
11-'-'1.....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R ~:n: ST RUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 12
FIGUIU : 12,4 G: column

RroLJ<t;Ofl of ""gat;vo aoo
positk. mon",n{s in a frome,
I, '-I, """
I I,
St>aar cur...e
I,
- - - - - - - - - - - Ii baam
I - t - - ~ ------1
,
I,
I
,
Momeotcurve
based on prismatic ~
I,
member ~-, '"
'I '
I, I,
---t
,
- Itbaam
I,
that of a haun('h, and il will mean slightly increa><-'<l negative moment and !ilighlly
d<-'C",ased positiw m"'!Ient. For ordinary values ,;,f tl", ralio tl, Ihis shifl in lhe mon",nl
curve will be on the orde r of \I"L 6. lllU!i. it is cotl\'enient simp ly to deduct the amounl
\I"L 3 from the ullroumk'<l peak momem obtained from cla'tic analy,i,. This nllows
for (I) the actual rounding of tbe ~bear diagmm and Ihe negmi\-e moment I"'ak due to
the dislribut<ed "'''''tion nnd (2) th" down ward ,hift of th" morneut cury" du" to the
haunch effect allhe .upports, 'Jbo;, <:onsistent r<-'<luction in positi\'e rlKlJne nt of \'<IL 6 i,
illumated in Fig. 12.4.
With this >aid, the", a", two other approache, that ar" Oft~ll used by struclural
de,ig""", The firsl is to analFe lhe stro('[ure ba><-'<.l on tl'" simpl" line diagram and to
redu(-e th" moment fml11 the column centerli,,,, to lhe f""e of the ,uppo rt hy \IlIL 2
wilh""t adjusting for the high"r clY<-'Cliv" ,tiffness within the thickn"" width of the <:01 -
urnn . The moment diagram. although S<'lIIe,,-hat I"" reali~ti(- man represented by tl",
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
lower curve in Fig. 12.4, ,till satisf,es stalic, and re~uire, 1"" nexuml reinfo"-,,,ment al
the face of ,he 'uppon. A, a lXlnse<JuerlLC, there i, less conge'tion in the beam-column
joint location where it is often difficult 10 place concrete I,.,.;,ausc of tl", high quantity
of reinfor"ing st<..,l from the flexural membe)'; framing into ,he column (u,ually from
two different direction,) alld from the column it..,lf. The , ,,n,,,what higher percentage
o f reinfor<'ement required at mid'pan u,ually cause, little difficulty in concrete place-
ment. The second approach in\'ojve, repre.<;cnting tl", portion of the "beam" within tl",
width of 1he C<llumn a, a rigid link that connects lhe column <'enterline with the dear
'pan of tl", nexural member. TIle ponion of thc column within the depth of lhe beam
{'an also be representro u,ing a rigid link. Su<"h a model will produ"," moment diagmm,
,imilar to the lower <'urve in Fig. 12.4, withoul additi,",al analysis. '!be "",ond
approach is both realislic and ea,y to implement in matrix analysis p">grams.
It should be noted that Ihere are cenain condition, of suppon for which no
reduction in negative mOment i, ju,1ifi<-d. For example, when a continuou, beam is
tarried by a ginkr of approximately the ,allle depth, Ihe negative ",oment in tbe beam
at lhe centerl ine of the girder ,hould be used 10 de'ign the negative reinforcing steeL
b. Moments of Inertia
Sd<><otion of rea,onable values for moment' of inenia of beam, and <"olunm, for u'"
in the fr~111e analysis is far from a 'imple matter. l1Je design of beams and columns i,
hased on cra,"ked "-><-1ion theory, i.e" on the supposition that ten,ion C<lncrete i, ind-
fective. It migh' seelll. lherefore, thai moment, of inenia to be used should be ,kter-
mined in the ,ame manner, i.e., based on the crac""d transfornkXl "><otion, in thi, way
accounting for tile effect' of 'T.lCking and presence of reinforcement. Thing' are nOi
,hi, 'i mple. unfonunalciy.
Con,ider first the influence of <T~cking. For typical nlemhers, lhe moment "f
inertia of a cmcked beam section i, aoout one-half Ihal of the uncrach-d gro,s cOnnete
"-><-1ion. H",',eve!. the exlent of cmcking del"'nds on the magnitude of the nlQn"'nt' rd -
atiYe to the CTIK"king nlQnlent. In beams. no flexuml <T~ck, ,,~}Uld be found near tl",
inflection points. Columns, typically, arc mostly UlK'TIIcked, except for tho", having
relati,dy large eccentricity of loading. A fundalllental que,tion. 100, is tbe load l~vd to
"onsider for the analysis. Element' that are ,ubject 10 cracking will haye more exlen -
,iYe crolCh 'lear ultima,e load than at ser... ice load. Com[lfession members will he unaf-
fected in thi, respect. Thus. lhe relatiye ,tiffness del"'nd~ on load level.
A funller complication re,ult, from the f:I<:1 that tl", effective cross ",--{'tion of
beams varie, along a span . In tl", positi,'e bending region , a beam usually ha, a T ",c-
tion. For typical T beams, with flange widlh ahout 4 \0 6 linles weh width and nange
thickness from 0.2 to 0.4 tillles ,he tmal depth. Ihe gross mOment of inertia will be
ahout 2 lime, that of lhe rectangular weh with width h. and depth h. However, in II",
negalive bending region near the supports, the lx>1tom of1be se<."lion is ill compression.
TIle T flanse is cmch-d, and tlte eff<><otive cross "-><otion i, therefore K><otanguiar.
lne amount and arrangement of reinforce ment are also influentiaL In beam" if
lx'lIom hap; are <;ontinuoo through the ,uppon" as is often done, tbi, 'teel act. a,
"""'pression reinforcement and ,tiffens the section. In columns, reinforcenlent mtio,
are generally mudl higher Ihan in hearns, adding to tl", sliffness.
Oi""n the.., complications, it is dear that ,Ollie simpli fication, are n<-cessary. !t
is helpful to nole that, in 1110St cases, it i, only the mtio of n",mber ,tiffnesses Ihat
influence, the final result. not the ah,,,iute ,'aloe o f tile stiffr",,,cs. The stiffness mtio,
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
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3lI6 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 12
may hi: but little aff""k..J by different assumptiolls io mmputing nlO""""nt of inertia if
there is consistency for allmemhe" .
In pranice, it i, geae"'lly .uffi<ienny "",curate to base stiffness calculations for
frame analysi, On the glO" ('oncrete CTO" senion of the columns. In continuou, T
beams, cracking will reduce the mOlllent of inertia to about one-half that of th"
un<T.lcked ,,->ction. Thus. the effect of the flange, and the eff<>ct o f cra<'king may nearly
caned in the po,itive bending region. In the negative nll)!lIent regions there are no
flanges; however, if bottom ban continue through the support, to serve as compre,-
,ion steel. the addc..J ,tiffne" tead, to m!lll"'a,ate for lack of m!llpression flange.
TIms, for beams, generally a <'onstant moment of inertia can be used, ba..,J on the rec-
t:mgular ("ross-S<....l ional area b.k
ACI Code 8,6,J stales that lin)' set of reasonable assu mptions may be used for
,,,,,"puting relative ,tiffnes"",. provided that the assumplion, adopted are mn,istent
througlll>ut the allalysi,. ACt Commentary R8.6, I I1(lIe, Ihat ",1m;"" value, of sliffne"
are important aad thai two <"<"",non assumptions are to uSC gros, EI values for all
membe" or to use half the gross EI of the beam stem for beam, and tt;., gros, EI for
the mlumn . Additional guidaat'C is giwn in ACI Code 10.11 .1, which 'I"-"{"if,,,, tI",
,,->clion pro""nies to be used for fr.ll1"'s suhjen to sides way. Thirt)"-five ""Kent of tI",
gm.", moment (',f inertia is used for beams and 70 peKent for <olull"',. Thi, differs
fTOm the guid ance provided in ACt Commentary 8,6,J hut. except for a faclor ofO.70,
malche. the guidance prQvided in the earlier di"-'u,,ilKl.
c. Conditions of Support
For purpose, of analysis. many structure, can be divided into a numhcr of two-
dimensional fr.lmes. Even fOJ such cases, IK)we,'er, th~re are sitmtion, in which it i,
impossible to predin wilh an'urary what tl", condition, of reslraim might be at tt;.,
end, Qf a spall; yet UIIIIl","t, are frequellll)' affe<'ted 10 a nmsiderable degree by tI",
dmice made. In many other case,. il is necessary IQ recognize thai slructures ma)" be
three-dill","sionaL The rotational restraint at a joint may be influenced or even gov-
erned by the char.:lcleristics of memrers framing illio thai joi nt at right angles,
Adjacent """mbers or fran"" parallel 10 tI", one under primary nmsiderationma)" like-
wise influence it, perfonnallce.
If flwr beam, are <'ast mollolithicall)" with reinforced concrele walls (f"-"<Iu~nt l)"
the case wt;.,n first-fl'K>T heams are carried on fQundalion wall,). the I1I1Hl",nt of iner-
tia of the wall about an axis par.:llld to it, face rna)" he so large Ihat tile beam end could
be con,idered mmpleldy fixed fOJ all pr.:lclical purposes. If the wall i, rdatively thin
or the beam particularl)" ma.~,ive, tl", moment of inertia of ea<'h should be cakulated.
that of the wall being l'Gual to hr l, 12. where t is the wall thickness and b Ihe wall
width tributary 10 one ream,
If lhe '>uter ends of <'oncrete beam, rest on masonry ,,"all,. a, i, ,on ",tin"" tI",
case. uo assumption of 7.ero rotational reslraint (i.e .. hinged support ) is prohably do,-
eS! to the aclual ("ase.
For columns supported Oil relatively small footing', which in tum rest 011 <'Om-
press ible ,oi I. a hinged end is gener.llly assunlc..J. ,ioce ,utch 'IOils offer hut little resi,-
tallCe to rolation of the f"'ll.illg. If. Qn the olher hand. the f"'>IinS' re,1 Oil ,olid rock.
or if a duster of pile, is used with their upl"'r ponion encased b)" a concrete cap, tt;.,
effect i, to provide almost complete fixily for the supported column, and thi, ,hou ld
be assumed in tbe analysis. Colulllns ,uppt)rted hy a continuous foundation mat
,hould likewise he assumed fixed at their lower elld"
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 ... 0{
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ANAL YSI S O F I NDEn:RMI NATE 8 EAMS AN]) FRA MES 3 87
FI GU IU: 12.5 I Beam I I

Slab. beam. and girder floor ~------------1 ~--
'y'tem, r------------j r - - -
~ Beam =
'I
f
II'
Panel i
~ ~===
1'1
'I
====-+- ==1'1
t------ -----j
I - - - - - - -----1 I - - - t---
I - Panel~ I I
~------------1 ~--
r------------j r - - -
,I 1,1
-==========-~-==
1'1
I I
If Ill~m""r<; fmming into a joil11 in a dir~('{ion l'C'l"'ndicular to the plan~ of the

fmllle IIIKkr analy,is ha"~ sufficient torsional 'Iiffne~" and if lheir far end, are fixed
or nearl)' so, their effect on joint rigidity should be indud<.'<l in the CQmpulati<;II1S. 1111:
lorsional sTifTness o f a nll:mher of lenglh L i, given b)" till: expression GJ I~ " 'here G
is lhe ,hear modulus of elasticit), of concrde (apprQximatd)' 10 E,' 2,2) ""d J is tl'"
torsional slifTne" [".,1<Ir of the member. For beams with rectangular cn"s ,,-,<-1ion, or
wilh S<.'Clions made up of reclangular eiemenl" J can he taken equal !() y'(hb l 3 -
b' 5). in which hand b are the cmss -S<'{'!ional di mension, of ea,'h rectangular elen",n!.
h being lhe lesser dimen,ion in each case. In mmnel11 distriootion, wheu Ihe effect of
torsional rigidity is induded. it is imponant that the absolute flexuml ,tiffne~, 4EI L
be used rad",r Ihan relative J, L value"
A (,ommon siluation in beam-and-girder floors and LOn<Tet~ joist tloop; is illus-
Irated in Fig. 12.5. 1l1~ ,kelch shows a beam-and-ginkr tl(K)f S)'Stelll in which longi -
tudinal beam, are placed m the third point, of each ba)', ,uppon~'<l by transverse gird -
ers. in additiQn to the longitudinal beam, ,upponed diroctly by till: mlul1"", If till:
Iran,,'erse girders are quit~ stiff. it is apparent that the flexuml stifTn~" of all beam,
in the width Ii' should be balanced against the stiffne" of one set of mlul11ns in the
longitudinal bent. If, onlhe other hand. the girders have linle torsional stiffness, the",
would be ample ju,tifl<"atiml for making two separ~te longitudinal analyses, Qne for
lhe beams 'UPI"II1~'<l dir~ctly hy the columns, in which lhe mtaliona! re,istance Qf tl",
columns would he cOllsidered. and a secolld for th~ beams fmming into the girder>. ill
whi,'h case hing~d sUPI","s would be assul1lc'<l. In I1K"t cas~" it would be sufficient ly
accumt~ to cOllsid~r the girders stifT torsionally and to add din.'Clly the stifflle" of all
beams tributary to a ,i ngl~ colullln, This has lbe ad,k'<l advantage Ihm all longitudinal
beams will ha\'~ the ,ame cnlss -SC{"tiollal dimer"im" and the 5:1.11"' reinforcing sk"'1.
whi,'h will greally facilitate constTU{"tion. Plaslic redi,lribution of load, upon o"e r-
loading would generally ellsure nearly equal restr~i!ll I1KlInenl, on all beam, befo",
{"oUap'" a, a,"umed in design. Torsional I1Klmenl, ,Iwuld !K)t be neglccl,'<l in design -
ing tbe gird~rs.
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
'1 -'-'1 ..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
3M IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 12
'- _. 12_6 P RELIMINARY D ESIGN AND G UIDELINES FOR

P ROPORTIONING M EMBERS
In making an ciaslic analysi s of a strUClum l fmmcwork. il is necessary 10 know nt lhe

OU1SCI Ihe cross-seClional dilnen sions of Ihe members . so Ihal momems of inertia and
sliffnesscs can be calculated. Yel Ihe oclcnninalion of Ihcse same cross-seelional
d imension s is lhe pre.;ise purpose oflhe ciaslie analysi s. In l~nns of load. Ihe dead load
on a strUClure is often dominnted by lhe w~ighl of Ihe slab. Obviously. a preliminary
eSlimnte of 11Icmber sizes mUSI be one of lhe firsl sleps inlhe ana lysis. Subsequemly.
wilh lhe resu lls of Ihe ana lysis al hand. 11Icmhcrs are proportioned. and lhe resu lling
d i11lcnsions compared wilh Ihose previously assumed . If necessary_ lhe assum,-d St-'C -
lion properties arc lnodificd. and lhe analysis is repealed . Since lhe procedure may
becolne qu ile laborious. il is obviously advanlageous 10 make lhe besl possible origi -
nal eSlimale of lnember sizes. in Ihe hope of avoiding repelilion of lhe analysis.
In lhis conneelion. il is wonh repealing Ihal in the ordinal)' framc analysis. one
is concerned wilh relali"e sliffncsses only. nOl lhe abso)ule sliffnesses. If. in Ihe orig-
inal eSli11laie of mel11ber sizes. Ihe slifrnesses of all beams and columns arc o"eresli -
mmcd or un dereSlimmed by aboul Ihe samc amount. cOlTc'Clion of Ihese eSlimaled
sizes afler Ihe !irsl analysis will have lillie or no effect. Consequemly. no revision of
Ihe ana lysis would be req uircd. If. on Ihe Olher hand. a nonuniform error in eSl i11laiion
is made . and rclm ive sli ffnesses differ frol11 assumed values by more Ihan aboul .. 0
percent. a new analysis should be made.
The e,xperienccd designer can eSlimale member sizes with surpri sing accuracy.
nlOse wilh lillie or no cxperience mUSI rely on trial calculations or arbilrary rules.
modified 10 suil panicular situations. In building fml11es. Ihe deplh of ollC-way slabs
(discussed al greater lenglh in Chapler 13) is oflen ooll1rollcd by eilher ddlcclion
requ irements or Ihe IlCgat ive momems al Ihe faces of Ihe supponing beams. M inilllull]
deplh crileria are reilecled in Table 13.1. and negali"e nlOnlCnts m Ihe face of Ihe sup-
port can be eSlimak'd using eoefflCienls describc-d in Seclion 12.S. A praClicalmini -
mUll] Ihic~ness of 4 in . is onen used. excep! for joisl conSlrUClion nk.'t:ling Ihe require-
nlCnts of ACI Cooe KII (sce Seclion IS .ld).
Beam sizes are usually go"allCd by lhe negmive momenlS ~nd 11"0: shears ..1 Ihe
suppons. where Iheir dfeclive seclion is I"Cclangular. MOnlCniS can be arpro~im~l~d
by lhe fixed-end nlOnlCnts for Ihe particular span. or by usin)! Ihe ACI momel1l coer-
ficiem s (sec Secliol1 12.8). In 111OS1 cases. shears will nOl ditfer greally from simple
be~ln shears. Allema!ivcly. many designers prefer 10 eSlimale lhe deplh of beams al
t
aboul in . per fOOl of span . wilh Ihe width equal 10 aboul one-half lhe deplh .
For mOSI conslruclion. widc. relali"ely shallow beal11s and girders ~rc prefem:d
10 oblain minimum floor deplhs. and using Ihe same deplh for all flexural IllCll1bers
allo,",'s lhe use of simple. low -cosl fonning syslcms. Such Ocsigns can signifICant ly
reduce fonning COSIS. while incurring only smal l add ilional COS1 S for eoncl"Cle and
reinforcing S((,'C!. II is often wise 10 ch(.'C~ Ihe reinforcell-':11I mlio basc'd on Ihe
assumed mOlllCnts 10 help mai nlain ov~ral] economy. - 0.0 12 in prel iminary design
will give - .. 0.01 in a fillal design . if a 1110re exael analysi s is used. Ob"iously. mel11 -
ber dimensions arc subjeci 10 moo itkalion. depending on lhe Iype and magnilude of
Ihe loads. melhoos of ocsign. and malerial slrenglh .
Column sizes arc governed primarily by axial loads. which can be eSlimated
quic~ly. allhough Ihe presence of 1110l11eniS in Ihe columns is cause for som~ incrcase
of lhe area as determined by axial loads. For inlerior columns. in which unbalanced
nlOnlCnlS wil1nol be la.rg~. a 10 pcreenl increase lIlay be sufficient. while for eXlerior
columns. panicularly for upper slories. an increase of 50 perccnl in area may be appro-
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
' 1-'-'1... 01
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSI S OF INDEn:RMINATE 8EAMS A N!) FRA MES 389
FIG UIU: 12,6 Total shear for

Subframc ti ,. estimating uppe r stories
momems in )"""'-'tory -~
",Iumn, pf loleTa i / / / /
/
lCtad-resi<ting fram... / j j /
" /
/
/
/
/
/
/
,
~
Fixity )
7
"
priale. In <k<:iding on Ihe", eSlimaled innea"". Ihe following fa,'lors should be con-
,idered. Moment' are larger in n lerior than in interim column,. "i""",, in lhe latter
d~ad load momenls from adjacent spans will largely balan~. in ~'ontmSI to tl'" ca", in
~xI~rim colunm,_ In addition. the influen~"e of mornents. compared wilh th,l of axial
loads, is I"rger in upJl<'r-f1 'KJr than in lower-floor columns. becau", the nK",,,,nt, arc
usually of about the ,an", magnit ude. while the axial lo""s are larger in the laner than
in lhe former.
Fm minimum forrning cost,. it is hi ghly desirable to use the san", column
din",nsions througlK)[)1 the h~ight of a building. Tilis can be ac,"omplisbed b)' u,ing
higl..,r-strcngtll concrete on the lower S[mies (fm high-ri'" building'. this slK)[)ld he
tl'" highest-'trength corl<:rele availahle) and reducing ,"()ncrete strength in upJl<'r stories.
as appropriate_ For columns in /(I{l'ful/y hrut""d [m",,,.,". the preliminary design of the
lower-, tory col umns may be baSl"<l on zem """~"entricil)' using 0.80, 1'0 = " . A t()1al
reinforcement ralio ' , '" 0.02 slK)[)ld be used I'm tl.., col umn with the highest axiall""d,
With a value of . ... 0,01 f'K the column with the lowest a,iallo"" on higher stories.
tl.., column size is maint,illt_oJ. reducingf; wl..,n , dmp' below I Jl<''''ent. Ahhough
AC I Oxk 10.9_1 limits , 10 a mnge of I 10" I"'K"ent. tl.., efr~<:live minimum valu~ of
t is 0.005 ba,.,.j on ACI C'Kle 10."-4. which allow, tl.., minimum rcinforl'Cn..,m to be
calcu lated based on a reduced eff~"<-1ive area A. nol Ie", than one-half the lot~l area (this
pmvi'ion canmK be used in r~gions of high sei,mic ri sk). For column, in lateml load-
resisling fra mes, a subframc may be used 10 estimale the fa,1()KoJ bending moment>
due to lateral load O!lthe lower-,tory columns. n", subframe illu_'lmted in Fig. 12.1>
mnsi,ts of the lower two slOricS in the St ru~"lure. wilh the appropriate level of fixity al
tl.., )use. The upper flexuml members in tl'" ,ubfmme are Ireak,,1 as rigid _Faclored lat -
em! load_, arc appl ied I(} the 'truclure_J ~dici,)[) s con,;demtion of factors ,uch as those
just discussed. ,I(}ng with ,i mple models, ns app"'priate. w;1I enable a desig,..,r to pm-
du~"e a rea,onably accumte preliminary oJesign. whi~" h in most ca,es will p"m1it a ""t -
isfactory analysis [() be made on tl'" Ii"'t triai.
ApPROXIMATE ANALYSI S
In spite of the development of reli""..! "",thods for the analy,is of be~m, and fmmc>.
increa,ing attention is being paid to various appro~ imate methods of analy,is (Ref.
12.4), There are '\eve ral reason, (or Ihis. Prior to Jl<'rfonning a complete analysi , of
an indelerminate sl ructure. it i, neces""ry to estimate the proportions of its "",mbers
to determine their relative ,tiff,,,,s~. upOn which the ~naly_,is deJl<'nd~. TI",se dimen -
, ions can be (}bt,ined on tl'" basi, of appmximate analysi,_AI'!o. e,-en with the avail -
ahility of c()mputers, mosl engineers fond it desirable to make a mugh check of
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
' 1-'-'1.....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
390 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 12
results. u,ing appnn irnme menns. 10 d~lect gmss ~rrurs. Further. fOJ .tmclure, of
minor importance. it is oft~1t s~tisfn<"lory 10 d~,ign on the hasi. of results obtained by
rough cakul~tion. For these reusons. mnny engin""" ~t some stnge in the design
proc ess estimate the values of m<}"",IlI ,. sh~nr~ . and thrust, ~t cr it ic~llocations. usi ng
appmxinmte ,k"'ch~, of the stru<"lur~ d~n~<ted b) its loads.
Pmvid~-d that points of innection (locations in m~mbers at which th~ bending
moment i, z~m and there is ~ re,~rsal of < ur'"atur~ of th~ d~stic cur'''~) can be located
accur~tel). the ,tress resu Itnnts fo r ~ fr~11Ied ,tructure can usually be found on the tmsi,
of ~t~tic equilibrium ~lone . Ench portion of the struCture muSt be in ~quilibrium unde r
the ~ p pli Lation of its external lOO<!s and the int ernal stress resultant s.
For the lixed-end benm in Fig. 12.7". fOJ exnmple. the points of inn~"Ction under
uniformly di,tribuk-d lOO<! are known to be loc atoo 0 .2 11 1 from the entl, of the spun.
FI{; URE 12.7

~ w," ~
Analy,;, of fhed.., ..:1 beam
by lot "inll infh,ioo points. ! 111111111111111111111111111 ~
I
--~- .4- I
i=~1
:0.21 1 / -- ~I=i
-- --~--'O.2111:
'"
ptmJi Ig; IIIIIIII!!!!!!!!!I I iJ~
I I 0.5781 gj I
0.21 1 1 0.211 I
o "
'"
0.0417 w[2
(el
0.0833
r
wi<
1
0.0833 wl l
L (dl
j
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
' 1-'-'1..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
ANA L YSI S O F I NDEn:RMI NAT E SEAMS A NI> FRA MES 3 '.1 1
FI GUIU: 12,8 'r - - " '---1',
8flIIlllill.lfrnmJ;rnijC n n
Apl'r,,",;m, ""aly.;, "r w_ 2k.op01fl 2' 3'
rigid fta"""
r,- 1 - constant
I...--"0. _ _ _ _ _ ..0 --y
I
V
,[1
\
L,
'.1 (0)
,-
X8~ 2:.jllllll;I=l.- ~C*=tt' ~~
t
t8"->''''
l 1k4>o U
,-
p
70jps
,... ..
,
P
7~"'"
I. 13~
,- 1
t
,,) (d) ,,)
1 t Ojpo 3O"-q>o
11 k'po 1 8~''\lO
t ". .
4.s'\lO
4.5~ _ 4.50jp0
"-t--9"'~
11kips l100p$ 9n-~
,n (g) ''l
SirK'C the rr"""em nt the", point' is zem, imagin;uy hinge, can be plar:ed there with-
out modifying the member hd mvior. The individual seg""'nt, between hinges can be
analyz~d b)' ,tatit" a, ,hown in Fig. 12.71>. Staning with the center scg""'nt, ,hears
~'<Jual to 0.28911"1 must act at the hinges, These, togeth"r wi th the transverse load, pm-
dU~'e a midsf"'n nll"",,nt of OJ 17,,-//. Proceeding next to the outer segrr>ems. a down -
ward load is applied at the hinge re"",,,,ming the ,hear fmm the center "'gmem. This.
together with the applied load. proouces suppo" moment' of O,0833,,'P . Nrlle drat. f()[
this example. since the mrrectl""itio n of the inflection poims was koown at the start,
the re,u lting momem diagram of Fig. 12.7c agree, exactly with the true moment dia-
gram for a fixed-end beam shown in Fig. 12.?d, In more pmctical caseS inllection
points must be ",timatoo. and the r,,-,ult, obtainc-d will only appmximate the UUe values.
lne use of approximate analy,is in dete rmining 'tre~, resuhants in frames i,
illustrated by Fig. 12K Figure 12.&r ,1x,W' the geometry and loading of a two-member
rigid frame, In Fig. 12.Sh an exaggerak-d sketch of the probable deflected 'hape i,
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
'1-'-'1 ..... I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
3 92 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 12
given, logelher with Iht eSlimak-d locmion of points of infleCli<Kl. On thi , ba,i" Ih"
unlral ponion of Ihe girde r is analy",d by statics , as shown in Fig. 12.&/, 10 ohmin
girder sl",ars al the inflecti<Kl mint. of 7 kip" acting with an axial load P (still n<>1
detennirK-d). Similar! y. tt;., r"'luirements of slati", applied 10 Ihe outer segmenl, of tt;.,
girder in Fig. 12.8,' and e giv" venical sl",ars of II and 13 kip, at B and C re,pe,' -
tively, and end moments of 18 and 30 ft-kip, at the same lo('ati,ms. Pnllx>e<ling then
to lhe upper "'gment of the column. showo in Fig. 12.8/ with koown axial load of
II kip, and top monlem of 18 fl-kip, acting, a horizontal ,hear of 4.'i kips m tt;.,
inflL'Ction point i, required for L,<!uilibrium. Finally. stmic anal ysi, of the lower pan of
the ('olumn indi"ates a requirement of9 (t-kips moment at A. as ,hown in Fig. 12.88.
n", value of P l'<lual to 4.'i kips is ohmined by sllmming horizonml force<; m joint B.
lne moment diagram resuiting from approximale analy,is is shown in Fi g,
12.8h. For ,'ompari,on. an exact analysis of {he frame indicates member end moments
of 8 ft-kip' at A, 16 ft-kips a! B, and 28 f{-kip, a{ C. TI", resuh, of {he approximate
analysis would he 5:l1isfactory for .resign in many cases; if a more """'-'I analysi, i5 to
be made, a valuahle check i, available on {he magnilude of re ,uh,.
A specialization of the approximale melhod de,cribt.-d, known as the porwl
/!IethoJ, is com"umly used 10 eSlimale !he effecls of sidesway due 10 lateral force, aCl-
ing on I1lUllislOry hoilding frarne,. For such frame" il is usual w assume !ha! hori -
zon{alloads are applied at!he joi nl' only. If this i, {rue, "u,n",nt, in all memhers ,'ary
linearly and, excepl in hingL-d members. have oppo.i!e 'igm dose to the midpoint of
each ""'mber.
For a simple ={angular ponal frame having tin.., members. tho: shear foree,:lfI'
the same in bo{h legs and :lfI' each equal 10 half {he external horizontal load. If one of
{he legs is l1u,re rigid than the O1her. it would require a larger horizontal force 10 di<-
place it horizontally the sa"", amoum as tI", I1U"" flexible leg. ConSl,<!uently. (he portion
of the 100al shear resi'{ffl b)' 11", 'Iiffer column is larger Ihan {hal of {he more flexible
~olumn.
In muili.tory hoilding frame" moment, and for,'e, in the girders and tolul1llls of
each individual "ory:lfl' di,trihmed in ,ubstamially (he same manner a, ju,t discu,sed
for single-,{or)' frames. The ronal melhod of compn!ing approximate m",nents,
shears, and axial fmce, from horizomal loads is, therefore. haSl-d on {he following
tbree 'imple propl,si!ion>:
I , The total horizontal shear in all columns of n gi"en story is equal arKl opposite
10 {he sum of all horizontalloods acling ahove thm story,
2, The horizontal shear is the same in both ex terior COIU111115: Ihe horizontal shear
in each interior column is twicc that in an cxterior columll ,
3, The infleclion po ints of all me111berS. col umns and girders, are located midway
belween joints.
Although the last of these proposilion s is commonly applied to all columns.
including those of the bol10111 floor. Ihe authors prekr to deal with lhe latter scparalely.
depending 011 conditions of foundation, If the aclual conditions arc such as praclic:dly
to pre~ent rOlation (foundation on rock, massive pile foundations, etc.). the inn~~lion
points of the bottom col umns arc above midpoint and may be assumed {O be m a dis
tance 21,.1 from the bollom. If linle resistance is off~'fed to rotation. e.g .. for relatively
small foolillgS on c0111pressible soil. Ihe inflection point is locnll-d closer 10 lhe bonom
and may be assul1l~"{j 10 be at a distance I, J fTOm the boIl0111. or cven lower. (With
ideal hinges. the inflection point is at the hinge. i.e., at the very bottom. ) Since shears
and corresponding momCl1!S arc large., in Ihe bonom slory. a judicious evaluation of
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
' 1-'-'1..... I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS OF INDEn:RMINATE 8EAMS AN!) FRIBIES 3'.13
foundalion c"nditi"n. as tm,y affect the In<;ation of inflectiml points is of l'!lIlsiderahk

imponan"".
11", first of the thn.'e cited propositions foliow, from tl'" "-'quiren",nt that hor i
zontal forces be in equilibrium at any levd. The second takes account of the fact that
in building fmmes interior colulllns are generally Illore rigid than exterior Oil<"
oc'Cause (I) the larg'" axial loads fl'quire a larger cross ...'Ction and (2) exterior columns
are restr.tined from joint rotation ollly hy one abuning girde r, while interior columns
are '0 re'tmin~..:! by two such memhers. 1be third proposition is very nearly true
oc'CauS<e, CXl"pt for tl", top and bottom ~'()Iuillns and, to a minor degree, for the exte
rior girders , each member in a building fr.tme i, re~tmi""d about ~'qually at both ends,
For this reason, n"'mbers defll'Ct under horizontal load, in an antisymn",trical man
ncr, with the inflection point at mid length .
11,e actml computations in this method are extremely simple. Once l'!)lumn
shears are detennined from propo,ition, I and 2 and inflection point, located from
proposition 3. all moment', sl",ars, and force> are simply computed by 'tatics. 11",
pmccss is illustmted in Fig . 12.9,/1.
Consider joinls C and f). the IOtal ,bear in the second story is 3 + 6 = 9 kip"
According to proposition 2, the ,hear ill each exterior column is 9 6 = 1.5 kil'" and
in each interior column 2 X 1.5 = 3.0 kip,. 11", shears in the other floors, ohtained in
the same manner, act at tbe hinge, as shown . Consider tl", equilibrium of the rigid
structure between hinges (I. h. and c: tl", (olunm ullm",nls, 3,0 and 9,0 ft kip'. resl"'l"
tivdy, are obtained direct ly by mult iplying the shears by tl",ir lever ann" 6 ft 11",
girder rflOn",nt at C. to produce equilibrium, is equal and opposite to the Su m of tl",
column moments. The ,I",ar in the girder is obtailll.":! by recognizing that it , moment
(i.e ., sbear time, half tl", ginkr span) mu,t be <-'qual to the girde r moment at C Heoce.
this ,I",ar is 12.0 10 = 1.2 kip,. The moment at end f) is equal to that at C, since tl",
infl~'Ction point is at midspan. At D. l'olu1l11l1lIlltl",nt, are ~'()mput~d in the same man
ncr from the lnown column shears and le,""r arms, The su m of th<' two girder nll",,,,ms,
to pHlIluce equilibrium, must be equal and opp",ite to tbe 'Ulll of the two column
moments, from which the girder moment to tl", right of C is 18.0 + 6.0 - 12.0 =
12.0 ft kil'" Axial forces in the column, also folk.w from 'tatics. Thus, for the rigid
!xxly a&1. a veninl shear of 0.3 kip i, "''en to act upward at d. To C<juilihr.tte it. a ten
sile fOfl'e of - 0.3 kip i, requir<-..:! in the column CE. In tbe rigid !xKly (lhe, an upward
shear o f 1.2 kip, at h is atkk..:! to tbe previous upward tension o f 0 .3 kip at ll. To e'!uil
ibrate the.><' two force" a tension force of - 1.5 kips is required in l'olunm "C If tl'"
~'quilibriu111 of all <II1",r parTial structure, hetween hinge, is considered in a similar
manner, allllllltl",nt" forces , and shears are mpidl)' determill<...:!.
In tbe present Case. relatively flexible foundati ons were assumed, and tl", loca
tion of tm, lowermost inflection point, was estimatoo to be at " 3 from tI", bottom . 11",
geneml chamcter of the resulting 111on",nt distribution is shown in Fig . 12.9h.
, __ 12.8 ACI M OM ENT COEFFICIENT S
ACI Code 8.3 includes cxpressions that may be used for (he approximate calculat ion
of ma.\ imum moments and shean; in continuous beams and OtIC' way slabs. The
expressioos for nlOnlC~( (a~e the form of a coeflkient multiplied by ",j~, where w, is
the lotal factored load pcr unit length on the span and I, is the clear span from face to
face of suppons for positive moment, or the a\,cnlj,W of 1he 1WO adjacen t clear span s
for ocgative moment. Shear is taken <-"qual 10 n coefficient multiplied by "'.1, 2 , The
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
11 -'-'1 .....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
3 0M IW_<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 12
3 .() k". , ,
"- ~I
+3.0 q
q T 3,()
~, +3.0 - 3 ,0
II0.'
II0.' II0.'
- - -
,
~ N
0 0
2 0
C _ C
- ' .0 <_ ,.0 ~ O.5 12'
0.5
q
,q, ,
0
,q
C -c1 2 .0
~ 12. 0
0
, + 12 .0 ~12 . 0
'- -4
~,
II ~ 0"1 - j T12.0 0
,
II ~
,
,
- _ ' .5 "
i' _
- _
q

- 2.0
3.0
0
_ 3.0 "
-
- 12'
rl
~
0
, ,,
+34,0 + 34,0 , ~
g, + 34 .0
II
A ~34,0 + 34.0 0 + 34.0
~
N
, II , II,..
'" ~ 5.67

- -
N
-
0
C
_ 2.5
,
- 5.0

_ 5.0
-
-
~
,
0
0
N
1.-1,--- ~ ---.,.,I,-- "'--"I,_ _ _ ~' _ _--<,I

,
~
N
,
,.,
1"
f IGU RE 12.9
Port"1 m<'bod 1<..- <k'cm,ining ""~ncnl< from wind I"ad in 0 building fram,,: ta) "'Ofocn". !.he""'."M ,hfml<, (h) ,-",i",ion, <>f
"",,,,,,n!,.
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
' 1-'-'1..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS OF INDEn :RMINATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRIBIES 3'.105
TABLE 12.1
Moment and shear values using ACI coefficientst
I'o!..iliw mo"",,,1
End 'p,n,
If disconli"uo,,, end i, un",,,r.rineJ
If dis<onlinUO\l, end i, integ",1 with 1he ,uf'PO'1
Interior 'PJ.l"
Negati "e momeM,1 exlerior f>e<: or firs1 in1en.,.- '''1'J''fl
,-,..0'pan, ; ~ ,J:
More ,h,n 'wo 'pan, -!ow,J;
Negati,,, momenl a, ",["" f",,~. of inlonor stJppoI'ls trw,J;
Negati "e momeM,1 race of all , upporh f.,.- ( 1) ,I .bs wilh sra", IlOl exceeding
10 II ond (2) bean" and girder; whtr< ratio of 'u n, of COlum" 'liITne>s 10 beon,
51iff""" .,Cd,8 ole",h ~nd of lhe 'PJ"
Negati,. ",,"""01 at i",,,ior f",,~. of ~x"nor ,uppons for member; bui ll i"kgrolly
wi,h their suppom.
Wile", Ihe ,uppon j, a spa ndrel beam or girder !. ",,J;
Where the '''f'PO'1 i, a column 10",,1;
Shear in end memhc", at ror" i,,'en.,.- ,ul'I'<>1 1 15 ~',J.
. ,
Shear at 011 <Jlher , upport, ,
~'.I.
' w. r " .... f",,,1f\O<l I<>.1d I"'f "oi, Ie"~' n ,~ . tuom ... 1'-" unj, "'~, of ,l:d>.
" ~ <Ie", >1"" f,~ I'-"",j,'c ,"'",..,.. ...u '""''' ....1tn"~ ,,,'0"'11" nf lire '''', odj"'c"' 0"" '1""' ro. ""~atj",
""""""'-
codfici~nt', found in ACl C<xl~ 8.3.3, ar~ reprimed in Table 12.1 "nd summariz~d ill
Fig. 12.10.
n,~ ACI JIIom~ m
coefficiem, were d~ri\'ed by elastic analy,is, considering a l t~r
nativ~ pl"""emem of liw load to yield maximum negatiw or p<>siti,'e mo~ms at the
critical "-'etions, a, was rn,s<"rihed in Section 12.2. They are arrlitahle within the fol -
lowing limitations:
I. Ther~ are two or more span~.

2. Spans arc apprQximateiy ~4ual. with the longer of twO adjace nt spans nQt
greater than ! b~ \horter by (]Klre than 20 !,<,rcem .
3. Loads are uniformly distributed .
4. The u nit li\'~ load Ik"", nnt nc~~d 3 time, the unit dead load .
o5. Members arc prismatic .
As discussed in &'etion 12.3 for more general loading conditiQns, tl"" altematiw
loadi ng [XIllems considered in aPfllying the Code nK)!""nt c<""fficients result in rut
em-do!,<, of maximu m moments, as illu,traled in Fig. 12.1 I fOJ one SpM of a contin -
uous frame. For maximu m positive mOment . that !ipan would carr)' dead and liw
loads. while adjacent span, WQuid carry d~ad load Qnly, producing the diagram of Fig,
Il. lla. For maximum negative moment at the left ,upp<m . dead and live load, wou ld
o..loo .. c..,_ .............. 8._ . I ,-
' 1-'-'1..... ~"" ---
-~
...
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
3% IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 12
FIG UIU: 12. 10 Discoounoous e nd ,

Summa,)' of ACI m<mw:"'
<<lefflere ",, : (II) re.m, wi,h
unrestra ined ;
S pand rel;
0
, ,
TI , , , , ,
11M' .... ,han ' wo 'P"""
Ih) rean" wilh Iwo >pans Column: ", ,
TO
TO
" TI
" TI TI
only: (0) 'lat.., wi,h <pan' "'"

e~c<"l i ng 10 fI: (d) ream.
"
in which Ihc .um of colu mn
'lilT""''''' exceed, 8 linle'
,he <urn of beam <tiffoc.""
al exh end of lbe >pan. ",
Discontinuous e nd , ,
unrestra inoo ' 0
, ,
TI , , ,
TI 0
,
S pandre l:
Column'
", ",
TO
,
TO
",
" " "
(0)
, , , , , , ,
TO
~ " " " "
u " uR-t
",
T , , ,l T , , ,l T ,
U
" " " " " "
,d,
hom (a )
Irom (b )
", (0)
", 1"
FIG UKE 12,11
M"imum morn!:"' diagmm, .rill mllmen' onvol()P<' for, c" n.in"",,' beam (a l ma.imum ]x"itivc "",ment: 1M maJIimum 9CP';V<
momem.1 loll .t>d: Ie) m... imum ""goli>'. momem.t righl <00; (<11 composile tnOIll<nl ..,,'el"P" .
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
11-'-'1..... I THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS O F INDEn:RMI NATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRIBIES 3 '.17
hoc plac<-"<l Qn the gi~en span and tlmt 10 II", Idt. whik the adjacent 'pan on the righl
would can)' only dead load. with the resull shown in Fig. 12.1 Ib. Figure 12.11 c show,
the corresponding resuhs for maximum momel11 at the right support.
lne composite mOI1",nt diagr.1111 formed from the controlling ponion, of tho",
just dndoped (Fig. 12.lld) provides the ba,is fQr design of lire span. As ,"'",,,,'ed in
$enion 12.3. there is a mnge of positions for the points of inlleclio" resulting from
altemate I,y~dings. The extren", location., required tQ detennine har ('uloff poinls, Cilll
hoc found with Ihe aid of Graph A.3 of Appendix A.ln the region of the infk'Ction poinl,
it is evident from Fig. 12.1 Id that tI",re may be a reverxnl of moments for ahematiw
load patterns. However. within the ,tated limil' for use Qf the (~>effi eients. there shou ld
hoc no reversal of mon-..,m, at the crilical design sections near midspM or at t1", sup-
pon fa,e,.
Comparison of tl", nK",,,,nls found u,ing Ihe ACI coefficient' with those ('alcu -
lated hy more exact analysis will u,ually indicale that the c'>efficient mon",nt, are
'luite conse",'ative. Actual dastit ",on",nls may t,., consider.:lhly srrutller. 0",,,,-
'luently, in many reinforced coocrete struclures, ,ignificant economy can be achieved
hy making a ITKlJe pft.'Cise analysis. TI,i, is mandalO,), for beams and slah, with span,
differing by more Ihan 20 percent. sustaining lmds thm are mK uniformly disuibuted.
or car')'ing he load, greater than 3 time. the dad load,
Because the load patte",s in a <"<}Illinuous fr.:lI1'" that produce <"Ti tical momem,
in the col umns are different fmm tho", for maximum negati,'e mmnent, in tI", beams,
column ",o"",nts must be found separ~tely. According to ACI C<Kk 8.8, column, musl
hoc design<-'<i !() re.isl lhe axial load from factored dead and li"e Imds On all fj'K)fS
above and On lhe mofplus lhe maximum moment from facHlf"d loads On a single adja-
,'<'nt <pan of the floor or roof under con,idemtion. In add ilion, )x,cause of the ,'hamc-
teristi,' shape o f lhe ('olum" slrength interaction diagr.:lm (see Chapter 8). il i~ n<-'Ce,-
,a,), 10 consider the ca", Ihat gives the maximum ratio of n1Qn>ent to axial load. In
mu Ilisl0,)' structure" this resuhs from a che.:kerboard loading pattern (see Fi g, 12.2d),
which gi~e. maximum column moments but at a less -than-maximum axial fQree. As a
,implification. in computing momenls resuhing from gravily load the far ~nd, of the
columns may t,., con,idered fixed. TI", momenl found at a column-beam joim for a
given loading is to be as,ig",-"I to lhe column above and the column hoclow in propor-
tion to the rebliv~ column sliffne.. and conditions of re'traim .
n", ,hears at lhoc end, of the ~pan' in a <"<}Illiuuous frame are m'Klifi~"<l from the
value of "'. 1. ' 2 for a ,imp ly support<-"<l beam because Qf tbe u,ually unbabn('ed end
moments. For interior spans, within the limits of the ACI coefficient method. thi,
eff~ct will seldQm ex(et."<l aboul 8 percent, and it may be "~gk'Cted. as suggested in
Tahle 12.1. H",'.. e,'er, for end 'pans. al Ihe face of the firsl interior ,uppon. lhoc addi -
tional shear is ,ignificant. and a 15 peT<"cnt increase above tI", simple beam shear i,
indicaled in Table 12.1. n", corresponding redlll"!ion in ,hear a1 tI", face of the exte-
rior support is conservatively neglech."<l.
LI MIT AN AtYS IS
a, Introduction
Most reinforct."<l con<"Tete Struclures are designed for mQmenls. shears. and axial foft.'<"
found by elastic theo,), with n"'thods such as those de><." ribed ill Seclions 12. I through
12.8. On the other h""d. the :telual proportioning of memocrs is done by su~ngth
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1-'-'1 .....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
me!l"xls, with the r~cognitiotl that inelastic ><->etion and member r~'ponsc would resull
upon ov~rloading. Fa{'tored loads ar~ u><-..:! in the ebstic- analysis 10 find monlent, in a
{'ontinuou, I>o:am, for exampl~. after which th~ nitical beam ><->etion, ar~ de,ig'led
wilh the kn<:>wk..:!gc that the steel would be well inw the yidd r.mge and the ('Oncret~
,trcss di,trihution wry nonlinear before final collapse. Clearly this is an incon,istent
approach 10 Ihe wtal analysi,-design process, although il can be shown 10 be both safe
and conser'mlivc. A beam or fr~nle '0 analyzed and de'igned will not fail at a load
lo"'er than !lie ,.,.Iue cakulal<..:! in this way'
On tile OIlier hand. it is known that a continuous I>o:am or fmme normally will
n01 fail wilen tile nominal nll)fllent capacily of just one critical ",(,tion is reacIK..:! . A
,,1m/it; hillge will form at thai ><>etion, permining large rmation W ,,,,,'ur at e''''lIIially
con,tant re,isling momelll and Ihu, tmnsfening load IQ olher locations along tile span
whe", the limiting resi,tant<: has n01 yet Ix",n re""hed, Normally in a continuous beam
or fmllle, ex<-e~, capacity will exi,t at till)'" other loeations ~ause Ihey would ha'-e
be",n reinfort<:d for monlem, resulling from different load distributions >clen"d to
pmduce maximum moment, al Ihose other k";a1ioos,
As loading i, funher increased, additional pla,tic hing'" rnay fonn at other loca-
tions along the span and eventually result in collap'" of the stru<"lure. but only after a
'ignificant rediMribl<1ioll of "wmclll,< has occurred. The ratio of lIegative 10 po,iti"e
moments found fmm elaslic analysi, is no longer corrCCI , for example. and the tru~
mtio after redi,tribution d"pends upon lhe t1exuml strengths aClually pmvid"d at tile
hinging se<"lion' .
Recognition of r<..:!isuihution of lIIonlems can he imponant Ix>eau>c it pem1it, a
more reali stic appraisal of Ihe aClual load-('arT)'ing capacily of a ,tructure. Ihus lead -
ing to improved economy. In addilion. it permits the designer to modi fy. within lim-
il>. the mOITJent diagmms for which nleml>o:rs are 10 be de'igned. Cenain seclions can
be deliberately underreinforced if nll"'lCn! resistance al adjacent critical section, i,
increased (-orrespondingly. Adju,tment of de'ign mnnlents in this way enables the
de,ig'lCr to ..Juce Ihe rongeS!ion nf reinfortrmem thai oflen ,""-ur, in high-mornem
areas, ,uclt as at the heam-<-olunm joints.
nle fonnation of plas!ic hinges i, well established hy tesl. such as that pictured
in Fig. 12.12, The three-span cominuous beam illu str~tes the inelastic re'ponse typi -
cal of Ileavily overlooded members. It was reinfo,""d in such a way that plaslic hinge,
would form at Ihe imeri or ,uppon ><->etions before the limil capacil)" of seclion s e[",-
wile'" was reached. The beam cnminOt...:! to carry inc-reasing load wdl I>o:)'ond the load
thai pmduced fi"t yielding at lhe SUppOrT>. The exlreme def1eclion, and sharp change,
in slope of the member axis that are ...",n Ilere were obtained only slightly hefore final
mila!"".
nle incoll.<i_,/<'IlCY of the present approa(-h 10 tIle 100al analpis-design pm""",,.
the fl"'S-,ibility of u,ing the "'.<erre .wrensrl! of co!,,-Tde structures re,ulting fmm """'lCm
redistrihution. and the opportunity 10 red""" .wee! C(mge.,rioll in critic-al reg inn, haw
moti"ated con,ider~ble imeresl in limit analysis for reinfnrced cOnerele ba",d on tile
mncept' juS! de<;cribed, For beam, and fmme,. ACl Code 8.4 permils limited ",di,-
tribulion of moments, depending upon the slr~in in lhe tensile ,teel - ,. For ,labs. which
generaily use "ery low ",infQrcenle"t mlin, and ('{",sequentl)' have great duclility.
plaslic design methods are especially suitable.
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1 -'-'1 .....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSI S OF INDEn:RMINATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRA MES 3'.1'.1
FIG UIU: 12. 12

Three _'p"" conlin""'" beam
aft ... d>e formation of plJ" ic
hinge, " the ;nlen",
,upports.
b. Plastic Hinges and Collapse Mechanisms
If ~ ShOI1 segm~1Il of ~ reinforced cOI!Cret~ t>cmn is su~jl'C(ed to ~ bending I110lnelll_

curVature of thc beam ~xis will resu lt. and (here will be a com:sponding ro(ation of
one face of (he segm~ nt with res.,.:ct (0 the o(her. It is convenient to express (his in
(erms of an angular change per unil length of (he member. nte relation between
moment and angle chnnge per un it length of beam. or curvature. nt a reinforced con -
crete beam section subject to (ensile cracking was dcvclo.,.:d in Section 6.9. "INhods
w~re presen(ed (here by which (he theorclical mOI11em -eun'J( ure grJph might be
drawn for a given beam cross section. as in Fig. 6. 16.
The actual Il1OmelH-Curva(ure relationship me:lSurcd in beam tes(s differs some-
what from (hat shown in Fig. 6.16. mainly because. from (ests. curvatures are calcu -
lated from average s(mins measured o~er a finite g:lg~ le ng(h. usually abou( equal to
(he effcCli.'c dep(h of the beam. In particular. thc sharp increase in curVatufC upon con -
crete cracking shown in Fig. 6. 16 is not often seen bcca~se the crack occurs at only
one discrete location along (he gage leng(h. Elsewhere. the ul!Cracked concretc shares
ill rcsisting flexural tension. resulting in whm is h own as /e",'j"" slijJl"I!i"8. Thi s t~nds
(0 reduce curva(ure. Funhermore. the exact shape of (he nlOnJeIH-eurva(ure rc1~tion
depends strongly upon (he reinforcement ra(io as well as upon the CJlaCl s(ress-stfJin
curves for (he concretc and sleel.
Figure 12.13 shows a somewhm simplified moment-curvature diagram for an
ac(ual concrNc b.:am section having ~ (~nsile reinforcement rat io equal (0 about one-
half (he balanced val ue. The diagram is linear up 10 lhe cracking 1110ment M,,_ after
which 3 nearly s(raigh( line of r.omcwha( fl aller slope IS obtained . A( (he nlOnJeIH
(hat initiates yielding M ,.. (he curvature stans to i!!Crease disproportionJ(cly. Funher
increase in applkd mon!Cnt causes c .~(ensive inelastic rowtion umi1. cventually. (he
compressive strai n limit of (he concrete is reached at (hc ultimate rotntion - .' The
maximum Il10lflCm is often r.omcwha( above (he ca1culakd flex ural streng(h ,II, . due
largely (0 strain hardening of the reinforccmem .
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
' 1-'-'1.....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
FIGUIU: 12. 13
PI,,-,,;, h inge d""",-'cri<,ic. r-I'- - " ----1'1
Actual .~
in" reinf<:>ree<l coocrele
mcmbcT: (tI) typical moment
C","ot<lre dbgrom: (b) Wain,
.nd "no,,,,' .t ,tan of
~: r===~;>~~~'==~~~'''~~IiZ:~;-~-
yield;"~: (c) simi", and
",,',se,", ;""ipicn, failure
rY f-- First cracking

f
f
(.,
Curvaturu
d - kd
L
Air
L
'-- t . - ty
(0) ('I
The eft'c<;l or inelaslic COllcrete response prior 10 steel yielding is small for Iyp
ically undcrrcinforc~d sections. as is indicaic'{\ ill Fig. 6.16. and Ih~ yield moment call
he calculated based on Ihe clastic concrctc stl\:SS dislribution shown in Fig. 12. I Jb:
td
M=A
, ,j, d - -3 (1 2. I )
where td is II", dism~ from {he compressioo fac~ to l h~ cmck.,.j elastic n~u1fal axi,
(sec Secti"n 3.3b). TIre n,,",innl moment capnci{y M._ hased on Fig. 12.13<,. is caku
lat~d by (he usual expr""i""
M, -,t J,.' d- - "2 _Ard _ _ "

>.I, 2 02.2)
For purposes of limit anJlysis. lh~ M - cur~c is usually idealized. as shown

by Ih~ dashed line in Fig. 12.13<1. Th~ slope of Ihe elaslic ponion of lhe curve is
oNained with sati sfactory accuracy using the mOnk:rt t of inertia of Ihe crac~ ed trans
fortl",d section. After lhe nominal IOOlncnt M, is reached. continued plaslic rolalion is
assumed 10 occur wilh no change in applied moment . The claslic curve of Ihe t>cam
will show an abrupl change in slope at such a seclion. The beam beha~es as if lhere
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
' 1-'-'1.....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS OF INDEn:RMINATE 8EAMS ANI> FRIBI ES 4Q I
FIG UIU: 12. 14

Statically inoct<rrninatc
mettlbe, .fter d>e foo,,"lioo
of pl.,,' ic hinge.
were a hing~ at that point Howe"~f, the hing~ will "':>t be "friction -f"",:' but will Im"~
a constam fe,iiitanc~ to rotation.
If such a plasti(' hing~ forllls in a detenninat~ structure. as shown in Fig. 12. 14.
ulKontmlled deflection t~ke~ place. and the strocture will collap"', The fe,ulling ,)'s-
tem is rcferr<'il to a, n medu",i.,m, an analogy to linkage system, in mt.'Chanic"
Generalizing, one can ,ay that a statinlly det~fl11illate system "'quires the fonrut1ion
of only <;IIle plastic hinge to become ~ "",dmni,m.
TI,i, is not so for indeterminate structure,. In this (,asc. stallility m~y be m~in
tained ~ven though hing~s haw form~d at ,,-,veral ('ross "-,ction,, The form~tiot1 of
,uth hinges in indelennin~te ,truclure, p"fmi1S n redistrihution of moments within the
he~m or frame. It will be assumed for simplicity that the indetefll1in~l<e be~m of Fig.
12. I Sa is symllletrically reinforced. so that the negative hending c~pacity is th~ same
a ~ the po,itive. Let the h~d P he incrased gr.wually until tl", elastic moment al tl",
fixoo support. Ti;f'L, iii JUSt equ~1 to the plnstic moment capacity o(the section M. , Thi,
load i,
_ _ .!i M. _ M,
(.j
P-P,, - 3 L -5.33 L
At this load. the posilive moment under the 100td is TIPt. as shown in Fig . 12. I 51l. Th e
b.:am still responds ciastically c\'erywhae bul al the left support, AI that poilll lhe
actual fixed support can be replac~d for purposes of analysis wilh a plastic hinge offer.
i ng a known resisting moment /11,. Because a redundant rc:tction has been rcplac~'d by
a known moment the b.::un is now delcnninatc .
The load can b.: increased further until the moment under Ihe load al"" becomes
L"{jual to M,. nt Which load th~ sccond hinge forms, The structure is COn\WIL'd into a
I1wchanism. as shown in Fig, I 2. I5", and collapse occurs. 11Ie moment diagram at col
lapse load is shown III Fig. 12.15<1,
The magnitude of load causing collapse is easily calculated from the geomelry
of Fig . 12. 15<1:
M. PL
AI

+ - 2 . -4
from whidl
6M ,
p . p .. - - (h)
L
By mmpari'lon of Eq,. (b) and (a). it i, evidelll thaI an i ncr~a-,e in I' of 12.'i per<'~111
i, po"ibl~. heyond the load that caused the formation of the first plasti(' hinge. "do""
the heam will al'tually wll~pse. Due Hl the formation of pia,ti(' hinge,. a ,,'distribu -
tion of Illo"",nt, has occurred ,uch lhm . m failure. lhe r~lio between the I""itiw
momelll and negative IIIOmelll is equ~1 to that n"un>ed in reinfof('ing tl'" 'ltructur~.
I THI
o..loo ot c..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1 -'-'1 .....
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 .. "-
FIGU IU: 12. 15 p

Imkltmlinalt beam ".ith
pla"k hinges at suppa and
mid'p,n 1 I ;b
I.-- l , .1, ,
l _
'"~
'I
1
PC
j
"~I
c. Rotation Requirement
It m~y be c\'id~nt thm there is a direct relation belwc~n tltt: amount of redistribution
desired and the amou nt of indastic rotation Jt Ihe critical sections of a beam requir~d
to produce the desired redistribution. In gweral. the greJtcr the modification of the
elaslic - mom~nt ratio. the greater the req uired rOlation capaci ty to accomplish Ihat
ch~nge. To ill uslrate. if the beam of Fig . 12. 15<, had been reinforced according!O the
clasl ic-moment diagram of Fig . 12.IS/!. no indastic rotation capacily at all would be
required. TIte beam would, at least in theory. yield simu ltaneously at the left support
and at midspml. On the other hand, if the reinforcement at the left support had becn
de liberately red uced (and the midspan reinforcemcnt correspondingly increas<-'<i).
i nclastic rotati on at th~ su pport would he required before the strength at midsPJn could
be realized .
The amount of rotation requirl'inL'<i ctfects of elastic momc nt and plastic hinges. so that
the com:ct boundm)' conditions are sati sfted at th~ supports. U6ually. lero support
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ ...
' 1-'-'1.....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSI S OF I NDEn :RMINATE 8 EAMS A N!) FRA MES 4Q3
FIG UIU: 12. 16

Momen' ",dislr;bu';on;u,
'"'0}-51''''' beam: (,,)Iooded
A (9P ,w D
C
t.:.m; (h) da";c """""nt>,
Ie) nlOdifted mon",m" ,I. I ------J
(d) ,,>(. ElI<>a<k: (.) "'jugale
I')
"",m: IJ1 def1e<:I;OO c" ,ve .
O t 82 P1 ~ f
d1J~ 02t Pl
~O,ck;PI
(b)
0.15() PI ~ t
0240 PI
~,/j
. c: : '"0"150PI
Ie)
~
I~~'
O. 0.150 EI 0" 0"
'" Inle,,,,,1 hinge
")
(II
deflectioll is to tJ., maintained . Moment -area and clHtiugate -beam principle, nre useful
in quantilali"e dcl~r lllinalion of rlllalilH' requirem"nts (Rd. 12.6). In defleclion caltu -
lation,. il is con\'en ient to a"ume thm pla<!ic- hi nging oc curs al a po int, r~l he, Ihnn
tJ.,ing disuiooloo over a finile ";"8iIl811'IIgl/'_ a, is ,,,:luaUy lhe case. Consequentl)'. in
loadi ng lhe conjugale beam wilh unil mlalioll~. pla>!ic- hinge, are represented as COII-
ccntra",d loads.
Ca!culatimlof'IIIalion requirements will be iUuSlratoo by lhe lwo-span cominuou,
beam shown in Fig. 12.100. The ci.Slit-moment diagrnm resulting from a single ("(lII-
te nt rak-d lood is ,hown in Fig. 12.1 61:0. The IIKlIIle nt al supron B is OJI96{'I. while Ihal
under the load is O.182f'1. If lhe deflt.'CliQn of Ihe tJ.,alll at support C were ca!culatoo
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
'1 -'-'1 .....
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 12
using I~ unil rowtions equal to M 1, based 011 this c1:lStic-lnomenl diagmm. a zero
resu lt would be obtained.
Figure 12.16c shows an altcmmivc. statically admissible moment diagmm that
was obtained by arbitmrily increasing Ihe suppon moment from O.{)96l'lto 0.1501'1.
If thc be:un dencction at C were calculmlxl using this momellt diagnun as a b.1si s. a
nonzero ,'alue would be obtained. This indicales the nc"Cessity for inelastic rotation at
one or Inore poinb to Ina illtain g~"Ometric comp:nibility at the right suppon.
If the beam w~rc reinforced according to Fig. 12. 16" increasing loads would
produce the f,r.;t plastic hinge at D. where th~ beam has tw.:en ddiheratcly made under.
strength. COnliJlu~d loading wou ld e~entually result in fonnation of the sc<:ond plas
tie hinge m /J. creating a mechanism and leading to collapse of the structure.
li mit analysis requires calculation of rotalion at all plastic hinges up to. bUI not
including. the last hinge Ihal trigger.; actual collapse. Figure 12. 16.:-1 shows t~ M EI
load to be imposed on the cOlljugate beam of Fig. 12. ltit-. Also shown is the com:en
tmllxl angle change "" which is to be evaluat~d . Starting with the left span, taking
moments of the ,If Elloads aboul the internal hinge of the conjugate beam at 8, one
obtains t~ left reaction of Ihe conjugate beam (cquallo the slope of the real beam):
"= 0,025 ne"

Wilh Ihat rc~<:tion known. rrK'm"nt~ arc tuke" about the ,upport C or the <,(mjugate
beam and ""I equal to zero to obtuin
This represents Ihe necessary discontinuity in the slope of (tIC clastic curve shown in
Fig. 12.16/10 restore the beam to zero dcfkclion at Ille righl support. The beam must
he capable of dc\'Cloping al least Ihat amou nl of plastic rotalion if the modified
OIomc nl diagmrn assumed in Fig. 12. 16<: is to be valid.
d. Rotation Capacity
Tht capacily of concrCIC SlruclU,""S to absorb inclastic rolations at plaSlich inge loca-
tions is not unlimiled. The designer adopting fuillimi r analysis in concrete mUSI cal.
culatc nOI only (he amount of rolalion requi,""d at critical SI.'CTions 10 achieve 11K!
as~\'med lkgr<:e of moment r~'{listribulion but also the rowrion capacity of The mem _
ber~ at (hose S<.'CTions to ensu,"" Ihat il is adcquale.
CurvaTure at inilialion of yidding i~ easily calculated from the clastic wain dis
Tribution shown in Fig. 12. 11h.
(12.3)
d ,
;n which lhe mti" k tstabli,hing tbe <kplh of the elasti<' ntutml a~is is rm",d rmm Eq.
0.12). The curvalu,"" <'orrc~pondi"g to the nominal mmn~nt can ~ ohta;ncd from the
geometry of Fig. 12.1}.-;:
" (12.4)
Although il i, cuslmnary in n""ur~l st,""ngtlt analy,is 10 adopt ,,= OJlO3. rOJ pur-
1""'" of lim;t analysi., a more refined Y~lue is n~e<kd. Exten,ive experimental sTudies
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
11-'-'1.....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSIS OF INDEn:RMiNATE 8EAMS AN!) FRIBIES 4QS
(Ref,. 12.7 and 12.8) indicme lhallhc uilimale slmin capatily of concrele i, slnmgly
influenced hy lhe beam width b, by the momel11 gradient, and by the presence of addi -
tional reinfoccemel11 in the form of compression sk'<:l and confining ,,"'<:I (i.e ., ,,'eb
reinforcement). 'J'ho;, last paml11eter is cOI1\'Cniemly imnKiucl'<l by mean, of a rein -
foccemcl11 ratio ", defined as lhe ratio of the volullie of one ,tirrup plu, its tribUlary
compressive 'teel volume 10 lhe concrete volume tributary to one Slirrup. On the Ilasi,
of empiril'al Sludie" the ultimate flexuml ,train at a plaslic hinge is
b J,
Er. = 0.003 + 0.02--=- + 14.5
(12.5)
where r i<!he di,taIll'<' hetween point, of maximum and zero nK)me"t. Basl'<l 'K\ Eqs.
(12.3) to ( 12,5), the inelastic CUf\'ature for the idealized relation shown in Fi g. 12. J]a is
M,
, (l2.b)
"M,
Thi~ plastic mtmi'K\ is nOl conf",ed 10 one cros, "''CIion hut is distributed over a finile
length rcfe.-.-..d 10 a!; the hi"!:i!!!,; l~n!,;lh. The experimemal sl udies upon whil'h Eq.
(12.5) is based measured ;;train, and mtmion< in a lenglh equal to the e/Tective depth
d of the test members. Consequently, ' " is an """'''Xe value of ultimme strain over a
finite length, and p ' given b)' Eq , (12 .6), i, an ",'cm!,;,' value of cUf\'alUre. n,e tOlal
inda"il' rotation r Can be found by nmltiplyinG the average curvature by 11", hinging
length:
,II ,
, - I (12.7)
' M" P
On the basi, of cu.-.-..nt evide'Ke, it aPl"'ars that lhe hin ging length I. in supp<m
region" on either <ide of the support, can be appmximatl'<l by the expr""ion
Ip = O..'i<l + 0.05z (12.8)
in which Z is the distuncc from the point of maximum momenl 10 lhc nearesl poin! of
',cro moment,
e. Moment Redistribution under the ACt Code
Ful l U~ of the plastic capacity of reinforeed concretc beams and frames requires an
eXlensive analysis of all po5siblc mechanisms and an inveSliga'ion of rolalion require-
ments and capacities al all proposed hinge locat ions . The increase in design time may
nOl be juslified by the gains ot>lainl'd, Onthc other hand, a reSlrictt!d amount of redis-
'ribUlion of daslic 'll(I'fIenlS can safcly be made withou' complete onalysis, yCI may
be sufticienl to obtain mOSt of 'he advall\ages of limi t analysis,
A limi'ed amount of rcdiS1libu\ion is perm il1ed by AU Code 8.4, depending
upon a rough measure of available doctility, without explicil caleul a'ion of rotation
requiremell\S and capacities. The fIet ten~ile strain in the cxtrcme tension stccl at nom _
inal stfC ngth ' ,. gi\'c n in Eq, (3 ,29), is use<:! as an indicalor of row,ion capacity,
Accordingly, ACI Code 8.4 provides as follows:
b eept ","-'rc approxi"~1'e ,'aloes for momC"lS an: U5\."(\, 'he ncgatiw ,tlO!'lC1ltS .ak,,-
lated by cbstic . heor ~ at the S"I'\Xl'IS of conlinuous tlc ~"",1 n",mocrs for any assu med
10000i"11 arnlngc",,,nt ,nay oc increased or "'-",'cased by IKlI ,,'"-"'" th~n 1000 ,pc,,""t with
I THI
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ .
11-'-'1.....
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
406 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: ST RUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 12
FIG UIU : 12. 17

Allowable moment
... dimi""ti",, under the
v
ACI (,<:>dc.
V
/
o
0.000 0.005 0.010 0 .015 0.02{) 0.025
Ne1 tensi1<3 sirain ~,
a maximum of 20 perrent. These modifie<l ""rati\" moment. ,hall be USI.-d for cakula-
tion of the moments at secti""s within t ... spans. Such an ocIju<;tment shall be made only
when , is equal 10 or greaur than 0,0075 at lhe section m which the moment is rc-doced,
Redislribution for ,'alues of , < 0.0075 is conservaliwly prohibited. 11le ACI Code
provi,ions ure shown gr:lphically in Fig. 12. I 7. TIle va\"" of corresponding to a gi"en
,'alue o f I" and lhus a giwn percentage change in momem . can be calculated using
Eq. (J.3(){,) front Seelio!} 3.4<1.
To demonstrate tlw advamage of moment redislribulion when alt~mali~e loadings
ar~ it]Vo l,ed. consider Ihe concrete beam of Fig. 12.18. A three,pan ~'Ot1linuons beam
is shown. wilh dend load of I kiplft ami live load of 2 kips/ft. To obmin maximnm
mOnlenlS at all crilical design sections. il is tlecessary 10 consid~r Ihroo alt~math-e load-
ings. Case a. with he and dead load owr exu-'rior spans and dead load only owr II ...
inlerior SIKIIl. will produce the maximum positi\'e monlent in the exlerior SIKltls. Case
", with dead load on exterior spans nnd dead and live load on tile ntterior spnn. will pro.
duce the ma,\imun1 positiv~ momem in the interior ,pnn , Th~ maximum negati"e
momenl over tlw imerior support is oblained by placing dead and li~e load on the IwO
adjacent spans and dead 100.1 on ly on Ille fiIT exlerior span. as sho-..'n in case c ,
It will be assumed for simphc'ily Ihm a 20 J1'l'TCefll adjusunenl of suppon
monlenls is penniu~d Ihrougl"'u!. pnwided span mom~nt' are modifil-d accordingly.
An ""erJIl r",",uclio" in d~sign moments Ihrough tIle "nlire Ihr..-e " pan beam may he
p"><sible . Ca", a. for example. produces nn ciu,lic maximum sl"'n mmnent in tIle exte-
rior 'pan, of 109 ft -kips, Corr"'p",nding '" Ihis is ~n elaslic negative moment of 82 ft -
kips at the interior SUPP")rt. Adjusting Ihe support mO"lenl upward by 20 I"'rcent. one
obwins a ""gali"e monlent of 98 ft-kips. which ""uits in a downwanl adjustment of
tIle 'I"'n n",ment '" IOJ ft -t<ips.
Now consid~r <'ase h, By a simi lar r~diwibulion of moments, " ",d\lced middle-
'pan nJ<"'lent of 57 ft kip~ is ohlained Ihrough "n inc",ase oflhe supp"'" monlent from
78 to 93 ft-kips.
The mOment obtaitll-d at the tiTSt interior support for loading case c can be
adjusled in llIe reverse d irc'l'lion: i.e" th" support momen! is decrea",d by 20 peK-.:nt
I '1 .-1,....1 I
o..loootc..,_ .............. 8._ ... THI
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 .. "-
ANALYSI S OF INDEn:RMINATE SEAMS AN!) FRA MES 407
FIG UIU: 12. 18 Factored li\le load ~ 2 ,0 kips /II

R<distriWlioll of moment> Factored dead load ~ 1,0 kipltt
in" Ihree-sp.1n conli"lIOU'
t.:.m.
"'. '" "'.

1 ~ COI1stanl
Case "."
3 kipslft 3kijlslft
HtpJfI.
"" ""
/;(1011" /fiOD~
\')~~----~'1
, 1//
'\y;; .......... 'I
(9t!) (98)
Case "b"
3 kips/fl
I kipltt 1 kiplfl
n
/{;;n~
-
.....~, ,
(93)
'y/
, ,, 78
\
(93)
:;; .....
--
Case "c"
3 kipslft 3 kipslft
1 kiplfl
/
--'''''" '\, --- w/
/7' ''''
\\ Ii
50 ""'"
, I
,"''",
(107)
--
'" - - M from elastic analysis

- - M alte, ine~st;c ,edisuibvtion
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
'1 -'-'1 ..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
10 107 ft-k ip,. To avoid increasing the co ntrolling 'pan moment of the int~rior span.
the right int~rior suppon moment is adju,ted upward by 20 I"'rcent to RO fT-kips. TIle
po,iti,'" n")fnenl, in lhe Idt alerior span and in the interior 'pan corr~'ponding to
these n,,><lified support Illollleni. are 96 and 56 ft kips. re'l"'clivdy.
It will be observed tbat lhe reductioll Oblai!le-d for the 'pall """'lenl, in cases"
and" were achieved at the expense of iocrea,ing the moment at lhe fi"l interior . up-
pon. How""er. the increa....-d ,upf'on moment in each tase wa, Ie," than tile n""'lent
for which that ,upport would ha"~ to be de'ig",--d ba.cd 00 the loading c. which 1''''-
duced Ihe maximum suppon monlen!. Similarly. the redu<tion in suppon monlent in
case c wa., taken at the expense of an increac in span mO"lents in the Iwo adj"'-"Cnt
'pans . However. in each case the increased span n""'lenl, were Ie" than the maximum
'pan n""'lents obtained f')f other loading conditions, The final design moments a! all
crilical'''''lion, are umlerlined in Fig. 12.IS.1t can be ,",en. tllen. that the net re<ult i,
a -duction in design Il""'lenl, over tile e nt ire beam. This Il,,><lification of n"",,,,nt,
does!lOl mean a reduction in >afety factor below Ihal implied in code safety provisions:
mther. it mean , a -ducli on of tl", <"-<ce"" strength thai would o(herwise be pre>em in
the ,tructure because of tile anual -di.tribution of """'lents that would (X-cur before
failure. It reflect, tile facllhat the maximum design """'lent, are oblained from alter-
native load pallems. which could nOi exi st conturrently. The end resull is a"""" real -
is!ic appmi sal of the actual collapse load of the im\t.1erminale structure.
_. 12.10 C O N CLUS IO N
l1'e problem, as><lCiated wilh analysi. of rei nforeed connete struclure, are many. TIle
"ngine"Cr musl not only accept the U(]("enainties of load pia<-ement. magnilude. and
dumtion typical of any structural analysis. but must also cope with other complicalion,
that are unique to reinfor",-"<,<: iat~d with estimation of
moment of inenia of the reinforc<-d <-Onerele "">etio", and with the influence of con -
trete creep. They may be summarized briefly a, follows: (I) e/Tenive 1110nlents of
inertia change depending on tile 'ign of die bending moment, (2) moments of inertia
depend nOi only on the effective ~~"'("("te "">etion. bul also on Ihe s\("CI. a pan of which
may be discontinuous. (3) montent, of inenia del"'nd on na l'!;:ing. which is bmh
location--depende nt and load--depende nt. and (4) the con,'rete is subject to creep unde r
,u,taint.-d load,. reducing its dfenive ""oJulu,. In addition. joi nt restraints and condi -
tions of suppon for complex structures are seldom mmpletdy in an-ordance wi lh the
iJealizati<;m. The ,tudent may well despair of ,,,:curate calculation of lhe int~mal
forees for which Ihe members of a reinfor<-ed ,-oncrele frame mu,t be design<-d .
It ma), be reassuring to know thai reinforced cOncrele has a remarkable <-aracity
to adapt [() the assumpl io!ls of lhe de,igne r. This has been pointed out by a number of
oUistanding engineers. Luigi Ncn'i_ the renowntX! Italian arrhite<-I -engin<"Cr. has Slated
il eloquently as follows:
Mainly beea"", of pla"jc fl",,'. a concrete ,tructure tries with admirabk docility 10 ada[l!
i(",lf to oor eakul.t;om.-_which do not alway. repre",nt the "lOlt logical and ,portt._
n,,,,,,, answer to the request of lhe forces", play_ "nd e,,,n tries 10 correct oor deficien_
cies and errors . Se<:t;om"nd regions 100 highly .tressed yidd and channel ",me of lheir
load< 10 olher ""'tion, or region,. which ""cellt this a.dd;tional laS~ with commendable
spirit of collaboration. wilhi" the limits of lheir own ,trength '
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
'1 -'-'1 ..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
Hardy em"s, best known for his developn"'nt of the l110nlent di,tribution u",thud of
analysi, (see Seclion 12,4). nOl~d the beneficial eff~cl s of concrete o'-"'p. hy whi.-h a
,trunure can adapl 1<> suppo n ~ttle""'nt s. whi.-h. on the ha,is of elasti.- analysi s.
cau", fon:es and mov~n"'nts sufficient 1<> fail the Slructu",. H(lll'ard Birkelon.!. one of
Ihe pioneers in the de\'ciopment of prestressed c<;mn ete in tile Unil<-><.l State,. referred
to the "wi>dom of the Slru cture ." nm ing that "". the ,tmclure. in many instan<'es. will
a<'Cept our rash assumptions and our impt'rfed mathematical model, , , , lhe struelure
wil I exhaust all nleans of standing before it decides to fall:"
nlUS it may be of 'Ollie comfon to know that" reillforce,1 cOII,,,,I,, slrucllIre will
It'nd In (lei d." Ihe enRineer Iw" ",<,<lilliI'd ;1 "'ill nc i. Rea,onable assum ptions in the
analysi, may safely be made . But mmlbl)' to this imponam prin.-iple i, the ""eer-
tance of it, limit>: Ihe /:t'nertd 1"lIIem of f orce., "",I mo",ent." mll,"1 be recog nized, an,/
til /"",1'1 olle rt'(l,w,wb/e "",d IWII! pmrided. Too great a devialion from tIle anual dis-
tribution of imemal force, can result in ,ervi""abi lity pmblems a"oc'iated with crack-
ing and deflection. and can even resuh in premalure fai lure , It is fOJ this rea><;m thaI
meth<xls of limit analy~i s for reinforl1.><.l concrete indmk restrictions on the anKlUm o(
redistrihution of ciastic moment, (see Senio" 12.9). But it is rea"uring to know that.
if good judgmem i, used in a"igning internal forces to <:riti<:al ",ction., the I<';"dmll
of ll,e "lmclUrt' will prevaiL
REFERENCES
,c.l . C 11 . N.-ro,. 1. 1<. WO 'W, . nd S. 1J'~" , i_ow"'at)' ;-'rocr.~,1 A ..ap'.' , -"h ,,1.. Mc(;",,,,_lhll , NN' Y,n.
1\1\1 1.
I n. w. M c( ;u ir<, It It G. I I>~ . ""'ill. D . I-",mian, M,artl S,,,,,,u,,,I A,,,,/)',,,. , '" h M~ .\TAN2, 2..1 ,,1..
M c( ;"'~' _lIji1, New ,""t\; , I_
12.3. 111. l'al "",1 W. I ,eigh, 1",,[<,,,,,,, .II",,;x S'''''''u~,1 ~ ",,~ ,i' fi" '~ ""'."'-'- KI"w"", 11-os00II. 1m L
12.4 K. M. U '" ..-.1 C -\1. l!"~ , F_u",,,,"wl., "I 5,,,,,,,,,,,,1 ,tn" ~., ,,. Mol " "w_IIi1L Nc"" y"O:. ~ m.
I CS C,,,,,,',,u,ry i. O!N~" Hu ,l<li"ll F",,,,,,, 4<h ,'<1 __ 1\.,1"",1 CC'tllC" ' '\,,,,,,,,,,,.. , ~kol:i" . l1H .."h, 19W.
12 .6 ( ;. c.I '' '''' . * ,\ Brief h. ' ';on;' l:b ;~ ":' T""... AS('E, " '~ . I 2t , 19 Y;, Pf'. "'l~1 ,
I c. 7. '\ . It M . .. ""k. - 11<0" "" C'f"",iiy o( lI i "~i" ; Il<.-; im, i" Il" of"",,,,, (" ...."""0 Fr""",, : Pm<. I",. 5)""1'
Fh.",1 .little I/:""fi m '' '/ 0 "",,.,.,,., ,\C I I,"or ~ti"fl ~1'_ J 1. 19M
12 . ~ . 1. ~ . I'm), !l. C. (' 1wl ~ . ...1 1. E Hfwn, " 1)<";; " Impl","';" " fN)fll To"" ,,( lJn1-..-;tc"" Molh_""",1
(',""'M" Fr.". ,,: e"",., b11l.. ,,~ . " " '. J, I Y~L Pf'. 31--4 J
PROBLEMS
12.1. Compl~te lhe preliminary <ksign of the (ou r-story heavy ~romge fae'i lity shown
in Fig. P1 2.I , The n<Klf live load is 250 psf. the Hx)fli,tl load is 12 psf. and
the dead load on all floors and the roof ('onsi st, of th" slructur" self-wei ght
plu, 10 psf for uriliti"s, Th~ building is endosed in a ~lf- ~upponing curtain
wall that al so carri", th" laleml load on the ,tructure. Ikam.< am sp;t~"d at
12 ft: girders are spaced at 27 f1. TIle minimum dear space between floors i ~
II ft. and the fl{xn depth ~hould nOt exceed 30 in . The colun", cros, seclion,
slKlUld be maintained fmm tl<K)r to floor. U'" f, = 60,000 psi and f; =
4000 psi for the floor,. Co ncmte will1 f ; up 1<) 8000 psi is a\"ailabl~ for the
co lumns, The prelirnin,U)' design ,hou ld include the inilial dimen~i<K" o f the
Slrul'lur~1 'lab. heams. girders. and l'olumns for a typical floor.
' .1. t, IIOrk l...... "roc 1>.1><k." of,he s,,,,,,,",".- 1. ACl. A",,11978, PI'- to:l---- t t t
o..loootc..,_ . . . . . . . 8._.
' 1-'-'1..... I THI
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 .. "-
FIGUIU: 1"12.1
iT! ! !! ! !! ! !Tll
H+++++++++H ~
t++++++++++-H
Li i ~ i i ~ i i ~ iUJ
~
I ~ OI2. - J. 4 0 36' - 144' I
12.2. A concrete beam wilh I> = 12 in .. h = 26.5 in .. and d = 24 in .. ha"ing a 'pan
of 24 n. can be C<lnsid~ r<Xl fully fix~"!ationaJ ",slr~inr (e.g .. mlb) at lhe right end . It is ",in
forced fo, positiv" bending wilh a comhinatio" of hars giving A, = 2,45 in!,
and for negalive bendi ng allh" Idt support wilh A, = 2.88 in 1. Posili"" Imr!i
are carried 6 in . imo Ihe face of II", Idl support. ac"",ding I(} Ih" AC I Code
"-'<lu irem"nr,. bUI Ia"k th" em...,dded lenglh 10 be "onsidered d focli,'e a!i ",)m
pression steel. No. 3 (No. 10) dosed hoop ~Iirrur' ar" provided at 9 in. 'pac
ing ,wer the fu ll span. 1he fa~1ored load co"sisls of a single concentrated forcc
of 6].3 kips at midspan. Sel f weighl of II", beam may be ''''gk-eted in the cal
culali",,,- Calculale Ihe mtalio" "-'<luirement at lbe lirst plasti ,- hinge 1o form
(<I) if Ihe beam is reinf()ft~"<I ru:cording 10 lhe descriplion atxwc. (b) if. I()
redul" bar co"ge,tion all he Idl support. Ihal sled area i, r<Xluced b)' 12.5 pe r
~'Crn. wilh an approprial~ in~'rca", in Ihe po,itive Sled area. and (e) if II", Sled
area at Ihe IeI'I suppo rt is reduced by 2 .~ percent. cnmpared wilh lbe original
de,;criptio", wilh an appropriate increa,e in tbe po,ilive SI".,I area. Also ~altu
lale Ihe rolalion cafl'K'i ty of the cril;~'al secli'Hl. for comparison with lbe
"-'<Iu;ren"'nl' of ("). (b). and (e). Comment Oil your results and cornpare wilh
Ihe appmach \() moment r~di,tribut ion pr"",med in the ACI Code. Malerial
strenglhs are /, = 60 \;Si ;mdf; = 4 \;Si.
12.3. A 12 " pan "onlinuou, reinforced concrele T ""am is 10 carry a "aitulal<Xl dead
load of 9(X) Ill/ft in~'luding self weight. plus a service live load of 140) IlJIfl 011
unifonn spans measuring 26.5 ft !>;,I\\ieen crmers of supporting columns (25 ft
dear SP.111S). The slab Ihiek rle~s is 6 in .. and the effe~'live flange widlh is 7.~ in.
Web proportions are b_. = O.tid. and Ihe max imum reinforcrment ralio w;1I be
set at 0.011. All colu mn, will be 18 in. >quare. Malerial slrenglhs are}; =
4000 psi and('. = 60.000 psi.
(<I) Find II", f"" IOred monJent~ for Ihe eXlerior and first inlerior 'p~n IKlsed on
th~ AC I Code mon""m coeffici~ms of Tabl~ 12. I.
(b) Find lhe faclored Illome nlS in theex.erior and firSI interior span by elas
tic frame analysi8. assuming (he floorlOfloor heighl 10 be 10 fl. N01e
.hal a1t ~rnalive Jive load ings should be consideroo (see S~Clion 12.2(/)
nn(1 Ihal momenlS Can be red1lCL"<110 account for Ih~ support widlh (see
S""lion 12.5,,). Compare your resuhs wilh those ob1ained using Ihe AC I
moment coefficienlS.
I THI
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ANALYSIS O F INDEn:RMI NATE 8 EAMS AN!) FRIBI ES 4 11
fc) Adj ust II", factored nega!i,-e and positive moments, taking advantage of
the r~dis!ribution provision, of the ACI Code. Assume that a 10 percent
minimum "-'<iistrihutioll is possihk.
(d) Design II", ~xlerim and firsl int ~rior spans for Oex ure and sl",ar, finding
COl1nete dimen,ions and har r"'luiremenls, hasing your d~sign <;111 II",
assumption' and modifi~'<i moment, in part (e).
11,4 , A ('olltinn"us reinforced connde fr~il'" com;';,!s of a two-span ,,-'(,t:U1gular beam
ABC, with ('ent~r-!o--t"nter span, AB and Be of 24 ft. Column, measuring 14 in.
S<juare are provided at A, fl, and C 11", column, may be ('<HlSidered fully fixed
at the O<H1rs alx,,-e and below for purposes of analysis. 1he beam will ('lIlT)' a ser-
vice live load of 1200 Iblft and a ('alrubted dead load of 1000 Iblft, including
self-weight. Floor-to-O(KK height i, 12 ft. Material strength, = /, = 60,000 psi
aruJ j ; = 4000 psi .
(a) Carry out an eia,tic analysi, of the two-span frnrne, ('onsidering a1temat~
Ii"" loadings to maximize II", bending momenl at aU crilical ""-'l ions,
Design the bearn~. using a maxilllU'" reinforcement ratio of 0.0 12 and , /
= lb. Find the reyuircd connete ~cti<;l11 and ""yuired sl<-",I areas at posi -
ti"" and nega1i\'~ bending section,. Sele('[ the reinforcement. CulOtT point s
can be detennim.'<i aU'oruing to Fig. 5.1 .51,. Note that negativ~ design
rm"nent, = at the fa<."" of ,upports. not support cenlcrl illes.
(b) Take maximum advantage of th" r~di stribution provision, of ACI Code 8.4
(see S("dion 12.ge) t<;l reduce d"sign n""nents nt nil critical section>, and
redesign th~ sK..,1 for the beams. K""p the concrde seclion ul1('hang~d,
Select r~i nforcen"'n! and d~t.,nnine cUlOff point,.
({') Comlllent on your two d."igns ",ilh regnrd 10 lhe amoul11 of ,t",,1 r"'luired
and the possible congestion of st~el at tbe critical bending section,. You
may assume that II", st",ar reinforcemel11 i, ullchang~d in lhe rede~iglled
beam.
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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

OF SLABS
13.1 T YPES OF SLASS
In reinforced concrete construction. slab, are used to provide flal. u~ful surface,. A
reinfoK'<,d <.'onnete slab is a Immd. flat plate. usually horizomal. wilh lop and bOl1orn
surfaces parallel or nearly so. It may he supp<med by reinfmct.xi concrele hearn< (and
is u ~ually cast monol ithicatiy with such !J<,arns). by masonry or reinforced conl-rete
watis. b)' structural ~ttlel mernrel'S . directly by colurnns. or com inuously by lhe
ground.
Slabs rnay he supp<med on two opposite sides only. as shown in Fi g. I ~.Ia. in
whi,-h case the structur~1 action of the ,lah is essentially (",~ - ...ay. the load!; heing l-ar-
rid by the ,lab in the direction perpendicular to the support ing heams. There may
he beams on all four sides. as ,hown in Fig. 13.lh. so thatllm-w"y slab anion is
obta ined, Intern",diare heam,. a, shown in Fig. 13.1,-. may he provided. If the nlti o of
length to width of 01'" slah pat",1 is larger than about 2. most of the load is c-arriffi in
tl'" short di r""tion to the supporting beam, and onc-way a"tion is obtained in effect.
cven though support!; are provided on all sides.
C<H><:retc slabs may in ,orne ca,es he carried directly hy n,lunms . a, shown in
Fig. 13. Id. without the u~ of bean~~ or girders. Such slabs arc described aSjlmp/me.I'
and are comllionly u>ed where spans are nO! large and loads nm parti,-ul arly hea,'y,
Flal _,/ah <.'()n<truction. sl\<,wn in Fig, 13.1 e. is also bearnle<s but incorporat'" a th ick -
em,{1 slah reginn in the vicinity of the col umn and often employs nared column tops.
BOIh are d~v;l-es to reduce st re,~s due to <hear and negative bending amund the
columns. n",y arc rde""d to as dmp ",me/., and ,-o/lIl1Pn ,-apiUl/.,'. respe<.,tivety.
Closcly relat~d to the tlat plate ,lab i, the two- w~y joist. also known as a ~rid or IWY'
fie .-Jah. shown in Fig. 13.1/ To ,,-xiuce tl", dead load of solid-,lab construction. void~
are foml<-'d in a rectilinear pattern throu gh use of "",tal or libergl"", funn in>ens. A
two-way rihbed conSlruction re, ults. Usually i"scrts are omitted n~ar the co lumn<. so
a solid slab is fonned 1U resist moments and sl",ars retter in th~sc area,.
In additi(Hl 1<\ the column-supported types of con~truct ion shown in Fig, 13. 1.
rnany stabs are supported continuou,ly on lhc ground. as for highways . airport run -
ways. and warehou>e noor". In such case,. a wdl -cornp~tted layer of cru,h<.xi ,to""
or gmvel is usually provided to ensure un ifonn support and to allow for proper sub-
gr~de drainage .
Reinforcing sK'e1 fur slab, ;s primarily parallel to the slab surfaces. Str~;ght bar
reinforce"",m i, genemlty USl'd. aitlKIIlgh in tontinuous ,I~h> Ixmom hall> are ~omeli me!i
bent up to serve ~s ''''gativc reinfor~'enlt.'nt over the suppon,. WeI<.k'd wire reinforcement
is conUlHlIlly empl<'Y<-xi fOf slam; on tl'" ground. Bar or rod mal, ~re available fm the
412
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ANAU 'SIS ANI) I)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 4 13
FIG UIU : 13.1

Ty(>C' of ",,,<,ural .Iab.
II i II i I! I I!I
-~-------Joj,c- -t='--------~'-
==--1 -- Beam -- -
r - - - - - - - - - I~=
ITI IT!
I' I 1'1 '" III II II
,I
II I III
I EI l EI
I~I I~I I "'I I "'I
I~I IJlI I~I I ~I
II I
I' I
III
1'1
,
"
,I
~E--------~'-
, 'I "
-!$i---- ~C- =;-1 _________
-- Beam - - , I~=
-
!:!
!! II: ' III Ii I ! i'
fi'iif'" .,.. ,. ,_,I. '19-:' ':"-r

,,' ,'.
(b) Two-way slab
IIi ii IIi ! !
~'="~j==,,1It= -t-----1-
1'1 II 1'1
'I'
1,1 ,I ,I 'I'
1,1 I ,I ,
I'I'I
1'1
"II II I'I'I
1'1
I
I
~-li.-c~1=-c-ll.l~
-~--T,--~--
II II II
\-*----
i
----
i
(e) One-way slab (d) Flat ~ate
'" 'ft "' ' ' . ," .. ~)' ,

(8) Flat slab (f) Grid Of walfte slab
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heavier reinforce"",nl ,0"",li""" """ded in highwa)' ,lab, and airport runway'. Slab,
may also be pre'lre"ed using high len <ile 'trenglh ,trand,.
Reinforced COncret~ ,lahs of the types shown in Fig . n.1 are u,ually de'igned
for load, a,suln'.od to be unifon11ly di,tributed o"er one entire slab panel. boumkxl by
,upponing beam, or column centerline5. Minor conl'entratoo loads can be ,,,.- comnK)-
datoo 1hmugb Iwo-way action of the reinforcement (IW(,-way flexural 51ed for tw,)-
way ,lab 'y't~rns or one-way flexural <t",,1 plus lateral distributiml 'ted for one-way
'y,tem,). Hea,'Y concentrated lood, gener.llly r~uire suppon ing beams .
Ch",-way and tW<)-\"ay Lodge-suppont.od slabs. such a, ,hown in Fig. 13.111_ h , and
c, will he di,cussed in Sedioll' 1:12 10 13.4. Tw,)-way beam Ie" sy,teI1L', ,uc'h a,
,hown in Fig. l3.IJ, <', andf. a, well as Iwo-way edge-,upponed <Iah, (Fig. l3.1h). will
be treale<1 in Sec'!ioll' [1.5 In 13.13. Spec'ial metlK,ds based nn limit analy,i, at the
o"~rl",,d ,tate, applicahle to all typ'" ,;tf ,lab,. will be pre>ented in Chap'''p; 14 and 15.
" 13.2 DE SIG N OF ON E- WAY SLA BS
n.., ,tructural action of a one-way ~lah may be "i,ualized in tenn, of the defon!..,d
,hap" of d.., l<>aded ,urfac'e. Figure 13.2 shows a rrttangular slab. ,imply ,uppon~d
almlg its 1wo opposite long edges ami free of any support along the tWQ oppo,i1e 'hon
Lodge,. If a uni formly di.tribukod l<>ad is appliLod to tbe surface, the deflected shap" will
be as ,hown hy tl.., ,olid line,. Curvature,. and consequently bending rnomelllS. are
the same in all s1fips .< spanning in the 'hon direction between supponed edge"
whereas there i, !K' curvature. I",nee no hending moment, in the long strips I pamlle!
to d", snpponed edges . The surfac" is approximately eylindri<'al.
For purposes of analysis and design, a unil 'trip of such a slab cut Out at right
angl~s to the ,upponing beams, as shown in Fig. 13.3. may be eon,i<l~red as a reclan -
gular heam of unit width. with a <kpth II equal to 1he thi"knes, of Ihe ~lab and a span
'" equal 10 the distance hetw""" supponed edge~. 11,is strip can then be analyzed hy
the mel hod, that w~re used for rectangular beams, the bending nK,,,,ent being ,'om-
pUled for d,e s1rip of unit "'idth. 11.., load I"'r unit area on 1he slah becomes tl.., load
I"'r unit length on tbe slab sirip. Since all Qf the load on the ~lab mu,t be tran,mitted
to d,e two ,upponing beams. it follows that all of the reinforc'ement should be placoo
FIG UIU: 13.2

Dclle<:ttd shape or uniforml),
loaded oo<, ""y , lab.
Simple supporls
00 \Wolong
edges ooly
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) I)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 41 5
FIG UIU: 13.3

Unit "rip b",,;, for Hexuml
de;ign.
at right angles 10 these beams. with the e.xception of any bars that may be placed in lhe
other dircClion to control shrin k ag~ and temperature crackillg. A onc way slab. thus.
cOllsists of a Silt of rt.~tallgubr beams side by sid~ .
This simplified analysis . which assulncs Poissoll's ratio 10 be zero. is slight ly
cOIl5<:r\'ali\'e. AClUally. fk~ural compression in the cOllcretc in the dirc.;tion of I, will
rcsult in lateral cxpansion in thc direclion of II> unless thc comprcssed concn::te is
restraincd. In a onc-way slab. thi s lateral expansion is resislcd by adjacent slab strips.
which tcnd 10 expand Jlso. The result is a sligln slrengthctltng and stiffcning in the
spall dircclion. bUllhis eff~~t is small and call be disregarded .
The reinforcement ratio for a slab can be delermined by d ividing thc area of ooe
bar by the area of concrete betwc"Cnlwo successive bars. the lana area being the prod
UCi of the depth to the ccnter oflhe bars and thc distance betwccn them. celller 10 cell
t~r. 11Ic rcinforcemelll ratio can also be dctcrmin~"d by dividing the a\'erage area of
stcel per fOOl of width by lhe elfecti"e :trca of concretc in a I ft strip. The a~erag~ area
of stcel per foot of width is equal to thc area of one bar limes Ihe avcragc numb.:r of
t>ars in a I Ii Slrip (12 dividcd by thc sp:tcillg ill inches) . :tnd thc Cffcclive area of COli
crete in a I ft (or 12 in.) strip is equal to 12 timcs the cff.xtivc depth d.
To illustrate thc lallcr t""thod of OOla'nillg the rcinforccnlCnt ratio - , assume a
5 tn. slab with an cff.xtive depth of 4 in .. with No . 4 (No. 13) bars spac("d 4 in. cell
tcr to ccmer. TIle a,wagc number of bars in a 12 i,n. mip of slab is 12 4.5 - 2t b.1rs.
and the a"cragc sl~'C1 area in a 12 in . Slnp is 2j x 0.20 .. 0.533 Inl . Helice ..
0.533 ( 12 x 4) - 0.0 111. By lhe othcr method,
0.20
.. .. 0.0111
4.5 x 4
The >pacing of bars that is oeccssary 10 furnish a givcn area of steel per foot of
widlh is oblaitll"d by dividing the number of bars T<.'quired 10 furnish thi s area into 12.
For eXJlllplc. to furlli sh all avcragc area of 0.46 ill l ft. with No.4 (No. D) t>ars.
requires 0.46 ~ 0.20 - 2.3 bars per foot: the bars must be spaced nOI more Ihan 12 2.3
- 5.2 in. CClller 10 ccnter. The dctcnninntioll of slab stcel arc~s for various combina
tions of bars and spacings is facilitated by T~blc A..l of Appendix A.
Faclorcd IlIOlncnts and shears in one-way slab-! ean be found cilhcr hy elastic
analysis or through the use of the satlle coefficicnts as us.:d for beams (see Chapl~r
12). If lhe shb rests freely on its suppon s. Ihc sp:tn Icngth may be lakell eq ual to the
elc:tr span plus the depth of Ihe slab hut nced not exc~"Cd the dislance betw~'Cn cem~rs
of suppons. according to ACI Codc 8.7. l. III gen~ral. center-lOccmer di swnces should
be used ill contilluous slab analysis. but a rc"duction is allowed in neg:t1ive monl<!ll1S to
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TABLE 13.1
Minimum thickness of
nonprestressed oneway slabs
SimpIY'"PIlOfI,d r. 20
O"'.rod C{lfllinu"", I 24
IJo<h ends tonlin""", r. 28
Cantilew, /10
a~"Count for ,upport width as di",u.Sdl in Chapter 12. For slah. wilh dear 'pan, nQI
more Ihan 10 ft thai are huilt integrally with Iheir supp"m. ACI Code 8.7.4 permits
analysis a, a conlinuous slab Qn knife-eJge ,upports with spans eq ual to the dear
'pan, and Ihe width of the beams otherwise negle("\~-J. If moment and shear codfi -
cient, are used. ~'omputations ~hould be based On dear ,pan<.
One-way slah, are normally d~signed with len sile reinforcement ratio, well
below 11", maximum p,,,,,,i,,ible valu~ of . "",,' Typic-al reinforcement ratios r~ng~
from ai:x,uI 0.004 10 0.008. This is partially for r~as",,, of ""onomy. i:x."<Oause Ihe sav-
ing in sk...,l associa..,d with increasing the df<."<Otive depth more than compensates for
the c<>S1 of the additional concrete. and partially i:x."<Oau'le very Ihin slab, with high rein -
force"..,m ralios would be likely to pennillarge den ....li on'. Thu,. flnural design may
,tart with selecting a relatively low reinfor<'emeni ratio. say ai:xlUt 0.25 """, setting M u
= . M. in Eq. (3.38), and ,,,Iving fOJ the required effeclive depth d. given Ihat" = 12
in. for the unit ,trip. Alternalively. Table A5 or Graph A.I of Appendix A may be used.
TabJeA.9 is also useful. n.e required 'ted area per 12 in. strip.A, = lui. is Ihen eas-
ily found.
AC] Code 9.5.2 specifie, the minimum thickness in Table 13.1 f"r IKlrtprestressed
,labs of normal -weighl concrele (we = 145 pet) using Grade 60 reinfor<ement. P"'-
vidt.-J that the slab is not supp<ming or alta..-heJ to conslru("\ion Ihal i, likely I" be dam-
aged by large defle("\i",ts. Lesser thickne,ses may he used if caltulati<lrt of defl<."<Olion,
indicales no aJ,'erse effecls. For concretes h~ving unit weight w e in the range from 90
to 120 pef. the tabulaled values should he multiplioo hy (1.65 - 0.OO5wc)' but not b,
than J ,09. For reinforce""'lli having a yield 'tress j,. od",r than 6O,00Cl psi. Ihe tabulatoo
value. slKlUld he multiplied by (0.4 + j, IOO,OOCl). Slab deflections may he calculated.
if required. by lhe same method, as for beam, (see St.'<-Iion 6.7l-
Shear will seldom control the de,ign of one-way .Iabs. particularly if low tensik
reinfQrcen"'nt ratiQs are used. It will he found that the s]",ar capacity Qf tl'" ("Qncrete.
\I,. will almosl without eX("eption he well nbove the required .]",ar 'trength \I. nt fa(' -
tored load,.
n.., Imal slab thickness h i. usuall)' rounded 10 tl", nexi hig]"'r~ in . fOJ ,labs up
t
to 6 in . thickness. and [() the next higher in. for Ihicker slab,. Best economy is often
achieved when the .lab thi<'knes, i, selected to malch nominal lumher din",n,ion.,
n", concrete protection hel"w the reinforcement should follow Ihe require""'nis of
ACI Oxle 7.7.1. ('alling for in. helow lhe boltom of lhe ,teel (see Fig. 3.12"), In a
typi<'al slab. I in. helow lite cent~r of the stt...,1 may be a"uTlloo. 11", lateral spacing of
the bars. eX('epl lhose used Qnly 10 ("ontrol shrinkage and lemperalure crack> (see Sec-
tion 13.3). ,hQuld nOi exc<.-.:d 3 tin",s Ihe thi<'kness" OJ 18 in .. whid",ver is less,
according 10 ACl CtKIe 7,6,5, Generally. bar ,ize should he selected "" thai the aClual
'pacing is !KIt less Ihan aboul J ,5 times tl", slab thickness. to a\'oid excessive ("o.t for
har fabrication and handling. AI,o. I<> r<.-Juce cost, slr~ight bar, are usually used for
,lab reinforcement. cut off where pennilled a, Ik,crihed for hearn, in Section S.9.
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) [)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 417
'- _. 13.3 T EMPERATURE AND SH RINKAGE REINFO RCEMENT
Conerele shrinks as il dries OUI, as was poimed OUI in Seelion 2 , II. II is advisahle 10
minimize such shrin~age by using eoncreles with 10e smalieSi possible amoum s of
water and eelHeOi compalihlc wilh olher requiremeOiS. such as strenglh and wor~abil
ity. and hy Ihorough lnoist ,uring of sutli,icm durntion. Howe"er. no maller ",hal pre.
cautions are laken. a certain a'llou ni of shrinkage is usually una,'oidahle. If a slab of
mOdernle dimensioll s rests fredy on ils suppons. il can eonlracl to acconllnodal~ lhe
shonening of ils lenglh produced by shrinkage . Usually. howe\'Cr, slahs and O1her
me'llbers are joined rigidly 10 olher pans of Ihe slruclure alld cannOI COl11rael frc"Cly,
This results in lens ion slresses known as ,Mink<l!!" Slre,lS,'S. A dc-crease in lempernlUre
relal ive to Ihal at which Ihe slab was cast particularly in oUldoor SlrUClures such as
hridges. may have an cfkel similar 10 shrinkage , That is. lhe slab lends 10 COl11ract and
if restrai ned fTOm doing so occomes subjeel to lensile stresses,
Since concrete is wea~ in tension. these le'llpcralUre and shrin~age slresses are
likely 10 result in crae~ing , Crac~s of Ihis nalure are not dC!rimel11al. providc'd their
size is limited 10 what are ~nown as hllir/itlt crach. This can be achie\'Cd by placing
reinforcemenl ill Ihe slah to COUl11eracl eomraetioll and distribule the cracks unifonnly,
As the concrete lends 10 shrin ~ . such reinforee'llel11 resisls Ihe cOl11raction and conse
quemly tx'COllleS subjeci to compression , The 10lal shrinkage in a slab so reinforced is
less Ihan Ihal in one wi lhoUI reinforce'llent: in addilion . whale""r crac~s do occur wi II
he of smaller widlh and more evenly distribuled by virtue of Ihe reinforccment.
In one way slabs. Ihe reinforcement provided for resi sling Ille bending moments
has Ih~ desirc'd dfc'Cl of reducing shrinkage and distribuling cracks. However. as con
Iraclion tnk.:s place equally in all diJ\.'Clions. it is necessary to provide special rein
forcement for shrin hge and lemperalUre contraction in Ihe direction perpendicular 10
Ihe ma in reinforcenlenl. This added sted is hown as Inli/"'f(/Wf(' or ,hri" kllll~ ",i,,
forC"tWIII. or diMri/",/i{1I/ ,kei.
Reinforccmc lII for shrinkage and tempernlUre stresses normal 10 Ihe principal
reinforcemenl shou ld be provided in a SlruClUral slab in ... hieh Ihe principal reinforce
mcnt extends in one d irection only. ACI Code 7.12.2 specifics lhe minimuill ratios of
reinforccllle(li area 10 !!mH wtle",U ""'</
(i.e .. based on lhe tow l depth of Ihe slab)
shown in Table 1.>,2, bUi in no case may such reinforcing bars oc placed t:1I1ner apan
Ihan 5 lillles the slab Ihkkness or more Ihan 18 in , In no case is the reinforcement rntio
10 be less Ihan OJlOI4 ,
TIle Slc'Cl requirc'd by Ihe ACI Code for shrin~age and Icmperalure crac~ eon lrol
also represents Ihe minimum permissihlc reinforcenlenl in Ihe span direclion of one
way slabs: Ihe usual minimums for flexural steel do not apply.
TABLE 13.2
Minimum ratios of temperature and shrinkage reinforcement
in slabs based on gross concrete area
Slobs .. I..", Gr:>d<- 4() or so ddonned bars are used OJlO20
Slabs "' ~.,,~ Gmde 60 defO<TJ>Od "," or welded wire hbric
(smOOlh or dcfon""d\ ar~ used 0.0018
Slabs "'here reinforce ...ent with ~i.k! .tfe ng,h e>:" ding 0.00 18 X 60.000
60.000 psi n"",surffi 01 yielJ ;train of 03~ 1""""01
f,
is "",d
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41 S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 13
EXMIPL E 13.1 On ,my slab d<'Sl~ n. A reinfOO;ed concrt1e slab is buill inkgrolly wilh its S"pporis ",~I
,'OIlsim oftwo"'lu~1 'paIls. each with" de", span of 15 ft. n oe ",rvice li"e load i, 100 psf.
and 4000 psi concrete i, specified for use wilh s",,1 wilh a )"ield Sl"''' equal 10 60.000 I',i
o.sign d", slab. following the p'''''ision, 0Jf the ACI COOe.
So ~ . mWN. l1Ic thidne", of lhe ,lab is tirsl estimm"d. based on the minimum thid,,,,,,
from Table HI: I 28 - 15 X 12 28 - 6.4.1 in.A {riallhicl ne." of650 i". will be used. for
which lhe "'eigh{ is 150 X 6.50 12 ~ 81 psf. n.e ,pccilied li ve load and comruted ... ad
load = multiplied by (he AClload factors:
Dead load ~ 81 X 1.2 ~ 97 psf
Li"e load ~ 100 X 1.6 ~ 160 p,f
TOlal ~ 257 psf
For lh i' ca,.,. factored n>om",,{, m e ~{ical >Cetions may be loond using 1"" ACr rn,,,,,,,m
coefliciems tsee Table 12.1)'
A{ int""ior support; - .\I ~ ~ X 0.257 X 1.5 ' ~ 6.43 f{ kips
AI ",id,pan ; +M ~ t
X 0.257 X 15' ~ 4.13 flkips
A{"~{,,riOi 5lIpjlOn; - M ~ -IT X 0.257 X 15' ~ 2.41 Itlips
n.e m",i",u", ",infor<-""l""nl mlio ""nnitt"d b)' (he ACI Code is. according to Eq. i.l.3Ob):
-. -
, ,
0.85 ' 60 0.0030.003 00'
.,. O.oo.t - . 1
If (llal maximum ,'al"e of ,,'cre aclul,lIy "sed. the minimum required elTc'<:! iw lkpoh. con
trolled by tk1'ati,'e n>omen! at lhe interior support. would be found from Eq, t .LIB ) to be
d' _ --c,"~M
/,b 1 ".""7C'
0,59 /,k
6.-13 X 12
;;;;;c;;cc;o",-o"c;;-fCi~~<o-o,"",,,CC,"'--
0.90 X 0.021 X 60 X 12 1 O.W X 0.021 X 604 - 6.96 in'
II - 2.M in'
Tlti. is I," lhon {he efferl;"" <Jereh of 6,50 - 1.00 ~ 550 in, ",,,,Il ing from applica{ion of
Code rcStriCliOllS. ~nd {he laltcr figure will be .'>do!~ed. AI the intcrior ;uJ>v<m , if 'he .I1n:SS-
block dereh ~ = 1.00 in .. {he an"J of Sleel required per fOOl of width in lht> top of tbe slab i,
IEq . (3.37))
;;;;;C',Ao3,"ii-;.,2" " _ 0.29 in'

0.90 X 60 X 5.00
Chttl ing ,he as,u med depth ~ by E<r. (.U2). 00'" gel,
0.29 X 60
0.85 X 4 X 12 ~ 0,43 in.
A secmld trial will be made with" = 0.4.1 in. Then

6.4:1 X 12 ,
A = 0,27 in'
, 0,<)0 X 60 X ~,2~
for which" = 0.43 X 0,27 0.29 = OAO in . No further ,-e"ision is """essary. At other cTiti
cal.momen{ seclion,. i{ will be 'atisfar{ory 10 use {he sallie Ie"",. ann {o &{ennine ,{eel
",,,a,.
and
, n "' ,l<;r< " i, n."",..ily I, .. ,," "'io ~ (;,..... fI.t (~flpp<oo;, fl. h ~ - _,. M. !.I' - 1021\. In"" ",";'.-It J - ~,64 in, 'I'.~lc A.5., HI.y .1", 1>;'
"""{),
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) [)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 41 9
4,13 X 12 _,
At midspan: .4 - - 0.17m"
, 0.90 X 60 X 5.29
2,41 X 12 _,
.4 , - 0.90 X 60 X 5.29 - O. lOm"
The minimum reinfor~menl i, that ""Iuired for control of sllrinkage aoo {emfJ""ture crack_
ing, Thi, is
A, - 0 ,001 8 X 12 X 6,5(1 - 0.14 in'
rer 12 in. strip. Thi, requires a small increase in {he .mo"n{ of Med "sed a{ {h~ c,{erior
'" ppon
The !:'>C{orcd ;t.:.1r force .01 a diS{''''CC ,I from 'he face of It.: interior s"pron is
257 X 15 ~ SO
I'. _ l.J5 X - 257 X ~ _ 2100lb
2
V. _ V, _ 2 li fN! - 2 4000 X 12 X 5,:I{I = 8350lb

Thus, the dc\il!" strenglh of It.: concrete slab. V" - 0,75 X 8350 - 6260 lb, is well abo'-f
{t.: required mength in 'hear of I', - 2100.
~ required {e",ite steel area, may be provided in " ''arie{y 'Ii way., but wha{e,,,r the
sel~"{io". d"~ <,,"sider,,{;"n m",(
be ~iwn {o {he ""tual placing of (h~ s{eel during con-
,(rue1i"". The arrangemem ,hould bc , uch (hm th. "eel can be plocN rapidl )' " 'ith {he min
imum of 1,,00.- "",b ewn (hough SOme exceSs S{t<CI is "",""sa,), {o .di~'" (his end.
Two JIO'sibl,> arrangement' are shown in Fig, 1.\,4. In Fig. 13.4<1. ben! bars are "led.
while in Fig, 13.4h all bars arc sltaighl.
FI G URE 13.4 Symmetrical

One-wa)' ,Lab design
e,ample ""'"'
6 NO'4(NO'13) 0 15' 1romadj.span -----.~
- ,.~ ----::1
r il" l
"!
L~r~~~-~--l~----~~----r~~-~T~~~-~-~-~~
T ' ,--- A-~-.=- ________ " .
"-,==1 --: J .,
~ L 2'.r ---J
1 .
0" 1. '-..\. 2NO,4(No.1 Sir,13)OI0-
ben!,
1-- 2'. r -J
1
lE I '
I, 15'0 ,I !
I,
'" 6'0- I
r- 2,.6.~
; 0. 4 {No. 13) @ 15------. i Not {No. 13) @ 15-
~
"
r- 2 - 3 ,
L ~
,- ___ L,-b
--------------r ---:1 6t
T
':i r- ~ ~
~. \ : ~o, 4 {No. 13) II 24' 1-- 2"II. ~ 1
1 No4(No.13) @ 24-
I, 15' O ,I !
1'1
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In lhe a""'''ge'',,-'1l1 of Fig. 13.4<,. No. " (No. 13) bars at lO in, fu",ish 0.2~ in' of "eel a'
midspan, slighlly nlOf't' than required, If two-thirds of the", bars are bent upward fOf "ega-
ti,'c reinlOn.'t'mcnt 0''Cr the ;nlerior '"pport. the a,'e... ~e SJ'lCing of &u ~h benl b,'rs at the inte-
riOf support will be (10 .. 20) 2 = 15 in. Sinc~ an identical palle", of 00" is bem upward
from tllC other side of the ,upport. the cffeeli ,'e spacing of 'he NO. 4 (No. 13) bars Mcr the
interior suwon i; 7! in_ This patle", "'t isn .... the required ste'" area of 0.27 in' per fOOl
wid'!! of Sl3b owr thC 'UPlXlf' , The b..rs ben' ~t (lie interior 'UPIX)" will abo be bent upward
fOf ,,,,gath'e reinfOfC~ment at the eXIl"riOf support. JlI"O,iding ",inforcement equi,'alom to No.
"(No. 13) 00" a' 15 in , or 0_16 in' of stceL
Noto that it is not necessary to achit ... unifom, spacing of reinforcement in slab,. aOO
Ihat lhe sICel pro"idcd Ca n he ealculalcd ",fely on the basis of avcrage sp.'>C;ng. as in the
example_ Ca,... sttoold he raken to "'tisf,- I'l"quirements for both minimum aOO maximum
sp.'>Cing of princiPl,1 reinfOtl't',nent. hO\\'e,'cr,
The locations ofbeOO and cutoff points sho,,-n in Fig, 13.4" were oolained u;ing Graph
A, :\ 0' Appen<1ix ,\. as c,plaiTlCd in s<:"iOl' 5.9 arod Table A, 10 (>Or! also Fig. 5,14).
The =g,',nem shown in Fig, 13.4b use. onl y straight bar., AI!ttoogh it is sati.factory
a<-cording to the AU CO<Ie (since the s!>car stre,s d<xs ..... e,cCl.xI two-third, of tha' per-
minedl, cU!!ing off the shorter posiliw and ".-gati'e 00'" as ;hown leads to an ulldesimbl.-
eondilion allhe ends of those bars. where there will Ix COnttn' t;ltiOll' of ,tress in 'he COll-
crete. The design would be inrptowd if tr.e "'1'3ti,'e bars were {"Ilt off 3 ft from the f""" of
the intcrior support fa,ller than 2 ft 6 in. as shown. and if the posi, i"e \lcel were Cut off at
2 ft 2 in. rather than at 2 ft I I in, This would re."lt in an o'"rlap of approximately 2d of th<-
eu' posi' ;,'e and ncga' ; ~~ bars_ Fi~"re 5.1 5<, ,ug~c,ts a SOnlcw!!"t .I;mplcr amH,g~rtlC"t t~at
would al'" JlI"Ove "'ti,factory_
Tile TlXjllired a",a of ,tcellO he pl.'lrXd lIormallO the main ",;n rorcenlen' for PU'lIOSCS of
tem.,..rature aoo 'hri "k~e crack comrol is 0, 14 in', This will be pro\'ided b)' No, 4 (No. 13)
bars at 16 in. spncing. pl'ICcxI dirtttly on 'OP '" ttle "" in reinfo.-celllC'" ill the positi"e-
moment region and below the nilln .teel in the ""gati"e-momenl zone.
_. 13.4 B EHAVIOR OF T WO- W AY E OGE- S UPPORTEO StABS
The slabs discusS&:! in S~lions 13.2 and 13.3 d~fonn under lond JllIO an appro,i-
malely cylindrical s"t1l1Ce. The main sirudumi aClion is one-way in such cases . in lhe
direclion nonnni to su pports on two opposile edges of a reclangulur pan~1. In many
ea..,s. how~ver. reclangu iar slabs ar~ of suclt l>fOponions and are s upported in such a
way Ilw two-way action resulls. When loaded. such slabs ocnd into a dished surfllCe
mliler than n cylindrical one. This meanS that al any poim Ihe slab is c"rwd in bollt
prineip.11 dir~lions . and since ocnding moments are proportional to curvatures,
moments also exist III OOlh direclions. To {"(.sisl these mom"nls. tlte slab IlIUSI be rein-
forced in bolh dir&lions. by at I~ast Iwo layt"rs of bars jl<)rpendicular. res]leclively. 10
IWO pairs of "dges , TIle slab musl oc designed to lak" a proponionale share of load II,,,
in each direction .
TyPt's of reinforced conerele construclion Ihul are chamcleril.ed by two-way
oclion ",elude slabs supported by wailS or beams on all si.-ks (Fig. IJ.lb). nat pla tes
(Fig, U. ld). n~t slabs (Fig. 13.1~). and wame slabs (Fig. J3.I,fJ.
TIle simpl ~Sl tyjl<) of two-way slab action is llial represented by Fig. 13.lb.
where Ihe slab. or slab panel . is supponed along ils four edges by rdaliwly d~p. stilT.
monolithic concrele beam, or by wall s or steel ginkrs. If lhe C{)ncrel~ ctlge beams are
sha llow or are omilted aitogelher. as they are for nal plales and nat slabs. defomwlion
of lbe Iloor system along the co lumn lin"s s ignificantly a ller5 the dislribution o f
o..loootc..,_
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Simp~ supporls
O<l all fou, edges
(0)
'"~
FIG URE U.S
Two-wa)' slab 0" ,impie edge '"PJlOf1" iu) !>eliding of center ,{rips of ,lab: (I grid ",ode I of, lab.
moment, in {lit: <;bb panel i{self (Rd. 13,1). Two-way syst~m' of {hi s {YP<: ar~ COII -
,id~red s<:para{ely. ht:gilllling in Sa'{ion 13.5, Th~ pre""nl di"'u"io" p<:rtains {o {he
former typ<:o in which edge supports are slifT enough {o ht: con,id~red unyielding.
Such a sbh is shown in Fi g, 13.5a. To visualize i{s flexur.il p<:rformance. it is
convenient \() think <;,f il as consisting <;,f two ""l' of pamlle! ,trips. in ~:II: h of {he Iwo
direclion" int~~{ing each other. Evidently. part of {he load is {"amed by"'''' ",,{ and
transmi{h."<I {o <me pair of edge supports. and {he remainder hy lhe mher.
Figure 13.5<1 shows {he two center ,Irip' of a renangular plate w; lh shon 'pan I"
and long spall I". If tilt: uniform load is w p<.:r square foot of slab. ~ach of the two 'trips
acl, app",xima{ely like a ,impl~ ht:am. uniformly loaded by it, share of II'. 8l>eau""
these imagillary snips aClually llfI' pan of 11", 5:l.n", monoli{hit slab. lheir defl""'lioll'
a{ t h~ inw,-,;eclion poim must ht: lh~ same. Equa{ing Iht: cemer defk"CIions of lhe shon
alld Imlg snips give,
5w) ; 5w';:
--- - - - -
384EI 384Ef
where w" i, lhc ~hare of {he load It carried in the Sllllrt diIL>etion and w. is the ,han, of
{he l(lad II' camed in the long dir"""lion. Con,,-~uemly.
w. I:
-w.--". (h)
One see, lhallhe larger ,hare of the load is carried in the shon direnion. the ratio of
the two ponion, of lhe lotal load ht:ing im'ersely proponiollal to the fourth power of
rhe ratio of tilt: 'pan,.
TI,i, re,ult i, app",ximate ht:{"aus<: lhe aClual behavior of a ,lab is more complex
thall that of rI", Iwo intersecting strips. All unJc,-,;tanding of Ihe ht:havior of the slab
;ts<:lf <:an lit: gained flllm Fig. 11,5/;>. which shows a ,lab model <:onsiSling of IWO se1>
of Ihree strips each. It is seen Ihat rhe IWO cemml stri"" .' 1 and I, bend in a manner sim-
ilar 10 thai show" in Fig. 13.5n. 1l>e out~r strip, "1 and 11, howner. are nol only bent
hUI ai,,, Iwis{ed. Consider. for in'{ance. Onc of the imerSl>etion, of .,.~ Wilh /2' It i, s"e"
o..loootc..,_
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,.
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that at tm, intersection the exterior <--dg~ of strip', is at a higher elevation than the im~
rior edge. while n1 the nearby end of strip ' 1 both edge, are at the same elevation: the
strip is twist.ed . TI,is twisting re,uits in torsional stresses and torsional moments tlmt
are ",-,en {() be most pnmounced lIear the comers. Consequently, the total load on tt;.;,
slab is carried nQt <Hlly b)' the bending I1K",,,,"t, in two direction, hut al",) by the twist-
illg moments. For this reason. bellding moments in ela,tic sbhs are smalle r than would
he computed for ",ts of UIlConnt.'<.-tl-d strips loaded hy .... and It' . For in'tanl-e. for a
simply ,uppon<--d square ~bb. w" = w b = ..., 2. If only hending were prl-'sent. the max -
imum I1K)])]ent in each 'trip would he
w, 2 /'
~'8c-'- " OJ1625,,'/' ,<)
TI,e exact theory of hending of elastic plate, ~IKlWS that. actually. tt;.;, maximum
moment in ,u,-h a square ,lab is ollly 0.048",/ 2, so that in thi, case the twistillg
moments relieve the bending moments by about 25 percent.
The largest nK>r"ent occurs where the curvature is sharpest. Figure n.'ii, slKlWs
thi, to he the caw at midspan of the shon 'trip "J' Suppose the load is inerea,,--d until
thi, location i, overstressed. so thm the sted at the middle of strip .' , is yielding. If the
strip were an isolated ream, it would now fail. Considering the slab a, a whole. how-
ever. one 'lee, that no immediate fai lure will occur. The neighboring strip, (thme par-
allel a, well a, those perpendicular to ", j , being actually nK,"olithi,' with it. will take
o\'er any additi<;",alload that strip .' , can no longe r carry until they. in turn, start yield -
ing. TI,i, inelastic redistrihution will continue umil in a ratt;.;,r large area io the celliral
ponion of the slab all tt;.;, ~teel in both direction, is yidding. Only then will tt;.;, entire
slab fail. From thi s rea">rling. ,,-hieh is confirml-d by tests. it follows that slabs need
not be designed for the ab!;olute maximum moment in each of the two dir<-"CIions (sllch
a~ 0,{)";81<,/ 2 ill th~ example given ill the previous paragraph). hut only for a ,maller
averagt moment in eath of the m~> directions ill the centr~l p<)nion of the ,lab. For
in'taJK~, one of the seve ral analytical rn"thods in general use pem,it, a square slab to
he designed for a moment of 0.0361<', 2. By compari-';Qn with the actual elastic maxi -
mum moment 0.048)('/1. it is seen that. owing to inela,tic redistribution. a monk.'nt
reducti<;", of 2.~ percent is provid"d.
TIlt largest moment in the slab <x;curs at midspan <;If the slum strip s, of Fig,
13.Sh. It is evide nt that the curvature. and he'Ke tI", mOll,.,nt. in the short strip .'2 is
Ie" than at tt;.;, nmesp<>nding h .- ation of strip ., ,. Consequ"ntly, a variation of shon-
span moment o"curs in tt;.;, 101lg direction of the spall. TIlis variation is shown quali -
tatively in Fig . 13.6. The sIK)n-'pan mOroent diagram in Fig . IHitl is valid on ly along
tt;.;, center 'trip at I- I. Else,,-here, tt;.;, maximum-moment value i, 16s, a, shown,
O ther moment ordinat"s arc reduced prop<lfIionately. Simil:uly. the long-span monk.'nt
diagram in Fig. 13.6 applies only at the longitudinal cenwrli"" of the ,lab; el."wl",re,
ordinat~' are redul'<.-d according to the "ariatioo ,hown. These variation, in maximum
moment aero,s the width and length of a rectangular slah are accountNi for in an
approximate way in most pr.lctical design methods by designillg for a reduced
moment in the out er quaners of the ,lah <pan in each dir""tion.
It ,hQuld he noted that only slab, with side ratios less than about 2 need be
treak-d as two-way slabs. From E<J. (h) above, it is "-,,,n that, for a slab of this proror-
tion. the share of tt;.;, load carri<--d in the long dire,-tiOIl is <Hlly on the order of One-
sixteenth of that in the shon din.",tion. Su,-h a ,lab an, aIm",;! as if it were spanning
in tI", sbon dir<-"CIion onl)'. Consequelltl)', rectangular slab pands with an aspect ratio
o f 2 or more mny he reinforced for one-way anion, with th" rnain ,1<-",] I"''l'''ndicnlar
to the long edges.
o..loootc..,_
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) I)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 4 23
Variation of M. mv
across 2- 2 .
'" FIG URE 13.6

1'1
MonJe"I' "od moment , .. n' lion, in , "oiforml)' loaded , lob " 'ilh ,imple . upports on foor .ide"
Con,istent with the as>omption, of die analy,i, oftwo-way edge-supponed ,bb,.

the main flexural reinforce"",m is placed in an ollhogonal pallem. with reinforcing bars
par~llel and p'''l",ndicular to the supponed edg~', As the pmitive sk'el is plac~xi in two
lay~rs. llle ~fft."'-"Iive <kplh d for d", upper layer i, smaller Ibanlhat for the lower layer
by o!'" bar diameler. !kcau>c Ibe mon",nl, in Ihe long din."C1;on are lite ,m ailer ones. il
is economical to place lite sled in that din.",tion on lOp of the bars in the moll dir"C-
t;on, The slac king problem docs n01 exisl for negmi\'e reinforcemem pe'l"'ooicul1lT to
the supponi"g ~xige beam~ except al the coo",rs. wltere moment, are small.
E;ther stra;ghl bars. cuI off where they are nO longer n.'quired. or bem bars mny
be used for Iwo-way slab,. bul economy of bar fahrkat;on and placement will gener-
ally favor nil straight bar,. 11Je precise lo<;al;ons of i"flec"lion poims (or lines of ;nfl",,-
t;on) are not eas;ly delennined. b.:<:ause they <kpend UpOlltbe ,ide ralio. tile r~l;o of he
to dead load. aoo ("{lnt;nuity condili ons at lhe ~xiges. n", slaooard cUloff aoo b.:lld poim ,
for b.:ams, summarinxi in Fi g. 'i.16, may b.: usoo for edg~-suppon~oJ ,lab, as weI!,
According to ACI Code 13.3.1. d", minimum reinforcement ill eac"h direC1;on for
two-way ,labs i, that ",,-!uin.xi for ~hrink.age aoo temperalure <:mck control. a, given
in Tnble 1.3,2. For tw,)-way syslem,. the spa<:illg of flexural reinforc"ement al criti<:al
"-,,,tiot!< musl not exc~..,d 2 linle' the slab thi<:kne<> h.
11Je Iwisling nKlmenl, di<C1J~"-xi earlier are usunlly of <"<",sequence only at exte-
rior corners of a tw,)-wny slah syslem. wbere lhey tend 10 cr~ck the slab at the hiKlOm
along the panel diagonal. ami al the top pe'l"'ndicular 10 Ihe panel diagonal. Special
reinfor<:etllem should b.: provided at exterior Comers in hilth the hi)[tom and top of tile
,lab. for a dista.nce in ~a<:h direclion from Ihe corner equal to o",,-fifth tl", longer 'pan
of tbe con",r pa.nel. as shown in Fig. 13.7, The reinforcement al the top of Ihe slab
,hould b.: paraJlel10 Ihe diagonal fnnn the comer. while thaI at the hi>llom should
be perpendicular to lhe diagonal. Aitermtively. eitlter layer of steel may b.: p1ac"ed
in two bnnds paraJle l to the ,ide, of Ihe slab. n.e positive and negalive reinforctl-
menl. in any <:ase. ,hould b.: of a ,;ze and spac"ing equivalent to thai required for tlte
maximum r<)';i tive mOment (per foOl of width) in Ihe panel. according to ACI Code
13.3,6.
o..loootc..,_
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FIGU IU: 13.7

Sl"'ci.1 noinfOlCe""'"t at
exterior comers of beam-
supported twow.y ,lab.
r
,
I
I = longer dear Sjlan
. 13.5 T WO-WAY COLUMN-SUPPORTED SLABS
When Iwo way slabs w'e supported by rdmivdy shallow. flexible be~ms (Fig . I) . I'.
or if column-line beams arc omilled allogelher, ~s for Dm plales (Fig. 13.ld), Dm slabs
(Fig. I) . I d . or two-way jois( sys(~ms (Fig. 13. 1f). a number of new considcnn ion s
are innoduc("d. Figure 13.&, shows a ponion of a Door sys(cm in whkh a rectangular
slab panel is supponed by relJ(,,'dy shnllow t>cams on four sidcs. The beams. in tum.
are carried by columns a( (he ,ntersL>t:(ion of (heir ccmerlillc~. If a surface load '" is
applied. thJ( lood is sharl"d be(WCCIl imaginary slab s(rips (, in (he shon direction a~d
Ib in lhe long dirt.>t:tioll. as <kseribed in S~c(ion 13.4. TIlc ponioll of (he load (ha( is
carricd by (he long snips I~ is <khvcrl"d to 1he beams 81 spml11ing ,II (he short direc
(ioll of (he pallci . TlJe portion carried by (he beams lJ I p lus IhJ( carried dir..>t:(]y in lhe
shon dircclion by lhe slab sirips 10 , sums up (Q 100 percent of (he lood applied (Q (he
pancl. Similar ly. (he shon dircclioll slab snips I. delivcr a part of (he load (0 long
dircclion beams lJ2 . Thnt lo.1d. plus Ihe load carril"d direclly in loe long dirl>t:(ion by
(he slab, indu<ks 100 pt:rcen( of Ihe appli~d load . 11 is ck~rly a requiremcn( of s(alks
(hal. for COIU1lllHuppom"d cons(ruclion, 100 l'<,ra,,1 of tile <l1'l'li"" lI)ad ",,,.<1 /><> a,,
ried i" e<lcit dir<'<ti.m. joimly by (he slab and i(s supporting beams (Rcf. D.2).
A similar si(uation is ohlJ iTIL"d in loe fla( plme floor showil in Fig. 13.8/}. Inlhis
case beams arc omiHed . However, broad mips oflhc slahcen(~red on (he column lines
i~ each dir~c(ion serve Ihe same fune(ion as Ihe bem1ls of Fig . 13.&,; for this case. also.
(he full load muSI be carried in each dirc>t:(ion. TIlc presence of drop pands or column
capitals (Fig. 13. I e) in (he doublc hmchcd zone ne:lr Ihe col umns docs nOI mod ify (his
requiremciH of s(a(ies.
Figure \3.9" shows a fla( plmc floor supponed by columns at A. O. C. ~nd D.
Figure 1.>.9b shows (he momCiH diagram for (h~ dir~>t:(ion of span II' In (his direclion.
(he slah Ilwy be considered as a broad. flm beam of wid(h 12, Accordingly. (he load per
foo( of span is ..-Il . In :my span of a cominuous beam. the sum of Ihe midspan posi(ive
moment and Ihe a\'~rage of (he negative nlOmcn(~ at adjac~m suppons is equal (Q ()le
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 13,8

Column upportcd ,woway
,I>b;: la) 1"'O' ''''y .Iab ,,-ilh
t.:.ms; (b) 'wlrwa}' , I.b
wilhom t.:,ms,
1'1
Eff9ctive beam Effective beam
(bl
lllid_'l"tn fX"itin, momem of a mITesl"lIlding simply <upponed beam, In t~rm' of the

slab, tllis r"'luiremem of "atks may be wrinen
I I ,
'2 M al> + M cJ + M if = '8 1<'1,1 ; (a)
A <imilar n.~uirelllenl exist, in the I"'rpend;l'ular di rt.'('t;on, leadi ng 10 the relation

I I ,
'2 ,M", + M"" + MgIo = '8 ..-1,11 ,h)
1nese. result, di>elo'c nothing about lhe relative magnitudes of l h~ ~uppon

moments and spun moment, _Th~ proponion of lhe lotal stat;l' llIomem tlmt exisl' at
each cril ical Sd'lion can be found from an ela>til' analy,is lhat ,'on<ide.,; lhe rdutive
span I~ngl h' ;n adjucem I"lflel" the loadi ng pallem, and lhe relmi"e ,tiffness of the
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU: 13.? 1"-- 1, I

Momon' ' -""alion in mlumn _
,upported ,"'..,-0.',)' 'labs: , i
,--T-rrl
(a) eri,ie. 1 ",omen' >:,i"""
Ih) momen' ,''''''tion along a
-
C! H !D
.p.n; lei mmTlcn' ,,,ri.,i,,,,
..ross tl>< width of critkal
"",i"",
+-+-+
l_l_l +J
I,
-
AT G Ta
I I
(,'
''I
r;.:"m:r- ",
, Strip ,
MklcUe
strip Acloal momaol
across EF
Variation assumed
lor design
1 . - - - I, ----<
-,.
aCrOSS AS
,,'
,upponing beam" if any, and thai of the columns. Ah~mati"ely, empirical m"thod,
that have been found to t,., reliable unde r restrick"'! condition, may he adopted.
n,e m",,,,,nt. acmss the width of critical sections ,u,' h as AB or EF are nm COli -
,tant but vary as showlI qualitatively in Fig. 13.9c. The exact vanat;';", depelld, 011 the
p"'''''lCe or ab",oce of t,.,al1ls on the column lines , the exi,te'lCe of dmp panels and
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
A!I;AU 'SIS A!I;I) [)K~I(;!I; O F SI.AIIS 427
FI G UIU: 13,10
Port;"" of .Iab ,t> I>< ;ndudcd
,,-ith be,",.
(II) Symmetric slab (b) Single side slab
column capila!s , as well a, on tI", intensity oflhe I<",d. For design purp"ses. it is con -
veniem to divide each panel a~ shown in Fig. 13.9c imo column strip,. having a width
of ",,,,-founh lhe pand width . on each side of d", column cente rlines , and middk
strip, in the one-half panel width Octween Iwo column strips. Mo=ms may Oc con -
sidered conslnnt wilhi n the boulKls o f a middle 'trip or ("olun", 'trip. as shown. unle"
hoeams "'" presenl on the column line,. In the Intler case. while the beam musl Imw
the ,ame curvature as the adjacent ,lah strip. the beam m<;ln",m will be Inrger in pro-
porti<;ln 1<> its greater stiffness. producing a discontinuity in Ihe moment-"arimion
Curve m the lateral face of Ihe hoeam . Sin("e the tOlal moment musl be Ihe same as
hoefore, aC("(lfding 1<> slat in. the slOO mon""ns mu,t be correspo ndingly less.
Chapte r 13 of the ACl Code deals in a unified way wilh all such tw(}-way ,)'s-
tems. Its provisions apply 1<> slabs supported by heanu; and to flat slabs and flat plates,
a. wel l as 1<> two-way joi,t slnbs. While permining design "by any proc edu", ,ati~fy
ing the cnndilion, of equilihrium and genn"'trica! compatibility:' specilit ",ference is
made 1<> two aitemati"e approacl",,, a semiempirica! direCT dniS" ItIt'ThOlI and an
approximate daslic analy,is known as the equim/<,lllfr",,,e "'<'Ihod.
In e it her case. a typical panel is divided. for purposes of design. imo coli",,,,
.,(ril"" aod ",iddle .,'I ril'." A ("olu mn strip is defined:l.' a strip <;If slab having a width on
eath ,ide of the colnmn ("e nte rline equal to one-fourth the ,mailer of the panel dimen -
sions I , and 12, Such a strip includes col umn-line beams , if p",sent A middle strip is a
design ' trip bounded by two column strips. In all ('ase . I, is delir>e<J a, tI", span in the
direclio" of the mome nt analysis and 12 :I., the span in the lateral direction n",a,ured
~..,nter to ce nte r of lhe support . In the case of monol ithic C<;Inslruc!ion, beams are
defined HI indude that pan of lhe slab on each si[\c of lhe beam eXl~ndi ng a dislan'"
'-"<luat 10 the projection of the beam above or bel"w the slab h._ (whichever is greater)
hOI nO! greater than 4 times the slab th ickness (see Fig. n.IO).
'. _. 13.6 D IRECT D ESIGN M ETHOD FOR C OLUM N - S UPPORTED S LABS
MOlllent, in tw(}-way !;Iabs Can he found using the semiempi rical diren d~.. ig"
method. subject to the following ""t riction>:
I. TI,e re mu,t hoe a minimu m of Ihree continuous spans in each direclion.
2. TI", pands musl be reclangular, with !l", ratio of d,e longer 10 d", shorter spans
wilhin a panel not g reater than 2,
3. lne successive 'pan lengths in each di re(,tion lIlust not differ by more than One-
thi rd of Ihe IOllger span .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
4. Column, may k ofT""l a maximum of 10 percent of the span in the di rLoction of

the ofT""t from eilher axi, ktween centerline~ of ,ucL..,,,ive columns.
5. Loads Illust k due 1<> gravity only and lhe live load must nOi exc""d 2 times the
dead load.
6. If karns are u""d on the column line,. the relalive "lifTnc," of the kam, in tl",
two p'''l'''ndicular direclions. given by the ratio ,Ii ,Il, 111usl be belween 0.2
and 'i.O (see below for definition,j.
a. Total Static Moment at Factored loads

For purp"ses of cakulating tl'" [()tal static nll)fl",nt M" in a panel. the dear span I, in
the d ire"lio" of nll",,,,nts is used. The dear span is defined to extend fmm face to face
of tl'" column,. capi[Uls. br.Jckets. or wall~ but is '1I)t to be Ie" til an 0.651,. n.e tOial
factoTt."d nK",,,,nt in a 'pan. for a strip bounded lalerally by tile centerli ne oflbe panel
on cadi side o f the L-ent~rlinc of supp",n s. is
AI = ",),1;
(13. 1)
" 8
b. Assignment of Moments to Critical Sections

For i'lterior spans. the tOlal slatic ,non..:nt is apportior1<)d between the critical positi\'~
and negaliw bending sections a.xording 10 the following mtio,:
N,gative factored momenl: Neg M . = 0.65A1 o (lUj
Positive factored Il}l,men!: P<>s M . = 0.15M '" (l3.3 )

~s illustrated by Fig. 11. 11. n", critical seClioll for ncgal;ve bendin g is taken al Ihe
face of fLoclan!;u l", ,upp<ms. or al the face of an "'luivale m "Iuare supf'on having the
same cro<;,-seclional ar~a as a round supp<m.
FIG UR E 13.11
Di>!rilxl'i"" of """I "otic
momem M. to cri tkal
.,,,,io,,' for p"' i'i,",, and
""gat;'.., bendinS.
B B B
Inl Neg Mu
End span In '---.~I l-- Inlerio< span In ----J

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANAU 'SIS ANI) [) K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 429
TABLE 13.3
Distribution factors applied to static moment for positive and negative moments
in end span
Sl a b without Beams
between Inter ior
Slab with Elderio r
Supports
E~terio r Bea ms Edge
Edge be tween Witho ut Wit h Fully
Unrestrained AU Sup ports Ed ge Beam Edge Be am Rest raine d
Intenor ""gati,'< 0 , 7.~ 0 ,70 0.70 0.70 0.65
toom<nt
I'o!,itive ,,,,,ment 06J 057 052 050 0.35
bleriot- ""Sative 0 0,16 0.26 0.)(1 0.65
moment
In Ih" case of end spans. th~ apponionmem of the total ,tal ic IlKlment anK"'g tI",
Ihree critical l11on",m ""'tkllls (interior Ilegative. pm;ilive. and exterior negative. a,
illustraled by Fig. 13.11) depcnd, upon the flexural r",lraim provided for tl", slab by
the exterior column or tl", "xlerior wall. as the ca,e mn)' he. and depe"d, also upon
the presence OJ absence of beam. Oil tl", column line" ACI Cod" 13.6.3 specifies fi""
alternative scl, of moment distribution ("oeffi("ients for end spam, as ,hown in Table
13.3 and illu,trated in Fig. 13. 12.
III case (al. the exterior edge ha, no 1110n",m re'traint, ,u{"h as would be the con -
dition with a ma.wnty wall. which provide, ve"ical suppon but no rOlational reStrainl,
Case (b) represem, a two-way ,lab with heams Oil all ,ide, of lhe panels. Case (c) i,
a flat plale. with no beams at all, while ("a.", (d) i, a flat plate in whi("h a beam is pro-
vided along lhe eXlerior edge. Finally. en"" (e) represem, a fully re,lrained edge. such
as that oblained if II", slab i, mOllOlithie with a ver}' ,tiff reinforu-d cOllcrete wall. 11",
appropriate C!",fficiem. for each case are given in Table 13.3 and are based on three-
dimensional daslic analysi s modified to ,ome extem in lhe light of test, and pr.K:ti("al
experien"" (Refs. 11.3 W 13.IOl.
AI interior , uppons , negatiw momellts may diff~r fOJ spans fmming into the
{"OIllIllO" suppon. In such a case. the slab should he ru,'igned to resi,1 the large r of the
Iwo 1!I()Il"'nl~. unless a ' P<'cial analysis ba,ed on relative ,tiffncs"", i, made to di,-
tribute the unbalarlC<--d nKlIlICnt (see Chapl~r 12). Edge heams if tlICY are u,,-"{I. or tt;.,
<--d ge of IIIC <lab if they are not. mu,t bi: d~signcd to resi,t in lIlT'lion tbei r ,hare of tl",
eXl"rior rICgalive moment illd icmed by Table 11.3 ("-"" Chapter 7).
c. Lateral Distribution of Moments

Hnving di,lribu1<--d the monlCnt Alo to Ihe pmitiv" and negative-moment "'{"tio"s a,
JUS! described. Ihe designer slill must di,tribute these de,igll llloments ano" lhe widlh
of the crilical section,. For design purposes , a, dis<:us",d in Seclio" 13.5. it is COII -
venient to ("onsider lhe nKll11ent, ,"onSinnl wilhinlhe bound. of n middle snip or ("01 -
umn 'Irip unless tlICre is a beam present on tt;., column line. In the lauer case. beeau""
o..ioootc..,_ ,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi .. ot I THI ~"" --- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
4J1l IW..<; I W'~ OF CO NC R~: n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 13
FIG UIU: 13, 11

Condi,io", of edge ,es,,-.in' End Sj')an In
con,idered in distributing
l<~al "a,ic "",men'.I1o l<'
enl;'; , 1>eelion, in an ,lid
.p.n: ta) ~'eri", <dge
M I-I
TI !
""fCmaired, e.g .. ,upponed
lP
b)" IIL1S(lnry waiL (hi ,bb
wilh beams be,ween all
,ul'l'oru: (c) , lab wi,bou,
be,,,,,. Le .. nal plate: (J ) ,I; b
",;,..,." beam, be,w<cn
B (0)
in'enor ,uppons t>.'1 wilh
8 8
<dge be'm : )ex",rior edge
full)' re'lraired. e,g .. by
m/)IK)Ii,hic ,"""",te wall. !
I"
B Idl
8 !
D 1'1
8 !
of ils g",ale, sliffn~". Ihe beam wi ll lend to lak a brg~' shure or the column -sl,ip
'lKlIne nt than lhe aoJjace nt slab. TI", oJisl,iooti"" or lotal negative 0' j>OSitive moment
belween slab mioJdle sl,ips, ,bb column slripS . and beam, depend;; upon Ihe ralio 12 I,.
Ihe rela1iv~ stiff'>eSs of the beam and 11", ,Iah. and lhe degre~ of tOrsional ,e,traint pro-
"i,red hy the edge beam,
A ,;onwnient pa.ran",ter ,refining the relative S!i ITn~",~ of the beam and slab span -
ni ng in e it he, diT<<"1ion is
h,.I&
(1.l4)
E.., I,
in wh ich E,b and E" are the m,x]uli of dasticily of the beam aad ,Iuh concrcle (u,u -
ally the san",) and Ib and I, are Ihe " ",,,,,,,nt, of inertia of the etfe<'liv~ beam and the
,bh. SUh'''ripted paramelers I and 1 are used u> identify com puted for Ihe oJi,~"<:
lion.< o r I, and I,. respec ti,ely.
Th~ flexural 'liffn~s",,< of the he~m and ,Jah may be h:t;;ed em the gro;;, con<'T<le
se~tion , negk'ding ",infmcement and pt,,~ihl~ "racking. and variation' due 10 <'01 -
umn tapital. and oJrop panels may he negleCled. For II", heam, if p"'''''nt . ' . i~ ba,ed
on 11", dr""'li"e croSs seclion ddin~-d a, in Fig. 13.10. For the slab, I, i~ ta k"n "'lual
u> bh l. 12. wh~re b in thi, case is the width bclwe~n pan~1 ""merline, on ~ach ,ide o f
II"" beam .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANAU 'SIS ANI) [)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 43 1
n,~ rel:uiye restmim prQvided by Ibe tQl>ional resi,tance of lbe efT~<'liY~ tran,-
yerse edge beam is refl~cted by the par,HlIder "defined as
/:;. ch C
03.5)
2,, 1,
where I" as before, i, caiculak..J fQr tl", ,lab spanning in direction I, and having widlh
b"und~d by panel centerlines in lbc /, dir~cti(Kl. The con'tant C pertains to the t(}f-
,i,mal rigidily of !h~ efT~cli\'~ tr~n,ye r"" beam. whi"h is defined according to ACI
(ode I 3.7..'i as the brg~S1 of the following:
I. A [lorlion of!be ,lab having ~ wid' h <'<lualto that of ,he colu mn, brru:ket, or cap-
i! al in the direction in which moment, arc taken.
2. The ronion of the slab s!,<,<:if,ed in I plu, tha! part of any transve,,", bean! above
and below the slah.
3. The Iransve,,", beam defined as in Fig. 13. 10,
n", mnMan! C is caicubl<..J by dividing the section into it, component reclangle"
ea<:h having ,mailer dimension x and targer dimension y, and summing the <"<}I1uibu -
tions of alltbe parts by means of!he equation
c- I -O.6} -
, ( 13.6)
Y 3
The subdivision can be done in such a way as 10 maximize C.
With these pnrao",!ers defined. ACI Code 13.6.4 distributes th" negatiYe and
positive mOlllcm s betw~'Cn column str;ps and middle str;ps. assigning to the column
strips Ih" pcrc" nlagcs of positive and ''''gati.-c ,no,nems shown in Tahle 13.4. Linear
imeTJX>lations arc \0 be made be\ wc~n the valu~s shown.
hnp1c,nemation of these provisions is facilitaK"d by 1he interpolation ch~rts of
Graph A.4 of Appendix A. In1erior negat;vc and posili\'e ' l1lon",m pcrccnwgcs cnn be
TABLE 13.4
Column-strip mo me nt. pe rcent of t otal mo me nt at
critical sectio n
2" .,
[n!eli", negat;,'e mom"n' " " "

,1,1, - 0
" " "
,1,. 1, " 1.0
E' l<Ii", ... gatiw "lOItl<'nl
00
" "
" 0 '00 ' 00 '00
,1,. 1, - 0
, '" 2-5
, 0
"
' 00
"
' 00
7~
'00
,1,. 1, " 1.0
Positi'e moment
, " 2.5 00
" "
,1,.1, - 0
"' "'" '"
,1, 1, " 1.0
'" "
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
I 11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
read directly froln the chm1s for known values of 12 .11 and ,11 I,. For eXlcrioT nega
tive momC11I. lhe paramcler ,I"t."quires an additional imerpolation. facilitak"d by lhe
auxiliary diagram on Ihe right side of the charls. To il lustrale its uSC for 12 I[ .. 1.55
and . ,11' /1 - 0.6. 1i1e doll~d line indica1es mome11l perccmages of 100 for , " 0 and
65 for I - 2.5. ProjcCling 10 tile right as indicatcd by Ihc arrow to find the appropri
ate ~erlical scale of 2.5 divisions for an imermediate ~alue of ,. say 1.0. then upward
and finally to the len. one reads the corresponding percentage of86 on Ihe main charI.
The column -Iinc beam spanning in Ihc dir~'Ction II is 10 he prolX'rlion~>d 10 resist
85 percent of Ihc col umn-strip tnOtnent if ,11 I, is cquallo or grealer Ihan 1.0. For
values bt:twccn one and zero. the prolX'rlion to be resisted by Ihc beam Inay be
oNained by linear imcrpolation. Concel1lralcd or linear loads applied direclly 10 such
a beam should be account~d for scparalcly.
Thc IX'rlion of the moment nOI resisted by Ihc col umn strip is proporlionmcly
assigned 10 the adjaccnt half-middle strips . Each middle strip is designed 10 resist lhe
sum of Ihe momcms assignoo 10 ils IWO half-middl e mips. A midd le strip adjaccnt and
)XIrallci 10 a wall is designl"d for twice Ihe moment assiglwd 10 Ihe half-middle slrip
correslX'llding 10 the first row of interior suppons.
d. Shear in Slab Systems with Beams

Special allcntion muSI be gi"cn to providing the proper resistance 10 shear. as well as
to moment. whcn designing by the dire'Ct method. According to ACI Code 13.6.8.
beams with - ,Iz- I] 2: 1,0 must be proporlioncd to resist the shear cau sed by loads on
a tribulary area dcfined as shown in Fig. 13, I J. For values of - ,11-11 helwcen 0111.' mid
FIG U R E 13.13
Tribo..tary .rea. fOf
"icula,i()n.
.he" c---- I , ----1,'1,
, 'e~ -----
-~~l
I,
-~~J
rr -----
'I'D
, ,
" ,
'I'
, ,
Tribulary area
'" '0
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
zero. th" proportion of load carried by beam ,hear is found by linear int"rpolation. 11",
remaining fr.lCtion of the load on the shaded area is assumed to be Iran,mined direclly
hy the ,lah 10 Ihe columns at Ihe four ~'()mers of the panel. and Ihe sl",ar .tres, in the
,lab mmpmed accordingly (see Section 13.1 0).
e. Design of Columns
Column, in two-way conslrottioll muSI be de.~ig"'-'([ to ",sisl the mOIl1em, foulld from
analysi, of the slab-beam 'y,tem. 11", columll sllpporting an edge beam mu,! pn"'ide
a re'isting mOJ1",m e'lual to the nK,"",nt applied from the edge of the slab (sec Tabl"
13.4). At interior locations, slab r"'galive moments are found . assuming Ihat dead and
full live load, an. For the column design. a mOre ",,,ere loadillg resuhs from partial
removal of the live lond. Accordingly. ACI Code 13.6.9 "''luires Ihal interior column,
resi,t a IlKlment
M = 0.07 "'J + 0.5",, 1,1; _ wj, 1 . 1 (1.17)
In Eq, (13.7). tl", prinwd quantities ref"r 10 Ihe shorter of the Iwo adjacenl spans
(assumed to carry dead load only). anll tlw unprill",d quantities n:fer to tl", longer span
(assumed to carry dead load and Imlf liv~ load). In all cases. th.., moment is diSlribut<'d
to tile upper and low~r columns in proportion to their n:bti"" Il~~oral stiffTl~ss ,
'- , 13.7 F LEXURAL R EINFORCEMENT FOR COLUMN - SUPPORTED S LABS
ConsiSkm willi Ihe assumptions ma!k '" analysis. flexural n'illforcenwm in two-way
slab systems is placed Ul an orthogonal grid. wilh bars parallel to tiw sides of tl", pan-
els , B ardimnel~rs and spacings may lx' found as <kscribed in Section 13,2, Straight
bars are g~nerally u",,{[ throughout. although in some cases positiy~-mOmenl steel is
bent up wh"re no 10llger ne~ded. to proviM for part or all of tllc' negative' n:quire"",nt.
To provide for local con c~ntl'~l~d loads. as " "ell as to emure Ihat tensile cracks are nar-
row and "ell dislribuled. a ma~illlum bar spacing at critical sections of 2 tin",s II",
total slab Ih ickness is specir,,,d by ACI Cooe 13.3,2 for two-way slabs. At I~ast tl",
minimum steel r~'<luired for lemperalure and shrinkage crack comrol (~ Section
1.1.3) must be provided , For protection of the steel against damage from fin: or corro-
sion. m least, in. concn:le rover must be maill1ained.
Because of tile stacking tllat resuhs when bars are plac.:d in pe~ndi cular lay-
ers. Ihe IrIn~r st~l willitaw an df<'ctiw !kplh I bHr diamder less than Ir,.., oul~r st"eL
For flat plates anll flat slabs. tiw stacking problem relates to midd le-strip positlw sted
and column-strip neg3liw bars . III Iwo-way slabs with beams on Ihe column li,,,,s.
Slacking occurs for Ihe middle-strip positi"" st~L and in the column strips is IInpor-
tanl mainly for Ihe column-line beams. because slab mOIll"II1S are usually wry small
in Ihe region "h"re column strips intersect.
In Ihe discussion of II", sla{king problem for two-way slabs supported by walls
or stilT edge beams. in Section 13,4 it was pointed out that. because curvatures and
mon",nts in Ihe shoTt din'ction are ~ater than in Ihe long direction of a recmngular
paneL short-dir~ction bars are nonnully placell d oser to the top or bottom surface of
Ihe slab. with tlw larger elTecllw <kpth d. and long-direction bars are placed insiw
these. wilh tile smaller d. For two-""ay beamless flal plat"s. or slabs with relahwly
fle~ible edg~ beams. Ihings ar" not so si,"pl~.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
Con,ider a rt'dangular int"ri", panel of a flat plnte floor. If the slab ,"olumn strips
p"",ided unyielding , uppon, for the middl" strips spanning in tbe perpendicular dir",_ -
tion. the short-direoion middle-strip curyature, and mo"",IllS ,,~}Uld llt' II", larger. In
fa{"t. II", ,'olumn <trips deflect do""nwaru under load, and tbi , softening of tbe effectiv~
,upport greatly redu"", curvature" and n1<;>nlelll< in the ,upporttld middle ,trip.
For tbe entire panel. induding botb middle strips and {'olunm ,trip, in eacb
direction. the mo"",m, in the long directiml will be lnrg~r than those in the short dir"c-
tion, a, is ea,ily confirmed by calculating the static moment Mo in ea,"b dire<"liol1 for
a re<"langular paneL Noting tbat the apportioning of Alo first 10 negatiy" and positive-
momem ,,->ctions. and then laterally to column and middle strip,. is done by applying
exactly the same ratios in ench dir""tion 10 the corresponding <;e{'tion , it is dear that
the middle-strip positive moments (for example) are larger in the long dirt>ction tban
the 'hort dir""tion, exactly th" opl'0,ite of the situation for the slab with ,tiff edg~
beams, In the {'olumn s!rips, po,itive and negati,"e ""Hllen!> arc larger in the long than
in the 'hort dire,"tion, On this basis. tbe designer i, led to pb{'C the k"'g-dirt>ction neg-
ati"" and positi"e bars. in both middle and ("olumn strips , doser 10 Ihe top or honom
,urface of IIIe <lab. res!",ctively. wilh the larger eff"oiy" deplh.
If column-line beams are added, and if lheir stiffness is progressiydy increased
for cotnparalive purposes, it will be found that the short-di recli on ,lab monJent, gr.id -
ually heconle dominant. ahhough the long-direction beam, carry larger momem, Ihan
Ihe short-dir<-'Ction heam,. Thi, willllt' dear from a careful study of Table 13.4.
TIle situation is further ('omplicated by the inlluence of the "uio of short to long
,ide dinlensions of a panel. and by the influence of varying ("()IIdili"ns "f edge reslraim
(e,g .. corner \"S. typical exterior ,'s. imerior pand). 111e beSt guide in 'p.,{'ifying Sleet
placement order in area, wber~ 'Iad' ing ,,,-"cur; is Ih" re!alive magnitudes of d"'ign
momemS obtain<-"<l from analysis for a parti,"ular ("ase. wi tb maximum d provided for
Ihe bars resi,ting the brgest mOlllent N" lim} rules can be given. For sq uare slab pan -
els, many designers cakulate the required sted area based "n !lie average effecliv~
deplh. thus obtaining the san", bar size and ,pacing in each di"_>Clion. TIlis is ,lightly
{'ons,,,vati\'e for die outer layer. and slightly uncon ser.cat ;vc for the im",r Sl<-"'l.
Rcdi,trihotion of loads and moments before failure would provide for Ihe resulting
differences in capacilies inlhe Iwo direC1ion,.
Reinforcement cutoff poims could llt' cakulaled from moment envelo"", if
available: ho,,'ever. when Ihe dirt'Ct design meth"d i, u""d. moment enwlo""s and
lines of inll""I;';'" ar~ not found explicilly. In ,u,'h a {'ase (and often wIlen the equiva-
lent frame Hlethod of Seclion 13.9 is u,,-"<l as well). standard barcutoffpoims from Fig,
13. 14 are used. as reconll1Jended in the ACI C,xJe.
ACI Code 1],3.8.5 requires Ihat all bonom bars witbin Ihe column strip in eacb
direction be continuous or spl iced with Class A splices (sec Se,"tion 5. J Ia) or ITll>chan -
ical or welded splices localed as sbown in Fig. 13.14. Al least Iwo of lhe column strip
bars in each dirt>ction musl pass within the column core and must be anchored al exle-
rior ,uppons. The continuous column strip houo", Sled ;s intended Ul provide sonle
residual ability 10 carry load to adjncent ,upports hy catcna,), action if a single suppon
,bould be damag<-"<l or de,troyed, The two continuous bm" througb the {'olunm canllt'
consid"red Ul be "'integrily sl<-",l"' and are provided Ul give !l", slab some residual
('apacity following a single punching shear failure .
TIle need for special reinforcenJeIll at tbe exterior corners of two-wa)' beam-
,upported slabs wa, described in Seclion 13.4, and Iypical con",r reinforcement i,
,hown in Fig. 13.7. A.-cording loACl Code 13.3.6 , such reinforceme nt is requir"d for
,labs with beam, belween suppon ing columns if Ihe value of given by Eq. (133) i,
grt'aler than 1.0.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
z
0 M INIMUM
"
" ""g
e PERCENT As
AT SECT ION
WITHOUT ORO P PANELS WITH DROP PANELS
I~
0.30 In 0.30 In 0 .331 0 0.331 *
" "e0
'" ~': .
0.201 0 0.20 In ,
0.201 0.20 In ,
Remaiflder
"ew
,z , Continuous bars
'" '"
1 r
0
g
"
u
0
rn
'00 .I\ At least two m.rs or wires
shall cooform to 13.3.8 .5
, ""- Splices shall be
PElrm<ned in th is r&gjor1
~, ~
0.22 In 0.22 10 0 .221 0 0 .22 In
" "~ '00
,
,
",
e
w
1 .-1,I
W
8" e~
, '" Max_0_t5 I n -:;J
---01
,
~G Maxo l 5ln
F
0 Remainde'
rn 1-'" I,
"1, I
CO"01
Face """ - '"
support
Cente, to (:(!nte, span - I
',-
I
I
-
-
Clear span - In
Face 01SOPl>O't
~r
Genie' to cente' span - I I
,
Exterior support Interior support Exterior support
(No slab continuity) (Continuity prOl'ided) (No slab COfl\inuity)
FIGURE 1J. 14
Minimum lenglh of slab re;nfOfce"",,,' i~ , .Iab "';11>001 beams.
_. 13.8 D EPTH L IMITATIONS OF THE A C I CODE
To ensure that slab den~ctions in service will not be troublesome, the best approach is
to compute deflections for th" total 1000 or load compon~ OIt of interest and to cOlHpJre
the comp uted dellections with Ii miting values. Mcthoos have becn dcvclop.:d thnt arc
both simple and acccpmbly accurate for pn:dicting deflections of twoway slabs. A
methoo for calculating the detlection of two way column-supportcd slabs will be
found in Section 13.13.
Aitcmatively. deflection control can be achicved indirectly by adhering to more
or k ss arbi trary limitations on minimum slab thickness. limitations de~elop.:d from
review of test data and 81udy of the obscrved denections of actual structures. As a
r.:suit of efforts to impro~e the accur~cy and g~ncrality oflhe limiting equmions. they
have bc.:omc increasingly complcll.
ACI Code 9.5.3 establishes minimum thicknesses for two way construction
designed according to thc methods of AC I Code ChaptcT J".
i.e .. for slabs design~>d by
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
I 11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
TABLE 13.5
Minimum thickness of slabs witho ut interior beams
Without Drop Pan ... ls With Drop Panel ~
Ext ... rior Pan ... ls Int ... rior Pan ... ls Exterior Panels Interior Panels
Yield
Stress Without With Without With
, Edge Edge Edge Edge
psi Beams Beams Beams Beams
40.000 I. ~3 'I,. 33~ 1.,36 1.,36 I. 40 1. ,41)
00,'"
75.000
1.. 30
I. 28 I. 31
I .. .13
I. :1 J
I .. .13
I. :1J '."
I. ).I
1.. 36
I. ~4
ci lheT the ~'quivalcnl fmme melhod or the direct design Inelhod. Simpl ilkd crileria arc
i nclud~d penaining 10 slabs ",ilhoul im~rior ocams (flal plates ~nd flat slabs with or
without edge beams). ",hile morc compliealed limit equal ions are 10 be applied to
slabs ",ilh t>.:arns spanning bet"'~en Ihe suppons on all sides. In both cases. minimum
Ihic~nesses less Ihan Ihe specified value m~y be used if ealculaled deflulions arc
within Codcspc-.:ified limils. as quoled in Table 6.2.
a. Slabs without Interior Beams

The minimum t hic~ness of two-way slahs without imerior beams. according to ACI
Code 9,5.3.2. must not t>.: less than provided by Table 13.5. Edge beams. often pro-
vidc--d even for two-way slahs othcrwise without be~ms to improve moment and shear
transfer at the ex terior suppons. permit a reduction in minimum thic~ness of about
10 pereent in ex terior panels, In all cases. thc minimum thk~ness of slabs without
interior beams must not be less than the following:
For SI:lbs without drop pands 5 ,no
For slabs ",ith drop par.:ls 4 in,
b. Slabs with Beams on All Sides

The parameter used to denne the relative stitfness of the beam and slab spanning in
eirhcr direction is - ,calculmed from Eq. (13.4) of Sl-.:rion I H ic. above , Thcn .. is
dcfirll'<f as the avcrage value of - for all beams on the l'<fges of a givcn panel.
According to ACI Code 9.5.3 ,3. for '" equal to or less than 0.2. the minimum rhic~
nesscs of Table 13.5 shall apply.
For '" grearer than 0.2 but nor greater than 2.0. rhc slah thickness Inust not oc
I~ss than
2OO
Ir " "
1,''cC,8'-c+"~'-'c ",;'OCi-
OO (l3.Sa)
36+5 '" 0.2
and not I"" lhan 5.0 ill.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
For .. grealcr thnn 2.0. lhe thickncss mU81 not be less than
h= -.1'COc8",+"Jc
; ~
200
=.OOO
=-. (lJ.8h)
36 +9
and nOli"" Ihan 3.5 in"
where I... clear span in long d irecl;on, in .
.. .. av~ragc value of for all beams on edges of a JXlnc! [sec Eq . (13.4)[
.. ratio of clcar spHn in long dirt'Ction to clear ']XIn in shoT! d irecl;on
AI di,eonlinuous edge,. an edg~ beam must be pmvidcd with a Slim",,, ralio nOl
less Ihan 0 .8: OIherwi", Ihe minimum thickne" pmvidcd by F..q . (l3.8a) or (13.8h)
must be increased hy at least 10 pert"C'" in Ihe rand with II", di,,,,,,,, inuou, ,>dge.
In all cases . slab Ihicknes, less than Ihe stak,,1 minimu m may be used if il (an be
shown by compulalion thai den""li,"" will not <'Xceed II", limil "alucs "fTahle 6 .2.
Equalio", (13.&-1) and (13 .8b) can be reslated in the general fOfm
,,- 1.0.8 + j, 200.000

(1.>.&--)
wh~re F is (he valuc of the d~nom i nnlor in cach case. Figure 13.15 sho"'s (he value of
F as a function of ., for comparative purposes. for lhr.:e panel aspect ratios
I. Square panel. with = 1.0
2. Rectangular panel. with = 1.5
J . Rectangular pat"'.' with = 2.0. the upper limit of applicabil ity or F--'jS. (13.&1)
and (13.8h)
Note thai , for .. kss than 0.2. column-line beams have linle efket. :md minimum
thid.n~ss is given by Tnblc 13.S. For stiff> rclalivcly ck'Cp edge beams. with .. of 2 or
greater, Eq. (1J.811) go"~ms. Equalion ( 13.&1) provides a lransilion for slabs with shal
low columnlinc ocmns h:wing '" in the range from 0 .2 (0 2.0.
FIG URE 13. 15 w ,-----------------,

ram,n"ter F go'"min8
minimum thick""" "r
''''".",.y.labs; Eq.( 13.8b)
minimum thick""..
h - I. 0.8 + f, 200.1XXl F.
/''''''''1 49.5
,"
oo ~~~~~~--~~
o 0.5 1.0 15 2.0 2.5
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
EX ,\M I' LE 13.2 I>I'~IJ: " "r t w".w'a}' . Iab wi, h ed~e Ilea-.' A t W<Fway reinf""",d concrete building
floor 'yslem is com[>O>ed of 'l ab pallels "",.,uring 20 X 2~ Ii in pian. ,upl"'"~d by ,Itai
low column.line beam, cas, monolilhically wi,h lbe 'lab. as ,hown in Fig. 1.1. 16. U,;ng con
crete with /; = .j(I(J() psi and steel ,..i,h" = 60.000 psi. d<,ign a 1)'pica) ~.,"ri....- lXI""t '0
carry a ser... ice live load of 144 psf;n addilion,o ,be self.,..eigh, of ,he floor.
S"'.lJrtO ~ . The floor ,y>!em ""i,fies all lim;"tioo< >!aled in Se.:!ion 13.6. and the AC)
dire<:, design me,hoiJ will be ">ed. For itiuSlr:l!i,'e purposes. o nly" ,ypical ~"erior pa.n;,l. as
,1Iov.'n in Fig. Ll.16. ,..ill be desigt>nl. Tbe depth limitalion' o f Sec,ion 1.1.8 "illlle "led a.
a "ide to tn.: desirnblc ,lab ,hick""". To uSC Eq" (13.&1) and (I ~.8h). a trial "al"e of h K 7
will be in 'rod L!Ced. and beam dimension, 14 X 20 in. " 'ilille ... ",,,Ied. 3S ,hown in Fig
13. 16. ll1c efkc,i,'" flange projec,ion b.:)'ond ,I", face <>f,n.: beam web, i, the Ie,"" of 4hJ
or h . and in ,he present case is 13 in. ll1c moment of ;,.""ia of ,he T beams wil l be est;
nmwd a<; multiple, of ,ha, of ,he recta"g1Llar portioo a<; foil",,"'",
I'or lhe CLI~c ocams: I _ fy X 14 X 20' X 1,5 _ 14.COJ in'
I'or, ... interior i>e.m" l ~ tx 14 X 20Jx 2~ 18.700io'
FIGURE 13. 16
T",,"wa}' ,lab fl,,", wi,h ,
,
"""-''!'-I' "" '1
beam, 00 <olumn 1i1leS: "
(Il) partial tlmr plan; r'

(h) sec1ion XX (;ee,ioo y. Y
, irnil:l,,. , ---l", ----~
'I' 'I ~"

"
I: II
" ,
cl j-
=::::========1ff====1
I
b LI Typical I LI
I extefior III I,~
L
L1'. 'I panel

I ________
1'1
iii ___ J
--"-==--===--~==---=-
X
I,
,I
,I, I 1,1,
j'-----c..-;--1---t ,
(,'
r ,
20"" L 0
....11.-
I u
-.11.-
I,
". (0)
". I
, Ih ' ,bi~" (0' , ....

'~,~ ,y , I,. wi""",, ..."'n'. i .e .. , nO! plalL' 1'10.. . 'y"<m. ~ ~ k"h ""y . 1", '" ... ,..., oy , .... di",,, "'~'~n "1",,1 if tt.: "'''''', ''
of S..",..., !l6 "". "'ct . ...ill be illu",..,1 by OIl c,""I(>i< LD Stt,;..., B .7
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
For lhe 'lab miJlS:

Forlhe 1.' .1 f!~ewid lh : '~ri X 13.1 X 12x7':4500in'
For lite 20 f! widlh: I~ h:X 20 X 12 X 7' ~ 6900 In'
For lhe H f1 widlh: ' ~ ri x HX 12 X 7' ~ 8600 In'
Thu,. for llie edge !>eam ~ 14.000 4.';00 ~ ., .1. for llie 11'0'0 2.S fl long !>eam,
18. 7()C} 6900 - 2.7 _and fo< Ihe 20 fl long bea'" - I 8.700 8600 - 2.2. jlIt)(iucing an awr
~e ,'aluc ~ ~ 2.7 , Tile rmio of long !O ,lion ell>Jf 'pan, i, ~ 23 .8 18.8 = 1 ,27. In.m
lhe mini"'u'" ,],icknels is 1\01 to be Ie-s Iha" Ih,.. ..i,en by &t. (n.Sh):
,- 286 0.8 + 60 200

]6 + 9XL27
- 6.6] ill.
The ,,5 in, li milalion of Se<:lion 1.1.8 deJfly <10<>, nol coolrol in lh i' case. andllle 7 in. deJllh
lo.'rnaliwly adoV'ed will pro"ide lhe basis of further calculatioo.
For a 7 in, slab. the <kad load i, -f, X 150 : 88 p't, Appl ying llie u,ualload faclors to
obtain desig" load gi,'cs
w _ 1.2 X 88 -t- 1.6 X 144 _ 336 psf
f or (he .\hllrr-w,m d;"",r;II". for ,he ,lab-beam ''''I' tt"ten:d on lhe i"lclio< colu ",n line.
llie {otal '('tic design ,no.,-.,m is
M" _ ! X 0.336 X 25 X 18.8' _ 371 fI _ki ps
T his is di\tribUled a; ,,,1I0,,'s:
Negali"e design ,nomen\ - 371 X 0.65 - 241 It _kips
Posi{ive design mo.,-.,nt : 371 X 0.35 ~ 1.'10 ft -kips
The column strip ha, a width of 2 X 20 4 ~ 10 ft With I, I, ~ 15 2{) ~ 1.25 and ,I, I ,
- 2.2 X 25 20 - 2.75. Grapb A.4 of Appcndi ~ A ill(licatcs t~ at 68 per.;en, of the ncga'i~e
moment. or 16.1 ft-k ips. is laken by d", col umn strip. of which 85 perren!. or 139 ft -kips. i,
(aken by lhe be"m and 24 ft- ~; JlS by lhe slab, Tile r'l.'ma;ni ng?8 It -kip, is allottc"d to lhe slab
midd le slrip. Graph A,4 al"" indicate, {hat 68 perrent of the pos;ti,'e moment. or 88 ft-kips.
is (a ken by the c'OI,,"on Slrip. of which 85 I)(:I'{;COI. or 75 f(_ ~i ps. is a;signcJ (0 lhe I)c",,, "'Ill
13 ft-kips!O {lie ' lab. Tlie remaining 41 ft -kips;s laken by tile ,lab middle ,uip.
A similar a1lal)"is is jlCrformed for (he .Iab-beam Slrip at (he edge of 'he boikling. lxlsed
on, total ,{a{;c de'i~n nKlmem of
M. : i X 0"H6 X 13. 1 X 18,8' : 194 ft-kips
of \\'~;ch 65 perrent;, assigned {o the ''''gal;'C a,1lI 3.S Jl<'rcent '0 (he po>i{i," bend ing sec
lion, as before. In this """'. ,I, I, - 3.1 X LS 20 - 3.9. Thi;, dis,riootioo faclOr for c...,lt"nn-
strip ,mmen!. lmm Graph A, 4. is 68 llercent for po>;t;ve "Ill negmive moment. as before.
and again 85 perc-em of the col umn-Slri p ,,,,,,,,,,nt, is a"igned 10 lhe bea"",
In '""'mary. {he ,hort_<iireclioo ,mmelll'. in ft_ kips. are a, follows:
Beam Column-Strip Middle-Strip

Moment Slab Moment Slab Moment
Interior ,lab-bcam slrip---20 It 'pan
Nog";"o
Pmith'.
lJ9
" "
" " "
D{erior ,i>~-beam Slrip---21} ft
Not ";"<
'1""
n
",
.,
Pmi! i,.
Th ~ total Sla{ic desig" mo.,-.,n{ in the

" ,lirtw;,,,, of {he eXlerior p",,,1
f"",~ i,
"
M" - f X 0.3.16 X 20 X 23.8 ' - 476 ft_kips
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
Thi, will be apponioOJed 101M negOlive and JlO'iliw mom,,111 ","Clions ""conling 10 Table
13.~. and ,liwibo.ne"d lalcrall y lICrosS the widlh of critical mo"","' sections willi Ihe aid of
Graph A.4. The momenl ,alios 10 be applic'<i to obIain "xt~riOf "egath". JlO'itiw. and inte-
rior ncgaliw momcnts are_ rcSpccli,'ely. 0.16. \1.51. and 0.70. The w,io"al conSlan, for lhe
edge beam is found from F..q, (I ,,6) for a 14 X 20 in. recta,,~ular shape with a 7 X 13 in,
projecting n.'ng~:
c- - 0.6,1 X - "
'"
1-0.6,l X -
7
~c'",
7' x 13
- 11.210
"
Wil h I, I, = 0,80. ,I, I, = 2,7 x 20 25 ~ 2,2. and from Ilq. (13.5). = 11,210 (2 X 6900)
- 0.81. ('.mph A,4 iodicOl", thai the column 'Irip "'ill take 93 percent nf the ."terior neg'_
ti"" moment. 81 I"",-.::cm of II>e [>Ositi\'~ moment. an<! 81 percem of tl>e interior n~gmive
mon"'llI , As Ilefore. Ihe column_line "-am will account for 85 pe=llI of the column_'trip
"""""nl . Th" ""Ulll of applying Ih"se nJOrnenl rali", arc a, folio",,,
Seam Column-Strip Middle-Strip

Moment Slab Moment Slab Moment
"
,
'""'
E>,.riOf negati\"e-25 ft SJXin
l"-"iti" e-2.~ ft 'f'Il." .13
"
'I'l"
Interior t><'g.ti"e----25 ft 229
'" "
11 is cO!tvcn ienl 10 labulatc the design of the slab rt>i nforc"m"nl. as shown in Table 1:1 .6,
III the 25 ft direction. I"" two halkolum n ,trirs may he combine<l for j>Ilrpos,,, of calcula_
tion into one ,nip of 106 in, wi<llh. In til< 20 ft <lir".:ti"". Ill" nt.rior h"lf...." lumn srrip an<!
It.. interior half-.eolumll 'trip will norm:llly differ and"", trcaled separately. Faclored
mo,,,,,01, frolll Ill<: p""'iws di'trib",ion, are '""ll"ari,,,d in ,,,I"llln 3 of til< tabl~ .
T "" ,hon-<lirecti"" [>Osili\'e w,el will be placed fir<{. followed by the loog_direction PO>_
i
iliw bars, If in. clear distance below the 'tool i, "liowed an<l use of No, 4 (No. 13) bars i,
anticipated. tbe effecti\'e depth in tile ,lion direclioo will t>e 6 in __ "hile that in the long
direction will be 5 ,~ in . A .im;lar ,illlation Ott""
for the wI' SI~cI.
After calc ulating lhe design moment per fOOl slfip of , lab (co lumn 6). find the minimum
efr"",i,.., ,lab depth rc<f uire06. For thi' ralio.
"', --C'f,hCc-"',05'11,
-
'CoCO"'-
1.
I
M. m~
0,90 X 0.!)206 X 60,(00 X 11 I 0.5'1 X O,OlOIi X 60, 4 IO.nO
Hcnce d ~ M, 10.920. Thu . the following minim um elfeeliw depths are needed:
In 25 fl direction: .,- 6.30 X

12.000
10:920 x
.
2,6.1 ilL
In 20 fl dirtttion: ., - 5 ~O
.
I2.(X)J ~ 39 .
X !O.920 -~.. ,n.
oo.h well below II", <kp\h di'~'led by ,\cfteX:l i"" rc<fuircmenlS. An underreinforex:d sl3b
resuh,. The rc<fuirt>d rt>infCJfCeme m 'alios (col umn 7J are conveniently found from Tabl~ A,5
wi,h /{ _ M, ml' or from Table A.9. NOie Ihal a minimum .lIed arca equal '00.0018 times
lhe gross concrete area must be JlfO\'i<ied fCO' control of lemp<."faIUre alld 'hrinbge crack ing.
For a 12 in. ,lab Sirip. Ihe CO<Tts[>O"Ji!l~ area is 0.00 18 X 7 X 12 _ 0.151 in', hprcssed
in lenns of minimum uinforcemenl ratio for a<lu ai effeeth'e depth,. thi' gives
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
TABLE 13.6
Design of slab reinforcement
(' ) {" {" (" IS) (" (7) {" {"
Number
of No.4
, , , x 1 2/ , , (No. 13)
location ft-kips in. in. ftkips/ft in'
25!I 'pan "'"
Two half
column
EMerior
n'ga,i,...
" ". ~,S 1.25 (1.002]- 1.3.1 ,,
;; 3,74 0.0023
,'rip, Posi,iw
Inkrior "" " 4.53 0.0029
LJ.t
,
negati>...
'" '''' " 'M
Midd le
"tip
E"erior
negotive , '''' "" 0," 0.002.1- 1.52

I'o<i,ivc 120 5.10 2.18
'nl";or " O.OO.l:'
"
5 ,5 630 0.004 1
""gati""
" 120 2.71
"
20 fl span
uteri"r N<Ea,ivc n
, 53
,, 2.94 0.002 1' 0.67 ,,
1.58 0,(102 1" 0.67
half-col"n'n
",;p
I'osili'e
"
,. ,OO ,
,OO , '''' "
Midd le N.~ali'~ 0.002 8 3.03
,OO 0.0021'
strip Posil"'"
" 2.27 !.l'
In",';", Negative
" ,,
~ ,l 2.71
1.47
0.0021 ' 0.67
0.67
,
,
half"ol""m
~lrip
I'o<il;'..,
" 53 0.0021"
R,," f( ~"-m<'" , ... , _troll<'<l by ,hri"l,.." . 00 '""'1"-'<'-""'" "'lUl",,,. __11I,.

N"",'"r of b"" """,n,lk'<l /' n",-,inoun 'f"I<i"~ "","",-,m,,,"
0,151
In 25 f1 din"Clion:
5.5 X 12 - O.llOB
In 20 f! dircclion:
- -----0. 151
6 X 12
0002
. ,
This require"'c,,' COOlrols al the loc:uions indicatc'd in Table 13,6.
The lotal Sfeel at"t"a in each band i. e"ily found from!he reinfom.,nenl ratio and is giwn
in col"mn 8, H nally. wi,!! ,he aid of'l 'a ble '\,2. lhe requirc'd numocr Qf bars is OblOinCd. NQlC
Ih.1 in IWQ locali"",. Ihe "umber of bar; used is diclated by the maximum 'pacing rt"qu ire-
",en! or2 x 7 _ 14 in.
The 'hearcapacil)' Qfl l!e slab i, cbeded "" lhe basi' of lhe tribulary areas 'lmwn in Fig.
l.ll~.,\( a disl~nce d front ,he fa: of lhe 10Il~ beam.
V. : 0 . .136 10 - - - - -
2Xl212
" , .HIO k ip'
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,.
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4..:12 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 13
The design shear m .. nglh oflhe slab is
V,~ O.75X2 4OOO X !2X I~

~ 6.83 kips
well abo"e lhe , hear awlied al fOClored loath.

l:.act. ream Ill,,\t be designC<J for ilS sh~,.., of Ihe 100ai sial ic Illomenl. as fo,IIId in tbe
abi",e cilculalion,. as well" lhe IIIoment du,> to ii' own w.. ighl, Ihi' moment may be di,-
lributed 10 po,ili..; and negali,', bending "''''Iioo . using Ihe ,a"'" I"ll,ios used for lhe \talie
mome nl, dUt> 10 slab loads, Beam shear design >IIo"ld be based on lhe load , from lhe lril>-
IIml} arc ... shown in l'i g. ! 3. 13. Si".ce 1l() new C'-"""PI' wOllld be i"l rOOuc~(t. Ihe desigll of
lhe beams willll<K be presentC<J here,
Since 0,85 x 93 - 7') I'crCC111 of the extcrior 'lC~ali,'c m01llC1l1 in t"" 1000g direclion is
carried direct I)' to t he column by tile column-Ii"" beam in 110;5 .xample. I"",,;onal slre5"" in
1I.e \I'",ldrcl bea,n are .ery low :md may be di,rcj,'.r<kd, III rnhcr circumSlal1<Cs. the 'pan
drel beam, woold be <lcsigllc'<i for lorsion following the melttods of CItaPlCf 7.
'. _. 13.9 EaU IVALENT FRA ME M ETHOD
a. Basis of Analysis
The direci Je,ign ro..lhoxl for lwo-way slabs tkscrired in 5cdioll 13 ,6 is usefu l if each
o f Ihe ,ix reslricliolls 011 g~rlWlry and 10aJ is salis fled by II", proposeJ SlruClure,
Otherwise. a more ger",ml rllClhod i. needed. O ne such method. proposed by ""abody
in 1948 (Rd. l3.1 I). was i"corpor~k'<l in SubStlQu~nl ed ilions of lhe ACI Code as
d".\';/:n I,,' da,-r;c mill"";". T he rl"'lhod was gr~ally expanded anJ rdi T",J oosed OIl
research ill Ihe I%Os (Rds. I 3.12 ~nd 13.13). allJ il apiJ<)ars in Chapler I J of Ih~ cur
reT11 ACI Cod~ as II", ~qu;ml"m Imm" metlrod.
II will [)" e,ido'nl lhallhe L'qu,,'al~nl fmme melhod was Jioril'ed wi lh IIIIl aump-
lion Ihal lhe mmlysis wou lJ be Jone usi ng Ihe r1)OrT"'nt dislribulion TlJelhod (see
Chapler 12). If analy,is is done by ~'Ompul<'r using a slandard fmme anulysi. program.
sp.'<.'ial modeling d~Yi~s ure n.x:essary, This poil11 wi II be discussed funher in SeciiOlI
l3.ge.
By Ihe eqUlval~n1 fmme rn.:l hoxl. IIJe slruclure is di Yid~d. for analysis. il110 con
lilluous frarlk)s cenlered On Ihe column lirllls alld "xknding bodl longiludinally and
Imnswrsely. as shown by Ihe shaJeJ slrips in Fig , 13.17, Each frame is composed o f
a roll' o f columns and a broad continuous beam. 1l1ll beam. or slab beam. illclu<ks IIIIl
ponion of Ihe slab boundeJ by panel cenlerlines on ~i lher siJ" of Ihe columns.
loget llllr wilh column-line beams Or Jrop piII",ls. if used , For vcnical IcaJing. each
floor wilh ilS ~'Olumns may be analyzed sepamli'ly. wilh Ihe columns assur1t~d 10 btl
fixed at Ihe floors abo,'e and below. In cakulaling bellJing nlOrT"'lll at a ,uppon. il is
com'enicrll alld sufficienl ly accura.e 10 aSSume Ihal IIIIl conl inuous frank) is comp lele ly
fix~'<.l al Ihe suppon Iwo pant'ls rt'rTlOwd from Ihe giwn suppon. provitkd Ihe rran",
cominues pasl thai Il',int .
o..loootc..,_
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,.
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) [) K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 443
FI GU IU: 13, ., It. COlumn It. Column

Building i.xaliZalion for
"'luh.. k 'H frame anoly, ;'.
==+~I~~I
b. Moment of Inertia of Slab Beam
MOlllents of ineni:, uS<.'<l for analysis may be based on the concrete cross section.
IIcglecting reinforcement. but variations in cross SCClion along (he mC11lber a.xis should
be accoun1~d for.
For t~ beam strips. t~ first change from the midspnn11l0ment of inertia nor
mally occurs at the edge of drop panels. if they are u><->d. nlC next occurs at the ~dge
of (he colullIn or colullln capiwl. While (he stilfness of (he slab strip could be consid
ered inf,nite within the bounds of the colullln or capital. at locations close to the panci
cellterli~s (at each edge of the slah strip). the stiffness is much less. According to ACI
Code D.7.3. from the center of the column to the face of (he column or capital. the
nlOnlCn( of incrtia of t~ slab is taken equal (0 the value at the face of the col umn or
capital. divi<kd by the quantity (I - '2 1Jl. wh\:re () and I) are (he siu of the column
or capilnl and the pand span. resp.:c(ively. both measured tTansverse to the direction
in which nlOnlCllIS arc being de(ermiJlCd .
Accounting for these changes in moments of ,nertia results ill a Il>t::mbcr. for
analysis. ,n which the moment of i'lCrtia "aries in a stepwise Illann~r. Th~ stiffness fac
tors. carryover factors. and uniform load fixlxlend moment factors nce<kd for
1l101l1t)n! dislribution analysis (sec Chapter 12) are given in Table A.I"'I of Appendi .~
A for a slab without drop pands and in Table A.13b for a slah with drop panel s with
a dep(h C<]ual 10 1.25 times Ihe slab depth and a length l'qual to olK'third tilt) span
length .
o..loootc..,_
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c. The Equivalent Column
In lhe equivaknl frame method or aJlalysis. lhe columns are consider.:d 10 be al{acl>cd 10
lhe cominuous slab tl.:nm by lon;ionnl memtl.:rs lhal an: lmnswrse 10 lhe direclion of lhe
span for which {no{lIe nIS arc tl.:ing found: lhe lOrsiollal {lIembcr eXlends 10 (he parlel cen
tcrlines bounding each 6idt: of (he sinh beam u{ub s(udy. Torsional defOftl1alion of these
(r.1nsversc support ing members reduces the effeclive flcxur.11 sliffness provilkd by (he
aclUaI column a( lhe suppo", This cfk.:( is accounted for in {he analysis by use of what
is {clllled an e,,";I'<I/er,' (:o/um'l having sliffness less than {hal of lhe ac(ual column .
TIle ac(ion of a column ~nd (h~ transverse lOrsionnl mem!kr is easily explained
wilh reference 10 Fig. 1:\.1 S. which shows. for illus(ral ion, {he column and uansvcrse
heam al {he exterior suppor( of ~ conlinuous slabhe~{n strip, From Fig, J .lIS. il is
denr (hm lhe rotational reS(rainl provided m the end of the slab spa nning in (he direc
(ion I I is inDueneed no( only by (he flexu ral sliffness of (he column bu( also by the lOr
siooal s(itl'ness of {he edge !knOll AC. W ith distribu(ed torque rIO, applied hy {he slab
and resis(ing 10rque M, providl.xI hy (he column. the cdgcbe~m seclions at A and C
will rOlale (0 a grealer degr~'e (hnll the sec(ion at B. owing (0 10rsional deformation of
(he l.xlge beam. To nllow for (his eDccl. (he ac(ual column and beam nn: replaced by
an equi"a lem colulHn. so defined (hat the 10lal flexihili(y (inverse of s(iffness) or (he
equivalent column is the sum of (ile flex ; bil il;es of the aclu~1 column nnd be~m . Thu s.
, , ,
- ~ -- + (IJ.9)
K" K, K,
where K" .. fie,xural s(iffness of cqui~alcm column
K, - Dcxuml s(iffness of aClual column
K, .. lorsional stiffn ess of ~'<lge beam
all exprcs.<;cd in {~nnS of nK",,,,m per unil m{ntion. In computing K", (he momen1 of
inertia of lhe a.:mal column is assum.,'<lw be infinite from {he top of II", ,bb 10 II",
hooUom of {he sbb beam, ,,00 J. is based 0" {he gross coOCre{e seClio" elsewhere along
the leng{h. Stiffne" foc{o" for ,uth a case are giwn in Table A,1 3,.,
TI,e effective ero" seclion of the {mllsverse (orsional llIember. which mayor
may nO! include a beam web proi'-"<-1ing below {he .Inb, as ~h(}wn in Fi g. 13.18. is II",
~' IG U RE 13.111
TorsiOll Ul J U',,,,,'e,,,,
.ul'I'0rting mcmbtr
iIlustrmi" {he basis of {he
C<jui,,,lcnl column,
o..loootc..,_
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,ame as defined earlier in Set'lion 13.6<: . The torsional ("(",smnl C i, cakula1ed by F..q.
(13 ..~) based on the effecliv~ cross "->etion "" delerrnined. The tor,iollal ,tiffn"" K, can
then be ('alculated by the expressioll
9t:,C
K, ~ (l3.10)
where Ec. = modulus of elasticity of slab ("(llicrete

"2 = size of "-~1allgular ("()IUlIlll, capilaL or bmcket in dir~crion 11
C = cTOs<-sectional C<KlStant [see F..q. ( 13.6)]
The summation applies to Ihe typkal ca"" in which there are slab heam< (wilh or wilh -
out alge hea'm) on both sides of the colnmn. The length 11 is measured cenier-1(l-
(-ent~r of the 'uppon' alld. thuS. may have different values in ~ach of the summatio/l
tern" in Eq. ( 13. I 0). if th" Irdll,verse spalls are ulI"'lua!.
If a pand contains a beam parallel to th" direction ill which moment, are being
de'ermilled. the value of K, obtaillal from E<J. (13.10) leads to values of K" . tha, are
11K) low. Accordingly. it is reco111n",nded thai in such ('~se, the val"" of K, found by
Eq. ( 13.1 0) be multipl ied by the ratio of the moment of inenia of the slah with ,uch a
beam to the nlomellt of ill"nia of the slah without i1.
The wllcept of the equivalent column. illustraled wi,h resl""'t to an exterior col -
UlIlll. is employ,-d a' al/ supponing column, for e<ll_ h continuous slah beam, ",,'('ording
to the equ ivalent frome me,IK><I.
d . Moment Analysis
Wi,h the effective slifflle,s of ,he slab-heam <trip and the supports found as
descrihed. the analysi, o f the equivalent frallle can proce<--d by nK)lIlent di st rih<ltioll
(see Chapter 12).
In keeping with the r"'luirement' of stalics (see $eetion 1-'.5). e'luivalem heam
mil'S in each dir<-'(',ion mu,t each c~rry 100 I"'TCemof the load. If th" live I""d docs
lIot exceed ,h"-"'-'luaners of the dead load. maximum IlKHl",m may he assumc'<-i to
o,-"or at all critical sectio", when the full factOTed live load (plus factored dead load)
is on 'he entire ~Iab, a,'cording 10 ACI Cod" 13.7.6. Otherwise pattern loadings mu,t
be used to maximize positive and ''''glti,-e 1lK)"",m,. Maximum p<"i!ive moment is
calculak-d with ,hree-'luaners factored live load On th" pa,,,,1 and on allemate pands .
while maximum neg~tivc moment al a ,upport i, calculated with three-'luarte" fac-
tored live load Oil the adjucent paneh oll ly. Use of ,h"-"'-'luaners live load mther than
tl'" full "alue r""ognizes Ihat maximum po.;itive and n~galiw 1lK)"",m, call1K)t occur
simult"''''')Ilsly (,illce they are foulld from di tTeremloadin g') "lid th"t r<--di,trih<l,i'K'
of momelll, 10 l"ss hi ghly Stressl'<-l section, will take pla<'e before failure of1he , truc-
ture occurs. Factored 1Il01l",nt, mu<tllOl he taken less than those co""sp<mding to full
facto,,'<-Ili,-e I""d on all panels. howe"",-
Neg"ti,'e moment;; obtained frolll that analysi;; upply at the centerlines of sup-
P<)rts. Since the , upport is nOl a knif"...,d g" but a rather bro~d hand of ,lab spanning
in 'he tmllsve"" direnioll. "''''''' reduction in the lIegative design ",on",m i, pro!",r
(see al"" Seclioll 12.5"1. At int~rior supports. the crilical se('lion for negalive bending.
in bOlh column alld middle ,trip;;. may he taken at the fa(.., of the supp<",ing COIUIllII
or ('apital. but in no case at a di~tance gr~~'er th~n O.! 751 , fnnn th" ('enter of tl", ('01 -
UIllII. accordill g 10 ACI Code I 3.7.7. To a" oid exccs,ive reduction of negative moment
at tl'" ext~rior ,uppons (where the distance to th" po int of inile<.,tion is s",all l for lhe
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ca"" where mlumns are provided with ,'apital,. the nitical ,,--etion for negati"" hcnd-
ing in the dire("[ion perpendi"ular to an <"<Ige ,IK)lJld hc taken at a distance from the
face of ,upport not greater than one- half the projection of the capital beyond the face
of the support.
With positi"" and negmive design mon",nt. ohtaioc"<l as just deKribed. it still
remains to distribute these mon",nt, a{-ross the widths of the critical sections. For
de'ign purl''''''''' the t<;ltal strip width i, divided into mlumn 'trip and adja("Cnt half-
middle stri",. <kfined previously. and nK>r"ents are assumed constant within the
bounds of each . TI", distrihution of momentS to column and middle strip" is dOl'"
u,ing the ,an", percentage, given in cOlll""'tion with the direct de'ign n"'thod . The""
are summarized in Table 1304 and by the interpolation d.am of Graph Ao4 of
Appendix A.
11te di,tribution of IlK",,,,nt, and sheal'i to mlumn-line beams. if pr,,'cnt . is in
accordance with the procedures of the direct design meth(KI also. Restriction 6 of
$e("[iOll 13.6. pertaining to the relative ,tiffne" of column line beam. in the two direc-
tions. applies here also if the"" di,tribution ratios are u""d.
Il<>sl(:l> or na t plato noor h}' KJu h'a len! r",,,.,., n"'t hoo . An omc~ lluiJding is planMd
usi~g a nat plate noor system with tlk: column layout a, sl>own in Fig. 13. 19. No beants.
drop pa,,,,,I,. or column capital, are l",rmiUed , SIJeCilied li\'e load i, 100 psf and dead load
will i""llKle the weight of the slab plus an allowa,,,:e of 20 p,f for flni'h floor plu> SU'JlCndt>d
loads_The column< will be 18 in _square. and (he 1100.-(01100.- height of the ,(rue(ure will
be 12 fl. o.,ign the interior p~",,1 C using materi~1 'trengths!, ~ 60.000 p"i .ad!; ~
4000 psi S(raightbar reinfO!L~ment will Ix used_
S"t.tn'lON. Minimum Ihick""" h for a nat plate. ""cording (() II", ACI Code. may be found
from Tahle 1_,_5 ' For (he p",,,,m e,"mpl~. (he minimum h for lhe exterior p"",,1 is
20,5 X12 ~20'
h _ 30 0. Ill,
This will be roundi."<l up"'ani for proc1ical reason,. with cakulalian, based on 3 lrial thick-
nesl of 8.5 in. for .11 ""nels. Thus Ihe dead load of the ,IHb is I $I) x 8,5 12 - 106 p'f. (0
which the sUJlCfimJlOS<'d dead load of 10 p<;f musl be addc.-d. The factored desigJl load, are
l.2~'.. ~ 1.2 106 + 20 - 151 psf
1.6", ~ 1.6 X 100 ~ l60psf
The slru,W .... is idemical in eoch dirt"Ction. JlCrmitting the design for one direction to be
used for boll> (.n aw"'ge cITecli ,', dep<h 10 the t~nsile steel wi ll be used in the c.lc ul:1(ionl).
While tit" resuiction, of Seclion 13_6 are me t and the direct design method of analysis i5
JlCnni\\iblc. ,he C"{)ui"l,lcnt frame method will be adOfilN to demonSt"'tc ilS fe.1wrcs,
Mon..,m, will be found by the ""'thod of ,non",m disuiootion,
!'or nal pla'c structurcs. it is usually OCI."Cptablc 10 calcul 't C 'tilT",,,,scs al if all n",mtx"TS
were Jllismalic. neglecling (he iocreasc in stilT""" wilhin 11k: joint region. as il generally has
negligible c!lcu on de'ign nlO"IC"IS and ,hca~. fhen. for the slab spans.
,, ---,
4f:, I,.
4f_.264 x 8.5'
- 205,
12 X 264
In many ilat pi .... 1\(0",. ,~ " ,in;',,"," ,I,t> '~i<:k""" " " ''' n~1<d by "'lui",,,,,...; fo,. _" "'.. """,fer :It li>< ,;upp<>n;TIi (',>lu" .. " and h i.
J<''<nn iocJri,"'" k> .wid "'ppic,,,,n<ary "",,,, ",.","""'1<
",," f<"ortCOOC"Tlt ,.- to linu , oh< ,""",. ,ocll< ,,,. ~;n .t.~" 'h" ... hi,'h "." Oe , ank"ll
"""'''"t<.
I>y ,t.: )'I"",.
Jk; i ~n fOf '""'"' in ft:lt s...",,,",
II1I0 ,,...,....,-.1 in U, (0,
o..loootc..,_
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) I)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 447
FIG UIU: 13, 19

Two_way Hat plato fim(. g./"lr 22>-O"- r - 22>-o- - r - 22 >-O" i r9"
f r
22" ! , ! B !
~ .
!
L ~ ____ ~ _____ ~ _____ ~ __
r' , , ,
22"' ! B ! c ! !
~I I I I
L----~----
22>-0
,
i
J--- j- ,
i
,
All coIUm!1~18"X 1 8"

,
i
L
I'
1
,
1
,
.
I I I
and t he column stiffne.>ses are
4 , 18 X 18 '
K, : 12 X 144 - 24.1E,
C"lcui",i,-", of Ihe C'qUiv,1lcnl colum" Sliffness rc(Juires con,idenuion of 'he 10000ionai <lefor-
malioo of lhe Iran"'~rse , trip of slab thai fUlJ{'lion, as lhe sUf'IIOI'1ing beam . Appl}'ing the
crileria of ,he ACI Code COlabli\hcs 11031 Ute eft<:<:'i,,~ l00'Sional n..;:mbcr has widlh I g in, _.. Ill
depth 8.5 in, For lhi' =lion. the lorsional con,lnn! C from Eq. (13.5) i,
8.5 , 18
c- 1-0.63 X -
18
8.5 X -
.1
- 2590,n
and the lQf!;ional ' liffness. frum Eq . ( 13,10). is

9, X 2~90
, - , - 1{)9/,;',
I 26-1I - L~n
From Eq . (1 .' .9). accoum ing for I"'ocolumns and lW<l 101'>'0031 memoc"fS m nch joim,
K", 2 X 243E, + "c,o-,'"..,,c,

from ",hich K" - 15IE, . Di'lri"'Jlion fOC10f5 at eachjoim "'" 1""" calculO1..:l in the usual
"'a}'.
For lhe p""senl example, lhe ralio of ",,",'ice live I""" 10 dead load i, 100 126 - 0.79.
and t>ocause lhi, ex,,,ed, 0,75. ac,;on:ii'W 10 AU Cod<: 13,7.6 n",,;mum posilive and neg"-
live momems musl be found based on panem loadings, wilh full factored dead load in place
and three-quaners (""w,ed Ii,'e load positioned 10 cauS<' the ma, imutn effect. In addili,,".
lhe de,ign nlOmen\S must !IOI be Ie" lhall ,110", (>I'OOuced 1>,. full factored live a,," dead
loads "" all panel,. Thus Ill"'" load caseS mu,l be coo,idercd : (<I) full factored dead and \iv"
o..loootc..,_
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TABLE 13.7
Moments in flat plate fl oor, ft-kips
Panel B C B
Joint 1 2 2 J J 4
ta) .111 psf an po""l,
fixed.nd "'101"""" -t l76 - 276 +276 - 276 -t 276 - 276
Final moment, -t 125 -323 +295 -2q5 -t 323 -125
Span mornem in C
(b! 151 psf panels B and 271 psf ra",,1 C
'"
Fixe<l,,\d n""""h[, -t 2~0 - 2~O
Fin.1 moment, + 22~ -22~
Sran ,nomen, in C Ll7
te) 271 psf po",,)s fi (lofO and C aOld 151 psf po",,1 fi (rightl
Fixedend rnot"""" -t 211) - 240 +2~O - 240 -t I.q
Final """""nl, -t 107 -290 + 274 -207 -+l9 1
Span mo",em in C "0
load, 31 I p,L On all parlels: (b) facUl<ed ct.:ad load of 151 psf 0<' all spnns plus Ihl1:<:-qu.1nc"tS
faclored Ii,," load. 120 psf. on ranel C and (c) full faclored d,-ad load on all 'po",.nd Ihree-
quarters li,'e load on first a"d =olld sparls. Fi,edcrld rllOrllCrllS and firlal rllOrllCntS oNaiTlCd
from moment di'lribulion are ,ummarized in Table 13.7. The re,uil, indicale thai load caS("'
(,,) rontro1s the , lab desigJ' in the support rcgion. while load calC (b) COrll roll allhc mid\p;Jn
o f pand C Momenr diagraom for lhe Iwo controlling case, are shown in Fig. 13.20."
AC'-'Ofding 10 IIIC ACI Code Ihe crilical seclio<' al imerior ; IlPport, may be laken alill.: face
of , upport, . bur 001 ~reJrer lhJn 0.17 51 , from lroe roiu",n cente,line, Tho fonner crilerion
cO<lirois llerc. 3nd Ihe neg~ li,'e design monlCm is caicul'lcd by sublrxlirrg Ihe are~ under
lhe ,hear diagram bel"'een lhe remerline and fac~ of ,uppon. for load case (a ). from the
negalivc nlOmcnt aI tllC SUPPOI1 ccnlerline, '1lIC ,hear d iagram for load co>c (a) is llJvt:n in
Fig. U.2Ob. willi the adju' led <ie;ign .""",ents , II""," in Fig, Ll.20u.
Ikx:au>c lhe eff"c,iv~ depth for all panels will be Ifle sarno:. and Ixx:ansc tile negali,'c \,,,,,1
for p.:u>el C will continue through lhe support regiOllIO become 1"" neS'li". 'Ieel for ranel,
H. lile larger rlegali,'O: U>o.l\C111 found for Ihc parlel, H will <'(Inlrol. AC<'Ofdingly. III.: desig n
negali\'e moment i, 262 ft-kips and lhe de'i~n [>OSil i\'c n>oment is 137 fl-kips.'
Mome nlS will be diSiribul(:d lalcmll y ~cross the \Iab wi<llh according ' 0 hbk: 13.4.
which indicme>lhJl 7 5 perce nt of 1"" ncgali"e momenl will be assigned 10 til<' column >trip
~nd 60 IlCrcetll of lhe [>OSili ,'" nlOlllCnt assi gned 10 .1oe colunm \!rip. Tile dcsigJl of lloe slab
reinforcement is , ummarized in Table 1.1.8.
OilIer imporla nl aSpeCIS of lhe design of flalpla'e\ include &;ign for 1>",,';1oinl1 ,loe~r : 1I
the columns. which m.y require ,upplenl<'ntaJ)' stt.ar reinforcenl<'m. Jnd Ir:m,fer of unbal-
anced .non>en~, 10 Uoc col umn,. which may "'Q"ire addi.ional ncxural b.o,., in Ihe .oegali,"e
bendin~ region of Ihe column slrip> or adj uSlnoenl of sP'K"i tlg of negati'" sleel. Tllese con-
,ider..lions ~re of spc.;i:ll imporl3",-'" .11 c"erior columns .,,,,1
corner column s. s"ch as shown
in Fig. !.1.! 9. She.. and lnonl<'m lransf", at Ille columns will be discusS("'d in Smions 11, 10
and 13.11. rcspc<:liwly,
WI>.." , lab ')'~"'~ ,h.. ,'""-', 11>< ""'FKnO'l> O' ,,,,,u..,, "'"
11>< di'''''1 Jcsi~ n '0
,b,~",'tl ~y the <'1ui--.k .. fraHO< m"'l>.>d, ,"",'(>nJi"" IlCi Cod<-
U 1.1 '-'"' "",, I " n ~ d<-,,~.T'' ' ''''''' ""Y 0< I1.'tloc<d 1"''1''",.' ,'' 'ciy ". 1 ~" 10< "" n of II>.' I"~,d ,~ MJ ",'~e ,-.,,,"'i'" HO'''''"'' in _ ore no
~n'<"l'f lh"" M, l'.ku'''w ""i,
f,~ !he dim.' d<-"~n IFI.""" 1''' 11>."''-''1<.1 f,.- 'hi" 'fl>.' "-,....-,"'" " k~, LhOlT ~
I'''''''''' i. 11>< l",. ,rll ", .. nrI<. an.! i, ~' iII "'" b< incll>hl in ,r., Jd~ n ,'>Jr.'ul..."".
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 13.20

DI:.ign 1lJ()O><n" ."d <b<.r>
for fla , pla ,e floor i"terior
paocl C: (<I) mo",,,n": load case b
(h) .tlta,.;. ~",_ m
~ 119
c-+-- M.IIkips
- '"'
'"
" ,
,
75.3 - - 70.1 "'- - m
--~",:--,~-- V, kips
k- l .5' k- l.5'
- 84.3 - 75 .3
(0,
TABLE 13.8
Design of flat plate reinforcement
1" (0' , 1>, ,OJ
'" '"
(0' (8)
Number
, , " 12 , , and Size
,,
lO<:iltion ftkips in. in. ftkipslft in' of Baf1.
Column N,,~at i "e 1% 132 17.82 0.0075 6.65 16 No.6 (No. 19)
.uip Pmiti"e
"' 1.12 7.45 0.0029 2 .~8 9 No.5 (No. 16)
Two h3lf-
mkldl. strips
N,,~ati"e
'" 132
,, '00
,"'
0.0023 2.13 S No. 5 (No. 16)"
Positive
" 132 0.0020 l.8S 8 No . S (No. 16)'
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
I 11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
e. Equivalent Frame Analysis by Computer

II is dear lhallhe equivalel11 frnme melhod . as described in Ihe ACI Code and Ihe ACI
Code Commcillary. is oricmed loward ana lysis using (he method of moment distribu
lion . Prcsemly, mOSI offices make use of eompu!ers . and frame analysis is done usi ng
general -purpose progrnms based on the direcl stiffness nlClhod. PIJ1lC frame ana lysis
programs can he used FOT slab analy sis based on Ihe concepls of (he equivalem frame
mdhod. but lhe fral"" I11USt be specially modeled . Variable momCIliS of inenia along
Ihe axi s of slab beams and columns requ ire nodal poims (continuou s joillls) helween
se<:lions where I is to be consider~x1 conSlanl (i.e .. inlhe slab m Ihe ju nClion of slab
and drop JXlllei. drop JXlIlc1 and capilal. and in lhe columns m lhe ool1om of lhe capi
lals). In addilion . it is necessary to compulc K for c:.eh column . and (hen 10 compUle
Ihe equi\alcnl value of Ihe momcm of inenia for the col umn.
Allcrmcly. a Ihree-dil""nsional frame analysis may be used . in which the tor
sional propenics of the Iransvcrsc suppon ing beams may be induded direelly. A Ihird
option is 10 ma~c usc of specially wriHcn compuler programs. Ihe mOSI widely used
heing ADOSS Analysis and D\:sign of Reinforcrd Concrcle Slab Syslellls: dcvel
oped by Ihe Ponland CClncm Associmion (Skokie. minoi s) .
'. _. 13.10 SHEAR D ESIGN IN F LAT P LATES AND F LAT SLABS
When two way slabs arc supponcd direclly by columns, as in flm slabs and 11m plalrs,
or ",hen slabs carry concel11rnted loads, as in footings. shear ncar ItIC columns is of
crilical imponancc. Tesls of 11m plme structures indieme Ihal. in I110St praclical cases.
Ihe capacity is gowmed by shear (Ref. 13.14).
a. Slabs without Special Shear Reinforcement

Two kinds of sllCaf may be crilical in the design of flat slabs. !lal plates, or foolings.
The firsl is the familiar beanHype shear lewing 10 diagonal lensiol1 failure.
Applicable particularly 10 long narrow slabs or fOOling . Ihis amdysi s considers the
SI:lb 10 acl as a wide beam. sp:mning bclwe~n suppor1~ provided t>y Ihe l~'l~nd i cular
column slrips. A potemial diagonal crack eXlends in a plane across the ~T11ire widlh ' )
of Ihe slab. The crilical section is w~en a di slance d from the face of Ihe column or
capital. As for beams, the design shear slrt:nglh . V, I11USt be al kasl ~'qual 10 the
required strenglh V, .11 factored loads. The nominJI shear slrenglh V< should be calcu
l:lIed by either Eq. (4.121,) or Eq. (4.12/)). with /) . e ll in this case.
Allemali\"dy. failure may occur by I'wIChitlll.<hetlf. wilh Ihe polenlial diagonal
crnck following lhe surface of a Iruncaled COlIC or pyrnmid around the column. capi
wi. or drop panel. as shown in Fig. 13.21<1. The failure surface c.>;lcnds from the 001
10m of Ihe slab. at Ihe suppon. diagonally upward 10 lhe top surf:lce. TIle angk of
inclination wilh Ihe horizomal. (see Fig. 13.211. depends upon the n~lu re a nd
amoum of rcinforceme m ,nlhe slab. 11 may range bclw~'en aboul 20 and 45 . The cril '
ieal section for shear is laken perp.:ndicular 10 Ihe plane of the slab and a disla rlCcd 2
fromlhe po:riphery of Ihe suppon. as shown . The sh~ar force V. 10 be resisled can be
calculat~x1 as Ihe 10lal faclored load on the area bound~x1 by panel cel1lcrlillCs arou nd
Ihe column less Ihe load applied wilhinlhc area defin~'{j by Ihe crilical she:lr perime
ler. unless significanl rnonlCms must be transferred from the slab 10 the column (Sloe
Section LU I).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANA U 'SIS ANI) I)K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 45 1
FIGU IU : 13.21
Failure .,un"",. ddi r.od by
putlChi"S ,he .... r '.l' -
- gr- ~r----<
r ::.t~---"----"-----'--~\~ -(
0 0
,-, 10'
Al such a seclion. in addition to the 'hearing <!re,~, and horizontal tompre"iv~
,trc,,,,, due to neg~tive bending moment. wnical or <onJewhnt inclined compressive
,tress is l"""'nt. owi ng to the ",~clion of the column. The simultaneou, presen"" of
venic~1 and horizontal compre"ioll increa<;c, the ,hear strength of the concrete. For
,lab, supponed hy column, ha"ing a r~tio of long to 'hon side, not gre ater Ihan 2,
test' indicate tlmt the nominal .hear strength may be t~ken equal to
(!.lI la)
a~"Cording to ACI Code 11.12.2. where hu = the perimeter along the critical ..,ct;';lI1.
However, for ,Iahs supported by very rect~ngular columns. Ihc shear sirength
predicted by E<J. (13 . 11,,) h~s heen foulld to he uIKon",rvative. Ac<"ording to tesl'
reponed in Ref. 13.1 5. lhe val ue of V,. approa('he, 2 [h,;1 as <' lhe mtinnf long 111
'hon side, of lhe column. "'--"("On"" wry large . Renecting this le,t data. ACI O Kk
11.1 2.2 slates funher that Vo in punching shear ,ball n<;ll be laken greater lhan
4
2+ - (13.111
TIle ~ariation of tlk< shear strength coefficien t. as governed by Eqs. (1 .' .11,,) and
(11.llh) is shown in Fig. 1... 22 as a runclion of ('
Furth.. r les(s. reponed in Ref. U.16. haw shown (hat Ihe shear strenglh V,
decreaS{'s as the ratio of critical perill"'ter to slab dCpih h" d increases. Accordingly.
,\ CI Code 11.1 2.2 stak'S thai Vo in punching shear mu,( not be lakcn greater than
,d
- +2 (13. 1 Ie)
h"
wlwre ,is 40 for interior columns. 30 for cdge columns. and 20 for cOnler columns.
i.e" columns having cri(ic'al ""c(ions with 4 ..1. or 2 sides. rcspecliwly.
TIlUS. according to tlk< ACI Code. tlie punching shear sl r~ngth of slabs and fOOl
ings is 10 be laken as tlie sma llest or ille 'alues of V, giwn by Eqs. ( D .II a). ( 13. 11" ).
and (U.IIe). TIle design strenglli is taken as Vo as usual. wllt're = 0.75 for shear.
TIle basic R'<luiren~n( is then V, oS V,..
For columns with nonrccmngular cross SC{;tions tl~ AC I Cooe indicates that tl~
perimckr he must be of minimum length. but I~ed nOi approach cloSt'r than d 2 to
tl~ perimeler of the reaction area . Tlk< manner of delining II~ critical perimeter b o and
t!~ ratio 0 for such irregular suppon configurations is illustratcd in Fig . 13.23.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FI GU IU: 13.22 , ,------------------,

Sb<ar ""'"g,h <<>eff"i<", for
flat plates os. fU",lioo of
m,io ,"f long ,ide '0 ,hort ' r---,
,i<le ofsuppo.
'oc----,o ----:,----c,c---c,c----:,"
FI GU RE 13.23
Punching >he" f",. col umn'
of iITt"J;ular ,hape.
I
: I
I
, /)
,/ //~
Critical perimeter Do
/
/
r_I'~ EffediV9 loaded area
/
-----~/
b. Types of Shear Reinforcement

Special shear reinforcement is oftcn used at the suppons for nm plmes. :md solnetilnes
for nat slabs as well. It may take sc\'~ral forms . A few common types ar~ shown in
Fig. 13.24.
The ,h~<lrl!e",!J' shown in Fig. 13.24" and ~ consisl of standard struclUral st~cl
shapes embedded in the sl:tb and projecting beyond the column. Thcy ser\'c to increase
the effective pcrink:ter II" of the crilical scclion for socar. In addition . Ihcy may con
tributc to the n~gati\'c bending rcsisi:tllce of th~ slab. The rcinforccnk:n t shown in
Fig. 13.24<, is particularly suit~d for use with concrete columns. It consists of short
Icngths of I or wid~ -n~ng~ beams. cut and welded at the crossing point so that the
arms arc continuous through toc column. Normal negative slab reinforcement passes
o\'~r tlk: top of the siru ctural sted. whil e oouom bars are stopped short of the shear
held. Column bars pass "enically at the comers of the column. The cffcocti~erwss of
this type of shcarhcnd has b.:cn documented by t<'SIS by Corley and Hnw~jn s Ref.
13.17. The channel frame in Fig. 13.2" is ~ery similar in its aClion. but is adaploo for
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
A!I;AU 'SIS A!I;I) I)K~ I (;!I; OF SI.AIIS 4 53
FIG UIU : 13.24 I I

Sb<ar r~i"f()<l:<m<"' for flat
pla,es (ct>fll;nu<,d "., nUl
I I
I"'g~)
I I
I I I
----"tC-f+----
----\t+-ti----
----1or----
I I I
I I I
", ",
c::,+':j11
F Smte ning
ribs
- - i---
.--lw_
channel
,
Steel flanged
sedions coUar
", ,'I
use with <teel columns . Th~ hem-bar arrangemem in Fig. 13.24h is suited for use with
concrde columns. The bars ar~ usually bent at 45 acros.~ th~ poIential diagonal ten -
,i,," <:rack. nnd exknd along tt;., D<lUOm of ,he slnb a distance suffi cie nt '0 devdop
thei r 'trength by D<md. The flangoo collar in Fig . 13.24<1 is designed mainly for use
with lift-slab ~~ln'truction (see Chapte r 18). It consi,t, of a flat D<>Itom plate with ve r-
tical ,tifT~ning ribs. It may incorpomte "",,,,,t, for lifting ""l>.
and usually i, used ill
conjunction with st;.,nr pads welded di"-'Ctly to the column surfac"s below ,he collar
to tmnsfer the venical reaction .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 13.24

n
t-t-I-t-t
+-+-I-+-t
[j
J-t
t-ttO-Jt-t
+4. -It-+
t-t-I-t-t
+-+-I-+-t
II
o,o,o,o,o,o,o"'1f --1""
, ,
I " ,
nj] """"I J",,,,,,
t:! II
Ie) II)
Another type of ,hear reinforcement is illustrated in Fig. 13.24e. where vertical

stirnJps have ix'en used in conjunction with ,uppbnentary horizontal bars r~diating
outward in two perpenditular directio", fmm the ,uPI"II1. to fOJm what are termed
integml ""am.' contain~d entirdy within the slab thickne,s. The", bea rn~ act in the
, arne general way as the shearheads shown in Fig. 13.24a and r. Atk'<juate anchorage
of the stirrup<; is difficult in ,labs thinner than about 10 in. ACt Code 11.12.3 r"'luire~
the slab dTectiw depth d to he at least ti in" but not I"" than Iti ti mes the diameter o f
the ,hear reinforcement. In all cases. dosed hoop ,tirrup' shon Id be osed. with a large-
diameter horizontal bar at each ocnd point. and the stirrup, must be tenninated with a
standard hook (Ref. 13.18).
A n1()re recem de"ciopment is the ,hear stud reinforcement ,hown in Fig. 13.24(.
This consi,ts of large-head studs wdded to sted Strip<;. n", strip' are ,upponed OIl
wire chair, during construction to maintain the Tl'<juired concrete cove r to tt", hottom
of the ,lab helow the strip. and the usual cover is maintained over the top of the head.
Because of the positive anchorage pmvitk'<i hy tt", stud head and the sted strip. tt",se
devkes arc more etT~'('ti"e. ucn,rding 10 lestS. than e ither tt", hem bar or integral heam
reinfOJ~"'meTlt (Refs. n.19 and n.20). In additi"". they can be placed nK"e easily,
with k" interferenl-e with Other reinforcen"'nt. than other type, of shear St~eI.
c. Design of Bent Bar Reinforcement

If , I",ar rei nforcemem in the fonn o f bars i, used (Fig. 13.24h). the limit "alue of nom -
inal shear strength ~ cakulat(.'<i at the critil-al '\a,tion d 2 from lile \uppon face, may
be increa",d to 6 f . hod accnrding to AC] Code ] 1. 12.3. Tile she"r resistance of the
concrete. Vc' i~ reduced to 2 Iebo'l. and reinforcement mllst provide for the eXG'--"'~
,I",ar ab<we V,.. Tile tOla] bar area A,. cros,ing the critical sectio" "t slop" angle i~
ea, ily obtained by eq~ating lile venica] (olllpoRem of the steel for~'C to the excess
, I",ar force to be ac~~'mmodated:
. A,/, sin
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ANAU 'SIS ANI) [)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 4SS
When" indinL-d sru,ar r~infOJ<'cn"'nt is all bent nt the ,ame distan<'e from a suppon, V,
= AJ, ~in i, not to ~xcecd J Ii hod. aording to ACI Code 11.5.6. The ~uired
area of reinforc~l11c nt for sl",ar i, found by Imnsposing the I'f"".,,)ing l><jualio",
A,, = v. - v,. (lJ.12)

f, sin
SuC<'~"iv~ ",crions at increa,i ng distance, from the su pron must be in" estigated and
reinforce"",m provid"') wi",,,, V, exceL...!> V, a, given hy Eq. (13, II ).t Only lhe cen -
ter th ree-quan ers of lhe inclined ponio" of Ihe bent bar; can be '-~ln,idered efTectiv~
in resi,ting sh~ar, and full d"v~lopment length must be provided pa,t the Io.:;mion of
peak stress in the sleeL whi ch i, assun",d to be at slab middepth d 2_
EXM1PL E 13.-1 i)esigll "f bar ,..,lnfO~1lK'1II for p"nchlng . bear. A flat plate fI'-"-"" ha, thick''''" h - 7,
in. "nd is supported b)' 18 ill, "luare ""Iumm sp;!<.oo 20 It on ..-enters each " -ay, The floor
will cali)' a total factored lood of 300 1"[ Check the adequacy ofU", slab in resisting punch.
ing ,hear al " I)'pical in1~rior col"mn. ond pro"ide ,hear rein!'or'-"'I""nl, if "'*<led. ming I><nt
b"", si milar to fig . 13.241>. An a\'ernge etTeeth'e delHh d - 6 in . may be u~_ Material
strenglhs =/, = 6O,OOOp,i and!; - 4000 psi.
S()'.\ f[1 "~ . 11><: first critical &<.1ion for pulIChing ,hear i, a dis!.""" ,I 2 = ., in, from tile
colu",n face. flf'(w;ding a >hear perimeter 1>0 - 24 X 4 - % in. Ba~d OIl!he lributary area
of loaded floor, the factored ,I",", i,
V, ~ ]00 20' - 2' ~ 118,800 Ib
and. if no ,hear reinforce"ocnl is uS<."d. the de,i~" ,trengll, of the .lab. conlrolled by EQ,
(H i la). is
Y, - 0,75 X 4 4001 X % X 6 _ 109.300 Ib

coofinning that sJ"'at reinfore." ..nt i. reQuired_ Bars bent a! 4 _~ o will be us"" in IWO direc
tions, "' shown in Fig, 1.'I.2~. When shear >1renglh i, l'f'(widOO b)' a combination of rein
force"", nr and C"01IC",te. the concrete conrriMnion is reduce<! to
Yc = 0.75 X 2 4001 X 96 X 6 = ~,600lb
"nd '" tlk: ,hear Y, 10 I>< resisted b}' Ihe r~inforce PTlent is
v, _,',._-~v",. _ 118.8000_75- ~.600 _ 85'~' b ."'-"1
Thi' i, below rhe maximum permi>sible .-aJue of] 4001 X 96 X 6 - 109J.OO lb_ 11><:
required bar area is then found from Eq . (13.12) 10 he
85.600 . '
, 000
uu. X 0.707
K 2.02 'w
, lIeI C,>Jc II. t 2.3 all>lllC! c."O""",,.} k 11.12.1 III< .. "t.;~","" ",.,.ru;n~ ,II< ,~Ioc ,~. V, '0 "" u"oJ h Il-JI rl<rt, ,bah-. ""yooo th<- reji.i< ...... "''nO
,,,,.,,, """f,-"",,,","' i, requiftoJ, I" ''ITO.T'l, f,.- .bl ... Io<:rr >1><", ",i"fon",,,cnl i, "'" ft'l'-'i,,d. V, is ,.kulao.:d frum 1'-1" (13.l la ,,, t 1 t tel. with
V, io ,.. ,., Oa'<:> ~,",I 1<' ~ I~,J When , II<", ",inf,,,,,,"x",, h l"'-"'idtoJ. the lim't'"~ ""a. 'TLlly ",. in(fc,><oJ ,,, " .. ,i"",,,, ,of ~ !;h",t.
"""''''~~. ,'''' she.. .-c i"f,",',",,,,,, ,,,.,,' ",. <It.,i~ ...oJ '0 e",) .11 skar in ,.,,,,,,, ,of V, with V - 2 I b"I. 'j OJ, ...~."" '" i",ply thot ,"" "m tH.,
In V, 10 ,,,,,,Ioalf ", ",." .. 1 ,~"". """Ii<> ,.. Iy ~ n.."f< "..'" i; a "'m "l' ,~. !n..' lor,-" "'""""" .'"",,1, .Il>l '~"I ",i"I,,,,,,",,",, 1ITl<J ,hal, i" ,II<
1\'1 ..... ~he'" ,...,.,- "'i"f,"'oll ..... i> "(~ """il\oJ. ,he fon """,,,.. ,,,,,ooorlblJtioo ,4 4 r b~1 cm 1>.' ""oJ. bam"".. t 14 '00 t 3.6. ~ hith Ivllow.
h,,,,, "'"... ~ ,.. ' Oa! ,,",i., Til< .I'"",,,,~'C ,""",,",'''~'' " , ~ ... if '''''Of m nhttmcn, i. """iftoJ .. ,"" ,vI""... w n ,he ",-""-,,,1c
"-"'triru,"., i. ft-.Joc<d ,,, 2 I~.J ltu-.""t."" ,'''' ,!.~, 1'10;' ,!lOre '""",,~"'i,~ ioLc"fJ"""'" ,,","-I Ix
""" illn""",. """U'<" ,>I" ,he rnri<J,,,,ore,,,,
""""oJ in """y eN'> ...i'OOO' "~"'t":...
in V, ...;' " '''' _ f.,.,i" ~ di .""",~ In"" ,I>.' ",I ",nn "",,,iti"1 I~"n ,he ;"'1'<, .... i" ,,""""" she" p,:rl""1<f
b~" ~d l " Ii>< mli><,;'" ,n ""'ar
1>.1 f,",,, V.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 13.25 ".

Bar rtin!()[c'Cm<nt fo.-
p"tIChinS
,bb.
,he.,. in l1at plat" 4.5"----< ". _ 4. 5'
~-
r- r-- 18" -----<j r- -~
V ,
FirSI Cr1Ucal sectioo
econd cr~K:a1 section
./ / 'N 0,5 (No, 16) bars each way
l
i
I
L.1'
Ir-;r
~--~ ,,~
LL 1
L-lLJ 5" 15'
A 10\.11 of f""r bars will be usc<J (two ill coch direClion). and wilh eighl Ic~, crossing the cril-
ical ",..-lioo, lhe necessary are" per bar i, 2.02 8 ~ 0.2S in', No.5 (No, 16) bars will be u~
as sh<)v,1\ ill Fig, 13,25, The upper li"'il of V. - 6 feb,,1 is aulom~lically S.11islicd in ' his
ca",. given the more '!ringem limil on V,.
Willi b"rs bent al 45' and effccliw Ihroogb the c~n!cr Ihreefoor1h, of the ioclined lenglh.
t
lhe ,leXi crilic"l sec(ioll ;, al'J'f'Oxima!ely linle' (he efTec(h'e del'lh . or 4.5 in., past [he first,
as shO\<'n, gi"ing " ,he:" 1'''r1nlet~r of 33 X 4 ~ I ~2 in, Til< fac(on:d sll<ar JI lhal cr1tical
sec{;"" i,
V. = 300 20' - 2 ,75' = 1 17.700 1b
and !he de_ign cap:><:;{y of (he concrete i,
v, _ O,?5 X4 .U)OO X 132 X 6 _ 150.3OOIb

confim'ing Ih.lI '10 addilional ben[ bars an: tlCed<.xl. 'I1oe No, 5 (No. 16) bars '" ill be CXlCnd<."d
"10l1~ the bon()", of lhe 'lab (he ful l development l on~lh of 15 in .. a, ,h<)v,'n in Fig, 1.' -25.
d . Design of Shearhead Reinforcement

If embedded slruclural sled shapt's are used. as shown in Fig. 11.24" and c. Ilw I"n
i{ing ,'alu~ of V. may be Increased 10 7 I-bod. Such a sh~arhead. pro,'id~d it is sum
d~nll)' sliff and sirong. has lhe ~ffeCl of nlOving Ilw crilical seclion oul away [rom [he
col umn. as shown in Fig . 13.26. According 10 AC I Code 11.12.4. Ihis crilical seclion
cross<'s e:>eh mn of Ihe shearhead al a dislanc., c"<lua] [0 Ilu'e"'quant'Ts of Ih~ projec
lion ocyond Ihe fac~ of Ih., support. and IS defined so Ihm [he pt'rilllel~r is a minimum ,
It n~ed not approach cios..-r Ihan d 2 10 [he face of Ilw suppon.
Moving {he crilical S<."<:lion OUI ,n Ihis way provi<ks Ihe double benefll of
increasing lhe cffoxliw peri meier b" and decreasing Ihe 10lal shear force for whieh lhe
slab mUSI be designed. lltc nominal shear v, al Ihc ncw cri{ical scClio~ muSI nOI be
taken gre:n~r {han 4 [/',11. according 10 ACI Code 11.12.4.
TCSIS reponoo in Rcf, 13.17 in di cate Ihal througho ut mOSI of I~ length of a
shearhead arm Ihe sh~ar is con Slant. and. funh~r. Ihallhe pan of lhe 10lal shear carried
o..loootc..,_
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,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
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r--- I v ------->
,
\
\
,.,
'OJ
'e,
~' I G U RE 13.26
Critkal steti"", f()( 'hcar f()( fla<pia" (a) 00 'hc<lflk,>d: (bI , mall sb<arhe>d : ic) I.,ge
.hcorhcad.
Ily lh" shearh"ad arm is proportional 10 " its relative flexural stiff"" ... compared
Wilh lhal ofd", sum;>unding cOnnel" ""'-"li on:
F. ,I,
(13.13)
Eel,
n", CQncr"te se<"lion i, taken with an "ffective width of cl + d. wher" "1 is th~ widlh
of lhe support mea,urro rerpendicular 10 lhe arm dir""tion. l'roperti.,,; are ca!culatro
for the cr:tl"ked. Iransformed "-"elion. inl"luding lhe .hearh"ad. The observation lhal
,hear i, ",sentially constam. at lea't up to lh" diagonal cracking load. impli'" thaI tI",
reacti on is concemrat~d larg"ly allh" end of tI", arm. Thus. if tl", lolal .I",ar allhe ,up-
port is Vand if the ,hearhead has idel11;cal anm (g~ner~lIy = 4 for shearheads al
int~rior column,). lhe con,tan! ,hear forte in ~ach arm is <-"qual to ,Y
If the load i, increased paSl lilat which cau se, diagonal cracking immedialely
around the column. test, indicate that tl", innea",d ,hear above dl~ crolCking shear V,
is carried mosdy hy the s1<-..,1 shearhead . and thaI the shear forte in the proj.xting arm
wililin a dislance from the l"olumn fate ~qual 10 h,.. the depth of Ihe arm. assun"" a
nearly <"onSlanl value great er than ,V . This increased value is wry nearly equal 10
the tOlal shear per arm V. minus lhe shear carri'-"<-l hy the partially <TolCk,-"<-l Con -
crete. Th~ lauer l~nn i, <><juallo (Ye Xl - ,.); hence. lhe idealin-d shear diagram
,hown in Fig . 13.27" is nhtain~d.
n", r!Klment diagram of Fig. 13.27c is nbtainro hy im~grulinn of the , hear dia-
grum. If V, is '-"qual 10 V. ' 2 = V, 2 . a, te,l, indicate for shearheads of common pro-
portions. il i, ea,ily confinned lhallhe plasti<" momen! M,.
al d,e face of the support,
for which lh" sl",amead ann mus! he propnni on,--d. is
M
Yo (.',
~ - " , 1,. -'2 m.14)
" 2
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FIGU IU: 13.27 Face of support

S're." rt."ltant< in >bearhead
arm: (ti) ' ....athead arm:
(~) <hear: (c) momon'
,,'
','. [I
<PlJ - 1/(1 - "v ) 11111111111111111111111111111 G "~v<
o
(~
'"
,,)
in which - 0.90. ,he capaci,y -reduction fac,or for ,ension -controlled nk:mbers.
According ,0 ACI Code 11 .12.4. ,he value of . , musl be a, leas, cquallo 0.15:
more l1ex ible sho.:arheads ha\'e prowd incff.x'i.-c. nle compression flange mUSI no, be
more ,han 0.3<1 fromlhc bonom surface oflhe slab. and ,he s,~'t:l shapes used IllUS, nOi
re deeper Ihan 70 ,imes lhe web Ihich css .
For l1exural design of Ill<.) slab. 1ll0lllCIllS found al Ihe support cellleriine by ,he
cquivalclll frame melhod are reduced (0 moments al ,he support face_ assunk:d (0 be
,he cri,ical sec,ion for moment. By Ihc direci design nk:lllod. suppon -face 1ll0nl<!IllS
are calculaloo dir~"C(]y through ,he usc of Ihe clear-span distance. If shearheads arc
USl"d. Ihey have ,he efkct of reducing ,he dt:sign mOIlk:nI in the column strips s,ill fUf-
,her by increasing ,he effecti"e support wid,h. This reduction is proponional ,0 ,he
share of the load carried by ,he shcarhcad and ,0 ;IS size. and can be eS,imJICd con -
scr"al;vc!y (see Fig. (3 .27b and d by Ihc expression
M =~ I
<: ,
(13.15)
" 2 ' 1
where = 0.90. Accord ing 10 ACI Code 11.12.4. the rcdUClion may nOI bc grealer
,han 30 percell1 of Ihe 100al d<:sign tllOnl<!nt for the slab column s,rip. or grealer ,han
the change in column_strip mon-..:nt over Ihe dislJIICe I,.. or grcaler than Mp given by
Eq. ( 13.14).
ti mil L"<1 tesl inform~lion pertaining to shear h~ads al a slab ooge i nd ical~s Ihat
beha"ior may be substanlially differe n, due to torsional and OIher dfL"c~. If shear-
heads arc 10 bc used nt ~n ~dge or corner column. special al1ention must be gi~en to
anchorage of the embedded sleel ",ilhin the column. l1Ie u~e of ooge beams or a can-
tilevered slab edge may bc preferred.
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ANAU 'SIS ANI) I)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 459
EXMIPLE u.s i)esign of shearhead ",Inforc.m.nt. A nat plate slab 7, in , thick i, ,uiJPOf1ed by 10 in.
square columns and i, reillfon-.:d for "'1!.ti"e bending with No, 5 (No. 16) ban; 5 in, on l"Cn'
tel"'> in each d irection. with .n a,'erage effectiw delllh J of 6 in _11", concrete ,trength!; is
3000 psi . The , lab ",,,,t tmn,fer .. f""I0",/l shear V. of 10 7.000 Ib to tho: col omn. What sre-
dal 'lab reinforcement is required. if ""~yo al the column 10 lran, f"r ltoe faclored 'hear'
The nominal ,hear mength .,the criticaJ =tion d 2 Irom the face of the coJ_
S", . u,.,o~ .
umn is found fro", Eq, 03 . 11 <I) to be
V,ol 3OOO x 64x6~84.lkips
and V, = 0 ,15 X 84,1 = 63.1 kip'_ This i, less than I', = 107 kiJlS. indiCJting that shear
rcinjOr""noent is n""<!SlIIry. A ,I\cartoead ,imil ar \0 Fig, I 3.2-1<. will be u,ed. fabricaled from
i
I-beam =tion, with ! , = 50 ksi, "1aintainin~ in. clearance below such mod. bar clear-
'''c~ :lItloe 101' ofllte shb penni!S uli! <)f 3n I beam wilh a 4~ in. Jejllh: a .",min.1 4 in. sec
lion will be used, With such n'inf""",men1. the upper limit of shear V. on the critical st>C-
lion is 7 3UXl(M X 6) - Iol7 ki j)S. and V. - 0.75 X 147 _ 110 kips. ab<:",e lite ,al oc
of V, 10 be resisled, Tn., "''quired perimeter be can be found by selling V. ~ V,. where V,
i, gi, en by Hq, (l~_! I,,):
" -
",
--"~- ___'"O"'".OOO
:::;~_
- 109 in_
~ f ,d ol X 0.75 _3000 X 6
(N(>lC thaI lite oc".al ,toear f = (0 be lmn>fcm:d al lite criti"l so.,<:ti(lll i$ ,Iighlly Icss than
107 kiJlS because a pari of the nOClf load i, within the dfeCli\"e Jl<'rime!cf /0_: howe.-er. t he
d iffer",,<-,,! is small e,cept fo< wry I~rge \hcarheads, )The required I'rojcc\i '1i Icn~th I, of tile
shearn.ad om, i, found from goometry. with b. e'p"'""d in term . of I,,:
/0. _ 4 -
2 - +-
<" , 3
I - - -
c,
2 , , 2 - 109 in_
from which I, = :M,O in . To det"rmine the requ;wd pl"tic \eCt;(lIl modu lu, f(ll" l~ ,n.,a,
arm. il is """,ssary to as,",,,,, a trial .'aloe of tile relatiw 'tiff"e" ~ After selecting 0_25
f(ll" trial. In., ",quircd momem "apacil)' is found from Eq . (13 , loll:
107.000
M, - 8 X 0_90 ol + 0,2524.0 - 5 - 130.000 in lb
A 'tandard I benm $4 X 7 ,7. with yield ,U'to"

of ~O hi. IlrO"ide. 176,000 in.!!) re,isronce
and willlcmaliwly be adopted, The EJ, \-alue pro\'ided b}' the beam is 174 X HI i"'-Ib,
The effecti,,, cros. sect;on of tn. .I ob >trip i. ,h<w.'"
in Fig_ 1.1_28. Taking of the "",,,,,,,,I,
comflO,ite IT.lcked M:e!ion about the oollom surt'ace 10 locale In., """lml "" is giw,
8_90 X 6 + J9_9 X 2,75 + 8.>'
\' =
8.90+ 19,9 + 16)"
from ,,-hieh)" = 2,29 i", Tn., n",,,,em of ;",,"io of t~ <"Omposil" ",,-,io" is
( ~tX 16 X 2.29' + 8,90 X :1.71' + 6 X 9 + 19,9 X 0.46' ~ 244 in'
nGURE B.llI
r- 10 + 6 -Hl"'1 No5(No,1 6) @S"
Effec1ive section of ,Jab.
S4x7 ,7 i ------L
~
~
0 0dr-;;A.-9
6"
X 0.74 X 16/12 - S.90in2
nA - 19,9 - - Y ~ff .l
IT
2 ,75"
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the flexural stiffne" of the effective oomJlOSite 'lab strip i,

Fel, - 3.1 X 10' X 244 - 7St} X lU' in'_ lb
olld, from r"'l ( B.I3 ),
, '" : 0.23
' -
7 ~6
This is gre,ter th.,. the sil<"'ifi~d minimum of 0, 15 ,nd dos.. to the 0.25 , -,lue assumed ~",
lie._The rel'iS<ld I'alue of Mr i,
Mp = ;~';:: "' + 0.23 24.0 - 5 = 124.400 in-Ib
l"h", in. beam is adequate. llIc calculated length I" of 2J,O in. will be retained, The red",,-
(ion in eolunU\_,(rip momem in !he <lab may be ba,ed on {hi, oc{ual leng{h. From Eq.
( LU~).
0.90 X 0.23 X 107.000

M. - 8 24 - 5 - 52.600 in _lb
Thi< ,.I ue;s I"" thon Mr ' as required by sil<"'ificatiOl1, arod mu,{ alw he less (il.,. J() lle'-
ceOl of the ""si~n "",ati'-" moment in the col umn strip arod I"" {han {he "h~ngc in th<:
coluolUl_s(rip ,nonlen! in {he <li,{ance I..
e, DeSign of Integral Beams with Vertical Stirrups
S(c",1 shearhcnds of (J\c (ype described in Section 1.>.IOd hnvc no( oc",n widdy uscd .
primarily oc'Causc of (heir cos!. bot also bccnusc of difftculty in placing {he slab tlex -
ural rei~forcementto pass the strue(ural stccl sections and hccausc of interference with
(he column s(~cI. 11>1: ocn! bar shear r.:inforcemen( cages of Sec (ion l .l lOc are icss
expensive, but also icad (0 lTouhlesome congestion of reinforcement in (he column -
slnb join! region. Sht:ar reinforcement using l'enic~1 stirrups in ;I/Iegml iWlI<"'. as
shown in Fig. I J.24~, avoids much of (his difficulty.
TIle rtrs{ cri{ical scclion for shear design in the slah is {aken at d 2 from {he col -
Ul11n face, as usual. and (he stirrups . if nNXlcd . are extended outward from the column
in four din."c(ions for (he lypic~1 ill1erior case (three or two diree{ions for exterior or
corner columns. respec(ively). ulHil the concrele alone can carry (he shear. with
V, - 4 lh",l al the s.:cond cri(ic~1 section ,- Within (he region "djacell1 to (he col -
Ulnn, where shcar resistance is provided by a cOl11binntion of concrete and s(eel, (he
nomina l socar streng(h V. mUSI nO! exceed 6 lh.Jl. according to ACr Code 11.12..>,
In this region, (he concrete contribution is reduced 10 V, .. 2 lhjl. The sccolld crit -
ical section crosses eneh ill1egral hc~m at a distance d -2 locasur.:d outward frol11 (he
Inst slirrup and is located so that its perime{er i)c is a minitl1ul11 (i.e .. for !he (ypical
casc_ dcrtllc'{\ hy 45 degree lines be(ween lhe imegral ocams) , TIle required spacing of
(he \'Crticnl slirrups s is foulld using Eq. (4.14.1), but must not c~ceed II 2. w ith {hc first
line of stirrups not more {hnn d 2 from {he column face. The spacing orthe stirrup legs
Nc"fI,,~ III< ACI ( We "'.- ,Ixo lIet ( """"""ory m.i><<> dcar ..-fI,,'i><~ 1"1" (t l llbi M,-'''"''
w=
1"11 ,fl,,' n",. nr ",~-') ; "d y odj"'-"'" 10 ,Ixo ,,~ "' ''''_ Tixo rt""art~ ' "' " h ~~ , i><."" "",,",i<"" 1<1,,-.) " ." iO......-.) ooiy ,I>,' Ii", ,";,k,j ","', i<", ..
,he (nlu,"" _Lml" '" <"IT"" c",''. '''' .""'" "',. ' ,,{ ,be .'olv" ... ;" 1"1 ([J, Ith "",m' 1<>, ",b-"", .. ;,h ;""f(,.,;nll di ~ .",'( f" .., ,Ixo ",h" T""
IK",,",~~. ,be b, J nit'" ;n 1,</_(Ilt k). may 1>,' infi LO<n,i.>I, anJ , hal """""'" n",,1ot "",,,,,,,,,;,-.-I y be' "I'!'IiW.
o..loootc..,_
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ANA U 'SIS ANI) I) K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 46 1
(l11~asured paralld to the fac~ of lh., column) in the firsl lin~ of shear r~inforce""'n1
mu st nO{ ~xc",->d U.
n", pmblem of a"chor~ge of lh., shear reinforc'<'mem in .hallow flat plate, ;,
critical. and dosed hoop STirrup,. terminaling in ,tandanl h{)()b. ~Iwa)', should he pro-
vided with interior comer bars 1<:> impnw~ pull out re,i,tance.
EX !\'\ 1PL E 13.6 iksign or a n I n!egr~1 bo>am " 'lth .-.rtleal stirrups. TJ>e flal plme ,Jab with 7.5 in. lotal
thi,l<11ess and 6 in, dfe<.1i,'c depth 5h''''," in Fig. 13.29 is carried by 12 in . S<J"are ~ol "mH'
15 ft on c~nl ers in each di =tion . A factored load of 120 kip' mmt he Iransmined from ,he
,lab to a typical interior column . Concrete and sted strengths used a,~. ,espectivdy. /: ~
4OC() psi and / , - 60.000 psi. Dekrmine if ,hear reinforcement is "'<Iuired for the 'lob. a,~1
if so. desiMn integral beam, wilh stirrups to calT)' lit., exceSS 5hear.
St)].uno~ . The design ,hear ,rrength nf the co"crete aim .. m ,he critical ""'t;on J 2 from
the face of tile colum n. b)' the ronuul ling Eq. (13 , II rI). i,
V, - 0.75 X 4 4OC() X 72 x 6 - 82.0 \;;ps

Thi, i, Ie than V. = 120 kips. ind;cmin~ that ,hear n.'inforcemem is required, The .ffec-
ti,c dcl~h (I - 6 in. just satisfies the minimum allowed to uSC .It im'p reinfon:cmcnl. as
describe<! in Section 13. lOb, In Ihis case. tJ>e m,u imum design strength allowed by tJ>e ACI
Code is
v. = 0.75 X 6 4000 X 72 X 6 ~ 122.9 kips
FI{;U RE 13.29
Veni,al stim,p ,J>ear
rcinforecmcn' (0,. ,I ,b in
E>.,mpk 1, .6.
(. )
n"'~ rr
. I 4 No.3 (No. (0)
s tirJ1Jps @ 3"
r-tr-tf!1t1t l7","
u u -I.:::. u -1--1- _ L-.1
~ 4 No 5 (No. 16)
L_~--' ar>ehor ba,s
(b)
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,.
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salisfOClofily abov~ lru, aclual V.. Wru,n sru,ar is re;i'le<l by combi~ oclion of coocrele and
bar ",infon:emcnl. Ihe Corl<reiC contribulion is reduced 10
V, : 0.7 ~ x 2 4000 x 72 x 6: 4LO kip<;
No, 3 (No, 10) \'enical do.ed hoop SlilTUJIS will be use<! si nce d mus. be 2: 16ti",<", the stir-
rup dinmct.'1' (d 16 - ; in,):>nd arr.lngOO l long four inleg ... 1bi:nms .'S shown in Fig. 13.29,
Thus, the A,. pro\'idc'<l i, 4 x 2 X 0,1 I : 0,88 in' al tho.' firs! crilical secliOll, a distaoc,' II 2
from !he colu m" f3<.'e. nnd lhe required sv.'lC;ng can be found from l:'.q. (4,14<1):
A. I ,d 0.15 x 0,88 X 60 x6
, - - - 30 Ii "
V. Vc 120 41.0 .,
How"ver, lhe tlIa.\im~m '1';lCing of II 2 - :l in. comrol, here. and No.) (No. 10) 'Iirrups al
coo<lanl 'pacing of 3 in. will be use<!, In OIher CJ"'S, Mimlp 'pacing mighl be iocrease<!
wilh di'I:lIICe from Ihe co lunI", 3S e>ce" ,ru,ar i, Ie", aJlhoogh lbi, woold coolplkale
plocenJCm of (he ",i"force""'"t and generally S""e linlc ,(cel.
The ",quired l",rinli:I.'1' of lhe =ood ."';ticaT=tioo. at "hidllhe eOIl<'1'Clt alOl'" c~n
carry lru, sru,ar. is found from the comroJiing Eq, (13,11~) a, follows:
V.. - 0.7 .~ X4 4OCIO X b. X 6 - 120,000 Ih
from which!lIe mini",um perimeler b. - 105.4 in. h i, easily confmnoo lhal Ihis require, a
m;nim"m proi"c(ion of th., cri(ical "-'C,iOfl paSI lI'e fa<... of II..:: co1"mn of 11.39 in. Fonr sliT
TIll" al" constant J in. 'pacing will be ,,,ffide",, the first placed at .' 2 - 1.5 in. :s II 2 -
3 in . from II..:: column bee. a, indicated in Fi g. 13,29, This pro"ides a pcrimcler 1>, at the
scrond critical secli"" of 16.5 2: + 6 X 4 - 117 in .. exceedi"g Ihe reQuiremcn ..
!'our 10ngimdinaJ No.5 (No, 16) oors will be prm'ided ;n,ide II..:: comen of each dosed
hoop >I,nup, '" """'n, W jll"O\",de for fl/'OIli:r oocllor'g' of lbe ,h,ar reinfofremem
f. Design of Shear Stud Reinforcement
Slab shcar reinforcem~OIt consisling of integral bo.:mm wilh sli1n!ps. as dcscribo.:d in

Section 1.l.IOc. is probab ly Ihc 111OS1 widely used Iype al present. However. Ihc cage
Ihat is fonned by Ihe sl in-ups and longitudinal anchor bars may he d ifficult 10 install.
Also. Ih" slabcolul1ln joint region is somewhal congcok'<l. wilh lOp and bonom slab
slcel running in IWO perpendicular d irections. wilh wrtical bars in lht cOlumn. and
wilh the stirrups. Congeslion can become crilical wh"nlh" slab h:\S openings. which
are fr~'Guently required. m or ncar Ihe column faces ,
Sl..::ar slud reinforcing strips. as shown in Fig. 13.24fand in Fig. 13.30a and b.
are widely USl-'<l in Gennany. Swilzerland. and Canada (Refs. 13.19 and 13.20). They
arc IllClllion.:d briefly in ACI Code COlUm~l1Iary R 11 .12.3. although no sp<-..:iflc design
provisions are included. Usc in Ihe United SImco is increasing ,
Thcse devices arc composed of \'CrliCal bars wilh anchor heads al Ihcir lOp.
wdded to a st.:.:1 Slrip al Ih~ bonom. Multiple sirips are arranged in IWO perpendicu
lar diroclions ror square and r~":langular columns or usually in radial direclions for cir-
cular columns , TllCy arc Sl-'Cured in po-sition illihe forms before Ihe lOp and bonom
flexural Sled is in place. Thc sleel slrip reSIS on bar chairs 10 l1lail11ainthe nceded con
crelC CQ\W below the Sled and is held in po-silion by nailS through holes in lht slrip ,
For design purposes. an individual stud is considered 10 be II..:: cquivalent of one
\"crtical1cg of onc slin-up , Desi gn can Inen proceed following II..:: gencralproc~'<lurcs
o..loootc..,_
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A!I;AU 'SIS A!I;I) I)K~I(;!I; OF SI.AIIS 4 63
FIGUIU : 1J.3(la
Shear .. OO ",i"f"":<,,,<", l<>r
cooc,ele slabs: ,hear stud
",scmbly, (C"""" Y '1 A",,,,
G"'di "",I l<illur /I IM~",)
FI GU R E 13.3011
Shear SEOO reinforcemem. for
<x>nc",'< dab" ,he",-
rein forc<"",", in,(alled in
t""", for I'rc;trc,-.ed
cooc,ele slab. (em",,,)' Qj
A"" . Gh"li ,,",I 111>1", H .
f)iI~". )
illustrated in S,,,,tion 1].1 (k fOT slirm!, ~bear r"infoTl"emem. However. b"",d on ext"n -
~iY~ testing (Refs. 1].21 and n .22). '''me modifi"ation~ have been prupos<..-d. Ghali
(Rds. n 19 nnd 1.1.20) recommend, the following:
I. TIle upp"r limil fw the nominal shear slress at J2 from lite column face i,
increased to 8 frb"l .
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2. The al lowable s(Ud spacing is incrcascd to between U} and 3d-4. dep,:nd ing on
th~ maximum nominal sh~ar stress at factored loads.
3. Wit hin the shear-reinfornxl zone. the contribution of the concrete is IIIcreascd to
3 f cb"d.
In add ition to the above. Ghali has n::commended the following deta ils:
(a) Top anchors are in the form of circubr or s,quare plates. the areas of which are at
I~ast 10 times the area of the stem.
(b) When the (01' anchor pbtes and the bonom strips are of un iform thickness. the
thickness should be greater than or equal to one-half the s(Ud diamct~r.
(f) If the top anchor plate is tapered. the 1hickness at the cOIII,.."<;tion with the stem
should be grcater than or equal to ~ the stud diamet~r.
(d) The width of the bouom strip should be grcmer than or equal to 2.5 times the stud
diameter.
(c) Bonom anchor strips should t>c aligned with the column faces of s,qu:lre or ree
tangular columns.
(0 In the din::ction paraJlelto 1he column face. the distance between anchor strips
shoul d not ~xceed twice the ctk"Cti"e depth of the slab.
(g) The minimum concrete CO\W above and below the stud strips shoul d be as nor
mally specified for slab bars. and the cover should not exc~-.:d the minimum plus
t the l>ar diameter of the flexural reinforcement.
Further r~"<;omnlCndations arc found ;n Refs. 13.23 and 13.24 penaining to the use of
shear stud reinforcement at e~ terior alld comer columns. wherc special problems
always exist because of lac~ of symmetry. reduced perimeter of the critical section.
and relatively large unbalanc~'d moments.
. 13.11 TRANSFER OF M OMENTS AT COLUMNS
The analysis for punching sh~ar in flat plates :md flat slabs presented in Section 13. I 0
assumcd that the shear force V, was n::sistoo by sheJring stresses uniformly distributed
around the pt:rimeler '>0 of the critical s.:etion. a distance d- 2 fromlhe face of the sup
poning column. TlJc nominal shear Slrength V, was giwn by Eqs. (1J.lla). (1J. II ,.
and 03.1 Ie).
If significant moments are 10 be transfe1T~xl from the slab 10 the columns. as
would result from unbalanc(xl gravity loads on either side of a column or from hori
zontalloading due 10 wind or seismic effects. the shear stress on the critic~1 ><-'<:tion is
no longer uniformly distribut~d.
The si tuation can be rnodded as shown in Fig. IJ .J lo. Here V. repres.:nts the
total vertical reaction (0 be Iransfc1T~'d (0 the column. and /If, represents the unbal
anced moment 10 be transfen-cd. both ~1 factored loads. The vertical force V. causes
shear stress distribut~'d more or less uniformly around the pe rimeter of th~ critical sec-
tion as assumed carlier. n::pn::scnted by the inner pair of vcrtical Jrrows. aCling down
ward . The unbalanced moment M, causes additional loading on the joint. reprcsentcd
t>y the outer pair of wr(ical arrows. which add to the shear stresses otherwise present
on the right side. in the skctch. and subtract on the left side.
Tes ts indicate thm for s,quare columns about 60 percent of the unbalanced
moment is transferred by ncxure (forces Tand C in Fig. I 3.J la) and about 40 percent
t>y shear stresses on the faces of the critical section (Ref. 13.25). For reclJngular
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11.0..1, ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU : 13.3 1

T"""fcr of moment from

,lob to column: (<<, f,.-res
re,u lting tinm ""tieat toad
,nd u"ooJanced nlOment; '.
J~
(h) eri,;,-.l >';011 f", on ---'--'
,
imerior column; (d shear
"""$ d;"ri!>u ,;oo fo.-,n J --E 1M; -----~ ] ,
C '
imerior column; (a) critical

",,-,;on for all edge ,,,Iumn;
(el "hear ,ID:" d;,tribot;oo
for an l~c column
,.)
,,'
'I ,.,
~x)l umns, i1 is ",asonable 10 ,uPros~ that [he ponion 1mn,kITed by fI~ ~lI'" inc reases
as 1he wid1h of the critical "'~'1ion 1hat rc~i~1S the momem inc",ases , i.e ....., ':1 + d
be~,('""'$ larg~r ",Iative [0 c, + d in Fig. 13.311:>. A,-mruing to ACt Code 135.3. [he
It"",,,,nt con,idered 10 he tran;;ferred hy flexu", is
(n. I 6.:1)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
whe",
(i3.I6h)
and ". = Ihe widlh of the critical M...,rion for shear rneasured in lhe direClion of lhe
span for which the momenlS are determined
"1= Ihe width of critical seClion for shear measured in the direcrion perpendicu -
lar to hr
The "aluc of ! may be mod ifred if certain conditions are met: I'or unbalanced
JllOmenrs aboll( an axis parallel ro the edge of exrerior supports. f may be increased
to 1.0. pro,id.:d that the factorL"<i shear V. althe edge support doe8 nOI exceed 0.75 " c
or at a corner support doe8 not e'Ce<.~1 0 ..'). "c' For unbalanced mon)l!nt8 al inrerior
SUppol18 and about an axis perpendicular 10 Ihe edge at eXlcrior Sl'ppol1S. ! may be
increased by up to 25 percen!. provided that ". s 0.4 V,.. In all of thes<: cases. the
rcinfOr<:ernenl ratio within 1.5h on ei1her side of 1he column or column capilal may
nOi e'Ce<.~1 0.375 1>'
The momenl asslll lled 10 be transferred by shear. by ACt Code 11.12.6 is
M",, ~ I- f M. ~ ,M, (D ,I 6c)
11 is __ n thai for a >quaru column Eq,. (13.16<.), (13 ,1 6h). and (13.16< ') indicme Ihal
60 percenl of the unbalanced momenl is Iransf~d by n~Aur<l and 40 percelll by
~hear. in accordance wilh the available dam. If h1 is wry larg~ relaliYe 10 h ,. nearly all
of 11k) moment is lransferred by neAun:.
1lte momem M"" run re acconmlOdmed by concenlraling a suilable fraclion of
1m' slab column-slrip n:inforc~menl n~ar lIte column. According to AC I Cod~ 13.5 , ~.
Ihis sl~d mUSl be placed wllhin a widlh belw<lt'n lines 15h on each sid~ of Ihe column
or capilal. where II is lite lotalthic kness of lIte slab or drop panel.
1lte moment ,II.... lOgellter wilh Ihe wnical ",a{'lion ddiwred 10 lIte ~'Olunm,
causes shear Slresscs assuuted 10 vary linearly wilh dislance from Ihe centroid of lIte
erilital scclion, as indicated for an inl~rior colnmn by Fig. 1-'.3 Ie. The stresses Can re
cakulak>(] from
". M",,
'",= -Ac -- - (13. I 7a)
J,
1', = -". + -
M,.'"
- (13.1711)
A, Jc
where A, = area of critical seclion = 2J(c, + til + (c1 + til]

c,. c, = dis!anl'''~ from l'entroid of crilic~1 i;<."Clion 10 left and righl fuc~ of se(;lion,
respeclively
J, = property of crilical seclion analogou, 10 polar n","",nl of inertia
For an interior ,'oluJ1m. the quantity Jc is
2<1 "t + d 2 ~ , + dd' ' ., + d

J, = + 12 + 2<lc) + " (B.IR)
12 2
Nole Ihe implicalion, in I"" lise of the pam nlCte r J, in II"" form of a polar mo"'em of
il""niu, lhal ,I""ill siresses indic1Iled on Ihe neur ~nd far f1K'es of Ihe cri lical ",""Clion in
Fig. 13.3 Ic have horizonlal a, well a' Y~nical COml)01"'nt~ .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I T....
EoI6 ..
According to ACI C,xle 11,12.6, the maximum ,hear streS, caltulat~d by F..q,
(13.17) mu,t not exce~d ". For ~labs witbout 'hear reinforcement, ". = V,. bo,l.
whe", V, is the smallest valu~ given by Eqs. (13.1111). (13.IIh). or (13.1 Ie). For slab,
with shear reinforcement other than shearheads. "" = (Ve I V,) b"d, where V,. nrn!
V,llrI' as established in Senio" 13.10<:, e, or f. Wher~ sheamead reinforcement ("-'<:
Senion 13.10<1) is u><.'<I, the sum of the ~hear stres",s due to venicalload on the ",c-
ond "ritical section, r",ar the end of the shearhead arms, and the ,hear st",sses "'su It-
ing from moment tmnsfer about the centroid of the fi"t crilical seclion d 2 from the
,uppon faces mu,t not exc~>tXI 4 I. In supl'on of tl", Ia~t calculalion. ACI Co<l..,
Comm..,mary R 11.12.6.1 notes that lests indicat~ the fi"t critical ""'tion i, appropri -
ate for calculation of ,tre,se, caused hy tmn~fer of moment, even when ~I",arhead,
arc used. Even though the criticnl "-'CIions for diren shear tr~nsfer and ~hear due to
moment tran,fer difTer, they coincide Of are in dose proximity at the column cOme"
whe", failures initiate. and it is conservative 10 take the ma~imum shear as the ,um of
the two components.
Equations similar to those ab",'e can be derived for the edgt col umns shown in
Fig. I 3.31d and (! or for a comer "olumn. Although the ~"ntroidal distancts (', and ';,
a", ~><lual for the inTerior c'olumn, this i, nOltrue for the edge column of Fig. 11.3111
or for a cOmer "olumn.
According to ACI Code 13.6.3.6. when the di",ct design meth<xl i, u,,-'<I. the
moment to he tran,ferred between the slab and an ~'<Ige column by ,hear is to he taken
~'<Jual to 0.30M", whe", /II" is found from Eq. (13, 1). This i, intended to c'ompensate
for assigning a high proponiofl of the static moment to the positive and interior nega-
tive mon",nt region, acconling to Table 133. and to ensure that adequate shear
'trength is provilli.'<I betw~'Cn the ,Jah and the edge column. ",ruere unbalanced mOrnent
is high mxl the "ritical "-'<-1ion width is reduced.
n", application of moment to a column from a ,lab or beam introduces shear to
the column nl'lO, as i~ clear from Fig. 13.3111. This shear mnst be considered in the
design of bteml column ",infor,,,menL
As pointed om in Section 13.10, mo,t nal plate structures. if the), are overloaded.
fail in tl", "'gion dose to the column. wh"", large shear and bending force, mu,t be
transferred, There hns been much ",search aimed at lli.,,-eloping impnlYed de'ign
details for this region . The design engin""r should wnsult Ref<. 13.25 through 13.27
for additional spe<:ific' information.
. 13.12 O PEN tN GS IN S LA8 S
Almo,t invariably. slab syst~ms must indude openings. lnese may he of .ub,tantial
,ize. :I., r"'lui",d by stairways and elevator shafts. 0' they ma)' be of ,mailer di"",n -
,i,ms. such a, tho", needed to attommodate heating. plumbing, and ventilating rise",~
n'Xlf and nXlf drai"s~ and access hatches .
Relatively "nail openings usually a", n01 detrimental in I"'''''' --'''p{'f'rlt'd shih,.
As a geneml rule. the ~'<Jui\'alem of the interrupted ",infor\1:ment shou ld be added at
the sides of the 0l"'ning . Additional diagonal bars should be included m the corners to
control the cracling thaI will almost inevitably ,xxur the",. 11", imponance of ,mall
ol"'nings in "Iab,<,"'{'poned dirt'ctly by colullln, (nat slab, and flat plntes) depend,
upon the i<x:atiofl of the ol"'ning with ",spect to tl", columns. From a 'truclUr~1 point
o f view, tl",y a", best located away from Ihe columns. prefembly in the area ~~'mrnon
to the slab middle strip' . Unfonunalcly. archileCluml and functional con,ideration,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
u,ualiy cause tl"'m to he located dose to Ihe columns. In this ca",. the reduction in
dT~ctiw ,hear perillleter is the major con(em. beenuse ,u(' h floor<; are u,ualiy ,hear-
critical.
According toACI Code 11.12.5. if the opening is dose to the column (within 10
,lab thicknesses or wilhin the column ,trip"). then that part of hu included wilhin the
mdial Ii,,,,s projl.-cting fmm the opening to Ihe centroid of the column ,hould be con -
,idered ineff.....tive. TI,i, is shown in Fi g. 13.32. along with Ihe dT(-ct of free edg~s on
the perimeter of lite critical.eclion. If ,hearheads (see Section 13. 10d) are used untler
,uth ci"'umstance" tlte redutt;';", in width oflhe criti('al section i, found in the "'lIIe
way. ncept that only one-half the perimeter included within the radial line, need he
d..-dU(led.
Wilh regard 10 flexural requirements, the total amount of steel rl."<juired hy eal -
culntion IIIU,t be pmvided "'gardle" of openings. Any 'teel inkrrupted hy hol~s
,hould he matched wilh an equivalent amount of ,upplementary reinforcement on
either <irlc. properly lapped to t"lJlsf"r ,trc<<; by hondo Concrete compres,ion area to
pm\'ide the l1."<juired 'Irength muS! be maintnined: usually thi, would be re'trictiv~
only near the col umn,. Atcording to ACt Code 13.4.2, openings of an)' ,ize may hc
located in Ihe mea common 10 inte=ning middle 'trip<;. In lhe area common to inter-
,,--cting column strips. not mor" than one-eighth of the width of the "olunm ,trip in
either 'pan can he interrupted hy o!",nings. In Ihe area common to or", middle strip
and one colu",,, strip. n{)[ mOTe tha" one-<juarter ,;,f the reinforcement in either strip
may be interrupted hy the opening.
FIGUIU<: 1J,)2
Eff",-~ of """n ing nd fno<;
eJges On ,he de,e,minal;"" of
,r,. pcrimct<r "f the critie,1
""'tion for sb<.r b,.
(b)
I ~effe(:!t"" free edge ) In.effediV<) fre(! edge
f f
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ J
10) ''I
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANAU 'SIS ANI) [) K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 469
AC I Code 13.4.1 permit, 0l"'ning' of (lilY size ifit can be shown h)' analysi, Ihat
Ibc strenglh of the slab is at least equal to that "-"quired and that all serviceability con -
ditions. i.e .. cmcking and ddlect;';", limils. are met. The Mrip lIlet/w.1 of analysi, and
de'ign for opening' in slab,. by whi("h specially reinforced integr.d beams. Or Mn",!!.
/",,,.1,-. of depth equal \() the slab deplh are used 10 fran", the openings. will be
described in delail in Chapter 15. Very large open ings should prefe rably be fmmed by
beams or ,lab hands of increased depth 10 re'tore. as nearly as possible. Ibc <"<)Illinu -
ity of lhe slab. The bea m, musl he designed to ("arT)' a pOllion of the fl(KJr load. in addi -
tion \() load, applied din."etly by panition wall,. elevator suppon beams . or slair ,labs.
_. 13.13 D EFlECTI O N CA LC ULATIO N S
TI", defle("\io" of a uniformly load .."<l flat plate . flat slab. or two-way ,lab suppon,--d by
beams OIl colum n li,,,,s can be cakulat<'ll by an '-"qui,'ale nt fmn'" n"'tlKJd that corre-
sponds with the melhod fOJ mm""m analysis de,criix"<l in Section 13.9 (Rd. 13.28).
TI", definition of column and middle st rips. the longitudinal and ImnS\'erse mOment
distribution c"efficients. and many other ddails are the "',,'" a, fm Ihe moment analy-
sis. Following the ealculal ion of defleclions by Ihis l1Iean,. they can be compared
di""-"tly with limiting ,alue. like {hose of Table 6.2. which are applicable 10 ,labs as
well as to beams. accoruing 10 tI", ACI OKle .
A slab region boumk"<l by column ("enterli,,,,, is shown in Fig. I 3.33. While no
column-Ii"" beams, drop panels, or column capilals arc show n. {lie presence of any of
tbese introd uces no fundan"'ntal complicalion.
TI", de flection calculation ("onsiders the deformation of such a typical region in
one direction at a lime . afler which tl", contributions from each direction"", mklt."<l to
oblainlhe {olal defl '-"etion at any point of interest.
In referen(-e to Fig. 13.33t,. {he ,lab is considen."<l to act as a broad. shallow beam
o f width equal {o tI", pane l din",nsion I,. and havi ng {he 'pan I, . Initially the ,lab i, Con -
side r~d {o rest on unyieldi ng suppon line, at x = 0 and x = I, . Becau,e of variation of
moment as well as flexural sliffness aCross the " 'idth of Ihe slab. all unil slril" in the
X di renion will nO[ deform identically. Typically lhe slab curvature in the middle-, trip
region will be less Ihan that in Ihe region of {he column 'trip, because the middle-strip
moments are less. The result is as indicat~d in Fig. 13.33<1.
Next the slab is analyzed for bending in the Y di n.><:tion (Fi g. J3.331. Once agai n
tbe effect of transv~"e variation of bending moment and flex ural rigidit y i, St.-e'L
TI", actual ""formed shape of the panel i, represented in Fig. 13.1:k. The mid -
panel deflection is the sum of the midspan deflenioll of the column strip in one di rec-
tion and that of {he middle strip in the mite r direction; i.e "
'"
- (JJ. I9a)
- (JJ. I9b)
In calculation' of the deformation of tile ,lab panel in e ithe r direcl ion. it is con -
venient first to assume {hal i{ deforms into a cylindrical surface. a~ it would if tI",
bending nK",,,,nt at all seclions we re unifonnly distribU1~",1 a~" ross the panel width and
if lateral bending of the panel wer~ suppressed. The 'UpP()rt.~ are consideK"<l {O be fully
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 13.33 Assumed

B"i , of "'lui'.Ik " , fr.",,, slIjlpOrt li ne
method f... <iel1ec!i<>n
,".I}',i" (Il) X di",,,!ion
beoo;III' (b) Y di.""!; ",,
bending; (r ) combi""d
ndi n
"" 8
",
Assumed
suppmt line
~c----'"
,,,
",
fi~ed againsl bolh rolalion and "crlkal displacement at this stagc. Thus. a rejNell1'e
d<'flte/io/l is compuled,
",/'
. fo4 = (H20)
. 3&4,/",_
where w is the load pcr fool along the span of length I and '/~_ is Ihe mome nt of iner.
tia of the full.wi(hh pand (Fig. 13.34,,) inclu(ling the contribution of !he eol umn1inc
beam or drop panel~ and column cap itals if prescnl.
The cffeci of the aclUal momenl variation across the width of the panel and the
variation of sliffnc~s due to beams. ~ariable slab depth. etc.. are accounted for by mul
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU : 13.34 Panel Panel

Elfoc';,'" ero>. sec';om for
det1=ion caiculal io""
(a ) full ,.,id,h k.ml<;
Ih) col"m" s!rip: (el middle
"I

I, "
1

Wumn
"nl'>_
I I

I

I

"y I

I, HaK
I I HaH
I,
L midd,e
stnp

.1.
Column
sirip

.1.
m_j
slrip
" ,
y
'"
lei
liplying (he reference defle<:lion by (he ra(io of M EI ror (he rcspeC(i\'C s(rips to thai
or Ihe full -widlh fralnt::
(13.2Ia)
(Ll2Ib)
TI,e subscrip(s rdme lhe defle<:(ion Il. (he bending nlOlllen( M . or the 1l10lncnt of illcr
lia f to ll1e full widlh frame. column mip. or midd le strip. as shown in Fig. 13.34<1. b.
and c. rcspeclivcly.
The momen( rmios M,or MJr- aod M~'MI'- arc identical 10 (he lateral
nlOnIC nt disu;hution fac(ors nlrcady found for Ihe flexural analysis ( Si-'C Tahlc 13.4). A
minor complication rcsu lt s rrom the fael (hat ll1e Imeral diSiribulion of bend ing
nlOnloOlllS . according to (ile ACI Code. is no( ihe Sallie at ihe ncgalivc and posi(i"e-
moment scelions. Howc'"CT. il appears consislcnt wilh llIe degree of accuracy usual ly
r.:qu ircd. as well as consislcm wi(h dctleclion me(hods endorsed dscwhcrc ,n Ihe ACI
Code. (0 usc a simple average of laleral dis(riilu(ion cocfficiwis for the ncgalivc and
posilivc ponions of each mip .
The prcscnce of drop p.~nds oreolumn capitals in (ile column Sirip of a flat slab
floor requires eon s idcr~(ion of (ile variation of (ile momeni of ,nenia ill (ile span
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 13.35

Flat ,lab 'P"" with variable
momem of i""n ia.
d ireclion (see Fig. 1:135). 11 is suggeSlcd in Ref. 1... 29 Ihal a weighled a''erage
0I0nloOtli of inerlia he us~d in such cases:
(lJ.22)
where I, - nlOnloOtll of inertia of sl~b ,ncluding bolh drop pand and eapiwl
I~ - 0"I00IC0l1 of inertia of sl~b willl drop pmlCI only
I, - nlOnlCOlI of inertia of slab alonc
Span dislances al'e ddjn~'d in Fig. 1335.
Nex i il is necessary 10 COITe<:1 for Ih~ rolalions of lhe equivalent fraOl~ al Ihe
supports. which unlil now were considered ful ly fixed. If Ihe e nds of Ihe coluillns arc
eonsiocrcd ftxed aI the floor abo,c and floor hclow. as usual for fmlllc analysis. the
rotalion of the column at the floor di vided by the stillness of the cqu.-alent column is
(lJ.2J)
where .. nngle change. mdinns

M ...," dilkren,c in iloor InolncnlS 10 left and rig~ t of column
K", .. sliffncss of eq u, valent column (see Seclion D .9c)
In some cases. the conn~'Ction betwccn the floor slab and column Iran smits n~g
ligible moment. as for lili sbbs: thus K", - O. The flcxund ana lysis will indicate Ihat
the n~1 nlOlllCnt is z~ro. The support rolation can be found in such cases by applying
the nlOn\Cnt-area lheorems. Ink ing nlOllICnlS of the M EI Mea aboulthe far end of lhe
span. and dividing by Ihe sp:m lenglh.
Once tllC rotalion aI each end is known. the associated midspan detleclion of lhe
l"quivalell1 frame can be calculated. II is easily confirnlCd lhal lh~ midspan defleClion
of a Il>t::mixr expo.:riencing an end rotation of radians. Ihe far cnd being fiXl'd, is
(lJ.24)
nlUS the IOIal deflenioll at mid'pan of the CQlull1ll strip or middle ~trip i, lhe slim of
Ihe 1hree pan,
,,. - !.f'(l + I + (u'2Su)
..0/ - , ..... + j+ (u'25h)
where II>t:: subscripts {:11ld r refer to the left and right ends of the sPJn . respectively.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANA U 'SIS ANI) [) K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 4 73
n,~ calculation, ""~ribed are repeat~d for the ~quivalent frame in the second
direclion of the ,trunure. and lhe toral deflection at Illidpanel i, oolairitXl by sUlllm i ng
the ~'olumll-S1rip ddl~clion in olle direction and tI", middl~- 'Irip defl~ction in tI",
other. a, indicated by Eqs. (13 .19).
n,~ midpand <kfleelion .t",uld he the same whetl",r calculat ed by FAJ . ( 13.1%)
or Eq. ( J 3.19b), AClually. a diff~rence wi II u,ually he obtained because of lhe apprux -
inune nalure of Ihe cakulalions. For very reClangular panch. lhe main mntribution 10
mid panel deflection is thai of the long-<iir~clion column sUip. Conscqueorly. the mid -
panel deflenion is best fOllnd by summing lnal of the long-<iireclion column snip [l!1d
lhe shon-diK-ction middle strip. H owev~r. for eXlerior pands. Ihe imponanl coorrihu -
lion is fKIll1 the column ,Irip' I"'l1"'ndicuJar to the diS<.'Oorinuou, edge. even though
the long ,ide of the panel may he par~llelto that <-'<.Ige.
In slabs. a, in heams . Ihe eff<-'CI of concrcte cr;,,:king is to reduce tlt~ f1~xural
,Iiffne. According to ACI Code 9 .53, tI", eff<-'Clive moment of inenia given by F..q,
(6.8) is applic'able 10 slab, a, well as heams. although mt",r value, may be u><.'<.1 if
resuh, are in re,,-,onable agrecrnenl wilh tesl,. In mmt cases. two-way ,labs will he
essenlially uncracked al servic'C loads. and il is sonisfaclory to base dcfleClion calcula-
lions on Ihe uocr~ck<.'<.1 mOment of inenia " (see Ref. 13.28 for compari,on with teslS).
In Ref. 13.30. Branson ,uggesl' tlk: following refmements: (I) for sial,.; wilboUl
heams. u"" '. for all dead load defleclions: forru,ad plus live lood defleelion,. usc ' .
for middJ~ slrips and ', for column ,Irip': (2) for ,lab, with beams. u'" I, for all dead
load <kfleclions: for dead plu, live load defl~clion', u'" I. for <'olunrn ,tr'ip< and I, for
middle strips, For continuous span,. I, c'an he ba,,-'<.I otlthe midspan f">'litivc mon",m
wid",Ul se riou s ~rror.
n,~ dell""'li",lS calcuial<-'<.I using Ihe proct.'<.Iure d~scrihed are shon - t~nll defl~c
lion,. Long-Ierm ,lab deflections can be calrulat~d by multiplying the sOOn -tenn
defleclions by Ihe f"'-'Ior of Eq. (6.11). as for beams. Bec'ause compression 'Ieel i,
seldolll used in slabs . a muhiplier of 2.0 r~,ult,. Tesl ~viden<'C and exl"'rience with
aelnal struClures ind icate, lhatlhis may seriously underestimat~ 10ng-t~nI1 slab deflec-
lions. and mu hipliers for long- t~nn defl~clion from 2 __~ 10 4.0 have been recommended
(Ref" 13.30 to 13.32). A multipl ier of 3.0 gi\'6 acceptabl~ rcsuh, in mml cases.
It should he recognized thaI the prediclion of slab deflections. both inilial ela,-
lie and long-Ienn. is complicalt.'<.I by d", mall)' uneertaintics asso<'iat~d with aClual
building cm1Slruclion. Loading hi,lory. panicularly dnring <xln,truction. has a pro-
found effc'Ct on final d~f1<-'Clions (Ref 13.33). Con,tructi"'l loads Can "'-Iual or exc<..,d
the ",,,,ice live load. Such load, may include lhe weighl of slac'ked building malerial
and usually include tlk: weight of slalts above the one cast ~arli~r. applied through
,horing [l!1d reshoring 10 the lower slab. Because conslruelion load, are applied 10
immature eoncret~ in the ,lab,. the immediate dastie d"f1eelions are large. and. upon
rellloval of the <'onstruction loads. elastic r<,<,ovcry is less ti1[l!1 Ihe initial elasti<' defl<'<'-
lion because Eo innea"" wilh age. Cracking resull ing from cOllStruClion loading ,k""
nm disappear ",ilh remo\'al of lhe Icmf"1rary load and may resuh in liv~ load deflec-
lions grealer Ihan ex!""'t.,,), Crecp during ~'()IIstruction loading rnay he great~r th[l!1
expected oc'Cau", o f the early age of Ihe l'On<'ret~ when lomk'<.l . Shrinkage defl~clion'
of Ihin slabs are oftcn of the same order of magnitude as the elastic d~f1<-'Clions. [l!1d
""me case, must he calculated separal ely.
It is irnf")rtant 10 ret'ognize Ihat bmh initial and time-dependent slab defl"'-'Iion'
are subjen to a high d~grec of variability, Calcuial<-'<.I deflections are an estimate. aI
hest. [l!1d con>id~rabl~ dcvialion from calculated \'alu~s is to he expe<'ted in aClual
,trunures.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1... _ Dosi. . . I THI
EoI6 ..
EXM1PLE 13.7 Cak ulallo" of denel'tions. Fioo llIe ddleCiion, al Ihe cenler of lhe lypkal exlerior panel
of llIe I",,",,'ay floor designed in Example 1.l.2 d"" !O <kad aoo Ii"e load" noe liw 1000 may
be considered" shorl-!enn load 300 will be di'lrill,"ed unifon"l)" O\'er all pand,. The floor
will "'won ",,",Iruewral clemem, Ihal.", likd)' to be damaged by large detkctions. Take
E, - :1.6 x 10" j>Si.
s.".lJ"'O~. The eia'tk deflection due 10 fhe ,,,If.weighl of 88 psf will be foooo, .fler
which llle additional 10ng'l~nn dead load defl~clion ca n bt: fou>l(] by aJlplyin llIe (""tor
- 3.0,'00 lhe ,hortlerm live load defleclion due 10 144 psf by direC1 proportion.
Th" eff~<1i''C coocrelc croSS sc<:tions. upon which moment-<JfineniJ c~kulalion, wil l bot:
b..",d. are slIov.'n in Fig. B..l6 for 1M ful lwidth fral''''. the column strip, and fhe middle
stri ps. for IIIe ,hort-span and long"pan di"'~lion, . Nore thm It><: width of It><: column ,Irip
in hoIh direelions is ba>ed on It><: >hort.". panel 'pan. according 10 fhe ACI Code. 1lIe ",Iue<
of n>on .. m of inertia are "s follows:
Short Direction Long Direction

n.90(l in' 2.~.M(]() in'
2 1.M in' 21.M in'

5.lWin' 3.4]() in'
H r>f calculali"g the dcfhiions of Ihe f1<X>o" in the sh"rt'I~'" </;"" '1;",, of the panel. f",m
Eq. ('-' ,10) It><: reference deflC("lion i,
88 X 2520XI2 '
~ ~ 0.016 in .
J"; 12 X 384 X 3.6 X lO" X 27.900
(NQle IhOI It><: ,""merli nc Sl'on di.llance is 1ls<''<1 h..,re. alihough clear spa n was used in ,he
nlOll"' ", anal)",is I<> appro~ i mat" Ihe mon", m redllCliOll duo 10 suppon width. accllflling to
ACI CO<k proeed",..,s,) From Ihe "'Ornen t an~lyS;$ in ,he >hort wan <l;rttl;on. it was coo
cluo:k><l Ihal 68 percen! of 1"" momen! 0.1 hoIh negalive and positi,'e ><'("Ii""s was Ia!;,'n by II1e
FIG URE 13.36 r

Crosssecl;ooal d;n",n,;on,
for defleclion ample :
I' "'" 'I~
, I'
u
'I
(a) short'pan direclion U
~f
fmm<. ",lunm ,trip, and
midd le m;p: (h) loo~ .,pan
--.I 1.- 14"
,. ~ 1.- 14"
dif",-~iO" frame. colu mn .,rip.
,1><1 middle SI,;p,
r
180" net 120"" net
'U 'I
-,
,
=
,OJ
=
")
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANA U 'SIS ANI) [) K~I(;N O F SI.AIIS 4 7S
colunU1 >!lip and 32 p<'rrent b)' th'> middle ,trips. Accordi~ly. from Eq" ( B .21,,) and
m,2Ib).
27.900
JI" - 0_016 X 0 _68 x - - - - 0_014 in_
21.000
27,900
J-' = 0.016 x 0 _.12 X 5150 = 0,028 in_
for tile panel undeT in,'e>li~ation. whi.;h is full y wmjnuous 0",.,. tJolh ,UPf!OT1S in 'lIe;hon
direction. it m,}' be assu n\C><! that , uPf!OT1 TOIation, "'" negligible: cOIlsequen!ly, a , and
"' , - O. and from Eqs, (t3.25"),,nd (IJ ,15b).
"" - 0_014 in_
.... - 0_028 in_
Now calculating tbe deformations in tbe /t1ll8 direClim, of the panel gives tbe reference
de O<!l-1ion
~~ X2025X 12 '
f..j - - 0_0_1.1 in
12 X 3S4 X 3.6 X 10 X 25.800
From the n>On",m anal}'si, it ""a<; four><! Ihm the column 'trip would to ke 93 pe=nt of the
exterior 'legative nlOme " t, 81 I"'rrent of 11K" positi"e ,oonK"nt , ar><! 81 I"'rre.,t of the interior
negati". "'o">en!. Thu, tJ", "'crnge laternl distribution foctor for the col umn strip is
,,
,
COC'"'C+,,'""",I + 0 _81 .
- - 0",
or 84 perren!. ""hile the mi<ldle strips are a"igned 16 I"'rrent. Then from Eq'_ (I ) ,2 In) and
In.2Ih).
2_S.800
!~ - 0_03.1 X 0 _84 X - - - 00:14 in
21.000
25.800
1-' = 0.033 X 0.16 X - - = 0,{)40 in.
34.10
While M~'iOll at tile interior w lurno m :ly be cO!I\iJere<l negli gible. ""atior' ll lhe c"erior
wlumn cannot_ For the dead load of the slob. tbe full 'tatic moment i,
M. - ! X OJl88 X 20 X 25 ' - 137_5 ft.lips
It ,,'as found that 16 percent of [toe . tatk nlOnK""l, or 22_0 ftkips, ,houlJ be "'Signed (Cl the
exterior suppon salion, The resulting rotation i, foor><! from Eq. (13.23). It is ea,ily COIl"
tinned thaJ 1M 'tiflile" of the equi\'alent coluntn f= Section 1.1_9c) i, 169 X 3,1> X ICf in
Iblrad; he"C~
22.000 X 12 _ O,OOO-l.l raJ

169 X ],6 X 10'
From Eq. ( Ll_2.!). the rorre,ponJin~ miJpand deflection romponent i,
O_OOO-l.l X 25 X 12
,= 8 = 0_016 in,
Thus. from F--'l ' _t I3_2~,,) or><! ( 1.1_25/), the deflect;,,", of the wlumn and middle strip' in
the long dire<:tion arc
"" - 00:14 + 0_0 16 - O.050i o_
.... = 0,{)40 + 0.016 = 0,056 in.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
and from Eq. (1 .1.19,,) the slion -term ",idranel deflectiOll due to ... If- w~ight is
__ ~ 0.050 -+ 0.028 K 0.078 in.
Th lon~tcrm deflect;"n due to dead load is J.O X 0.078 ~ 0.234 in .. and tl", ,honterm
li .. e load defl""tion is 0.078 X 144 8R - 0.12R
Th" ,xCI limiting val"" to.-t"" present ~a", is fourn.l to he I 4SO time, the 'pm. or 20 X
12 480 - O..SOD in., ba",d OIl lhe , um of lhe long.ti",,, defleclion due to ,u5tainetl lnad and
the ;mm"diat~ delkct i"" due to liv" load . n.e , um of t""se deflectiOll component, in the
rrese"l ca,~ i.
... ~ 0.234 -+ 0.128 ~ 0.362 in.
well below the permissible ,-"I"".
_. 13.14 AN ALYSIS fOR H ORIZO NTAL L OADS
Either the di re<"l design method or the e'lu ivalent frame n"'thod. described in the pre-
rt'Cling seclions of Ihis c'hap!er. may be u""<l for II", analysi, of Iwo-way slab syslems
for gravity load,. auxmli ng to ACI C<KIe US L However. the ACI OJde provi<ion.
are not meant to apply to II", analy!;is of buil dings subjeci 10 Ialer~1 load.<. such as
loads cau",d by wind or eanh'luak" . For lateral load analy,is. the designe r may ",le~t
any meth,Jd that is shown to satisfy equil ibrium and geometric compatibility. and to
give results that are in rea,nnahle agreen",nt with avai lable lest data. The results of the
bteral load analy.<is may then he comhined with Ihose from tl'" ,'ertical load an~lysis,
according to AC I Code J35. I.
Plane frame analy.is, with tt", huild ing assumed to ("(}]lsist of pamllel fmmes
each hounded laterally hy the panel eemerlines on eitl"'r side of the col u mn li nes, has
often been u",d in analyzing unbm~ed building!; for horizonlal loads. a' well as veni -
cal. Fm wnieal lo"d analysi, by the "'-juivalem fran", melh'KI. a si ngle floor is u.<u~lly
studi"d as a ,uh<lructure with atta<'hed column.< assum<-'Cl ful ly tixed al the fl'KlfS
above and helow, but for IKlfi",mal frame analysi, the ~~uiv"lent frame iocludes all
floor" and col umns. extending fr(lm the bott",n to the lOP of the 'truc'lure.
The main diffic' ulty in e'lu ivalenl froin", an"lysi, fm horizonl~l load. lies in m(Jd -
eling the stiff,,,,ss of the regioo ~I the heam--column (or slab-beam-column) conn<-'C-
tion.' . Tr~nsfe r o f forces in this r"gion involves bendi ng, torsion. sheaf, ~nd ~x ialload .
and is fun hcr complicated by the effecI' of <~}]lcr"le tflli.' king in reduc'ing sti tTness. and
reinfm<'Cn",'" in increasing il. Frame nKlment, are g reatly influenc'"d hy tKlrizomal
displlli.'cments at the fl'Klrs . and a ~x)n""rvativel) low value of .<Iiffness should be u'cd
to "nsure that a rea."'}]lable estimate of drift is indud<.'Cl in the analysi,.
While a completely satisfactory ha.~is for modding the beam-column joint sti tT-
ness has nm been devdoped. at least two meth,KI. baw been u,,-'Cl in practi~e (Ref.
13.14). n", ("St is hased on an equival"nt beam width I,. less th~n the ~cl ual width.
to n.'Clu<'C the sliffness of the slah for purl'o",s of analysis. Figure 1337" shows a plate
fix<.'Cl at lhe far edge and supf'on<-'Cl hy a colum n of widlh " 1 al the near ,ide. If a rota -
tion is iml"),,-~I at the column. the plme rmation along the axis A will vary as shown
hy Fig. 13.37". from ~llhe column to smaller values away from tt", ~olu nl!l. An
"'-juiv[llent width f[lclot is ohtained from the r"'-juireme nl thai the stiffness of a pris-
matic hea m of widlh I, musl equal the sti tTness of Ihe plale of width 12, This e'lual -
il y i, obtained if the area, unde r the two rmatinn d iagram;; of Fig. 13.37" are "'-jual.
Thus It", froin", analysis is ba.'<Cd on a redu~ed !;Iah (or slab-heam) stiff,,,,,. f()IJnd
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.
11-'-'1 ... _ Dosi . . . I THI
EoI6 ..
ANAU 'SIS ANI) I) K~I(;N O F SLAIIS 4 77
FI G UIU: 13.37
Equi,'akn' beam width [or
hori"'ltt,llo><l.naly.; .
,.,
,
I' , 'I
dl,, [:b
' - - - - - I, ----~
",
using 12 rather tban 12, O,mpar::uiw studi~!; i"dil'a!~ tbat . for tlat plat~ tlOOlS. a "alue
for b"twe~n 0.25 and 0.50 may be used (Ref. 13.34).
A h~nmti\'ely. th~ b"arn-l'olunln ,tiffne,~ Can be nlodd.,J !lased on a t mn'v~rse
torsional memher enrre'ponding to tha! u",d in deriving the stiffness of the equivalent
colu mn for the venica] load analy,i , of two-way slabs by the ",!uiv"lent frame method
(see Scnion 13.9c). Rotation"l sti ffness of the join! is a function of the fl exural ~ti lf
,,~ss of Ih~ enlu mn, fram ing into the joint from above and b"low and Ihe torsional
Sli tfnc~ , of tbe lra,,-,verse "rip of , bh Or ,Iah heam m the column. The equivalent col -
umn stiffness i!; found from Eq. (13.9) and 11r~ to"ional stiffness f"u" E<J. ( 13. 10). as
before.
Finally. fur frames in which two-way system~ act as primary memhe" r~$i'ling
iateral loads. ACI Code 13.3.8 ""-luire, Ihal Ihe lengths of reinfor~"'tllenl he deter-
mined hy analy,is hel'ause the knglh, shown in Fig. 13. 14 rna)' n<)l be ad~q\late . The
valuc< in Fig. 13.14. how~w r. are retained as mj nimurn values.
REFERENCES
I J L w. L. ( ;" "1>,,, " M"Tl<"" in Ibm-SUPI'<",<,1 Sl>ll, . 1. AC/. "'~ . ffJ, ,.,. 3. j ~ 7!, rr. 14'J.-1 ~J
"1"'"
l:!.2 J. k . N ;c t.~,. S,.,k, j Lim;,,,,",,,, ,!Ie Sled R.."l"i"""'''' io Mu " f.)m)d <,-.""'f\.1c Hd ~ I "" l,"~", ..
Trw". ASCE, ,,~ . JJ. I YI 4, rr, Ihlll--l?'6
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
47S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 13
IJJ. D, S. Il , ", ,,,~. M A, So""',

an..! C. p, Sics>. "' I,,~ "f.
R,'iofQ'r'.... , \"""'.... 11.. I~ .. " ... J, SmKl. I ~"'..
ASCk "'~ . 91. "" , sn. 1%5. PI' .'II5--Zll,
13.4. S, A (iur.. l"je~ ...... R.. W. L"'''''''ilI'. 'I..a"'w",OI)' S,wy "r. F''''J-l'i,.,' 1;-'" Sq.,,,,
1-.... I ~ .. " S"",",.n".'
l ACt. ,.,~, f,(f _ "" . 9. 11163. rr 1107-11~5
13.5. D, S. Ih" ......, M. A. s.-r""n. "'><) C. I', S..,,,. "'1"" of, \I.,inf"' (,.... C""""'Ie 11.. S,,",," J, Sm"" . Ih,'..
ASCI;' "' ~ . 95 ...... ~T6. I%'!. 1'1', h!5I-Wn,
13.6. J, O. Ii".., M, A, So,,'", ......
C. P. S~~" "r,-" ,of. FI.. SI", ~ Ci " f,>m>J ~' i ' h Wcl....,d \\',rc lioN;';:' J,
-I,,,,,,"
/Ji" . ASlT. "~. Q2, .0, S'IJ. 1\I66.I'f'. 199-"4
IJ 7. W. L ("'n*"". M, A S<""n. 000 C. P. ~~,,~ "rc",,' .-.r. T~"_W.y Reinr..('C(j C,,,,,,,,,,,, I 'l<"~ SI, " : j,
51""," Iii". ASCt. "'~ . 95. "" , S'I'6. I%'!. PI' hI7J--WII6,
13.8. M, II VanoJc-.biI,. M. A, So.-C", .n..! C. P. S>C.,.~ '1',,,, " , M(>j; jW R .;n r-'-"'~"" C_'tC h<>- W'y SI"I>,"
l 5",,,,, /);' " IISCk "' ~ . 95, "", ST6. I%'!. 1'1', 1097-1 11 6.
IH. W. t, (;" on ~"'. '"M.. ,,, .. , in I",,,," -SUI'I""'OO Slot"," J, ,1.0. " . m. "", J, Iqn, 1'1', 149-157,
I l.UI J. 0. j;,,", M. A. s.,,,,,".
000 C. I~ S;';...,. "I'."e"'" 1,i...J;"l}' ' " R, iof."",,, 0 ..."", Il,,~ 51""'-" J S,"'"
Un, . ASCI:, ,," , Q5. "", Sf6, 1%9. 1'1'. 1117-1137,
1l .11 I). Ihl",-,y. k. '"(;'-"'4in""., I '''"'''' An, I)', ;, nf 1'1" SI..",: J I~"",,, !;;x'raj' eN I),~ .. J""""'"Y 19-I ~,
13. 1! . W. CO. C"..loy. M A, S<ven . ",1 C. I~ S~~" "TIIc F<[ui,-.km roo, .... ~..,'I><.I f(J( Roinf, ....,,1 0 -..-.:'<'1'
SI..",." U"i " III , I~". . C i~. I"'~ . S,""",
Rc" s........~ 11#. J,,,., I'lliI
13. 1l . W. G. CO<I<,), ..... J. {I, J i".., "I"'ui,.le.... F",n,.. A,,;I)";' r", Slat. I~,;W'," j, Ac/. "01, 107. nn , II. 1970.
f'Il. ~7s-11S4
IJI4. ASCb \c1 I ~ ..l
O .,.mi",,, 416. " 1100 SI"'II< SI1"og,h " f 11.";"",,,,,,,
C""""'Ie M"n ....~~I."'-"
l 5,,,,,,., I)"" "' ~ . 11(1. ' ~ ', S'I'8. 1~74. PI'- I ~l--15\11
IISCI;.
Il15. N, ~1. H , ~ \' io>, II ll. 1'.11"",, ..... ~, C II;"';''''', "Jon """," ,. O >lu,,,,, R<~ I "'llu h";')' ,0\ tile Ikl"" ' i,~
.>f 1'1.. I~, ,,, Sm.'lo"'.... - in Cm<-/;i"x. 'J<ft.,.-.wr.. ,,,14 Uf,;""u, I<~~I "IC"",.-"" SI,o/. S),,,,",,. IlCI
1'u0l~'","' , SP-JO. 1971 , p. 1!7.
1l 16 M. n . V.,>dc-m;U. '"SI'>... S"..:n~'h "I C" ,h ... ." I ~ .IC~: j , $,,,,,,.
1m.. ASO,. ""I . 'I!!. nn, STS. I ~n,
rr 96)--'!73
I l .17 W G, C,,..,y ...... N M. Il. wl;",. -SlIeor"""" R" i" f,,,,,,,,"c,, ( <]I sr.!: J, AC/. ,....1, 65, "", 10. 1%8,
1'1'. 811_8!4.
I l. 1~ N. W 11,,,1,",. n . Mild.:II. 000 S. N, II ....... l;tfOCl' ,rt' Six'" R ,';nf"",~..-.~, ,, , no ,lie R<,,~""" Cyel;';
I ~..o i "~ lle-h, ,'.'" 011'1" 11 .. " S"",""'c~- ,a",
J. Ci,. f;"~ .. ".,1, 2, "'. -I. 197~. 1'1'. Sn-5IU
I l . l ~ ,\ Gh.I;. -A .. ur'~' nI s<~",i()" (0 I....hi .. ~ ,,,- S I." ~- C"",.-,
1",/.. ",01. II, "".~. 19I19. rr, y ).. ~ .
13..!O. A, A, 1iI~ ..-.d A, (; ".Ii, "Il<, i ~o ,". S,oo-M.,.,. R";nf""",,, ...,", r... ~I""': ACt Sm"t, 1.. "01, ~7, "" .
l. 199(1. W .1Yl-J6 1
13.~ 1 . A, S M," "' ''-, A, GII,I;. ",ld W. I)dllO!. "S'OO SIIe", W";nf"".",,,. ,,
r".. I'1., C""""'''' ! 1. "~." J, ACt. " .
n OQ. 5, 1~ ~5 ,1'I'. Io1Io---<i1l'.
!J.n A. A, 1 ; 1 ~'l>ry "",I A, Gh.,;. "'1'"" ,", (",""',,,,' SI.to-C"I"",,, C""",,,'h,m, "'i,h S,W St>c;.,
"d n f,,,",,,"~'" S""j.:"".... u. Sh(..--\I,.,"nI Tr.n,r,~: ACt S",,,t, l. ,,,I, 101. "Q. 5. 1</!!7. 1'1', ~ JJ---4l l ,
IllJ. J, 11. M,.,in 000 A. (;/>,,1;. 'C",,,.,,,i,", ,of 1'1" I~ .. ,,, w H"~< (.',010,,""." AC/ S,,,,,., J. ,01, 8K "" . !.
1\l\l I. pl'.191-19Il,
13.24. N, ll, mm;1I 000 A. ( ; ..1;, "1'uf>('hinS Sllc"" R ~"''''''''' n( Com.~ Sl>l>-C,~o"'" 0",,,,,,, ... ,...- ACt Sin"',
l. ",-,I, 91 , M . 6. 199-1, rr. fl!7_71)7.
I3.ZS. N, .\f, H , ~ <in,. A I)"" ...... J y""""'i. -W""" .. T"""f., f,," n C,,""... Slab, iO c<~,," ," ': ACt
51"",. j .. ",01.86. <10. 6. 19S9. 1'1'. 7OS---7 16.
!J . !~ . "R"",.""""",",i,"" r.. I).-,iw> of SI""-O:;"I" "", C, ........ ,'"'" In M ''''' '' , n~' R,-;M,.-ro.i <:0<=..
S1r",',u,,"'- "'1"-",,1 oy AC I-IlSll , C,""'";" '" lS!.},('I Sm,,,. J.. ,,~ 85. on, 10. I<I!!~. W 67s-696
Il!7. J, 1'. Mo<'nlc. M F, I( "i'~...... R. I~,O\, "11,d,WOO"" w R ,~'", "' ''''''''';'''' r." n,,>illo ,>f RC;" f(",'C(j
(.'""",,;0 SI>b--CoI.,,,,, 0 " "",'10,,,,,: ACI .1',,,,,",. 1.. "'~ !!.'i , '",. 6. 19I1S, M'. ~3li---M4 .
l 3.l~ . A, II , Nil"", 000 1>. II. 11'.1",,. "1~llo<, ' '''' ~ '1',,-.-.-'11" )' I -.....~ S) ~ "m, "Y ,Ix- l'<[ui'Oil""j.",,,.,
Me,held:' j, ACt. "01, n nfl. S. M;oy 1 ~7S.I~" 11()..)1#
I3.N. E. S, Il<"rm,,", 1). 1', Gu".r",,",..-.d A, r. G". ",, "~ 5t""""""/\:" i~~ Gur4t tv ,It, ACI ""'U/,"g ,,,,I<-.
4lh ,...... KI."c, A,,,,.Ic,"i, 1 "~h,IIe". Ih l"". IWS
I JJO.
I l.l l
D, F. Il","~". l\:fi)m~""'" "I,,,,,,,,,,,, 51""",,,, ,. M ;"~'_I!;II. "'c'" y"<1, , ,qJJ.
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ANAU 'SIS ANI) [)K~I(;N OF SI.AIIS 479
PROBLEMS
13.1. A footbridge is to be bui lt. consisting of a olhl way solid slab spanning 16 fl
between masonry abutmenls. as shown in Fig . P13 . I. A service liw lood of 100
psf must be carried. In addition. a 2000 Ib conc""tratl>U load . assumed to be
uniformly distributed across the bridge width. may ael at any location on the
span. A 2 lll. ~sphah wearing surface will be used. weighing 20 psf. Precast
concrcl~ curb, aTl' al1ached so as to be nonstructural. Prepare a design for th"
slab , usi ng malerial str... ngths!,_= 60.000 p,i and/; = 4000 psi. and 'ImHlIa
rile your results in the fonn of a SkdCh showing all concrete dimensions and
rein forrc men 1.
FIG UIU: PI3.1
U I, -----',I
rr
",'"
2" asphan
p
I,
j
"
<',
1J.2. A reinforced concrele bui Iding n oor 'y<lem l"onsi,t~ of a continuous one way
,Jab hui lt n",m,l it hically with its ,uppo n ing beam;;. as ,11<",.. n in c ro" ,",<,ti!HI
in Fig. p IJ.2 . Service li,'e load will be 125 Jmf. Dead l();lds include a 10 psI'
all",',ance for non<truetu,,1 lightweight concrete f100r fill and surface. and a
10 psf allowance for suspended I(KlIls. plu, the self-weight of the no",. U,ing
AC I cocfti ciem, from Chapter n. calculate the design moments and shears
and de~ign thc _,lab. u~ing a maxi",um tensile reinfor<;"",ent r~tio of 0'()06.
Use all straight "ar
rein forcement. O ne-half of the pmitive-l1Ion"'nt "ar,
will
Oe dis,;ontinued wl",re no longer Tl'<1uired: the other half will Oe cont;nU\."<I into
tt", suppon; ng Oeam, as <pecifi~d "y the AC I Code. All "" gat;,c ,tcel will Oe
discontinued at the ,an", di,tance from the <uppon fac~ in ea<'h <'~s~.
Summarize your design with a <kel ch showing concrete dime nsions. and ,ize,
spacing. and c~tofT point, for ~Il n'inforcen"'nt. 1\--lateriaJ slrengths are J.. =
60.000 I"i and); _moo p,i.
FIG URE 1'13.2 1-1'- -; 16'- 0 --'1-1'-:-c- .16- 0 --j'1
, End span , Typical interior span ,
1
, 1
, 1
,
'"srtr
1.-= = =--J"iiC=I.-= = =--Jilcr=
". ".
IJ.J. For thc onc-way slab floor in Problem 13.2. calcuta1~ 1he inllncdime arKllong
1cnn deflec1ion due 10dead loods. Assull>C Iha1 all dead loods arc applied when
1he cons1ruclion shoring is removcd. Al so de1~rtninc 1he def1ec1ion duc 10
applica1 ion ofllle full service livc load . Assuming 1hm sensi1ive cquipmenl wi II
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hoe installed 6 months afler lhe s"oring is removed, "nkulate the relevnnt
defleclion component. and compare the total with maximum values re<"om-
mended in the ACI Code.
1l.4. A m')I",lithi" rein forced concrete floor con,isl' of redangular bays measuring
21 X 26 ft. as shown in Fig. 1'13.4. The floor i, designed 10 carry a service liw
load of 125 p<f uniforml)" distributed owr ils surface in addition to its own
weight. using a co""rete 'trength of 5000 psi and reinfofl"ernel11 having/,. =
60.000 psi . o.,sign a Iypical interior panel using the ACI direct design IIIdhod
of Sections 13.6 thmugh 13.8.
nG URE 1'13.4
- 21"- 0 ------0
'""'", , ,
n .s. Redesi gn the Iypical interior pand described in Probkm 13.4 using Ihe ACI
<"<jui\lIlent fmme method of Senion 13.9. Compare your resull, wilh lhose for
Problem 13.4, and <"ommen\.
n .6. Redesign the typical exlerior panel of Ihe floor of Example 13,2 as a part of a
flat plate slructure. with no beams hoetween il11erior columns but wilh hoearn,
pruvided along lhe outside edge 10 sliffen Ihe slab. No dmp panels or colullln
capitals are pennitted, bul <hear reinforcement simi!;" to Fig. 13.24b may be
incorpomled if necessary. Column size is 20 X 20 in .. and Ihe fl'x"-Io-floor
height is 12 fl. Use eilher the diren design method or lhe equivalent fr~I!'"
melh,xl. Summarize your design by means of a <kel<"h ,Ix""i ng plan ""d typi -
cal cross "'''"li ons.
n .1. A multi<tory cmnn"'T<"ial building is 10 be designed as a flat plate syslelll with
fl,x", of uniform thickness having no beams or dmp pands. Colulllns are laid
oul on a uniform 20 ft spacing in each direclion and have a 16 in. square ""-",-
lion and n \'Cnical dimensim, 10 fl fmrn fhx)f to floor. Specified servite live
load is 100 psf induding panition allow3""". Using lhe dir""t design "",thod.
design a typical interior panel. determining the "-"<juired floor thiclness. size
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A/I;A U 'SIS A/I;I) [) K~ I G N O F SI.AIIS 48 1
and ~pating of "'infoR'ing bars. and bar delail, including ('utolT poim,. To
simplify C()[!Struclion. tbe ",inforcemem in ~acb direction will be tbe .ame~
U,"" an aver~ge eIT~C1ive depth in the calculalioos. Use all 51might hal'i. For
modemte ~pan s sucb as Ihis, it bas Ix..,n detemlin"d that supplementary ,hear
reinfQrcen"'n1 would nOl be ec()[lOmica!. althougb column ('apitals may be
us<-d if needed. Thus. slab thickness may be bas<-d on F..qs. (l3.lla). ( 13.111,).
and (13. lie). or column capital di"",nsion, C<l1l he ",Iected using lhQSC "'lua-
tions if slah thickness is hn,,--d on the (~uations in Section (3.8. Malerial
strenglhs are!, = 60 ,000 psi andj,: = 4lXlO p"i.
n .8. P",pare ahemalive de'igns for sbear reinf",-..:ement at lbe suppon. of the slab
de'!Cribed in Example 13.5 (lll u,ing bent bar reinforcemem similar to Fi g.
13.24h, and (h) using integral beams with ,'enical stirrup, ,imilar 10 Fi g.
13.24<, .
n .9. P",pare an ahernalive desigo for shear r~inforcemem at tbe suppons of the slab
de'!Cribed in Example 13.4, using a shearhead similar 10 Fig. 13.24". As an
alternative to sbear reinfmrement of any kirKI. ca1culale the ,malle't accept-
able dimen~ions for a 4 5" column capital (s<.., Fig. 13.1 l') that would pennit th"
"oncr"le ,lab tQ resist lhe entire shear fOR'e. Dmp pands are not permilled.
B .IO. Figure P 13. I 0 slKlws a flal plale floor designed to carry a factored load of 325
psI'. The lotal slah thickness h = 7t in. and the average effective depth Ii = 6
in. Mmerial strength, are /, = 60.000 psi and j: = 4O(X} p"i. The design for
pUIKbing sbear at a typicannterior column 82 provided the hasi, for Example
13.4. TQ pm"ide a full perimeter b" al Ihe exterior colum" IJ I. the slab is can -
til~vered pasllbe ('olunm, as shown. A tQlal shear fQrce 1'. = 105 kips musl
be tmn,"liu~d to the col"mn, along widl a bending n)()n",m M , = 120 ft-kips
alx>u1 an axis parallel to Ihe edge of the slab. Cb~'Ck for pun('bing shear at <.-01 -
umn BI and, if ACI Code reslriction, are not mel. suggest appropriale tl)(Klifi -
<.-ations inlhe pmp<ls<-d design. F..dge bea"" are not pennined.
r-- 2{l ' Iypical

FIGUIU<: I> U .IO
.--- r' ----0
" -
, All columns ,
, typical
18"X t8"
, -
B .I 1. FOJ the flal plate floor in Example 13.3. find lhe following defl""liQn compt)-
nent~ <It Ihe celller of panel C: (ll) immediale defleclion due to total dead load~
(h) additiQnal dead load deflectiotl after a IQng period of time, due to total dead
loa d~ (c ) immediate defleni()1l due to three-quaners full live load. The momelll
Qf inenia of the cross wncrele scclions I. may be used for all (akulatiQns. It
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may t,., assumed that maximum defl~<tion will t,., obtained for the sa,,"", load -
ing pattem that would produce maximum p",itive moment in the panel. Check
p,-.,diclt."<l defledion against ACI limitation a~suming that nonstructural
attached elements wou Id t,., danmg<-"<l by exce"iv" deflection,.
B.ll. A parking gar.lS~ is to t,., designtld using a two-way flat ~lab on the column
lines. as ,hown in Fig. 1'13.12. A live load of 100 psfi' specifi<-"<l. Find the
required slab thickness, using a reinfm"e"""'nt ratio of approximately OJlO5.
and design the reinforce",ent for a typical comer panel A, tldge pand [J, and
int~rior pand C. Check ,hear capacity. Detail the ,-.,inforc~ment howing size,
,pacing. and length. All straight bars will be used. Material strength, wil l t,., j,
= 6O.0Cl0 psi andj,: = 5000 psi. Speeify the design method ",Ieded and <"Om-
ment on your results.
FIG URE " 13. 12 r-- 22 '-0" 22 '- O" ~
'-~ , , , , ,
'-~ ,
+- , C ,
1i="'~#=~+1
12'-0-
Ii="'=#=~+~
Columns t6" X t6-
B.U_ For the lypical int~rior panel C of (he parking garage in Problem 13.12,
(<I) compu(c the immediate and long-(crm dcflc'l:(ions d ue 10 dead load, and
(b) comp ute the defle<:(ion due (0 lhc full servicc live load. Compare wi(h ACI
Code ma.ximum pt:rmi ss ihlc values. given (ha( (here an: no elemcnt s auachcd
(hat would be dlltl1ag~d hy Inrge defle<:tions .
'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n ....
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YIELD LINE ANALYSIS

FOR SLABS
14.1 INTROD UCTIO N
/l.lost cOncrete slam. an, de~iglletl for mo",ents found hy the methods descrihL'<.l in
Chapter 13. ll\t,,,,, methods ar~ hased e,sentially upon ela~ti,' th~o')" On the oth"r
hand, reinforcement for ,Jahs is calculatcd hy strength meth,x/, that account fOJ the
aetual inelastic behavior of mcmb<:rs at the factorcd load stage. A corrcsporKJing con -
tradi"tion exi,ts in the pm"e" h)' which heams and fr.;nl<:" are analyzed and designed,
a, was di'ICus,"'<.l in Section 12.9, and the concept of lim it, or plastic. analysi, of rein -
forced concrete was introduced. Limit analysi, not only eliminate, lhe ine-."nsistency
of combining elastic analy!;is with indasti,' d,,!;ign hut also accounts fOJ the re!;erve
strenglh ,'haraetcristic of most reinforn'<.l concretc structure, and f'<'nnits, within lim-
it " an arhitrnry readjustn~nt of nK)n",nt, found hy dastic analysi ~ 10 amY<: at de>ign
momellts that f'<'nnit mOJe pr.;clical reinfon:ing arrangement'.
FOJ slabs, there is still another good reason for interest in limit analysi s. ll\t,
elasticily -hased meth'Kls of Chapler 13 arc reslricted in imponal11 wa)'~. Slab panel,
must be square or ",,'tangular. nl<:y must he supp<.>ned alollg two opp<ite sid", (one-
way slahs), two pairs of oppositc ~ides (two-way cdge-supp<mt."d 'Iahs) OJ hy a fairly
regular array of columns (flat plateS and rdak'<.l forms). Load, muSt he un ifonnl y dis-
trihult."d, at least witbin the hounds of any single pando nl<:'" can he no large of'<'n -
ings. But in practice, many .Iabs do not nl<:Ct lhese re.<[rictions. Answ~rs arc necded,
for example. fOJ round OJ uiangular slahs, slahs with large opellings, slahs supponed
on two or three edge, on ly, and ,Iahs <"lUT)'ing con<..,ntr~t"d luad,. Limit analysi, pro-
vides a p<'w~rful and vCratile toul for trealing sneh problems.
It was e\'id~nt from the di",u"ion of Section 12.9 that full pla"ic analysi!; of a
continuou, rei nforced e">nnete beam or fr~me would he t~diou, and lime consuming
!>ecausc o f the need to ,'akuiate the mtatio!! requir~n"'nt at all pla,tic hinges and to
dlt.'Ck rOiation capacity at each hinge to ensure lhat it is adequ"t~. Con"'qucml}" for
!>earns and frame.' , til<: very 'implified approlli:h to pbsti,' nK)nl<:nt redistribution o f
ACI Code 8,4 i, u,,->d. Howcve r. for ,lahs, which lypically !la,'e tensilc rcinf()fc~n"'nt
ratios much helow th~ b;llllilced valu" llild con""'-luently have large mtmion caplli:ity.
it can be safely as.,un",d thaI the "e"e.sary ductility is present Pmcticaln",thods for
tt", pla,ti,' analysis of .Iabs ar~ thus possible and have hee" developed. Yidd li,,~ 1""-
ory, pre;;entcd in this chapter, is one of thes". Although the ACI Code contain.' no ~f'<'
cif,c provision, for limit or plastic analy~;s of slabs, ACI Code J.4 f'<'nnits Use of "any
systcm of design or con"ructiun," the adequacy o f which has hecn shuwn by succ~ss
ful use, analysis, or tests, and ACI Code Con m",ntary 135.1 refe rs specific'all)' to
yield linc anal)'sis as an acccpcable appnmch,
48.1
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Yield lin~ analy,is for SiaM was firsl pmpoS<Xllly lng~rslev (Ref. 14.1 ) and wa,
greatly exknded by Johan",n (Refs . 14.2 and 14.3). Early pulllicalions were mainly in
Danish, and it was not until Hog""stad', English language ,ummary (Ref. 14.4) of
Johan",n. wort Illat d", melllod receiwd wide attention. Since Illat time, a numher o(
important publication, Qn llle """hod have appeared (Rds. 14.5 thrQugh 14.15). A
particularly u",ful and comprehen'ive lreatment will he found in Ref. 14. IS .
n", I'hmic "iIlS~ was inlmduced in Seclion 12.9 as a localion nlong a ""'mher
in a continuous beam or frame at which. Up'Kl overloading, (j",re would he Inrg~
inelastic mlation at essenlially a l'OIlSlant resisting l11onJent. For slabs, the rorresp'ltI -
ding n",chanism is the yield lilic. For tbe overloaded ,lab, Ihe re <isling mOl11ent p"r
unit lenglh mea,ured aiong a yield line is ""n"ant as inelastil' rQlatiQn occu",; the
yield linc ",rv." as an axi~ of mtation for the <Iah segment.
Figure 14.111 show, a ,imply ,upP',rted. unifQnnly loaded reinforced roncrct~
,lab. It will he assumed to he undcrreinforced (a, are alnK"1 all ~labs), with < b'
n", elastic moment diagram i, shown in Fig . 14.lb. A, the load is increased , when the
applied 1110n",nt heeonJe' equal to the nexural capa"ily of thc slab em'" seclion, tl-Je
lensile Sleel <tart, to yidd along the lfllllsye,-..., line of m<lximum '1II)l11ent .
UfH'" yielding, tl-Je curyat ur~ of the slab al Ihe yielding seclion ;n<Tea",s 'harply.
and denection increases di,pmportionatcly. n", elastic curvature, along d", ,lab span
are small compared w;th the curvature resulting from pla'lic deformation <It tl-Je yield
line, and it i, acceptable to consider that the ,lab segmcm, boetw~en th~ yield line and
,upports rema;n rigid. w;lh all Ihe eUT\",Uure occurring at the yield line, as shown ill
Fig. 14.l c, The "hingc"lhat forms al Ihe yield Ii,,,, roules wilh essenlially mnsUUn
resi,t<lllce. occording to lhe rdati on stKlWn earlie r in Fig. 12.13". The resiSla""" per
unit width of slab is the Ilomillal nexuml strenglh of tI", slab; that is, "'p = "'. , wh~r~
FIG URE 14. 1

Simply , uPjlOfl<d. ""ifOflllly
jllllllllllllllllllllll
loaded <me way ., Iab.
I"}
IO}
II J
Yield lioe
II
Ie}
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H E Ll) U :>O: E ANAU 'SIS FOR SI.AIIS 485
FIGUIU : 14.2
FiMdeoo. uniforml)" k.ad<d I1111111111111111111111
"",,wa) slob.
(,)
(0)
N&galiV<! yield line
(0)
(d)
"', i, calcubk"<l by the usual equations. For design purp"ses. mp would be ta k~n ~"<Jual
to m,. with typically equal to 0.90. silKe i~ well below """ for most slab,.
For a statically determinate .lab lik~ that in Fig . 14. I, the fonnation of olle yield
line ",suits in collapse. A "mechanism" fOfIll'. i.e .. the segmems of the slab between
the hillg~ and the snp!l0rts are ahle to mow without an inc",a", in load. Indetenninate
,tru<"lU"'S, howe,"",. call usually ,ustaill their loads without collapse e\"ell after the for-
mation of one Of 1110'" yield li"es. When it is loaded u nifonllly. the fixed-fixed slah in
Fig. 14.M. assumed here to be equally reinforced for po,itive alld lIegmi,-e mon"'nt .
will ha,'e all cla.ti .. distribution of moment,. as ,hown ill Fig . 14.2b. A, the load i,
graduall y illcrea,,-"<I. the more highly ,tre,,,-"<I se<"lions at the support Start yield ing.
ROIatiOlls occur at the ,upport line hi nge,. hut restraining IIK)ment, of constant ,".. Iu~
I1Ir CIIntinne to acL The load call he increa,,-"<I furthe r. until the IIIOllICnt at mid'pM
Ix'come, equal to the moment ~'apacity there. and a third yield line forms, a. slKlwn in
Fig. 14.2c. The slah is now a "",dlalli,m.large dell ...."tion. , )("(" ur. and collapse take,
place.
n,e moment diagram just before failure is sh"wn in Fig. 14.2.1. Note that th~
mtio of clastic positiw to negative IIK)melll, o f 1:2 no IOllger hold,. Due !() indastic
ddon natio". the ratio of these moments just before collarse is I: I for this particular
'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n ....
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IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 14
,tructure. Redistrihution of mom~nt' was discus,,--d earlie r in &>etion 12.9. alld it wa,
pointed out that th~ moment r.llio'> at the collapse ,'age depend upon the rei nforc~rr>ent
provided. not ull"n th~ re,u It, of elastit analysi"
. 14.2 U PPER A ND L OW ER B OU N O TH EOREMS
Plastic analysis methods su ch as the yield line theory derive from the ger>eml theory of
,tructural pla,ticity. which ,tates that the collap", load of a slruelure lies between two
limits, an uPl"'r bound and a lower bound of the true collapse load. The", limi" ,'all bc
found hy well eSlahlishoo methods, A full sol ution by tl", theory of plaSlicily would
anemp! to make the lower and upper hound, com-erge 10 a single COIT"'" ,ol ution,
n,e lower hound tm,orem and the upper hound theorem. when applied to slahs.
can bc "atoo as follow>:
Lower bo_und thw ,..,m: If. for 0 8iwn l;X,enlal load, il is IIO"ibl" 10 find a dislrill",ion
of nlOm""I, tbat salisfies equilihrium requirements, "ilb lhe nlOnlelll IlOl exeteding lhe
~i"Jd nlOn",,,t at an)' localion. and if lhe boonda,), co,ldilion, "'" sali.fied. lhen Ihe gi,-en
load is a I()\\-'er hound of Ihe I~ corrying capacily.
Uppe ' """nd Ih .,,,,,,,, If, for a s""J] increment of di'I,lacenle"t. ,he i"tenlOl work
do"" by ,he ,I,D. a<.,umin8 thot Hie nlOnlelll ot ",,'ery pla'lie hinge i, "qual 10 the yield
nlOnlellt and Ihat boundary co,>dilions "'" salisfied. is equal 10 II", eXlernal work do'le hy
lhe giv"n lrod for Ihal ,ame s",,11 inc," menl of di'place"",nl, tll<n Ihot load i, an uPller
bou,kl of Ihe orue carrying eap<>eilY.
If the lower hound condi tion, are ,ati,lied, Ihe slab can ccnainly carry the given
load. although a higher load may he carried if intemal redistribution, of I11On",m
ottur. If the up!"'r bound comlilion, are ~atislied, a load greater Ihan the giwn load
will cenainly cau", failure, alt hough a lower load may pr<klu,'e collapse if the sde{'ted
failure mechanism is incorT<.'ct in any ",n!ie.
In practice, in Ihe plasti,' analysi, of slructure,. one works either with Ihe lower
hound theorem or the up!"'r bound theorem. not hoth, and p,..,cautiollS are taken to
ensure Ihat Ihe predicled failure load at least dosely approaches lhe COTTen value.
n", )'idd line n",thod of analy,is (or slah, i, an uPl"'r bound metlmd. and ('on
,,-,<!uemly. the failure load calculatt.-d for a ~lab wilh known flexu",1 re,istance, nmy
he higher than tI'" true value. This is cenainly a coOCem . as tl", designer would nalu
mil)' prefer 10 he ,'orn.>et, or at lea,t on tm, safe ,ide. Howe,-er, pmce!!ures can hc
inco'P""'ted in yield line analysis 10 help en,ure that lhe calculaled capacil)' is cor
rect. Such proCt.-dure, will he illustrated by the examples in Srtlions 14 ,4 and 14,5,
. 14.3 RU LES FO R Y IELD L tNES
The location and orientalio" of the yield line were e,idem for the simple ,lab in
Fig. 14.1. Similarly. lhe yield lines were "asily established for the one' way ind~lermi
nate ,lab in Fig. 14.2. For other {'a"", il is helpful 10 have a sel of guideline, for draw
ing yield line, and locating axe, of rotation. When a slab is on Ihe verge of collap!ie
oc>eau"" of Ihe existence of a suffi cient numher of real or pla~li{' hinge, to form a
mechanis",. axes of mlatioll will he locat~d along tile line, of suppon Or o\'er poim
,uppons such as columns. n", slah "'gmem, {'an be consideK-d to mime as rigid bod
ies in sp:u:e about these axes of rotation. The yiddline bclween ally two adjacem ,lab
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H EL l) U :>O: EANAU 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS 487
"'gn",nls i, a 'Imighl li,,~. heing the imerseclion of IWO ~''''nlial!y plnne surfac~s,
Recan", the yield line (as a line of ime rS<.'elion of IWO planes) c'ontains aU poim, ,'om-
mon 10 Ihese IwO pbn~5. il must conlain II", poilU of inl~J1I<."'lion (if allY) of Ih~ IWO
axe S of rolation. which i, al", common 10 the Iwo pianes. Th ai is. the yiel d line (or
yield line ~xlend~d) must pass Ihrough lhe poilU of inl~"",ction of Ih" axe, of rolation
o f Ihe IWO adjacelll slab "'gIllCIlIS.
n", terms I'milil'e yidd line and 1I"Smil'C yidd line arc uS<..... 10 dislinguish
belween tho", associated wilh ten ,ion al the botlOm a nd lension al!l", lop of lhe ,lab.
rcspecli,'ely.
Guidelines for establishing axeS of romlion alld yield lines arc ,umlllnriled a,
follows:
Yiel d Ii nes arc slr~ight lines because Ihey repre",", 11", int~rseclion of Iwo planes.
,I. Yield lines repre",", axes of rolmion.
3. The suppon~d ~dge., of the slab wil! al", ~stubli,h axeS of rotatio". If I h~ edge i~
fixed. a negative yield line may fonn providing const",,1 resisla""" 10 rotalion. If
th;, edge is si mply supponc..... tl'" "xis of rot~lio" provides zero restraint.
4. An axi., of rotmion wil l pass ov~ r any column suppon . Its one",mion depends OIl
other con~idcralion, .
5. Yield lines fonn under conc~l1lmled load,. radiating outward from Ihe poinl o f
applicatioll.
Ii. A yield line betwe~n two ;;lab "'8,,,,,n1> must IXISS Ihrough tbe point of imer><.'e-
tion of the axeS of rotation of lhe ~djat-e1U slab segment<.
In Fig . 14.3. which shows a slab simply suppon ...... along ils four sides. rolmion
of ,Jah "'gll",nl, A and /J is ahoUl lib "od cd. respectively. 11", yield line ef ""tween
Ihe", IwO "'gll1enl, i, " "might line p",,,ing Ihrough f . tt." poinl of inle r"",tion of the
ax~' of rotalion.
IIlu ,lralion, are given in Fig. 14,4 of Ihe application of the guidelines 10 tlJe
eSlahli shn",nt of yield line localions and failur~ n",chani'llls for a number of slnb,
wilh various support condilion, Fi gure 14.4a ,how, a ,lab continuo us ove r pamllel
,upports. Ax~' of rOlation are ,itumc.... along tl", ,upports (negative yield lines) and
near midspan. parallcllO tI", ,uppom (posi live yi eld line ). The particular location of
the po ,;tive yield line in this c''''''' and lh~ OIher C~"'~ in Fig. 14A depends upon tl",
distribution of loading and d", reinfor"""",nl of Ihe ,lab. Melh<"h for delermini ng ilS
location wilt be discussed Ialer.
For the continuous slnb on "'Hlpamllel supports. shown in Fig. 14,4b, the mid -
'pan yield line (exlend~d) mu,1 pass through the int~rse<.lion of the axes of rotalion
o \'er lhe , uppons. In Fig. 14.4c th~ re are axe, of "Hation over all four simple support,.
FIGURE 14,3
, lab wi,b <imply
'!\"J-w,}'
,upponed edes.
I '~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n .... I
I Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. THI
EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R ~:n: ST RUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 14
FIGUIU : I U
Tn>ical )'idd liD< I''''tem,_
r ~ m ple SUpptl(ts
all sides
f I I
'J
(
(,' (,'
S im ple SIlpptl(ts
Nonparallel supports all ",des
/ \
"',
f
VI
I
I
l
I /
I
,
I
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
H EL l) U :>O: EANAU 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS 489
FIGU IU: 14,5 Yield lines YiekJ lines

Altomatj,,< mcchanc'lns fo.- "
,lob '"pportM on three side"
(., ",
Posi(i ve yield lines form along (he lines of imerscction of (he rota(ing segmems of (he
slab. A rectangular two-way slab on simple suppons is shown in Fig. 14,4</. The diag
onal yield lines mus( pass through (he comers. whik th~ cemr"l yield lin~ is jXlraliei
(0 (he (wo long sides (a.xes of rota(ion along opposi(e suppons intersec( a( infini(y in
(his case).
With (his lxIckground. (he reader should have no ditlkuhy in applying (he guide
lines to th~ slabs in Fig. 14.4<'10 g 10 confinn (he general pattern of yield lines shown ,
Many o(her e~amples will he found in Refs. 14.1 to 14, IS.
Once (he general panern of yielding and ro(a(ion has been established by apply
ing the guidelines just s(ated. (he spcci lic location and orientation of the axes of rota
(ion and the failur.: load for th~ slab can be es(ablished by ei(her of (wo me(hods. TIlC
fi rs( will he refelT~'{\ 10 as (he m<'l/wd of Stgmelll <''f"!libr!,,,n and will be presem~d in
Sec(ion 14,4, h n:quires consideralion of th~ c'quiJibrium of (he individual slab seg
nICmS forming the collapse mechanism and leads to a sc( of simultaneous equations
pcrmining solution for (he unknown geome(ric parame(erS and for (he relation
he(ween load cajXlci(y and resis(ing monlCll!s. TIlC second. th~ m,'II'(I(/ oflim",l ...ork.
will be deseribcd in Section 14.S. This Int:(hod is based on equating the intenml work
done at (he plas(j~ hinges wi(h (he ex(ernal work done by (he loads as the predefined
failure mechanism is gi"en a smal l virtual displac~Int:IH.
II should be emphasized (hm eililer methud of l'idd lille (/rI"lysiI !s WI "fiper
1)(lUIU' "l'f)r'{)(u:1I in (he sense (hat the tru~ collnpse 1o.'Id will never be higher. but may
he lower. (han the lood pred ictoo. FOT ei(her nIC(hod . (he sol u(ion has (wo essen(ial
pans: (il) cswblishing (he corn:c( fnilure panern. and (b) f,nding the geometric paramo
eters (hat define (he exact loca(ion and orienta(ion of the yield lines and solving for (he
n:lation he(Weell appl ied lood and resist i ng momems. Either me(hod can bc dc'elop.:d
in such a way as (0 lead (0 (he correct sol ut ion fOT (he OllCchanism ~hoscn for study,
but the (rue fail ure load will he found only if (he corn:c( nloOchanism has ~n seic-.:(ed ,
For e .~ample. the rcctangular slab in Fig. 14,~. supponoo along only (hree sides
~lId free along {he founh . may fail by either of the (wo me chanisms shown , An analysis
based on yield jXlllern <I may indicate a slab capaci(y higher than one based on panern
I). or vice versa. It is nc-.:essary (0 inves(iga(~ <1/1 I'ossi/)/e mnl",niJm" for any slab to
~onr1rm thm (he com.-.:( solution, giving (he lowest failun: 1o.1d. has bcen found .'
TI,,' i11l ['''''''''' "I '"IS r<'; n1 "''' ""de".cm>! ~y I'",k,,, ~ Am< H; I!crl><q. ,of L,,"" I, ,, i,,"< 01 '(""h"of'~. Sweden. i" """.,. w ,he ,,"it<... of
i< ..-.
"'" ,\C( pu~l"'oti , .. Coo", hili, ,,~. (.1..... 5. IWI, Pro""",,,, Ililkrrorli "'"''' w.o. i" ",.Iity. I..." fin tw<' ildJi l.", ""'h .,''"''''n t.'"
in (' 1, (4.S, h~ , 1"'''''"111..- "" "I u;,,..,,,,",,,, . "" ITi"I"Rl' ''~''', ,of these ~,,~ k..", l,iI",,' 1<.00 ,... uW ,""
,,~~'hani .m >1>.,.," i" Fo~ ( .5<"
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
nr~ merhod of scgmem equ ilibrium ,hould nol be mnfuscd wirlr a true <'quilib
rium method such as th~ snip method descrilx...-:I in Chapler 15. A lrue equi librium
method is a lower bound ",ethod of analysis-----i,e" it will alway, give a Iowa bOlllki
of Ih" true ,'apacily of lhe ,lab.
~ - 14.4 AN ALYSIS BY S EGMENT E QUILIBRIUM
Once the ger",,,,1 panem of yielding and rulmiuo has been established by applying the
guideline, of &>elion 14.3, Ihe I",-'alion and oriemation of axes of rutalion and the fail
U,,", load for lire slab can be "stablislred Imsed on Ihe equilibrium of the various seg'
ments ,;,f th~ slab. Ea,'"
seg ment. studi ....-:I as a free Ixxly. must be in equilibrium urnJer
lire action "f llre af>Plied loads. the momentS along the yield line" and the reaclions o r
shear along the support lines. Becaus~ the yield n"lJ1",ntS are principal mor""rns.
Iwisling n"""enl, are zero along lhe yield lines. and inmost case, the shearing ro,,:es
are also zero. Only th" unit mQrnent '" g"""rally is considered in writing equil ibrium
'--quati,ms.
EX,\,\I PLE 14. 1 So!!" .. nt e.lulllhriu", 3n31)'sl,; "'"ne,w3)' . 13b, The ""'thod ",ill be demon'trated fitst
with respect to tir<: oTIC-way, u"ifo.-ml)' loadt:d, contino",," slab of Fig, 14,00, The 'lab It"
a 10 fr span and i, reinfo"""'" 10 p..",ide" resistance 10 p<>'iili,"e be"ding m, - 5.0 tl.k ipsJft
Ihrough rir<: SP'II, In add ition. Hcg:u;'"e s~1 over the suprorts provide, "",mem ca p;",it;l";
of 5.0 ft. ki pslft at A and 7.5 ft. ~ipslft at C. Delennil'" tile 1000 capacity of lbe ' lab.
St".tm,,~ . The "umber of e<!uilil>rium equations rcquim,l "ill depend opo!, tir<: num"" of
unknowns, One unkn<Jwn i, .Jway, rir<: ",la1ioo belw~'e" tir<: resisting "",r,..,m, of the ,lab
and lbe 1000. OIlier onk'lOwn, are I""""'d to deli"" lile I",arions of yield lin,,,. In tbe pre"
~nt in'ta""", one oodi1iooal equatio" will . um". to deline tir<: diS("nc~ of tir<: yield Ii..., from
FIGUIU: 14,6
A.... ly;;, Or" ,,,,,,.,,,.y ,lab
b)' sesment equilibrium IIIl1m
<quat" .. , .
f )
w kips/It
jlllllllllllllllllllill
, c

,i,
I ,
C l0'~
-
, I
11111111111
,,(------
) 7 ,5
1' 1 I-- l0 - x ~
1'1
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
H EL l) U :>O: EANAU 'S IS FOR SLAIIS 491
the ,uJIIIOn" T"ki"~ tile left ",,,,e m of tho ,lab", a fret> body and writin~ tile equation for
morn..."t equili brium aMtthe lefl ,uppon liTlC (><:c Fig. 14,M) kad, to
In '
10,0 = 0 (, j
Similarly. for lhe right ,lnb segment.
,
~ 10 - x ' - ]2.5 - 0
501'in Eqs, (u) and (h) , imu ltaneou, ly for 1<' and x ""u lt' itt
"' E O.89kipsln' x~ 4,75ft
If a slab is reinforced in onhogonal directions so that the resisting moment is the

same in these two directions. the moment capacity of thc slab will b.: the s ~tl1e along
any other line. regardless of direction. Such a slah is said to be ;solrop;wlll' rein
forced, If. hov.'e"cr. It-.: strengths an: different in two pcrpcndicu Inr directions. the slab
is c~llcd (Jrlitogun<llly '/JI;SOIflJ,,;C. or s imply ()rtitOlro{Jjc. Only isotropic slabs will be
discussed in thi s section. O rthotropic reinforcement. which is very COtl1lnon in prac
tice. will he discusscd in Section 14.6.
It is convenient in yield line analysis to represent moments with vectors , l1lc
standard convcntion . in which the motl1ent acts in a clodwisc direction when viewed
along the ,.."'tor ~rrow. will be followed. Trcatmem of moments as vector quant ities
will be iJlustrated by the following example:
EXAM PLE 14.2 Segme nt eq uilibriu m anal}'sis or "loa..., slab. A "luan: ,bb is , imply supported "long
all si(\e., and is In be iOOlropicoJl y reinforced. Del~rmine lhe .., i"ing 1110"""" m - "'. per
li""ar fOOl required just 10 '"stain a uniformly dislribuled f""t='<II03<I of w ",f.
S()urrr"~. Cor<Iilion, of '}""'""lry indi "al~ the yield line pattem . hown in Fig. 14.7",
Co",;dering lhe ,00,,..,1\1 <quilihrium of anyone of the idenlical slab "'gmell" about i1< ,up_
ron (.ee Fig. 14, 7bl. o"e obtain,
~-L' I. ",I. I
-- - 2------= ~ ~ 0
4 6 2 2
nGURE 14.7
Analy,i, of a square two-way
,bb by 'Segment <'1"ilibri","
equali"", .
---------,
I'
r'l: /~:
I
I
I
L 'I
I
I
I "
L 'I
'~"
I I:
--------~
"~I 1')
'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
In hooth <'X~mpl~s jnst gi,en. Ihe resisting momelll was constant ~Iong any par-
tirular yield line. i.e . the reinforcing hap; were of ~~'n'tam diameter and equally
'pac<-..! ~Iong ~ giwn )'idd line. On tl'" other hand. it will .,." ft,,:~lled that. by the elas-
tic method, of slab analysi, pre..,nt~..! in Chapter 13, reinforcing bars genera lly hav~
a different ,pacing and may.,." of different diameter in middle ,trip, compared with
column or edge strip". A slab de,igl1<.'{1 b)" elastic methods, leading to such ,arialions.
tan easily be analyzoo fOT strengtb by the yield line ,,,,,th,xt It is merdy necess:lry to
,ubdivide a yield line into it, component parts. within anyone of which the r"'isting
moment per unit length of hing~ i, constant, Either the '-'<lui librinm equation, of tbi,
",-'Ction or the work equntion, of Section 14.5 cnn he modified in this wny.
. 14.5 AN ALYSIS BY VI RTUA L W OR K
Alternative to the method of Section 14A i, a method of analysi, nsing tbe principk
of vinual work, Si""" till: 11II"nent, nnd loads are in eqnilibrium when the yield li'lI:
panem ha, fonned, an infinitesimal incra", in lood will ,-ausc the ,tructure to ,lefled
fun her. TI,e external work done by tbe londs!() cause a ,mall arbitr~ry virtual deflec-
tion IllUst '-'<Iual the intemal work ,kme as the slab rotates at the yield lines to accOm-
modate thi, deflection. 11,., slah is therefore given a virtual displa,-ement, and the cor-
responding rotations at the various yield lines call be calculated. By equating internal
and external work. the relation betw<-'Cn the applied loods and the resi sting momelll,
of tbe slab i, obtained. Elastic rotations and deflection, are nO[ con,idered when writ-
ing the work '-'<Iuations. a, they are very smnll ,-ompar<-..! with the pla,tic dcfoT11Ultions,
a. External Work Done by loads

An external load acting on a slab segment. a, a small virtual di'placement is imposed.
d"", work equ~1 to tl", product of its con,tant magnitude and the di,tance through
whi,-h the point ofapplication of the load moves. If the load is distribut<'ll ove r a I~ngth
or an nrea, mther th~n concentmted, the work c~n be ,-~lculat<'ll a, the pT<xluct of till:
total load and the di'plncemem of the point of npplic~ti'1!l of its resultam.
Figure 14.8 illustmt es the ba,is fOJ external work cakulation for ",,"eml types of
load~. lf a square ,lab carrying a single cOI1<'emmted load nt it, center (Fig. 14.&1) i,
given a vinual di'pla~'Ct1Ient defined by a unit value under the load, the external
work i~
W, =I'X I <a)
If tl'" slab ,Jwwn in Fig. 14,8b. supponed along three side, nod free along the fourth.
is loade..! witb a line load ... per unit length along the fTC'C edge, and ifthat edge is given
a vinual displacement having unit v~lue alTHlg the eentr~1 part. tl", eX!em~1 work is
,
W= 2,m x - + I<'b=wa + h (h)
< 2
When a di,tributed load ... per unit area act, ntl a triangular segment defined by a hing~
and yield lines. ,ueh a~ Fig. 14.8<-.
W= -
,m" X -I ",ah
= - (c)
, 2 3 6
,~."" ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
HEL l) U :>O: EANAU S IS FOR SI.AIIS 4 93
FIGU IU : 14.8
EXlCmoi wmk basis fo.-
various tH"" of lood,.
Dispjacement - 1 w!un it length
~ IIIIIIIIIIIII ~,
f L
"'-----'~
a .J....- b ~ a J I
,,' ''I
I,
r:
Yi~d line I,
L
.~
, I,
QO
L ,J
, ,
~tl~, 1} t ~'
~ ----r ---r
'" '"
while for Ihe re<:langular slab segment shown in Fig. 14.&/. carrying a dislribul~d load
". per unil area. the cXlenml wor);: is
w _ _w,,/>- (<II
, 2
More complicaloo Irapczoirul shapes may always be suhdivided inlo eotnponem Iri
angles and reclangles. T ~ lotal eXlemal wor]; is Ihen calculaloo by summing IItt: wo~
done by loads on the individual pJns of thc failure mechanism . wi th all displacetllems
keFd to a unit value assigned r.omewhere in the system. The re is no difficulty in com
t>ining Ihe wo~ done by concentrated loads. line loads. and distributed load.\. if these
act in combination.
b. Internal Work Done by Resisting Moments

The imcrnal wor);: done during the assigned ,"ir(Ual displacement is found by summi ng
the products of yield momem 'II per unit kngth of hinge limes the plastic rotalion at
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n .... I THI
EoI6 ..
4'M IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 14
the ""pt.'Cli~e yield line,. consisrent with the vinual displace""'nL If the resisl ing
mo""'nt m is ..on stant along a yidd Ii"" of I"ngth I. and if a mlation i, experienced.
Ihe internal work is
11', = "II (,)
If the resiSl ing mOlllent \"Tie,. as wou ld be the case if "aT sile or 'paci ng is not con -
,tant along the yield line , Ihe yield line i, divided into" segment,. within each one of
whic' h the mOlnel11 is con,tanL The internal wori; is then
Wi = (m ,11 + mei, + ... + m,I.) (j)

For the entirv s)'stem. the 100ai inlenral work done is Ihe sum of Ih" ..ontribntions from
all yield lines. In all cases. Ihe inl~rnal work cOntribuled is posilive. regardless of lhe
sign of m. beca use Ihe rOlalion is til the same direclion as Ihe moment. Exlemal work.
on Ihe other hand. may be cilher posilive or ""galiv". d"p.mding on Ihe direction of
Ih" displacement of the poi nl of uppl iC~lion of Ih" fOTc..> resliliant
Vir1 ua l ,,'(lrk ~ n a lJs is of one-,,~y sial.. Dctcn"i.,., lhe loa,1 ca p>eity of Ihe one way uni_
formly loaded conlin""", slab shown in Fig. 14.9. u,ing In., melhod of vinual work. The
rvsilling momenl, of Ihe . lab arc 5.0. 5.0. and 1.5 ii_killS/it al II. II. ~nd C. rCSllCCl ively.
S<" ,IJlION. A unit dcltCCl iQn i, ~;ve!t to lhe ,lab al B. Then Ihe exrcmal W{lr\; done by the
load is tile sum ofln., load, limes lheir diSfllar~I"'>nts alld is equal to
~'X w
- -+ - 10 - .<
, 2
Th., rotal ions al lile hin~c, ~re cakulaled in tenns of Ih" uni' ,\cltWlion (Fi g. 14.9) and arc
.-., - :; ., - c- [0 - -,
The internal work i; lile sum of Ihe mOIl", nlS lime<; llieir cOfTesJlOnding rot.,ion an~1cs:
, ,
5 x - x 2 -+5 x - - - + 7.5 x - - -
,
-" 10 - .\' lO - x
FIGUIU: I U
Vi"ual work onaly,i, or '>ne'
wa)' ,IJb,
f wkips/ft
t
jlllllllllllllllllllill
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
H EL l) U :>O: EANAU 'S IS FOR SLAIIS 495
Equaling llIe ""Iemal ru,d imernal wOfk give.
-~:l + ~ w wx 10
- - = - + --- , ---
5 7.5
2 . 2 X 10 - ,. 10 - .1
10 25
5,,' - -
x
+ ,-;;C'cC-
210 .'.
.,. = - +
, ,
., 21O - x
To ,\c'crmi"c (he minimu'" ,"alue of ~'. Ihi\ c'p'~s\iO<l is {]ifk"'''li.1k,<1 wilh W,()C\.1 (0 x and
se1 equal !O zero:
,/W 2 5 _ 0
-J,. - - -x' + 2
10 - x'
from ,,hid,
.l _ 4,75 1'1
SUb,'iMing Ihis \'3lue in lhe preceding eXp"' "ion for ~'. OIl<" <>broins
" - 0.89kip<Jft'
as before.
In I11Jny cases. pnnicularly Ihose wilh yield lines eslablished hy several

unknown dimensions (such as Fig, 14.4J). dirt.~1 >olulion by vinual work would
become quile ledious. Tl1c ordinary derivalives in 8<amplc 14.3 would he replaced hy
several panial d~rivalivcs> producing a SCI of equal ions !O he solved simuha11cously, 111
such cases il is oncn more cOllwn icnt 10 sek~1 a n arhilrary succession of possible
yield line lOCal ions. solve Ihe resuhin mcchanisms for Ihe unknown load (or
unknown momem). and delermin~ Ihe corrccl minimum load (or maximum 1110111em)
by lrial ,
EXM.lI' LE 14.J Vir1ua l ,...tr~ an~ I~ sis of rectangular sl~b. J1Jc Iwo--way slab sho""'" in I'il!. 14, JO is .im-
ply ",pported on all four ,ide<; and carri~, a uniformly dimib.noo load of", psI. Delermi""
lhe "'quire<! IlIo",e"1 ""istance f()f lhe ,lab. which i, 10 he isotropic-.lIy ",inf=OO.
S<UnlON. P",iliw yield lines will fonn in Ilk: pallem show n i " FiB, 14.1001. w;lh 11k:
dimension" unk""wn. The correcl dimension" will be ,uch as 10 maximize llIe "lOllltnl
resi,w loce requ;",d 10 '''ppon
lhe load ~', The "al""s of" aM IN w;lI be fooM by trial.
In Fig. 14.1001 lh" lenglh Oflh" diagonal }'ield line is g + " l. From similar triangle<.
a'
25 +
c~"
25
,+ ,,'
ThC" Ihe f'O!al ion of !he plaSlic hinge 01 lhe diagonal yiel d lillC corrcspOlld i n~ Ii) a unil
def1e<1.ioo al lhe ",mer of lhe <lab ( = Fig 14.10b) is
- -" + - -
~ 2."
+ ~:-~'~~ -" , -,
I b c 5 + ,,' " 25+,,' 25 +,,' .~ "
The f'O!al iorl of Ihe yield linc parollcllo lhe lon~ edges of !llC sl b (sec Fig, 14,10.--) is
, ,
' - '5 + '5 - 0 .40
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
4% IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 14
FIGU IU : 14.10
Virtual work .".I)"i, fo.-
"",I.ngul .- Iwo-wa)' sl.b.
'"' ,,'
'OJ
For a firsl !rial, lei" - 6 fI TIlen lI)e lenglh nr lhe diagonal yidd line is
25 + 36 ~ 7, S lf!
, ~ 0.161
, ~ 7,81
AI lhe ce01ntl yield line. il i, , ~ 0..10. The i01~mal wort 00"" as lh" i"""'","01al deflec-
lion i. a .... lied is
W.~ (mX 7.81 X 0.261 X4j+{mX8 XO , 40)~ 11.36m
The ex .. mal work done during the ,ame defleclion is
W, - IOX6 X t"X, X 2 + S X ~wX! X 2 -'- 12 X SXtw X ,X 2 -SO
Eqllming IV, and IV, . one obIai",
80~'
m - -- - 7.05~
11.36
SlICe",,;,-e trial' for diff.",ni value, of" ""ui( in Ihe following data,
6.0 I U6m SO.O... 7 .0~"

6 __1 11.1)8". 78,4w 7_08,,'
7.0 10.87". 76.6,, 7 .1}.I",
7_~ 10_69m 75_01>' 7_02~'
11 i, ""idenl Iha, ,he yield Ii,,,,

pauenl detined by" - 6 __S fl is cril;caL n... "-"quire<! resi>!_
ing mom"nt li.>r lhe gi"~" ' lab i. 7.0S,.-,
,~."" ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
H E Ll) U :>O: E ANA U 'S IS FO R SI.AIIS 497
'- _. 14.6 O RTH OTROP IC REINFORCEME N T AND SKEW ED YI ELD LIN ES
G~!lCrally slab reinforccment is pl,1Q'd ortoogonally. i.e .. in IWO perpendicular direc

lions. l1lc same reinforccnJoOnt is often provided in each din..ction. hul the effectivt:
deplhs will be dilkrcnt. In many practical cases. ~'Conomical designs arc obtained using
rcinforccmwt having different bar areas or different spacings in each direction. In
SUd1 cascs, Ihc slah will ha"c diffcrcnlmOmCIl1 capacitics in Ihe IWO onhogonal di,,-'C
lions and is said 10 be orthogonally anisolropic. or simply ortholropic ,
Often yield lines will fortn at an angle with the direclions eSlablished by the rein
forcemcnt: Ihis was so ,n many of lhe examples considered earlier, r~r yield line
analysis. it is mxcssary to calculate the resisling mome nt. per unit lenglh. along such
s~ ewcd yield lines , TIlis requires calculmion of Ihe contribution (0 resi stance from
each of lhe IWO SCIS of bars.
Figure 14.11" shows an orthogonal grid of rdnforcement. ,, it h angle belw~n
Ihc yield line alld Ihe X direction bars. Bars in lhe X direction are m spacing \' and
havc momCIlI resi slance 111, per unil length aboullhe Y axi s. while bars in Ihe Y direc
lion arc 31 spacing u and ha"e IHOlllCIlI I\."sistancc m\ per unil icnglh abou1 the X a~is ,
The resisling momelll per unil lenglh for the bars in the Y and X directions will be
dctermined separately. with reference 10 Figs. 14.11" and c. respectively.
For lhe Y direclion t>.l1S. the resisting momcnl 1'<" /"If about the X axis is "', '"
and the cOlH(1Onent of thm resislance abom Ihe - a.xis is III," cos ,The resiSl ing
moment per unil length along the - aJlis providt.'d by Ihe Y direclion bars is therefore
"', " cos I
til , .. .. 111., cos
,, -cos -
FI{;U RE 14. 11
Yield lin< skewed " 'ilh
onhl>!ropic ",inf",,'cmen L / y; eld lina
(a) ""lIogoo.1 grid and yi<'kI
linc, (h) Y dir<,li<m 1>=;
Ie) X direclioo bars. I-'
- J'
/' "
x
(.,
"'--"L-"'---_ x
(0' ("
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
For the bap; in th~ X dir~ction. the r~sisting moment per bnr about Ihe Y axis is 1t!,.V.
and the cQl1lpon~nt of that r~,istanc~ nbout the aXI s" II~.V Sill . Thus the r~,ist ing
Ill()ment per unit length along th~ axis provided by t he X directio" bars is
It!,V sin
It! , = (h)
," sill
Thus. for the (Ombin~d selS of bars. Ih<l ~sisting rnom<llli per unil lenglh n~asu~d
along Ihe axi,;" giwn by Ih., sum of th<l n.'sislanc.'s from Eqs , (,,) and (b):
m = tn, (oSl , + It!, sin l 0 4.1)
For Ih~ special case wh~re "'-, = til,. = m. with the same fl.'inforcenwm pro,'idold in
~ach direclion .
It! ~m(cosl + sinl ) ~m ( 14.2 )
The slab is said 10 bo.' imtmpiml/y rl'illjim::.d. wilh til<' same resislance per unil I~nglh
fl.'gard l ~ss of the orienlalion of Ilw yidd 1m",
The anaJ y,;is jU,;1 presem~ neglecls any consid<lnllion of slrain compalibilily
along Ihe yield lin<l. and a,sumes Ihal the dispbcenw llls at the lewl of Ihe sleel duro
ing yield ing. which an.' essentially perpendicular 10 lhe yield lin". ar~ sumci~m 10 pro
duc<l yield ing in bolh SdS of bars. This is reasonably in accordance "'ilh leSI dala.
except for val ues of clore 10 0 10 91Y. For such cases. il would ~ conservalive 10
negJeclthe contribul ion of the bars nearly par:llid 10 the yield line.
h has bo.~r1 shown lhal til<' analysis of an onholropic slab can ~ simplifIed 10
Ihal of a rdaled isotropic slab. ref"rred 10 as Itw "Oill~ .,{ab. provid~d thm Ihe ratio of
negalive 10 posiliv~ reinforNnwnt ar~as is Ih" sanl-' in bolh din.'clions. Ttl<' horizolltal
dimensions and slab loads lIluSI be modir,ed 10 pennil Ihis Iransfornlalion. [ktmls WIll
~ found in R.'fs. 14 .110 14.5.
EXAM PL E 14.5 Resist illg "'O"'t nl along a sktwtd )'k ld line. 1lle bakony slab in Fi~ . 14.12 has fixed sup--
IIOI1S along '..-0 adjac;;:nt sides and is unlup\lOI1cd "lung the thinJ side. his r.;:inforcc'<i for
jIOSiti\'C bending with No.5 (No. 16) bars at 10 in, spacing and ~.5 in. effective deplh. par-
nG U RE 14.12
Skew ... yield line ","n,p".
'~'ioW ",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
HELl) U :>O: EANAU 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS 499
aHel to the f"" edge, 300 No. J (No, 13) bars at 10 in, spacing and 5.0 in, effect i "~ d<>)lth
perp..,ldicu lar to Ihal edge, CO<ICrct.' S1rcoglh and SI<--.:I yield ,Ires. are 4000 psi and 60.000
)lSi, res)lCCti,'ely. 011e possibl~ failure llleehanism incloo." a positive yi~1d line at ,0' wilh
lhe long ed~c. as ,1;0\1-",. Find lho; 101.01 re,i,ling 1II0lllenl al(>llM Ihe posilive yiekl line jl<'O-
vi<led by the t"-'a sets of bars.
S()Un'lON. It is nsily confirmed that the resi'ting moment about Ihe X axis )IfO"ided by
lhe Y dirccl i(ln bars is In, - 5.21 ft,~ipslfl. an,1 the r~si" i "g l110nlCnt aboul the Y "'is pro-
vided by the X direcri(ln bars is rn_ = 8,70 fI -kipsift (both with ~ 0 ,90 inc ludedl. The yidd
li,lC ma kes an a',glc of 60' "-'ilh lhe X ,,>is 00'-". Wilh cos - 0,500 ami si n - 0,866.
from Eq. (IJ.l ) the ""islint loonlCnt al(log the axis ;,
m = ~,21 X 0.500' + ~,70 X 0 ,866' = 7 .8~ h~i pslfl
'. 14.7 SPECIAL C ONDITIO NS AT E DGES AND CORNERS
Certain simpl ificalions wcr~ made in dcl1ning yidd line pall~"ls in some of the pre
cedi ng examples . in lhe vicinily of edges and corners, In solne cnscs . such as
Fig. 14.4b andf. posili"': yield lines were shown im~rsccting nn l>dge al an angle.
Actually, at a free or simply supponed edge. bolh Ocnding and Iwisling mOlllems
shoul d theorelical Iy Ix zero, TIle principal stress directions are parallel and perpendic
ular 10 lhe edge. and cOIISl."quemly Ih~ yield hnes should elller an edge l~rpcndicular
10 it. Tests confinn Ihm Ihis is the case, bul IItt: yield lines generally turn only quite
close to Ihe edge. Ihe distance I in Fig, 14. I 30cing sll1all compared to lhe d ill1ensions
of the slab ( Rcf. 14.4).
Referring to Fig. 14,13, Ihe aClual yield fitlC of" can t>c simplified by ext~nding
Ih.> Yldd line in a slmlght Ji,,~ 10 the edg~. as in b. If a pair of CO]\e~nlrated shearing
fore~s tn, is introduccd at Ih~ comers of thc slab segments. The force til, ncting down
ward at Ihe acUI.: comcr (circled cross) and the force "', aCling upward m lhe obtuse
corner (circled dOl) together arc the stalic CQ.,, "aiem of twisting nlOmc~ts and shcar
ing forces nenr IItt: l>dge. 11 is shown in Ref. 14.4 Ihal Ihe magnitude of lhe fictitious
shearing farces III, is givcn by the expression
III, - III cot ( 14.3)
wh~re III is the resiSling rtlOrllt:nl P<'r unit icnglh along Ih~ yield IlIl<: and is tlt~ acute
angle ""tween the simplifilld yield lin~ and 11t~ ~dg~ of the slab.
FIG URE 14.1 3 Yield li rJe

Coodilioo, >I edge (If slab:
(0) actual yidd Ii"",
(h) simplifi<d yield line,
m,
8
,., ''I
'~'ioW ", ,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 14.14 ,
1
, '----,' !c-----
,
\
,.) ,OJ
II should he nOlc'{\ Ihat. while the f'Cli lious forees enler Ille solulion by lhe equi
libr;um nIClhod. Ihe vinual work solUlio n is nOI aftuled bo.'Cnu5C lhe nel work done by
Ihe pair of eq ua l and opposile forees moving Ihrough lhe idenlical "irlUal d is place
nlClli is lem.
Also. in Ihe preceding examples. il was asSUInt.'{\ (hm yield lines ellier Ihe cor
IICrs be( ween lhe IWO ill1crsec(ing silks. An allernative possibil il y is (hat (he yield lioe
forks bcfon:: il reaches Ihe corner. forming wha( is known as a ..oma
Fig. 14.14<1.
""W. shown in
If (Ile conlCr is nOI held down. Ihe (rinngular clemen( <l1x: will pivo( abou( (he
axis (II> and lift orf the SUpporlS. The development of such 3 comer levcr is clearly
shown in Fig. 14. 15. The ph01011raph shows a mode l reinforred concrele slab (hal was
(esled under uniformly d islriOO(ed load. Thc edges were simply supponed and were
FIG URE 14. 15

De,'clop""'", of COf"er Ie'.....
in. 'impl y , uPI''''too.
uniformly loaded slab.
,~.""",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
H E Ll) U :>O: E ANA U 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS SOl
nm resuained against upward move"",n!. If the comer i, hdd down. a ,imilar situa-
tion ,,,,,ours, except that the line lIh oc-con"" a yield line. If {"r.lCking al the comers of
,u ch a sbb is I<> he {"onlrolled. top st""l. more or les.~ perpendicular 10 lhe line lIh must
he p"wided. The dire("!ion taken by Ihe positive yield Ii"", near the comer indicate,
the de,imbility of supplementary n.ollom-,lab reinforeerr>em at the comers. plneed
approximately pnrallelto Ihe line dh (see Seclion 13.4).
Ahhough yidd line patl<ent' wilh CQrner leve)'; nre generally 1110re criti(-nl than
those wi thout. they are often neglected in yield line nnalysi,. n.e analysis he("(>rne,
eonsidcmbly more (-omplicah.xl if the p'",ibilily of cOmer Iners is i"tr<!<luced. ,md tl",
em}r Illnde by neglecting them is u,ually ,mall.
To illuslmte. the uniformly loatk-d square slab of Example 14.2. when analyzoo
for the a>sumed yield pattern shown in Fig. 14.7, "_"quired a moment capacity of
\I'L 2 24. The anual yield line pattern at failure is pmbably ns shown ill Fig . 14.14h.
SirK.., two addilional parameters III and" have neces<.arily been intnKluuxll<> define
the yield line pattern. n total of tI"ee '-"qual ions of equilibrium i, now ne(-e>sary. The",
~"quations are obtain"d by sum ming IIlO!llent, and venical fOKe, On the scg"",m, of
the ,Inb. Sueb an arurly';s result, in a rt."quirlxl ""isting !lK}l11ent of " L 1_22, an i",:rea",
o f about 9 peKent compared with the resuhs of all analy,i ~ negk"{"ting comer levers.
nle influence of ~uch comer effects m:ry be considembly larger when tile comer angl~
is less thnn 90.
_. 14.8 FAN PATTERN S AT C O N CE N TRATED L OADS
If a eoncentmted load aclS On a reinforced cOnnele ,lab at an imerior locntion . nwny

from any ed ge or ("orner. a negative yield li'le will for", in a more-<u-less dKular pat-
tern. as ill Fig. 14.16.:,. with posilive yield line, mdiating oUlwanl fmmlhe load poim.
~' IG U RE 14. 16
Yield fan ~eome1ty '"
",..,."ontrated load: (a) yicW
fa .. , (h) "",,,,,,01 vton
>c'ing "" fan <cgmcnt:
(e) r.", (unt of posith'e-
momont ",,-ton, (tl) edge
view off.n se8ment
{,'
{,'
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n .... I THI
EoI6 ..
If the positive resisting 1!I0lnent per unit I~ngth is '" and the negative re,isting mornelll
", ' . tl", mome lll, per unit length acting along the edges of a 'ingle element of the fa n.
ha"ing a centml angle and radiu, r. are a, shown in Fig . 14,161>. For ,ma ll ,-alue, of
the angle . the are alollg the negative yield li~ can he represcmed as a straight line
of length 1"
Figure 14.160 ,how, the IlK""ent resultant obtained hy vector addition of the
po,iti,'c mOille nt, IIII' acting al!mg the rad ial edges of the fan "'gmen" the vector ,um
is equal to IIII" acting along !lie length 1" and the re,u halll p'l'<itive monlen!. pe r unit
length, is the rdore m. This 'I<,t. in the .ame direnion as the negativ~ moment III'. as
shown in Fig . 14.16./, Figure 14. J6.1 al.o shows the franiollal pan of the total load f'
that acls on tile fan seg"lent.
Taking moments about the axis (I - (I gives
p,
'm + ItI r - - ~O
2
from which
P = 2 (m + ",') 04.4)
TI,e collaps., lood P is seen to he indep.mdenl of the fan radius r. TItu,;. w,th only a
concelltrated load acting. a cornpld~ fan of an)' radius could form with no chang., in
collapse load.
It follows that Eq . ( 14.4) also gi.-es the collapse load for a lix~d-~dge ,;Iab of any
.hapt'. carrying only a cOl~ntrmed load 1'. The 0111)' nece,;sary condition is thai the
boundary lUuSt be capable of a restrmning moment equal to til' at all points. Finally.
Eq. ( 14.4) is os<'ful in establishing whether nexural failun: will OCCur hefon: a punch-
ing shear failure und er a concentrated lood.
Other load cases of practical inkrest ",eluding a concentrated load ,war or at a
free edg~ . and a concentrated com~r load, are treated in Ref. 14.5. Loads distributed
owr small areas and load combinations are discu,;,;cd in Rd, 14,12.
., 14.9 L IMITATIONS OF Y IElD L INE T HEORY
The IIM'f Illness of )'idd line tlwo!")' .hould be apparent froln the proceding sections. In
gent'Tal. daslic solutions ar~ available only for restricted condition,;. usually uniformly
loaded rectangular slabs and slab systems. They do not account for the effc'<.'is of
indastic action . acept .'mpirically. By yidd lin~ analysis. a rational ddermination of
nexural >trength may be had for slabs of any ,;hape. supponed in a vari d y of ways.
with concentra",d loads as wdl a,; di>tributed and partially distribukd loads. Tlw
dfocts of ho l ~s of allY size {an be ",clud<ld, It IS thu s seen to be a powerful anal),tical
tool for the structural engin~er,
O n the oth~r hand . as an upper bound ,Ik)thod. it will predict a collapse lood that
may be great er than tlw true <'Ollapse load , Th., adual capacit), wIll he less thmt pre-
dicted if ttw sek'<.'t~d mechanism is not th~ controlling one or if the specilic locat ions
of yield line,; an: not exactly correct Most t'nginet'Ts would prd~ r an approoch that
would be in errOr. if at all, on the safe side. In thi s respect. the >trip n)t>thod of
Chapter 15 .. distinctly superior.
Beyond this. it should be evid~nt that yidd line thc'!)!")' provides. In es,;cnce. a
nwthod for lktennining the c~panty of trial d~signs. mived at by WnW ot!Jer m.'ans.
rather than for deknnining th. amount and spocing of reinfo"'em~ lI t It is not. strict ly
.peaking. a dGsign method. To illustrate. yidd lint' tlwo!")' provid~s no ",d ucenlent for
'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
,. I THI
EoI6 ..
H E Ll) U :>O: E ANA U 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS SCll
the designer to place steel at anything other than a unifonn lareral spacing along a
yield line. It i, n<.>cessary to ~xll1,ider the results of elastic analysis of a flar plate. for
example. to reeognize Ihal reinforcement in Ihal case should b.e placed in slrong bands
acroS, lhe col umns.
In applying yidd line analysi, 10 siabs , it musl be rememb.ered thai the analysis
is predi<'ak"<l UpOIl available mtalion capacily al the yield lines. If the slab reinforec-
melll hapren, 10 correspond do,d)' to the elastic distribution of IlK)",ent, in the slab.
little rotalion is required. If. on the (llher hand. there is a marked differenec. il is 1""-
sible that the requi",d r<Kation will exct.'t."cau,,", slab, are typically
rather lightly reillforced , tl",}, will haw oo<><juate rotarion capacity to attain the ml -
lapse loads predic!<."<1 by yield line analysi,.
II should alsn he borne in mind thai the yield line analysis fo(;u"",, entirely on
the tlex ural capacily of the slab. It is presumed that earlier failure will not "'-'CUT due
to shear or IO.-,io" and that <T.lck ing and <kfle<'lions at servi<'c load will nOl he exces-
sive . ACI OKle 13.5, I call s attention specifically 10 the need to meet "all se rviceabil -
ity conditions. including limils (HI defloctions:' and ACt Comn",mary R 13,5.1 calls
attemioll to the "ced for "evaluali,m of the stress ('{ltldit;nn, aruund the sUPI",rts in
relalion 10 ,I",ar and torsion as wdl as flexure."
REFERENCES
14.1 '"' . 1111=1<"1, ' ~Ik Slr<"l:,h of R"'",rl,li ul..- S)IOb<.- ), ,"", Sf""", ng .. Lond". wi I. "0, !. 1923.
Pr.3--t4
14.1 K. W ),,1"'-'1"'-0 , /I""Ii.""Qn". Ju l. (;j<1I.:",1" FOI1l!i. COpc"~'" 1943 (;.." . 1", )1,1</ u," Th<ory.
1:"~ li>ll 'e"",I",",,,. Cemen' " .. I Coom" ,","'~ i " ~ .. , 1 _. t'l62),
14.3 K. W, Job... ",". I'laJ<forml". 2nd t,L PvlYLdmiiil< r"",nilllt. COpcnMj:cn, 1949 1>0 ",,,, r",IJ U~
r",,,",w JOr S","", l-.o~li'",eo"I.,."" C<",,", """ C'''''f1.1l' ,"";,,~ i"~,,,. 1,,.,.)00. 1972),
144 L H"V"''':Jd. "Ykld Li ,., 'I' ...."'y f,.- , .... UI, i",,,< FIn ..., 1 S''''n ~ 'b '"~ k<mft>rml C""""", Si>Il>." 1.
AC/. ,.,~ 24,." 1. t9:l), Pr, ~31--<iSti .
14.S I. Lit.." .00 K ft . w.w. 1j,ld U," .1,",1)',;> of Si</fu', N'''''';''"" lob.","". ~\-w yurt, 1961
14A R. Toyk,,-, I), k . I,. M "",-~. nJ H l1a),<>, "El",,' of ,.... Amtn~", I<," ,of ~d "f'",'", I<," , .. ""' IId"",".-
,i l<.c'i"f",,',',j Co""".< St."." ,11'(lI. C""', Re> .. wi. 18. no. ~~ . 1%6. I'!', 8.1----94,
14.1. K L"",,,",,,, ond M, ,"" s,,,..... ",", Yk'kj Cli,,-";, .. 1,,,- kd"I,,,'" Ct""T\.~" SI.Os," ), ACI. ,., ~, 6-1, nu, ~,
1961.1'!'. ,66---21)
14.g. S, II. Sinu, ..J, ond ,"" (ih.li. "Ykld Uoc 1"";1" "f SI,t>;.- J, 5,,,,(1, I>;... ,",SCI" ' ''~ 102."" HI,
1916,1'(>. 109--12l
1 4.~ . K H. C.... """ R, \J, Si"l'lI. "Y",kl ,",".IY,I> '" f\.1k,"'l' I ' h~ SIal; ), AC/. ,,~ . 63. ,. .. S. 1%6,
PrS11-S86
14.10. E, C. I)',,~ky d D. S. H"d",.. ' ,(" IJ Uri< Aoal p" , ~ SI,t>- SuJ'l'Ol1'" un '1')"", S...."'-.. ), ~CI. " .
66. no. 9. 1'.IMl. I'!'. 1.1-1.",
14.11 . ,"" ;,--"'~,,,~ky .ru c. H ,","milam, " ,(",itI l .in< I!c>in "f ~'''"'''li" l ", ~dn fo,,,,-d C,""""< H.I",,,,<,," j,
AC/. ,d. 67. "'. I. t970, [lII, H-Sti
14.12. 11, (""und. "L;m i, 1"";1" of Stal>< h C,,,,'""'rJ(,',j I,,,,)~" J S""",. /)jv.. i\stl. ",I. 107, fI( ' St\!,
1981. 1'(>. 18W-ISSti,
14. 13. i\, ~-"'I,,,~ky. "Y",W Linc AMI),,;, ,~. R"""n~""" SI:>b> .i,h (('m e,1 'Ip< " j"~;," J, ACi. '01, ~, .. " 12,
1961, I'!'. ~)~,
14.14. S, bl. m ,oJ ~ . I'm.. ",(",.. Li"" ,",,,,(1)'<;' '" T...... W,y ~l, i , r".n-d Coon t't .. SI,t-, ...;, ~ Ol',,"irl,li>," ),
I.", S'mer 'r.. ,,~. 44. "", 6, 197!, Pr. 269---216,
14.1 So K 1','"
,nd W. L, (i",",,1c. /<,i"I"".-,,1 C""""" 5uw<. J,"," W;)q .nd S<.,;. ~l'" Y(.-);, I~ II!J.
PROBLEMS
14.1. A square slab measuring JO ft On each ,ide i, simply suppon<"<I on three si<k,
and un,uppon<"<I along lhe founh . It is reinfOJced fOJ I""itive heading with an
i,olrupic rna! of sted p"",iding resisUln<'e ' til. of 7000 ft -Iblft in each or rI",
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
,.'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n .... I THI
EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 14
Iwo principal diredions _o.,'ermin~ the uniformly di,lrioolt."<I load that would
cause flexural failure, using the method of virtual work.
14.2. n", triangular slab sho"'" in Fig. P14.2 has fIxed ,uppom along th~ two f't'r-
f't'ndicu lar edg~s and is free of any support alo"g the diagonal edge_Negative
reinforce",ent f't'rpendi<'ular to tl", supp()rt~d edg~s p",,"ide, de'ign sirength
III. = " fl-kips/ft. The slal> is reinfOJced for p<l'<itive hending by an orthogo-
nal grid providing resistance "'. = 2.67 ft -kips/ft in all direclion" Find the
total fa<"lored load w. that will produce flexural failure. A virtual wOJk 'OIUlio"
is sugge'led.
nr; URE 1' 14.2
r-
IO' Fixed
L " I-----o,~oooo
~----~---
,-.------ "'. --------.<
14.3. The one-way rei nforced concrete ,lah show n ill Fig. 1'14.3 span-' 20 f1. It i~
simply supp<)rtcd at it, ldt ~dge, full)' fixed al ii, right <"<Ige. and fft_"" of 'up-
p<,rt along the two IOllg s;d~s. RcinfOJcen"'nl provides design ,trenglh III, =
5 ft-kipS/f1 ;n p<>sili"e bi:nd ing and m. = 7..'i ft-kips/f1 ;n negative bending at
the right ~dg~. Using the e<juilil>rium meth'KI. find the factOf<"uted ove r I h~ surface Ihat would cau'e flexurJI failure.
FIG UR E P I4_' Free
14.4. Solve Problem 14,) using the method of virtu:d wor~.

14.5. The triangular slab shown in Fig. P ' 4.5 is to serve as we:nhcr protcction o"cr
a loading dock. Support conditions are essentially fixl'<i along AB and Be. and
AC is a frcc<'<igc. In addition to self-wcight. a supcrimpoR'<i dead load of 15
psf and service live load of 40 psf must be provided for. ~! aterial Slrenglhs arc
f; .. 4000 psi ~nd /. - 60.000 psi. Using yield line analysis, find the rcquir~d
SI:lb lhickness 11 and find the reinforcement r.:quired at critical s~~tions.
Neglccl corner pivots. Usc a m~ximum reinforccl1Icl1l ratio of 0,005. Sclrcl bar
sizes and spacings, and provide a sk~tch summarizing importal1l a'lX~ts of the
design , Make an approximate . conscrvalive chccl; of safety against shc~r fail -
ure for the design. Also i ncludc a conscrvali"e estimate of lhe denl~tion ncar
the cel11cr of cdge AC duc to ~ fulllivc load ,
I '~'ioW ", ,,,,,,,,.n .... I
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
,. THI
EoI6 ..
H ELl) U :>O: E ANA U 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS 505
nG URE 1' 14.5

c
I
20' Fixed
L~ 8 L 'Fil<ed
15' -------J
IA
14.6. TIle squa~ concrete slab shown in Fig. ?14.6 is suppom'd hy lnonolithie con
crete walls provid ing full vert ical and rotational reSlrain! along IWO adjocen!
edl!cs. and by a 6 in. diameter sted pipe column. ncar Ihe outer corner. that
offers negligihle rolat ional restraint. It is reinforced for posilive bending by an
onhOl!onal grid of hars parallel 10 the walls. providi ng design moment
capacity lIP.
6.5 Ii-kips/ft in all dir~'Clion s . Negat ive reinforcement per
pend icu lar 10 the walls. an d negalive Nrs at Ihe outer corner paral lel 10 the
slah diagonal. provide "'. .. 8.9 fl-kips/ft. Neglecting corner pivots. fin d lhe
10lal factored unifonn ly dislribu ted load " '. Ihat will initiate Oex urnl failure .
Solution by tile method of vinual work is rccoll1lncnded . with collapse gcom
elry eSlablished by success i,'c Irial. Yield line lengths and perpendicular dis
la nces arc most easi Iy found graph ically. Incl ude a chec k of the sllear capacity
of the slab. u,ing approximate methods. The steel colu mn is capped wilh a 12
x 12 in. plate provid ing bearing.
FIG URE 1' 14.6
,
I
.l,,.
~~J F'. ad
'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n ....
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,. I THI
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IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 14
14.1. n,~ square slab shown in Fig. 1'14.7 is suppon~d by. and is monolilhic with. a
reinf<;lrct.-d concr~le wall along the edge CD Ihat pmvides full fixity. and alsn
is supported by a maw",)' wall along AlI Ihat pmvide, a ,imply support~d lille.
It is to carry a faclored load 11". = 300 psf including il s ,,,,If-w~ight. As>uming
a uniform b in. slab thi<kn~ss. find the required reinfo"'ement. Indu<k a
sketch summarizing details of your de~ign. indicating pla,ement and length of
all reinforcing bars. Also cheek the sh~ar capacity of Ihe struclure. making
whatever as>umptions appear reasonable and necessary. U", / ; = 4000 psi and
/. = 60.000 psi.
n GU RE 1'14.7
""
""
B""
14.8. n", slab of Fig. 1'14.8 is supported by Ihr<"" fi xed edges but has no support
along <;me k"'g side. It has a unifQrm thi<kn~" of 7 in. , resulting in effective
depth, in Ihe Imlg dire<"liol1 of 6.0. in. and in the short direction of 5.5 in.
Bouom rein forceme nt ("()",ists <;If No.4 (No. IJ) bars al 14 ill. centers in each
direclion. ("(,"Iinu~-d 10 Ihe su pron, and the free edge. Top negative steel along
the supported edge, consi,l, of No.4 (No. 13) bar, at 12 in. on centers. ex("'pl
that in a 2 ft wide 'trong band parallel and adja,..,nt In the free,-dge. four Nn.
S (No. 16) bars are u",d . All "egalive ban; euend paSI the poinl' of infl,,{1inn.
as r<'quircd b)" ACI Code. Malerial sirengths arc!,: = 4000 p"i and/, = 60.000
psi. Using the yidd line method. delermine the f"'lore<! l<:tad "'. that can be
carried.
rlG URE 1'14.8 4N05{No16)lop

'~'ioW",,,,,,,,,.n ....
o..loootc..,_
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,. I THI
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H E Ll) U :>O: E ANA U 'S IS FOR SI.AIIS SCl7
14.9. Using vinual work and yield li"e Iheory. CQmpule the flexumll'ollap"" luad of
lhe one-way ,lah in Example 13.1. A"ume thaI all straighl haT> are used.
al"Cording to Fi g. 13Ab. Compare the l"akulatoed collap'" load with the origi -
nal fal"tored design load. and commel11 on difference,.
14.10. Using vinual work and yield li"e Iheory. CQmpute the flexumll"ollap"" luad of
the two-way column-,upponNi flat plale of Example 13.3. To simplify lhe cal -
culation,. a"u"", lhat all positi,"e moment bars are carried to lhe edges of the
panels. not cuI off in the span. Consider all possible failure mechanism"
including a circular fan around the column. Negl<-"Ct comer effe,"ts. Compan:
the calculated collapse load with II", original fa('[(m~d design load and com-
ment on differences.
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STRIP METHOD FOR SLABS
15.1 INTROD UCTIO N
In S~ction 14.2. th~ upper and low~r bound theorems of the theory of plasticity were
presented, and it was pointed out that tll" yidd line method of slab analysi s wa, an
"1'1"" bow,,1 "1'1'1'(""''' to detemli ning the !l~xuml strength of slabs. An upper bound
analysi" if in error, will be so on the un safe sid~ . The :K'tual (-arrying cap:K'ity will be
I~" than, or at best <-'qual to, the capacity predicted. which is certainly a cause forcon -
cern in design. Also. wl",n applying the yidd line 'Helhod , it is necessary 10 assul1lC
tlmt the dist ribu tion of reinfon_ ~mem is known ove r the whole sl"b. It follow, that the
yield line aMlr(}aclt is a UK)I to tIIudy:::e the capacity of a giv~n slab and "an bc UM->d for
de.,ig" only in an iterative sense. for calc-ulating the capa<'itie, of trial designs with
,,,rying reinforcement umil a sati sfactory arrange!He m is found .
These circumstance, motivated Hil1erho.-g to develop what is known a, the .'Irip
m~tlro{1 for slab design , hi, f,m results being publi shed in Swedish in J9'i6 (Rd.
15.1). In contra,t to yield lin" analysi" the strip metlKKi i, a /""'a bound "ppf'(){!,h.
based on sati,faction of equilibrium requirement.< everywhere in the slab. By the strip
method (sometimes referred to as the ~'1llilibri"'" theory). a moment field is fi "t
ddennirred that fu Hills equil ibriurn r"'luiremenlS. after whkh the reinfor(-c",em in the
slab at each poi nt is desig ,ted for th is mO"tent field. If a distribution of "Kmtents can
bc found that sati,fies both equ ilibrium and houndary mndition~ for a given extcrnal
l<md ing, and if lhe yield mo"tent capatily of the slah is nowhere ex,,->t:d<--<l, then the
given ~ xtemal loading will rcpres~ nt a lowcr bound of the true carrying (-apacity.
The st rip "teth,Ki gives results on the safe side, which i, cenainly preferahle in
practice, and differences fmm the true (-arry ing cap:K'ity wil l never impair safely. The
st rip melh,xl is a "~.'i!!" method. by which the n<.>t:d<.,,1 reinfmcc"tent can he calculated.
It encourage, the desi gner to ,-ary the reinforce n~nt in a logical way, leading to an
,,,,,,"omieal arrang~mem of st".,l, a, wdl as a safe design. It i, ge'ter:,lIy simple 10 use.
eveo for slabs with holes or irregular bou ndarie,.
In his original wort in 1956. Hill~rborg set fonh tlte basic principles fm edge
suppon~ slabs and in1f<Kiuced the expres,i'Kl "stri p n~thod" (R~f. 15.1). He later
"xpanded the "teth,Kim indude Ihe practi<-al design of slabs Of] columns and L-' haped
slah, (Refs. 1.'U and 153). TIte fi"t treml1lCm of tbc ,ubject in English "'''S by Crawford
(Ref. 15.4). In 1964, Blakey tmnslm<.-<l the earlier Hillerborg work into English (Ref.
I 5.5). hnronam n)ntriOOtion" panicularly regarding c'Kltinuity ~x)]lditiolls. have been
made by K~mp (Ref~. 15.6 mKi 15.7) and W",xl and Armer (Refs. 15.8, 15.9, and l'i.IO).
Load Ie,,!; of slab, desigfled b)- the Strip method were carried nut by Anne. (Rd. 15.1 1)
and confinned mat th~ "teth<xl p"Kiu,,,,, safe and satisfactory designs. In J975.
Hille rborg pnKillC\.-<l Ref. 15. 12 "for the pml1icnl desig,ter, helping him in the simplest
508
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STRIl' ~ n:THOI) FOR SI.A IIS SCl9
fl'O"-,ible w~y to prod o"" >afe ""sign> for IlK"t of the slabs th~t he willn1tlCt in practice,
ir.duding slahs lh~t ar~ irregular in plan Or that carry u"""enly distribuk'<l loads:'
Sub"-'<juently, I", publi~hed a paper in which he ,umntaflz<'I1 wb~t has become klKlwn as
the "advanced strip rneth<xl." penaining to the ""sign of slabs supponed on columns,
"",ntr.mt ~X)Jl"'rs, or interior walt~ (Ref. 15.13)_ Use ful SUnUltafle, "f boIh the ,il11pl~
and ad'"~l1"'-'<l strip methods wil l be foond in Refs. I'i.14 and 15.15.
n", strip meth(xl is appealing not only because it is safe , eeonomic~l. ~nd ver-
sati le ",-er a broad mnge of applic~tions . hut ai,,, benu", it fonnalizes p",redure, fol -
lowed instincti,'ely by compet~nl designers in placing ",infOf('cn",nt in the best possi -
ble position. In ('ol11mst with thc yield line metIK><l. which p"",ides no inducement to
"~ry bar 'p""ing. the ,trip method en(..,umge, the use of strong hands of steel wi",,,,
n(..,d~d. such as arouoo openings Of over ('olullln" improving ecollomy and redu('ing
the likelih()(xl of ex('""i\'e cmd :ing or larg~ defte.:tions under servi('c loading .
., 15.2 B ASIC P RINCIPLES
The go\'e",ing "'1uilihrium ('<juation for a SI11~1t stah element h~\'ing sides dx and ,n- is
I I I
m, - 1/( ,_ <II"
-- > -- - , -- = - w ( 15 _1)
_Xl yl ~ XY
wh~r~ w = externallood per unit area
m,. In,. ~ bending moments per unit width in X and Y din.'ctions, n.spectiwly
m" = N ';sting mornellt (Rd . 15.16).
According to tl", lower bound Iheorem. any combinmion of "',. "' ,. and m". that satis-
/i.'s tlw c>{juilibriu1I1 equation at all poill1s in Ille slab and thai meets boundary condi
tions is a ,'alid wl u! ion. provided Ihat the reinforcement is placed to carry thew
nlOlllellts.
The basis for Ihe simple strip n",tllod is thut Ihe torsional monlenl is chosen
equal to zero; no load is assumed to 00 resistoo by tll~ Iwis! ing strength of tlw slab.
Tlwrefore . I f tile reinforcenwm is parallel 10 !lie axes in a rectilinear cooru;nate system.
mOl - 0
TIle equilibrium equation then reduces to
'm,
-- > -- = - w
'm,
( 15.2)
-x' I"
This cqumion can be spli! co"v~nicll1 l y into two paris. rcprescll1ing twistlcss bealn
strip nction .
- kll' (IS.3a)
and
- I - k w (15.3/
where the proponion of load lak~n by the strips is k in Ih~ X direction and (I - k) in the
Y d irection . In m~ n y regions in slabs. the valu.:of k will be either 0 Of I. With k .. O. all
of the load is dispcrs.'<l by strips in the Y dire,.;tion; with k .. I. all of the 10.1<1 is carried
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5 10 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r I~
in lhe X dir~("[ion. In other region,. it may re "".",onable 10 a<sullle that tbe load is
divilli.-d ~'1ually in the two direction, (i .e .. k = 0.5).
_. 15.3 CHOICE OF L OAD D ISTRI8UTION
TIJeoretically. the load U" can be divided arbitrarily retwe~n the X and Y di=lion,.
Different divi,io"s will. of course. lead to different pall ems of rcinforcellJent. and all
willnol re equally appropriate . Th~ desired goal is 10 arri ve at an arrangem~nt of s!t.el
Ihat i, ,afe and economical and Ihat will avoid probl ~ms atlbe ",,,,ice load level as,,,-
ciated witb ncessiw crac king or defl~ction'. In general. tile designer may re gnided
by knowlooge of Ihe gerJeral distribution of elastic rn<;lnJent~.
To sec an example of Ibe slrip method and 10 iltu'trat~ the dlOices open 10 th"
d~,igrler. c<;Inside r the square. simply suppo ned ~Iab ,hown in Fig. 15.1. with ,ide
length d and a uniforlllly di,lrihu1<.oJ faclored load w pcr unit area.
lne simplest load di,lrihution is oh1ain~d by ",ning k = 0.5 ove r the enli re .Iab,
as .hown in Fig. 15.1. The load "n all ,Irip' in ~ach dir""lion i, then w 2. as illu,lrated
by the load disperlinn arrows "f Fig. 15.1 d. This give, maximum monlents
".<1 1
m z m,_ - - (1 5.4)
J6
over Ihe whole slab. as shown in Fig. 15.1<'. wilh a uniforOllalcrnl diS1rib\Jlion aCross
Ihe width of the critical ","'lion. as in Fig. 15.ld,
'I
FIG U RE 15.1
Square slab wilh load shared Sim ple sUPpoftS 4 sides
"'lUllII)' in two diT<t"ti<)n,_
I
c I
I I
I w I
I .-L I wa 2 _
I
I I , "
I>
-, 1
I I
I I
I
,- I I
I
I
I
,
(a) Plan V>tlW
~
I
-
I X
(d) m. across x-1
,
w
g:1111111111111111~
(b) w.along A-A
(e) m. along A- A
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
ST RIl' ~ n:T H OI) FOR SI.AIlS 5 11
FIG UIU : 15,2

Square ,lab with l"ad Simple supports 4 sides
di'll<rsioo Ii"", fon""'ing
Ji,gooab_
-x- I
",1/ ,
/1" ~J
r ---------
A-
~-- ~c=cc=c~,:=:c=c5,1 X
(a) Plan view

(d) m, across ){ = f

ITIIDl
""
(b) "', alongA-A
I"; 7
(c) m.akxog A-A
Thi, would not r~p"''''nt an '-~~lnom ical or ",,,,'iceahle ,olUlion because it is neC-
ogniz<-"<I that ,u",alure,. I",nc" moment', mu,t he grater in the suips near the middk
of the ,lab than n~ar the edges in tl", di redion parallel to the edge ("-'" Fig. 13.5). If
the slab wer~ reinforced a('('",ding to this solution. extensive redi,tribution of
moment s wou ld be requi red, certainly accompani~d by much cra" king in the highly
,tre,,,-"ad disJlCrsion, sepamted by the da,h -dotted "discontinuity lines,"
follow the diagonal" and al l of the load on any region is carried in the direction giv-
ing the slKlne,t distance 10 the nearest ,upporr. The solution proceeds , giving k \'alu~,
of ~ith"r 0 Qr I. depending nn t h~ region, with load transmitted in the dir~ctions indi -
cated by the arrows of Fig. 15.2". For a slrip A -A al a distance ),:5 " 2 fmlll 11", X axis,
the nKlmem i,
.
III , - ,
"'1'-
- '- (1 5.5)
The load acting on a s1rip A-A is shown in fig _ 15.21>. and th~ resu ll ing diagram of
momen t "I, is gi~en in Fig _ 15.2c The lateral varintion of "I , ",ross {he width of the
slab is as shown in Fig. 15.2<1.
The lJtcral distribution of moments shown in Fig. 15.2'-/ would theoretical ly
require a continuou~ly variable bar spacing. ob"iously an impracticality. One way of
o..loootc..,_
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5 12 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: ST RUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r I~
u,ing the distribution in Fig . 15.2. which is con,iderahly more eCIKI",,,ical than that in
Fig. 15.1. would be to reinforce for the ",erage mo""'nt ove r a certain width. approx -
imating II", a("{uallat<eral ,ariation shown in Fi g. 15.M in a ,tepwise manner. Hiller-
Ix"g notes that this is not strictly in acmll)an"" with the equilibrium theory and that
the design is no longer cenainly on the safe .ide. but otl",r con,ervative assumptions.
e.g .. neglect of memhrane strength in the slab and neglect of strain hardening of II",
reinforce""'nt. would surd) ~xlmpe"sate for the , light reducti on in safety margin.
A third alternative distribution is slmwn in Fi g. 15.3. Here the divi,ion is mad"
SO that the load is carried to the nearest s"pport. as before. but load near the diagonal,
n G U RE 15.]
SquJre ,Jab with load ne","
Ji'g"" .11 >bar"'] <4".liy in 1
, ,, ,
'''0 dire<,i"",.
,
'1, I r'ffl l
>\ I
, ~ -1*
,-
IFl..',!
, ,
I
, I
~-, . II
-..
Swa 2
~J
l ""i I I ] ')
, A-, > I :]j l u

I. .1 x

(a) Plan ~iew
, ,
p mm
(c) w. and m.aloog 8 - 8

o..loootc..,_
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STRIl' ~ n:THOI) FOR SI.AIIS 513
has been di,id~d. with o",,-halftakcn in ~ach dire(tio". Thus. k is given ,'alues of 0 or
I along the middle edge, and a value of 0.5 in the com~p; and ('ent~r of the slab. with
load dis!",,,,;';,,, in the dirc"{"tions indicak"<.i by the arrows ,hown in Fig. 15.3a. Two dif-
ferent strip loading' are "OW identified. For an X direnion >!rip along "'-><otion A-A. II",
maximum ffiOfl1<ent i,
til , .. -". x -<I x -<I .. -

...<1 '
- (15.6<1)
2 4 8 64
and for a strip along ",-"{"tion B-B. t h~ maximum moment is
'" = ... x -" x -

" + ...- x -" x --'" = -
5,,''''
- ( 15.60)
, 4 824864
This (lesign !ca(ls to a practical arrangement of r"inforce"'ent. one wilh conStanl spac
ing (hrough lh" Center Slrip of width <I 2 and a wider spacing (hrough (he OUter strips.
wh~re the elaslic Cur\l;ltures and moments are knowo to be k ss. Th ~ averaging of
nlOmen(s n<xessilat~d in the second sol ution is a"oioc'd here. and the (hird solUlion is
fully consi Stenl with the ~quilibrium theory.
Comparing the ,hree solutions just presented shows tha' the first would be un~at
isfactory. as no,~d earlier. because it woul(1 require great redislribution of mon'<'nts to
achieve. possibly accompanied by excessive cracking and large ddlections. The sec-
on(l. wi,h discontinui,y lines following thl! slab (liagonals. has the advantage that lhe
reinforcemen, Illore nearly matches the elasl;c distributi on of momenlS. but il either
lead~ to an impraclieal reinforcing pattern or rc"quires an averaging of momentS in
bands lha, involves a deviation from srriet cqui librium lhc"Ory. The third solution. with
(Iiseontinuity lines parallel '0 the edg~s . dOl:s nOt require moment averagi ng nn(l kads
to a practieal reinforcing arrangement. so it wilj often be prekrred.
The lhree examples also illUSlrate ,he simple way in which mon,<,nts in the slab
ean be found by lhe wip method. based on familiar beam analy si~. It is important to
not~. 100. lha, ,he lwd on the supporting beams is easily found oc"{"ause it can be com
putW from the end r.:actions of {he slab beam slrips in all eases. This inform~ti on is
not a"ailable from solutions such as thoS<! ob,ained by ,he yield lin~ 'heory.
_. 15.4 RECTANGULAR SLA8S
With rectangular sl~bs, it is reasonabk to assutHe (hat. throughou, most of the area. lhe
load will bo: earried in the shQrt direction. eonsistent with elas'ic theory (see Section
13.4). In ad(lition. il is importanl10 lake inlO account thl: foct that oc"{"ause of their
length. longi'udinal reinforcing bars will be more c:<!",nsive ,h~n tranSVerse bars of lhe
same si~e and spacing. For a uniformly loaded rectangular slab on simple suppom,
Hillerborg pres~n,s on~ possible (livision, as shown in Fig. 15.4. wi,h (liseontinuity
lines originating from ,he slab corners at an angle depcnding on th.: ratio of short to
long ~ides of ,he slnb. All of 'he load in each regi on is assumed to bo: carried in lhe
direClions indieated by the aITOWS.
Ins'ead of 'he wl luiQn of Fig. 15.4. which requires continuously varying rein.
foreen"!nt 10 be srrietly COlT<Xt, Hillerborg s uggC5t~ that the load ean be distribuled as
shown in Fig. 155. with diSCQn!inuity lin~s parallel 10 the si(ks of the slab. For such
eases. it is reasonabk to lake edge b.lndS of widlh c"qual to onefourth the shor, span
(Iin"!nsion. Here the load in the eorners is divided ~qually in ,he X atd Y (lirections as
shown. while elsewhere all of,he load is carnc'" in the dir<xtion indicatc,,1 by the arrow~.
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514 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r I~
FIGU IU: 15,4

Roctangular , lab wj,h
disco/U;nui,y Ii"".
,
QxQ ,,I' ,- -", QxQ , ,
I' 'I' 'I
,,r II
origina,ing" ,he ,'omen.
1,
I
I
\' ,I
I I
I
,,l- III
I
1-)
, I <------I
, I
L
1
I '
I \ , II
I
J
~' I G U RE 15.5
D;scoot;nuity Ii... paralklw
,be , ide. for a m:t:lngular
a-~ ,,
,I>b.
,, ----------
,
,, I
,, ,
I, , X
1lIe second, preferred arrangell"'nI. ~h()wn in Fig . I$.,'i . gives slah mo,,,,,nts a,
foliow,;
III the X direction:
w b b I<'h'
Side wips: m , = - x - x - = -- ( 15,7(/)
2 4 8 64
b b wb l
Middle strips: m , = II'X - X - = - - (J5.7b)
4 8 32
In th~ Y direction:
..11)
Sid~ strips: 1/1 . " -- (15 ,&1)
, 64
Middle strips: !II

, = --"",'
8 ( 15,81
This rliSlribulion. rL"quiring no avcragi ng of moments OCro!'8 banrl W;dfh8 . i8 always on

Ihe sali: 8idc anrl is bolh 8imple and economical.
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STRIl' ~ n:THOI) FOR SI.AIIS 5 15
'- _. 15.5 F IXED E DGES AND CONTINUITY
Designing I>y the strip melhod has been shown to provide a large amOUIl1 of tlexil>ility
in :lSsigning load to various regions of slal>s. Th is same flexibil ity extends to the assign
mem of llIoments bctwcr:n nega(jve and positi"e be,Kling Sl"<:tions of slal>s that arc n.w d
or continuous over their supportc'd edges. Sollie allention should be paid to clast ic
nlOlncnt ratios to avoid prol>lcms with cracking mKl deflection at s.:rvicc Io."lds. Howcver.
the redistribution thai c~n be achieved in slabs. whicl> are Iypically rather lightly rein
forced and. thus. have liII)!.e plastic rotatioo capacities when overloaded. pcnnits consid
er~ble arbitrary readjust!lk:1l1 of the 1";1Iio of 'legati"e to positiw IllOlnCIl1S in a strip.
This is illustrated by Fig. I ~ . 6. which shows a sl~b strip carrying loads only near
the supports alKl unloaded in the central region. such as onen occurs in designing by
the strip Illethod. It is cOlwenient if the unloaded !':gion is subjecI to a constant
nlOnIC nt (~nd zero sheJr). because this simplifies Ihe sdection of positi"e reinforce
nICnt. TIle sum of the absolute values of positive span moment and negative end
nlOnk:llt at the len or right end. shown as lilt and m, in Fig. I ~ . 6. dep.:nds only on the
conditions at the respective end and is numerical ly equal to Ihe negati"e monICnt if the
strip carries the load as a cantilever. Thu s. in ddermining momcnts for design . one cal
culJtes tnc "cantilcver"' moments. s.:lect5 tnc span monlCm. and detennillCs the corre
sponding support nlOnICll1s. Hi lIerborg notes thai. as a general rule for fi xc'd edges. the
suppon moment should be ~boUI 1.5 to 2 . ~ tinlCs the span moment in the same strip.
Higher "~ Iucs should be chosen for longitudinal strips that are largely unloaded. and
in such cases a ratio of SUppo1110 SP.111 IllOllICm of 3 to 4 may be used. However. lil
tie will be gainoo hy using such a high ratio if the posilive nlOn'ICnt slc",,1 is controlled
I>y minimum rcquirell'ICnts of the ACI Code .
For slab strips with 01l~ end tlxcd and one end simply supported. Ihe d unl goals
of constant mome nt in the unloaded celltral region and a suitable ratio of IICgati\'C to
positive monlCnts govcm the localion to be chosen for the discontinuity lincs. Figure
15.7a shows a uniformly loaded rcctangulJr slab having two adjace nt edges fixed and
the otr.:r two edges simply support~d. NOle Ihnl. ~ l1h ough lhe middle strips have the
salllC width as those of Fig. 15.5. the disconti nuily lillCs are shifted 10 account for the
greater stiffness of the slrips with fixed ends. Their localion is ddi'k:d by a coeffICient
. . with a value clearly less than 0.5 for the slab shown. ilS exact value y~t to be deter
mined. It will be seen thaI tll~ selc<:tion of rcl~tcs dirc<:tly to th~ ratio of negati"c to
positive mOlncnts in the strips.
TIle mome01 curve of Fig. I ~ . 7/J is chosen so thal IOOlncnt is constant over the
unload<.'d part. i.~ .. shearing force is lero. With constant momem . the positive steel can
be fully stress.:d over most of the strip. The IlI.UiIHUIH positi"c mOll'lCnt ill the X di!':c ,
tion middle strip is then
Ii'b b 1 Ii'b'
m - -- x - - (15 .9)
'I 2 4 8
~
HG URE 15.6
SI.b , (fip "lith ",,01,.,1 ",~ ioo
111111111
unlo.&-J
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
5 16 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r I~
( 1 -< ~ a-~
Simp
,
1',
B
I 1', ~ f Side'"""""'
, ~-,
Ib , -
--'(-1'
ij I b:1 - ,
,
b

2 Ji
r-'
w , 1
II
(
Fixed ! I.--J
supports I (1 2< Wf
B
2 sides
w I
(e) wyand myaloog B-B
(a) Plan view
~

111111
(1-2"lW:
2
[l\,L-',~==="~r='='===77
FIG URE 15.7
Rn1 angol a, . lab w;,h I"'" ed~,< fi.ed and t w<) edge. limpl~ .opponcd _
n", camil",-er mon",n! a1 the lefl support is
111., " 1-
wb
- , 1- ,
b
- 0 1- (15.10)
and so Ihe negali", momenl al lhe lefl support is

wh 1
m",= I- ,--
8
- ,--
8
II-b l
1 - 2
8
(15 . I I)
For reference, lhe ralio ofnegarive to posirive momenlS in rhe X dire<:lion middle sirip is
- 2
, ( 15.12)
The momenlS in lhe X dirc><.-lion edge Sirips are onehalf of Ihose in Ihe midd le sirips
~cause Ihe load is half as greal.
11 is reasonable lO choose Ih,' Same ratio ~Iwecn support and span Ulonk>nts in
III<' Y dirc><.-lion as in Ihe X direclion. Accordingly. Ihe dislance from Ihe right support.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ST RIl' ~ n:TH OI) FOR SI.AIIS S 17
Fig. 15.7c. to th~ maximum po;;ilive moment ,enion is chosen as />, It folio"" that
the maximum p'"iti ..., mom"m i,
m'l - ..l1X - b - .1"'// (l5 ,1J)

2 2
Applying Ihe sa1llC m~thods as u:wd for the X direclion shows that the negative sup
port 1IIoment in thc Y direction middle snips is
\\'h'
"",= 1- 2 ( 15.14)
2
It is easily confim...d that the moment~ in the Y direction edge wips ~re just one
eighth of those in the Y directi on middle strip.
With the aoove e xpressions. all of the n-.on-.cnts in the ~Iab can be found once a
suiwble value for i~ chmen. From Eq . (15.12). it can be cO"rtm ...,,1 Ihat val ues of
from 0.35 to 0,39 give COITc~ponding rati05 of negative to positive moments from 2.45
to 1.45. the range recommended by Hillerborg. For example. if il is decided (hat sup
port moments are to be twice the span momems. the value of should be 0.366. and
(he negative and posi(i,'c 'llO'nents in (he centra l strip in (he r d irection arc. respec
tively. O. 134\\'1>' and O.()67,.,ll. In rhe middle strip in the Xd irection. moment~ arc one
fourth those valu~~: and in rhe edgc strips in oo(h dirL'Crions . they arc oneeighth of
rhose values.
R"'ta ngula r slab .. ith n.' cd oogC!>. Figure 15.~ shows a typkal imerior panel of a slab
floor in "'hkh ,uppor\ is I)f()"idcd by beams 0" all col u",n lirJCj;. Normally proponiO!lCd
beams will bt- sliff enough. bolh fleJwrally llI,d lor,ionally. that rhe 'lab ~"n Ix- assumed full y
reSlnli~C<J (Or, all sides. CIc:lr ,pans for Ihe slab. bee to fa.;~ of beams. are 25 ft arod 20 It as
show". The floor mu,t carry a service li\'C load of 150 psf. using concrete wilh!: : .>CKIOp>i
and Sleel wilh f,. - 6OJXJO psi. Find the rlI(>mcnlS at an Critical S<.'<:lions. and dc[o;rn,inc II'e
required slab Ihick"ess and reinforceme nt.
S()Un'lON. 1lie minimum slab thickness required by tile AC I Cod<- can boe foond from F..q,
(13.81:. wilh I, - 25 II and - 1,25:
,
h= 2",'",'2CCOi8'c'"60~2"C' - 6 .9~in,
J6 + 9 X L25
A IOlal dq>lh of 6, 75 in . will be .. leered. for which ~'. = 150 x 6.75 I 2 = 84 pst Applying
tile load facrors of 1.2 "nd 1.6 to dead load and Ih'e load. re'pectively. delfTIni"". that lhe
10lal faclored load for de,ign i, :uo psf. F", strip "",Iysil. di<eomi"u il)' Ii"", will lie
selec(ed "' ,hown in Fig . 15.8. with .d~e ,(rips of wid rh b 4 - 20 .\ - 5 ft. In tile come,.,.
lile lood i, divided "'luJII)' in the I"'" direcrion,: cist'wllere. 100 pen;enl of the load is
",signed to 1M direction jndkalcd by llIe arrow, . A rario of ' "I>JXII1 moment (0 'pon moment
of 2.0 will be used. Cak"blion of mom",,11 llIe" proc'CCd, a, foil"",,;
X dire<.,ion middle ,Irip:

~'b' 400
Cant ilevcr: III = - - = J40 X - : 4150 fl -Ib fl
' .12 .12
IN " = 4250 X '23 = 2833
,
"'., - 4250 X ~ - 1417
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I '~SO' .. M_ ... SI .... I THI
"..... .. c..,_
SUI IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r I~
fi"-Tl
FIGU IU: 15,8
DI:.ign cumpk : ,wo_way
,I>b ",'ilh fi .ed eJge;.
" ,ro ,ro ,

I -i ;
~,~o i 170
.-1
b - 20'
340 I
:
I~
'.-
I 340
:
---1,
L ~
I.
[170
,ro
II - 25'
,ro
i [170
.1
---I
~_.i
X
5
(~ nlllrti) (~lllllllll mllllllllll'~ )

t t t
- 11 ,333
t
- 11,333
+ 1417
(b) X di rection middle strip

"'"
(d) Ydirectk>o mkldle strip
ell:"" ""110 (~ ""11f)

t t t t
- 1417 - 1417 - 1417 - 1417
~, 7
J ~, 7
J
HOO HOO
(c) X di,ecbon edgI< strip (II) Ydi,ection edgI< st,ip
X direction edge SUip"

hb' 400
Canlile,'cr: m, - 64 - 340 X 64 - 2125 !'I II) f1
2
Nega(h'e: "'" - 2125 X - - 141 7
3
,
m'J- 212~ X - -708 ,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ST RIl' ~ n:T H OI) FOR SI.AIlS S 19
Y direcliOll middle snip:
Canliicwr:
Negalive:
,
17.000 x") - I U.B
,
Poshive: 17JXMl X - - 5666,
Y direclion edge sltips :
Canlilc>'Cf:
2
Ncgaliye: m" - 2125 X ~ - 1417
,
POSitive: "'./ - 2125 x"3 - 70S
SUip load, and moment diagram, are", .hown in FIg. 15,8. According 10ACI Code 7.1 2.
Ihe min im"", s'ccl'Wjuin:d ror shrinbge and Ic"'rcr~lUfC crxk COnlrol is O,(X)18 x 6,75 x 12
: 0 ,1 46 in'lft .nip. Wilh a 100ai deplh of 6.75 in" wilh tin. roncrele co,'",. and wilh eSli-
ma,e<! bar diamelers of ! in .. the cffcch,-c dq)1 h of Ihc Sl~b in the ,I\urt direction will be
5.75 in .. and in the long direclion. 5.2~ in, AITordingly. the flexural ninforcemenl ralio pro-
,i(1cd by the .ninimum ,1':<:1 ,I(:lin ~ aLUI(: smaller effcc1ive del~h is
From Table A,5. of Al'P"ndix A R

- ~
0,146
,.' x J 2
, .~. -
000',
'~'
1,1.4. and (he flexural "",ign S1reng(h i.
"'. - e,'
R". -
O.W X 134 X 12 X 5.25 '
12
3'" ,
- .,.4 1lb I
Com poring (hi, with lhe rc~uired momem resi'lance show, Iha( the minimum 'led wil l
be adequate i" lhe x ,hreelion in bol h middle and edge stri ps alld ill Ihe Y direclion edge
m ips. No . ., (No, 10) bars al 9 in. 'padng will pI"O"i"" lIie n=Jed area, In the Y direclion
miJJ le ,Irip. for negative bo.,><!illg.
, _ _m_._ _ 11.33~ X 12 , _ ~81

I>d' 0.'lO x I~ x S.7.~
and from h ble A. .5a. (he required reinforcemem /'31io i, 0.0069, The required stl..,1 is lhen
A, : 0.0069 X 12 X 5.75 ~ 0.48 in' It
Thi, ",ill Ix- pI"O,ided with No . .~ (No, 16) bars al 8 in. OIl cemers. r'Or JIOsitiw Ix-nding.
5666 X 12
R: - IW
0.90 X 12 X 5.75'
fo< which - 0.0033 . and Ille r"'luin:d posil i"e Slttl arc.' pcr 'hip is
A, - 0.0033 X 12 x 5.75 - 0,23 in' fi
10 be pro"ided by NO.4 (No. 13) b,'rs On 10 in. CCnlers. N()IC !hat sligh' ooj1l,une"ls down_
ward ond upward have beon rnade in the Sled required al ""~ali"~ and posi!i"elx-nding sec-
lions. as I",nnilled by ACI Code 8.4. 10 ani,~ al pt;lClica l bHr sp :;cin~s, NOlC aho thai ali bar
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
spacings are Ie,s Ihan 2h = 2 X 6. 7~ ~ IJ ,~ in., as r~quired by d", Code. and Ihm Ille rein
forceme"t mlio> are ""II below tile "alue for a I~n,ion""omml l ed ""lion of 0.01.15.
N"!!1ui\'e bar c"loff poims Crul easily be cakulal"" from Ilk: nlOll",m diagr.un;;, fur doe X
direc60n middle ,trip, 111< point "f inflection a di'lru>re x from lhe left Mg. is found a, foil",,'"
1700, - 28D - :140 '- ", ~ 0
x~2.Jlfl
According 10 Ilk: Code. Ille negaliw ban; muSi be comi" uoo aI I"asl d or IU, beyond 111m
poin!. req uiring a 6 in. exlen,ion in Ihi' case. Thu" lhe negali," bars will be Cui offl.l l ...
0.50 ~ 2,61 fI, say 2 fI 8 in .. from lhe fa<e of support. The sallie ",suil is obIair>! for lhe X
direrlion edge 'Irip< and lhe r d;""o;o" edge "rip<. r"<>l" lhe r direrlion middle >!rip. W di,
lanCe y = 4.B fl from fac~ of suppon 10 infle<.1ion poim is found in a similar rnan ner. In
Ihis C3>e. wilh NO.5 (No. 10) har, u,;ed, lhe requ;""d eXlension is 7.5 in .. gi"ing 3 lOIal
lenglh paS! Ilk: f""c of supports of 4.13 ... 0.6.\ 4.86 f1 or 4 fI I I in . All rosili"c ban; "'ill
E
be carried 6 in. into tbe rac. of lhe ,upporting beams.
_. 15.6 U NSUPPORTED E OGES
The ,labs consider~>d in the preceding ><-'<:Iions . togelh~r ",ith the supporting beams.
could also have be~n ocsigned by the ok:thods of Chapt~r 13. The re:d power of the
mip melhod becomes evident "'hen ocaling ",ith nonstandard problems. such as slabs
wilh an un supponed edge. slahs with holes. or slabs ",ilh rcentranl corners (Lshap.:d
Sl:lbs).
For a slab wilh 01lC edgc unsupponed. for example. a re:1SOnable basis for analy
sis by thc siluple mip nk:thod is thai a strip along the unsuppon~d edge lakes a gre:n~r
load pcr un it area th:m lhe aClual unil load acting. i.e .. that the strip along the unsup
poned edge acts as a suppon for the Slfips at right angies. Such strips haw" been
referrexlto by Wood and Arnl<:r as 'strong bands" (Ref. 15.8), A stro ng ixmd is. in
effect an integral beam. usually having Ihe sanl<: lotal depth as Ihe remainder of the
slab bul containing a concentralion of rcinforccnl<:nt. l1lc sirip may be nmde docpcr
Ihan lhe rest of Ihe slab to increase its carrying capacily. but this will not usually be
Il<:cessary.
Figure 15,9" sho"'s a rectangular slab carrying a uniformly distribuled faclored
load I<' pcr unil area, with fixed edges along thr~'C sides and no suppon along one shon
side , Discominuity lines are choSt:n as shOl<'n , 11Ic load on a unil middl ~ strip in the X
direction. shown in Fig. 15 ,9/). indudes Ih~ down",ard load I<' in the region adjJcelli
10 lhe fixed left edge and Ihe upward reac lion 1,:1<' in the region adjaccm 10 the fr~'C
Lxlge. SUrlllning momems aboul the lefl end. ",ith IllOllICnlS posit ive doc~wise a nd
wilh the unknown support rnonk:nt denoted 1<1 ", gi~es
w/J' /0.'1> b
III ~. + -- - -- " - -
32 4 8
from which
1
+ 32m" wb
k= (15.15)
8 'a/>
Thus. k can he eakulated afler the ~UPP()rt mmnem is ",leeled.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ST RII' ~ n:T H OI) FOR SI.AIIS 52 1
FIG UIU : 15.? b a _~

Slab with (reo od~< along
,hoot .ide.
(a) Plan view (e) wy alon!/ 8 - 8
~IIIIIIIIIII~ IIIIIIIIII~
(d) wyalong C- C
(1t ~ (l H) w ,~)",
11111111111
(b) wxand m. along A- A
n.e appropriate valu~ of m-<.> 10 be us~d in &J. (15 .1 5) will <kpend on 11", shape
of the slab. If <I is large relaliv" 10 h. lhe mong hand in Ih" Y diredion at lhe <!dge will
be re1alivdy stitT, and the nlOn",n! at Ih~ left suppon in lhe X di reetion snip<; will
appro.a,-h Ih~ "laslic ,"alue fm a propped tantilever. If Ihe slab is ne~rly square. lhe
dd le,'lion of the sirong ban<.! will tend 10 increa~ the suppon momen!; a value aooul
half lhe fn..., cantilever mome nt might he selc<1 l><l (Ref. 15.14).
O nce III" is selectcd and k;, known, it i, easily ,hown t hai lhe maximum span
t\lO"lent oc.: urs when
b
.I - k
4
It ha, a value
&.
- - J +k ( 15.16)
b
1lte ntot1lcms iT' thtl X direCiion ~'((ge Sirips arc otle half of Ihose in Ihe middle strip .
In tlk) Y direclion middle ,trip. Fig. 15.9'/. the cantilewr mOrlwnt is .,-b l , 8. Adop1ing
"..... .. c..,_
a mlio of support 1<, spall 111<;1","'" of 2 resuhs in support nn<! spa" mo""'''''. res!"c-
lively, of
..11?
m,> - 12 (15.17,, )
. ,/,'
m
, "
= - (15.171
MomenlS in Ihe Y dircclion wip adjacent 10 Ihe fixed edg~. !"ig. 15.9(". will be olle-
eighlh Oflhosc values. In Ihe Y direc,ion wip along Ihe free edge . Fig. 15.ge. 1IlOIIlCII1S
call. wilh 81ighl conservatism, be made equal 10 (I + k) lilnes Ihose in Ihe Y di"'Clion
middle Sirip.
If the unsupported .:dge is in Ihe long-span direClioo. Ihcn a 8igniflcant fraelion
of lhe load in lhe slab cenlral region will be carried in Ihe direClion perpendicular 10
Ihe long edges and Ih~ simple dislrioo,ion shown in Fig. 15.10 is more suiwble. A
Sirong baml along {he free edge ser... e~ as an integral edge beam. wilh width h nor_
mally chosen as low a~ po~sihle CQnsidcring Ii milation, on lensilc reinforcemenl ralio
in Ihe Slrong band.
For a Y dircC1ion sirip. wilh momcn\> po~ilivc clockwisc.
, , ,- 2 = 0
m"'+ 2"Jr ,,"
FIGURE I S.IO
Slab wilh free edge in long.
'P'" dh"c,;on ,
(a) P1an view
l11111111111116
',w
- k 2W
(b) w. along A- A
(1 k,)w
J 111111111111111111111111111 ~
(e) w, alol1g 8 - 8
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ST RIl' ~ n:T H OI) FOR SI.AIIS 523
from which
k, ~ -
".~,-,1_-__~__' -=2," ",",_", ",-' (l~.18)
2
The ,'alue of k] may be seil'e(ed so as (0 nmkc use of (he minimum steel in (he X d iJ\.'C
(ion requored by AC I Cod~ 7.12, In choosing m to he used in Eq, (15.18) for calcy
Iming ~ ,. one should again recognize (hm the dcfhx(ion of (he s(rong hand along (he
free edge will (cnd (0 incr.:asc (he Y dirc'C(ion rnornem at lhe supponcd edg~ abo"e (he
propped camilevcr vallie hased on zero dcfleelion. A "alue for "'" of aboul half (he fl'l-"C
eanliievcr 1110mel11111ay be approprialc in lypical cases, A high Mio of II /) ",ill permil
gr~mer dcfl.x(ion of (he free edge through (he cc mral region . lending 10 incr~ase (he
suppon 1110m~n!. and a low ra(io will remicl dcfl.x(ion. reducing (he suppon 1110nlCnl,
EXAM P LE 15.2 lI l"Cla ngular slab ,,-ith lung ~d ~e uns"ppocted. l"he 12 X 19 ft .lab show" io Fi~,
IS. 11,, _ with (h= fixed edge, and one long edge un'''ppor1ed, ",U,( carry a uniformly di,
tributed " ",'ice Ii"e load of 125 psf. t: ~ 4000 psi. and /, 60.000 psi, Sde<;( an appro-
E
priaiC slab (hickness. delenlli,,,, 011 f"",<>red ,,,,,,nents in ,toe ., lab. and ..,Ieel reinfordn~ bars
and . pacings lot ttoe 'lab.
SUl.lnlUN. l1Ic minim'''" thick""" requiremem, of the AC I Code <10 not ",ally opply to
1M Iype of , lab co",id"red here. flowe,'er, Table 13.5. whkh control, for bean~e" flot
plales, can"" apphed con"'''''lively because. allhoogll the p"'",m slab i, ""amless along
lhe free edge. il h., infinilely , Iiff , uflIlOrrs on Ihe nther Ih"" edg~ . From lhal lable. wilh
I. ~ 19ft.
19 X 12
h - 3~ - 6,91 in.
A 1O~,1 OCJ)1h of 7 in. ",ill be selecled. The slab dcoo lo.'>d is Ij.() X ti -
88 plf. and (he total
faclored M.ign load is 1.2 X 88 ... 1.6 x 12~ ~ .)()6 pst
A strong band 2 f\ wide will be pm,-i,1ed for ,"ppon _,long 'he free edge. In 'he main .Iab.
a "aJu,- J:, ~ O.4~ will be selecled. reSllhing in " . Iab load in the Y dire<1ion ofO.4~ X }()6
_ 1:18 psf _,"wi in (i>c X dirc<;,ior' of 0,55 X :106 _ 168 psf,
Firo;l, with regan:l1O th,- Y dire<:liOll slab mips. lhe negalive ,oo",em al IItt- supponed edge
will be chosen 3\ one half 'he fn.'C cantilCl'CT ,-"I..c. which ;,t (um will "" apl'ro~i "'_oted
based OIl Ll8 psf over an II ft dislance from lito.- ,uppnrt face 10 tltt- cenWr of IItt- S1fO~ band.
The rcltr;lining ",o",cnt is (lou,
,
m,-, ~ -2 X
,
n8 X 11'
~ 4175 ft lb Ii
Then, from Eq. (15.18)
k, ~
",A"_''''_'_-"2_'c,'C'''"'~C~
162 - 1 6
",,,I,
,._ - 0.403
TI1O'. art uplift of 0,403 X }()6 ~ 12.\ psfwill "" pow;dcd for Ih" Y direclion Strips b)' the
"foog band, as sho",'n in FiS . 1 .~ _ lld _ Forlhi, loading, t ~ negoth'e ,no,nc"t al lk left wp-
ron is
"',, , = 138X
. -
10'
, - 123 X 2 X II = 4 194ft-lb f1
The differcoce fmm the original ,'al"e of 4115 fl-Iblft i, caused by slight rounding errors
in(roduced in Ihe load 10.'",", 'lloe stalicall y C'<)nsi\lcnt '-aluc of 4 194 ft lbJfI will be "sc(l for
design, The maxi",,,,,, pos;t;,'e moment in lhe Y dire<1ion m i ps will be located at IItt- (Xlim
"..... .. c..,_
FIGU IU: 15. 11

DI:>igo cumpk : , J,b wilb
long edge ""'"llpOfIed.
(II) PLan view
(~IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ~ )
"" (~ "",W~""'lnn
t t t - 123
- 5054 - 5054 -4 194
~
"---J~
L1 ~I===--=I
I..1 +465
4.01 +2527 ,."
(b) X dOrectioo strip Id) Y direction strip
(jlllllllllllllllllllllllllll)
t t
25,800 25.800
~
"---J~
/J
4.01 + 12.900
Ie) Strong band
of zero shear. Wilh y , as lhe diSlaoce of Ihal JlOinl from the free ""ge 10 the zero she" loca-
lioll. 1m" willi rcfCren<:<! 10 I'ig. 15. lid.
12)X2-1.l8)',-2 -0
lro", "'hich 1' , = 3.78 Ii. The rn"i lllu", JlO,ili"e ",oll"'nl. f"'Hld allhallocalion. i,
I.7S '
m '1 = 12.1 X 2 3.78 - I - 138 X - , - = ol-M fl lb ft
For ble, ",I,,,,,,,,,e in cUlling off bars. tile poinl of infleclion is locmed a diSI,,,,,. y, fJOI1l11oc
free edge:
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
F IGU IU : 15, 11
(ComimU'J) r-=-- "' -----=1
2' strong band LT ~ ~
::14 No_ 5 (No. t6)
"LI No. 4(No. 13)@ 12" ];I

I ,. . . .

No.4 (No. t3)@ 12"
I.---J I.---J
4'6" 4'6'
(8) T09 bars
F~~~~~~~::12 No. 5 {No. 16)
NO.4 (No. t3)@1 4"
(I) Bottom bars
123X2y, - 1 y, - 2'=O
,,-,sutling in .,', _ 6.38 fl.

For !1t<> X dil\'("!ioll slab ,(ril". lit<> cam ilever 1l1Ot,,,, m i,
168 X 19'
Canlilever: "I, ~ M ~ 7581 fIlbfl
A ralio of IlCgati"e 10 ]Xl>ili,'c l""llncn{s of 2.0 will he chosen hcr~. "-'Slllling in negali,'c a"d
]IOSiliw '00111<'11". resrecti\'ely, of
"'~ = 15MI X ,
1 = :IO~ Iilb II
,
Poshiv~ : ,
m'i - 758 1 X - - 2527 frlh, f!
:IS ,ho".-n i" Fig. 15. II ".

The IIlI i( load 01' Ihe >lrong b,n" in tho: X ,hI'CCliOl) i,
I .i, w 1 + 0,403 X .~ -4 29psf
SO for {ho: 2 ft wide band!1te load J",r fOO! i. 2 X 429 - 858 p,f. a, iJldi~a!cd in I'ig. 15. I k.
The camile,-e-r. negar;,'e. arid I" "ili,'e 'trong band 1"'"1<'11S are. ""I"",{i,'dy.
M, _ 858 X 19' 8 _ 38.700 ft lb
Negalive: M" ~ ,8.700 X

,
'1 ~ 25 .800 fr-Ih
,,
M'f ~ 38.700 X - = 12.900 !llh
.
o..loootc..,_
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526 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r I~
Wilh a ""gali"~ momem of - 25.800 fllb arnJ a surJl'X1 re",'lion of &58 x Jf- = &I ~ I lb. I""
rotm of infl<:<;lion in II\<, <lrong ba,ld i, foond a, follw.'.:
gh'ing x - 4.01 fl. TIl<' infleelion IJOin< in IIIe X direcliOll 'lab srrirs will be alille sa me
Io<alion,
In de. igning IIIe slab >lttl in IIIe X dhclioo. one nolos Ihal ll\<, minimum steel "'quired
by IIIe ,\CI Code i, 0.00 18 x 7 X 12 ~ 0. 15 in'lfI, Tile df~cl;w ,lab deplh in Ill<: X direc-
(ion. a"",,,in& ! in. diamet.". bars wilh~ in. co,'er. is 7,0 - 1.0 - 6.0 in. The ",-""",,,pondins
fl e~u rJ ) reinforce",em ralio in Ih., X dir.,.:I;"" i, K 0.15 (12 X 6) ~ 0,0021, From Table
A.5a. R - 124. and lbe design "'''nglll is
0.90 X 12.. X 12x6'
m. - Rlxl' 4018 fl lb fl
"
I, i. ",en Ihat IIIe minimum 'lab >leel required by Ib" Code " 'ill pm"ide for llie po,ili,"
bernJing morr""m of2527 fl-Ibln, Tile requiremem ofO, 15 i,,'m could be mel by No, 3 (No,
10) bars al 9 in. 'pacing . bul 10 ,."dllCe 1,lace""'''1 OOSI'. No.4 (No. 13) bars al lbe maximum
r-m1in.:d ,pacing of 2h ~ 14 in, will be wlc'(led. providin~ O. 17 in'lfi. Tile X di""'I;"" ne~
ati," ",o",em of S054 ft _Jblfl require,
m. 5O.S" X 12
R= btl' = 0.90 X 12 X 6 ' = 156
and Table A5a irnJicales Ihal llIe required - 0.!Xl27. Th" . lhe negal;"e bar requi",,,,em
i, A, ~ 0.0027 X 12 X 6 = 0, 19 in'lfI . Thi, will he pro"idcd by No, 4 (No. 13) bars at 12
in . spacing. continued 4.01 X 12 -I- 6 54 in .. or 4 ft I:> in .. from tile ,uPI)Of'( face
In lhe Y di""'li"". llie ell""I;"e dl>]xh will be one bar diamcler les\ Ihan in the X dicecti"".
or .~.5 in. Thus. llie flexural reinf"""'''''' "1 ralio prm'ided by llie '>hrinkage and 1en*eralu",
Slool i, ~ 0, 15 (12 X ~ . 5) ~ 0,0023. Thi, "'Wlb in R = 13~. so the de,ign Sire"8th is
O,,,
,,'X,""J~'CXC""'CX'c"."'_
"'. = = :1675 fI-lb fI
"
"'ell .bow IIIe requi",,"emli.>r po,itive bernJi ng of 473 ftlblfl, No. 4 (No. 1.'1) ban; at 14 in,
wi ll be satisfaclory for rosili\'e ,1",,1 in Ihis direclion also. For llie negative mome"1 of 4194
fl-Iblfl.
4194 X 12
R= = i 54
0,90 X 12 X 5,5'
""d from Table A.~a. lhe rc>quir<:d ~ 0.0027. The cOfl"espornJing Sleet requ;",mem "
00027 X 12 x 55 - 0.18 ia'lfI, No.4 (No. 1.1) bars.1 12 in. will be ",I'd. and lhey will
be extended 5.62 X 12 + 6 ~ 74 in.. or 6 Ii 2 in .. p"'ttl>e supp<.>n face,
In Ille strong band. Il'" p"'ili\'e nlOn",nl of 13.100 1l_lh "-'q ui",.
12.900 X 12
R = - 199
O,90 x24 X 6 '
The cOlTe,ponding ",in forcement rolio i, O.00~4. and Ihe required bar area is
O.OO:l-\ X 24 X 6 - 0.49 in' . Thi, can be p",,"ided by IWO No.5 (No. 16) bars. For W ''''g_
mive molne"1 of 26.200 fIlb.
25.800 X 12
R O.90X24 X 6, -398
""uhing in = 0.0070. and required Sleel equal 10 0,0070 X 24 X 6 = 1,01 in' , Four
No, 5 (No. 16) bars , rro"i(\ing"" arca o f 1.23 in '. will be ">Cd. "TId IlIey will be Cui off
4.01 X 12 -I- 7.S = 56 in .. or 4 fI 8 in .. from t ht> ,urJl'X1 face.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I '~SO' .. M_ ... S' .... I THI
"..... .. c..,_
Tile filial arra!l,l'eme n, of bar reinforcement i; ; 00...," in Fig. 15.11, .1IdJ. Negali,. bar
''''ofT IOC :lIions ~re a, inJi,a'ctL and doIwlopmcnl by cmbcddc<J Icn~'hs in'o ,he suP\lO'1s
will be J'I"O"ided. ,\11 rosi,ivc bar<; in ,II< bb alld strong band will be cnnif"d 6 ill. into ,lie
SUfIPOIl faces.
A design problem commonly n"!l in praclice is ,hat of a :;lab suprorted along

three L-dges and u"sl' pport~d along the founh. wi,h a diSlribll1ed load Ihal increases
linearly from '-<'ro along 1he frLo,: edge 10 a maxilHulH a( Ihe opposi(e supponL"<1 edg~.
Examples include Ih~ wall of a reClangul~r wnk subjecled 10 liquid PI"l!SHII"l! all(1 ~arth.
I"l!!aining wall~ wilh bullresses or C0ulllerfons (~ee Seclion 17. I ).
Fi gur~ 15.12 ~hows such a slab. wi,h load of i n(~nsilY "'" al (he 101lg. slj ppon~d
.:dge. r.:dudllg to zero al (h~ free edge. In 11K: main pan of the slab. a conSlanl load
kl ",., is canied in (he X dil"l!ction. as showlI in Fig. 15. 12..-: 1hus. a conSlantload kl ",,,
is d<:ducted from 1he linear varying load in the I'direction. as ~hown in Fig. 15.IU.
Along 'he frLo,: edge. a Slrong band of widlh . "is provided. carrying n load k,"'o' as in
f ig. 15.12<1. and so provid ing an uplifll oad equal 10 Iha( amount m the end of Ihe I'
(lireClion s1rip in Fig . 15.12d. The choic~ of k, and k~ d~pcnds on lhe ralio of" /,. If
(his ra,io is high. k ) ~hould be cho~ell wi th r~gard 10 the minimum slab reillfo.-.:emcnl
I"l!quired by Ihe ACI Cod~. The vah' ~ of k , is 1hen calculaled by stalics. based on a
~' I G U RE 15.12
Slab " 'i,h one f ..... edge aoo
linearly '''f)'ing I"",!.
(a ) Plan view
jllllllllllllllllllllllllill .,-
L
(0) w<aloogA- A
(d) my along C-C
k~wo ~
~IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
52S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r I~
",1",-'1<-'<1 >"alue oftlle restr~ining l1Iom~nt at tl", fix~d edg~. sa)' o",,-half of the free can -
lilever value . In man)' cas~, it will be con",nient to let k , equal k~, Then it is the. ,up-
pon ntOment that follow, from stati"" The val ue of i, ",1~clt.'<I a, low as possible
considering the upper limit o n t~n,ile reinforc~ment ratio in the strong hand imposed
hy the Code for beams, the strong band is d"-'ig"'-'<I for a load of int~n sit)' k,II'U dis -
trihuk'<l unifonnly ove r it, wi dth b.
S LABS WITH H OLES
Slabs wilh small openings can usu:dly be designed as if Ihere were no openings.
replacing Ihc imerrupled sll'Cl willl bands of rei nforcing bars of equivalenl area on
diller side oflhe ol"'ning in each direclion (s.:e Sl"Clion 1).12), Slabs with brger open
ings muSI be t",ated more rigorously. The strip mClhod offers a ral;onal and safe h:\Sis
for des;gn in such cases . iJltcgrall oadcarrying beams are provided along the edges of
the opening, usual ly having1he ~mc deplh as Ih~ remainder oflhe SI:lb bul with eXira
reinforcement. (Q pic); up Ihe load from Ihe aff~cI~d ",gions and lransmit i1 10 lhe sup
pons . In general. Ihese int~gral beams should he chosen so as 10 carry the loads nlO'Sl
dirt."Cl ly to Ihe supponc"d c"dg~s of IItt: slab. 11Ie widlh of 1he slrong bands should be
selccled so Illal 1he rcinforccmem ra(ios are at Or below Ihe "alue requ ired 10 pro
duce a lension -control led member (i.e .. ,2: 0.005 and - 0.90) . Doing so will
ensure duelile beha"ior of Ille slah.
Usc oflhe strip melhod for analysis :md design of a slab willl a large central hole
will be illuslralcd by Ihe following example .
EXM.II' LE 15.3 R"'I,,"gul ~ r slab with ce nt", 1" I",n ing. Figure 15. 13<1 sOOws a 16 X 28 f1 slab with f"ed
""ppom along all four ,kJ,:,. A central op"ning 4 x 8 ft musl be occommo.::bted. E'timatffi
slab thick""". from Eq. ( 13.Sh). is 7 in. The ,lab is to carry a unifonnly distribuwd fOC1ored
load of .lOt) rsf. including ..,If.weight. Ded", an apflfOfIriate system of strong h.. nd, to "'in_
force the opening. and de1~nni"" momcnt, to be ",,;Sted ot all critical 5e<:tion, of th~ 'lab.
S()',\ f""~. 11><: has;c pattcm of di,.-ontinuity lines and loatl dispersion will be selected
arcord ing to Fig. 15S r".jge S1rirs are defined hal'ing wid,h 7' - 4 ft. In lhe con,.,.,. the
load is e'l ually divided in the two direction,. In th" ,:entral region. 100 perce," of tile loatl i,
assignffi to lhe Y direclion. while along the central ran of tlie ,h"n edges. 100 I""''""' of
,he load is camed in the X dirc'C'ion. "Iontent' for thi' "oosic ca"," without til<: 1101" will be
calculmed and laler u""" as a guide in sdffting moments for the octual slab wilh hole. A
ratio of suppon to span montent, 0(2.0 will be used generally.", for the previous examples.
~Ioment s for tlie ,iah. lIeglffling lhe hole. woold then he as fo il",,'",
X direclion middle str;rs:
,
'" " - 2400 x -.1 - 1600
X direction edg~ >1rirs 3r~ t oniJJ le strip ,"I..cs.

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
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FIG UIU: 15,13

DI:.ign cumpk : , I,b ",i,h "
""n1r.>1 hole.
" " " "
"
'" "
~Ji{~~~' ;~:;J
~L "
I J '! ~ I X
L-.:- 28'~
ta l Pla n vi<!w
Y di ....><:lioo ,,,iddle "rips;
Cantil evc,",
Neg,ti",: no
'.
~,/"
m - - - - 300 x -
'"
16'
- 96OOft.lb ft
~ %OO x - ~6400
2
3
,
"
m'l - %00 X "3 - 32(~
Y directiO/l edge strips are ~ middl,> strip dues.
8,><:ause of lhe hole. ""nain 'lrips lack '"ppon at one end, To ,up[>OM them. I ft wide
\"'("'~ b,n(is will be proviJcd in lhi: X direction 't thi: loo~ edges of (hi: hole and 2 f! wi(le
SlIoog band, in lhe r direction on each side of the oole. 11Ie r direction band, will pro"ide
for ,lie re:.c!ionl of lhe X dirtt(ion b,1IwIS, Wi,h tile distrii)o,lion (If loo,ls Ihown in Fig,
15.13<1, >!rip re:.clio", and moment. are found as follows:
Strip A"
11 may at first be a"umed that pr""""d ,ami lever action i, obtai ned, Wilh the ",straim
"lOr'""U alung lh., 11.'b edge (a' en al 6400 ftlblfl. lhe san"(> as for lhi: basic cal<! , Summing
momem, abou, lhe left end of the looded strip ,hen result, in
,
~' I ~ "OO~X~I'c'~',-~""'
X 5.5
= ~- 182psf
The negaliv~ "alue i ndi~al es 'hal lhi: can(ilever "rips l.re ,;cr.'ing as supports for strip f).f).
and in !Urn for (he 'lrong band, in lhe Y direction. which i, hardly a reasooable a"u mprioo,
1011 eoo. a dis<''<)nlin"jly liJIC will 00 assumed 5 f( fro,,, 'he ;"I'POI"1. a~ ,00",(1 in Fig. 15.13b.
lermi,,,,(ing the camile,'"r and lea.'ing (he I h strip DD al~ the l'dge of the opening in 1he
X di ...."';or' '0 carry ils own \00(1, I, followS ll'a! tile ,uPl'on "'omen, in 'he C""lil~'Ver "'ip is
m" - 300 X 5 x 2,5 - 3750 f,lb h

o..loootc..,_
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FIGU IU: 15. 13 ,

(ComimU'J) "'"
~ 1111111111111 H
,-, --I
'"''
~ -'''''b-,
<
(b) Strip A-A
(d) Strip C-C
"'"
~IIIIIIIIII H " 2' 2'
WIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIW
w. - - 600 w. - - 600
===-=-
+ 461
I, " ,I
(c) Slr;p B-B
~
"''''''
Sirip D-D (e)
Strip us
The reslrainl momenl al ItIc supported C<Jge ",ill be t"l en 10 be the &<Imc as the b.1,ic cas.e.
Le . 1600 ft lt.'fL Summing moment, "boll! tile left ~nd of lile slrip o f Fig, 15.1... 111<0
results in an uplift rc.'1Ction al the ri~h l c,ld. 10 be J'II'O,-idcd by Sirip f. f: . of
w, _300 x 42'X 2-
9
1600
- 4.fp,r
Tilt- Idl re"'lion;, eas;I}' foond 10 be 1112 lb. and lite po; nl of1"ro sllear;, 3.70 fl from lilt-
lefl ,,'pport, The lIIa,imu'" po,iliw momeni. 31 thM point. i,
:1.70'
P<lSitive: mv= 1112 X 3 ,70 - 1600 - 3OO -2 - ~461 [( Ibft
Stri p CC
Nc~ati.-c a,ld POliliw moments 311'" the rea<ti()lt 10 be pWidc(l by ;trip f;t:. as soowo in
Fir. l~.I JJ. are all oDe half lile c<>m.",pondin~ ,'al"", for strip B B.
S\ci p n[)
The I fl wide ,trip carri~", 300 pst in lile X direcr;oo "'ith reaciioos provi<k>d b}' the 'trong
bands E. f:. as ,hown ill I;~ , 15.1 :k The ma,;,nllm posili,-c l1'<)ment is
m'f - 600 x 2 x 5 - 300 x 4 X 2 - 36OOfl lb h

I Ni......Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I '~SO' .. M_ ... SI.... I THI
"..... .. c..,_
5' r 4' l' 5'
I' 'I~"I' " '1 "1' 000" 'I

FIGUIU : 15, 13
(ComimU'J)
~ 11111 11111i"rl"
"- , J
I I Iml'll ~~
I I Ii 1111111
"
1 I ,~
- 9421 - 9421
( f) Strip E- E
I' 16' ----0;'
~llllllllllllllllllmllllllllllllllllll~
- 6400 - 6400
~ /1
~
(g) Strip F- F
"- ,,-,<--1,- " --,,I,_ ,,~
"'"
(h) Strip G - G
-
,
~,
- 3750
-"'"
""
(i) FaClored momenlS - sym metrical about both axes
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Si rip E ~:
I" refereoce ) Fig. 15, IV, lile strong bands in lile Y direc1ion carry lhe direedy applied load
of 300 psI' p lus the .w psf load fn)m sllip 8 B. IIIe 22 psf 100<1 from ,101' CC and the 600 psf
end rl'xli"" from slfip DD. For strip EE llie camilew'f. negali ..... alld rosili"e 11I01""nl5 "'"
Canlil~"er: m,. = 300 X 8 X4 +22 X4 X l + 44 X 4 X 0 + 6OO X I X .~ .5
1.. .1 32 fI lb fI
m" _ 1.. .132 X ~ _ 9421
POSitive: m,,- I... 132X"3- 4711

,
II should he .m~ired IhOlllle lrods shol'n are (l>f.nd would be mlilliplied by 2 10 oblain
lrods po.']' foot xling o n lhe Strong band" COf1'espondingly. the l1'o)meo(S jll" obtaio.:d are
I"" foot width alld musl be multipliNi by 2 to give tile sUI'f'OCI and span 11I01""ntS for tm., 2
f1 wide Sirong lxlnd,
Siril' F"
The o",ments for tile Y di""'tion middle strip of tile b,,1e ca~ may he used witham change:
Ihus. in Fig , 15. Dg.
Ncgaliw: m,_, _ 6400 fI lb- ft
P",itiv~: "'., - .1200
Siri p G G
/>10"",01' for Ii", Y direction edge strips of tile basi" ""'" are used "';11>001 "hange, resulting in
In,. - 800 ftlh- ft
m.,- 400
as ,hown in Fig. 15,Bh.
The r,oal d islobt.lliOll of "",,,,,,illS acroSs ,)", ocpli,'e .11><1 posili~e crilieal seclions of lhe
slab is shown in Fig, 15,13; , The ",1.",liOll o f reinforcing bars and delenninatiOll of ('\lIoff
poiOIS "wid foli()\\' lhe S<lnoe rnelhod\ as pre>eTucd in R,amples 15.1 and 15,2 and will rlOl
be given m.'re_ R~infon:ing bar rali", needed in t he strong bands are well below lile maxi
IIlUtll po.'1'",illcd for Ihe 7 in. slab d~P1b.
It should be noted thai mips BB. Ce, JI><I D D h,,~ been designed" if liley w~re ,im
ply 'lIpponcd al the Sirong band A.E, To .woid undesirably wid.: crac ks whcr~ ti",SC SlTips
pass 0'-'" lhe stfOllg band. oominal ocgati,'" reinforcement should be added in Ihis regioo,
POsitive bars should be e,lcnded rull y iOlo lloe wong bands,
_. 15.8 A DVANCED S TRIP M ETHOD
TIle simple slrip melhod described in lh~ earlier seclions of lhis chapler is nOi dir.",lly
suilabl~ for lhe design of slabs supported by columns (e.g .. nal pblGs) or slabs sup-
ported al r~.,.rtlrartl con~rs" For such cases, H,II~rborg introouced the ad"JllCed .. rip
nWlltod (R ~fs.15.2.15.5. 15.12. and IS ,D ).
, II<"'-(~-<T. W, ~>d,00 !lm~~. in Kef, I ~~. "'i-Ile;., "". ",.-." ..."" ,1,1>; wit" <"""" .. "'''''''''-' (~" oc ~,h l>.l ~y toc simpi<' "rip TI~ I "'.J 'hr-o,,~h IOC
"". u{ >IR"~ baOO, be,,,,,-,, tol"nLn> (){ bc1 ~- ""n ,,""rnn> :tOO ex"'fh ,..,1 1.
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
ST RII' ~ n:TH OI) FOR SI.AIIS 533
FIGU IU : 15, 14
Slab with c<otral .upporting
col"",n.
+ ~-jj~ Cotner-
supported
element
~ 11111111111111WIIIIIIIIIIIIWt,
(b) Loads
(c) Shears
(d) Moments
Fundamental 10 lhe advanced strip method is lhe comer -supporttld dement. such
a~ thaI shown shaded in Fig. 15.14</. The eon",r-supported ckment is a recungular
region of the slab with th~ following prop"rties:
I. The <-.... ges are p"ralld to lhe reinf()rc~ment directions.
2. It earri<-'s a unifm'" load ... p"r unil area.
3. It is ,uppmttld at only one cnmer.
4. No ,hear fOfl"eS a,"t along the edges.
5. No rwisting moments a<1 along [he edges.
6. All bend ing nK,"",nIS aCling along an edge have lh~ same !;ign or arc zero.
7. The bending mon"'nts along the <><Ise, are rhe f"'-"1Ored moment, used 10 de'ign
Ih" r~i!lforcing bars.
A uniformly loudtld ,trip in lhe X d ir~C1ion. ,hown in Fig. 15.141>. wililhu, haw
,hear and moment diagram, as ,hown in Fig. 15.14{" and d , resf""'liwly. Maximum
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
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FIGU IU : 15, 15
') i 'myr, mYL myrm
ITill ---
I I m,'m
':i
" I
:.::m,/
I
Load w(JSf
IJ
] 111111111111111111l\U
~~ ,.. ~m,_
- X
, ,
"2 "2
,
we,
m.om b( f 1111111111111111111111111111111111111) m,/m b
R
monloClllS are locatcd al Ihe litloCS of z~ro slloCar. Thc OUlcr edges of Ihe comer-supported
clemcnt arc dctlncd al Ihe lines of z..:ro shear in oolh Ihc X and Y dir..:clions.
A Iypical co rner-supported clement. with an assumcd distribulion of mOllloCntS
along Ihc edges, is shown in Fig . 15.1~. It will be assumed Ihm the betlding moment
is constant along each half of each edge, The vertical reaction is found by summing
vcrtical forces:
R .. "'<11> (15.19)
and moment equilibrium JOOUl the Y axi s gi"cs
w,/
1nJ.j .. - IU"" = - ,- (]5.20)
where "',,", and "',."" are the mean 'pan and support moments per unit width. and beam
'ign mnvcntion is followed . Similarly.
( 15.21 )
The last Iwo ~quations are identical with tlw condition for a correspOtlding part
of a simple stri p-Eq. (15.20) spanning 11l thl' X direction atld Eq. (15.21) in the Y
direclion - suppon t>J at the axis and carrymg the load wI> or'HI po:r foot. So if tile cor
nersupport~d ~1~mel1t forms a part of a Strip. Ihat pan should carry 100 percent of tlk)
load w in each direction. (This requirement was discussed earlier in Chapter 13 and is
simply a requiremenl of static equilibrium .)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
nt~ distribulion nf nK'm~nl, wilhin tm, boundari~s of a cOIll~r- <upponL'
with the a>sumplion, of the simple strip melh(KI used prniously.
nt~ moment field ",ithin a corner-supP',n.ed dement and ils L'<Ige moments have
been ~xplor~d in greal ""tail in Ref 15. 12. It i, e''''ntial Ihal 1m, edge momem" given
in Fig. 15.15. are used 10 design Ihe reinforcing bars (i.~ . , that no",here wilhin the ele-
ment will a bar be ,ubjected to a grealer mOment than m the edge,). To n>eel thi,
requ irel""nt. a limitalion musl be put on tm, moment di,lribulion along Ihe edge"
Based on his studies (Ref. 15.12), Hillemorg has recomn"'nded lhe follo",ing re,lric-
lion on edge IlK"nent>:
(15.22.l)
2
with
0.25 ::s ::s 0,7 (15 ,221
where "'Vi and "',,2 ar.: tile positive and IlCgative X d ir.::C1ion moments. respectively,
in the outcr half of thl: elemcm. as sllown ill Fig, 15,15. The corresponding =trktion
applies in the Y direction. Hc 1I0tCS further that for most prac(ical applications. the
..'<Ige moment distribution showil in Fig. 15.16 is appropriate, with
(15 ,23)
m", = 0 (15 ,24;,)

(15.241
(Altemativdy, il i!; suggested in Ref. 15.14 Ihat negmive ,uPP''" moments across the
column line 00 laken m 1.5"",,", in Ih" half-dem~nt ",idth Ity the column and al
FIGUIU : 15,16
Rc..,.,mn\cntkd d;"be ';on of
mon",ms fOf l)'pkal romer-
.uppor1od de"",",.
'I
n
1Lm_ I
Li:S -~----~
I
my.m
I: ;~----.<
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
536 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r I~
0.5111..,., in the remaining outside half-element widlh.) Positi,,, reinforcement i" tl",
'pan should he ..amed Ihrough lhe whole corner- ,upport~..J element. The negative
reinforcement <olTl'sp"nding to "'", - "',,;, in Fig . 1.'i.15 mu,t be extended at leasl
0.6.:, fmm the 'UPPOI1. The remaining negative 'teel. if any. should he carried through
the whole comer-supponed element. The corresponding resuicliolls apply in the Y
direclion.
I" pmctital npplicalions, corner-supponed clcn",nL. nre comhined with each
mher and with part, of one-way suil". a, shown in Fig. 15.14. to form a system of
,trips. In thi s system. cach strip carrics the IOtnl1oad "'. as discus>cd carlicr. In laying
o ul the dements and strips. the concentra1 ....J comer support for Ihe element rnny be
a~sumed 10 he nt the center of lhe supporting column. as shown in Fig. 15.14. unless
suppons are of significant ,ize. In thnt ,a",. lhe cOJner suppon may be taken at the
comer of the wlumn. and an ordinary .imple snip may be indud ....J that spnns hetween
the column faces. nlong the ....Jge of the corner-,upportro elements. Nme in the figure
that the Comer res ion, of the slah are not induded in the mnin ~trip~ lhat inelude the
comer-supported elements. The", may safely he desi gned fOJ one-lhird of the corre-
'ponding moment, in tI", main snips (Ref. 15.1 3).
EXAM PLE 15A Edges"ppo<ted nal pia ""ith ' '''''Iral e<>lum" . Fiture 1~ . 1 7a illustrat'" a Oa1l'late
with ""emil di""'"lions 34 X :l4 ft. with fi~ed ,uJlllOf!s along th~ lefl alid upper edg~s. and a s;ll glc c"Cmral ."{))umn 16 in,
>q uare. II Illust carry a .. rvice li,'e load of 40 psf ovet its entire ,urfoce plu, its own weight
and an .dditiOJlal surcrimposcd dead load of 7 psf, Find the "",n",nt, m all crili""l >o:<1ions.
and d"tenninc the required 'lah thic~""" and reinforcement. Malerial strengths = sped-
f:
fied atf, = W.OXI psi and = 4000 psi,
FIG URE 15. 17

Desi8n e",mple, e<lge- r "' I 17"
rr 2 edges
j'ply supporled
.uWOne<ll1ot plOk wi,h
""n,,..1 column.
r"' -t-T-ti
I ~ ~ 1-"
++
~ -+~+-+
I
-~--I ...... Column
",'
++1 16' X16"
iIi
,,;;t~7J=*==='*=~
fixed (8) Plan "",w
1
1701blll
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIW IIIIIIIIIIII~
(b) Slrijl klad , Iblll
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
SOI.UTtON. A lrial slab deJllh will be ch""'" based on Table Ln. which gowms fOf nat
pla,c" II will be c'Ooser,-.1]i,'o fOf 'he presen' case. where c'Onlinuous '"11JlOO is ]}I'O"ided
along the ouler edges.
17 X 12
h - 33 _ 6.18in.
A Ihick""" of 6.5 in, will be selected lemalively. fCO' which I.... self weight is I .SO X 6,5 12
- 81 psf, The tou l factored Io.'ld 10 be canic'<l is (hus;
.... - 1.281+7 +1.6 x.fO-110psf
The average sirip momc nls in I.... X direclion in tm' ce nt ral region caused b)' I.... load of
170 p;f are fo",><.1 by claslic Iheory and ~re shown in Pig. 15.17e. The lIOalysi. in (lie Y di"",
lion is identical. T .... roints of zero sllear (alJd m,ximum n-.on"'ntsl are localed 9.1 1 010 the
left of t he c'Olutnn. and 10,32 ft (0 (he righl. as indicaled. TIIe>c d i"",,,,ion, delc"ni"" IIIe
oize of the four cornef supported ele"",m.,
Monlenos io the slab are Ihen (\clen"incd acrording 10 (lie prttedi ng recommend",ions,
AI lhe foxed edge along the loft side of lite mai " strips. Iht mo"", ,,1 III" is simply the momem
l>er fOOl Sirip fro m (lie c13>1 ic 'n,'I~sis. :1509 ft lb1fl. At lhe left edge of (lie comcr \upporw<!
clement in lhe lefl .pan.
nt./I = nt.!' = m,,,, = 1788 O lb ft
A loog tho: cent~di"" of the .lab. owr lho: col ullln. following lI'e """m,,,,,ndation, 'hO\\-'. in
Fig. 1S.16.
m._" ~ 0
m", = 2m,,~ = 10528 ft lb ft
F I G U R~~ 15. 17
(C""';n,,~J)
- 3>00 -""
;\
1\ 1\ 0
~ ~
+3789
1, 7.89' ,1, 9.11 ' ,1, 10.32' ,1,6,68 ',1
(c) Moments m. 1IlbllI
769' 4 56' 9.72 ' 5 16' 6.68'

I' 'I' 'I' 'I' 'I' 'I
~
,- ,=!
0
""
, ,= -
-
,,
, ~.
;, I
-i
0
!
,. miaL- -,
!
-
~
~
,
t 170
!
-
(d) Facto,ed moments pe, 1 f00151rip
11 10
"..... .. c..,_
FIGUIU : 15, ., 3'-9'"

(ComimU'J)
n
b No. 51No. 15) 0 7,
,.
~
"'0
o "c,
<:> 0;
' " t1-1:-
L'+"~~B'- I
I '
I
I
I
"?
<0
~
., t-- ,---1- '"
z~ ~ I.5'-6"'I' 6'-3- ,I
Itt~',O='C'~"O=',O,>'.COC=~==.==~I ] ~
(9) Top Sl~
7'. to" 9'.2'" 10'. 4" 6 '.S-
INO'3
(No. 10)
U
I
Nl ,3
.,.
(No, to)
..
No. 3
(No. 10)
1
'"0 2 "' -
II z~00
T====#= > ,
-tt-- + ,I
,
II
--------t~rI
I""
I
II '" 0".
~: -
- o
"
~------
------
I
I
I >2", -
o
I
~~. -
L "' ~
(~' ~O)
34 '-0'"
(I) Bottom Sl~
A( lho: ri ght edge of lho: cont\.'T-supponcd elc""'''' in Ihe right span.

m.ol' - m.ifl - m.r~ - 3789 fl-Ib fl
AI tho: " .n ... hinge_supported edge. all moments"", zero. MaI;c "check of the value>, "sing
Eq . (l5.22b). and.-.ole from Eq. (15.20) ,ha, 'w" 2 = m'l~ - nI,_, Thus. in ,he Icf, 'Pan.
m<" - ffl ", 1788 - 0 _ 0 2S
~,,,' 2 1788 + 5264 '
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
and in t he rigllt span.

3789 -0 ~
~789 1- 5264 - 0.4~
Bl'Cause both "alucs are within 1he ronge of O,l.S to 0 .75. th<o pr<lJlO'<'d distribution of
nlOrl1C11t' is Sali,f,lCtory, tf the first ,'~hlC had bee n below lho: lowcr limit of 0.25. the ncga
1iw moment in the rolumn half-strip mighl h",'~ been reduced from 10.528 fl -Ib pt'r fl. and
lhe rqal;"e '>1OnlCnl in the adjaccnt h ~lf,sllip miglu It.we becn itlCreascd alx",c tile 0 ,'alue
used. A ltemati ... I}'. tm' total ""gmive moment owr the rolumn might ha>'e been ,.,,,,,,,,,hat
decTC:lSC<J. willt" corrcSllOndi rtg itlCre3$(: ill span "lOmcnl!>,
Moment. in the )' direetioo C<Jff<'SjlOnd througooll1. and alll1.'Sults ar"
summarized in Fig.
IS.I7J. MOlIlCntS in tlte ;trips .'>dj;\l'Cnt to the sUp]lOI1ed edgcs are set equal 10 One_lhird (If
those in the adjacent main s11ip'.
With IllOrllCnl' per fl strip ll\Own at all cri1icat se<:tions. the r~quired rei nforccme nt is eas-
ily found. With a j in, cOIICret. cowr ,nd 1: in. bar diameter. in generaJ 1h" "ifec1i,'e dept h of
the ,I~b " 'ill be 5,S in. Where tMr Slo'ICling oc.;or\--i,C .. O,'cr IlIC l'emral ~otun'" and near
the intersection of the two fixed edge.-an .",rnge dfecti,," deJllh e<jual to ~.2.S in, will bc
used. 'n,i\ will ",suit in reillfoo:clIlCllt idenliC31 in 'he 1"'0 Jin.'Ctions and will Sin,plify con-
. tllK1ion.
f or tlte 6.5 ill , thiCk slab. minilllutn st(.'C1 for sl,rinhge ,Uld te"'peMur~ cmck wn ' rol is
O.OOlR X 6 ..~ x 12 - 0.!40 i.. 'lft strip. which "ill be provided by NO.3 (No. tol bars ,t 9
in. 'pacing. The C'O/respondi n8 nexurol .... infort'Cme ll t rmio i.
Int~rpolming
- 0.140
if";"i,
55 x 12
from Table A,5a of Appertdix A make, R

- OJlO2 I
~ IH. and the "'''i~n Sl .... ngth is
m. - Rbtl' - 0.90 X 124 X !2 X .S .5'!2 - 3.176ftlh fl
In compari",,, with lhe ",quired strengths \um rnariled in Fig . 15.17d. Ihi, will be adequate
c"erywhere ,,",copt for particu lar region, a, follows:
N~8"';"~ ,"f~d ",.", i'll/limn:
,o __ m.
bJ'
~
10.528 X
0,90 X 12 X 525'
12 ~424
for which ~ 0,0076 (from Table A.5a). and ii, ~ 0,0076 X 12 X 5.L~ ~ 0,48 in'/ft. This
will he pro\'ided u,ing No ..~ (No. 16) bors at L~ in. sparing. The)" will be continued a di,
tanceO.6 X 9.11 ~ 5.47 I\. sa)" 5 ft 6 in .. to the left of the column centerline. and 0,6 X 10,32
- 6 , 19 ft. say 6 ft 3 in .. 10 the right.
Negtl/;,,,, Sled "t-m,~ fixed <'dgf',':
3509 X 12
R- , - 129
0.90 X 12 X 5.50-
for whi~h ~ 0,0022 and A, K 0,0022 X 12 X 5.5 ~ 0 . 15 in'lft. No.3 INo. 10) bars at 9
in. 'paring wi\\ be OOeq"'u" Tbe poi nt ofinflec1ioo for the ,lob in this "'gion is easHy found
to be J "l0 ft from lhe fixed edge, The negative bars will be "x1endcd 55 in, beyond th at
I>o;nl- resulting in a cutotf 45 ill .. or 3 ft 9 in .. from the support face ,
P,,,i/i,'e ,ud ill''''fer'I'''''':
1789 X 12
R~ - 119
0.90 X 12 X .~.50' .
resulting in = 0.0024 .rtd A, = 0.0014 X 12 X 5,5 = 0 , 16 in'/ft. No. J (No. 10) bars ,t
8 in, spocing .. ill be uscd. In all cases. the m.1Ximum spocing of 2h - 13 in. is sati,fled, T hat
maximum ..ould Jl!"CluOe the economical uS<' of larger diametl"f bars.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
5 40 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r I~
Bar size and spacing and cutoff poim, fOf lhe lop and OOtlom 'Icel ar~ ,ummarized in
Fig. 15.17e 300J f rc\pecl;wly"
Finally. [he load carried by the cemral column is
p = 170 X 19,43 X 19.43 ~ 64,200 Ib
InYC;ligating I~l""hing shear "I a enlieal '>Celion taken (t 2 from I~Cfa..'C of the 16 in. ,",,1-
umn. wilh reference [0 Eq. (I1 ,J I,,) and "'ith b. = 4 X (16.00 oj. 5.25) = 85 in .. gi""s
V, ~ 4 Icb,4 ~ 4 X 0.75 .moo X 85 X 5.25 ~ 14.700 Ib
This is well above 1M applied .hear of 64,200 Ib, confirnring IMt lhe ,lob Ihickne., is ade_
quate and Ihal "" ,hear rt'inforc"me"l i, required,
~ _ 15.9 C OMPARISON S OF M ETHODS FOR S LAB AN A LYSI S AND D ESIGN
Th~ cmwenlional method~ of slah ~nalysi, ~lId d~.,ign. ~s described in Ch~pler 13 anoJ
a, lrealW in Chapter 11 o f lhe ACI Code , "''' limit~d j(, applintions in which slab pan -
ds are supponed on opposile ~ides or on all four ~ides by heam, or walls or to Ihe case
of flal plat~, and rdaled fonm supponed by a rdativdy regular army of columns. In
all cases. slab panels musl he ~uare or re("lan gular. loads musl he uniformly di'lrib-
ut~d wilhin """h pand, and ,labs I11U>l he frt", of 'ignificanl holes.
Both [be yield line theory and [he suip metl",d offer Ihe designer r~liolialmelh
o,h ror ,lab analysis and design over a mud, br<Xtder range. includin g lhe following:
I. Boundarie s of any , hap". in("luding reclangular. triangular. circular. and L-shap"d
boundaries wilh r""ntrant comers
2. Supl"'n(-<I or un,upponed edges. skewed suppom, column suppo rts. Qr variou,
combination, of these condilion,
3. Uniformly di,lribU1(-<I loadS. loads distribut."j ",,,r panial panel areas. linear
vaJ)'ing distribuled loads. lioe loads. and concenlrated loads
4. Slab, wilh 'ignificam boles
Th~ mo' t imponam difference between [he strip method and Ihe yield line
"",Ihod i, tl'" fact Ihal tl'" slrip melhod produces results thai arc always on the safe
,ide. bul yield Ii"" analysi, may result in unsafe designs. A ,lab designed by lbe slrip
rnelhod may jJOS.sibly carry a higher load lhan e,limaIC,/. through internal force redis-
tribulion,. hefore collaps..: a slab analyzed by y;eld line procedures may fail at a low"r
l<Xtd Ihan anlil" ipat~d if an ;nCOITt.'<"1 mechanism has be",n ",Iect~d as the basis or if the
detining dimell,i'Hls am incorre.:t,
Beyond this, it should be realized Ihat Ihe str;p mel hod i, a tool for d~,<ig". by
whi("h Ihe slab Ihicknes, and reinforcing bar Sil." and disuibution may be ",b:ted to
resist the spified load,. In contr""l. lbe yield line th"ory offers only a llIeans for """-
I)'z;"!: Ihe (;I1I'I1("ily of (/ gi\'~" "Ial>. w;lh known reinforeement. Accordi ng 10 Ihe yield
line approaeh. the de'ign process is actually a malter of reviewing lhe capacili", of a
number of lrial design' ~nd altemati,'" reinforcing patterns . All p"",ible yield line pal-
ternS mu St he investigated and spifil" dimensions varied j(, be , ure Ihal the corr","t
,olutio" lIa, be..,n found. Eu'Cpt for simple cas,,,. !his;s likely 10 be a lime-l"On,",ning
pn)C:"ss ,
Neilher the 'Inp mctl",d nor Ihe yield line approach pnwides any infonnalion
regarding cracking or dene(,tions at service load . Both focus allem;on strictly on /lex -
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
STRIl' ~ n:T H OI) FOR SI.AIIS 54 1
uml ,(rength. Howewr, by the strip r""tlux], if care is taken at le1l'(10 approxima.te th"
dastic distrihutiou <;If nwmems, little difficulty ,hould he experien('ed with excessiw
cracking, TI,e r""th.x/> for defk'(,tion predinion PTesenl<ed in &'(,tion 13.13 can, with-
out difficulty. be adapt<-'<I for use with the ,trip method, because II", concepts are ful!y
cOlupatihle.
With regard to economy o f rcinfmcement, it might be supposed that use of the
,trip methrxL which always leads to designs 011 the ,afe side, might result in more
expensiw structures than the yidd line theol)l. Comparison" however, indicate that ,
in I110St cases, this i, not '1<' (Ref,. 1.'i.8 and 15.12l .11trough proper us.: of the strip
methrxL reinforcing bars are placed in a nonunifonn way in the slab (e .g" in <trong
hands around openings) where they are u",d to best clfeet: yiddli"" ntetho,h, on the
o ther hand, often lead to unifonn har 'pacing', " 'hich "'ny n",an that individual hars
are used inefficiently.
Many tests ha\'e heen conducted on ,blls designed hy the mil' method (Ref.
15.1 I: a)'I<', s"e tlte summary in Ref. 15.12l. These tem induded square slabs, reC-
tangular sbh" sbhs with hoth fixed and .imply ,upport<'<l provides for sare design with resptXt 10 nominal strength alld that
at ""rvice load, hehavior with respect to eme'king and deflections is generally sati.-
factory. n,., l11<-'th,><I has been widely and <ucc'e"fully used in the Scandinavian coun -
trie~ since the 1960s.
!~.1 .\ . tt i th"'~~ . "I:q<litihri" m ']h,,,,), I(w II.dof",cc'<l 0""",,,-' St."" lin S",'<I;"'J. 8","'1/. ,,~ . 41 "".-1.
1 ~J.6..Pr. 171_11C
!~.! .\ . l!iI"m".~ . 51';') Mnh(>J fo, Slabs "" n~",,,"). L~,..,I /'I""." tk (in S~''<I'>hI. S\"'Il"u
lI.;l'"Y i ~<". ~"",thotm . I~W
!~ __J .\ . llil l"" )f~ --" 1~~>Ii< 1Je.~~n ,.r Itd" f",,,,-,, r;""'''f'-1<' ;; 1""'-" I'~. Si;,h ConK'.
TI..,'O)' f,w '''''
Imc'ftWio.-..t ",,,,,,;...,., f, ~
!\,Nll" "nd ~ '''''-'"r:II l:n~'""""n~ . S,,'dho~m. I\I6IJ
!~.4 11.. E. C"'~ lurd. L '" ,il IN.~S" of llei"fi!tUd C"",,"'e Slab,. ,"" .. , ,""",;Ot", '" [In,,,,,,;,y "I IlIh... > r,.
,h'''''.,,-u'of l'hJ ) .. [Jrl""... I!.. 1%2.
!~.~ F A. Hblcy. $I";p ,1t ,,"'~1 ft,.. S"dJ.' ,'" n~",",,~ L-._I~-'/ /"I",,,,
t,,. W ""'''';'''' ,~ . k ef. 1 ~. 2 J .
( :"mn' '''~'",, ''h """,m;I", ...d I "d" ~f , :d R c""'l'<~ Orpn;nI~"' . Mol"'....., . 1%4
!~.6 K O . 1(,0,,<1'. --" I-,_~ 1~ ..1kl S<~"I~'" '" ,he ("olllf"" ,J{ "" (lrtho"">ric>ll), II.dm,..-.ocd Sw. ,., S,mp"
SuJlll'."." M,,~ . C",,,,, lin" WlI. 14. "" . -I I. 1%2.1'\'. 7'J-.;.I
!~.7 K () M'Il't'. 'X:"olti"uil)' ,--,,,,, di,;,,,,, ;ol ,he "lfip Mclh<!d . >f SI.n Il<" "-" I'me. 10.". C;\: Enx .. "'~ . -I~.
1~7\I. p. 2K.J {'"Prkmonl 1"''''''
'2fW\,1.
!H 11.. It W,,~I.oo n . S. T."~"'-'f. " Ir.., Tl>wy ,.r ,!Ie Strir M"lh<od I,.-Ihe lbj~ " ,J{ SI"",:' I'm<'. 1""
n" E"~ .. " , ~ . 41. 1%1\. PI'- l l;.l--JII
!~.~ 11.. II . 1"... 1. " Jr..' RC'inf"."" ",,", ,J{ St..'" in 1\0,,,.,,,,,,,,,,
,,',Ill . I",-,,,,,,,,,,; ...,t 1.,ld " f M"""" ", --
C,"'''''''. ,1>1. 2.".,. , . 1""8. Pr. 6'1-,6
!S.W 0. S. T 1In",-',. - !be ~'rip Mcoh"I:" Nov.' Arr<>""" ,,, It.' 1J<"'~o "I ~ I ""." 0"",,,.,,. " ~ . !. "". 9.
1%1\. Pr J, 1\-3Ii.J
1 ~ .I1 (; . ~ . 1'. An"" . "[Jlbma'" 1.,..1 'n"" o( SI"'" Ib;p.'<L-- 1'"".-. 1".,'1. C~'. E"~__ .. ~
41. 1'!O'>!!.Pr. tl>-_IIL
!S.!! .\ . l!;IIe....q. S",p J/,llHoi "f Ik.,ip". \T"'~' I"'; "' l'uNic.oon~ r;""'-'nI ....1 C"""rc," ",,,,,;,,,,,.,.
WeAlum ~ ... ;~. S",",,,,. E.~w.t. 1 ~7~ ,
! ~ .I l .\ . Itille"'-"ll. '1r.., ,\,1,'"",,,,'<1 S'rip \\c'hQd----;I ~jn..,.., I)e,j~n T",~: ' Mu y. n.,,,,
I/'L ,01. 3-1 0. 121.
1%2 PrI"-I ~ 1
!S.l 4 11.. Par. ....1W. L n . m"",. 1/';11/<"'-','.1 C,,,,,,,..,, "'''dJ.I. 2"" od. OC,,",I"" ~) . leo'" WiI,,),. NL....' y,>rI. . .'(:OJ.
Pr 2.12-.'02.
! ~ .1 ~ .\ . It i l"~ , I,";p M"/,,.,J /),.,;~" lIu<l<1I><..,I.. E & 1-:-1 S",lfII(:b>[<"'" & lt ilL I ".><1< ... 19'",
1~ .1 6. S. '11""","",,,, :lIld S W,."""" ty_ K . "-~ . Th,,""f of 1'1",,_, "0<1 Sh>Ir. . 2..d cd __ Mc{;flIw_l!ill. Now
Y,>rI.. I'I.W
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
5 42 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r I~
Note: For all the following problems. uSt' material slrenglhs{, = 60 .000 psi and/; =
4000 ]lsi. All AC I Code requiren~nts for minimum Sk't'l. maximum spacings. bar CUI -
off. and special comer reinforcemenl arc applicable.
15. 1. The square slab of Fig. PI S.' is simply support~d by nmsollry walls along all
four sides. It is 10 carry a r.e ....,ice live load of 100 psf in addilion 10 its r.elf-
weighl . Specify a suitable load distribulion: determine moments at all COl llrol-
ling ><-'{"Iions; and select Ihe slab Ihickness. reinforcing bars. and spacing.
FIG URE 1'1 5. 1
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
15.2. n.e rectangular slab ,hown in Fig. P15.2 is a Iypical imerior panel ofa large
noo.- 'y,tem having beam, on all column line" Columns and beams are ,uffi -
ciemly ,Iiff Ihal Ih" ,lab call be considered fully reS1fa;ned alo"g all side" A
lin, load of 100 psf and a superimposed dead load of 30 psf mu,t he carril"<l in
addition to tl'" slab self-weight. Dct"nninc tl'" requ in.-d slab Ih;cb""s. and
'p""ify all r"info:ing bars and ,pacings. Cutoff points for negati"e bars
, hould be sp"'"ifled: all po,itive ,teel may re tarried imo tl'" ,uPt>OTting
reams. Take suppon mon",n1 !i 10 be 2 times the spa n mom"nts in Ihe 'trip,.
rTGU RE 1" 5.2 0-1' - " --1
""" II
II
" II
r-n---------n-- ,
---------------
II II I
II II 14"
II II J
-CUC--------CUC--
- n -------- n--
II II
II II
JJ, "
15.3. n.., slab of Fig. PI'i ,3 may he considered fully fixed along three edge,. bm il
i, wilhoul suppon along Ihe fourth. IOllg side. It Illllsi calTY a ulliformly di,-
trilluk"<l live load of 80 p<;f plu s an exlemal dead load of 40 psf. S]ll'Cify a suit-
able ,lab depth. and dClermine reinforcem"nt and cutoff points,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
nGUkE I'L5.3
I' (
"
3 edges fi xed 'I
1
'"
Free edge J
J
15.'1. Figure l' 15.4 slkm', a tounlerfon r~laining wall (sec SeCtion 17.9) consisling
of a ba~ slab and a m[lin venic"al wall of cnnstarn thiekne;;, retaining Ihe e[lnh .
Coumerfort walls sl"'ced al 19 fl on ~~ntep; along Ihe wall provide addilional
,uppon for th~ nmin slub. Each ~~Ii(}n of II", main wall. whic"h i, 16 fr Iligh
and 13 ft long. may be con,idered fully fix~d at ils base and al", along ils two
venical side, (because of ful l corninuity and identical loading~ On all ~uch I"'n
ds). The top of the rnain wall is willKlU1 ~upport. TI", it<)ri7.0ntal eanll pr~<sure
varies from 0 [It tI", top of the wal l 10 "~87 p'f at the lOr of II.., base slub.
Det~nnine a <uilable Ihickn~ss for th~ main wall. and ~lect r~inf"n:ing bars
and spacing.
I' - - '" ----1'I "00

nr. UkE "I S."
/ ''''''
r,~'I:'===='~'~'====~'I~'~'
15.5. TIlt triangular slub ,hown in Fig. pI'i.5. providing cover over a loading dock.
is fully fixed along two adjacent .ide, and free of supp"n along the diagonal
..... ge . A uniform snow load of 60 psf is anticipattld. De"d load of 10 p'f will
act, in addition to selfweight. I);'termine the required slab depth and <pec"ify
all reinforccm"nt. (Hint: TI,e main bottom reinforcement should be ""rallel to
the fr<'C ..... ge. and tl.., negative rcinforcemem should be p"'l"'ndicular to the
, upponed edges.)
FIGURE P15.5
r
".
LP:1===ci7
, """~ '1.---- " - - - .
'red
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
15.6. Figure 1'15.6 shows a re,'tangular slall with a large opening ""ar one COme,- It
is ,imply ,uppon."j alung one long ,ide and the adjacent shon side, and the
two edge' adj",-"nt to the <:>I""oing are fully fixed. A factorl'd load of 250 psf
mu't be camed. Find the required ,lall thickness. and ,."".-ify all reinfo"-"lIIent.
FIG URE l'I S.6

I' "
I C- '
r
,,'
c
I
I
I
I
I
..5
ixed edge
L
I
I
I "><: I"
Fi ~ed
15,7.
- ./
--'
I-- 13, ------J
n", TO<:>f de"k slah of Fig. PL'i.? i, intended to cafTY a tOial fa('[o,,--<I load.
including ""If-weight , of 16,'i I"f. It will ha"e fixed suppom along the two long
,ides and One shon sid", but tI", founh edg" must be free of any suppon. Two
16 in . square colulllns will be locatl'd as ,Ium-n.
(a) Ikt"rmine an acceptallll' ,Iall thi ckness,
(b) Sel ect appTOpriak load di'persio" li"cs.
(el Iktcrmine moments at all nitical ><-'Ctions.
(d) Specify bar ,izes, 'pa" ings. and cutoff poinl,.
(el (l",ek controlling section, in tI", slab for shear strength,
FIGU RE I'I S.7 _/.3edges !i. e<!
r
" Columns
16 X16"
t ++
( \
, ,
"
L~~=~
I.-- '" -.\.,1,- ",--,,1_, ,,--I
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,,"~. - I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FOOTINGS AND
FOUNDATIONS
16.1 T YPES AND F UNCTIO NS
Th~ ,ub;mlJctur~, or foundation, is the [XIn of a structure that is usual ly placed bdow
th~ ,urface of the gruund and that transmit, the load to th~ underlying soil or ruck. All
,oil, C<lmpr~ss noticeably wh~n lo"ded and cau"", the ,upponed ;;tructure to senle. 1he
two essential requirement' in the design of foundations are that the tOtal ,ettlement of
the struCture 00 limited to a tolerably smal l amount and th"t differential settleme nt of
the ""ious parts of the structure iJ<, el iminated a~ n~"'ly as p'"sible. With res~c't to
p',,~i ble structural damage, the elimination of difTe"'ntial ",nlement, i,e .. difTe r~nt
amounts of ",nlement withi n the same struCture. is even more imponant than lim ita-
tion.< on unifor m owran ",nlemem.
To limit settlements as indicat(.'<i, it is neces~ary (I) to tran~mit the load of the
Slruc'ture to a soil stratum of , uffi cient strength and (2) to spread the lo"d ",'er a suf-
fici~ntl y large area of that ,tratum to mini mize bearing ]'If~"ure. If ad~'<juate soil is not
found imn,.,.jiately below the structure, it hecnme, neces!<:Iry 10 use deep found"tio"s
such as piks or cais'I<)ns to IrJn,m it the load to deepe r. fm!ler lay~rs. If saiisfaL10ry
soil di",nly underlie, the 'tructur~, it is merely n~ces.",ry to spread the load, by foot -
ings or Othe r l1IeanS. Such substructures are knowo as ,lpread foumlatinns, and it is
"'''inly this type that will iJ<, discussed. Information on the m"", special types of deep
foundations can he found in teXIS on foundation engineering, e.g., Refs. 16.1 to 16,4.
_. 16.2 SPREAD F OOTINGS
Spreld footings can be classified as wall and column footings. The horizontal outlines
of the most common types arc given in Fig. 16, I , A wall footing is simply a strip of
re inforced concrct~, wider than the waiL that distribut~s its prcssure. SIngle-col umn
footings are osoall y square. sometimes rectang ul:,r. and represent the simplest and
most economical type , Their use under ex terior col umns meets with difftculti~s if
property rights pre~ent tb~ use of footings projecting beyond the exterior walls. In this
case, combined footings or strap footings are used that enable one to design a footing
tbat will not project ocyond the wall col umn , Combined foot ings under two or more
columns arc also used under closely spac.:d, heavily load~d interior columns where
single footings . if they were provided. wou ld completely or n~arly m~rge ,
Sucb individoal or combin(."<i column footings :,re the most frcqu~ntly used types
of spread foundations on soils of reasonahle ocaring capaci ty, If the soil is weak and/or
column loads nrc greal. the I"t.'quircd footing areas occomc so large as to he uneco
nomical. In this casco unless a deep foundation is called for hy soil conditions. a mat
545
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,," ~. - I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 16,1 0 0
Type, of 'I'...".J f<x~in8
10 01 G Wall
or raft foundation is reson~d to. Thi, coosi,ts of a solid reinfo"'l'il concrele slab lhat
eXlend, umkr the entire huildin g and, con>t.-quently. distrihules lile load of the struC-
ture over the maximum available area. Such a foundmion, in view of ilS own rigidity.
also minimizes differential seubnent. It eonsists. in it, ,impk't form. of a connell'
slab rei nfofl'ed in both di",etions. A form that pruvides mme rigidity consists of an
inven~d girder floor. Girder> are located in the column lines in ead, dir~<tion , and the
slab is p"widcd wit h two way rein fo",ement. spanning betwt...,n girder>. Itwl'n<'<l flat
slahs. with eapitals at tile tx>ttmm of tile ~'olumns , ar~ alw u>t.-d for mat foundations.
_. 16.3 D ES IG N FACTORS
In ordinary cOIlS(rucrion, the load on a wnll or cnlwnn is transmin~-d venically (0 the

footing. which in tum is ,uf\Jl<lr1ed by lhe opward pressure of the soil on which i( rests.
If tile load is symmetrical with resl"'ct to (he hearing area. the bearing pressure is
assumed to be unifonnly distrihU1~-d (Fig. 16.2,,). It is known that this is only approx -
immely (rue. Unde r fOOlings ""ting on coarse-grained soils. (he pressure is larger at
the Cemer of (he footing and dt.'Creases "",,'ard lhe fl<'rilll~tl'r (Fig. 16.21. Thi s i, so
because the individual gmin' in sud, ,oils are Mlmewha( mobile. M, that the soil
loca(ed do", ) lhe f"'Tin~ter Can shi ft very slightly outward in the d ireel ion of low~ r
M,il SIr";;ses. In contmst. in day M,il, pressure" are higher near (he "'dge than at the
center of (he fOOling. ,ince in such M,i I, the load produces a shear re,iSlanl'e ar()IJnd
FIG URE 16,2

Ikaring prt">'U," <ii,lIibuti"r,-
(a) as n"w"ed; (b) OClUaJ.
for granul.....,il" (e) .('["al.
for c",,"sh'e wils,
,
" , (OJ "J
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,," ~.- I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
rhe perimder thar add, to rhe upward pressure (Fig. 16.2c). lr is cust<;>mary 10 disre-
gard the"" nonuniformiri~s ( I) ""cause rheir numerical amoont is ullcenain and highly
variable, dCl"'nding on tyl"'s of "oil, and (2) because rheir infl""""" OIl rl", magnirude,
of ""rnling mon",nts and 'hearillg for,'e, in rl", fooli ng i, relatively small.
On cornpre<sibJe soils , fomiug~ SIKlU ld he loaded cOlK'Cntrically Hl avoid ti hing,
whi,'h will resu lt if ""aring pre",ure, are ,ignificam ly larger under one side of tI",
f'KKing than under the opposite <ide. 11,is meanS that single f(}()tings should he placed
conccntrically u",rer the column, and wall foolings concentrically under the walls and
thaI , for combiued fOOlings, the centroid of thc footing area ,!wuld coincide with tI",
resultant of Ihe column loads. F..ccemrically loaded fooling. can he used on highly
,,,,,up""led ,oil> and on roc k. h follows thaI 01'" ,hould count On rmat ional ""traim of
the column hy a si ngle fooling only when such favorahle ,oil condilions are present
and when the fOOling is designed both for Ihe column load arnllhe r~straiuing ,non ",nt,
Even then , less than full fixily ~hnuld "" assumed , except for footings on rock.
TI", accur~le determination <;If .lreS",' in foundatioll dement' of all kind, is dif-
ficult. panly w 'au", of Ihe uncertainties in determining the adual distribution of
upward pr~ssures 001 also oc'eause till: ~uu,'tural elemenls themsdve, repre",nr rela-
tively massive blocks or Ihi"k ,lab. subjecl 10 heavy co<K'Cntrared loads from the slruc-
ture above . Design [lfocedu",< for single--colurnn f,xlIin g' are based largely on tI",
resu lts of "xl"' rime ntal inve'ligations hy TaibOl (Ref 16.5) and Richan (Ref. 16.6),
TI,ese lesl. and tI", recomn",ndalimlS re,ulting from them have been reevaluak..J in till:
light of more r'-'Cenl research , (XInicularly Ihat focu'ing on shear and diagonal ren,ion
(Ref" 16.7 to 16.9). Combin'-'<I f,xl1ing' and mal roundaliOn< al,o can he designed by
'implified m"lhod,. allhough in{'reasing use is made of more ""ph islicared x)ls, such
as finile element analysis and sUUI-and-tk model,.
" 16.4 L OADS, B EARI NG P RESSU RES, AN D F OOTI NG SIZE
All owable ""aring pre"ure~ are e,tabli,hl..J from principle, of soil me,'hani," . on II",
basis of load lesl, and mher ~xperi mental determinations (see , for example, Rd,. 16. 1
to 16.4). Allowabk bearing pre"ure, q, under ",,,ice loads are usually hased on a
,afety fatlOr of 25 10 3.0 againsl exc~eding d", hearing capacity of the pani,'ular soil
and 10 keep ",tdement' within IOlerable limil'. Many local building nxl~s contain
allowable hearing pr~ssures for II", types ofsoils and soi l n;mdition, found in the par-
ticuar locality.
For {'onccnlri,'alty loaded f,xlIings , the requiR..J area is detenllined fmm
DH
A,,,, = --- ( 16.1 )
<"
In addi(jon , most codes permil a 33 I"'rccnI incre:tse in allowable pressure when the
eff"'ls of wind IV or earthq uake E are included. in which case.
D + L + IV D + L+ E
A" ( 16,2)
1.3Jq, 1J3qa
It should be noted rhal f,xlling sizes are delenninc'<l for unf""lOred !''''ice loads and
soil pr~... ~ures. in Cmttrl<1 to r h~ ,rrength ,"'sign of reinforeed toncrele n~Olhers.
whidl Ulil ires faclored load, and fa~1"red nominal slrength,. Th is is """au;;.,. for f,x>l -
ing design . safely is pr<)vid~d by the ov~r~lI ., afely facror~ jusl me"linned, in contrasl
10 the "'par~te load and 'trength r,-..Ju"ti"n f""tors u",d 10 din",nsio!l n",,,,ber.;.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,,"~. - I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
S4S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 16
n,~ "''-Iuired fooling area A ""I is Ihc larger of Iho", det~nnined hy Eq,. (16.1)
and (16.2). The loads in the numeralo,. of Eqs. (16.1) and ( 16.2) musl be cakulat~d
at the level of Ihc hu", of the footing, i.e .. at the <On1:J.tt plane betw~en soil and foot-
ing. This mean, Inat the w~ight of the footing and surcharge (i.~ . , fill and p"'sihj~ liq -
uid pressure On top of the f<;><>lingJ musl be inciuru."{i. Wind load, and other lateral
loads cauS<." a tendency 10 o\'~num. In ch<"Cking fOJ O\-enuming of a foundation. only
tho", li\'e loads that contrihote to ownurning SIK)lJld be includ~d, and ,karl loads Ilml
stabiliz~ against owrtuming shl)IJld be multiplied by 0.9. A 'lafely factor of at least 1.5
should be maintain<-d again,t ovenuming. unless oth~rwi", specifit.-d by the local
building cod~ (Ref 16.8).
A footing is ecc~ntrically loaded if the >uppon ed column is no! concentric with
the flK)ting area or if Ihe <'olumn Ifnnsmits at its j uncture with the footing not only a
verti<'al load but also a bending mon",lll. In either ca.",. the load eff~<ts al the fooling
ba"" can be rcpresented by the venicalload P and a bending nK",,,,nt M. The result-
ing bearing pr~ssure, are again assumed to be linearly distributed. As long as ti'"
resulting e<-centricity e = M P does not exce~d the kern di,tance k oflhe footing area,
the usual nexure form ula
P Me
- - - (16.3)
A I
permils Ihe dClenninalion of Ihc bearing pressures al Ihe IWO c,x lrcme edges. as shown
in Fig. 16.3u. The fOOling area is found by trial and error frollllhe condilion 'I...." "" 'I.
Iflhc eccemricilY falls outside Ihe kern. Eq . (16 ..~) gives a negative value (lens ion) for
'I along one ~dge of Ihe fOOling. B~causc no tension can be lransmill .."d al Ihe contacl
area bclw.:cn soil and fOOling. Eq. (163) is no longer valid and bearing pressures Jrc
diS(fibul~d as shown )n Fig. 16.31>. For reclangular foolings of size I x I,. Ihc maxi
mum pressure c:m be found from
1P
'I."" = Jb", ( 16.4)
whi<'h, again, muSt be no larger than th~ allowabl~ pres~urc '10' For nmlrcclangular
flKlting area, of variou, configuration,. k~m distan<.." and ott",r aid., for calculating
bearing (lfc"ures can be found in Refs. 16.1 and 16.8 and clsewl"'rc.
FIGURE lid
Aum<d hearing I'"""U""
under eccemrically loaded
CP " CP "
h lting.
p
, ,
p p p
l ie
r-
H--"'1
- I k
n l I
!
"I 101
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FI GU IU: 16,4
Wall f(~~ing_
1.-1,-' - ,- '--,,1
EXi\ ,\ l PL E 16.1 O",lgII or wall roo llng. i\ 16 in. c"""",le wall ,uflIlOn, a dead load D - 14 ~irsJfl and a
live load L = 10 kipslfJ. Too .Howahle be,.-inll pres,ure i, q. = 4. ~ ki rWli' al Ih" Ie"el of
It.. bouo m of lb. fOOling. whkh is 4 h helow gr.ld,,_ Design a fOOling for Ihi, wall using
-lOOO psi coocrel~ and Grade 60 'Ieel.
SUI .IJIIUN. Wilh a 12 in, Ihick f~i"g.IhI: fOOling weighll"" "Iu","" fOOl is 150 psf. alld lile
weight of 111< .l h fill 011 top of 111< fOOling i,.l X 100 - 300 psf. COI'''''luently.lhe pottiOl' of
{o" allowao., bearing "",,,slIre {hOI is "",ilabk or elf""{i,,, for ca..-ying {hi: wall load is
q, ~ 4500 - 150 -+- JOO K 4050 psf
The require<! width of the fo,,.ing is {heref"'" b = 24.000 4050 = 5.9~ ft, A 6 ft wide foot
ing wi ll be a"umed_
Th" bearinM pre",ure for strength desiM" of {he f~ing. CJused by {he [J(;lore<! load,. i,
1.2X]4-+-1.6 x I0 0'
q. = I> XI = 5470l"f
From ,hi,. (II< fac{"",d ,,..,men! for menglh (~sign is
M. - * X 5470 6 - 1__13 'X 12 - 17R.900in.ll) f1
,nd assuming d = 9 in .. {he ,hl:ar at =(ion 22 is

,
V - .s410 - 6 - 1.3-' - -
, - R670Ibf{
~ 1~
Shl:ar usuaJi)' go,,"m, 10" deplh of fOOling>. paniculJrly since (hi: u><: of sm.,.- reinf""",
n",ms in fOOling' i, generoUy avoided a, ul",,-,ooomkal . The design ,bear 'i!rengih rer fOOl
1= Eq .(4.12h)ji,
V.. - 2 7}b<1 - 0_75 2 401~) X 12d - 1l3&l lb f!

from which
8670
' - - - -7_6in
ILJ8
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,,-~. - I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Once II", required flXlting area ha.~ Ix..,n octermined. the footing muSt then boo:
desig,,,,d to de,-dor the nl_=,sary "rength 10 r ~sist all moments. ,hears, ami othe r
internal actio", caused by the applied load,_ For thi, purl'o",. the load factor,; of ACI
Code 9.2 apply to footing, as to all other structural components. Correspondingly. for
'trength design, tl'" fOOling is din",,,,ioned for the dT"'el, of the following external
loads ('lee Table 1_2):
U 1.2D + 1.6L
or if willd efTects are to he indud~..-:l.
U - 1.2[) + 1,6L, + 1.0L + 0.81V

III ",ismic znnes. eanhquake foTCcs Emu", he considered according to Tallie 1.2. The
fl"<lu i ren~nt that
U - 0 ,9[) + 1.61V
wil I hardly e""r govern tM strength de_sign of a f<)()!iog. but will atTect o",," urning ami
stallility. Later.il eanh pre,sure H may. on oo:a.sion, affect footing design. in which case
U = un + 1.6 " + If + 0.51-,
For prcswrcs F from liquids. such as groundwater. I ,2F m ust be added to the first
l'quaftOn.
These factored loods must be counleraeted and cqurlibnned by corresponding
b.:aring pressures in the soil. ConSl'quent ly. once the footing area is determined. the
bc~ring press ures nrc r,-'Calc" lmed for Ihe factored loads fOf purposes of S(fengfh com
pUfafions. ntcse arc ticfitious prcssurcs fhaf arc nccdc>d only to determine the focforcd
loads for uSC in design. To disl inguish thcm from Ihe aclU~1 pressures If under servicc
loads. the soil pressures fhaf equilibrafe the factored loads U will be dcsigmn~d 'I,.
"- 16.5 WA l l F O OTINGS
The s imple principles of ocam aCfion apply to wall fooli ngs wilh only minor modifi
cafions. Figure 16.4 shows a wall foofing wifh Ihe forces acfing on il. If b.:oding
momclI1s were compufed from lhcsc forces. fhe max imum OlOll1Cnl would be found 10
occur af fhe middle of Ihe widfh. ACfually. the "~ry larg~ rigidify of Ihe wall modifies
fhis sifuafion . and fhe ICsts Cif~d in Seclion 16,., show Ihal. for foofings under concrefe
wall s. il is safisfactory 10 compute Ihe mom~1I1 af fhe face of fhe wall (secfion 11),
Tension crac~s in thcse leSfS fonncd al fhe locafions shown in Fig. 16.4. i.e .. under fhe
facc oflhe wall rafher than in the middle. For foofings supponing masonry walls. fhe
ma.xitl1Unl moment is compuled midway b.:nwc n fhe middle and fhe face oflhc wall,
I>c<:~usc masonry is genemlly less rigid than CO()Cref~. The maximunt bending momcnt
in fOOlings under concrefe walls is fherefore given by
t
/If - -8 " ' /> - a" (16.5)
For Ocfenni ning shear sfresses. the "cnical shcar forcc is com pUled on Sl'Cfion 2
2. locaf~d . as in ocams, at a distancc d from Ihe face of fhe wall , Thus.
b- "
V =" -2- -d ( J6.6)
The calculation of dewlopmenl length is lxtscd 011 th~ section of maximum

monwnl. ;,<'. sccl;on 11.
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
In <"<"nputing bending IIlIm",nt, nnd ,Ilen". only tl'" upward pre,sure q. that i,
cauS<.-d by the factored column load, i, consid~r"d. The weight of tl", f{xlting pmper
docs not cau", moITJent, or sl",ars . ju,t as no mument' o r ,hears are pr~"'nt in a book
lying flat on a t abl~.
a. Shear
Once tile r~XJuired footing area A ... ha..~ been e'tablish~d from tl", allowable bearing
pressure q" and th~ most unfavorable combination of ",rvice loads. including weight
of f{K)ting and ovcrlying fill (and such surcharge as lila) be pre,e nt). the thick""ss "
of lhe f{K)ting must be de1ermi"eu. In single foutings. the eff~<.1ive depth d i, mostly
governed by ,he",". Sin,.., ""'h foutings are ,uhjen to two-way anion. i.e .. bending in
hoth major dir<'<'ti<;IIls. their performance in shear i, much like that of flat ,Jah, in the
vicinity of column, (see Secti<Kl 13.10). Huw~ver. in Contr~'t to two.. way floor and
nK)f ~Jahs. it is generally not <,<,,,nomical in footing, to use shear rein forcement. For
thi, rea"m. only the de'ign {;Ii f{K)ting.~ in whi,h all ,hear is ,anied by tile CQncrct~
will be discu,sed here. For the rar~ c~s where the thickn"" is restricted su that ,Ilear
reinforcel!lent mu,t be uS<.-d. thc information in Sectiun 13.1 0 ahuut ,labs applie, alsu
tu footings.
Two different types of ,bear 'trength are distingui,h<.-d in f(KJlings: twu-way. or
pU<l<"hing. ,Ilear and one-way. or beam. ,hear.
A column supported hy tbe slab shown in Fig. 16.6 tend, to punch through that
,lab because of the ,hear ,tre,ses that act in the fOOli ng around tile perimeter of tile
colulllll. At tile "'''''' tillle. the <"<,"centr~ted col1lpres.~ive ,tre,se, from the column
'pread out into the footing so that tile Concr~te adja,ent tu the ,olumn i, in ven ical or
,lightly inclined compression. in additi<;m to 'hear. As a "',"",quence. if failure o",urs.
the fmcture take, the form of the truncak-d pyr~mid shown in Fig. 16.7 (or uf a trun -
cated con~ for a round column). with side, sluping outward nt an angle approaching
45. The average .hear stress in the cOncrete that fails in this m:mner can be taken a,
that 'Kting on venical pl:me, bid through the ftxlting around the culumn on a I"'rime-
g ,
p
,
FI(;URE 16.6 FIG URE 16.'
F\loching-,hear faj l"" in siogle footing. Critical "'Cljo.' foe "",or.
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Since ACI Code 7,7. 1 c,lIs for a 1 in, clear covcr on ba,.". a 12 in. Ihick fOOling will be
selected. ~i,'i n l: J - 8 ,5 in, Thi, is suflicic"l ly do>-c 10 Ihe a"umed vallie,. and the calcu-
lJlions need IlOl be re\"i~.
To <iclconi".: Ihe rc'luircd \lcd arca. ,\I, bd' - 178.900-(0.90 X 12 X 8.S') - 229 is
u~ 10 enierGrnph A.lb of App"'ndix A. For Ihis ,.,tlue. lhe cu,,'e 60 4 gives lht> .... inforce-
ment 111tio - 0.00~8. The I'C<llIircd ;1,,<:1 arca is thenA. - 0.((J38 X 8 ,~ x 12 - 0.39 in'lft,
No, ~ (No. Ib). '>!: in, on cellle,.". fumish A, = 0 . .19 in'lft 1lie required de.'elopmem lenglh
according 10 Table A_IO of Appendi x A is 2.. in , This lenglh is to be furniShed from seclion
1- I OIllwanj, Tile iengl h of each bar. if end cover is ., in .. is 72 - 6 = 66 in .. alld lile OCIlIal
(levdop.-..:nl kll~th from section I- I (0 the nearby end is t -66 - 16 - 25 in .. "hidl is
more Ihan the required de\"lopmem length.
Longiludi",,1 shrinicaMc al~1 IcmllCrnlurc reinfortt1t1cm_ OCI.'OI"ding 10 ACI Code 7.12_
musl be al leasl 0.002 X 12 X 12 0 ,29 in' lfL NO.5 (No, 16) bars on 12 in, ,enle" will
3
furnish 0,31 in'lft.
, 16.6 COLUMN F OOTINGS
In plan. single-column fOOlings are usuany >quiITe. ReclanguliIT fOOlings are used if
space reslriclions dicla!" th is choice or if lhe supported coillmns have a strongly don
gak>d !,<-'<'tangular cross se<:lion. In tlk' simplesl form. tlwy consisl of a sing l ~ slab (Fig ,
16.5.1) , AnOlher I)'P'" is lhnt shown in Fig . 16,5 b. wlll'Te a pedeslal oreal' is 1I1terposed
belween tlw column and tlw fOOling slab; till' pedesla l I'rovio..' s for a more favomble
transfer of load and in many cases is required 10 provide Ihe necessary de,"elopnk'1Il
lenglh for dowds , TItis fnon is also known as a "t~ppnl footing. All pans of a stepped
fOOling mllst be cast at on~ linw 10 provide monolithic oction , Sometimes slopc>d foot
ings like those shown in Fig. 16.5<' are used. TIwy require "'SS concrete Ihan step!X-..:i
fOOlmgs. oottlw addiliona l labor necessary 10 produce the sloping surfaces (fomr""",,k.
etc.) usually mn kes stepp.>d fOOlings more ~'COnof11ical. In getwml. single-,lub foolings
(Fig. 16.511) ilTe mOSI economical for Ihicknesses up 10 J f1.
Single-col umn fOOlings can be re presenll..:i as cantil~,'ers projecting o ul from Ilw
column in boIh di r~tions and loaded upwilTd by till' soil pr"ssure. Corr"sponding len
sion stresses are caused ill both of these directions at the bollom surface , Such foot
ings are. Iherefore . reinforced by IWO lay"rs of sleel. p"'rp.'ndkular to "och OIher and
pamlld ) Ihe edges.
1lIe r(.><1uired bearin g area is obtainctl by dividing Ihe t01 al IO;1d. including IIle
weight of the footing. hy the sele(-k..:i bearing pres.'u", . Weight' of fOOling'. at thi s
Mage , must be estimated and usually amoul!I to 4 ) 8 percent of the column 10aJ. lhe
fonne r value applying to the stronger Iypes of " ,ik
FI GURE 16.5
Type' of ,ingie-coi" "ln
ti""ing'.
") 1'1 I')

o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ler a dislance d- 2 from lile faccs of Ille colum11 (venical section Ihrough <l1n:d in Fig.
16.7). 111C concr.:te subject 10 this shear Slress v. , is also in vertical cOlnprcssion from
Ihe stresses spreading out from thc column. and ,n horizontal compression in bolh
major directions bc-..:ause of the biaxial bending moments in the fooling. This triaxial
ity of stress incre:\SCS the she:u s1I\:lIglh of tile concrete. Tests of footings and of flal
SI:lbs ha"e shown . corresponding ly. that for punching lype failures the sh~ar stress
compuled on Ihe crilical peri meIer area is larger than in one way action (e.g .. beams) ,
As diseussed in Seclion 1), 10. Ihe ACJ Code equalions (I J.lla.l).d give Ihe
nominal punchingshear strenglh on this perimeter:
Vo ~ 4 f; ",,/ (16.7a)
~xc~pt for column~ of elol\gal~d cross section. for which
4
2 +- . (16.7h)
For cases in which Ihe ratio of crilical peri meIer 10 slab deplh 1>0 d is very large,
,,j
V., = -- + 2 J;' h.;1 ( 16_7c)
b"
where"o is Ihe perirl k'ICT"b{'{1 iTI Fig. 16.7, e = " b is Ihe rJtio of the long 10 short
sid~s of Ihe column cross section; and ,is 40 for im~rior looding. -'0 for edge load -
ing. and 20 for con,.,r load ing of a fOOling , l1l~ punching-siwar slTCllglh of lhe fOOl-
ing is 10 bc luken as Ihe smallesl of Ihe val ues giwn by Eqs. (16.7a). (16.7b). and
(16.7cl. a nd Ihe design smmglh is Ve' as usual. where = 0.75 for sh~ar.
11,., applicalion of Eqs. (16.7) 10 punching shear in foolillgs under columns wilh
oll,.,r Ihan a redangular cross seclion is shown in Fig. 13.23, For sudl silnalions. ACI
Cod., 11.12.1 indicates Ihal likl perirnel~r b o muSI be of minimum lenglh 001 1I~'C<.l1l01
approach doser than d 2 to lhi' perimeter of lhe aclual londed ar~a. The manner o f
defining" alld I> for such irregular loaded areas is also shown in Fig. ]3 ,23. If a
moment is lrdnsferred from li~ column to lhe fOOli Tlg. lhe criteria discussed in Seniorl
13.11 for likl Iransfer of mOille", by bending and shear at slabcolumn connections
muSI be satisfied ,
Shear failures call also occur, as in beams or OII~-way slabs. al a Sfflion a dis-
lance d from the face oflhe colurun. su~h as seetioll cfof Fig. 16.7. JuSI as in beams
and one-way slabs. II,., lIominal shear slrenglh is giwil by Eq. (4.1211). Ihul is.
1.9 f:- + 2500 -V",I /Jd "" 3.~-

f~ ~'I
J.I" (16.Sa)
M,
where I> = widlh of fOOling aI dislanc~ d from fae. of col u mn
= "fin Fig , 16,7
\', = 10lal factored si~ar force on Ihm seclion
= 'I.
limes fOOling area outside lhat section (area <'fXI' in Fig. 16.7)
M , = mOnkln! of \', about "f
In fOOling design. Ihe simpler and SOnk'whallHOre co"sa~alive Eq. (4.12") is gelk'r
ally used. i.e ..
( 16.81
11,., required depth of fOOling ,/ is II,.,n cakulated from Ihe usual equaliOiI
v" s V, (l6.9)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I "-foHtI. _ I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
applied separaldy in COlHlCclion wilh Eqs. ( 16.7) and (16.8) . For Eq. ( 16.7). V. _ V. ,
is Ihe 10lal upward preSS!!rc caused by 'I. on Illc arca oUlside Ille perinlClcr ,,1K"d in
Fig. 16.7. For Eq. (16.8), V .. V,l is Ihe 10lal upward pressure on lhe area 'igl, o ut -
side Ihe scclion .f in Fig. 16.7. Th~ requ ired depth is Ihen the larger of those calcu -
Imed from either Eq. (16.7) or(16.8). For shear. ' .. 0.75.
b. Bearing: Transfer of Forces at Base of Column
Whcn a column rcSlS on a fooling or pedC013I. il transfas ils lood 10 only a paM of lhe
10lal area of Ihc supporling mcmher. The adjacem fooling concrcle provides Imeral
SUppoM 10 Ihc d ireclly loaded pari of Ihe concrete. nlis causes Iriaxial compressive
slresses Ihm increase Ihe sirength of Ihe coocrelC Ihal is load~d d irect ly under lhe col -
umn. Based on leSlS. ACI Code 10.17.1 provides Ihat when Ihe supponing area is
wider Ihan Ihe loodcd an:a on all sides. lhe design bearing sirengih is
A, :S 0.85 r; A , X 2 (16.10)
A,
For hearing 011 concrete. .. 0.65.f; is th~ cyhmkr sln:ngth of thc fooling concrelC,
which frcquem ly is less tllan tllal of Ihe col umn. and A, is the loaded area. Al is Ihe
area oflhe lower bas~ oflhc largcsi fruslum of a pyramid. COlIC. or laperc"d wedge con -
lained wholly wilhinlhe suppoM and having for ill upper base Ihe loaded an:a and hav-
ing side slopcs of I vCMical 10 2 Ilorizomal. Thc nloOaning of Ihis ddi nilion of Al may
he clarified hy Fig. 16.8. For Ihe some ..... hat unusual case shown. "here the lOp of lhe
SUppoM is SICppc"d, a slep thai is Oc-cper or closer 10 the looded area limn Ihal sho"'n
may result in reduclion in Ihe "aluc of Al . A footing for which Ihe lOp surface is sloped
nG URE 16.11
Dtfini{;oo of .re", A,
"nJ A, . -------7'
/1
r - {/ :
1
451'
1
" 4.5"____'"
_L 1
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
away from II", loaded area more st""ply than I to 2 will result in a "alue of Al <-'qual
to A ,. In mOSt u,ual case,. for which the !Of' of the footing i, flat and the sides are ver-
tical. A} is simply the maximum area of the ponion of the supponing surf""e that i,
g<-'ometrically ,imilar to, and cO'll'cmric with. the loaded area.
All axial force, and ~nding mo=m, that act at II", bottom section of a column
must be tmnsferrNi to the f{x)t ing m the bearing surface by (-ompre!iSion in the con -
crete and by reinforce"",n!. With re'pe<:t to II", reinforcement, this ""'y be done either
by ntending the col umn bani into tl", f(xKing or by providing dowel, that are emlx-'{I -
d<-' merely reSt
on the f{x)t ing and in IIKISt cases are tied to dowels . Thi, results in a simpler con -
,tru('[ion pnx,edure Ihall extending the columll bar> into the footing. To en,ure the
inlegrity o f the junction beN'eell column and footing. ACI Code 15.8.2 fl'<Juires thm
the minimum area of reinforcement that cros"" the bearing surface (dowel, or column
bani) be 0.005 time, lbe gross area of the ,uppoll<-'<i columll. 11", length of the dowel,
or bars of diameter db must be sufficient on both side, of the hearing surf""e to pro-
vide the required development length (or compression bani (",e Section 5.7). that is,
I. 2: O.02f, d. J: and 2: O.(nH/, db. In addition. if dnweh are used, tl", lapl"'d lenglh
must be at least that fl'quired for a lap ,pli(-e ill compre"ion (><-" $e('[ion5.llb): i.e ..
the length of lap must n01 be less than the usual development length in compre"ion
and must n01 be less than O.OOO'if, '/" Where bani of different <izes are lap-spliced. the
'plice length should be the larger of the development length of tJ", larger bar OJ II",
'plice length of the smaller har. according to the ACl OKk.
11", twO largest bar sizes. No,. 14 (No. 43) and I 8 (No. 57). are fr"'luently used
ill COIUIllIIS with large a~ial forces. Umkr normal circumstances, the ACI Code specif-
ically prohibit, the lap ,pi icing of lhese bar, ~cause test> have shown lhat welded
'plice, or mher positive cOIll",ction, are necessary to develop these heavy hars fully.
However. a specific exc~ption is made for dowels for Nos. 14 (No. 4 3) and I S (No.
57) column ban. Relyillg 011 long-standing ,utte!iSful u-'le. ACI Cooe 12. I 6.2 permit>
these I",avy bani to he spliced to dowel, of lesser diameter [i.e .. No. II (No. 36) or
,mailer]. provided that tl'" dowels have a develop"",nt length into the column corre-
'!"lnding to that of the column bar [i .e" Nos. I4 or 18 (Nos. 43 or 57). as the case may
be] and into the f(Klting as preseribed for the panicular dowel size [i.e .. No. I I (No.
36) or ,maHer, as the (-ase may he].
c. Bending Moments, Reinforcement, and Bond

If a venical ""'-'tion is passed through a f{x)t ing, the bending "","",nt that i, caused in
the ""'-'tion by the lIet upward -,<oi I pressure (i.e .. faClor<-'<i col ulHn load divid<-'<i by bear-
illg area) is obtained from si mple static,. Figure 16.9 ~how, such a ""'-tion cd located
alm'g t1", fat~ of t1", col umn . The bending moment about cd i~ that caused by t1",
upward pressure q. On the area to one ,ide of the section. i.e .. th~ area "bcd. The rein -
force""' nl perpendicular to that ><-",tion. i.e" the bani fUnning in tl'" long dire('[ioll, i,
calculated from this bending llK}l1Ient. Likewise , the moment about ""'-tion <1 i, caused
by the pres<ure q. OIl the area h,,/g. and the reinforcelllent in the ,hon din.'C1ion. i.e ..
perpendicular to ,1, i, calculated for thi, bending momenl. In f(KKing> that ,up!,,'"
reinforct.'<i concrete columns, these critical se(-tions (or h<ending are I,x-ated at tJ", face,
of the loaded area , as showo.
III footings supponing steel COIUIllII" the St.'{-t ions cd and ,,/ are located not at th~
<-'<ige of t1", ,teel 1m", plate hut halfway between the edge of the column and thm of
the s1<-..,1 base plate. a~'Cording toAC! Code 15.4.2.
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 16.?

Critical ...,,tion. fo< bending
.nd bond.
Column
, ,
In foolings with 1><'d(''''<I/,.. the width resisti ~g compression in seclions u/ and t[
is thai of the pt:<icstal: Ihe corresponding deplh is Ihe sum of Ihe thickness of pedeslal
and fooling . Further seclions parallel to ul and e[ are passed at Ihe edgc of lile
]X>dcslal. and Ihe nlOnlents arc delennirll>d in the sanle manner. to eheck the strength
at locations in which tile depth is thai of the footing only.
For footings with relatively small pe!l.:stals. tile laller are often discounted in
nlOnlCnl and shear computation. and bend ing is chc'C ~ed m the face of the column.
with width and depth equal 10 that of the footing propt:r.
In "'1'"If''' [oolill/:.I. the reinforcemcm is uni formly dis1ribut~d over Ihe width of
Ihe fooling in each of Ihe two layers: i.e .. the spacing of the bars is constant. The
TllOnlCnts for which tile IWO layers arc desigrlCd arc the smne. How,,'er. the eff.:.;t;'e
depth d for the upper laycr is less by I ror diank:ICr than that of Ilk: lower lay~r.
Consequently. Ihe r~'quired A, is larger for Ihe upper layer. Instead of using d ifferent
spacings or diffeft!m bar diamders in cad of the two layers. i\ is customary 10 deter
mineA, hased on average depth and to usc Ihe SaTlIC amtnge11lcnt of reinforcernem for
both layers.
In reUaIlX,,/ar [ominX". the r.:inforcenlCnt i" the /m,g direc/ioll is aga in uni
fonnly distributed over the pertinent (shorter) widlh. In locaring the bars in the short
direction, aile has to consider Ihat the support provided \0 tile footing by tile column
is cOllCentrat~>d rlear the middle . Consequently. Ihe curvature of the fooling is sharpest.
i.e" the rnoment per foot Inrgesl. inH1ICdiatdy under tile column . nnd it decreases in
the long dir~"Ction with inc reasing distance from the column. For this r.:ason . a larger
steel area per longitudinal fool is rlCeded in the central portion than ncar the far ends
of the footing. ACI Code 15.4.4. therefore. provides the following:
Fur reinforcement in the ShOfl dire<;lion . ponion of the loral reinforcement !g;"en by
Eq. (16.11) ,j'ali l>e distributed uniformly O\'~r" band ",wth (C""lered on tl", c~ nterline
of (ht: column or pt>deS!JI) ~"al (0 tht: length of (lie ,hofl ,ide of (he footing. Tile renoain
der lOf the reinforcem"nt required in 11", ,hofl direction ,halll>e diS!ribu(oo un ifonnly om
side (ht: Center band wid(h of 11>e footing.
ReinforcenlCll! in band width

Total reil1forcement il1 short dire.;tion ---- 2
+ I
(16 . 11)
where is 1he ratio of the long side to the .hort side of Ilk: footing .
According 10 the ACI Code 10.5.4, the usunl minimum l1ex ural reinforcement
ratios of Section 3.4d need nOI be applied \0 either slnbs or footings. Instead. the
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,,-~. - I THI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
minimum st",,1 r<.'qui "' ment~ for shrinbg~ and temperalUfl' c ",,:k comro] for structural
,Jab, are 10 he imposed, a, given in Tabt ~ 13 _2. Tt;., maximu m spating of ha,-,; in the
direclion of the span is reduced 10 the le=r of 3 Ii m." the footing thickness II and 18
in" rather than _~II a, i, normal for shrinbge and lemperature st""l. Tt;.,se require
ments for minimum steel and maximum spa"ing are to be appli ....t to mat foundmion,
as well as indi"idual footing>_
Earl ier ....tition' of the ACI Code. through 1989. were SIlmewhat ambiguous as
to whether or not mini mum st""] r<.'quirement~ for flexu ral memhe,-,; were 10 he
applied to ,Iab~ and f,xltings _ For ~labs , the arg umem was presented that an .",erload
wou ld he distribut~d lalerally and lhat a sudde" failure is thefl'fore less likely dmn for
heams; therefore the usual r"'lui relll"nt could he relaxed. Although that reasoning Illay
apply to high ly indelenninat~ huilding fl,x,,~. the possihi lily for redistribution in a
f'Klting i, much more lirnik..t. B....:ause of Ihis, and hecause of the irnponance of a
i'Kning to tt.", safety of the ,tructure. many engineer; apply d", minimum flexural rein
forceme m ralio of F..q. (3.41) to footings as well as heams. n ,is seems pru dent. and the
foltlm'ing design e xample> u"" the more conservative minimum flexural sled ""luire
ments of Eq. (3.41).
n", <;rilical section, for dt.velopme m length of fool ing bars are the same as those
for bending. o.,,eiopment length may also have w he ,' he,' ked at all vcnical plane, in
whi,' h changes of ""'tion or of reinforcement .x;ru r. a, a! the ....tges of ped~sla], or
wl",re part of the rcinforc~ment may be terminated.
EX !\'\ 1PLE 16.2 I ""'i~ nora "'IU ~'" r, ...' ing. A cnlu mn 18 in_ square. "'ill1/; - 4 hi. reinforced "'ilh ~ight
No.8 (No. 25) bars of!, = 60 ksi, S"WO"' " <lea<! load of 225 ~irs and a he load of
17_S ki rs_ The aJlowable soil ~"ure q. i$ 5 ~ipsl1't'_ Design a "lu"", footing with ba'" 5 li
below grnde. usin~/; = 4 ksi and/" = 60 hi.
SUl.lnlUN. Since the 'pace belw~"" th<: oonom of 1he footing and til< surf"". will be oc...u
pi~d part])' by coueme and pa"l y by soil (till ). an average unit weighl nf 125 pef will be
assumed. The rr~"u", of thi' "lJt~rial at the 5 fl Ikplh is 5 X 125 = 625 psf. l.~'i ng a bear
ing I"'"'''''' nf "I, - 5000 - 62_S - 4.n5 l)Sf available In carry the cnl umn service Inad
Hell<.'C. til< req uired footing area A ... = (225 + 175)4.375 = 91.5 (1'. A b"", 9 f1 6 i".
sq u"", is ..,Iecled_fu rni,hing a fnoting area nf 9O_:lli' . which differ< fro m the n:'luired area
by.boot I I"'rc.nt .
For strength design. ,tie upward pre;sure cause<! by the faclored column lrod, is 'I. -
(1.2 X 225 + 1.6 X 175)-9.5' ~ 6. \0 ~ipslli'.
The fOOling depth in square footings i, u<uaJly detennil",d ba,ed nn two-way or punch.
ing shear on tl>< cri tical peril1let~r abed in Fig. 16.10. Trial cakulalions . uUest ,j = 19 in.
He"ce. lhe lenglh nf 1M critical perimeter is
h,, = 4 18+,j = 148;n.
The shear force 3(1ing 00 thi' peri meter. being C"l"al tn the total upward ~s,un: minus
tbm a<.1ing withi" the I"'rilll"I"' ,,"'d.
i,
v., - 6_10 9_5'- " - 492 ~ips
The co.-responding IIOmin,l shear slrength

",_Ila)) is
[Eq. ( I
v, = 4 - -
4(0) X t48X
" 7 11 kips
1000 =
Vo - O_7.S X 7 11 - 534 kips

o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 16,10 9

Critical ,,tion. fo.- Example
16.2, I
I
I
,,-- I
I ,
I 9,5"
I
-'2-- 90S'
Column
I 18' x 18
,
l_j __
I
LI
I '
2.42 ' --+- HI" ~ 4.00' ---I
I I
I I
,-I,--'- -,,_,-_
' ------',I
SitlCe the de,ign mength exceed, the foctored ,hear V.,.
the del~h Ii - 19 in. i, :t<kquate
for pu"'hing ,hear. The ",I""too "alu~ d = 19 in. will ""'" be d>ed,,,d for one","y or beam
sheor on sectioo If Tt.. factored 'he", fotee octing onlhat sedion is
V" = 6,10 x 2,42 X 9.5 = 140 kips
and tlte t>Jminal ,hear ,trength is
V, _240Uo x9.5x
The design ,heaT "rength O.i5 X 2i4 - 20.~ kips i, Jarger lMn the foctored ,hear V",. so
Ihat II = 19 in, is also adc><juate f'" "",,way ,hcor,
T he bending n>Jn>enl on seclion Xh of Fig. 16. 10 is
M , _ 6,10 X 9.5 4: 12 _ 556Din. kips
Became It.. derth required for shear i, reatl)' in excess of (ha( required for bending. thc
rcinIOr"""Ie'" ratio will be low ",><.I tile c'()I"I'C!,pon{\ing Ikpoll of tile reclangular \lres, "Iod
small. If" = 2 in . the required ,(eel arca is
,
, 0 ; .. "c',',""";;c::C;- = 5.72 in'
0.90 X 60 19
Checking lh<' minimum re inforcement ratio using Eq. (3.41) "'-'UlfS in
3 4000 ,
A, .... - Xl14XI9-68,Si"
6<>"'"
001 not Ie" fhan
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU : 16,1'
F,."ong in Er.amplt 16.1.
8 No 8 (No, 25) ~Is

4' Ylong
r

t-
I
I
I
12 No, 7 (NO. 22)
each w~
9'-0"1oog ~
DJ

IS"
-t
I
I
I
l
I ~ I
I ". I
l- ------+
I. g'-S" .1
Th., cOOllrolling va lue of 7,22 in' is larger Ihan 'he 5.72 in' c.1lculaled for bending. Tweh'e
No, 7 (No. 22) bars furnish ing 7.20 in' will De used in "arh dire'{"lion, TI", ,equired devel-
Ol'mcnllenglh beyond section ~h is found from Table A. 10 to be 41 in .. "'hieh is morc than
OOt'qumely met by the acrualle!l,l',h of bars tx;,'ond sect;oo !(h, namely 48 - ., ~ 45 in.
Che.;kinJ!. fOf Iwnsfe, of IM"!S .11 II>;: base of ,he c'Ohu"n shows Ihat II>;: fOOli ng COllcrele.
which has lile s"",.. f: as the column coocre1e and for which tt... suenglh is onhaoced accord-
ing 10 1'4 (16.10). is clearly capablc of ,a!i)'i"g tl'at pan of 11'e colu"''' 100<.1 lransmitted
by the colum" COIICre!e. Tile foree in tile oolnmn carric'<l by the steel w; 1l bc lransminc'<l to
lhe fOOling ",ing dowels to match II>;: col"m" bars. Tl>;:se m,,:\1 e'te"J into llle f~in 8 lhe
f"1I de\'elopmenr lengrh in compression. which i, found from Table A, II of '\ r[>endix A 10
be 19 in. for No. 8 (No , 25) bars. Tltis is acrommoonlcd in. fOOli ng "'ilh d _ 19 in. Abo\'.
lile lop surface of the fOOling, rile NO.8 (No, 15) dowels must e"'lend imo rile column lhal
same Je,'clopn)Cnl length. 1),,1 OOIlcss Iha n 111c TC(ju; r~m""u for a lappc'J sphc"! in ~omprcs
siotl (see Secriotl 5.llb). The minimum lap splice length for rhe No.8 (No. 25) bars is
OJ1OO5 X 1.0 X 60.000 - 30 in .. which is seen 10 c'()l\lml here. Thus II>;: 00" will be car-
ried 30 in, inlo li1e column. requiring a tOlal dowell englh of 49 in, Tltis will be rounded
"pward for I"""tical r~a",ns 10 4.25 fl. a\ \ho"",, in I~g , 16, I I. Ii is easily COOlfirmcd lha' ltl<'
minimum dowel 't",,1 Il'<juiremenl of 0,005 X 18 X 18 = 1.62 in' does not control here.
I'or COllCrelC in Cotl!1IC1 wi, h VOU<XI. a minil"um eMer of 3 in. is re'<luired for wrrosion
protection. With J = 19 in .. measured from lile lOp of Itle fOOling 10 lile cente, of rhe urI""
lay" of bars. II>;: 10u l \hic~ncss of Ihe fOOling Ihal is required 10 proviJe 3 in. clear coyer
for IRe lowe, sreellayer is
h= 19 + UX I +3=23,5i".
Tlte fOOling, wilh 2~ in, lhidocss. is ,how'n i" Fig, 16, I I.
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
S60 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 16
'- _. 16.7 COMBINED F OOTINGS
Sprcad footings Ihm suppon more than one col umn or wall are known as cOrl/h;l/ed
/ool;n!!;. They can he divided into I wo cmegories: thos.: Ihal suppon two col umns and
those Ihat suppon morc than two (generally largc numbers 00 columns.
Examples of thc firsl typ.:. i.c .. twocolumn fool ings. arc shown in Fig. 16.1. In
huildings " 'here the allowablc soil prcssure is large enough for single foolings to be
adequalc for most col umns. twocol umn footings are seen to become necess.U"y in IWO
silUalions: (I) if columns are so close to Ihc property line Ihm singlecolunm fOOl ings
cannOI he made wilhoUI projecling beyond Ihal linc. and (2) if some adjacem columns
are so close 10 each olher Ihm lheir footings would lnerge. BOlh situalions arc shown
in Fig. 16.1.
When Ihe bearing capacity of the suhsoil is low so thm large bearing areas
he<:olne necessary. individual footings are rep laced by ("Ollli",,,,u.' "rif' flll/il/gs Ihal
suppon more than IWO col umns and usually all columns in a row. Somelimes such
strips arc arranged in both directions. in which case a grid fill/mla/iun is oolained. as
shown in Fig. 16.12. Strip foolings can be madc 10 develop a much larger bearing area
much lllOre economically Ihan can be done by single footings because the individual
strips represent continuous beams whose moments arc much smaller Ihan the can
tilever momems in l(U"gc single foolings Ihat projeci far out from the column in all four
direclions .
In many cases. the strips are made 10 merge. resulting in a mat foundmion. as
shown in Fig. 16.13. Thm is. the foundation consists of a sol id rei nforeed concrete slab
under lhe entire building. In siructurni aClion . such a mat is vcry similar 10 a flat slab
or a flal plate. upside down . i.e .. loaded upward by Ihe bearing pressure and downward
hy lhe concentrated column reactions. Tl1e mal foundation evidently oc"ciops the
ma.xilllun' available bearing area under the building. If the soil 's capacity is so low Ihal
even lhi s large bearing area is insuflkiclll. wine form of deep found:nion. such as piles
FI GU R E 16.12
Grid foondalioo.
o..loootc..,_ 10. . .... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU : 16,13

Mal fo.mdatiOfl. ~ r ~ r ~ r
~
,
L ~
,
L f-J
,
L
,
p -$--$-
, , ,
~ ,
, h
L ,fJ
-$--$-
, ,
~ ,
h ch ch c
CJ L CJ L CJ L
or ,"aissulls, mu,1 he u,ed. 1ncse are di scu ssed in lexls on foundalion design and fall
oUlsid~ [he scope of Ihe present ,'olume.
Mal foundalions may he designed wilh Ih~ colu mn pedeslal , . as shown in
Fig . 16 .12 and 16.11, or without Ihem. depending on whelher or not II",y are ,,,,,"e<-
,ar)" for shear slrenglh and lhe development lenglh of dowels.
Apart fnnn developing large ""aring areas. anolher advantag~ of strip and mal
foundalions is Ihal lheir continuil y and rigidily 1",lp in ,,-"<Iueing differe ntial scule-
mems of indi"id ual columns reiati,'C \() each olher, which may mherwise he ,"au",d by
local variations in lhe qualily o f suh,oil. or other causes . For this purpo se. co minuou,
foundalions arc frequently used in silualion. where lhe , upersuunure or Ihe lyP<' of
o,-,cupaney provides unusual seosilivily to diffe rential settlement.
Mu,-h useful and imponant desi gn infWlIlation P<'naining 10 comhined fOOling'
and mal, is found in Refs. 16. I0 and 16.11.
_. 16.8 T WO-C OLU MN F O OTI N GS
h is desirable 10 design combined footings"" Ihallm, eentmid of Ihe footin g area ,"oin -
tides with Ihe re,u1tant of Ihe two ,"olumn load" This produees unifonn bearing pres-
'ure owr [he entire area and foreslall s a lendency for the f<x}ling' 10 lilt. In plan, such
f<K)ling< are renangular. lrapezoidal. or T shaped. Ihe d~l ails of Ihe ,hape heing
arranged \() pmd uee coincidence of <"emmid and resu ltant. 'Inc simple relatio millip,
,hnwn in Fig. 16.1 4 facililale tm, dd~rmi nation ofille shape of 1m, hearing area (fmm
Ref 16.8). In ge,,,,ml . Ihe dislan<"e, II! and" are given, 1m, former heing II", di<lanee
fmm Ihe center of the eXleriw column 10 lhe propeny line and 1m, lalle r Ihe dislane"
fmm Ihat column \() Ihe resu hant of Ix>!h eolumn loads.
Anmher expedient Ihat is used if a single fOOling ca nnot he cente"-",, under an
extcrior column is to pl"'-"e 11", exterio r col umn fooling eccentricall)' and to mnnen il
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, ,," ~.- I IHI
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 16,14

Tw(),,,lumn fm.ing.
1,0.""1'",//,""", ~,/ '''~.)
I ~ 2(m+n)
,.- R
"~ I
1" " " 3(n + m) - I

b, -
r' f
3(n + m)
'f 'I' (b , i" b 2) - - ,
,R
E3J EiiJ
~c
"
L ' f-
/(b , + 2~)
J
---0- .rm
3(b,+ b~)
L
1(2b , + bd
"- 3{b, +b~)
I
'fL E3J
I
1
EiiJ
R
b, ~ - -
,, " --
R
[ 2(ni"m) -12 ]
q.
- --
',b,
1,(I, i"I~
~C
" l~q. I~
I J /, b, +l2b~ - -
R
L'f '-t 0
"
:J-m "
wilh Ih" n~arcsl

,merior column fooling by a beal11 or sirap. Thi s sirap. being coun
I~rweighled by the inlerior col um n load. resists the lihing lCndcncy of the eceenlric
eXlcrior fooling and equalizes the pressure under .1. Such foundal,ons arc h own as
,HI/P, e<lllli/ner. or emmnled /(}(,/i"I1",
The IWO examples Ihat follow demonslrale sol11e of the pL"<'uliarilies of the
design of Iwo-colul11n foolings.
EXM.II' LE 16.3 Dt"Sigp or 11 <"<Imbinoo rOOTing "'pt>O rling one .,,"'r ior and 0... inlerior column. An
eXl, rior 24 X 18 in . enlumn wilh D - 170 l ips. L - 1."10 ~i ps. and an inlerior 24 X 24 in
col ullln wilh [) = 250 kips. L = 200 kips "rc'o be supported on "col1\biJlt'<l ",clangular
fOOling who", ()III" end ,0"nOi rr<JIrude beyond lhe oul .... fare of the 'XI"";or column ( =
Fig. 16. I). The dislance ceule, '0 center of "olumn l is 18 fI 0 in .. and the allowable bearing
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Jlfessure of Ihe soil is 6000 psf. Tile oonom of lhe fOOl ing is 6 fl below grade. and J r.ur-
clla1)le of 100 psf is >veeilied 00 Ihe ;url,,,,,e, IXligo Ihe fOOling for J; - 3IXX) p,i.!, -
60.000 psi.
St., U JTlON, 1lie space Delwl""n the botlom of the fool; "! and the surface will be occupied
pa!1 1)" b)' COI"""'IC (fOOlill g. concrete flOCI<) .,nd p.1nly by bockf1 n . lin aWnlge unil weiW\l of
125 pd can De assumed. Hen",'. the efl;,cl i"e portion of tile allowable Dearing pre""'"
IMt
is a'"-'ilable for carryi ng Ihe colum" loads is 'I, - 'I. - (weijl.ht of r,ll ~nd COllcrde -t- sor-
charge) ~ 6000 - (6 X J 2.S -t- I 00) ~ 5 I ~O psf. Tllen tile required a",a A~, : r.um of col-
"n", loads 4. - 1~(J. ~,I ~ - 1.. 5.5 II', Tile "'S011301 of lile column loads is localed from lhe
conler of tile extonor column a distaoce 450 X 18 750: 10.8 ft. Hence. tile Il>ngth of lhe
fOOling mUll be 2( 10,8 + 0,75) - 23.1 fl. II lenglh of 13 n 3 in. is oel.x"'d , The required
width is llien 145,5 2.l.2.~ : 6.3 ft. II width of 6 fI 6 in. is >elected (see Fig, 16, 15).
Longiludinally. lhe fOOlillg "'prc;ents a he."".looded fro m below. spanning be1wocn
colu mn, and cantill>.'erin Deyond lile interior column. Si"", Ihis De.m i, considerabl y
wider Iilall lhe columns. ,he colu mn loads ar~ dislribl.ued cTOS,wi;e by ImIlS"CI'S(: beams. one
under each column. In tile prest>nt rdati"ely narrow and long footing. il will Ix> found Ihat
II>;: n:quirnJ nl inim"", dcl~h foclhe lrans,'om,e beams is smaller Ihan is requin;d '00' Ihe foot-
ing in l ne longitudinal d i r~ction. 1liese "Ix>am;," therefore. are not r~ally dist;tK1 memlx>rs
bl.u merel}' "'1>reSCIII IrallWOrse strips in IhemaillbodyoflhefOOli ng. rci nfo ... cxlso Ih ... lhe)'
oro caJ>ablc o f resisting the Imn,,,.fSC bending moments alid the corresponding shears. It
Il>;:n becomes IICC'CSSJI")' 10 di:cidc how la!)!c the c,lCl;liyc widl h of Ihis tnlnsyerse beam CM
be assumed 10 be, Qb"iomly. the >!rip d irectly under the column does not deneet indepen-
demly and is ,I",ng lhcncd by Ihe adjaccol pans of the fOOling, The cff,'<:ti,'c wi,I,h of lile
FIGUIU : 16,15 8 N0 7 (No22 ) 13 No 7 (No 22)

Combiocd fooling in x 6 .(}- X 6'(}" ~
E>,mpk 16..1,
, C T
1
,
, ,
~ ~cot
18-X24" , , 6'-6
I coIlIIlln , ,
, I 24- s q. ,
,
L ~ 10 ~
J
11 NO 9 (No. 29) 16 No.7 (No. 22)
,J
X 19' 6 - top X 6' 3 ' oollom
,
1 'I'- -""----r-T
t
Dowels same
ascd'bars~lllj
,
""l
GraOe
T i 3" c r
.'. T T n'-'
L
I I 3" dear 3'5"
..~ 1.l.1 "--,, .. .l ~
.1:-"'-"-'-'____ 1._,_"._,
23'. 3" _ _ '_I._,_"._.~_,i-",I
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
Iran"'"",, beam, i; 1~l"t'fore ",,'i<!emly larg~,. ,han lhal of ltie column , In ItIt> ab,~nre of def-
in;lt n, le, for Ihis ca>c. or of rcsearx;h rc,ullS on whidl10 base ,uch ",Ie,. the ~u'hots rc<;-
ommend COIIS<'f\"'li,'ely Ihal ltie load be assumed 10 ,pr~aJ oulward from lhe column imo
lhe fOOling 31 a ,lope of 2 wrtical10 I hOriW!I1.11. This mcans ,1'31 !he cffl!<:!ive wid'h of!I'"
Iran"'~rse beam is assu med 10 be l>ju,110 Iho widlh of ltie column plus d 2 on ei!ht"f side
of the col u"'n. d being 'he cffcClh'c depth of Ihe fOOling,
Sl",n~tb de,ign in Ion~itudinal di_Ii"n

The net upward pressure caused by Ihe f:K1ored colurou, load, i,
1.2 170 .;. 250 .;. 1.6 130.;. 200 ,
q. = ~ 6.83 kips ft-
n.:L~ x 6,~
Then lhc nel up",ard prc;,urc per linear fOOl in the Iongitudin,1 direc1ioo is 6,83 X 6.5 -
44.4 kipslft. The maximum nogati,'c moment be1ween ltie col~mns occurs al lhe seclion of
>.em ,hear. l.e,.r be lhc di,lalll,\: from lhc OIlier edge of the C>.lerlor colun,n 10 th is sc<:,iorl ,
Then (S<"t' Fig , 16. 161
V. _ 44.4OOr - 412,000 - 0
rcsull, in x - 9,28 f,. T he mO!ll(;lU alll1i, S<.'<:t;()10 is
9.28'
~,"'" - , - - 412.000 9.28 - o,n 12 = - 19,2JO.000 in,lb
FIG URE 16. 16 4 12.000 Ib 62(1.000 Ib

Momen,.1Id ,hear diagrams
I~I I I
"0,. h~ing in bampk 16 , ~.
11111111 I
1.032,000 _ 44 400 Ibltt
23.25 '
1'- 6" 2'-0'

H~-- 16'-3" - - - ' ; : - : ".3 '.6"
376,0001b
1-'" IAllllll
345,000 Ib Shear
diagram
o ,or -1A1f):" 3.250,OQOill.lb
3.100.000 inlb _
I
~"\ill~ 19.230.ooo in -lb
Moment diagram
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
rer li""ar fOOl of the lransverse beam is 620,000 6.~ ~ 95.400 IblfI, The 1001",,01 al ine edge
of (he ;n!erior (olum" ;,
."" 2,25 ' I 2

M . _, ''''"-' - ,- _
,~~ .
.........."""'n_!"
"
Si,,,,e lhe lranwerse bars are plaud 01\ lop of lhe longiludinal bars C= Fig. 16.15). lhe
a<:lU,1 v. lue of d furnished is 37. ~ - 1.0 ~ 36. ~ in. The minimUIll requjred 51eel ron- '!"c'
lrol,: i,e ..
A, _ ~.~ 61.5 X 36.5 - 7.48 in'
Thirtl",n NO.7 (No. 22) bar, are scil"Cled and pbced wit hin the 61.~ in. cffecth'e widlh of
lhe Irans,"CrSC beam.
Punching sl!eor at the Jl<'I"imeler a di'tat"" ,1 2 from lhe rolulltn ha. Ix",n checked befor.,
The <"ritical .>ttlion for n;J!.ul~r nc,ural ,hear, at a di",1nce d from 'he face of Ihe rot"",,,.
lie. beyond lhe edge of lhe fOOling. and therefore no further check on shear j. needed.
The desiJ!.ll of tbe n,lIl\verse beam unocr lhe c"crior <'Olumn i, the same as II'e ocsig" of
Ihal under tile irllenor rolumn. except Ihat the eff"'li ... wid,h i, ., 6.75 in. The delail, o f the
calculalioos an: noI shown, II c:", be easily ch..."Ck,. Ihnl cighl No.7 (No. 22) "",s. placed
wilhin tile .16.75 in. off"'li,. width , "'Iisfy .11 requinolnenK Design delail, orc shown in
!'i g. 16.15,
EXAM PLE 16A Otsil:" of a su"'p fooli"l:- In. Slr.lp or ('OO"",-1ed fOOling. lhe ,,"erio< fOOl ing is placed
urenlricall~ under il' colunln '" Ihal il doe. ,101 projeci heyond lhe IlI"OJI"rt)" Ii"" , Sucb an
",:rennie posilion woold resu ll in. snongi)" unewn dislrit>otion of bearing I""""re. which
could lead 10 lilling of lhe fOOling. To co"nlernel Ihi, ecce nlricil y. Ille fOOling i, mnnocled
by" be"," 0(" Strap 10 the """""I imeriO(" fOOling.
Bot h fOOling' are so l""J'O"Iioned thai under ,eer"ice lood tile pre;",re under each ofillem
is uniforlll,nd Ihe "'''''' UlKlt:r both fOOling>. Tn achieve Ihis. il i, nece,>aJ)'. as in other
combined fOOling,. Ihat the celllroid of lhe combined area for Ihe IWO foolings coindde wilh
lhe ""uitanl of Ihe colu,"n load" 1l1e resulting fore '" soown SChel11,llieall}' in Fig ,
16. 17. Tt>ey con.i'l of the loads P, ""d Pi of 1"" eXlerior and inlerior column . respeclivdy.
and of lhe !lei upward p",.sure q. which i, un iform and "'IU,I under botll fOOlings. The
re,ultallls R, and R, of I""se upward I"""ures are also ,hown. Since lhe inlerior fOOling is
eOlK."emnc wilh lile iOlenor column, Ri and I', are colli""",, This is ""llhe case for the e"~
rior force. R, alld P, "here lile ""ulling C<JUple jusl bal'''''e' lhe df",,1 of ltoe ",cenlricily
o f 11.. roiumn rdati,. 10 III" ee'''.r nf the fOOling. The Simp propt:r is genemlJy construcled
r------
FIG URE 16. 17 P, P,
Forees and re""lions "" lhe
""'I' f(~l\in~ in Enmple ~ -'I 18' 0'""
16.4,
h T
LEJ
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The mo",em at the 'ight ed~e o f the imen or column i,

3.5'
M, ~ 44.400 - , - 12 ~ 3.260.000 inlb
and the details of the m(ltl",,,1 diagram"", as ,hown in Fig. 16.16. Try ,1 - 37.5 in .
From the shear di"8mlll in Fi g. 16, 16. il is se<:n th"1 the critic.1 secli"" for 11",,,,,,) she.,
OCCU,", al a di.' lance J 10 the left oflhe lefl face ,,(Ihe intcnorcolunt". AI thaI point. rhe fac _
lored sht:ar is
37 ,5
v. _ 376.000 - ,.
- ,- 44.400 - 237.000lb
"lid the design shear <,(,..,nglh
V, - 0.75 X 2 '!i:XXi X 78 X .>75 - 240.000lb > V.

indi"alinlllh"t d = 37.5 in. is adequate,
Additionally. as in 'Ingle footing . punching ,hear .I>oold he checktd on a pc...-i mel<1" ""'_
lion" dislJlICe J. 2 around the column, on wbich the """,inal sllear stress Vc = 4 JOOO =
220 psi. Of the IWO column>. lhe exlenor one wilh a lhre<:_,io;kd (J<'rimete1" a <li'lance d 2
from the colum n i, '''''"'' "nrical in "1!ard 10 thi' punchi n~ ,hear, TIte renn"'lff is
,
37.5 12
. '0
~.
37
-+ 12.5 - 11.25ft
and the shear force. being the column l<>ad Illinus the "'il pre"u"" wilhin lhe renmeter. is
V. _ 41 2.000 - 3.06 X 5,126830 - 305.000 Ib
On the olher hand. lhe design ,hear >1rength "" the renmet., ",ctioll i,
I', _ 0.75 X 220 X 11.25 X 12 X 37 ,5 - 835.000 Ib
comide",bly larger t han {he facton'<l sh<>ar V.

Wilh J - 37.5 in __ and ",i,h 3.5 in. co.er from (I", centcr of lhe bars 10 the 101' ~urfacc(lf
lhe footing. lhe {otal th ickne5s i. 41 in.
To de1~nni"" Ihe requiTCd ,tecl nrea , M . M'- - 19.230.000 (0.9 X 78 X 3 7.5'1 _ 195
is u",d to enter G",pIt A Ib of Aprendix A, For lhi' ", Iu,.. lhe cur,," bO 3 gi",," lhe rein-
fon-cmcn l ra'i(, - 0,('135. Ttlc required ~tc-cl orca is A, - 0.lXB5 X 31.5 X 78 - 10,3 in',
Ele"~n No.9 (No. 291 b,rs furnish II ,()(} in', T1le requirc'<l dev~I()pm~nl length i, found to
be 6.1 tl . From Fig. 16,16. the di,ran':e from (he 11Oio' of "~'x;!Ilum roorlto.~H (0 lite ncarer
left end of {he bars i, "",,n to be 9,30 - IT :
9.05 ft. much I",cr lhan lhe required mini-
mum de"eio!,mC"1 lcOgUI, '11.., scle<;(f,1 rci"forccmcm is {hc",,!i.>re adequmc for bo,h bend
ing and bond
" or 'he j1011ion of 'he 1000gilUdinai beam lha' canliie"m beyOlld 'he in(~rior col umo, lite
minimum required ,{eel area controls, Here.
3 :1000
A, .- ~ X 78 X 37.5 ~ 8.0] in'
W.""
A ,_ _ 200 X 78 X 37 ,5 _ 9.75 in'
60.""
Si Xleen No, 7 ( No. 22) hars wilh A, ~ 9,62 in' are ",Ic..-Ie<l: (h,'i r de,'elopmcm I,>nglh is com-
pu(OO and tOo- bottom bars is found 5:l1i\fa<101)'.
o..sil'.l1 of tran ....... b<-am unde r inl.rior roIu mn
The width of the tran"'",",,, beam under the interior column can tIOW be e'labbshe<l a, pre-
,'iollsly sugge.<re.i and is 24 -;- 2(,12) - 24 -I- 2 X 18,75 - 61.5 in. The lIC( upw:vd 100ll
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU : 16.18
Strap fm.ing in Example
16.4.
1g ' O"
24" sq. col.
Section A-A
n
I nTnTnT
3'3"
111111111111 ) '"
''''.'''"'J'J'"'"'''''''~'~----------!.
,
'- '-'"''"'"''-~
] "'7"
,~ I
1o------- 23'-3 -----~
so {hal i{ will rIO! bear OIl (he soil. This ~"n be achieved by pro\'iding formwor!< not onl)' for
U>e si<k', bu, also for the bonom f3<.'<' a1l'.1 b )' wilh<lrawirl,- it before \>;Ickr.lling.
To illustra{e lhi' Msign. the ~ojumm in Example 16,3 will now be supponed OIl a strap
fOOling. III general shape. pi", dimensions as de(cnnincd only subs<.Xlucnlly by cak"lalions.
i. seen in Fig. 16,18, Wilh an allow'able bearing P"'ssu", of 'I. ~ 6 ,0 kipS/fl' alld a depth of
6 It 10 the 00110'" of the fOOli ng ~s befO<e. (he beari",- pressure ;",~i"blc for c~n~i" g lhe
cXlemalloads applied 10 ll1e fOOling is 'I, ~ 5_1 ~ kipS/fl'. a, in E>ampl,> 16.3. Tllese e"er-
nal loads. for lile Wal' fOOl i"g. consi;{ of rhe col"mn loads ~nd of the " 'cigln piuS fill and
surcharge of lhat pan of 'ho strap {hal is locatl'" bel,...,on {he fOOlings_ (The [><IMion of lht>
\lrap loc~I"" di=lI~ 0" (01' of the fOOling displace, " l'Ol"rC>POIoding amOlln' of fill and
lhe",f"", is alrcady acroun!,d for in (he de{mninalioll of the ",'ailable bearing p",,,ure q.)
If U>c boolo,n of lhe ;(rap is 6 in. aw,'e (he bouom of (he fOOlings 10 jlTC,'enl bearing 01' soil.
lhe IOIaI depth 10 grade is ~.5 ft. If 1M strap widlh is eSlimJ,ed 10 be 2.5 fl. ilS estima1ed
wcijl.hl pI", fill and >t,n;nal)le i, 2.5 x 5,~ x 0_125 + 0,100 x 2_5 - 2 kips/fl. Iflhe g.1P
between fOOlings is estima{ed 10 be 8 fl. ,he 'Olal weighl of 'he Slrap i, 16 kips. Hence.. for
fIl''lIOS<'S of dclenni" irlg ' he required fOOling ar~a. S k ips will be added 10 {he Mad 10.'>(1 of
each column, The required 100al an" of booh fOOling' is ,n.,n (750 + 16) 5.1~ = 149 fl',
The di;la' "-,<, of the re,,, I' a" , of 'he (wo l'OI"",,, 10"", plus 'he SlT~p load frolll (he a>is of Ihe
",,"nor column. with suftki""1 accuracy. is 4 58 X 18 766 ~ 1O_7~ fl. or 11.50 fI from 1M
OIllcr edge.. alll)l),\ idenl icallO ,hal calculaled for (i,amplc 16,3. Trial calculalions ;how' 111;}1
"reclangulaT fOOling 6 ft 0 in . X II fI _l in, uOOer ,he .-lerior column and a "lua", fOOlin~
9 X 9 fl "ndcr the in,crior col "n'" hlW a ~o,nbined are~ of 149 fl' and a distancc from the
outer edge 10 l l1e cent roid of lhe combined areas of (6 X II ,}5 X 3 + 9 X 9 X 18.7~) 149
- 1 I_55 fl. which is almosl C' OC11}, C(lual '0 'he JlI'C"iOllsly c~lclJla'C(1 diSl~""c to 'he re,ul-
ron! of ,he exu>rn,1 forces.
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 16
FIGU IU : 16,19
F(>rec< ""tin8 '"' >Imp in
E.,mple 16.4 ,
It-1 ------
0.75'
18.0 '
I
IIi;
I
til III III
w - 11.25Qu I
I.-- 6.0, ------J
For "t"'''gth mi<'u/"'i"",, lile be.dng Pf"'sure caused by the f",,"'red eW'11l.1 loads.
includinl1lhal of lile >Imp wilh ilS fill 311d sureharg~. is
1.2 170+250+ 16 + 1.6 130 + 200 ,
- 7.(16 kill" ft
'"
n.esil'." .... fOOl i"fl"
Tile eXlerior fOOling Jl"rforms ","ocdy like a "'all fOOling wilh a l en~lh of 6 ft E\'On Ihoogh
lhe column is localed al its edge, the balancing ilClion of the \trap re>lll,s in "ni fonn beaT-
ing P""S""'. Ille downward load being Iransmined 10 lhe fOOling uniformly by llIe- >Imp,
Hen<:<: . the <Ie,igll is carried onl .,..'\C(ly as il is for a wall fOQ! ill ~ (sce SC\.1ion 16.~),
The inlerior fOOling. even lhough il merges in pari wilh lile SI1'3p. can safely lie designed
as ~n ind.:Jlt'n<le1l1. Square singJe-cohulln fOOling (>ec Scclion 16.6), n.e Ullin difkrencc is
IhOi. because of the pre","ce of 1M slrap. punching ,hear canJ>O! occur along tm. lruncawd
pyramid surface sl,own in !'iM_ 16,6. For Ihis re.1W1l. Iw<>-way or punchillg shear. ac<.'(H'(\ing
10 Eq, (16,7). shoold Ix' checked along a Jl"rimCler section localed al a disla"", J 2 OIllward
from Itt.: longiludin.,1 edg~s of the Sirap 3nd from II", free ''ICe of the COl Ullin, d bcing the
eff.ctiy~ deplh of tile fOOling, Fie,ural or one-way .hear. a, usu,1. is checked oJ a "'Clion a
di,lallCe (I from (he flce oflllC column.
IksiR" .... . t'""p

Even lhougl1 lhe sIrap i, in facl monolilhic ,,-ilh lile imerior fOOling. 1M effecl o n Itt.: suap
0' 1tt.: soil pressure "n<ler thi S f<X>(ing can ~'fdy be negk<:led oc<:ausc II>e 'OO!ing h.1I becn
designed 10 wilhSland Ihe ent ire upward pressure a, if 1M map were ab'~nL In contra,\.
bec~"w Ihe e,,,,rior f<X>(illl: has been designed as 3 wall f<X>(illg Ih~1 rcwi,'CS ilS load from
lile mop. 1m. upward I""ssure from lhe woll fOOling oc'Come, a load Ihat musl be resisled by
lhe "rap_ Wilh Ihi' ,implificatim' of the ilClually sol1lcwhal morc ~omplc, silllation. Ihe
str:tr "'I""sems a sin~le -span lieal1lloaded upward b)' Itt.: bearing I"""ure unde, lhe exle-
rior fOOling lnd supported by downward re.'\C(ions 3t 11", CClHcrlines of Itt.: Iwt> col umns (Fig.
16,19)_ A widlh of _m in. i\ .. 1.clOd. For a column widlh of 24 in,. Ihis Jl"fI1lilS beam and
column bars 10 be placed " 'illlOlli inlcrt'crencc wtt.:re lllC lWo n",mbc", meel and all ows tile
rolunU1 form, 10 be ,upported 00 lhe lOp surfOC<" of the 'Imp, The maximum I"""",nl. as
delc'T1"i ~(:d by equaling tile shear for<;e to lern. occ,," c\(l5<: W the inner edge of lhe C'lt-
rior fOOling , Silear forces are large in lile ,ieinil), of lile e.-.Jerior rolumn. Slinu p design is
rompleled u,ing a ,U"UI,nd lU: model. Tlle fOOling is dmwn app"im'leiy W >ealc in F'lg,
16.18. which also ,000000'S 1m' geneml arrangemell! of Itt.: rei nforeemenl in lhe fOOlings and
lhe SIr"p.
- ~. 16.9 STRIP, GRID, AND M AT F OUNDATIONS
As mentioned in &'ction 16.7. continuous foundations are ofl~n us<->J to support Ilen\'
i Iy loac:k-d col umns. 6pecially wll~n a Slructure is located Oil relaliwly wenk or un~ven
soil. Tk foundalion may consist of a com;"'I0'<~ slr;p J;)OI;"" supporting all columns
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
in a gi ven row. o r of two "'l. of slICh s!rip fOOlings imerse<-'l ing at right angles so dWl
they form one c!Kuin"o", grid joundarioll (Fig. 16.12). For nen larger load, "r weaker
,,,il,. the ,trips a re made !O merge. resulting in a lIull jOIlJ!lUlI;(JI! (Fig. 16.13).
For lhe Ik'ign of SUc"h cO n1 inuous foundal ions. il is e,sential thaI reasormhly
reali,tic 3.5,ump1iof]' he made reganling the distrihU1ion of bearing pressure, lhat act
as upward lood, on lhe foundation. For compressihle ,oil,. it ca n be a~sul1led. a, a ['''1
approximation. that tiJc defonnation or senle",ent of the soil at a given location illld
the bearing pre,sure at dmt location are pmponional to each mhe r. If column, "'"
'pa~,-"<l a! modem{" distance, and if lhe ,{rip. grid. or nuU foundalion i, quite rigid. tI",
senlen",m , in all p<mion, of the foundat ion will be ,uhsmntia ll y the <ame. Thi, mean,
lha{ lhe bearing pressure. also known as .whS",d<! "'(lClio". will be the ,ame. pmvided
thal lhe cemroid of the fouooalion ("oincide, Wilh lhe re,u ltam of the load, . If lhey do
n01 coincide.lhen for such rigid foundation, (he ,ubgrade reaClion Cilll be assumed to
val)' linearly, Bearing pressure, can be calcu lated hased OIl smtie,. a, discussed for
'ingle fOOling' ("-'" Fig. 16.3). In th i, case. all load,. lhe downward col umn load, a,
well a'lhe upward -bearing pressures. are known. Hence . IlK",,,,,,t, and shear fOf("es in
Ihe found alioll can he found h}' slalin ak",e . Once these are determined . Ihe de'ign of
,trip and grid foundation, is , im ilar to Iha! of inverted cominuous beams and dml of
mal foundaliof]s !O {hat of i",'ened f1a{ slabs or plale>.
On the o lher hand . if tI", (oundalio[j is relatively flexible illld tI", col umn 'pac-
ing large. senl"rnem, will no longer be uniforn} or linear. For one thing. the more
heavily loaded ~x,lumns will ,"au", Inrger ",n t~m"n1>. and lhereby larger suhgmde
reaction,. than the li ghler ones. AI,,,. si nce the cominuous ,(rip or ,lnb midway
between columns will deflect upward relative 10 tI", ""amy "ol umns. the ,oil scnle-
mem. and lhereb)' the subgmde reaction. will be snwller midway heN'eel! CQlumn,
than dif<"Ctly at tI", columns . Thi, is SIK)Wn schematically for a strip fool ing in Fig,
16.20: the ,uhgmde reactio1l can no l!Klger he ass""",d to be unifonn . 1I1at f()undalio[j,
~' I G U RE 11>.20
Strip footing. VI.k!pleJ fro",
N,': 16.3.)
Settlement s
I_.J.I~~
~ J.1..-
Subgrade
~ ""...
--- I,
Simplified
rea ction q
"""'"'
diagram
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
likewi"" r"'luire diffcr~m apprQa<.he,. depending <:In whell",r or not they can bo:
assun",d!() bo: rigid when calculaling the ,oil reaction.
Criteria have been estnblisl><.-..l as a ,,,,,asure of tl", relative stiff""" of tl'" ,truc-
ture versu, the st iffness of the ,oil (Rds. 16.10 and 16.11). If the rdative stiffness i,
low. the foundatim, ,h<:luld be dcsign ..-..l ru; a flexible lIIember with a IlImlincnr upward
reaction frum the soil. For strip footings. a re a'!onably ae<.urate but fnirly complex
analysis tan bo: don~ u,ing tire theory of beams on cl"-~ti .. f<:lundation, (Ref. 16.12).
Krarnris"'h (Ref. 16.8) has suggested simplified proe<.-..lure'!. based on the assumption
that contaCt pr~ssures vary linearl)' hetwcenload poim,. as shown in Fig. 16.20.
For nonrigid mat foundation" great advances in analysis have Occn made using
finite elemellt methods, which can account specifically for the stiffnes"" of both the
'tru .... ure and the ,oil. Ther~ are a large numher o f cOllm"'r<."ially availahle program,
(e.g .. PCAMats. l'onland Cen",nl AsSO<.iati<:ln. Skokie. lllit",is) haS<.>d on the finite cle-
ment meth(x!. pennining qui,'k nJ(xleling nnd anal)'sis of comhined f(J(ltings. strip
f(J(ltings. and mal foundations.
_. 16.10 P ILE C APS
If tl", bo:aring capacity of the upper soil layers is insufficiem for a spread foundation.
hut finner strata are a\"ailahle at greater depth. pile, are used to transfer the loads tn
these deeper strata. Pile, arc generally arranged in gruups or clusters. <:Inc under each
column. l1Je group is capped hy a spread footing or ,'ap thnt distributes the column
load to all piles in the gruup. TI,~", pile cap' are in llJ(lSt ways \"Cry ,imilar to f<:><>1ing'
on soi!. except for two features. For one. reactions on ,'aps act as ,oncentr.ued lond,
at the individual piles. mlher than a, distributed pressures . F<:Ir an<:llheL if the total of
all pile reactions in a duste r is divided hy the area of tile f<:><>1ing 10 obtain an L"qui,'a-
lent unifml!l pressure (fOf purpo""s <:If (O"'panSOIl <:Inly), il is f<:lund that Ihis eq ui"a-
len! pressure is considerahly higher in pile caps than for 'pread fOOling'. This mean,
that n",ments. and particularl)' shears_ are al'!o CQrrespondingly larger. whid, r~quir~'
greater f{"'ting depth, than for a 'pread !"(JI)ting <:If similar horizontal dimen,ions. To
'pread the load evcnly t<:l all piles. it is in any event advisable \Q pmvide ample rigid -
ity. i.e .. depth. for pile caps.
Allowable bearing <:apacitie.s of pile, R. ar~ obtained fmrn wil explomti<:ln. pile-
driving ene rgy. and test loading'!. and tl",ir determination is not within the '1cope of tile
present IKJI)k (st." Refs. 16.1 t<:l 16.4). As in spread f{)Oting' . the effective portion <:If R.
available to resist the unfactmed c<:llumn load, is the all<:l,,"able pile rea"ti<:ln less the
weight of f{JI)ting. hackfill. and surcharge per pile. That is.
(16.12)
wl"'r~ WI is the total w~ight of f(JlJling, fill. and sUr<."hnrge divided hy !I.e number of piles.
Once the nvailahle m effective pile reaction R, is determined. the numbo:r of pil~,
in a con,'cntri,'ally loadcd cluster i, tl'" integer next larger than
" . -D+L
--
H,
As far as the cfT~C1~ of wind. ~anhquak~ moment, at tl.., f(JI)t of the columns. and
~afely against overturning are ~"(",,emed. design ~"(""idemtions are the ""nk: as
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
described in Se<-tion 16A for 'pread footings. TI",,,, eff""ts gell"",lIy produl-e an
l~l...,ntri{'ally lomled pile dust"r in whil-h different pile> carry different loads . TI",
number and location of pile> in sud, a duster are determined by successiw approxi -
mation ba,,-..-:l on the fl><juirement that the load on the mo't heavily loaded pile muSt
not exceed the allowable pile rcanion Ru' \\r,th a linear distribution of pile loads du~
to bending, the maximum pile reactioo is
P M
R..,, = - + - - (16.13)
n I", c
where f' is tl", maximum load (including weight of l-ap, bal-klill, etc.I and AI the
nK111",nt to be. resi,ted by the pile group. hoth refern.-d to the bottom of the cap: IN is
tl", nK>I1",nt of inenia of the entire pile group about the l...,ntroidal axis ahout which
bending occurs; and ,; is tile di,tance from that axis to the extreme pile. Ie. =
~1 I X yi : i.e" it is the mon",nt of inenia of" piles, each counting a, one unit and
located a distance ,"; fmlll tl", des.;rihed centroidal axis,
Piles are generally armng<.'.J in tight pattern" which minimiles the cost of the
cap>, but tl",y l-annot be. plru.-ed do"" than condition, of driving and of undi,turbed
carrying capacity will!",,",it. A spacing of about 3 times the butt (topl diameterof the
pile but no less than 2 ft 6 in. is costonmy. Commonly, piles with allowable reaction,
of 30 to 70 tons are spaced at 3 ft 0 in. (Rd. 16.8),
1ne d~"i!:n of footings on piles i, ,imilar to that of single--<-'olunm footinG" One
approa,'h is to design the cap for the pi Ic reaction, calculated for tl", factored lx)lun",
loads, For a cot>C"ntrically loa<k..-:l duster, thi s wwld give R, = (1.2D + 1.60-".
HO\\ie\'er. since the number of piles was raken as the nexr larger integral accoruing to
Eq. (16.131, determining R, in this manner can lead to a design where the strength " I'
the cap is less than the capacity of the pile g roup. It is d",refore re<;om"",nd<.,,1 that the
pile reaction for strength design be. taken a,
(16.14)
where th~ averdge load fm-rm = (I.2D + 1.6L) (D + LI. In this manner, the cap i~
d"'igned to be capable "f developing the full allowable capacity of the pile group.
Details of a typical pile cap are ,hown in Fig. 16,21.
As in single-column spread footings, tl", depth of the pile cup i, usually go\' -
en",d by ,hear. ACI Code 1$..'i.3 'f"'Cilie., rhat, when the distanl-e between the axi, of
a pile and the axi, of a column ;s mort' than 2 times the di,tance fmm the tor of the
pile cap and the top of the pil~, shea.- design must folio",' tl", procedures for flat .<lab,
and footings, as descril!t...-:l in Section 16.6a. For closer ,pacings hetween piles alld
columns, rhe Code sl",,'ilies ,,;ther the use of the procedures descnl!t...-:l in Section 16.6a
or the use of a three-dimensional strut-"nd -tie model (AC I Code Ap!",ndix A) ba",d
on the prinl-ipks de",ribed in Chaprer 10. In the latter ca"", the strut, must he
d~,iglll..-:l as bottle-shap<-d wirhout tranwef'' reinforc"n",m (Table 10.1) because of
the difli,'ulty of providing such reinforC"lIlem in a pile cap. n,e use of strut -and-tie
modds to design pile caps is discossed in Ref. 16.13.
When the pr()('<.-dures for tlat slab, and footings are used, hoth punching or two-
way ;;hear and flexural or one-way shear ,,,,,--d tll he considered. The crirical sectio"s
are tl'" same as giv"o ill Section 16.6a.1ne difference is that .<hear in caps is caused
by <x>l1centrated pile reaction, rather rhan by di,tributed bearing pr""nres. Thi, p"seS
tl", <!u~stion of IK)W to cakulat~ sl",ar if tile critical ""'-tion intersects the (-ircumfcr-
"nl..., of one or more piles. For this ca"" ACI Code 15.5.4 ",'counts fm the fact that a
o..loootc..,_ 10. ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
572 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 16
FIGUIU : 16,2'
Tn>i,al.ingk.,,,lumn
fOOling 00 pib (pile cap).
9'0-
,. 6" 3'- 0" 3'0" ,.6"
" t-
I n n n
~
I
,
0
I
I
~) I~) U I
I
I

b I n n I
I
~
)
;~}e0( u I
I
"
"
I
I
n n n
I
I
I
" I ~
)
-t-------------+
I ~
) I ~
)
I
Typical pile cap
pil"- o:aclio() is nm ,,,-ally a point load , bUI is distribut~d ov~r the pil~-bearing area.
COlTc~pondingl,.. for pil~, witll di"m~le", tip. it ,tipubt~, as follows:
Com(>IJlation of , hear Oil any =Iion Ihmugh " fOOling on pile, 'hall be in accord""""
with lhe following:
(u) The enlire reaclion tinln any pile ,,llOse center i, loeOlro d r 2 or more outside Ihis
=tion sha ll be considered as l>mducing ,hear on IhOi <,ttlion.
(h) 11", ",aclion fmm an)" pile "oose cenl.". is localed d p ' 2 or more inside the .~ion
,halll>e eonsidered as producing no ,hear on lbal <,ttlion.
k) Fo< intermediate positiOtl> of Ihe pile centet. [he potlioJl of lhe pile reaclion to "" eon
,i.tered as producing ,beat on lhe =Iion , haJl be based on 'traighl.li"" interpolalion
""Iween the tilll ",1M 01 d p 2 oUlside Ihe section and um al d p 2 in,ide [he =liOtl
In addition 10 Checking two-way and one.-way st",ar, as just discussed, punching

,hear must also be inwstigated for the individual pile. Particularly in cap' ,m a small
numbe r ,;.r heavily loaded piles , il i, Ihi, possibility of a pi Ie pun,"hing upward Ihrough
the ,"ap thai may gowrn the required depth. The cril ical I"'rimeter for Ihi, aCl ion,
again. is locatoo at a distance d 2 outside Ihe upper edge of Ihe pil~. However. for 0:1 -
ativdy <lrep cap' and closely '1"K"ed pile,. critical I"'rimeleTh around adj acent pile,
may ",'erlap. In thi, ca,e , f,aclure_ if any. would un<loubtedly o<;cur along an outward -
o..loootc..,_ 10 . ..... ' "
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FI G UIU: 16,22
Critical ""etiOll for puoching
,""or ..-ith closely ,paced
pilo,
~-'~ Critica l section
,laming surfa"" around bo th adjacent pile,. For such ,ituations the critic'al perimete r
is so loc atoo that its length i, a minimum, as slKlwn for two adja,,<,", pile, in
Fig. 16.22.
REFERENCES
t6.1 1/.. B. I~'ck. w. I . Ibn"", . .lid T. II . '1b<"",t..Jm. fl""u['"i"" linX''''''-;"x. 1",1 ," __ J,,,", Wiley "",I 'i<.".
No", Yo,". W1-/.
t6.2 K. Tc"-'.>ghi. I/. U. 1~'ck . ...1 (i. Mc'sri ..o;,~1 M",.,,,",., in E"3'''''''-;''Y J 'n~.-ri,, . .W ," .. h>/ut Wile)' ....'
..."". r.;,...' Y(~l . 1\1%
16.> J. I'. I~ w."" . Fi_~d' "'' .'1""1),.,,., w,d J)"i~ . ~ ' h ",-. Md ;r.wlli ll. r.;,'."
Y,rl.. 1\1%
16.4. 11 ._Y. """g. r"u.uimuHt fjJ,~in"n"~ 11" , _ . 1",1 00 .. V.. "'''tr"",1 Roinh<,M. New y",,,. 1'1') L
16_' ,\ . S. T.lb<,. "l/.dnr"f{'cJ Coo,,",."" W,II hdins-, _I (lI""", H~.i"g<." Un;,. IIL~. Lp. S",- Hull
~7. 1'!t.1.
16.6 F. E. Rkhart. "Rdnlof'l',,, C(>no.''''''' W.II "",I C"'"U'" F"'i"~~" 1. ACI. ,',. 4 . 1\l4 ~ . flIl. <J7 and 217
16.7. I'. 11'11""""''- "Shc3rini S''''">,, h ot Rei"f"rce" Cni" mn F"(l.j"~ ..." 1. Ac/. ,'01 . .'\jl. 1'J!;3. p. 1m
!6.S E Kr.... i,,: h. " F"' ","~<' <'hap. 1 in M. 1'; nL,1 (,'d.} Ha>!iltx~,. "f 0"".-"" E,,~i"",",,~ . Van ,,,.1 ,"..
N'N,--.I Rein"nt.). r.;,...' Y(~k. IY~ S
16 .~ ,\SCh _AU O " n",i",,, 416. ~ Ibo sr.,..- S"'-"'~th ,~ ' I(d " f"ro,d l\""'Mc Mcmt",<-S t""''-' 1. .l"lnKl
/Ji". A.'>l.-1 '- "'lI. II~J. tlO. ST ~. I'n4. W . 1.... >- 1W I .
16.W ,\0 C,"""\i"",, ;'16. S "~""" k d """ly~' ")<lll.,,,;~" I'm ,u", r, ~ ("nmn;"'" """iog, ...1 ACt '<1''''.''
I,,,,,,. J.. "". I!.l. tl(l. J. 19!\!< . J1Il. ,>O-I_,1! 4.
16.1 1 Ik "iNn w"1 I~tf"'...",,, ,1 .\1", f;"""['"i,,,,-,~~,,,,, 'if~" A" H,,'.-.., SI'_ISL A"",oc." 0""",",'
In~ i ,"". I)""oil. IW '
16.12 M. IMe" ),;' H,,,,,,-, ,," E/,,,,,i<
fi,"",~"u",-,. Un,,. " I MicMg;n l'rc..... Ao" A , i>r~. 1946
1~ . ! 3. p. ,\(leb .... II. K.., hma ""', M.P. C<>Ilio,. " S,rul_.M_'ll< M",Ic;I, r", ,b<' I.l< "~ " I' hi< ("1'>-An
Eo...."'n"-'""I S,."ly: ACI .1"1",.-1. 1.. " ( ~ . ~7. "". I. 1\1\101. Pr. ~I--9,
PROBLEMS
16.1. A cominuous sirip rooting is to he located C<Hlceutricall y under a 12 in, wall
thaI delivers se r vi~,<, loads D = 25.000 Iblll and L = 15,000 lblll IO Ihe lOp or
Ihe fOOling. The tx;.Uorn of the fOOling will he 4 fl below the final ground sur-
face. The ,o il has a den'ity of 120 pef and allowable bearing capacity o f
8O(X) pd, Mal~rial slrenglhs are!; = 3000 psi and!, = 60.000 psi. Find (<I) lite
requ ired widl h of lhe f(Kl!ing, (b) Ihe r<"<Juired etTe<-1ive and 100al deplhs , based
on shear. and (c) the requi roo flexural s1<,<,1 area.
16.2. An iuterior column for a \all concrele stru,'lUre carnes 100al scrvice I""ds D =
'jOO kips and L = 514 kips. The column is 22 X 22 in. in cross ""'-'Iion and i,
reinforct.-d wilh twd ,'e No. II (No, 36) bar> cemered 3 in. from lbe column
faces (equal numhcr of hars each fa",,). For the CQlumn,!: = 4000 psi and
!. = 60,000 psi. TI", column will hc support~d on a square fo()ting. with d",
t>oUorn of the f()ol ing 6 f! bdow gr.id". o,,'ign the footing. delennining all
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574 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT UR.<; Lnapl<r 16
concrde dimension, and amount and placement of all reinforcement, in('lud -

ing length and placement of dowel steel. No shear reinforcement is permitted.
n"" allowabl~ soil -bearing pressure i, 8000 psf. I\.bterial strength, for the
f'Klting aref; = 3000 psi and". = 60,000 psi.
16,3, Two interior column, for a high-rise concrete structure are spaced 15 ft apart,
and each carrie, ..,,,,ice loads D = 500 kips and L = 514 kips. n", column,
are to be 22 in. square in em" "'-'Ction, and will each be reinforced with tweh'~
No. II (No. 16) bars c~ntcr~'{1 3 in. fmm the ('olumn face" wi th an "'lual num-
ber of hap; m each face. For the column',f; = 4000 p,i andf. = 60,000 psi.
n"" columns will be ,upport~..J orl a Il"-tangular combined fOOling with a long-
,ide di"""nsion twi~", that of the ,;1,on side. The allowahle ,oil -bearing pre"ure
is 8fXX) pd. 'J'ht, oOltom of the footing wilt be b ft below grade. Design the
f'Klting for the", col umns, usingf; = 3000 psi andf, = 60,000 psi. Specify all
reinforce",,,nt. iocluding length and placement of fo,}ting Ix,-" and dowel s1<-'eI.
16.4. A pile cap is to he design<-..J to di,tribute a concentric force from a 'ingle (-01 -
umn to a nine-pik group. with geometry as ,hown in Fig. 16.21. The cap will
carry calculmed dead load and ,ervi", live load of 280 kips ,md 570 kip,.
respectively, fn)(n a 19 in. square co""rete ~~}Iumn reinforced with si~ No. 14
(No. 43) bars. The permissible load per pile at "''--'''i(-e load is 100 kip" and the
pile diameter is 16 in. Find the required eff~>ctive and total depths of tlte pik
cap and th~ required reinforce"""nL Ch<->ck all rdevant aspects of II", de'ign.
i neluding the development length (or the reinforcement and tran,fer of force,
at the base of the column. Material 'trength' for the column are/,: = 4000 psi
and!, = 60,000 psi, and for the pile cap are f ; = JOOO psi and(, = 60,000 psi.
16.5. Complde the design of the map f""ting in Example 16..t and detennine all
dimensions and reinforcement. Compare the total volun", of concrete in tl",
,trap foming in Example 16A with that of the rectangular combiru...J footing in
Example 16.3. It will he found that the ,trap f'Klting is significantl)' more eco-
nomical in terms of material (although fOfming would be ",ore costly). Tlti,
~'<-~}nomy of material would in,-rease with increasing distance betw~'en tl",
columns.
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RETAINING WALLS
17.1 F UNCTION AND T YPES OF R ETAINING WALLS
R~laining wall s are used 10 hold h;,ck rna,,,,, of canh or OIher loose ma1~rial where
condition, mak" il imp",,;hle to let Iho", masse, assume lheir natur,,1 slopes. Such
co ndition, o,:cur when the widlh of an excavalion, cUi. or "",bank"",,,, is re<lriCied
hy conditions of ownership, u", of Ih" sumture, or economy. For "",ampl", in railway
or highway con<lruclion the widllo of the righl of way is fixed. and Ih" cui or embank -
"",nt muSI be contain~d wilhin Ihal widlh. Similarly, the ba"'""'''t walls of wildings
muSi bc localed within Ihe pmpeny a"d must r"tain the SI)i I surrounding the ba",,,,,,,,1.
Fr",,-slanding remining wall." a, distinl"1 from Ihose thai foml pam of $lruclUres.
such a, ha<;en"'nt wall,. ar" of various Iyp''', Ih~ 1Tl<><1 commo" of whil"h are shown in
Fig. 17. 1. The gravily wall (Fig, 17. )<1) relains Ihe "anh emirdy by ii, own weight a,Ki
g"nemlly contain, no reinforccment. The r"infon:ed concret~ camilever wal l (Fig.
I 7.1b) ('(,nsists of the venical ann thai relains the eanh and is h~ld in posilion by a
footing or haS<! slah. In Ihis case. Ihe weighl of the f,1I 0" lOp of the heel. in addition
to th" weight of the wall. contribule, to the ,tahility of Ihe sumture. Since the ann r"p-
resent, a vertical cantile,""r, it, required thickness inc",a<;es rapidly with inn"a,ing
height. To reduce the bending nl(ln""m, in vertical wall, of great height, counterfom
a", usa! spaced at disl,nce, from each OII""r equal to o r slighlly larger than one-half
of the I"'ighl (Fig, 17.1<'1. Propeny right~ or mher "'Slriclion, ,ometimes make il n~'('
,,>sa,), 10 plac" the wall a1lhe forward edg~ of Ihe b,a", ,lab, i.e .. 10 omit tl", toe,
Whene,"er it is possibl". t"" eXI"nsion, of on"-third 10 one-founh of Ihe width of lhe
hase provide a ",ore ec"nomical soluti"n,
Which of tl'" Ihr~ tH"'s of wall, i, appmprim" in a gi,"n cas~ <kpends on a
variety of condition" such as local availability and pric~ of construcli"" mat~rials and
pruperty rightS. In g~neral, gravity walls are economical only for rdali\'dy low walls.
p'><sibly up to atx,Ul 10 ft. Cantile\'~r walls are ecollomical for heighls from 10 to 20
ft, whil" count~rfons are USl-d for g",atcr heights.
, 17.2 EARTH P RESSURE
In term, of physical behavior, ,oil, and OIher granular masses occupy a I'0siti(Hl inter-
",ediale ""Iween liquids and solid" If ~an<J is p',ured from a dump tru,;k, it flows, Wt.
unlike a friclion 1e" liquid. it will nOi assum~ a horizomal surface, It maimai", itself
in a .<lable heap witb sides ",aching an ""g'" "frep".'~, the tangent of which i, roughly
"<tual to the codfici~nt of intergranuiar friliioll. If a pit i, dug in day soil, its sides can
575
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I IHI
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576 ' W.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 17
FIGU IU: 17. '

Type, of "'laining w>il, and
b;,ck drains: (<I) p,ra"ity ,,"'all;
(~) ,antiicvC'r wall;
Ie) COU"terfOll \0.,,11,
(., Base stab
'"
\
\
\ Counlerfort
Weep holes
V \
\
\
'It \
\
\
\
,A
'0'
u,ually be mad" ,-enical O\-er mn,idcmbk d"plh, without 'UpPO"; i.e . 1m: day "'ill
bdtaw like a solid and ",ill "'tain the shape it is given, If. howev"r, the pit i, flo<xled.
the ~ides will gi"e ",ay. and, in man)' cases , the satumted day wi ll be convened nearly
into a lrue liquid. The day is capnble of maintaining il, shape by menns of i1> internal
cohe,ion. bUl flooding ",duc"s tltat cohesion g reatly, ,;>ften to I.eru,
If a wall is huilt in comacl with a solid. ~uch as a rock face. no p",ssure i, exened
on it. If. Oil (he OIher lland, a wall ",tain, a liquid. as in a re",,,,'oir. it is subj ....,( at any
level to Ihe hydro,tmic pressure w.,h. where Ww is tm: unit weigh1 of tm: liquid and h
is th" dista",:" from (he surfae". If a ,"cnic'al wall retains "oil. 1m: eanh p",,"u", ,imi -
larly incr"a"" proponionally 10 1he d"p1h. but i1s magnitude i,
(17.1 )
wh,,", '" is lit" unit weighl of 1hc soil and Ku i, a constant known as th" CtJej}il;it'11I of
eanh (,,,,,<,mre at re.<'. 11", value of K" depend, nm only on the nature of 1he backfill
bUI also on 1he method of depositing mill (,(,,"pactin); iL It ha, bt.-en determined "xper-
imemallythat. forurt(.()mpactednnnmm:sive.oils.uc.ha.sand.andgr.IV... s. K"
rnng'" be1w""n 004 and 0.5. while il may he a, high as 0.8 for Ihe "'ltll"
soils in a
highly mmpa<"led Siale (Ref" 17.1 through 17.3). For c<;Ihesive "oi Is. K" may he on tI",
<;Ir<kr of 0.7 to 1.0. Clean ,ands and gravel, are consider~d superior to all mher soil,
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FIGU IU : 17.2
B"j, of ><,;,,,,nd 1'=;'"
e.nb pte""", Jelemli""ioo,
oc'Cau"" lhey ar~ free-draining and are not su><:epl ibl~ 10 frost action and hecnusc Ihey
do not be{,ollle less Slahle wilh Ihe passnge of lime. FOJ Ihi , reason. "ollmhesi", back-
fills are u,ually 'p'-'Cified.
Usmlly. walls move slightly ullder lhe aClio" oflhe ennh pre"u",. Since wall,
are COII>lrul-k-d of dnSlic material. Ihey defll'Ct und~r the action of the pressure. illld
oc'Cau"" Ihey generally resl on {"ompre~sible ",ils. Ihey Ii It nnd shifl nway ff<lm Ihe fill,
(FOJ Ihis ren",". I"" wnll is often con,truc1<ed wilh a slighl batter toward the r,ll on Ih"
"xposcd face '" Ihm. if and when such lilting takes place. il does not aPl"'ar,,\'ident to
Ihe obser\'er.) Even if Ihis movement at the lOp of Ihe wall i, only n fmclion of a pt'r-
~..,nt of Ihe wall heighl (t tb
to I"'",elll ncmnling to Ref 11.2), the re~1 pressure i,
mal~rially oc'Crea,ed by i{'
Iflhe wall moves away from Ihe fill. n slidi ng plane ab (Fig. 17.2) fonm in Ihe
'nil m""-~. and the wedge abc, sliding along Ihnl plane. exens pressure against tI,,,
wall,
Here Ihe angle is knnwn as lhe angie of imemai fricr;,m : i,e .. its tangent is equal to
Ihe coefficient of intergranular friction. whith Can be delerlllined hy appropriale labo-
rato,), teslS, The ("(m~sponding pre"u", i, known a, Ihe arri,-e n>r1i1 pre...,,,,,,. If. on
Ihe other hand. lhe wall i, pm'hed againsl Ihe fi II. a sliding plane ad i~ fomJed. and Ih"
wedge acd i, pushed upward by the wall along Ihat plane. '!be pre"ure thaI Ihi, larger
wedge exens ag"inst Ihe wall is kn(}wn as Ihe I"" .h-e cunil prc..,-"re. (Thi, laner ca>c
will also occur at Ihe left face oflhe gravily wall in Fig. 17,lu when Ihi, waU yield,
,lightly 10 the jeft under Ihe pressure of Ihe filL)
'!be magnitude of Ihesc pressures has heen analyzed hy Rankin~. Coulomh. "lid
othe", . If Ihe soi l surface make, an angle with the horizontal (Fig, 17.1,,). Ihen.
according 10 Rankine. the ooefficient for actin' earth 1''''.Hure i,
cos'
K. = cos (11_2)
cos + cos'
and the wt'Dident for I",.%il'f p"',.,."", is

cos + cos'
( ILl)
K" and Kp {"(>place Ku in Eq. (17 , I) to &tennin-, soil pre,sure I'. un&r ac!i\'~ and pa"
siVl'. conditions. resp<'ctiwly.
For Ihe frequ~nt caS-' of a horizontal surf~~'e. lha! is. = 0 (Fig. 17.2). for actiw
pressure.
(17.4)
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57S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 17
and for passive pre",ure,

+ Sin
K". = ~-:::'- (17.5)
, Sin
Rankin~', theory i, valid !Hlly for n<;mcohesiw soils such as s'lnd and gmvel bUl. wilh
corresponding adjuslfne]l(s. can al,o be used soccessfully for col""ive clay ,oils.
From Eq,. (17 . 1) (() (17.5). il is seen lhat the eanh pressure at a given depth"
depends OIl the indination of the ,urfac~ . the unit weight w. and the angle of friction
. 11", first tWQ of these arc easi ly delermined, while littj~ ag,,->cmelll has y~t heen
reached as to the proper values of . For the ideal case of a dry. noncolle,ive fill.
could be detcmlined by laboratory tests and then used in the formulas. 11,is is imp<"-
,ible for days. only pan of whose re,ismlKe i, furnished by i]l(~rgmnular friction.
while tI", re,t is due to im"mal cohe.~ion. For this reason. their actual values are
oft~n increa .....-:I by all arbilr.lry amount to account implicitly for the added col",sioll,
However. this is often un,afe ,ince, a, was shQwn by the exa"'pj~ nf tI", f1oooc..-:l pit.
cohe,ion may vaoish almost complele1y due to satumtion and inundatioo,
In addition, fills behind retaining walls are rarel)' unifQTlll, and, what i, lIlore
irnp<mant. th~y are mrely dry. Pm""r drainage of the fill is "itally imponant to reduc,",
pre"ures ("'>c $ectiotl 17.6). but ~ven in a well-<lrained fill, th~ pressure will t"m-
p<l11Irily increase during hea,'Y ,tonm or sudd~ n thaw,. This is due (() the fact that even
though lhe drainage may succe"full)' remove the water as fa,t as it appears. il, rno~e
melll through the fill toward tI", drain, causes additional pressure (seepage pres,ure),
In addition, frost action and other inf1u"n('e' may temp<lnuily increase its value m-er
that of the theorelical nctive pre"ure. "hny walls that were design<..-:I without r~gard
to tI",se factors have failed, been displaced, or cracked.
It is good IlnK"tice, therefore, (() select cooservative values for ,considerably
,mailer than the actual test valu~s, in all cases exeept wher~ ~xtraordinary and usually
expensive p'Cautions are taken to ke"p the fill dry under all conditions. An example
of ,,-'Commended emh-pre"ure values. which are quite conservative, though ba.<;cd 011
eXlen,ive research nnd pmctical experi~nce, can be found in Rd, 17.2. L~ss ('onser-
vati", values are often used in practical de'igns. but these should be "mployed (I ) with
caution in view of the fact lhat occnsional tmuhl~ has been encoulll~red Wilh wall, so
desig,,,,d and (2) prefcrahly with lhe advice of a geotechll;('al engineer.
Table 17.1 give, "'presentaliv~ "alues for w and often used in engineering
pmctic". (Not" that the values do n<>l account for pmbable add itional pr~"ures du~
TABLE 17.1
Unit weights ,effective a ngles of interna l friction , and
coeffi cients of friction with concrete
Unit Weight
Soil pef degrees
I. Sand or gra,".1 wi,OOti' tino particles.
highly permeable 110-120 ;>-'" 0.5-0 6
2 Sand or gra,"d will! sill rnixtu". 10,.. ptnlltabilil)" 1ID--- no 2~35 0.4-0.5
-" Silty sand, ",nd and 8.-.",1 wi,h high day wnlenl 11 0-1l0 2-"..}o 03-0.4
4. Medium or stiff clay 100-120 2S---W 0.2-0.4
5. Soft d,y. 'ilt 90-1 10 20-W 0.2-0,3
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to porcw~t"r, seepage, frost. et('.) The t~bl" also cOlllains value, for the ~'(,."ffi,ient of
friction f tJ.,tween connete ~nd \'ari<;lU5 soil,. The \'alues of for s"il, 3 through 5 may
hoc quit" uncolI,",rvativ,,; under s~lUr,lted conditions, days and silt, may bt,.>col!le
elllirely liquid (that is , = 0). Soil, of type I or 2 should hoc used ~s hackfill for rel~in
ing w~lls wherever p"ssible.
" 17.3 E A RTH P RESSU RE FO R C OMMON C O N DtTION S OF L OADI N G
In "omputing earth pressures On wall" tin", common condition, of loading ar" m<;lst
<;Iften met: (I) hori1.Ontai surfa,'" of fill at the top of the ",all, (2) inclin"d surfate of
fill sloping up and baek fn"n the wp of the wall. and (3) horizontal ~urface of fIll <:ar-
rying a uniformly di,tributed additional load (,u rdmrge). such a, from g<xxl' in a 't<;lr-
age yard or traffic on a rood.
TIle increase in pre,sure cau",d by uniform surdmrge .\' (case 3) i, computed by
converting it, load into an equi,'alent, imaginary height of earth h' altQw the top of thoc
wall such that
,
" = - (17.6)
"
and mea,uring thoc depth 1<;1 a given point on the wall from thi s imaginary surface . Thi,
arlKlUlIls W re pla"ing h wilh (h + ,,') in Eq. (17 .1).
TIte di,tribution, of pressure fQr ca,"" I to 3 are shown in Fig. 17.3. the to",1
earth thrust P per linear fOOl of "'all is equal to the ~rea under thc pressure distribu -
tion figur". and il~ line of an;oll pa,,",, thnlUgh thoc centroid of the pre5);ur". Figure
17.3 give, information, C<;Impuk'<i in thi, manner, on magnitude, point of action, and
di,.,..tion of P for th"", three ca,",s.
tr+3M'
y - 3(11+211')
For 8 - .p, K. - cos.p

(. ) (') (e)
FIG URE 17.3

E.nh pur~' for (d ) hori:wnlat ,urf""", (h) ,loping s urf...., (c) hori",ntal \ nrf",-'(' wilh
,urchargo .
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IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 17
Occasionally relaining walls musl be buill for condilions in which Ihe ground -
wat~r lewl is above d", base of lhe wall . either perman~ntly or sea,onally. In that case.
the pressure of the soil "hm'e groundwater is determined as u,uaL The pan of the wall
helo,," groundwater is suhj.,..tlo the sum of Ihe waler pre"ure and the eanh pre"ure.
n,e fonner is equal tQ the full hydrostatic pressure I'.. = ,,__ il._. where w,. and il,_ are.
respecti"ely. the unit weight of water and the dislance from tl", groundwaler level to
the poilll on the wall. The additiQnal pressure of Ihe soil below the groundwater level
is computed from Eq. (17 . 1). where. however. for the ponion of the soil below water,
"" is repla~,->d with w - W,_ . while il. as usual. is mea,ured from the soil ,urface. Thai
is . for subme rged soil. buoyaoc)" ,,->duces tl", efT.,.."tiw w'eight in the indicak>d manner.
Pressures Qf this rrurgnitude. which are considembly larger than tho", of dmined soil.
will al", occur lempomrily after heavy minslOrms or thaws in wall, widlOUl provi'ion
for drainage. or if drains have ben,"", clogg~d,
n", seeming simpli,"ity of the determination of eanh pressure. a, indicated I",re.
,hould not lull the designer itlto a fal", sense of security and certainty. No themy i,
more accumte dmn Ihe a~,umptions on which il is based. Actual ,oil pre"ure, an"'
affected by irregularities of ,oil properties. porewater and drninage ~"(,"ditions. and cli -
matic and Olher faClors that cann<>1 be expressed in fonnula . Thi, ,itumion. otl d", ot'"
hand. indicates that involved rdi""""'nt~ of theoretical eanh prc",urc delerminalions.
a, sootet;n"" attempted. are of liule pmctical "alue. On the mher hand. the design of
a remining wall is seldom a rQUline proc~dure . sinc" the local conditions Ihat aff..'<1
pressures and ,afet)' val)' from one locality 10 allOthe,-
_. 17.4 EXT ERN A L STABI LITY
A wall may fail in Iwo differetlt ways: (1) il' individual pans may nO( be <trong
en{)ugh tQ re,isl the acting forces. such a, when a vertical cantilever wall is cracked
by the earth pressure aning on il. and (2) the wall as a wlt{)le may be hodil)' displaced
by the eanh pressure. wid,{)ut breaking up internally. To design againsl the first possi -
bility r"'quires the determination of the necessary di"",nsioos. dtick""sses. and rein-
forcement to re,ist the moments and ,hears; this procedure. then. is in no way different
from that of delcnnining r~quin.xl dimension. and reinforcen"'nt of other type, {)f con -
crele slmctu"". The usual load fanors alld 'trength reduclion factors of theACl Cod"
may be applied (see S<-'Cti{)n 17.5).
To safeguard the wall againsl h<xlily displacen",,,ts. i.e .. to ensure ii, external
,tabil ity. requires special considemtion. C,m.islent with current pranice in geolec'hni -
cal errgineering . the stability i,,\-estigati{)n is hased On aClual earth pressure, (as nearly
as tl",y may he determined) and {)n computer! m eSlimat<-'<i servic" dead and live loads.
all witillmt load fact{)n;. Cornput<-xl bearing pre ssures are compared with allQwable val -
ue and o"erall factors {)f safety evaluated by comparing resi'ling forees t{) maximum
loads acling under se rvice condilio"s.
A wall. such as thaI in Fi g. 17.4. togelher with Ihe <{)il rna" ijkl that rest, on th"
ba", slab. may he bodil)" di'plac,>d by the eanh thru,t P that act, on lhe plane ok by
.,lidill!! along Ihe plane {lb. Such sliding is resisled by the frictiQn betw,-",n the s{)il and
f'lIlting along d", same plane . T{) fore,tall motion. II", forces drat resi,t sliding rnusl
ex<:eed those Ihat t~nd 10 produc'e sliding; a faclQr of safety of 1.5 is generally assull",d
,alisfactm), ill thi, c{)nllecli{)n.
In Fig. 17.4. the fOTc'e that telld, to produce sliding i, Ihe hQrizontal comp"nenl
p. of the 100ai eanh thrust f'. The re,isting friction forc" i, JR,_ . where J is the coeffi -
cient {)f friclion helween the COllcrete and ,oil (see Table 17.1) and R,_i, tl", venical
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FI GUIU: 17.4
EXlCmoi .lability of a
cam il,,>'er ",'all. ,
W
.J.. P
j ~~
p.
j "
~~
, R.
,
"
--<-"-
"" Y "----"
,
m
'"
A
R
,
i
/' "b"j'd ,.
'L'~,-g
~
,- ,
mmp"n~nt of the IOtal r~""ultant R: thal is, R,. = IV + 1'" (IV = weight of wa ll plus ,oil
reSiin g on the f"oting , P, venical c",nl"",enl of I'J. H ~nc~, 10 provide sufficient
safety,
fW + P" "'-LiP, (17.7)
AClually. for lhe wall 10 slid~ 10 Ilk) lefl. il muSI pu.h wilh il t h~ ~unh ",,,b. which giw.
riwlO Ihe passive eanh pr~.sure indicated by lhe Iriangl~ rmb , This passive pres.ure
represenls a further resist ing force thai <'ould bt: add~d 10 tlk) left side of Eq. (17.7) ,
How,.'er. Ihis should bt: done only if the prop,:r functioning of Ihis added r~.islance i.
~ nsur~d. For Ihat purpose, Ihe fill }>;I,,,,,, muSI 00 placed before Ih~ backfill ijk! is put
in place and muSI 00 seCure againsl lakr remo.'al by scour or olher means Ihroughoul
Ih~ lifetime of Ilw wall , If Ihese condilions are nOi m~1. it is beller nOiIO counl On the
addilional resistance of Ihe pas>iw pr~ssun:.
If lhe required slid ing r~.istance cannOI be dewloped by Ih~w means. a key wall
L'de/can be uwd 10 incn:us<' horizontal resislanc~ , In this case. sliding. if il (x'CUTS.
takes place along the plan~s ad and if. While along ",{ and 'f th~ friction ,'O<)f/i ,' ie nl/
applies .liding along Ie (X'Curs within Ihe roil mass. TIte codfici~m of friction thai
applies in Ihi. ponion is conseQu ~lIIly tan . where lhe ,'alu e of may 00 taken from
Ilw n~xt 10 lasl c'Olumn in Tabl~ 17, I , In this Situ alion sliding of the front roil occurs
upward along m' so Ihal. If the from fill is S<le ure. Ihe co~sporlding r~sistanc~ from
!XIssi"e soil pressure is r"presenled by the pr~ssun: Iriangle "1m. If doubt ~xislS as 10
Ihe reliabihty of the fill abow Ihe to<). th~ free surfac~ shou ld more con,.,,.,,'aliwly be
assumed at Ihe lOp lewl of Ill<' fOOling. in which case Ihe !XIssi"" pr~ssun.' is r~pre
wnted by the Iriangl~ , 'II( ,
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Nexl. it is nece,s.aJ)' 10 ensure thallhe pressure under the f'K)ting d,,,,,. n{){ nceed
lhe permi,,;hle hearinx pre.' ."'rt for the particular ,,,il. Let" (Fig. 17.4) he the di,-
tance from Ihe front <'<Ige h to the imerseclion of 1m, re,ultant with th~ hase plane. and
let R" he the vertical component of R. (This interse<"lioll n~..,d not he located heneath
the verti<."al arm. as shown. c~en though all ,-""onomical wall gencmlly re,ults if il is so
located.) The" the hase plane {lb. I f1 wide longitudinally. i, suh~t 10 a normal force
R,_and to a n")(lIem ahoUllhe centroid (I. 2 - " )R,,. When these ,alues are ,ub,titUl<'<l
in d", usual formula for hending plu, axial force
IV Me
q = - + - (17.8)
::: " - 1
;t will he found that if the re,uitam is lncat<'<l within the middle third (ll > 1 J). com -
pression will act lhroughout the se<"lion. and the maximum and minimum pre"u""
tan be computed from II", ~"<tua1ions in Fig. I 7_5". If the re,ult:mt i, located JUS! at II",
nG U RE 17.5
Se. ring p"",ure, fOf
R,
diffo",n, lo<ati,,"s of q, - (41 oa)/f
rewlt,m.
, R,
when a - '2. q , - q~ - T
(a) ResuHant ill middle third
'R,
" . -,-
(b) ResuHant at edge 01 middle third
_ 2Rv
q, 3a
(e) Resultant ootside middle tt>rd

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cdgl! of the middle third (a .. I 3). the pl'!ssure disuiootion is as shown in Fig . 17.5/1.
~nd Eq. ( 17.8) results in the formula given there.
If the resultam werl! located outside thl! middle third (a < /- 3). Eq. ( 17.8) would
indica ll! tension at and ncar poi11l It. Ob"iou sly. ten sion cannot he developood belwecn
soil and a conl!rete footing thm mCl'!ly rests on it. Hence. in this case the pressure dis
trihut ion of Fig, 17.5~ will develop. which ,mplies a slight lifting otT the soil of the
rear pan of the footing. Equilibrium requires thm R., pass through the centroid of the
prcssure distribution triangle. from which the formula for </ , for this case can easily be
derived.
It is good pracl;ce . in general. 10 have the resu lt ant locatcd wilhi" the middle
third. Thi s will not only reduce the magnitude of the maximum bearing pressure bUI
will also prcwnt too large a nonuniformity of pressul'!. If the wall is rountkd on a
highly compressible soil . such as cenain cl~ys. a pressure disuibution as in Fig. 17,511
would resu ll in a much larger settlcmcnt of the toc than oflhe heel. with a correspond
ing tilting of the wall, In a foundation on such a soil. Ihe resultant. therefore. should
stri ~e at or "cry ncar the centcr of the fOOling , If the founda lion is on "cry incom
pressible soil. such as well compacted gravel or roc~. Ihe resullant can be allov.'ed 10
fall outsidc the middle third (Fig. 17.5c).
A third mode of failure is the possibility of the wall ul'erl,mu'''11 bodily around
the front edge /1 (Fig. 17.4). For this 10 occur. the O"crturning moment yl'~ aoout point
II would have to be larger than the rl!storing moment ( Wx + PJ) in Fig. 17.4. which
is the same as saying that the resullant would ha"e to stri~e outside the edgc II. If. as
is mostly Ihe casco the resu llant sn;~<!S within the middle Ihird. adequate safelY againsl
ovcnurning exi sls. and no spoocial chec~ nced be made. If the resultant is located OUI
side the middle third. a faclor of safety of at least 1.5 should be nwintained againsl
ovcnunHng: i.e .. the resloring IllOmcm should be at leasl 1.5 times the ownurning
nlOnICIIt.
, 17.S B AStS OF STRUCTURAL D ESIG N
In the investigation of a retaining wall for eXlemal stability. de,cri~d in Section 17.4 .
it is the current pranice to base the calculation_, on actual eanh pressures. and on com-
put~d or e,timated se rvice dead and Ii"" l<)ads. all with load facto" of 1_0 (i _e .. with -
out load increase to account fm a hypothetical o""rlo"d condition). Computed soil
b.earing pressures. for S<!rvice load londitions. are compared with allowabl" \'alue_< set
su itahl), lower than ultimate hearing value,. Factors of safety against ovenuming and
sliding are e'tahli,h<.i. ha>al on service load (ondi,ions.
On Ih" other hand. the , tructuml d6ign of a retaining wal l should b.e con,istent
with meth(Kls USl..! for all otb.er typ"s of nll.'lIlbe". and thus should be based on fac-
tor"d loads in recognition of Ihe po;;,ihilit), of an inl'rea", alKwe ",rvic" loading. ACI
Code load factors relating {(, structural design of remining walls are summarized as
follow!;,
I. If re,istance to eanh pressure H is induded in the design. together with dead
loadS D and live load, L. the required strength U shall be at least equal to
U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 1.6H
2. Where D or L reduce the eff~ct of H. the require..! strength U shall he at last
('<Iual to
U = 0.9D + 1.6H
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J . FOJ any <vmbinalion of D. L. and H. II", re'luir<.-d sl r~nglh shaHnol he less Ihan
U = 1.20 + 1.6L
Whil~ Ihe ACI Cod" approach 10 load faclOT de'ign is logical and relaliwly ~asy
10 apply 10 n",mhe", in building>. il, application lO ,lru<:1Ures Ihal an: lO re,isl canh
pressures is nol '" ~asy, Many alt~mative ~x'mhi nalion, of f"">red dead and li,-e load,
and lal~ral pr~"ures are I""sible . [kad load, such as Ihe weighl of II", <Vncrele
,hould he multiplied by 0.9 wher~ Ihey reduce design momem,. such as for lhe I<'
,lab of a tanlil~v~red reMining wall. but ,hould he muhipli<--d by 1.2 '..]",re Ihq
increase 111011"'nt such a, for Ihe heel slab. l1Je venical load of lhe ~anh over Ihe heel
,hould be mulliplioo by 1.6. Obviously. no Iwo fanored lood 'Ialcs <:ould be oblailled
<:oncurrently. For each (-ombination of fatlOred load,. different reaclive ",il pre~,ur~,
will be pnxJuced u"d~r til<' 'Iructure. r<.'<juiring a new delermination of Iho,", pres,ur~,
for each alternalive (o",billalion. Funhermore, Ib~re i, no r~aso" 10 believe Ihal ,oi l
pressure would continue 10 be lillearly dislribuled al Ihe overload slage. or would
illcrease in dir.,.,1 pml",nion W lhe load in(-rease: knowledge of soil pressure disuibu -
lion, at intipi~nt failure is into!llplel~. Nece.-;sarily. a ,u"",what simplified view of
load facwr design mu,1 be adop1<--d in designing remining walls.
Following 11", ACt CtxJe . lal~ral eanh pressure, are multiplied by a load fa<"lor
of 1.6. In general. the reacli\'~ pressure of the soil under Ihe mucture al d", facwred
load smg~ is lak~n "'Iual lO I ,6 limes til<' soil pr~5.~ur~ found for service load mndilion,
in the slabilily analy,i,. ' For cantileve r relaining walls. the <:alculak-d dead load of til<'
loe slab. which causes nK",,,,nl, acling ill the opposile sell'" W tlK''''' produced by 11",
upwanl soil reaclion. is multiplied by a factor of 0.9. For the heel ,lab, the re'luired
moment capatily i, based on lhe dead load of Ihe h...,1 slab il",lf and is multiplied by
1.2. while the downward load of Ihe eanh is multiplied by 1.6. Sureharg~. if pre""nl .
is lreat.ed as li\'e load with a load factor of 1.6. The upward pre"ur~ of lhe soil under
the heel ,lab is lakell e'lual to zem, recognizing Ihat (or the ""vere ov~rload slage a
nonlinear pressure distribulion will pmbably be ohmioc-d. wilh mO'1 of d", re;":lion
toncemmted n~ar lhe loe. Similar assumptions appear to he reasunabl~ in de'igning
toumerfof1 walls.
In attordatKe with ACI Cod" 14.1.2. camil""er relaining wall, are d~signed fol -
lowing Ihe flexuml design pro\'isions covered in Chapler 3. with minimum horizontal
reinforcemenl pflwided ill accordance wilh ACt Ctxle 14'],3. whi('h stipulat~s a min -
imum mtio of
0.0020 for defor",,,d bars not larg .... Ihan NO.5 (No. 16) wilh a 'pedfied yield Slrengih
n<>l le><.. than 60,000 I"i : or 0.0025 for <>Iller tkformed hars: or 0.0020 for welded wire
reinforce menl not larger Ihan W.11 or OJ L
. 17.6 DRAI N AGE A ND O THER D ETAILS
Such failure, Or damage to retaining walls as ha\'e occasionally occurred we re due. in

mosl ca."". 10 one of Iwo causes: overloading of th~ soil under Ihe wall with eon",-
'luem forward lipping or insufficiem dr.linage of Ihe b""kfi II. In the bner case, hydm-
,Ialic pressure from por~wa1er actumulat.ed during ur afler min'torm.~ greally
illcre:l."" the Ihrust on lhe wall; in addition. in ,ubfreezing weather. i(-e pressure o(
'1........, ",,,,'u.,,,, .,,' 0'''-'"" tI)" ,'" "" """,1 f""" >fl'<i kIl,d ",..di",,,, ....1""S, "0 ,hrL'" "'I",,,,,,,Mp t<l "I""w,' ~,;I ",-,..i"~ ,-.1"", ,~ f1"-'''",,'
,1h" j~' i<",' .
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considembl~ magnilud~ can develop in such poorly drnin~d ",i1.. the Iwo causes an:
ofl~n i nt~ rconn~c!<.-d. since brge thrusls correspondingly increase the be aring pre >sure
under the footing.
AI/mmble bt'"ri"g 1'",,<,"""'.' shoul d be selected with great {"are. It i, n~=s,ary,
for this purpose. to investigate nO{ only the Iyp" of ,oil immedialdy umk rl ying the
f'Klting. but also lhe deep"r layers. Unl~.s reliahle informalion is avaibhle at the site.
suhsurface bOJin&, should be made to a ""pth at least equal tQ the height ,;,f the wall.
l1Je foundation must be laid below [m.'1 del'lh . which amount s to 4 to .~ ft and m"'~
in the nOr1hem state,. to ensure against heaving by the f"",zing of ,oils <"<>Illaining
moisture.
DmitUl~e can be provided in variou, ways. \\-<-q' hole.< C<>Ilsisting of 6 or 8 in.
pi p" ~mbedded in the wall. as shown in Fig. 17.1,. are u,ually spal-ed horizontally at
5 to to ft. In addition to the bottQm row. additiQnal rOWS should he providt.-d in walls
o f substantial height. To facilitate dminage and I""vent clogging . I ftJ or m",e of
crushed stone is pl ,,,:ed at the rear end of each weep"'- Care must be taken that the out-
Oow from the w~ep IK,I~s i, earned off safely so as not to seep into and ",ft~n the soil
underneath th" wall. To prnent thi . instead of w""I"'''. lo"Simd;",,/ dmi,u emtx-d -
d~-d in crushed ,tone or gra,'eI c an he provided along the rear face of th~ wall (Fi g.
17.lb) at one", mQre levels: the dmins discharge at the end, of the wall or at a few
intennediate points. The mmt efficient drainage is provid~d by a ("ollli",,,,,,.'
/m("Llm;" consisting of a layer Qf gr.lvel OJ crushed stQne l"Overing the entire rear face
o f the wall (Fig . 17.111). wilh discharge al the ~nds. Such drain age is np",,,ive. bow-
e\'Cr. unl~ss appr<:>priate material is l"heaply available at the 'ite. Wm,rever I"'ssible.
the surface of the fill should he co\'Cred with a layer of low p"rmeability and. in the
case of a horizontal surface . ,IK>uld he laid with a slight slop" away frorn the wall
toward a guu~r or othe r drainage.
In long wall ,. provision must be made against damage ca used by nfHlIl.\"io" or
cmllmcl;o" from temp"Tate changes and shrin kag~ . The AASH TO Standard
Specijicmioll< [or Hisillmy Bridges require that fOJ gravity walls. as wdl a, r~inforced
concrete walls. expansion joint s he placed at int~rval. of 90 ft '" less. and contr.tction
joinl~ at not nKKe than 30 ft (Ref. 17.4). The same specifil"ati"n" prQVid~ tlwt. in rein -
forced concrete wall,. horizontal temperat ure reinforcement of not Ie" than} in l per
f'K>I of deptb he p"wided adjacent to tm, exposed surfal..,. Similar provisions are found
in Ref. 17.5.
_. 17.7 EXAM PLE : D ESIG N OF A GRAVtTY R ETA tN ING WA LL
A gravity wall i, to retain a bank 11 ft 6 in. high whose horizontal surface is subject
to a liv~ load surcharge of 400 p,t". The soil i, a sand and gmvd mixture with a rathe r
moderate amoun t of fine. silt y par1ide,. It can. therefoJe . he assumed to he in cia" 2
o f Tahle 17. 1 with the following characteristics: un it weight II' = 120 pef. = 30
(w ith ad~q uate dminag~ to he provided). and hase frini,"l co"fficient [ = 0.5. With
sin 30" = 0 .5, from Eqs. (17 .4 ) and (17 .5). the soil l"".sure coefficients are K"" =
0.333 and K". = 3.0. The allowable hearing p",ssure is a~,um,--d to be 8000 psf. This
c'''''''''-grain~-d soil has little compressibility. ", that the resultant can he allowed to
strike n"ar the out~r-third point (sec Sed ion 17.4). The weight of the concret~ is 11',. =
150 pd.
n,~ optimum design of any retaining wall i, a matter of successi,'e approxima-
tion. Rea",nable dim~nsions are as,umed baSl-d on exf't'rienc~ . a nd the various con -
dition, of , tability are d"",ked fOf these dim"nsions. On the basis of a first trial.
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IW.." I W'~ OF CO NC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 17
FIGU IU: 17,6 I-------I--T-

Grn,-ity retaining ",.11
r.61~lj,''--__~~:~'_'4'4.
I W, I I
I I I
W"
I
I I I
I
I
I
I
I W,
I: I
:If
I I
15' (1"
I W, I I
I I I
I
I
I c'1
I I
r~
~------
3' S'
IW
,
I. 10'0 .1
dimensions are readjuslcd, and one or 1,,"0 addi1ional lrials u,ually resull in a fa"or
able design, In Ihe following. only lhe final design is analyzed in delaiL TlJc final
dimensions are shown in Fig, 17,6 ,
The~'{)ui"alcll1 heighl ofsurchnrge ish' .. 400 120 .. :U3 fl. From Fig. 17.x,
Ihe lotal ~anh Ihrusl is
P- I 2 x 0.333 x 120 x 15 x 21.67 - 6500lb
and ilsdiSlance from IhI: ba5e is,\' = (225 + 150)(3 x 21 .67) = 5.77 fl . Hence, lhe
ownurni"g momenl Alo ~ 6500 x 5,77 ~ 37.500 fHb. To compu1eIhe weighl Wand
;IS reSloring momen! AI, abouI1he edge of Ihe 100:, ind ividual weigJl1s are laken, as
shown in Fig, 17,6. Wi1h ,( represcll1ing IhI: dislance of Ihe line of aclion of each suh
weigh1 from Ihe fronl edge, the following compulalion resuhs:
Componllnt Weights ft ftlb

"
1I-" ,: IO x2)<1~ .'1.000 '.0 IHlOO
W,: 1.5 x 13 x 150 2.9.m H OO
11-",:12 x I '1X 150 6.8.m "
4.58 :11.'100
11-",: 12 x lJx 120
11-", : 0.75 x 1.1 x 120
,.""
1.170
6.92
9.63
37.800
11.270
Tot,1 19390 99.770
The distance of Ille reSY Imn! from the fronl edge is

99.770 - 37.500
a= = ) ,2Ift
19.390
which is just OutSide' Itl t' middle third. The safety faclor againsl o"enurmng.
99.77037.500 = 2 ,66. is ample , From Fig. 175(' the maxnllurll soil pressu", is IJ =
(2 x 19.390) (.l x 3.21) = 4030 psf.
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n,~se cornputmions w~r~ made fOJ Ihe case in which Ih" ,urcharg~ eXI~nds on ly
to Ihe rear edg" of Ihe wall. point a o f Fig. 17.6. If Ih~ ,ureharg" exlend, forward to
point h. Ih" foUowing modification, are oblained:
IV .. 1'1.390 + 400 X 7.75 .. 22.490 Ih
M," 9'1.770 + 400 X 7.75 X 6.13 .. 11S,770 Ii-Ib
IIS.770 - .'1..500 \ f
.,., ... ,61 t
~~.490
This is inside thl: middle third. and from Fig , 17.5a. the maximum ocaring pressure is
40.0 - 21.7 22,490
,/ , = 100 =41 20psf
The Silu~l i on mOSl conducive 10 sl iding occurs whl:n (he surch~rg~ extends only
to point a. since addilional surcharge belwL't'n would increase (he (otal weighl
and lh~ corresponding resisting friClion. Tll<' friClion force is
F = O.S X 19.390 = 96951b
Add itionally. sliding is resisted by (hc p~ssi\'e earth preswre on (he from oflhe WJII,
Although lhe base plane is 3.5 ft below gradc. lhe lOp IJyer of soil cannot he relied
upon to furnish passi,'c pressure. since i( is frequently loosen<!d by roots In(1 (he like.
or it coul<1 he scourL'd out by cloudbursts. For lhis reason, rhc lOp I j ft will he dis-
count<!d in computing the pa>~ive press ure. which then hc<;ornes
I', ~ I 2wh l K"" ~ I 2 X 120 x 2' x 3.0 ~ nOlb
The s"fety factor against sliding. (%95 + 720) 6500 = I ,6. is but slightly larger than
the required val,,~ 1,5. mdicming a favorable design. Ignoring the passive pressure
gi.'es a safety factor of 1.49. which is wry close to the a~'ttptable "allle.
E XAMPLE: D ESIGN OF A CANTI LEVER R ETAINI NG WALL
A canrilevcr wall is 10 he designed for the si tuation of the gravily wall in Seelion 17.7.
Concrete wirh k = 4500 psi and ~ted wirh!, = 60.000 psi wil l be used _
a. Preliminary Design
To facilitat~ COlll l>lnation of weights for checking the stability of the wall. it is advan
tagtous firs!!O ascenain the thickness of the ann and the footing .' For this purpose the
thickness of tile fOOling is roughly estimated. and then the required thickness or the
ann is detennined at its bottom section , With the bonom of tile footing at 3.5 Ii below
grade and an estimated footing Ihick!\ess of 1.5 n. tile free !wight oflhe arm is 1~.5 ft ,
Hence. wilh r~spect!O the bonom of tile ann (see Fig. 17.:k).
/' = I 2 x 0 .313 x 120x 1J.5 X 20.16 = 54401b
, . 3IS3X + 1
~O.16
135
" 5.25f1
M . = 1_6 x 'i440 x .' U5 = 4'i.700ft -lb

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IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 17
For the given grade, of concrete and steeL the maximum permiuffl reinforce""'nt ratio
-.. = 0.0200. For <-'con(}my and ease of har pla"ement, a rutio of about 40 percent of
Ihe maxim"m, Qr 0.008, will be u",-....t. Then from Grdph A.lb of Appendix A.
~= 410
bd'
For a unit length of the wall (b = 12 in.). with = 0.90. the requin.xI effective depth is
--;.'~5
"
X
C7cOO'Ci':C'"2", = 10.9 in.
0.90 X 12 X 4.,0
A protective COVer of 2 in. is r.:quired for conCrete exposed to eanh. Thus. est imat ing
the b.1r diamet~r (0 he I in .. the minimum required Ihid::ness of the ann at lhe base is
13.4 in. This will oc ,nereased 10 16 in .. occausc Ihe eOSI of lhe exira eonerele in soch
Slruelures is usual ly more Ihan balanced by Ihe sitnullmlCous saving in slcr:1 ~nd casc
of eonerele placement. TlIe arm is lhen checked for sht:ar at a diswnee d above Ihe
bas.:, or 12.5 ft below Ihe lOp of Ihe wall:
1' -12 XO.3.H X 120 X 12.5 x 19.16 " 4800lb
v. = 1.6 x 4800 = 7680lb
Vo ~ 2 Eml
~ 2 x 0.75 4500 x 12 x U.S
~ 16.300 Ib
conforming Ihat Ihe arm is more than adequate to re8i,Ithe fJCIOrL,<1 8hear force.
The thickness of the base is usually the same or slightly larger than that Jt the
i:>ollom of Ihe arm . Hence, the estimat<!d 1.5 fI need nOI be revised. Since lhe moment
in the ann decreascs with increasing distance from the ba'le and is 7.ero J\ the lOp. the
ann thic kness at the top will be made 8 in. It is now necessary to al'sume lengths of
h<-""l and 10<: slab~ and 10 check the slability for these assum<-xI dimensions.
lnlemw.,<liate Irials ore omitted here, arid lhe final dimensions are shown in fig. 17.7<1.
Trial computalion~ have shown Ihnt safety against sliding can be achieved only by ~n
excessively long heel or by a key. The IUl(er, requiring lhe smaller concrete volume,
has been adopted.
b. Stability Investigation
Weights and moments about the front edge me as follows:
"."
Compon ent We ights ft-Ib
1+\: (}'67 X 1.'.5 x 150
w,:0.67 x 0.5 x I ' .5 x
"...
1360
4.67
5.550
'" '"
.\ 180
w,:9.75 x 1.5 x 2.190 4.88 10.700
W, : 1.33 X 1.25 x 1';0 2-'j() 4.J2 I. IIX)
W,: 3.75 x 2 x 120
W. : 0.67 x 0.5 x n ..~ x "" 1.88
,~
"" ...
W, 4.67 x n.~ x 1.20 '" .W '
7.570 7.42
2,610
'\6.100
rotal IH90 81,().I0
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FIG UIU: 17.7

C.n,iln'<f ",taining wall
I) Of"'" "",Ii"", (~) beari ng
.
P"'5>UfC with suharg<:
to a: (e) be,ring pre!>,"re Vert. NO. 4 Vert No, 7 (No, 22)
with , ""'harge 10 b: (No, 13) @ 16"
(<I) ",inforee nlen! : ","'
(.) mon",nt ":motion
wilh " igh,.
,---IT
8" I I 3'.4'
--1 Ho
, " NO. 7 (No. 22)
dowels @ S"
'w, No, 4 e><lend 4' 6"
(No. 13) above base
II'II I 0"
w, ,!IIIII j 13' O'
r! IIw,
2' 0"
w,
,'0-1 I WS+ , , c,;-
W, , ' 6"
1'3"
'-t---
,W, 1'3"
I I
3' 9" 1' 4 " 4 ' S'"
,,' ''I
Surchar9l' 10 painl a
, g.700 f1lb
lJY'
<hMn Kl( No, 7
" --
(No.22) @ 18;n,
( 16 in. used in
final des<gn to
" (0)
4000 ftlb
satisfy minimum
reinforcement
requi rements)
Surcharge 10 painl /)
~Y'
,., 10 21.300 f1lb
13.5 L_--'~~=;:---"l
23.800 hlb
Moment
45,700 ft-Ib
,,)
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n,~ 10Iai soil pressure on lhe plane ",. is the san", 'IS for the gravily wall
de,ig,,,,d in Seelion 17.7. Ihal i,. f' = 6500 Ih. and the ovenuming mOlllenl is
M " = 37500 ft -Ih
n,~ distance of lhe r~,u l UJ.n1 from the fnnu ,--dg~ is
81.040 - 37500
,,= =3.23 ft
13.490
whidl locates Ihe resultant harely oUlside of the mi"dl~ Ihird. The cnrresp<mding max -
imum soil pressure at 1M toe. from Fig. 17.5<". is
".2X D,470
~
3 X 3._3
0
27S psf
1lIe fa,'tor of safely ag~in'l ovenuming. 8 1.040 37500 = 2.1 6. i, ampl~ .

To check Ihe safely against ,Iiding. relllember (S~cl ion 17.4) thai if sliding
<)('<.'urs it pn)('<.'eds betw~"en concrete and soil along lhe heel and ky (i.e .. length,,~ in
Fig. 17.4). but mk~s place wilhin lhe ,oil in front oflhe key (i .e.. along length /e in Fig.
I 7.4). Conse<.ju~ntly. Ihe mdlicie nt of friclion that appli~s for the fonner length is f =
0.5 . wh ile fOJ the lauer il i, equal 10 Ihe inlemal so il fritti"". i.e .. tan 300 = 0.577.
The bearing pressur~ dist ribution is shown in Fig. 17.71>. Sim'e the resulla nt i,
al a di,tanc~ a = 3.23 ft from Ihe front. i.e .. nearly at tlte middle third. it is as-,umed
that Ihe hearing pressure be,'omes zero exanly at lhe edge of Ihe heel. as shown in
Fig. 17.71>.
1lIe r~ ,isling force is lhen Com pUled as tl'" su m of die frktion fOK.." of the rear
and front ponio". plus tl", pa"i,,~ soil pre,sure in fnmt o f the wall. For 1M latter. a,
in Section 17.7. the top 1.5 ft layer of ,oil wi II be di>count~d as unreliahl~. Hence.
Friction.loe: (27 80 + 1710) X 0.5 X 3.7'i X 0.577 = 4860 lit
Friction, ....~I and key: 1710 X 0.5 X 6 X 0.5 - 2570 Ib
Pas,ive ~arth pr~"ure: 0.5 X 120 X 3.25! X 3.0 - 1m Ih
Tolal resi,tanee to slidi ng: = 9330 lit
The fam" of safely against slidi ng. 9TlO 6500 = 1.44. is only 4 pere~nl hel ow
the r~'('omme!lded valu~ of J.5 and can he regank"<l as a<kquat~ .
The computations hold for Ihe case in which tbe SUrdlaIge exlends fmm tl'" right
to point" ahove tl", ~"<lg~ of tite heel. The otber case of load dimibution. in which lhe
, ureharge is plac~d ,wer the entire su rface o f lite fill up 10 poinl 1>. evidently d,,,,s not
change Ihe ~arth pressure on the plane "c. h do",. h"w~v~r. add 10 lhe sum of tl'" "er-
tical for,.." and increases both Ihe restoring moment M , and the friclion alollg the base.
Consequentl y. lite danger of sliding o r o\'~numing i, great~r when lhe sureharge
eXlend, only to II. for whith ,itumion th~"" two ea",s have been dlt.~ked and found
~<kqua1e. In "iew of Ihe add~d ,'enitalload. howev~ r. the bearing pressure is largest
when the su rfac~ i, loaded to 1>. For th is ca.se.
JII = 13A90 + 400 X 5.33 = l'i.600 Ih
M, = ~1.0.t0 + 400 X 533 X 7.09 = 9I>.200ft-lh
,, = 96.20015.600
- 37500
= 3.76ft
which place~ 1he resultant in,ide the middle third. HeJICc. from Fig. 17.5".
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15.600
19.0 - 22.5 9.75' = 2710 ~f
" 15.600
q, - 22.5 - 19.5 - -,- - 492 psf
9.75
which is far below the allowable press ure of 8000 psf, The corresponding bearing
pressure distribution is shuwn in Fi g. 17.7(".
The e,\t~nml stability of the wal l has nOw been aseenained. and it remains to
ddmni,k) the l"I.'<juired rcinforce'rk'nt and to ched inkntal r<'sislances.
c. Arm and Key

111e moment at the bottom section of tlk) ann has previously be",n detennirn.-d as M. =
45.700 Iilb. and a wall thickn~ss of 16 in. at th" ootlom and 8 in. at th" lOp has t...' eu
selected , With a conCMe cowr of 2 in , dear. ,/ = 16.0 - 2,0 - 0,5 = 13.5 in. 11len
M, 45.700 X 12
- - ~ ~79
hd' 0.90 x 12 x D .S' ~
Imerpol~ring from GrJph A, II> of Appendix A, with!, = 60.000 p~i ~ndf; = 4500 psi.
the required reinforcement rario is 0.0049 and A, = "0.0049 x 12 x 13.5 = 0.79 in'lf1.
The required are~ of sreel is provided by No.7 (No. 22) wrs ar 9 in . on centers.
The ben(ling moment in (he ann decreases rapid ly with increasing diSlance from
rhe bonom. For (his re~son . only par( of lhe m~in reinforcemenl is needed m higher
elevations. and alternate b~" win be disconlin ued where no longer nceded. To deter.
mine lhe cutoff point. rhe momenl diagrJm for the arm h~s been drawn by computi ng
bending momentS al two interrnediJte levels. 10 f( and 5 fr from lhe lOp. The~ two
momems. determined in the SJme manner as lhar m the bae of lhe arm. were found
to be 21.300 and 4000 frlb. respeClively. The resiMing mome nt provided by ahernale
bars, i.e ., h}' No.7 (No. 22) bars at 18 in, center ro center, al (he borrom of the arm is
0.90 x 0.40 X 60.000
M. = 12 13.50 - 0.26 = 23.800 ftlb
ATthe top. J = 8.0 - 2.5 = 5.5 in .. and rhe resiSling mono:nl of (he same wrs
is only M . ~ 23.800(5.5 13.5) ~ 9700 fHb. Hence. rhe SlrJig.ht line drawn in Fig.
1 7 . 7~ indicales the resisting mome nt provid<!d at any elevation by half Ihe number of
m~in bars, The imel"S<Xlion of lhis line with the mono:nl diJgram al ~ distJnce of 3 fr
() in. from the bonom represenls the point above which alternate bars are no longer
needed. AC I Code I 2. I0.3 sptXifies lhat any bar shall be extended ocyond the point al
which it is no longer n<!<."<led 10 carry tle,ural Slress for a distance equal 10 II or 12 wr
(Iiamelers. whiche~er is greater. In the arm, Jl a diHJnce of 3 ft 6 in . from the bonom.
,,= 11.4 in .. while 12 bar diamelers for No. 7 (No. 22) bars are equal to 10.5 in,
Hence. half the bJr~ CJn be di~ontinued 12 in . above the point where no longer
needed, or a diSlance of 4 ft 6 in . above lhe base. This e,,<!<."<ls the required de,clop
men! length of 39 in. above the base.
To facili(ale conSlrucrion. rhe fOOling is pla<:ed first alld a construction joint is
provided at the bae of lhe arm . as shown in Fig. 17.7,/. The main bars of the arm.
therefore. end at the top of the ba~ slab. and dowels are placed in the laner (0 be
spliced wilh lhem: the integrilY of the arm depen{ls entirely on the strength of lhe
splices u~ed for the~ tension barl'. Splicing all tensi on b~rs in one ~ction by simple
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
contact 'p!ic'e, can ~asily !ead to 'plining of lhe coocrete owing 10 th~ streS, CorK"" -
Iralion~ at lhe ends of d", spliced bar>. Oll~ way tn avoid Ihis difticu h)" i, 10 weld aU
,pI icc,; Ihis wi!! ~n1ail cOll5idcmhj~ extm coS!.
!n thi, partic ular wa!L anmher way of placing the reinforcing ofIers a more ""0-
nomica! ,olulion. B""ause ahemate bars inlhc aJlll CaJl he discolllinut.-d at a di,tance
o f 4 fl 6 in. abov~ d", ha"". the dowels wiU be carried up 4 ft 6 in. from the top of the
ha"". The"" II""d not be spliced at al L because above Ihat !ewl <Hlly a!iernale No.7
(No. 22) bars. 18 in. Oil cente,,", are I",,--dc-d. TIle"" latte r bars are p!ac~d full len gth
over Ihe emire height of lhe arm an<.l are spliced al the bonom with ahcmate shorte r
d,m'ds, By this means , only 50 P<'rcellt of the bar> ne~ded at the bonom of the aJln are
'pliccd; thi, i, not objc"Ctionable.
For 'plice, of deformed bar<; in wn,ion, al ""clion, whe re the ratio of st",,1 pro-
vided 10 ,!t...,! requirt.-d i~ I~ss than 2 and where no nK)re thaJl 50 percent oflhe 'tilel i,
,pliced. lhe ACI Code "-><luires a Class B splice with a lellgth equal 10 !.3 lime, the
development length of the bar (St..., Section 5.11al. '11k: d~"dopment lenglh oflhe No,
7 (No . 22) bars for the givcn maleria! slrengths i, 39 in .. and '" the required splice
length is 1.3 X 39 = 50.7 in ., which i, !ess Ihan the 4 it 6 in. available.
According 10 the ACI Code, main flexum! reinforce me nt i, rIOt tQ be tenninated
in a tCII,iQII '.one unless one of Ih rw condilion, is sali,f,ed: (1) shear at the cutoff point
doe, not exceed tw()-thirds thaI permith.-d. (2) cert ain excess ,hear reinforcement i,
provided. or (3) lhe l"!lIltinuing reinforcement provide, double the area required for
tlex ure at the cutoff poi nt and the factored ,hear doe s nOi ~xcwd Ih rw -fourth, of the
design <hear. It is ea,ily confi rmed that the ,hear 4 ft 6 in. aome the oase i, wen hel"w
two-thirds the \'a!u~ that call be carried hy the concrele; thus main hars can be le rm i-
nated as p!a"",_-d .
Prior to comp!~ting tli~ d~sign of the arm. th~ minimum t~nsile rc'inforcement
ratio specifi~d by th~ AC t Code must be dl~cked. The actual ratio pro>'ided by th~ No ,
7 (No. 22) bars at ! 8 in. spacing. with d = 10.8 in. JUSt above the cutoff point. is
0.0031. about !O perC<)nt below the minimum "alue of 1 4500 60.000 = 0.0034. To
hand!~ tliis. t h~ spacing of Ihe No.7 (No , 22) bars will ~ reduced to 8 111 ,. giving a
sp.1cing of !6 in , above the c utoff, n,is will increawlhe amount of steel. but by !~ss
than would be l\et.>ded if the bars were ~xl~n<kd to a height wtlt're til\) decreasing va' " ~
of <1 allowed the minimum rdnforcelll\)nt Tatio to be satisfied. A final AC t Coo:k
"-,<!uirenlt'nt is that ttle maximum spacin., of the primary flexural rd"fo"-vlllt',,t {'xceed
n~itll\)r 31inlt's the wall thickness nor !8 in.: these restrictions are satisfied 3 " 'elL
Since the dowels had to be extended at !east pan!y into the key to produce the
necessary length of cmbcdtn<:nt. they were bem as shown to provide both rdnforcc
nl\)nt for the key and anchorage for the arm reinforcement. The exact forcc that the key
m~st resist is d ifficult to determinc. since probably the major pan of the force acling
on the portion of the soil in front of the ~ey is transmitt~>d to it thro"gh friction along
the baw of the footing , ll1o.' rc1ati"c1y strong rdnforcctn<:nt of th.: kcy by means of the
extend<.>d dowel s is consider~>d sufticient to prc~cnt wparation from Ihe footing.
The sloping sid~s of th~ key were provided to facilitate c.xc3vation wi thout !oos
ening the adjacent soil. 11lis is nt."Ccssary to ensure proper functioning of the key.
In add ition 10 the main sted in the stem, rein forcement must be provided III the
horizontal di!l..'Ction to control shrinkage and t~I11p<-'TIlt ure cracking. in accordance with
AC! Code !4,3.3. Calculations will be based on the :wcmg.: wall Ihickncss of 12 in ,
ll1o.' n:q",,,->d stee! area is 0.0020 times thc gross concrete arca. No.4 (No , 13) bars !6
in. on cent~rs, CJch face, will be used, as shown in Fig. ! 7,7<1. Although not required
by the Code for canti!~\'Cr r.:taining walls. ~crlica! steel equal to 0.00!2times tnc gross
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
concrete area will also be prQvided (tQ limit hmi1.Ontal surface cracking). with at lea.~t
ooe-half of this "alue provided on the expos"d face, as specified for other wall, under
ACI Code 14.3.2. No.4 (No, lJ) hars 30 in. OIl centers will satisf)' this requirement.
d. Toe Slab
1),.,u'" slab acts as a cantil",er projeding outward from th" face of the ,tem. It muSt
resist the upwnnl pressure, shown in Fig. 17. 7b or c alld th" downward load of tI", Ul<'
,lab il",lf. each multiplied by appropriate lood factors. The d,m'nward lood of the
"anh fIll over tl", tnc will t,., neglect~d oc"Cause it i, 'ubj .....t m possible erosiOll or
",movaL A load fanor of 1.6 will be applied 10 tl", ",,,,ice load bearing pre"ures,
Comparison of the pressure, of Fig. 17.7b and ,; indicates that for the me ,lab. tl",
mo", severe loading case re,ull, from surcharge to h. Because the self-weight of tl",
tnc slab tend, to ",duce design momelll, and ,hear,. it will be multiplioo hy a load fac-
tor of 0.9. Thus tl", factored lood moment at the outer fac'e of the ,tem is
,
2710 ,2
M .= 1.6 - - x3.75x - + - - /3.75"/ -
232
1850 , I
3
- 0.9 225 / 3.75- / '2I
= 25,800 ft.lb
For conC"'l~ cast againH and permanent ly cxro~ed to eanh. a minimum protectivc
cov~r for SlL"<:1 of 3 in. is fL"quired: if tilt: bar dian",!er is aboul I in .. tilt: cff~,tiv~ depth
will he 18.0 - 3.0 - 0.5 = 14.5 in. Thus. for a 12 in. strip of toe slab.
M. --;c2~5~,800
" "",~X~'~
2 '",=L16
btl' 0.90 / 12/ 14.5
Graph A. I/> of Appendix A shows that, for this value, the requiroo r~inforccn-.:nl ratio
would be below the minimum of 3 4500 6O.0<Xl ~ 0.0034. A wmewhat lhinner
wse 61ab appcars possible. However, mon",nlS in the Ilt:cl slab ar~ yet to be i"'csli
galcd. as wdl as slll'ars in bolh the loe and h~1. an(lthe trial depth of 18 in. will be
retained tentati,dy. The required tlc,ural stL"<:l
A, = 0.003 4 / 12 X 14.5 = 0.59 in l ft
is provided by No.7 (No. 22) bars 12 in. 011 cente ,;, TIl<' required lellgth of embed
n",nt for th~sc bars past (h~ nt ~rior face of the stem is the full <iewlopn",nt length of
-'9 in. Thus. th~y willb.) continued 39 in. pastlhe fae~ of tile wall. as sho"n in Fig.
17.7<1,
Shear "ill be ch~ckt'd at a distant<' d = 1.21 f1 from tIle' face of til<' Skm (2 .54
ft from the ~nd of th~ 100). according to the usual ACI Cod~ procedur~s. Th~ scrvke
load hearing pressure at that loeation (wi th reference to Fig, 17.7(') is 2DO ps. and
th~ factored load shear is
v, ~ 1.6 2710 / I 2 / 2.54 + 2130/1 2 x 2.54 - 0.9 225 x 2.54

- 9.120 Ib
The design shear strcngth of" the concrete is
v, = 2 x 0.75 4500 / 12/14.5 = 17500 Ib
well ahove the required value V,.
o..loootc..,_
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5'M IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 17
e. Heel Slab
The heel slab. 100. aelS as a e3n(ilc>er. projecling in Ihi s case from Ihe back face of lhe
51em and loaded by surcharge. earth fill . and ils own weighl. The upward r.:aclion of
Ihe soil will be neglecloo here. for r.:ason s gi\'Cll earlier. Applying approprime load
f:.clOrs. Ihe momCnllO be resislCd is
M.= 1.2 x 225x ~ .67'x 12 + 1.6 400 x 4.67' x I 2 + 1620 x 4.67' x J 2
= 38.200 f(-Ib
Thus.
=~
38,.2=OO
"!c'X,-"I2'cc = 202
0.90 x 12 x 14.5'
In(crpolaling from Graph A. lb. (he rcquir~"d reinforccmcnl ratio is 0,0035. JuSI abo,c
Ihe minimum value of 0.0034. The required swcl area will again be provi<kd using
No, 7 (No. 22) rors 12 in. on cenlers. as shown in Fig , l 7.7d, T~se b.1rs are classed
as lOp IxIrs. as Ihey have more Ihan 12 in , of concrele below: Ihus lhe rtxtuired lenglh
of embedment 10 lhe len of Ihe inside face of Ihe Slem is 39 x 13 - S I in ,
According 10 nonnal ACI Oxic procedures. Ihe flrsl crilical seelion for sh~ar
would be a dislance d from Ihe f:1CC of supporl. Howe"cr. Ihe jusli/ication for Ihis pro
vision oflhe ACI Code is Ihe prescnox. illlhc usual case, of vcnical compressive Sll'ess
I\c~r a supporl which lends 10 decrease the likelihood of shear failure in lhat region ,
However. Ihe call1ilc~cred heel slab is essemially hung from lhe bonom of Ihe Slem by
Ihe flexural Icnsile sleel in the Slcm. and Ihe conerele compression normally found
n.:ar a support is absell1 here. ConS<."qucmly. Ihe crilical se<:lion for shear in Ihe h~"C1
slab will be laxen al Ihe bacx face of Ihe Slem. At Ihal location.
v, - 1.2225 x 4,67 + 1.62020 x 4,67
16.3501b
The design shear Slrenglh provided by lhe concrele is lhe same as for the lOe slab:
Vc = 17.500 Ib
Ikcause Ihis is only 7 percent in excess of the required value " . no reduClion in lhick.
ness of the base slab. con~i<kred earlicr. will be mao.:.
The ba...: slab is wcll below grade and will not be subjected to Ihe e:<lren)Cs of
lemperature that will be imposed on tbe stem concrelC. Con...:quently. crack co nt rol
sleel in the di=lion perpendicular 10 the main reinforcement i~ nOI a major COl\sio.:r.
alion. No.4 (No. 13) bars 12 in . on cemers will be provided. at one face only. placed
as sbown in Fig. 17.7<1. The...: bars servc ch iefly as spacers for Ihe main flexural rein.
forcemen!.
'. 17.9 COUNHRfORT RETAIN ING WAllS
The extcrnal stabilily of a coumerfon relai ning wall i~ dClennilll.,,1 in the sallie manner
as in lbe examples of SeClions I 7.7 al1(1 I 7.8. l1Ie loe slab r.:preS<!n1~ a CJnlilever built
in along the front face of lhe wall. loaded upward by the bearing pressure. exactly as
i" the cantilever wall (kscribed in SeClion 17.8. Reinforcement is provided by bars"
iI\Fig . 17.8.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
FIGUIU : 17,8
o.:"il, of ,,,,,",,,rfon
retaining ""II.
PoOOIq
PoOnt 0 -
,
SOCIion B- B
'I '
,-
, .J
Section A- A
A panel of II", ,""nical wall between twocoumert'ort' i, a slah acted upon hy hor-
iZ<Kual earth pressure and supported along three side,. i.e .. at the two counterforts and
tile hase ,Iah. while Ihe fourth ,ide. the 101' edge. is nOi ~upported. The eanh pre"ure
increases with dislance frum tl", free ,urface. The delermination of IlK)t11enl~ and
,Ilears in such a slah ,uppon~..-:I on three sides and nonuniformly loaded is "uller
involvoo. It i, customa,), in tl", design of such wall, to disregard the support of tm, ver-
tical wallhy tl", base slah and to de'i gn it as if it were a c<mtinuou, slah spanning hor-
izontay between counterfon,. Thi s pnK:edure i, conservative. lx'Cau"" the mo"",l11,
ohlained by this approximation are larger than those corresponding to lhe actual con -
dition, of support. particu larly in tile lower pan of the wall. Hence. for very larg~
installation,. 'ignifical11 ,a"ing' may be achie,-ed h)" a 1110re accur~te analysi s. 11",
best computational t'K)1 for Ihis is tl", Hillcrborg Mrip wet/",J. a p!aslicily-hased lhe-
o ry for design of ,!ahs de,cribed in detail in Chapter 15. Altemalivcly. re,uh, of elas-
tic analysi, are tabulated for a range of variables in Ref. 17.8.
Siah rrKlmem, are delennined for strips I ft wid" spanning horizomally. u,ually
for the strip at the !x;.Uom of the wall and for three or four equally spa<'ed additional
,trip, at higher elevation,. The eanh pressure on the different stri ps "'-"<Oreases with
increasing devation and i, detem,ill"d u,ing Eq. ( 17.1). Moment \"alue, for the bot-
tom suips may be rNlu('ed 10 account for lhe facl that additional ,upport is provided
hy the ba"" slab. Horizontal bars h (Fig. 17.8) are prO\ided . a, requirt..... with increased
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
5% IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 17
'pa,:ing or decreased diaJl1eler ~x}fTt."ponding 10 lhe .maller momenl~. AI..,rnale bars are
henl 10 provide for lhe ''''gative moments in the wall at !he counterfons, or addilional
,t"'ighl bars are used as negative reinforcement, a, .hown in Seclion A -A of Fig. I 7.8.
lne hed ,lab i, .upport'-'<l, a, i, lhe wall ,lab, i.e .. by Ihe coumerf",t, and at It;.;,
wall. It i, loaded downward by tbe weight of Ihe fill re~ling on it. ils own weighl, and
,uch surcbarge as Ihere may he. Thi s load i, partially muntemcled by II", upward bear-
ing pressure on II", underside oflhe heel. A, in Ihe ,'ertical wall, a 'implifled analysi,
mn.i sl, in neglecling the influence of the .upport along the Ihird ~ide and in deter-
mining mo"",m, and 'hears for snil" pa",lIel 10 d", wall, ea,-h slrip repre,eming a
continuou s heam ,upponed at the co unterfort . For a hOJizontal soi I surface, lhe down -
wrud load is constant fOJ tt;.;, entire heel. whereas the upward load from the bearing
pressure is u,ually smallesl at the rear edge and illcrease, frontward. For lhi, reason,
the span moments are posilive (,-ompression on lOp) and II", .uppon l!Io11",,,l, nega-
tive in II", rear ponion of the heel. Near Ihe wall, lhe bearing pressure often exc<-'Cd,
Ihe venical weight,. re~ulting in a net upward 1000. The 'ign' of Ihe moment, are cor-
respondingly re",Ned, and ,teelmusl he placed accordingly. Bars c are provioc'<l for
Ihese morllenl.
n", muntert"on, are w<-'<lge-,haf!'-'<l camilevers built in at the boltom in the base
,lab. They support the wall slab and, Iherefore, are loaded by tt;.;, IOlal soil pressure
o ver a len glh equal to Ihe di slance center to center belween coumerforts. 11ley act a,
a T heam of which Ihe wall ,lab i, the flange and Ihe coumerfon the slem. The maxi -
mum bending n""nent i, Ihat of Ihe total earth pressure, laken about the n.mom o f II",
wall slab. This momem i, held in equilibrium by Ihe foree in tt;.;, bars d, and hence. Ihe
eff~clive d~pt h for bending i, Ihe perpendicular di stance f"1 from Ihe c~nWr of bars ,I
to 1111: ,-em~r of the n.>!tQIll seclim) of the wall 'lab. Since It;.;, nlQmen! dt.'(-rea>cs rdp-
idly in the upper parts of the counterfon. pan of 1m, bars d can be dismntinu~'<l.
In regard to shear, the aUl!""" suggesl It;.;, n.,rizotltal sccliQn "'I ns a conserva-
tive localion for ct;.;,cking adequacy. Modiflcalion of the cu,tollUU)' shear computmion
i, requiK'<l for wt.'<lge-,haped members (St.", Seclion 4.7). Usually concrel~ aIm", i,
,u fflcient {() ('any the shear, althou gh bars <' act as ,tirrups and can he used for resist-
ing exc"" ,hear,
lne main purpose of bars ~ is 10 counleract the pull of the wall ,lab, and they"",
thu s d~signcd for the full reaclio" of this slab.
n", remaining bani of Fig. 17.8 ",rye as shrinkage reinforcen"'nt, excepl thm
hars fhave an irnportam addilional funClio", It will be recalled thai the wall and heel
,labs an: s upported on three ~ide,. Even lhough Ihey were designed as if ,upponed
only hy Ihe C!lunterfons. tt;.;,y develop moments where tlll:y join, 11", re,u !ting len,io"
in and near lhe r,-",ntr""t mn",r should he providc'(l for hy hars f.
11", que,tion of reinforeing bar delails, alway, important. is pnnicularly so for
comers suhjed to ,uh,tamial bending mon",m" such as are presem for n.,lh canti lever
and coumerfon retaining wall>. Valuabl~ ,uggeslions are found in Ref. 17.9.
., 17.10 P RECAST RETAtNIN G W ALLS
Largel)" because of the high cost of forming cast-ill-place retaining wall" lhere ha,
be",n increasing use in recem yean; c,f variou, fonn, c,f precasl concrete wall s,
Seclions can he mns, pnKluu'<l under ('(,mrolled faCIO,), condilions using standaruized
form" with excellent qualily control, On -sile construclion lime is greatly redu(-cd, and
genemlly only a ,mall crew using lighl equipment is required. Weather be>comes much
Ie" of a factor in compleliml of II", work Ihan for casl -in-pb,-" wall,.
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FI GUIU: 17.?
PrIT"t T Wall" retaining
wall 'y,rem. (C( .",>:"
r;,I<IN"" .\)",,".1 /0",., H" d.~",
1>',",,' I/""rp>"i". ,
O ne tyre ofpreca<t waH is shown in Fig. 17.9. ('r""as! T SI,Xt;ons are us~d. each
2.5 ft high and 5 ft wide. with T sten~' varying according to requiren",ms fmttl 4 ft to
20 ft. Individual units ar~ suu: k~d. using ,hear kcys in the space created where teeth
or a ,op and bol1om uni , (on", toget h~r. at appmxi malely a 6 fl spacing pe'l"'n,li(uIar
to the face of!he wall, Cakulati"n, for stability against ,Iiding and ovcrtuming and
ror beari ng pressures are the same a, ror ca't-in -place ('am; le,'cr or (oumerfort walls.
with stability pmvi<k<l b)' the comhined weight of the concrete waH and compad(..!
selec, hackfilL Such walls can be construcled with ,,~rtical f"c~ or battered section.
with height> up to 25 ft.
Walls of the type shown Imve been u,eil ror highway'. park ing lots. commercial
and industrial , ites. bank stahiliut1i"'l. wing wall s. and similar purposes .
REFERENCES
17.1 11.. B. '~ck. w. 1'. Ibn"", . .00 1'. II . '1b<"",t..Jm. fl""u['"i"" linX''''''-;"X' 1",1," __ j,,,", Wiley ....1 s..".
loe .. ~' w V...", 1Y74
17.2 K. Te"-'.>ghi. I/.. n . '~ck . ....1(i. Me'sri ..o;,~1 M" ,.",;,,., in E"3'''''''-;''Y j 'n .-ri,, ..W ,-.1 __ h>ha Wile)' ....1
..."". 1",, __ s,,~ y,d. 1'!'16
!n w. C II "nho~". ,. E",," /' ...."'" ...., ,,",{ I/,''''''''''X1Ilt11,. johll Wiky .1101 s.>n,. III,' .. N,.... y,><I. 1\0';7.
17.4. I~,,"k,,,' Spuijk,,,,,,,,, for /fi~h"''Y H,-;,Ig'~ ]6<h "I.. ,\""'n........ A&~.,;".'" o( S':ooc lli ~ t\\"'y ...1
T,"">I""''''''' OfHd,!s (AASIITOI. W~""n;1 (\f\.I X: . IWtI
17. ~. 1</,,,,"," fiX 1/",/-,,>" M8,"""i"8, ,\11"''''''''' R.il .... y F.n ;;""";" ~ and M.;n,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,Ii w,)' A&""""",,
{ARUM). J""'~ " ~f. MU. 200l!
17,6, CN.\"I J)..'i~" II~. 'ioh <''-. ('''''-,"",,0 Il<, n(occillg S,,,,,I I n ~ iO " ". Sh>. ", _ r~ ,
II .. 1\~ )2
! 7.7 M. "10"". /f"""/),,,,' 'if eo",,'''''' E"yiJtc,,.,,,y. " ,-.d od .. V"" N,,,,,,,,,,,, II.dru.okl Cn .. N,",,' v",, 1'18.'.
1H . 1?""~'"~"Ja,. Ow>c~" Tartt.l. l'ul>lical~\f\ No. tst!)) U. 1\",).00 (,,'0><11' A,,,,,,i""". ~lol:"" II , I~~I
!H '- II . E. N il",,., ,nd ,\ . I A""-~ . "'lI.cinf,,..,,-.I C"",-"fd,' 0....,,, "",I )'';11'-' S "~j,,-,t '" B,-oo; o~
Mom"".... 1. .lIme,. Ii;" .. ,\SCli. , .... . 1m. 00. ~T6 , 1 91~. 1"1'. 122'1---1:!54
PROBLEMS
17.1. A cantilcvcr retaining wall i, 10 be desigru.x1 with gcot!ldry ns indicated in Fig,
PI 7. !. Backtillmaterial will be well-dr.Iine<J gmvel hnvi ng uni, weight I\" =
120 pef. intemal friction illlgl~ = 33. and fri ction factor again,! the COlt -
Crete hase f = 0.55. Bac kfill plal'cd in fnmt "r!he lOe "'i lt have the ,ame prop-
crtie.~ and wilt be well c{}mpact~d. The final gr.ide hehind lhe walt will he Inel
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59S IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 17
Wilh the top of the wall. with no surcharge. At the lower level. it will be J fl
above the top of tl", bnse slab. To impnl\-e sliding re,istance. a key will he used.
temalivdy projc<1ing to a d~plh 4 ft below lhc top of lhc base slab. (This
dimension may be modified if necessary.)
(a) Sa.",d OIl a stability investigation. sel~{"t wall gL"{)l!ldf) suitable for the
1
'!",,"ified ,onditions. Por a fi"ltrial. place the outer fa,"" of lh~ wall the
widlh of tl,., base slab back from the to,:.
(b) Pr~pare the complete ,tructural design. specifying size. pia,ement, and
cutoff point. for all reinfore~ment. Material, hav~ strengths / ; = 41XlO psi
andf, = 60.000 psi. Allownble ,oil bearing pressure is .){(x) p,f.
nG URE 1'17.1
\
\
Optional \
counteoorls - \
\
\
\
\
\
,r \
17.2. Redesign the wall of Problem 17.1 as a coumerfon retaining wall.

Coonterfons arc telllativcly spaced 12 ft on centers. although this may he mod
ified if dcsiraNc . IIlClude al l reinforcement dclails. iTlCluding rcinforcemetll in
the countcrforts.
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CONCRETE BUILDING
SYSTEMS
18.1 INTROD UCTIO N
/l.lost of the material in the preceding chapters ha, f'<'nained to tl'" design of reinforced
concrcte .,'trul'll"''' ,,/em~lII.f. e.g .. slab->. columns, be~ms. and footings. n",se de-
n",nt, are combined in various ways to create .ftmew",/ "".I'.Iulle,' for huildings and
ot)",r construction. An important part of the total responsihilit}' of the stru<'tur~1 engi -
ne~r iii to select. from many alternatives, t)", best structur~1 system for tl'" given con -
dition,. The wise ,;hoicc of structur~1 system is far more important, in it, efTect OIl
overall ecollomy alld servi<'eabilit). than refinements in PJoportioning tile individual
"",mbe". Close <-ooper~ti()n with the architect in the earl)' stag~s of a pmj .....'t is essen -
tial in developing a structure that not only meets functional and esthetic n'<luirem~nts
hut exploits to the fulle" the sf'<'cial advantages of r~i"forced concret~. whi,-h indude
the following:
Ihsmilily"fform. U,ually pla~-ed in tl'" slruclure in Ihe fluid stale, the mate-
rial is readily ad~plable tn a wide vari~ty of archiwctuml and funclional re<juiren~nts.
Durabilil\', With prof'<'r ('{",crde pmh.'Ction of Ihe slee! reinforcern<em. tI",
stru<-ture will have long life, even under highly ad"er!ie climatic or environmental
condilions.
Fire r~si.</{mCt'. With pmf'<'r prnte,;tion for the r~inforcem~nt. a reinforceil
concrete "ruclure pmvi<ks the maximum in fire protl'Ction.
Spet>d of Ctm.\lrJIcli"". In terms of the emire f'<'riod. from the date of appmval
o f the contracl drawings 10 the dale of complelion, a ('{)ncrete huilding can often be
completed in less lime Ihan a sleel ,tructure. Although the field e n.'Ction of a steel
huilding is more rapid. this ph~se mu,t IK'Cessnrily be pTl'Cedt...J h)' prefahrication of
all parts in the shop.
Co.\!. In many ca!ies the [,,-,,t co"t of a concrete ,Iructure i, less than that of a
~x)mpamble <teet structure. In ~I moSt ~\'ery ca!ie. maintenance cost, are less,
Ami/ability of labor ""'/ mmcrial. It is always (lossihle to make Use of local
sOurces of labor. nnd in many inaccessibk areas, a neamy source of good aggregat~
can be found. so that ollly the cen",nt and rein forceme nt need to be hrought in from a
remole source.
Two record-sening examples of good huilding design in cOncrete are shown in Figs,
I~ . I and 18.2.
S99
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600 'W.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 18
FIG UIU: 18, '

View <>f J II Soo th W",:kcr
Dri"e"oJer "OIblroc(;OI1.
Wilen mmpk1Cd i1 bttamc
,he world', (,II.., """"rete
building, wi,h t",allleigh'
9-16 fl. (C,,""es', ,,' 1'<."/",,,1
c,"""' ~ ,.,~ w ,it>t1.)
F LOOR AND R OOF SYSTEMS
The lypcs of concrete floor and roof syS(~lnS are so numerous as to defy COllCise clas
sitkation, In stcel conslruction. Ih~ d~sillncr usually is !imil ed 10 using. structural
sh~pes thm have been standardiz<-'d in form atxl size by the relal ivcly few producers in
tht field , In reinforced concrttc. on the olher hand. the engine,,",r has almosl compicte
control ovcr Ihc form of the structural pans of a building. In add ition. ln~ny small pro
ducas of reinforced concrelC structural clcnlCllIs and accessories can competc prof
itably in this tkld. sioce plant and CqUiPlncnt requiJl!lncnts are not c .~cessiv~ . This has
resuhe'd in the dc"clopmcnt of a widc variety of concJI!tc systcms. Only thc more com
mon types can be memioned in this text.
In g.eneral. Illc commonly used reinforced concwc floor and roof syslcms can
he classiftcd as one-way syslcms. in ,,hich the lnain JI!;nforcenlCni in each structural
cicnlCnl run s ,n one di =tio~ on ly. atxl two way systcms. in which Ihc mnin rein
forceOllCni in m least one of the structural clcme lll S runs in perpendicular direclions,
Systems of each Iype can be idcmified in thc following list:
(a) One-way SI:lb supponed by monolithic concrcte beams
(b) One-way slJb supponcd by steel beams (shear COllllCClors arc UR'd for compos
ile oction in thc direclion of the b.:am span)
o..loootc..,_
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CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!.' EMS 60 1
FIG UIU: 18,2

MLC O:nl'" in Syd""y.
Au"",li._ with t~al height
80l! It
(c) On~- way ~lab with cold-formed Sled ded ing as fonn and re;nfor~rn"nt
(d ) One-way joist floor (also known as ribbed slab)
(e) Two-way slab supported by edg~ be~ms for ~ach panel
(0 Fbt slabs, with column capital, or drop paneh Of hoth. 001 without beams
(g) Flat plates. without bean~' and with no drop paneh Of column capitals
(h ) Two-way jO;<1 fl'Klrs, with or without beams on the colu mn lines
Each of these type, will be de>cribcd briefly in the foliowing ",,-tions, Additional
information will be found in Refs, 18. 1 to 18.3. In addition tQ the cast-in-pbce fl'KlT
and roof systems described in thi s SCI.-ti oll. a great "aridy of pr""ast ,-Qncret" systems
has OOcn devised. Some of these will be described in S,-'Ction 18.5.
a. Monolithic BeamandGirder Floors

A beam-and-ginler fl()()r con,ists of a series of pamllel beam., support<-'<.l at their
extremities by girders, whi,-h in tum fr.m", imo concrete columns placed at more or
less regubr interval, Qwr the entire floor area, as shown in Fig, 18.3. TI,;s fmmewofk
is covered by a one -way reinforced concrete slah. the load from which i, tmn,rnined
first to the beams and then to the gi rders and columns. TIle beams are usually spaced
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602 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: ST RUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 18
FIGUIU : 18,)
Framing of ocam .and.ginkr
r-_LJiii: i : :i
0""" (<I) plan vjew;
(~ ) <celion thmllgh beam;;
Ie) sec1ion llu'oogh girders. __ ~L __ U __ ~L_
o 0
:--n--Tr--II--Tr-
A II II II II A
II II II II
L II II II II J
II II II II
II II II II
__ U __ .1L __ U __ .1L_
o 0
~-n--Tr--II--Tr
II II II II
8..J
")
S&cIioo A_A Section 8 - 8
(b) (C)
>0 that they ~wne at the midpoints, at the third I"'int~. or at the '1uart~r p"im, of the
gird~r,;, TI", amlJlg~""'m of heums and spacing of CQlumns should he delermin~d by
~~x'nomical and pranical considerations, TIlese will he affected by Ih~ use to which
the building is to he pUI. lhe size and shape of lhe ground area, and tl'" load Ihat muSI
he carried. A comparison Qf a numher of trial designs and estimates should he made
if lhe si"" of Ih~ huilding warmnts, and tl", mosl satisfactory atTIlllg~n"'nt sdect~d. If
the spans in one direction are not long, say 16 f1 or Ie". the hearn, may he omitted
al!Qgether, and tl", slab. 'panning in Qne directiotl. can be carried directly by girders
'panning in the I"'rpeooiclllar direction Qn lhe column lines, Since the slab,. heams.
and ginler:s are buil! nll"IOlilhically. the beams and girder:s arc de'igned as T hearn,
and advantage is laken of continuity.
Beam -and -girder 11'lIl'" are adapt~d 10 all)' loads and 1<:1 all)' 'pans thai mighl he
encoumered in onlinaJ)' building con'lruction, 11", normal maximum 'pread in he
load value, is from 40 to 400 I"f. and the normal range in column spa,:in!:, i, from 16
to 32 ft.
TI,e de'ign and detailing Qf Ihe joim, where beam, OJ girder> frame into build -
ing columns should he given careful {'onsilkrntion. particularly for design' in which
,uh,t:mlial Imrizontal load, are to he resisted hy frame adion of tI", wilding. In Ihi,
case. Ihe column region. wilhin Ihe deplh of Ihe heams framing imo ii, is sUhjected to
'ignificant horizontal shear.; as well as to axial and l1exural loads, Special horizontal
{'olunm lies mu,t he indude.... to avoid uncontmJl~'{1 diagonal cr.Icking and disimegrd-
tion of tl'" {X)nnde. particularly if lh~ joint is ,uhjeet~d !O load revernal s. Sl"'cific r~C-
o..loootc..,_
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CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o. EMS 603
ommendatiom fw the design of hearn-column joints are f';lUnd in Chapter II and Rd,
I RA. Joint design for buildings tbat resist seismic for(-es is ,ubject to <pe(-ial ACl Code
provi.ions (~Chapter 20).
In normal beam-and-girder construction, the depth of tl", beam, may he as much
as 3 times tbe web width. Improved economy, however, is achieR'<i by using hearn,
with wcbs that are genemlly wider and ,hallower, coop led with girders that ha'-e tl",
same depth as the bo:ams. n,e resulting girders. more often than not, have webs that
are wider than their dfecti\'~ depth . Although the flexural stecl in the members is
increased because ,;,f the r<.'<iuced efft.'d ive depth compar<'il with deel"'r Illembers, tl",
increases in material coStS are more than paid for by savings in fonning co,t, (<H'"
depth for all members) and ea~ier <"<",struction (wider bo:mlL' = easier to cast than
namlW bo:am.), Another key advantage is the reduced conmuction depth, which I"'r-
mit, a ,,-'<iuction in the O\'er~1I height of the building.
For light load" a fl<HIr system has been devel0l"'d in which the beams are omit-
ted in one di,,->etion, the one-wa)' slab being carried di"->etly by column-line beams that
are very hrood and shallow, as ,hown in Fig. lK4 . These beam" suppon<-'etly by
the eolumns, ix'CQnlC little more than a thickencd ponion of the <lab. Thi, t)'1'" of COII -
,trunion. in fact, is known a, b<lluled "lab CP,wrlIrtip" , and tl",re are a nurnbo:r of
advantages asw<:iated with its use, over and abovc tho,.., associated with shallow
heam-and-girder construction. In the direction of tl", slab span, a haunched member is
present, in effl>et, with the maximum effective depth at the location of greatest nega-
tive moment. an"" the ,upport lines. Negative moments arc small at the edge of the
haun<:lt, hut the depth b",:,"n,,, less, and po,itive slab rnonlents are redutt.'<i as well,
lne increased flexural steel in tl", heam (~Iab--band) resulting fmm the redu,-ed effec-
ti,'e depth is often outweighed b)' savings in th" slab SI<...,1. Along with reduced con -
,trunion depth, banded <lab con'trucTion allow~ greater flexibility in locating ('01 -
urnn,. whi(-h may be di<placed ,ome distanc:c fmm dle ,-enterline of the slab-hand
without significantly changing the stru('[ur~1 anion of the floor. Formwor!': i, simpli -
fied bo:cnuse of the r<.'<iuction in the number <;If framing n",mbe". For such systems,
'p'->eial attention should be given to design dctails at thc bo:arn-column joint.
Tmnsve"e top sl<...,1 may he n"quired to distribute the colunm reaction over the width
of the s lah-band. In addition, punching shear failure is "o"ible; thi s may he investi -
gated using the same methods p",,,,nted earlie r for flat piate, (see Section 13,10).
b, Composite Construction with Steel Beams
One-way reinforced cOllcrete ,lab, are al", f"--<luent Iy used in buildings for which the
columns, bo:a"". and girders con,ist of struetuml st"e!. lne <lab is normally designed
for full conTinuity ove r the supponing beam" and tl", nsual methods followed. lne
'pacing of the beam, is usually 6 to R ft.
To pmvide com",,,it e action, shear conn~'Ctors are welded \() the \()p of The steel
heam and ar~ emhedded in the concrete slab, as shown in Fi g. I R5a. By preventing
longitudinal slip betwee" the slab and stecl beam in the di"->etion of the hearn axi" the
('ombined nlC",her is both <trunger and stiffer than if com",,,ite action were nO! deve1 -
ol"'d . Thu s, for given loads and dellection limits, . maller and lighter sted beam, can
he used,
Composite floors may also use encased beams, as shown in Fig. IK5b, offering
the advantage of full firepmofing of the S1<-'<'1. but at the cost of TIIore complicat~d
formwor!': and ",,,sihle difficulty in placing the {'oncreTe around and under the steel
member. Su(-h fully en,-a,,'<i bo:ams do not require shear ronnecto" as a rule .
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IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 18
FI GUIU: 18,4
Band<d ,l ab floor <y<tem.
( I Interior ~1a~ _
( ) Edgoe tlaM at .. t~rior COlumn
c. Steel Deck Reinforced Composite Slabs
It is n~arly standard practice!O U~ stay - in - plac~ light -gage cold - fornl~d steel deck
panels in cOlnpositc floor construction. As shown in Fig. 18.5c. the SI~'1:1 deck serves
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CONCREn: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o.EMS 60S
FIG UIU : 18,5

Composi' < bcam :md . lab
o~.
(., 1"
Structural
steel
(,'
as a 'Iay-in -place fonn and, with suitahle detailing, Ihe ,Iah becomes comp<"ite with
Ihe "<-,,,I deck, serving as the main I<:n,ile flexuml SleeL Suitah]e for relalively light
fl(x}r looding and ,hort span,. composite <leci tkck reinforced slah, arc found in offic"
l>uildings and apartmem l>uildings. wilh tolunm-lin" girder; and hearn, in 11", perpen -
dicular diredion sundividing pands into span, up to anoUl 12 ft . Tempor.try shoring
may hc used at the mid.pan or third point of Ihe panels to avoid exces,ive slres""s and
ddlections while Ihe cOllcrete is placed . when the sk",1 deck panel ,,1oTll' must carry
Ihe load .
d. One-Way Joist Floors
A one-way joist flom ('{,",ist, of a ""ries of ,mall. closel)' 'pa,-ed reinforced CQnCrCle
T hearns, framing into monolithically cast concrete girders. which are in tum carried
hy the l>uilding columns. l1Je T heam,. called joi"t. , are fonned h)' creating ,'oid
spa,,,,, in what otherwise would hc a solid slah, U,ually lhe", ,'oids are formed u,ing
speeial skel pans, as ,hown in Fig . 18.6. COllcrete is ca<l hctw..",n lhe fonns to creale
ribs, and pkKed 10 a depth ""er Ihe top of Ihe fonm so a, {O create a Ihin mon<:>l ilhic
slab thaI be,,,,,ne, lhe T hearn flange,
SirK'" the strength of ,-Oncrete in lens ion is small and i, comnK,"ly negl ected ill
design. eliminalion of much of the ten,ion cOncrete in a slab hy the u!ie of pan forms
result, in a saving of weighl with littl" change in the structural d,ar1l<"leristics of Ih"
slab. Ribbed floors are economical for l>ui Idings, ,uch as apanment houses. hotels. and
h'-"pitals. ",I",re the live loads are fairly sman and the 'pam comparatively long . n'q
are not suitabj~ for hea,'y construction such as in warehouse" priming plaots, and
heavy manufacturing lxIildings.
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FIGU IU: 18,6

f,,,,,,, for '>DOway JOL"
Sted
o~.
Standard forms for the ,-oid 'paces betw~",n rih, are either 20 or 30 in. wide, and
8, 10. 12, 14, 16. or 20 in. dt",p. TI,.,y are tapered in cr<,,;S ",,-,tion. as shown in Fig,
18.7. generally at a ,1,'1'" of I tQ 12. tQ facilitate removal. Any joist width can be
obtained by varying the width of the soffit (bottom) form. Tapered end pan, arc used
wl,.,re it is desi,,-..J to obtain a wider joist ncar the eod supron,. such a, ma)' be
required for high ,t,.,ar or negative bending mon,.,nt. After the concrde has hardened.
the 5t c",1 pan5 are removed fQr reu,e.
According toACI Code 8.11.2. rib, mu,t not be les, than 4 in. wide and may not
have a depth greater than 35 time, the minimum web width . (For easier bar p[;u:enlent
and placement of COllcrete, a minimum weh width of .~ in. is desir.tble,) The dear
'pacing hetween ribs (determined b)' lite pan width} must not exc~'tXl 30 in. TI,., slah
thickness ove r the top of the pans mu,t not be less than OI,.,-l\<'e1fth of tl,., dear dis-
tance betw""n rib" nor less than 2 in" al'CQrding to ACI Code 8. I 1.6. Tahk 18.1 gives
unit weights. in terms of psf of noor surface, for common combinations of joist width
and depth. slab thil"kne"", and form width.
(a ) Longitudinal section through pSIS (b) Transverse secbon through joists
F IG URE t8.7
Or>e.w.y joi" floor ""'" ""tim,,- (aj "mo' ",,-~ion thff)Ugh .uppvning girder Ihvw;ng end. of jo;''', (bi 0"''' ,",ct;on
thff)Ugh typic joi....
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CONCREn: 8U1LDlNG S\'!o.EMS 6<17
TABLE 18.1
Weight of one-way jo ist floor systems
3 in. Top Slab 4t in. Top Slab
Width of Width of
Depth of Jo ist + Depth of Jo ist +
Pan Form, Pan Fo rm, Weight, Pan Form, Pan Form, We ight,
in. in. in. in. pd
," 5 + 20
P"
'"54
,, 5 + 20
"n
~ + _1{1 ~ +m
,H 20
"" 5 t J.O " " 5 + 20
+ m "
n"
~
"""
5 + 20
~ + J.O ""
" ""'" 5
5+
oj 20
m
"
,m
'"n
. ""
5 + JO 5 oj
" 6 t J.O " (, + .m

" 6 +m
"" , + '"
7+
"'" 7 ~I() "
,m
"w" "
_1{1
,m
" ""
7 t 30 "
%
W
W
6 +
7+ _
m ''''
115
s,,,,,,-.: Ml[<<<i from K,f. +&.2
R~inforcemell! for th~ joists u~ually CQnsisl, of two bars in th~ I""iti,'c bending
region. with one har discominuL-d where IK' longer n~ed~d or bent up to pmvi<le a (XIn
of the negati"" st"d requirement over the supl",rting girders _ Straight top hars are
ad<le<l over the sUPI",rI to provi<le for the negative bending molllCm. ACCQr<ling to AC J
Co<lc 7_J 3.2. at least 'Hie bottom bar mu~t be continuou, ,wer the sUPf'Orl. or at non -
continuous ,uppons. terminalL"{1 in a stan<lard h'Klk. as a meaSure to impr",-e ,tructural
integrity in the event of major structur~1 <lanmge.
1
AC I Code 7_7_ I permits a reducL-d concrete cover of in _to be used for joist con -
structior!. just a~ for slabs, 'Inc thin slab (top flange) is reinforced mainly for temper-
attire an<l ,hrinkage stre.ses. using welded wire reinforcement or ,mall bars pfaced at
right angles to the joist,_n,e area of this reinfoTl'en"'nt i, u~ually 0.18 percent of the
gmss L'n", section of th" concrete slab_
Olle-way joist, are generalf)' proponionoo with the COncrete providing aU of If",
shear strength. with no stirrups used. A 10 percent increase in Vc abow the ,-.tiue given
hy F..q. (4 _I211) Or (4_ J2b) is pennit!<e<l for joist construction. ",-'cording to ACt O KIc
8. I I _8. hased on the possihi lity of redistribution of local ove rloads to adjacent joist,_
n,e joisl' and tl'" supporting gird~r, are plact.-d monolithically_ Like If", joists.
the girder, are designed as T beams. The shape of the ginJer cn", ",-",tion depends on
the ~hape of the end (XIns that fonn the joi,ts. <IS shown in Fig. 18.7,, _ If th~ girders arc
d~"eper than the joi,ts. the thin concrete slah di"-"'tly over the lOp of the pans is often
negl~ct~d in the gi rder design. and the T beam flange thic kness is ta ken as the full
height of the joists, !n the laner case. the flange wi<lth can"" adjusted. as n""<led. by
varying the pl ,,,:en"'nt of the emf pan,. The width of the web be!ow the bOIlOln of the
joi,ts must be at least 3 in. namlwer than th" flange (on either ,ide) to allow fOJ pan
removal.
A type of one-way ioi't tl'Klf system has evol",d klKm'n as a joi.'l-h"nd .,y.welll in
which tl", jo;sl, are <;upponoo by hroad girders having the ,an", t()lal depth a, the joists,
o..loootc..,_
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IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R ~: n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 18
a, illu,tr~ted in Fig. 18.7. Separate b<:am fDIms are diminatoo. and the sar"" ,h-k form,
the sotlit of both the joist, and the girder.;. 1he simplifit.-d form work faster constlUction.
level ceil ing wilh no obstructing heams. and reduc,--d ovemll height of walls. columns,
and ,'ertical utilities combine to achieve an overdll reduction in <"<lSt in most case .
In one-way joist floor" th" thicknes, of the 'lab is often <"<mtmll,--d by fire resis-
tance requirements. For a mting of 2 hoo", for example, the ,lab mu.t he abo ut 4t in,
thick. If 20 or )0 in. pan forms are uSt.-d, slab 'pan i, small and slab 'Irength i. under-
utilized. Thi, has k-d \() what is known a, the wid" /II(xl/,le joi.<l ",nlem, or .'kip joi.w
.',n lem (Ref. 18.5). Su<-h floo" genemlly have 610 8 in. wide rib, that are 5 to 6 ft Oil
""nte", with a 4 :l- in . top slab. ']b.,se floo" not only pmvidc more efficient use of con -
crete in the ,lab, but al,o require less fonnwork labor. By ACI Code 8. 1J .4. wide mod -
ule joist rib, must he design<-d as ordinary T hearns, becau"" the clear spacing between
rib. exce<.xI, the 30 in. maximum for joi,t (,(Hlstruction. and the spt.-cial ACt OKk pro-
visions for joists do not apply. Concrete cover for rein forcement is as requir.,.,] for
b<:ams. not joists. and the 10 f"'ITelll increase in V< does nOl apply. Often the joi.ts in
wide module 'ystems are carried by wide b<:am, On the column lines, tlte depth of
which is the ""n", as that of the joist" to form a joist-band system '-'<Juivalem to tlmt
descrihed earlier.
Useful design inforrna.tion penaining to one-way joi,t floors. including extensi,'"
load tables. will he found in the CRSI H,mdbook (Rd. 18.2). Suggested bard~tail, ami
typi<-al 'ksign drawings are found in the ACI Delllilill8 M""llul (Ref. 13.)).
e. Two.Way Edge.Supported Slabs
Two-way solid slabs suppon,--d by beams ,m the column lines on all side, of ea"h .Iab
panel have been discu,sed in detail in Chapter 13. TI,e perimeter hearn, are usually
concrde ca,t monolithically with the slab. although they may al,o be structural s!<.'eI.
often encased in <"<mcrete for cornposit~ action and for improved fire re,istance. For
monol ithic ",mcrete. both the Deam, and the ,labs are de'igned u,ing the dir""t de'igll
method or the equivaleut fmme lIIethod descrioc-d in Chapter 13.
Two-way solid slab sy,tem, are suitable for iuterlTllxliate to heavy load, on spnn'
up to about 30 ft. This nmge <"<lITespond, do,dy to that for heamle" sla!>:S with dmp
panel s and column capitals. <kscrihed in tl'" foll,m-ing ",ni"n. The Inlier ar~ often
preferred oc-cau><, of the compl~te elimination of ob,tructing beams helt;,w the ,Inb.
Fm li gh ter load, and .IKlrter spnlls. a two-way solid slnb syst~m ha, evol"ed in
which th" column -line b<:a",~ arc wide and ,hallow, ,uch that a croS, section thmugh
the floor in either direnion re""mbles tl", slab-band ,hQwn earlier in Fig. 18.4. TI",
result is a two-way slab-band floor that, from below. appears as a pa,,,,led ceil ing,
Advantage, are similar to those given earlier for one-way ~ lab-band fl,xlI" and for
joi,t-band syste"".
f. Beamless Flat Slabs with Drop Panels or Column Capitals

By suitably proportioning ami reinforcing the ,lab. it is p"',ible to eI iminnte support-
ing hearn, ahogdher. n", slab is supponed directly on the columns. I" a recl:mgular
or square regi"n centered on the <-olurn",. the slab may b<: thickened and the column
tops flared. as shown in Fig. 18.8. The thickened ,lab is tcnned a .Imp Ix",e/ and tI",
column flnre is referred to a, a coh",,,, "<ll'iwl. Both of lhe"" ,er"e a double purpo",:
they increase tl'" shear 'trength of the floor s)'stern in the critical region around tI",
o..loootc..,_
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CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o.EMS 609
FI GU IU: 18,8
Flat , lab ga"'g< IIm r ",ith
both drop panels and colu ",n
capital" (e""",,,), '" /Iml",,,,
C,,,,,", AlW<ia,_,
"olumn and 'hey provide incr~a><-..J effecti,.., dep,h for the flexur.tl 'tee! in the region
of high negati,'e bending moment ov"r the ,u pjlOri. Beamk" 'ystem, with dmp pan-
el, or ('olunm npital' or both are tenn~d jim .,Iab "y.'fmc,- (ahhough alnKlSt aU ,lab,
in ,tructural engineering practice are "flat" in the u,ual ",nse of tt", word). and are dif-
ferentiated fmm flat plate system" with absolutely no projection, below the ,lah.
which ar~ descrilx..J in tbe foUowing ",ction.
In geneml. flnt ,Iah construction is e(-onomical for live londs of tOO psf or more
and for spnlls up to about 30 ft . It i, widely u><-..J for storage wareIK"'''''. par1<ing
gar~ge" and below-grade structure, carrying heavy ennh -fiU load,. for exampl", For
lighter loads ,udt as in apartment houses. hQtels, and Qffice building>. flat pint'"
(&>etion 18.2g) or SQm" fonn of joi,t corl~,ruction (St.>etion, 18.2d and h) will u,uaJly
prove I"" expcn,ive. For spnns IQnger than about 30 ft. benm, and girders """ used
Ix>eau", of the grenter stiffnc~s of that fonn of constru{'tion.
Flat ,labs may be <ksigned by the dire<"l design ,,"'thod or the e4ui"a]em fran",
method. both described in detail in Chapt~r 13. Or II", strip meth(xl descrilx..J in
Chapter 15.
g. Flat Plate Slabs

A flnt plate fl(KJr i, es"'ntiaUy a flat slab floor with the drop panel, and column cnpi -
tal, omitted. so that a tl(Xlf of unifonn thickness is carried directly by prismatic
{'olunms. Flnt pbt~ flCKlrs have been found to be ecortornical and otllerwi", advanta-
gt."<"" for such uses as apartment buildin g'. a, shown in Fi g. 18.9. where the spa,,~ are
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FI GU IU: IS.?
Flat pial< floor cor"tructirm.
\ CO"',, ,,- <>il\mw'lr i, held 10 Ihe
ah,,,lule minimum, wilh resultant saving' in lhe overa lt height of Ihe building. 'l"t;.,
,mooth underside of lhe ,lab can he paint~d di"-"etly and left expo"-'" for e~iling. or
plaster ,-an he applied In Ih~ conerel". Minimum con"ruclion Ii me and low lalx>r cosl,
result from lh~ \'el)' simple formwork.
Cen~i n problem, a"ocinted wilh flal plale construction require <I"',-inl allen -
tion. Shenr slress", near Ihe columns may he v~r)' high. "-><lui ring lhe use of special
forms of ,lab reinforcemenl II",re, 'l"t;., transfer of n"",,,,nts from <Inb to ,Xllunttls m~y
funh~r increase these shear sUe,se" and requires ,",,,,centration of r"'galiv~ flexural
,t~eI in Ih" region do", to Ihe column,. Both lhe", problems are lrealed in delnil in
Chapter 13. AI II", ext~rior (oluttUlS_ where such ,I",ar and moment lransfer may eause
particular difficulty. Ihe design i, much impmved by exlending lhe .lab pasl Ihe col -
umn in a shon cantile\'er.
Some flal plale buildings are conslmeled by Ihe lifl slab n"'lhod. shown in Fi g,
I ~ . I O. A casling hffi (of..,n doubling a, the g round-fl,,,,, 'lab) i, pl ,,,:ed. steel column,
are e"-"eted and braced, and al ground le\'eI ,u e~..,,,ive slabs. which wilt Imer bee"",e
Ihe uppt:r floors. are cas!. A n",mbrnne or sprayed parling agent i, bid down hetweell
,utcessiv" pours so Ihal each <Inb can he lifh.'" in il, lum, starring wilh the lOp. Jacks
placed atop Ihc ,-olun"" are connected to Ihreaded mds ext"nding down the fnces of
the columns and connecting, in lurn. to lifting collars enthedd~{1 in the slab,. as shown
in Fig . 13.24.1. When a slab is itt il~ final po,ition. sl",ar plales are wdde'" 10 Ihe col -
umn below the lifting coliar, or other de\'ices are used to tmnsfer the veni,-al ,lab reaC-
tion. Lifting colian; sudt as those shown in Fig. 11,2411. in addition to pro\'iding
anchorage for d", lifling rod,. ",,,;e I" innease the effeeliv" ,ize of II", ,uppon for the
,lab and cons!'"queotly impm"" II", shear s!rength of II", slab. The sllccessful ereclion
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CO NCREn: 8111LDl NG S\'!.' EMS 6 11
FIG UIU: 18,10

Lift . lab eOIl' truc-t;"" =d
,,-ith nat plate nOOf'!>: r.I,tde"t
Jc.-rn;t<"Yat Ckm<oll
lI "i". rsi,y. Somh Carol in.
of ,Uuc-tures using th~ lift 'lab method !"e'luire. pr<>eise contTQI of the lifting operation
at allt i me,. oc>eau"" eve" sl igbt differences ill I",'el of the suppon collars may dra,ti -
taHy chang~ mmrn:n1, and shears in th" slab. possibly leading to rew"",1 of load ing,
Catastrophic accidents have resulted fmm failure to observe pmper care in lifting or
to pmvide ad~'1mte lateral bracing for the columlls, As a result of th"", atcidents, thi,
method of con,truction is u",xI only by 'pecializ"d contractOrs.
h. Two.Way Joist Floors

As in on~- way floor syslems, the dead weight of lw'()-way sbbs can he r~duced con -
,iderably by crealing ,'oid space, in what would otherwise he n ,olid 'lab. For the mO'<l
pan, th" c-o"cret~ removed i, in tension and ineffeclive. "') the lighler floor has vinu -
ally lhe <;arne strucluml characleristic, as lhe corre~po"dillg .olid floor. Void, are u.u -
ally fonnlxl using dOnlC-,hnped 'ted pans thnt are remowd for r~u"" after the slnb 1m,
hardened . Form, are placed on a plyw!KKl platform as ,hown ill Fig. 18. 11 . Note ill
the f'gure that domes haye been omilted lI,:ar lhe c-olun",. to obtain a solid .lnh in tI",
region of negative bending moment and high ,hear. The lower flange of ~ach ,k",,,,
tontacts lbat of tI", adjacellt dome, so lhat the concrel~ is cast elltirely againsl a n"'tal
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FIGUIU: 18, 11
Two_way joist n"'J< "OOcr
con' 1rucl;on "'ilh steel dome
limn> . W"""",<-""I e"",,
CO'l"'''''U'', ,
,urface, resuiting in an ncellent finished appeamnce of the slab. A waffielike appear-

ance (lhese slahs are sometime, called waffle ,labs) is imparted to d", umkrside of d",
,lab, which can he f~atured 10 architectural advantage. as shown in Fig. 18.12.
Two-way joisl 110OT'; are designed following the usual proc<_-dure, for Iwo-way
,olid slab syslems, as presellied in Chapler 13. with the solid regions a1 the column,
consi'kred as drop panel,. JOiS1S in ach direclion are divided into column strip joisl'
and middle slrip joi,t,. lhe former induding all;oisl' thnt fr.nlle illio lhe ,,lid head,
Each joist rib usually inc'lude, two bars for po"iti~e-moment resi,tance, and one limy
he di,continued where no long~r required, Negati\'e sted is provided by separ-ue
'traight bars rullning in eath direnioll ,wer the ~~llumns.
In design cakulations. the self-weight of two-way joi~t 1100rs i, c"onsidered 10 he
uniformly distribut~d. ba",d on an ~'<lui\'alent ,lab of uniform thickness having the
,am" volume of cOllcrele as lhe actual ribbed ,lab, Equivalellithieknes"" and weighl'
are given in Table l8.2 fOT standard 30 and 19 in , jlillIs of variou, deplhs and for eilher
a 3 in, top ,lab or 4t ill. 101' ,lab, based on normat- weight connete (J 50 lbiil l ),
_. 18.3 PA NEL, C URTAIN , A ND B EAR IN G W A LLS
As a general rule. lhe exterior wall, of a reinforced concrele building are ,upponc-d a1
eath I1'K" by the skeleton fraJ1K"vork. their onl)' function heing to endo"" the build -
ing, Such walls ar~ called f"",d lmll.I", They may he ma,k of contrete (often premsl).
Concrete block, bri,"k. lile bloch. OT insulated metal panel>. 11", laU"r may he faced
Wilh aluminum, 'tnink" sk"'l. or a porceiain-en""",1 finish ove r sk",l, backed by insu -
lati ng material and an inner surface ,tICathing . The thickne ss of each of these lype, of
panel wall, will vary aecording to the material. lype of conslruction. dimatologkal
conditions, and the building re<juirel11ent~ governi ng the particular lorality ill which
the consuuetion take, place.
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CONCREn: 8U1LDlNG S\'!.' EMS 613
FIGUIU: 18,1l
R<gcocy II""", Apmmcnl'_
San An tonio. "'LIn
can ti\cv<rc-d """'''''y jo ist
,lob pi", inl~8"'1 boam. ""
",Iumn linc>.
TABLE 18.2
Equivalent slab thickness and weight of two-way joist
flo or systems
3 in. Top Slab 4 t in. Top Slab
Equ",al~nt Equiyal~nt
Depth of Uniform Uniform
Pan Form. Thickness. Weight. Thickness. Weight.
j(i
in. in.
",
.Ill. Moo~l~ (3(1 .Ill. pon, plus ~ ,n. c,rn; )
in.
",
8 5.8 ,3 7,3 n
10 6.7 8.1 8,2
'"
" H
,., ''''" "" '"

""
83
'"
m
10,6
12,3
rn ""
14 in. '"J\ l oo~l~
10.8
(19 in. pon, plus 5 in. ci rn;)
'"
8 6.8 85 8" WJ
10
12
7.\
8.6 107
91
"
lO,j ,,.'"
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n,~ pressure of the wind is u,ually Ihe onl)' load Ihal is con~id~red in del ermin -
ing Ihe strue-lUral thickness of a wall panel. ahhough in ""n", cases eXler;';" walls are
used a, diaphragm, to lransmit f""-",, cau",-><.1 by horizol11al load, down 10 Ihe build -
ing f"undntion,.
CUr/ain 11'<11/., are similar to panel wall, eX,"epl thai Ihq are not SUpP<ll1<><.1 a1
e""h story by the frame of tbe building. but are ,el f-supp<)rting . However, they are
ofl~n anch"re-d to Ihe building fram" al ench fI()or to provide la!eml .upp<>n.
A hea,in~ ,,,,,lima)' be defined as ()r>e thai cnrrie, any vertical I"ad in addili()11
t() il. own weight, Suth wnll, may he <"<lIlslructed ()f stone masonry. brick, CQncrel~
block, or reinf",,1.><.1 <"<mcre'e. Occasi onal pruje<"1iol1~ or pilaster> add to Ihe slrength
of d,e wall and are on"" used a1 poim, of load C<H1cemra1ion, III small ,"omn",rcial
buildings, bearing wall, may be used with economy and expediency. In larger cOm-
me,,-"ial and ",anuf''':luring buildings. when Ihe de""'l11 of tim~ i, an important faclor.
tbe delay necessary for Ihe en.",tion of the bearing wnll and II", aneooant increased
co,1 or con,truction often diclale the use of "m", oth~r arrangement.
, 18.4 S HEA R W ALLS
Horimntal forces aCling on building~. e .g ., Ih ",;~ due 1<l wind", seismic aClioll, can be
resi'l~d by different ",ean,. Rigid -ffl1.l'''' r",islan"" of tbe Slru,"lure, augn",med by II",
contribution of ordinary ma,onry wall, and partilion,. can provid~ for wind load, in
mall)' ("ase,. However. when heavy horizontal loading i, likely. ueh a, would reSUl1
from an eanhquake. rein forced ('oncrete ,I",ar wall, are used. These may be added
solely to resi'l horizontal forces, Or <"<mcretc wall, endo,ing siairway, or elevator
,haft, may ai,,, servc as .I",ar walls.
Figure I 8, I 3 ,I"",s a building wilh wind or seismic fo"-,,, represemed hy amlW'
"'-1ing On II", edge of ~ach n""r or nXl' The horizontal ,urfaces acl as deep beams to
trans mil load, to vertical resisling dements A and B. These shear wnll,. in lum. acl a,
cantilever beam, fixed at Ih"ir base to carry londs down to Ihe foundation. They are
FIGUIU: I g, jJ C
Building with ,hear wall,
,ubjeci 10 hofi"'''lalloads:
(0) ,yJ>ical 11001-, (hi fron t
eJe,',lion; (e) end ol"">I;on. Al 0
0
0
I'
,.,
II
II
---- --
- -- -
-------
- - -
-
-
------
II ---- ---------
-
V
(0) ,,'
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CONCREn: 8U1LDlNG S\'!." TEMS 6 15
FIGU IU : 18, 14
G"omc'ry aod reinforcement
of J typical ,hear ""II:
(a ) em" ", ,~i()n,
Ih) .b'a{;"n.
'"
A.
~ r- -., " r-
_I-LI-LLL
++++++
-t-t++t-t-
"""
~LL1LLL
-l-l-l-LLL
-+-++++-
---"'iill-t -t + +- +
~TTTTTT
,
1'1
sut>jcc{ed 10 (I) a variat>le shear. which reaches a maximum at lhe b.1SC. (2) a b.:{Kli~g
moment which 1~{Kls 10 cause vertical tension near {he 10aMd edge and compression
a{ {h~ far edge. and (3) a vertical compression due {o ordinary gravity loading from the
struclUre , For the t>uilding shown. additional shear walls C and D are provid~d to resist
loads acli~g in th~ long direction of lhc struclUrc ,
Shear is apllo b.: critical for walls wilh a rclmivcly low ratio of h~ighl to I~ngth.
High shcJr walls arc control l ~d mainly by flc,xural rlX)uiremenl s.
Figure 18,14 shows a typical shear wall wilh height I,... Icngth I . :111d lhickn~ss
h. It is assunk:d to be fiXl"d Jt 'IS OOSC and loaded horizonlally along its left edge.
Venical flexural reinforcenl<!l11 of area A, is pro"idl"d at the left l"dg~. wilh its cell1roid
a distance " from the extrem~ compression face. To allow for revcrsal of load. id~nti
eal r.:inforccment is pro"id~d along the right cdge , Horizontal shear rcinforcenl<!nt
with nrCJ A" at spacing 51 is pro"ided, as well as vcrtic:d she:'f reinforceme nt with area
Ah at spacing 51 ' Such distribuled steel is normally plac~>d in two layers . parallel to the
faces of the walL
The design Nlsi s for shear walls. according to AD Cod.: I I 10. is of lhe same
general form as that us..'d for ordinary beams:
( 18,1)
whcre
(18,2)
Based On ksts ( R~fs. 18.6 and 18.7). an upper limi t has oc~n esmbhshtld on {h"
nomina l sh~ar sl~nglh or wa lls:
v. s 10- fI,a (18 ..1)
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6 16 IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 18
In (hi, and all other equation, I"'naining to (he design of shear wall,. (h" di,w.n,'e d i,
la k"n equal to O.R/" . A large r value of d , '-'qual to (he dis(aoc" from the exlreme ,'om-
p",,,ion face to (he ('em"r of f<;lf('e of all reinfor,'Cment in (en, ion. may be USL..J whe"
dc(ennifK..J by a s(r~in "ompatibilily analy,i .
nle value of Ve' (he nominal ,hear strenglh provided by Ihe conCTdc , may be
ba,..,J on (he u,ual equalioll~ fllr beams, according 10 ACI Cnde 11.10,5. Fllr wall,
,ubject to ,'enical e<;>mp",,,ion.
Ve ~ 2 ];Iul ( 18.4)
and for walls subjecl to wrtical tension N u '
I +~ (18,5)
500A8
Here , N. i~ Ihe factored axial load in pounds. (aken negative for tensi on , ami A, is the
gros~ area of honm nl al concrete """tion in square inches_ A Itemately. (he "aloe of 1',
may be based on a more dela ikd cakulalion, as (he Ic>~er of
v, ~ - N"d
] ,3 j~ ltd +- ( 18.6)
41"
1', = 0,6 ( 18,7)
wi",,,, N. is n~gati~e for tension as before , Equ ation (lR.6) corresponds 10 the oc('ur
renee of a prioc,ipal tensile stress o f approximately 4 ]; at th~ centroid of the slwar
wall cross seclion. Equation ( 18.7) corresponds approximately 10 the oc('urre n~'<l of a
flexuml tensile stress of 6 r; at a ""'tion I., 2 above the seclion being inH'stigakd ,
1111tS. the two .,quations predici. respectiwly. web-shear emeldng and flexureshear
cmcking , When the quantity M. V. - 1_ 2 is "egative. Eq. (I R.7) is inappli~abk
According to lhe ACI Cnde. horizontal sections locuted doser to lite wall base titan a
dislance 1_, 2 or " ., 2. whichewr is less. may be dc'signed for the saml' Ve as th~l com
pute" at a distunce I., 2 or " ., 2
When the factored shear forc'e V. dlli's nOi excL't'd V<'2. a wall may be rein
forced according 10 minimum r~uirerne01s, WI"'!I V. exceeds V, 2. reinforcenk'nt
for shear is to be provided ac''OTding to the following !"<-'quirernenls.
The nontinal shear Slretlgth \', providc..J by til<) horizontal wall stl'eI is octer-
m ined On the sallie basis as for ordinary beams:
,, ~
AJ,d
--
<, (18. 8)
whl're A, = area of horizontal shear r~inforc~rHent within venical dislanc~ .\'2' in l

$1 = wnical dismnce between horil.Ontal reinforce~nt. in.
I, = yield strength of reinforcerlk'rlt. psi
Substituting Eq, ( 18.8) into Eq. (1 8.2). then combining with Eq, ( 18.1). one obtains til<)
~'<lllalion
for the required area of horizolltal slk'ar reinforcement willtin a di stance "2:
A, ~ ( 18.9)
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CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o. EM S 6 17
n,~ minimum pcrmined "ltio of horizontnl .I",ar s~l to gross connet~:ua of ~erti
cal ",nion is
= 0'()()25 (IS.IO)
~"d Ihe maxim um spacing sl is nOI to exceed I~ 5. 311. or 18 ,no

Tesl resu h s ind icate Ihal for low shear walls vertical dislribut~d reinforeemcnt is
ne~dcd as wdl as horizon1~ 1 reinforcement. Oxle provisions require vertical sled of
area A~ wilhin a spacing s,. such Ihat lhe ralio of vertical steel to gross concrete area
of horizol11al section will be nOI less Ihan
- 0 ,0025 + 0 ,5 2 ,5 - 0.0025 (18.11)
nor less than 0 .0025. However. 11K: vertical reinforeemenl ralio need nOI be greater
wrs
Ihan the rL'quired hori7.onlal reinforcen""m ral ;O. The Sp;lcing of III<' vertical is not
10 exceed I~.. 3. 311. or 18 in.
Wnlls may be subj<:<;1 10 flexurallension due 10 o\'erturning moment. e,'en when
Ihe vertical compression from gravity loads is sup<:rilllpoS<!d. In many bul nOI all
cases. vertical sleel is provided. concentrated ncar Ihe wall Ldges. as shown in Fig.
I 8. 14. The required sleei area can be found by the usual melhods for beams.
The dual fmIClion of the floors and roofs in buildings wi th shear walls shou ld be
noted. In addition to resisting gravily loads. Ihey mUSI acl as lkcp beams Sp;l,ming
between shearresisting e!e"""nlS. Il c><;ausc of their proportions. bolh sll<'aring and flex.
ural slresses are usually quile low. According 10 ACI Code 9.2 .1. Ihe load faClor for live
load (Irops to 1.0 wt.;,n wind or earthquake effects arc combined wilh the eff<:<;ls of gray
ity loads. Consequent ly. floor and roof reinforcemcnldcsign...'d for gravity I~ can usu
ally serve as reinforcemenl for hori7Un\al beam ac\ion also. with no increase in bar areas.
ACi Code 10.11 . 1 pcrmits walls wilh heighHolenglh ratios nOI exceeding 2.0
10 be <ksigned using Slrutandlie model s (Chapler 10). The m inimum sll<'ar rein.
forcemenl cr;leria of Eqs . (18.9) Ihrough (18.11) and Ihe maximum spacing IimilS for
$t and Sl must be salisfied.
There are special consi<krations and requiremem~ for til<' <ksign of reinforced
concrele wall s ;n struClures designed 10 resist forcC!; associated w;lh seismic motion,
The5/: are based on design for energy dissipati on in the nonlinear range of response.
This s ubjecI will bI! treated separately. in Chapler 20.
_. 18.5 P RECAST C O N CR ETE FOR B UILD IN GS
TIle ~arlicr seclions Ul this (hapkr ha,'e emphasize'd casl inplace ~inforced concrd~
SlrUC1UreS. Conslruclion of these structures requires a significanl amoun! of skilled on
Slle labor. TIlere is . however. an01her class of COtlCfde conslruclion for which Ihe
tlwmbl!r-s are manufad urOO off sil~ in precasti ng yards . under faC1OT)' cond ilions. and
sub"-'<luently usscmblc>d on site. a process Ihal provides slgnificanl advantages Ul
krms of economy and spc",.j of cOnstruclion.
P rem.H '-''-'IIen'le C'm,,tru"lim, i",'olvcs Ill<' mass produclion of ~P<'lilive and
often slandardiz~d units: columns. bl!ams . floor and roof ekt!)e'IIS. and wall p;lnels ,
O il large' jobs. pn'casting yards arc SOilWliilk$ conslructed on or adi""""1 10 the Sik ,
M or~ frequently. Ilwsc yards are slationary ~gional enterprises Ihal supply precasl
nwmbl!r-s to sizable an'us wilhin reasonable shipping dislatlces. on Ihe orde'r of 200 mi ,
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61S IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 18
Advamas"s of "",casl construction indud~ Ie" JabOT per unit bet-ause of "",dm"iz~d
series pf<xluction: use of unskilled local IabOT, in comr.ISt to skilled mohil" construc-
tion labor : shorter constructi!H1 ti",,, hccau,~ sile labor primarily involve, only foun -
dation construnion and conne,'1ing Ihe pK'Cast unilS: h.mer quality control and hi ghe r
concrde strength that is ""hie,'able under factory conditions: and greater indel"'n -
dence of CorlStrucr;on from weatl",r and season . DisadYamages are the greater co,t of
transporting preca,t units. a, compared Wilh transp<ming mat~rials, and the additional
technical problem' and costs of site connection, of p=a,t element, .
P,,-'Cast con,trunioll is used in all major tyP<" of stru,-lurcs: induslrial buildings,
residential and <;>ffi,-e building', halls o f sizahle span. bridge" stadiums, and pri,ons.
P,,-'Cast members frequently arc prestressed in the casting yard . [n lhe cOntext of tI",
present chapler, il is irrele\'am whetl"'r a precasl member is also pre'tr~s",d . Di,,-u,-
sion i, focu"-.... on Iyl"" of precast members and precasl ,tructure, and on method, of
connenioll: thesc arc ~s"'ntially ind~l"'Jl(km of whelher the ,ksiK.... st rengd, Ilf tl",
member was a,-hieved with ordinary reinfoKement OT by pres1ressing . A broader di,-
eussion of precast construction, which includ~s planning, design. material" nmnufac-
turing, handling, construClion. and insP<'Clion, will be found in Refs. 18.8 and 18.9.
ACI Oxle Chapler 16 is dedicak.... to pn.'Ca't <"<}[Ierele.
a. Types of Precast Members

A number of tyP<'s of precasl units are in ,-om mon use . Though mo,t are nOl formally
standardiled, Ihey are wi,kly availabl~, with minOT local variations. At tI", same time,
the precasling process i, sufficiently adaplable for sl"'cial shapes de""lol"'d for par-
ticular projects w be pnxluct..... ,'C(}[Iomically, provitk.... that the number of repetitiw
unit, i, sufficiently large. This i, particularly i mponam for exterior wall panels. which
I"'rmit a wide variety of arch ;te<"luml treatments.
W,III/Jillle/., are matle in a ~~lOsider~hle variety of shal"'s, d~pending on archi -
tectur~l reGuiremems. The most fR'quem four shal"'s are shown in Fig. 18.15. The""
unit~ arc pmduct.<d in "'''' to four-,tory-high <e<"lions and up to S ft in width. The)' are
u".... either a, cunain wall, allached 1<> columns and beams or as bearing walk To
i mprow lhcrmal insulation, sandwich panels are u"-.... thai consist of an insulation ~~}[I:
(e .g.. foam glass, glas, fiber, or expanded plastic) between two layers of normal or
tightweight connete. The two lay~1'i must be adequately intern)[lnected through tI",
core 10 aCl as one unit. A variety of ,urface finishes can be produced thmugh the u""
of '!,,-'Cial exp<"",d aggregat~' Of (;,f colored cement, ,on ",tin"" employed in combi -
nation. The 'I""--ial design proble m' that arise in load-bearing wal t panels, such as ti It-
up con,truelion, are di scussed in Ref. [8 . 10.
Stresses in wall panel, are fr"'luemly more ",,'ere in handling and during erec-
tionlhan illlh" finish'-.... structure, and tI", ,Ie'ign must pmvide for th~se temporary con -
dition,. Also, control of cmcking is of greater imponatKe in wall panels than in mher
preca,t units, for aPl"'ar~nce more than for saf"ly. To control cracking, the maximum
tensile sires. in tbe concrete. calculated hy stmight line theory. shou Id nm "xceed the
modulu s of ruplure of the parti,-ular ,-oncrete with an adeGuat~ maf),\in of safety. ACI
Com mine" 53) (Ref. 18.11 ) ,,-'Comment]s Ihat tensile slre,,~s for normal -weight con -
crete be limited to 5 J under the eff,-..:ts of form removal, handling. tmnspoffinion,
;mpaCl, and live load. ~hximum tensil~ st re,,,,,s '-'qual 10 75 and 8'i I"'rccm of this
value life r~'Commended for all - lighlW~ighl and sand-lightweight concrete, resl"'c-
tively. A wealth of informalion on p,,-'Ca,t wall panels is found in Refs. 18.9 and 18.11.
o..loo ot c..,_
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CONCREn: 8U1LDlNG S\'!." TEMS 6 19
FIGU IU : 18, 15
PrIT", <,,,,,,rete wall pa<ICl.
Section AA Soction B B
Flat Ribbe<l Window Of munion
Rf)(!j allli }Ioo' d"ttlel1ls arc Il1nde in a wide variety of shapes adaptoo (0 specific
conditions . such as span lengths. magnitude of loods . desired fire rntings. 3nd appear
ance. Figure IS.16 shows typical examp les of 1he Illost common shapes. arrang ..xl in
3pproximme order of increasing span Icnglh. even though tile span s co"er~'d by the
various confi gurations ovcrlap widely,
F/al slllhs (Fig. I S.I&,) arc usually 4 in. thic k. although they are used as thin as
2+ i1] , when continuous O"CT several spans. and are produced in widths of 4 10'<; ft and
in lengths up 10 36 ft. Depending on the magnitude of loads and on deflection lim ita
tions. Ihey are used o"cr roof and floor slX'ns ranging from S to about n n. For lower
FIG UKE 18. 16

Prcr,,, flmr aoo n. ,f
ele ment' .
(a ) Flat slab ' - - - 4'0 " typical ----<

(b) HoHow plank
d"TO"
6 ' 8 '
'I
'hlO,,," ~36.
(e) Double T
~"--~---'
(d) SJngIe T
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weight and Ocner in,ularion and to cowr long~r spans. IlOlIm<' -col'l' ,,"Ulk.< (Fig.
I R_I6b) wilh a ,'ariely of shapes are u'le<.L Some oflhe"" are made hy extru.i,m in 'pe-
cial machines_ Depths range from b 10 12 in" wilh widlh, of 3 o r 4 ft. Again depend -
ing on load and deflection "-'<Juiremem" the}' are u""d on roof 'pans from aboul 16 to
34 fl and OIl fl'Klr spans from 121026 fl, which can be augment~d W about 30 ft if a
2 in_ topping is applied to acl mOflolilhicaily with dte hollow plank _
For longer spans. double T m.""hers (Fig_ 18.1 6..) are the most widely used
, hape' _ U,ual depths are from 14 to 22 in. TIleY ar~ used on HKlf span, up 10 120 fl.
When u><-'<l a, flOQr membe", a concrete topping of at leasl 2 in_ is usnally applied to
act monolithically ",ilh lhe p"-,,,ast membe" for 'pan, up 10 about SO ft. depending on
load and defl~{,tion requirement, _ Finally. .<i"sie T membe" are available in dimen -
,ions shown i" Fig. 18.IM. m,,,tly u""d for HKlf 'pan, up to 100ft and mnre.
For all of Ihe"" unil'. the m~mOcr il,elf o r its flange constitute, the HKlf or
'loor ,lab_ If the floor or roof proper is made of other material k _g.. plywood, gyp-
,urn. and plank), it can he supported on ",eCl",! joi.'H in a variety of ,hape' for
'pan, from about IS to 60 f1. Reference 18.9 addresse, the design of bod, rein -
forced and preslre"ed concrete fl'Klr and HK)f unit,.
n", shape of "reed., ! be<lm.,' depend, chiefly on the manner of framing_ If floor
and roof members are ,upport<-'" on lOp of Ihe beams, th""" are mo"tly "-,,,tangular in
' hape (Fi g. 18.11a). To r.,Ju{'e wtal depth of floor and HKlf con,trunion. the top, of
beams are oflen mad" flush ",ith the top ,urface of Ihe fl'Klf dement'_ To provide bear-
ing' the beam, are Ihen {'onstrucled a, ledger beams (Fig. 18.17b) or L beam, (Fig.
FIGUIU: 18, 17
PrIT"t beam nd ginkr<_
(a) Rectangular !)earn (b) Ledger !)earns
(e) L beam
(d) AASHTO bridge girder

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CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o.EMS 62 1
FIGUIU: 18.18
y;
;:
','"
:,;
(, , (0' (.,
I R.17c). Ahhough these <hapes pertain to building construction, precast beams or gird -
ers are al,o fR'<Juently used in highway hridges. As an example, Fig. 18.1 7J SIK)W5 or",
of t"-' vario u, AASHTO bridge girders. so named he.:au>c they were devdoped hy t"-'
American Association of SUlle Highway and Transportal ion Officials,
If precll,'1 CO/Willi ., of single-stOI)' height are used so that the beams rest on lop
of the column,. simple prismatic columns are ernploy ..'<.l . which are available in size,
from nhoul 12 X 12 to 24 X 24 in. (Fig. 18.13<,). In this case , Ihe hearn, are usually
made continuou, over Ihe col umn, . Alternatively. in multi,lory con,lrunioll, th"
columns <:an he made <:ontin uous for up to ahoul six stories. In thi, ca!iC, integral
brad'ds ar" frequenll y u!ied 10 provide a hearing for the beam" as '-',own in Fig.
18.ISb (see also Section 18.6b). Occa,ionally. T columns nrc used for direct support
of douhle T /l<X)f members without 1"-' use of inte rmediate hea",s (Fi g, 18. I !Ie).
Figure~ 18. 19 to 18.27 illu,tmt" sornc of the many ways in which precn<t mern-
hers hnve been used. Figure 18.19 ,how, a long-span single T girder being lowered
into plnce mop a preca,t redangular henm, which in tum f,,<ts on a pre ..-ast "-'Clangu-
lar column. The photograph in Fig. 18.20 wa, Ulken in n p,,-'Cas!ing yard producing a
variety of L. T. nnd rectangular shapes. Figure 18.21 shows ,ymmetrical precast I
hearns, ,u(-h as are uscd holh for building' and hridges. TI", projocting stirrup bars
alorlg the top nange will pro"ide !iCCure interhx'k hetw""" the preca~t hea",s and n
ca't-in-place slah ndded later. ensuring composile aclion. Figure 18.22 shows a mul -
listory parking garage in which three-story preca't columns , upport L-seniotl and
invert ..", T-section girders. The ginlers , in tum . carry 60 ft 'pan prestressed singl~
T heams. which provide the <kc k ~urface .
Figure 18.23 demonstrates Ihat unu ,ual ard,i!cctuml designs can be realized in
preenst concrete. as in th i, all -p,,-'Cast administration bui Iding. Wall panel, are used to
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FIG UIU: 18,19

LooS" pa" prc<"" 'ing" 1
girder u<ed ,dlh precast
t.:arrIS and column,
~' I{ ; U RE 18.20
f'r""JS{ L b<.m.
pm<luc~ a facade . Wedge-shaped r~pe{itive floor units span fr~ely from {t;.;,
curv~d
eX!~rior fatad~ 10 {he imerior curved beam and column fmmcwork. In th~ insurntlce
huilding .Imwn in Fi g. 18.24.44 in. d~"ep precast ginkrs span 99 i{ he{ween exkrior
wall~ .upponed on four point' each aod pro"ide six fl(Klrs of office 'pac"" entirely f"-",,
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CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o. EM S 623
FI GUIU: 18,21
PrIT"t I b<am. do'igncd f.,.-
contro>ite "'tion ,,-ith a tk<-l
,bb to be ,'." in ploc<
~' IG U RE 18.22
Prec." p"rking arag< at
Com<[[ Uni""'i')'.
of interior sU[>JlOn , . n.e convem ;"" headquaners Qf Fig. 18.25 combi,,,,, <:asl -in -plac<"
frame, and flQ<>r ,labs Wilh p,"';'a,t dQuble T 'Q<)f hearn. and pr~ea~l wall paneh of
'pecial design . Figure 18.26 shows a 2 I-s,ory hOld unde , mn,truelion. which , except
for lhe service units, consists entirely of box-,hap"d , room-sized n K><lul~, comp leldy
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FIG UIU: 18,23

All prcCallt oom;n;<tr>t;()n
bo.,Hding. {C,,""''' (1 P",,/a'Id
C,_Nt ~ .(",, ;"'i""-)
FIG UR E IH.24
Preca,t girders with 99 ft
.pan and 44 in . dept h for a
column-free interior.
1("",,,.,. ,yo1\",1",,1 C"'''""'
"""",;o,i,",.)
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I r....
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CONCREn: 8U1LDl NG S\'!.' EMS 625
FIG UIU: 18.25

PrIT", n x>f and wall pa<ICl.
contbi""d with ca,,-in -place
!rime, and flnor ,lab<
(Coo",,'- ~ (1mJa.w C"'''''''
A.,,,.,i.;lu...)
~lInltl
riiiiii
FIG URE 18.26

Pm"" ronm,iz:cd mo<luk,
for. 21-,,"'Y hold. (Coo'''n-
of 11m',,"<1 C,,,,,m N"."""w,.I
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FI GU IU: 18,27
Sted framing ,-()mbin<d with
.,..-erasl coocre!e 11<X>r pi>"~S
Ii" an g."ory hold. (C,"'''''y
of ~,h!,l",," SUd Co.,
prdnbricaled and stacked on top of cnch olher. Abroad. sucb precasl modules. with
plumbing. wiring. and benting preinstalk'<l. arc widdy used for multi,tory npartrr>em
buildings a, an al1ernative to making ,imilar apnrtment Struclure, in precasl wall. nKlf.
and l100r panels. whicb are more ~a,ily sbipped bul less easily er<.'ded lban box -
, baped modules.
Finally. Fig. 18.27 ,bow, nn example of the frequcnt combined use of structural
'teel with preca't connete. In thi, case. the frnming of an eight-story botd wa, dOlle
u,ing 1xJ1t.xl structural stoed. wbi Ie precast concrdc f1<Klr and r<Klf plank> and pre<-a'l
wall pands were used for all other main ,truclur.il components . This lype of con -
,tructiorl is economical for 610 12-s1Ory building'. wbere it provide, "" 'ing' in botb
co.t and con,truClion time. It is one example of tbe increasingly importam combined
usc of various struclUmlmnterinls and melh<Kls.
b. Connections
Casl -in-pla"" reinforced connde ,truClur~s. by th~ir v~ry nature. tend to be rmmo-
lithic and continuou~. ConnectiorlS. in tbe sensc of joining twO bitberto separat~
pieces. rardy occur in that type of construction. l'recasl Slru<'1ures. on lhe other hand.
resemble ,t",,1 e<>nslruttion in lhat the fin~1 structure consi,ts of large number> of pre-
fnbri<-al~'{1 d~mell!s that nre connected on , ite to fonn tbe finisbed strunure. In both
types of ",,"struction. such connection, c~n be detai led to tr~nsmit grnvity forces only.
or gr~vity and h()rizont~1 forces. or moments in addition to tbese fOrl",,' . In the last case.
a continuous struclure is obtained much a, in ca't-in-place CQl1slruction. and conneC-
tion, that achieve ,ucb continuily by appropriat~ use of special hardware. reinforcing
'teel. ~nd ~~,"n"te to trans mil all tension. compression. and shear Str~=' are oollle -
tin"" c~lled /ianl conneclion,. 111 contraSI, connection, thaI tr~n'mit rencti"n, in 01'"
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CONCREn: 8U1LDl NG S\'!o.EMS 627
dild"lion only. analogous 10 rockers or rollers in sl",,1 struclUres. hUI permil a limil~d
amounl of mOlion 10 relieve other forces. such as horizontal reaction components. are
somelime, known as .<oft conned ions (Ref I 8. 12). In allllo'l all procast wnn"'-"I ions.
hearing piale, or pads are used to ensu", di'lrilHnion arKI rea,onahle uniformily of
hearing p",,,ures. Bearing plate.> are made of sl"eI. while hearing pads are made of
malerials such as chloroprene. fiher-reinforced polymers. and Teflon. If hearing piales
are u,,--d. and Ihe plales on two memhers are su itably joint.-d by welding or OIher
means. a hard conn~'CIion is ohtained in the sense thal horizo n1 ai. a, well as veni,"al.
forces are transmilteci. On the other hand . bearing pads tran,mil gmvity load, bul can
permit sizahle horizon1al deformations and. thus. reiieve IKlrizon1al for,"e,.
Pre"a't concrele ,truclures are , ubjecI 10 dimensional "hanges from "reep,
shrinkage . and rela~ation of prestre" in addilion 10 temperature. whi Ie in 'Ieel ,Iruc-
tnres only lemperature change' produce dimensional "arialions. In the early develop-
ment of precasl conslruction. dlere was a tendency 10 usc soft connenion, extensively
to pennit lhe", dimensional changes 10 occur wilhoul ,"au,ing reslrainl forces in the
members. and panicularly in lhe conneclions. Suh"-'<juen1 experience. howner. has
shown Ihat Ihe resulling struclure, possess insufficient slability again'l lateral forces.
such as high wind alld. pani,"ularly. earthquake efT"'-"ts. Therdore. current pr.lClice
emphasizes Ihe use o f hard conne,"tions Ihat provide a hi gh deg,,-,<: of ("(lIllinuity (Refs,
18.9 and 18,1 3). When designing hard mnnenion'. provi sions mu,t he made ({) reSiSl
the restraim forces that are caused by Ihe previou,ly de,,:ribed volume changes (Ref,
18.9). Considerahle information concerning this and OIher matt~rs relating to connec-
tions is found in Refs. 18.9 and 18.13.
Be",;,,!! .<lre" ,<c.," on plain concrete are limi1<--d hy ACI Code 10. J 7.1 10 0.85 f: ,
except when the supponing area is wid"r on all ,ides than tl", loaded area A ,. In , uch
a ,"a", lhis value of lhe permissihle bearing stress may he multiplied by A, At bUl
n<;ll more than 2.0. where A, is the maximum ponio!! of tl", supponing surface Ihat is
g~'on"'trically ,imilar to and concentric with the loading area ("-", Section 16.6bl .
In the design of connection,. it is prudent to usc load factors that exc,,,,d thos.:
required for the cotmeeted members. Thi, is so oc'Causc con""dions are gener~lly suh-
ject !o high SIres, concemrations that preclude the de\'elopment of much dU'"li li!y. In
contraS1. tl", rnemhers conrll'Cted are likely !o po,sess c"nsider~ble ductility if
desig1",d by usual ACJ Code pro,:edure, and will give waming of imp"nding <"OlIaps.:
if overloading slKlUld take place. In addition. imperfection, in connenion geomeny
may cause large change, in the magn itude of stresses ,"ompan.-d widt lOOse assumed
in die design.
In designing memocrs a,"wrding 10 the ACJ Code, load factors of 1.2 and 1.b
are applied 10 dead and live loads. D and L re'pe,"tiveiy. 10 ddermine the required
strength. When volume chan ge eff"'-"IS T arc considered. Iltey are normally Irealed as
dead load. and the factored load U i, calculated from Ihe ~quation U = 1.2(D + T)
+ J .6L.
A wide variely of connecli on details for precast concrete huilding cornponems
has evol\'ed. only a few of which will he shown l>ere as more or less represcmative
<"Onneniolls. Many additional possihililies are descrioc-d fully in Refs. 18.9 and 18.1),
Column base n",nection, are generally ac~'()mpli,hed using st",,1 1m", plale> lhal
are anchored imo the preca,t column . Figure 18.2&, shows a column h""" del ail with
pmjecting hase plate. Foor "'lCoor bolt, arc used. Wilh double nUls fa,"i litating ereclion
and I""eling of the <"Olumn. Typically a minimum of 2 in . of non shrink gmut is used
hetween the top of the pier. f!Xlting. or wall and the bottom of the sted has.: plat~.
Column reinfor,,,ment is welded to the top face of the hase platt.'. Tes!s have ("onfinned
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EoI6 ..
62S IW.." I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 18
FIGU IU : 18,28
Column b.", ,,,nM,",i,,,,,
Concrele pier
Concrele :~ BoItS
pie, :: ::
(a) (b)
Main
sleel
Concrele
".,
,,'
Ihal such column CQnneclion, can Iransmil Ihe full nlQ",ent fOJ which Ihe column i,
designed. if prol"'rly delaibl.
An alternative base ddail i, shown in Fig . 18.28b, wilh II", dimension, of II",
base plale Ihe ,an", as, OJ slighlly smaller Ihan, the outside ,"olunl!l din",nsions.
Anchor bolt porke!> are provided, either cente,,--d on II", column fa,"e, a, shown. OJ
localed at II", con"'t>. Rolt pockets are grooted afler Ihe nuls are lighlened. Column
bat>, n<;lt ,h<;>wn here, would he welded 10 the lOp face of the base plate a, hefore.
Figure 18.29 shows the base plate detail. simi lar to Fig. 18.28b. Ihat was u",d for lhe
precn,t Ihree-slory column, in the parking garage ,hown in Fig. 18.22.
In Fig. IB.2&:. Ihe main column bars project from Ihe ends of Ihe precasl mem-
her a ,ufficient di,lance 10 develop their strength by hond. The projecting bars are
insen~-d into grnut-f,lIed holes cast in the fou ndalion when il is placed.
In all of Ihe case, shown, "''''fining steel should he provilk-d [{found the ""chOJ
bolt, in the form of dosed lies. A minimum of four No. 3 (No. 10) lies is remm-
me",I,,<.1. placed on 3 in. centers near Ihe top surface of tlle pier or wall. Tie reinforce-
ment in the columns should he provided as usual.
Figure 18.30 sh<;>ws several heam-w -eo/",,,,, conn<-,:tions.ln all cases. ,,-"{"Iangu -
lar heam, are shown, hut similar details apply 10 I OJ T heams. The figur" ,hows only
Ihe hasic g<-'on",lry: and auxiliary reinforce""'nt. anchOJ', ""d tie, are omitted for II",
,ake of darity.
Figure 18.}0" shows a joint detail wilh a con,"eale<! haunch. Well-anchored bear-
ing angle, are provided al lhe ,'Olunl!l ",al and beam end. Thi, Iype of connection may
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
CONCR En: 8U1LDl NG S\'!."TEMS 629
,.
FIG UIU: 18,29
o.:"il at ""'" or pro,,,,.t
col"",n of CoftJeIl Unh'e,,;ty
parking gAmgc <bown in
Fig. 18.22 .
.'
.. , "'-. .:'....
/-
~~ -
..;:.",
. ' ..
.!.,,' ~ ".
he used to [lfovid~ \'enical and horizontal "'''''tion compon~nts. an" with the addilion
of pOSl - t~nsioned p""t",,,ing. will pHwi"e moment r~sistance as welL
Figure 1&.30b ,how, a Iypical hmckd, Common for indwmial construl"tio"
where the projeding hr.lCkd is not ooj<-octionahle. The ""at angle i, welded 1<> rein -
fo",ing ban; anl"hored in lhe CQl umll. A st",,1 hearing plate i, usc" al the bottom ,;.r th"
heam and anchored into Ihe "oncrde.
n,~ ~mhe"d~d Sl ....,1 shape in Fig. 1&'3Oc is u,,-"<i wh"n it is ne<-'Cssa!)' 10 a,'oid
projection, heyond the fae" of the mlumn or helow the DOilom of the hearn. A socket
i, fonn"d in casting Ihe hearn, witb """I angle OJ plate at its top, 10 recei"" Ihe hearn
,tub. A ,teel connection can al><> he used in place of the hr~ck"t shown in Fig. I &.3Ob.
Finally, Fig. 18.3G.'.t",ws a doweled conn<-oction with hars projecting from tl",
column into hol"s formed in tI", heam end,. Th""" are grouted aft~r the heams are in
po,ition . n,i, connection i, popular in preca,t conn"'e CQnstruction hut has little flex -
uml cap'K"ily (Ref. 13.14).
Figure 18.31 sbows ""veml Iypical ,-"''''"''-Io -coh",,,, con"",-'t;ons. Figur~
13.31 a ~hows a detail using anchor holt p',.:kel> and a douhle-nul system for leveli ng
the uppcr ~"oluilln. Bolts can alw he locatl" permits tl", main """I to he lap-spliced
with Ihat in Ihe column helow. One of tl", many p',ssibilities for splicing a column
through a continuou, hearn is slKlwn in Fi g. 18.3Ic. Main reinforcing bars ;n both
upper and low~r columns should he weldoo 10 steel cap and ba", plal~' to tmnsfer Ih~ir
load. and anchor bolts \hould he designed ",ith Ih~ san", considemtion. Closely spaced
tie, must be prnvid<-"<i in tbe columns and in this case in Ihe hemn a, wdl. 10 transfer
the load hetw ....,n ,"olunms.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
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IW.." I W'~ O F CO NC R ~: n: ST RUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 18
FIGU IU: 18,3(1

Boam t1>-,,,lumn
coo"""lioo"
Nonshr ink grout

II i f
(optional)
)
-\: Posttensioning
(optional)
..{ plata
Steel
,
Steel angles \
beam and
column
Bradel
""",
('J
('J
Steel
angle
Dowel _JlII
bars ~II '"
1111
1111
,-Sleel beam Steel plates

section beam and
roumn
(0'
'"
S/"h-/O' /J<!"''' cmulL...,lions genemJiy use ",me varimion of the delail shown in
Fig. 18.32. Supp"n i, pmvided by an L beam (Fig. 18.12.r) OJ an invened T beam (Fig.
18.32b) Ihal is flush with the lop of Ihe pn....,a'i floor plauks. The delail shown is suf-
ficiem if no JIIedmnical ti~ is "'quin...J beN'""n Ihe proca,1 pan,. WI",,,, a f'O'!iliv~
connenion i, required. ,led plal"s are set illlo Ihe 101' of II", member>. ,uitahly
anchored. and ,hon connecting pbte> are welded '0 as 10 alta,'h lhe huih-in plate,.
Basic tool, for lhe ru,'ign of precast coocrete conncnions an: the ,,/rear fric/io"
de.,i~" me/lu,,/ described in delail in Chapler 4 and lhe .<Iml-a"d-lie mmid introduced
in Chapter 10. Example 4.6 (St....,lion 4.9) demonSlmlt...J Ihe usc of Ihe shear-fri,tion
appmach I<> determining the reinforcement for the end -bearing r~gion of a precasl con -
crele girder. TI,e use of o.Kh Ihe shear-friclion rnclh,xJ and a 'Irul -and -li~ l11,xld for
joint behavior was ,hown in Senioll 11.7, and Example I I.S presented the delailed
de'ign of a bracket for a precast con,'rele ,olumn. Addili(Hlal de.>ign informal ion per-
laining 10 precast concrele ("Onneclion design will he found in Refs. 18.9. 18.12. and
18.13.
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CONCREn: 8U1LDlNG S\'!."TEMS 6J I
FIG UIU: 18,J I

Cotum" ",",,,tum"
coo"""lioo"
,,' ''I
Anchor boll
-~
Sleej plales
ooam and column
,,'
FI GURE IH.]2
Sbt>-IO}-be.m conlle<"tio",.
Bearing '-- Bearing

strip ~-~ strip
,' ''I
c. Structural Integrity
Precast concrete siruciures normally lack the joi nt conti nuit y Jnd high dCf!r~'C of
redundancy characlerislic of monolilhic. casl-inplace re inforced concrele construe
lion , Progressi~e collapse in Ihe event of abnormal loading. in which Ih~ failure of one
element leads to the collaps.: of another. then another. can produce catastrophic results.
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632 tW.." I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 18
For this reasoll. the suul'!Ur~1 integrity of [lf~cast conn~te structur~s is specific'ally
addressed in ACI Code 16.5. ACI Code 16.5. I doe, not I"'nnit the use of ',oft .. co,, -
nc"Ctions that rely soldy on friction ca used by gmvity fOKe'. Full momellt- re~isting
connenions ar~ unusual. but some positive n",an~ of connecting m."ntJ.,rs to their sup-
pons, with due regard to the need to ""<",,,nrnodate di""""ional chanses associated
with creep , shrinkage. and tempemlure effL"Cts, is 'In"'g!y recomrllend<-d.
In addition, aperienc'e with pre"Ca.t strunurcs ha, shown that the introduction of
special reinforcement in the form of tens;';", ties, Ihough adding lin le to the Lx"t of con -
struction. c'an contribute great ly to maintaining structu r~l integrity in tl", ncnl of
extmordinary IQading. such as loads cau",d hy extreme wind,. eanhquake, or explo-
sion. This tension reinforcement is best lIfrdng<--d in a thre>o:-dimensional grid. usually
on the column li,,,,s, tying the floors together venically and in holh horizontal direc-
tions. For pre"Cast conn~te construction. ACI Oxle 7.1 3.3 and 16.5.1 re'<luire that ten -
si,,,, tie, muSt be pnl\'ided in the tr~" ,\"eJ>C. longitndinal. and venical dire"Ctions of the
strunure and around it, po:rimeter. Sp<"Cific ddails vary widdy. Although no speci!ic
guidance is offered in either the ACI Cooe or Commentary regarding sted placen"'nt
or design fOKes, valuahle .ugge,tions will be found in Refs. 18.8. 18.9. and 18.13.
" 18.6 E NGIN EERI NG DRAWIN GS FOR B UILD IN GS
Desi gn infonnation is conveyed to the builder mainly hy engineering drawings. l1Jeir

prepamtion is therdore a matter of the ulm",t imponance. and they '-'1()uld he care-
fully che.:ked hy the de'ign engineer \() ensur~ that connete dimen,ions and rein -
fOKemcnt agree with the calculation,.
Engineering drawing' for buildings u,ually Lx,",ist of a plan view "f each fl'KlT
showing ,werall di"",nsion, and l",:ating the main structural eiemenl,. l"Toss-sectional
view. through typical mcmhers. and heam and ~lah schl-dules that giv~ detail~d infor-
mation orl tl", ("(,"l"T~te di",ensions and reinforc e111~nt in tabular form. Sectional views
are usually dmwll to a larg~r scale than the plan and serye to lorale the 'Ieel and estah-
li sh cutoff and bend points a, ,,'ell as to defin~ the .hal'" of the n"'mber. Usually a sep-
amte drawing is included 1hat gives. in the fonn of sehedules and cross sections, the
details of columns and footings.
It is wise to include. on each drawing. the material strengths used for the design
of the <truct ur~. a, well as the service live load on whic'h tl>" calculations were based.
Typical engineering dmwings will tJ., found in Ref. 18.3.
REFE RE N CES
1~.1 f,~. l k~f",>". D.P. c...".r"",. , ..,
A . J. C. .. ,.," , . S''''<'u~a 1J...ti,ln (;u;d. fi" ,,,. A("/ Bu;/Ai"K (od.
KI "~"r ,\ClI<I<mic I"'bli>her~ 11.0>',,". 1998.
1~ . 2 rJ.ISllf"",u...",. "'" c'<! .. l'<""',," , ~,'i"f"td"; ~"~'II " "i,",,' . s.:ha " mru r~ . It.. 20Jl
1~.J. AU u"",ir,,,S M""""r. ACt Sp"";,,, 1,"lllioalim W66. A...."ican C""'''',o I"~',""'. I"'mi"i''''' Ilill,.
M! . 1'!94
1M . AU O"nm'L"" 152. Rfl,"""'V",r,J/;,i<l, to'
1J..';go "I n""'J_o,r,,"J ."""" in .<il" ",r;,h;c R'infim,,,t
n"",,,.,, S,roc,",,",. AU J~ lR_~I . A, ....,.;,""" C,,,,,-,,-~,In"""'" ..... ..
m ' "~" Bilt,. Mt. I '/\I I. I~ 1'1'
I~.S . t. . Ii. Sn.1l "",I M. I'. lWlO,,ioL "Wode MQ<luIcC"","""" I,~" l..,,,,,,,,,im: C""", I",/.. w." 12. no,. II.
!\I\I(1. J'P. 3'1-4,
1SA A . E. ('><IIc"" . J. \\. ll""",". w. G . C(l{k-y. "",I E. I~ >;""""' . '1),'>;gn I~Q\i,i( .. , fl~ ~""' Jff Wall>.-- 1.
Ac/. ,,~ . ) 0 . n . .l. I'IJ~. 1'1'. 221 _2!o<l.
I~. 7. A . [" (;.,"'''''' 0.0.1 ll. ll. Mljl..-a. Stf"C"~'~ "f llj ~h. R;'" Stoe", w,n" R""", ~ u l "'(,""'< Sech",,:' J'P.
l! 'J-I~1 ;" I/.~~",... -if M"I",",,:. ",,.,,,,u .., '"
L",~ .r F ",.u ... SI'-Jl;. AH~" ioan C""""",, I."i,"'''.
hum"",," l hll ~ MI. 1~7J
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CONCREn: 8U1LDlNG S\'!o.EMS 633
18.~ . AU O)ol'oHi,,,,, ~5\). "Ilc"';gn ~l" . ""' 00.1.>0~", < rOt I'",:>" ~. ~""".,,: ...- AU ~WI! - 9 1 J/,vwi
"fC"'.'""" h"'"e<. 1';", 6, AooX""" " U"""" I"" i,,,,,,. r,""i"li"" Hill" MI, !OH
18.9. PCI J)e,jg. l"vuN~>Qi; . ~h 00.. l"''''' >!11~''''''' ,'''," C,,,,,,,,,,,, l",,;,u,", n~,,,>. I_
I ~ . IO K. M Kriro" .... ). " .. ...:1 M. Ii n"l . -,..,,,1),,;, .,><.t I)",ivn ur SIe",I,:tToIl -Up Rc';o('.-n:d 0"",,.,.,' \\',11
I'..."." 1 ACt. ,.,~. 71, "'. I. 1974. flI). !o---28.
I ~. II An CrN",";""" ~3J. ",("~Ic [,,. I "w.~ U ..,,'" \\'.11 I'",x'h_" I\C! 533R-93. II",,,,,') "f Co""
P"nj(f. P:I~ 6. A"""""on CO'''-''''" !""';'"'O. h.nn;~~ " Hill<. MI. ;:((IJ,
1 ~ . 1 2 P. \\" l!i,II.t>d . ",1 H, II' l\i,)<I...:I . '(:. ....''''~." in 1'",,,",1 0 ...,, " O "' ~ ,,", , ' ''." J. An. ,,~ . 63,'"
3, )'i6<\. fIP, }4~ J.6Il.
I~ IJ PO C""",i,,,,, '"' t.:""'"' ' ''' 1)" ,,11,. Il< .~~" ,wi 7;,,,,,-""i Ilt"ulih '1 C""""'",,,,-'!'" 1'",(,(""",,1 1',,-
",w,J Cmu". 1""",~/I""' ~ n~><>J 0"""",,' I. " ;",,. n~' Oji,Q, 1 98~ .
I ~ . 14 C. II' I:" . ... j 1-', S'''I,", . ..-.J ~ . G, A"'k..... "' . "Moo",,,, ~",i ~,, '" Coo ..,(',;."" ...:I Si "~'1e C,., ...,,-
,..... ,:. I, 1''''''ISt/I'",, ,,,,,,.J 0",,,, ""'.. ,.,j, 3!.". 1. I q~7, Pr. 6;\-1.1,
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I'll'r......... c-.... I THI
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SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
19.1 INTROD UCTIO N
/l.l()d~m strunur~1 engineering tends to pmg,e" toward more economical ,tructure,

throngh gr.tduall)' imp,owd methods of design and the u'" of higher-strength materi -
als. This r",ults in a redunion of cmss-,",ctiorml dimensi'Hls and cmtse<juenr weight
savings. Such dnelopment< are particularly importanr in tk field of ,einforn'd con -
crete, where the JeaJ load represents ~ ,uh,tmuial pan oftoc toralload. Also. in multi -
story boilJings, an)' saving in depth of member;, mu hiplit.'<.l h)' the number of ,tories.
can repr~scnr ~ ,umtamial saving in tmal height, load on founJations, length of heat -
ing and electrical Juct" plumb ing rise", aoo wall anJ panitiol1 surface,.
Significant ,aving' can k achieved by using high-strength cOncrele anJ ,teel in
conjun,'lion with present-Jay design n"-,Ihod,, which I"'nnit an a,'curate appmi,al of
member 'trenglh. However, II"-'rc arc limilalions ) this dc,'elopmem, Juc mainly )
tl"-' imerrelalM problems of cracking anJ Jefle': tion at ,""vice 100000s. The efficient use
of high -strenglh Sled is limi",{l by the fact that the amourrt of c,acking (wiJlh and
numbe, of na<:ks) is pmportional to Ihe 'train, anJ therefor~ the SlreSS. in the sted.
Although a m<xlerdte "moum of cr.1cking is tHlnnally not objectionahle in siructu,al
,xmcrete. exct.",~i,e cracking is unJesir~b1e in that il exposes the reinforceme nt 1U cor-
rosion' il nm)' be visually ofT~nsive. anJ it may lrigger a premature failure by diago-
nal ten.sion. The u'" of high-Strength materials is further limitoo hy <knection consid -
erntion" particularly wh~n ,efin<."<1 analy,is is u",d. The slende, members Ihat result
may !"nnil ddk"tion, that arc funniOrlally '" visually un:K',-eptahle. TI,i, is furthe,
aggravat~d hy crdcking. whi,'h reduces lhe flnurnl sti fTr"-,,, of member<;.
These. limiting feature, of onlinary rdnforced connele ha\'e been largely ovc ,-
come hy the <k"elopn"-'llt of preslressed concrete. A p'''<tr~.<",d concrete member can
be defined as "'''-' in which Ihe,e have b"en inlnxl""ed inlemal SI ,e ,,,,s of such mag-
nitude nnd distribution that Ihe stre"-",,, ,e ,u lting fmm the giv~n extemalloading are
coumemcteJ to a desired del'''''''' Concrete is basically a compressive malcrial. with ils
st",nglh in len,ion being ,datively low. Prest,essing npplie, a prccomp",,,ioll to the
""-'mber tha! reduces or eliminates um\i:si,ahle lensile st res~s that would O1ll<',wi", be
pre",,,1. Cra,'king mKlcr ",,,,,ice loads can be minimized or even avoided enti,dy.
Defl""tioll.< may be limiled I<> ao ac,'cpta!;!le value: in fact, """mbe" can be de'igned
to have zero <kfleclion un<lc, the combined efTl'ets of ",,,,ice load and p,e,tres, force.
Deflection ~nd crolCk comml. achieved through p,est"-,,,~ing. !"nnil the engint.= 10
m[lke ose of efficiem and economical high-'trength ,ted, in the fonn of stmnJ" wires.
or hars, in conjunction with COrl<:retes of much highe, .strength than normaL Thus. p,e-
stre"ing ,e,ults in the {",er~1l impn>Yetnerrt in performance of Slructur~l conCrete used
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I'll'r......... c-.... I THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
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I' R['STR K"S ~:D CO NC REn : 635
for ordinary loads and ~pan, and extends lhe mng~ of application far beyond the lim-
i!> for ordinary reinfor,'ed cOllcrete. leading nO! only to much 10llger 'pans than pre -
viou,ly lhought possihle. bm permilling illnO\-ative new structural fnrm' to be
employed _
_. 19.2 E FF ECTS OF P RESTRESSI NG
n,e re are at least lh r"" way~ 10 look at the presuessing of concrete: (a) as a method of
achi eving "mJerWe sm'."S com",l. by which the ,'oncret e is pre("(,mpre,sed ,0 that ten -
,ion nO[[lIall)' resulting from the applied load, is n,du,'cd or el iminated. (b) a.~ a mean,
for introducing equimlent 10lUl_,' on the COllcret~ member so that the dieclS of tI",
appli<-"eted to the de,i red degr~..,. and (c) a., a ."I",ci,,1 ""rimi",! of
reinforced c"",.-rele in wh ich prestrai ned high-strength 'teel is uscd. usually in ,'on -
j unction with high-strength conerde. Each of tI""c vicwpoints is usefu l in the anal)' -
,is and design of pr~slressed cOllcrete structures. and they will be illustrated ill II",
following par~graphs_
a. Concrete Stress Control by Prestressing

Many imponant fealurcs of prcstres><-"<am
pies , Consider first the plain. unreinforCtXi concrete beam with a n ...:tangular cross sec
tion shown in Fig. 19.1<1, II carries a singl.: concentrated 10.'1 at (he center of ils span,
(nlC self-weigh( of (he member will 00 IlCgkc(ed here.) As (he load IV is gradually
applied. longiwdinal ne><ural Slresses nre induced , If (he concrete is s(resscd only
wi(hin its claSlic range. (Itt: nexural stress dislribwion at midspan will be linear. as
shown.
At a reia(ively low load. Ihe (~nsile s(ress in (he concre(~ a( (he bonom of (he
ocmn will reach (he tensile s(rength of (he concre(e I,. and a crack will form , Because
no restraint is provided :1.gains( upward ex t~nsion of (he crack, (he ooam will collapse
wi(hou( fu"her increase of load,
Now consider an O(hefWisc idcmical beam. shown in Fig. 19, II!, in which n Ion
gi tudinal axial force P is imroduced prior 10 the \wlicallo:lding , llIc longi(udinal pre
mcssing force will produce a uniform axial compression Ie .. f'. A, .. wh~rc A" is (he
cross-scClio nal area of (he concrc(c , The force can 00 adjusled i~ magnilude so thll.
when the transverse load Q is appli~d, the SUperposilion of mcsses due (0 P and Q will
I"\:sult in zero (ensile s(ress at (he bonom of (he beam as shown. Tensile Slress in (he
concre lC may be climinaK'<i in (his way or r~'<iuced 10 a specified amoum.
It would 00 more logical (0 apply (he prestressing force ncar (he bonom of lhe
beam. 10 compensate more efkctivcly for (he load-induced (~nsion. A possible dt:sign
specifica(ion. for example, might be 10 imroduce Ihe maxim um compression al (he
bol1om of the beam without causing tension al (he 101'. when only (he prcSlressing
force aClS , It is ~asil)' shown Ihal, for a ocam wi(h a =(angular~ross ><-..:(ion , (he poim
of applica(ion of (he prcs(rcssing force should be a( (he lower third poi111 of (he sec
(ion d~pt h 10 achic,'c this. The force 1'. wi(h (he sa nlC value as before. but applil"<i
wi(h eccentrici(y e - h 6 reb (i~e (0 Ihe COnCre(e cel1lroid. will produce a longi(udi
nal compressive Slress distribution varying linearly from zero a( the (Op s urface 10 a
maximum of 21._- 1'- A, + /'eel' J, al (he bonom. where fc is (he concr~le stress at the
concrete cen(roid. "') is (he dis(Jnce from (he concre(e ccmroid 10 (he bonom of the
o..loootc..,_
I'll'r......... c-.... I THI ~"" --- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 19
FIG UIU: 19,1 W

AIt<mat;,,< ,,:home< {o,-
p""me;'in~" rec!angular j
<'O/lC""< hoam: (a) plain
OO/lCfe,e be.m ; (b) axially
p"""",d beam;
I"
1: :lP' I
I,
-.l
(c) = "tric. lly p;tre,S<'d
Q
beam; (iI ) ho.m w;,h "aria~k
eccentricilY; (~ ) balanced
load ' ''ge fOl beam with
j p II
I, I, ",
,",iable ecce"tricily. 101 ..j ~-(' IiiI, I ~
oJ); f, - Ie 0
'"j ~ 0 ", ",

I" ..e..I
oJ);
I..-. T 23" I:k . J" - ~
2f, 21, ~
'0
'" 0
'" -'i: t, r-.l ~

j '
0
I:k ' J"

",
I,
21, D 2fc
Midsjlan
",
~
0
",
I,
IiiI, 0
IiiI,
Q
,""
1-'
-'i: t, r-.l ~
j '
0
I:k I,I- 10
'"
I,
I,
MidSjlan
I,
IiiI,
I,
IiiI, 0
IiiI,
,""
hoearn , and I, i, Ihe mo ment ofinenia of 1he croSs seclinn , Thi, i, shown in Fig. 19.1t:.
The 'Ir~" al Ihe hOlm", will hoe ~xacll)' Iwic'C Ihe value produced bef()f~ by axial pre-
,I re.sing,
Consequently, Ihe tmns\'e r,e load can now hoe Iwice as greal a, hoefore. or 2Q,
and slill cause no len,ile ,Ire", In fact. the final stre" di>!ribution resu lling from
th~ sUl"'rposilion of load and pres1ressing force in Fig , 19.1c i, idemical 10 lhat of
Fig. 19.1b. with lhoe ~IT'" p r~'tressing forc~. nltlKlUgh the load i, 1wic"e as grcal.11",
advantnge of eccentric pre'tressiITg i, "I",iou"
lne rneth(Kls hy which c-oncrele memhoers are pre, tressed will be discussed in
Se<,"tioll 19.3. Fo r pr~selT1 purpose,. il is suffici~nt 10 know that one pmttical ,,"'thod
o f prc'lr~ssing u"" high -strength ,1",,1 lendons passing through a conduil e",hoedded
in the concrde benm, 111e tendon i, anchored. under high t~",ion. at bolh ends of tI",
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hocam, thereby cau,ing a longitudinal n)mpressive ,tre" in the ,'oncrde, The pre'tress
foree of Fig. 19.U, and r could ea,ily have been appliNl in this way.
A ,ignifi,'ant improwmem ,'an be rrmde. howner. by u~ing a pre'tre"ing tendon
Wilb variable ec<"mrieily with re'pect to the conerele cenlr<;>id. as , hown in Fig. 19.1.1,
n,e load 2Q produces a bellding moment Ihat varie, linearly along lhe span. from zero
allhe ,uppons to max imum at midspan. Imuitively. one sus reel, Ihatlhoc hocS! armnge-
mem of prestressing would pr<xluce a c",,,,lermo,,wllI that actS in lhe opf'osilC sense
to the load-induced mmnem alld that would '".try in the same wa)'. 11,is would be
achie,,,d by giving the telldon an ,,'e';entri,-ity that ,'aries linearly. from zero at the ~up
pons [() maximum at midspan . This is shown in Fig. 19.1d.11", stre,ses at midspan
are Ihe ~ame a., those in Fig. 19.1 . bOlh when thc load 2Q acts and when it d""" no\.
At the ,uppom. where only lhe prcstress fmce with 1.Cro eccentricity act~. a unifonn
,,,,,"pression ,trc<,I< i~ obtained a, shown,
For each char::lcteristic load distribution. there i, a "".<1 lend"" rf'(llil~ that pro-
duce, a p",stress l1lon"'nt diagr::lm that corresponds to lhat of Ihc applied h~d. If the
p",stress countemlOment i, made exactl)' ..'<[ual and oppo,ite to the load-induced
moment. the result is a hocam that is subjrtt on ly to unifonn axial compres,ive ,tress
in the concrete all along the 'pan . Su{'h a beam would be free of flexural c",eking. and
theoreticall)' it would nOi hoc defl""-k'<l up OJ down when Ihat pani,-ular load i, in place.
compared to its po'<ition as originally cas!. Such a result would be obtai ned for a load
of -! X 2Q = Q. a, shown in Fig. 19.1 ... for aample.
Some irnponant conclusion, can be dr.t"'ll from these simple examples a., follows:
I. Prestre<si ng can control or ev"n diminat~ concrete tensile <tress for sl"'cified
loads,
, Eccentric prestress is u~ually much more dficient than nlllcemric prestress.
3. Variable eccelllricily is u<ually preferahle 1<) con~tant ec{'entri,'ity. from 11", view-
points of both sire" nllltrol and detleclion controL
b. Equivalent Loads
n,e dft.'C\ of a ,-hange in the ,"enital alignment of a pr"'trcssing !endon i, to produce
a ,"enieal for,,, 011 the nlllnete beam. That force. togelher with tl", prestressing force
ading at d", ends of the ]x,am through the tendon anch()rag~s. ,-an ]x, l()()k..'<1 upon a,
a sySlem of exlemalload,.
In Fig . 19.2t,. for example. a tendon dUll appli.,,; force P at Ihc centroid of th"
('oncrete section at the ends of a beam and that has a uniform slope at angle between
the ends and midspan introduces a tmn,,,e,,;e fOJce 21' sin at the poim of dmnge of
slope at mid'pan . At the anchorage,. the "enical component of Ihe p""!r,,,sing force
is l' ,in ' and the horizomal compo"ent i, P cos . nle horizontal component i, "ery
nearly equal to l' for th" usual flal ,lope angles, The moment diagram for lhe beam of
Fig. 19.2a is ".'"n to haw the ,allle form a., that for any cemer-loadt.'<I simple span.
The ]x,am of Fi g. 19.2h. with a cUTwd tendon. is <ubj""t [() a venical upward
load from the lendon as well as tm, forces /' at each end. The exact dislfibution of tI",
load del"'nds on Ihe profile of the lendon. A tendon with a paraholie profile. for exam-
pIe. will pnxluce a uniforml)' dislributed load, In thi s ca",. the moment diagram will
]x, parabolic. as it is for a unifonnly loalli.d ~imple span.
If a str~ight tendon i, used with constam e<-centri{'ity. as showo in Fig, 19.2<:.
there are no ""nical forces on the ,-oncrele. but the heam is subjecl to a monlent P.. at
e""h eod. as wdl as the axial force 1'. and a diagram of cOll,tam ITI{,,,,,,m results.
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IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 19
Member Equi\lalent load on concrete lram t6!'Klor1 Moment from prestressing
PsinO PsinO
_~j------.-----,L
PcosO f PcosO
2PsinO
PsinO PsinO
(OJ pA ------,y p;;;oiffffflfflfffffb"

e Pe Pe
,,' ~f-------- ~---7 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111
o PsinO PsinO
,0, p1t'L'-='~-~~~-~'''-'~1< p~iff If fIf flf f fIf t.zl',

FI(; U RE 19. 2
!',qoi,.lent Ioad,.oo mO"lent, prodocw by .,..'t..."i"8 tendon .
n,~ end llllllllent must also be llCcoull1~d for in tm, beam sJlIlwn in Fig. 19.2tl. in
whic' h a paraholic t~ndon is used that does not pass thmugh the concrde c~ntroid at
the ends or the spall. In this case. a unifmmly distrihuted upward load plus end anchm-
age fOfce, are pmduced. as shown in Fig. 19.2b, hut in addition. the ~nd nll",,,,nts M
= Pi': cos musl be llCcoull1~d fOf.
h may be ~vident that for any armngeme!ll of applied loads. a tendon profil~ can
be sel""l<."<1 so that the equivalent h~ds aCling on the beam fnnn th~ t~ndon are just
~"<jual and oppo,ite to the applied loads. The re,ult would be a state of pure compre,-
sive st ress in the concret~. a, diSi.us.';cd in some what different term, in referenc~ to
stre" control and Fig. 19. 1e. An advantage of the "'luivabn load ~'oncepl is that it
leads the design~r to sclect what is prob.Jhly the best !<endon profite fm a particular
loading.
c. Prestressed Concrete as a Variation of Reinforced Concrete

In the d~scriptions oftbe effects of prestressing in S~"Ctions 19.2a and b, it was implied
that the prestfe" fOfCC remained C<lnstant as the vertical load was introduced. that II",
"oncrde ",sponded elastically. and that no c(lIlCrete era~'king occUTn"<l. These C(,"di -
tions may prevail up 10 about th~ service load level, hut if the loads ,J,ould be
increased muth beyond that, f1~xural t~nsile slre,,~s will eventually ex"'<."<1 the mod -
ulus or rupture and cracls will fonn. Loads, h{}w~vcr, can u,ually be incrca.><..... much
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FI GUIU: 19,) Factored load

p,.,>trn-.ci cOocITtc beam at
load ocor fk,",al f,ilure:
(a ) beam with (",""..-cd k,.i<l
,pplie<!: (I equilibrium of
fore<, "" left half of be.m
(,'
(0)
bcy,md the cracking load ill well-designed preslressed bc~ms. and depending on the
levd of preslress. !t", bcam response a! service load m~y vary from uJlcmd,,:d. to
minor cracking, 10 fully cracked. as occu)'; for an ordinary reinforced <:oncrele bcal11.
Eventually hmh the 'teet and ,"oncre!e ~llhe cracked "''-"Iion will be stre,sed into
the in"'a,tic mnge. The condilion at irt<:ipient failure is ~h(}wn in Fig. 19.3. which
,how. a bcam carrying a jacro",J lo{ul equal 10 ",n", multiple of Ihe apccted ", rvi<:e
load. The beam undoubtedly would"" in a partially crncked stale: a p'",ible panern
of fl~xuml crn<"king is ,hown in Fig. 19.3(1,
At Ibc mnximum mO"lent senion . only the c<HlCrele in <"ompression i, effective,
and all of the tellsion is lakn by lite st"d . The ~xlemal ""Hllent from Ihe applied lond,
is resisted by the imernal foree couple Cz = Te, The bclta\"L<;>r at this slage is almosl
idemieallo thnt of an ordin~ry reinforced conc rete beam nt overlond. The maio dif-
ference is thai the very high 'trength s1<-"e1 u",d must bc pf'f".flm;lIt,i/ bcfore load, are
applied to the ""am: otherwise. tile high 'teet Siresses would pr<xluce cxl"essi"e con -
crete cracking ~nd large bcam deflection< .
Each of tI", three viewprtinu; ,b.:rihed-----':OllCrete 'tre~s {"(Kurul. '-"<juivnbn load"
and reinforced cOllCrete u,ing pre'tr~inoo ,tee I-is useful in tlte analysi, and design of
pre,tressed wncre!e ""ams, and "one of tbc thft."" is suffici~m in itself, Neither an elas-
tic stre" analysis nm an ~uivalent load analysis pnl\'ides informmion about strength
or snfety rrurrgin, However. the stress ~nalysi, is helpful in predi<"ling the ~xlem of
cr.>eking, nnd!he '-"<juivalent load a""lysi, is often the bc't way to cnkubte defleclion,.
Strength analysis is essential !O evalume safely ~gainsl collapse. but il tdls nothing
ab<Kn cr~cking or defl'-"<1ions of tbc benm under service condition. _
_. 19.3 S O URCES OF P RESTRESS F ORCE
Pre~!re" can be applied 10 a C<KlCrete member in man y way'. P~rhnps Ihe most obvi -
ou, me!h(xl of precompre"ing is 10 u'" jacks reacting against nootmem" as shown in
Fig_ 19Aa. Such a sel",me has been employed for large projects. Many "ariations ar~
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I'l l'r......... c-.... I THI
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IW..<; I W'~ OF CO NC R ~: n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 19
FIGU IU : 19,4
"'~~
Beam .'! ( Abutment
p,.,>t,n,ing me'hod>:
I) po,l-tensio";ng by
~
jocbng agai "" aoo'm" n",
Ih) po'l-tensionio! "';,n
j ock< "",,-~ing ago;"" ""am:
(c) prelen,ioni"8 ,,-ilh (,'
!Codon """"''' ""'w,,",,"
, "'~ )h
fixed eJ<ternal 'II<OOrage" Beam \ catlfe \
Bj
II I I
I I
1"
-E'FslZI
Beam -) catlle - \
"""""'t ff ",~
II
(,'
po"ibl~, including repl ''':ing the jacls wilh compressioll siruis afler Ih~ dtsired slr~"
in the mn<Tel~ is obtained or using in~xpen,i", jacks Ihat retllnin in place in lhe struC-
lu"" in "')Ule cases with a cemenl grout u,,-'<I a, Ihc hydr~ulic fluid. The principal dif-
ticuhy a"ociat~d with soch a system i, Ihat ~ven a 'Iighl movement of lhe aoolment'
will dr.l,lically ,,-'<Iucc Ihe pre'lres, fon:e.
III most ,-ase,. the same r~,uh is more conwniently ohlained by lying the jack
hase, togelher wilh wire, or cahles, a~ ,hown in Fi g. 19.41>. '!be", wires orcahles may
he ~xtemal. I,x-ated OIl each side <:If Ihe heam; more usually Ihey are pa.",d Ihrough a
1w1low conduil embed<k'<l in th~ ('(mcre", heam. U,ually. one end of Ihe pre,lr""ing
lendon i, anchored, and nll ofd", force is applied al lhe mher end. Afler r~achin g d",
desin.-d prestress foree, Ihe tendon is w~dg'-'<I ngainst lhe cOncr~te and Ihe jacking
equipment is remowd f<:lr reu,.,. In thi, Iype of prestressing. Ihe emir~ <y'lem i,
,elf-CQnlained and is independem of relalive di,placement of the ,uppons.
Anmher meth<xl of pre <lressing Ihal is widely used is illustr.lled hy Fig. 19.4<:.
nIt pr~'lre"ing strand, are ",n,io",-'siv~ ahutrnems in a casting yard
prior 10 placing the concrete in the beam fn'lllS. The (:()ncrel~ i, p1a,-ed around the len-
,ioned ,Imnds, and aner Ihe c(1fK-rel ~ 1",-, annined sufficient menglh. the jacking pre,-
,me is rel~ased. Thi, Imn~fers the prestre"ing (orce 10 1he (:()ncrel~ hy bond and (riction
almlg Ihe ,Irands , d,i~fly al the outer end,.
It i, es-;ential, in all thr"" case, shown in Fig. 19.4. thai lhe beam he , upponed
in <u,-h a way a~ 10 permil the memher 10 ,honen axially without ,.,<Imint "" Ihal Ihe
p",slressing fo"", enn he trnnsferr<'<llo II", concrele.
Other means for inlroducing th~ desir~d p",.lressing fo"", hav~ been ancmpl~d
o n an experirnental ha,is. Thennal p",stressing can be a,-hievcd by prehenting th~ ' Ieel
hy eleclrical or mhe r ""'ailS. Anclwred agninsl I!'" end~ of Ihc concrete benm whil~ in
the extended stale, II", ,1",,1 cools and lend, to contrncL lne prestress force is devel -
oped Ihrough the ",.Iraincd commn;on. lne use of expanding ceflrent in CQncrCI~
members has been Iri<'<l wilh varying ,uce"". The vo lumelric cxpan~ion , reslminl'<l by
'Ieel slmnds or by fixed abuln"'nis. produces the prestress fo,,"C.
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I 'l " ' _... c-.... I THO
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I'R['STRK"S ~:D C()NC REn: 641
FIG UIU: 19,5

M,,, ,,-< .. mod j.dinl\
. t.'tmen! at the end or. loog
pr<'e n,irnoi n~ l>l_ K"""'_oy
of Cmc,," rech ",A~'
n" I~m"i''''_J
Mo,t of the patented 'ysl<ems for applying prestress in current use are ,-aria/iuns
of those shown in Fig. 19AI> and c, Such systems can generally be classified as I'u-
1<'''-';OIl;I1S or pO,W-tell.,-i,,,,inS systems. In the case ,;,f prel<ensioning. the tendons arc
stre,sed before the connete is plac~xl. as in Fig. 19.41:_ This system is "-ell suited for
mass production. ,ince casting beds can be made several hundred feet long. th" entire
length cast at OrK"'. and individual beams ~'an be fahricakxl to the de,ired length in a
single ~'asting _ Figure 19_5 shows workers using a hydr~ulic ja~- k to k,,,ion strands at
tbe anchor::lge of a long pretensioning bed _ Although each tend'm is individually
stre, ...xl in lhis case, large ('Up,,,:ity ja<-h are often used to tension all strands sirnulta-
n~'()usly_
In posHensi()n~xl n"'struc-tion, shown in Fig. 19Ah. lhe tendons are tensioned
afler the <"<,"crete i, placed and has gained ils strength. Usually. a hollow conduit or
slee,'e is pmvided in the beam. thmugh which the tendon is passed _ In some case ',
tendons are placed in the interior of hollow box-,,-'Ction beams. The jacking force is
usually applied against tbe ends of the hank""d concrete, eliminating the need for
massiw abutments. In Fig. 19.6. six tendons, each consisting of many individual
strand,. an: being post -tensioned ,,-~uenlially using a ponable hydraulic jack.
A large number of particular systems. steel elements. jacks. and andlOrage fil-
tings have been devc10l"'d in this COllnlry and ahmad. many of whi,-h differ fmm each
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6..:12 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 19
FI GUIU: 19,6
P"<H<", j""ing " bridge
girder ",ing' ponable jack
'0 "rn, mulli,,,,,nd ,end..",.
IC """'>:" vi C""".w
T"'/mdngy ('",,~""'i".,.)
olhero,,!y illllli"or ddai!s (Rds, !9.1 10 19.8). As far as lhe desigller of prest""sOO
concrde siructures i, cO'll'erned, il is unn~ce"ary and I"'rhaps even unde,irab!" to
,peeify ill delai! the tedmique lhat is to bi: followed and the ~~uipllleot to bi: usOO, It
is frequem!y tJ."t to sp"cify only lhe magnitude and line of action of lhe premess
rorce. TI,e colllra<"lor is Ihen f,,->c. ill biddi ng tbe work, 10 receive quotation, fmm sev-
eml differe lll prestressing subcontrdct",,,, Wilh resultanl Co.;! savings. It i, e\'ilkn!.
however, that the de,ig"er lIIu,t have sOllie knowl<.-..lge of tl'" delai!, of the various ')" -
tellls co",,,mplak-..l for use, so thai in sel~cli ng cms'!--,,-'Ctional dimensions , anyone of
se"eml systems l'an tJ., aax>nIllKKlated.
_ 19.4 P RESTR ESS IN G STEELS
Earl y ane lllpts at presuessing concret~ we re un,un'""fu! bi:cause Sled wilh o rdi nary
'tructur~1 strenglh was u<ed. The low presu~" oblaillab!e ill such rods was quickly
!OSI due to shrinbg" and cr""p in the concrde.
Such changes ill length or co'll'",te have m",, " le<..~ effl'Ct on pre'tress rorce if
that rorce is obtnined using highly "ressed "",,! wires or cables . In Fig. !9.7", a con -
cret~ melllbi:r or length L is prcstres,,--..l u,ing 'ted barli wilh ordinary 'trength st"'~sed
to 24 ,000 psi. Wilh E, = 29 X I (f' psi, the unit stmin ,requi red to produce the de,ir~d
,tress in the Sk>c! or 24,()()() p,i is
L /, 24.000
8.0XIO
L E, 29 x 10"
However. the. long-tern, sua;" ill the Goncr~t" due 10 $hrinkag~ and l'Te~p a!o,..,.
if the pre'tr~" force were maintained ",'er a IOllg peri<KI. wou ld be on the order of 8.0
X 10 and would tJ., 'Uml' jellt 10 completely relieve tl'" steel of all suess.
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I' R['ST R K"S ~:D CO NC REn : 643
FIGUIU : 19.7
Lo .. of 1""''''''' d o< to ~ r-- l L
' -+~====~=====~j!+- '
cooc,ele shrinl.age and neep.
1.- .1 L
")
,
-1+------,
Ahenmtively. suppose that the beam is pre,tressed using high strength sted
stre;;><-'<I10 150.000 psi. The elasti" modulu, of s1<-",1 d,,,,s not vat)' grea1ly. and the
same value of 29 x 10" psi will be assllmed here . n""tl in this case, the un it strain
rL><lu ired to produce 1he "",ired ~tre" in tl'" sl",,1 i,
150.000
)0
," 29 X 10" " 51.7 X
If ,hrin knge and creep ,train are tl'" 5:ln", ns before. the net strain in Ihe sl",,1 nfte r
these lo,ses is
'.'" = 51.7 - R.O X 10" = 43.7 X 10 ..
and the corresponding sIre" aft~r losses is
f, = .",,E. = 43.7 X 10 ' 29 X 10" = 127,000 psi
Thi, represent' a ,tress loss of about 15 percent. compared with 100 pe rc"m los, in
the benm using ord inary ,{""I. It is apparent {hm Ihe amount of ,t",,, losl because of
,hrinkage and creep is independent of {he originnl str~ss in {he 't eeL 'fI>e",fore , tl",
higher tl", original ,tress lhe l"wer {he pe rcemnge loss, This is iliustralL'<I graphically
hy {he ,tress-,train curve, of Fig. 19.7b. Cur"~ A i, "'presentati"e of ordinary ",in -
forcing hars. wilh a yield ,tres, of 60.000 I"i, while cur"e 8 rcp"" ellt, high tensik
,t~eI. with a tensi Ie s{",ngth of 270,000 psi. The s{re" change af ",suiting from n cer-
tain change in ,train .:l is secn to have much Ie" dfeci when high s1<-",1 stress levels
a", attained. Prestre"i ng "r concrete is the",f"", pr.lL1icnl only when slL",ls of very
high sl"'ngth arc use<.L
P"'stre"i ng 'kel i, moSt ~x'mmonly used in the form of individual wir~s.
'trand~d cable (,{rands) made up of seven wi",s, and alloy-sted bars. n", physic' al
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IW..<; I W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUCT U R .<; LnaplCT 19
TABLE 19.1
Maximum permissible stresses in prestressing steel
I. Due '0 kuoon j>t~ ;"~ fol'<,<" bill no< grea .. , lhan ,he 0. 941,.
Ie."", of OW", 'nO the m.. imum v. I... ",~o'mT.. ndod
by 1M "'''''uf>tlu ..... of ,I., p<'''''''';n 'Ittl or aochorag~ tkV;CfS
! ImmcdiOlcJy of, p,estI'''' 'ran,fe, bIl, no. 8,"a'CT ,han 0 .741,.. 0. 821,.
J. Pos'-len,iOll ing lendoo," a ochorage de,k., and cooP""". ;mn>ooi.,,,ly O.iQf,.
at"" ICnOOn """lK>rnge
pmpertie, of lhe", have be.. n di,cos""d in Section 2. 16. and Iypical stre,,-,trai n
curve, app"ar in Fig, 2.16, Virtually all strands in u'" are low-relaxation (SeCtion
2.1&).
1lIe tensile slresS p"nnitted by ACl Code I R.5 in prestressing wires. mands, ur
bars is liel"'ndent upon the sl.ge of loading. When the j""kin g force is first applied. a
maximum stress of 0.80 J,.. or 0.94 !,~. is allow<-"<.l . whkh""er i., smaller. where f,.. is lhe
tensile strength of [he ,,<.. I and /",. i, Ihe yield slrength. Illlmedialely after tmnsfcr of
prestre" force to 11", concrete. the pennissiblc stre'$ i, 0.74 J,.. or O.82J~.. whichever
is smaller (ex","pt at post -tensioning anchorages where the slress is Ii",ited to 0.70r,..).
1lIe justification for a higher allowable st re ,s during the stretching operation is that the
steel st",,, is known quite precisely at Ihis sl.ge . Hydmulil" jacking pre,"ure and tOlal
steel strain ar~ quantities that ar~ easily measured and quality <'oll1ml spe<:ifil"alions
rl'<lui", condation of load and deflenion at jac~ing ( R~f 19.9). In additilHl. if an acci -
dell1ally liel;,;ient lendon should break, it loan be replal"cd; in eff<oct. Ihe len,i oning
opemtion is a p"rformance lest of tl'" rnaleri~1. The lower "alues of aJi()wable st re ss
apply after d~s!ic <honening of Ihe concrete. frictional loss. and a"chomge sl il' have
taken place. The steel stres, is further reduced during tl'" life of lhe member due to
Shrinkage mid creep in Ihe l'oncret~ alld relaxalion in Ih~ st<..1. ACI all()wabie stres",s
in I're,[re"ing steels are summarized in Tahle 19.1,
1lIe st renglh aoo Olher char~cleriSlics "I' preslressin8 wir~, .'[r~ nds, and bars vary
so"",wlmt belwe~n manufal"lurers. as do llIet!K),h of grouping lendon, and anchoring
them. Typil"al information i, given for illuslmti"n in Table A. I 5 of Appendix A and in
Ref,. 19.1 to 19.8,
" _. 19.5 C O N CRETE FO R P RESTRESSED C O N STRUCTION
Ordinarily. l'Oncret~ of substantially higher l"Ollll're"ive strength is u><-"<.l for pre-

stre'><-"<.l struCture, Ihan for Ihose constructed of o"linar)' reinforced concrele. /I.lmt
prestre,Sl"<.l conSlru<.-tion in th~ Unit~"<.l Stales at present i, designed fur a ~x'mpressive
st",nglh above 5000 psi. n",re are se\'~ml reasnn;; for this:
I. High-,trength com:rete nonnally has a higher mooulus nf dasticily (SL.. Fig. 2.3),
This means a reducti on in initial elaslic stmi n und~r applicatinn of prestress force
and a redUl"lio1l in creep stmin. whil"h is approxirn~tely proportional In elastic
stmin. Thi, results in a rl"{IUClio" in 10";' of preslress .
2. I" po,t-tensioned ~"{)nstructio1l. high bearing stresses re,ult at 11", ends <;If hearn,
whe.,-e the pre,tressing force i, Imnsfened fmlll the lend"n, to anchr.mge fittings.
which hear dirloctly against Ih~ concre[e. TI,is problem l"ill' he OIel hy increasing tl'"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
,ufficient period uf time 10 Cau", significanl li"",-dcpendenl defk>elions. wherea.~ IOwl

"''''/ rders 10 Ihe total servi~.., load. a f"'n of which may he 1r.:msien1 or tcmp<,mry liw
load. TIlU'. suslainoo load would include dead load and mayor may not include ser-
vice live load. depending on il> dumlion . If lhe live load dumlion is ,hon or imennit-
len!. the highe r limit of part e is f"'rmined.
Two way slabs are de,ignated as Class U f1exuml memllers.' Cia" C flexural
memhers have no service leyel stre" requirement, but must satisfy s1renglh and ser-
viceahilily require",enl,. $cryice load si res, caiculalion, are computed based on
un'T.lckt.-d section pm!,enies for Cia." U and T flexural ",emocrs and on the cracl~d
...>elion pmf"'nie, for Cia" C memhers.
--- 19.6 E LASTI C F lEXURAL ANA LY SIS
It has been notoo earlier in thi, text that the design of concrete structures may he based
either on pmviding sufficiem strength. which would he used full y only if the eXf"',t~d
loads wer~ incrca ...-d by an ove rl oad facu". or on k....,ping material 'tre~"" within f"'r-
missible Ii mits when a("[ual servk~ load, act. In the ca", of ordinary reinforced ("on -
crete memher:s. strength de'ign is used. Members are prop<mion ..-d on Ihe ba.,i, of
'Irengd, r<."quiremenl, and then checked for s:lIisfaclo,)" service load heha,ioT. notably
wilh respect to defl ..>elion and cracking. The de'ign is then ",odifi..-d if necessary.
Class C memher:s are prin,ipally de'igru.-d ba ...-d on strength . Cia" U and T
members. howe",r. are pmp<mioned so that Slresse, in Ihe concrete and st",,1 at actual
seryi,e loads are wilhin pennissible limi1S. TI",se limil~ are a fractional part of tI",
aclual capaeities of the materials. There is son", logi, 10 Ihi, appmach. since an impor-
lant obje,,ive of preSlre"ing i~ to imp",,"e the perfOJman,e of me",bers at service
loads. Consequ~nlly. service load requirements ofl en ,ontml the amount of pre~tress
force used in CIa." U and CIa.,", T memocrs. Design baSt.-d on service loads may usu -
ally be carried out assuming ela."ic hehayiOJ of bOlh the ,oncrele and tl", steel. ,ince
,Ire sse, are relalively low in each.
Regardle" of the Slarting poim chosen fOJ the design. a structural member mu,1
he sati,factory at all stages of i" loading hislory. A("(x"dingly. preSl""ssed members
pmportioned on Ihe ba,i, of permissible stresse, mu,1 also be checked 10 e,,,ure thai
,ufficient strength i, provided ,hould overload, o("(." ur. and deflection anJ crolCking
under service load, should be i",estigated. Consistenl wilh most U.S. practice. in thi s
lext the dc'ign of prestressed concrete heams will ,Ian wilh a ~"(m,idemli()n of st ress
limit,. after which strength and olher pmpertie, will be checked.
It is convenienl 10 Ihink of pre.>lressing forces as a system of cxtemal fOfles act-
ing on a ,"(mcnete n",mber. which mu,1 he in equilibrium under the aclion of those
forces . Figure 19.&, shows a ,imple-span prestressed beam with curved tendons. typ-
ical of many I""t-Iensioncd memllcrs. The ponion o f the beam to tI", left of a veni,al
("utting plane xx is ,aken as a free lxxly. wilh forces aCling as shown in Fig. 19.5b.TI",
force !> at Ihe left end is cxen ..-d on the concrete Ihrough Ihc tendon anchomge. while
the fOfle I' at Ihe cuning plane x-x results from combined ,hear and nonnal ,Irc,se,
at1ing at the (Onnele ,urface at that 10calion.TI", dir""tion of f' i~ tangent to the l"ur\"~
of tI", lendon at each local ion . NOle the presence of tI", force N. acling olllhe concret~
from the lendoll. due 10 tendon cur"ature. Thi s fOJce will be di,tribuk-d in some man -
"""imv", "."",iI,
, II"hH" ,..., IICI C"d, , ' ",... , op '" 7.5 T "' ,..., ...
;u.,,, in """' pn~,",,,,,,,, -d tensik I.'''''' ,~. "",.,..od.C<d ,................. rt";'."anh ...u
J,."'II" pr.onkc f,.. '"()o"~Y , I.t ..." Ii",i,,'" li>r maximu", "'n,ik " "." '0 6 T .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
I' R['ST R K'~ ~:D CO NC REn : 647
FIGU IU : 19,8 Cable

!'no>!''''';"g force, "",;ng on centroid -"'\
""",,de.
1'1
Soc"""
p
~
k
1
i- centroid
~--
N
" 1,1
~~~
~
" p
:- V : ~~3 t'~l p
1'1 1'1
ner along th" length of (he (endon, (he "xaCl distribution dep"nding upon the (endoll
profile. It, re,u ltant and the direction in which (he re,uhnnt act, can be found fmrn the
force diagram of Fig. 19.&:.
h i, conveoiem when working with the pr6(fel;,ing force I' to divide it into iI,
cmnponem, in (he IK)rizontal and vertical dir""lion,. The IK)rizoll!al component (Fig,
19.&1) is H = P C<;IS , and the ,'ertical mmponem is II = H Ian = l' ,in . where
i, lhe angle <;If indina(ion of lhe tendoll l'en(roid at the panil'ular "'(tion. Since the
,lope angle i, normatty <jui(e .mntt. the cosine of i, vet)' dose 10 unity nnd it is suf-
ficiem for tlK)s( calculations 1<;1 tak~ H = I'.
n", rnngnitud~ <;If (he pr6(fe" force is nm constant. The jackins lOf'Ce p, i,
imn",diatd)' redul'-xl (0 wlml is lermed the ;nilialprt'Mra., lowe 1', because of elastic
,hortening of tl", concrete upon tr.m,fer. slip of (he (endon as the force is transferred
from !l", jacl' to the ""am end,. nnd 10" due to friction ""tw,,",n (he tendon and tl",
concre(~ (p",t-1en,imling) or ""t,,'ecn the tendon and cahle al ignmem d"",ice, (pre-
tensioning). There i, a further reduction of force from 1', to lhe ~ffecfil'" pf',,-,Ire.',' 1'"
otturring ,wer a long p"riod of (ime at a gr~dually decrea.ing mte. because of con -
crete creep under the sustained prestress force. concrele shrinkage. and relaxation of
,tress in the Sk-el. 1,..letlK)(] ' f<;lr predicting losses wilt be discussed in Section 19,13. Of
prin",t)' imere>! to the designer are the inilinl pre,tres> P, im",ediatel)' after transfer
and (he final or effe<:tive prestress P, after all los>e' .
lu developing eta,tic <''Illation, for flexural S1f~SS, the eff",-'1S of preslre" force,
self-weight moment. and dead and li,'e load rTK>r"cnt, are cnlculated separalely, and
the separat~ stresses are superimposed. When lhe initial prestre~s force P, is applied
Wilh an "'-'Centricity" below lhe centroid of the cm" seclion Wilh area Ae and !Of' nnd
hoUom fiber di.tances c, and "1' ""p"",tivdy. i( cause. the compr~ssive slress - I~ A,
and the bellding ,tres"", +1',t'C, ' Ie and - P;,'cz Ie ill the top and ho!!om fi""". respe<'-
ti"dy (compres,ive stresses are designaled as negmiv~. ten,ile Slresses a, positive), as
,hown in Fig . 19.90. Then. at the top fiber, the slress is
ec,
1- - , (19 ,1,,)
r
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 19.9 P, Pi 6C ,

Cone,",e .tfCj" di<lriooti"m <--
I,
in bealns: (~) effeet of
p",stre.;" (h) effcct
of
p'"Slre" plu, >elf-weillht of (.,
beam, (d elk"t of pte""''
>elf-"-eighl. aoo .xte,nal
dead and live ",rvic..: 10''']''
I~<)
- -P, 1 + ---.--
" ,<
- - P'I 1 - ---.--
OC'I
" ,<
1"
I "'I
P, 1+ (T
- A..,
and at the hollon! fi""r
j, - -P, - -
I',t'(l
- (19.lh)
A, Ie
where r is Ihe radius of gyration of the cone ret" s.:ction, Normally. as Ihe eccentric
prestress force is applied. Ihe beam deflects upward, The beam sel f-weight "" then
causes additional mOlllem /110 to :tct. and Ihe nel top and ooHom fiber stresses bc'Colne
I, - P,
A,
P,
I
<'c ,
-7 '
~c,
M oc ,
- --
I,
M,c!
(l9.2a)
fl- + - ,' + -- (19 .21

A, I,
"
as sh,m'n in Fig, 19.9h. At this siage. lime-def"'ndent I,,,se,
due to shrinbg~. ""'''p.
and relaxation commence. and Ihe prestressing fo",e g r~dually dt.'CTea>cs from p, \0 1'.-
It is usually acceptable to assume thaI all su ch lo"es OC(-ur prim to the applicntion of
service load, . since the (-oncrete stres"" at service load, will be critical afle r losses.
nOi befme. Accordingly. Ihe slr""ses in the top and 1x,1Iom fiber. with", nnd beam load
ading . ""come
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I'l l'r......... c-.... I THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I' R['ST R K'~ ~:D C O NC REn : 649
FIGU IU: 19, 10

S're." limi!>: fa) unloaded
beam. ",'i'h initial pre.tress
plus ",If.weight; (h ) I".ded
beam. wi1h effect""
pre<l""" sclf.we i8ht .
nd ful l ",,,,ice lood.
(a) Unk>aded (b) LoaOOd
I', ee , Mec,
I, A,
- --
I,
(19 ..1a)
"
I',
+ -f. + M ,e!
n
JJ. = A, I,
(19,.1 1
"
When full service loads (dead IOJd in addition to self-weight oflhe beam. plus service
live load) are applied. the stresses are
I, =
P, "<', Me + MJ + M, c,
A, - ?" I,
( 19.4<1)
I', i'Cl Mo +MJ +M,<",

h- +- + (19.41
A, I,
as s hown in Fi g , 19,9,,'.
"
It is necessary. in re"i<lwing Ihe adequa~)' of a beam (or in tksignillg a beam on
lhe basis of penni ssibl<l slresses) . lhm Ihe slresses in Ihe e~lr~IlI" fibers remain wilhi TI
spc'<.'ified limils under any combinalion of loadillgs Ihal can occur. Nonllnlly. IIIIl
slresses al Ihe S<l{;lion of ma~imuTl\ Tno~nl. in a properly designed beam. muSI Slay
wilhinlh" limil Slales <kfin"x1 by Ihe dislribulions showlI in Fig. 19. 10 as Ihe beam
passes from tl", unloaded slage (l'. plu s sel f-weighl) 10 Ih<l loaded stage (P,. plus full
ser.'ice loads). III IIIIl figure. h' and .(" are Ihe permissible compressiVt'- and knsil~
slresses. respt'Cliwly. in Itw concrew imm~diald y afler Inlllsfcr. and fc. and/" are It III
pennissiblc rompress inl and lensi Ie slresses al s...'rvic<l loads (s..."<l Tablc 19.2).
In cakulaling IIIIl s<)clion propertie. A e , Ie' etc .. 10 be uS<)d 11l Ihe above ~ua
lions. il is relevanllhal. in posH~nsioned cOllslru~lion. IIIIl l<'ndollS art' usually groukd
in Ihe <'Onduils after lensioning, Beforc grouling. 'lressc. s hould be ba>C<J 011 Itlllllel
seclioll wilh holes dcducled. Afh'r grouling. Ihe lransfonned scdioll should be used
wilh holes considered fill~d wi lh ~oncrel~ and "'ilil ihe sleel replaced wilh an equiv -
alcnl ar~a of COTlCrel~ , How~\'er. il is salisfaclory. unl~ss Ih<l holc. are quile large. to
compule seclion propenies oTilhe basis of ltlll gross concrele seclion. Similarly. while
in prelensioned beams Ihc properti~s o f Illll lransfom~d S<lClion should be used. il
maKes lillie difference jf calcnlalions are tm>C<J on properties of Ihe gross ~oncrel~
scelion .'
11<.:1 C"de 1~.2.6<' ",,'a m' ,1"<0 1< ~ I "wiTl.li ""ovb,,",, "In " . ,...... ;o~ "","";'" rror>.-'1Ib poi"" " "'..Ji"~ (>{ I""" "",,inll ,,("<I. ,io< dT" of Io>,,>{
'r<" '-'I.'" ....,
due 10 ('I"'" ....-" , .. II I'oC " .. ;JJc"f1.-U," I, i< "' .,.,. ;0 IICI C"" ..,"'''''' 18.2.6 ,~'" '-I f 'Il< elk", of '-'"' orc, un d<'iin i; d"",,,,-'tl
...~Ii iibk. ,,~.'''''' pror<"fIics ""Y"" tv" (-.. ,,,01 ....'. , 10 p''''.'''"'~''''' ",-,,,","-; alkf 11'"'' '''"1 ...J in P"''''''''''-'' "x" ,.....,', "",.", P"JJ'.-'~i
m. y ..... ",">I "" dk~-u-~ ",,:t"'" .,i"li 111In>1,,.,ocd .,'. , of 1>.>nJc" r<""'"i"li ",,,I and """1"''''''''''''-.\ i-R"'" "'"t1ion~ or "" ,...."",,.,, :.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 19, 11

Location of kern point>_
Concrete "I L + k,
centroid - - 1----- f---
"
It is usefuI to establ ish the location of the upl'.:r and lower kan I",mls of a cross
SC'(;lion , These are wfinoo as the luniting points insid.: which the prestress force resul
tanl lHay he awlied without causing tension anywhere in the cross =tion , 1ltciT loca
tions arc obtained by writing the expression for Ihe tensile l1t..:r stress dlk) to application
of an eccentric prestress force acting alone and sening this expr~ssion equal 10 zero to
sol~c for the r~"quiTl.'d eccentricity. In Fig. 19.11.10 locate the upper ~cm point dis
tance k, from the neutral axis.ktthe preslTcss force resu hantP act at that point. Th~n
the bonom fit..:r stress is
p t'C,
+ - " -0
Thus. wi,h
"
l +---d-=O""
,"
"n~ nbtains the corre'ponding eccelllricity
(19.5l/)
Similarly. thl: Iowa kern point diswncc k) is
kl - - " ( 19.5h)
"
n", region between these two limiting poilll' is known as the kem , Of in '0"'" case,
the core. or the senio".
EXA .\ IPLE 19.1 r ..... en<ionoo I ""am " 'hh "",,"ant ",,""n trld.y. A simply 'UPI'0rtoo symmetrical I
beam . h<wo-n in CTOSS ",,,,ion in Fig . 19.12<1 will be u\Cd Oil a 40 Ii simple 'p.n, It has lhe
following >tttion pro",It;~"
MOlTlent of ine"ia: " ~ 12.000 in'

Cooc,..,te area: A, - 176 in '
Radius of g)'mtion: " ~ 68.2 in'
Section nlOdulus: S - 1000 in '
Self"-eighl: "". = 0.183 kip, ft
and i, to cany a surerimposed dead plus live load (c"",ideroo sus1ained: flO! shorHerm)
or O_7 _~ kipslft in addilion 10 ii' own w~igh'- The Ileam wi ll be p,..,tensio""d wilh muhipl~
sewnwire 'tr.mds wi1h the ~ntro;d at " con,tant ~ ~n1ricity or 7.91 in, The """tre" force
I] immediately afl.,.,. transfer will Ile 158 kips: after lime.;kpendem 100;"", the force will
redoce to r. - 134 kip>, T he 're"ifi~'\l streng1h of the <"OI1<:re1e/; - 5000 psi. and at thl: tim<:
or pre",..,..
ing the s1,..,ngth will he /ri - 3750 psi . Calculate Ihe conc,..,te nemral me,,". at
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I'R['ST R K"S ~:D CO NC REn: 65 1
o o
""
+ 35~1
+352
I I
87
"'"
I
I I I I I
(,j +418 "00 2 147 1821 2 147
(" "j
H (; URE 19.12
Pre,e",io,>e{j 1 be,nl. De;ign e"",ple : 0 eros. ""fi"". (I ,,,es.,,. af m,d,p'" (psi). (c) Sf",.",,", end, (psi).
lhe midspan StX'tion of Ihe bel"" 01 the time of t.~n,fe . aTld alk. alilosscs with full >e.viee
load in place. Compa", wifh ACI allowable "",ss,,, for a CI"" U memb,,,.
S()Un"lON. Stre."" in the coocrete ""ulfing from 1he inifial pre,ness force of 158 kips
may be fo",><J by EQs . (19. ! <I) ~nd ( 19. I I::
I,~
158.000
,- 7.9168.2X 12 + .,52 psi
'"
158.000 7.91 x 12
I, - 1+ - -21 47 psi
'" 68.2
The ",If.weighl of !he beam eau",., lhe immfiliate 'UI"""",,,;lion of 3 "",menl o f
40'
M . - 0 .183 X ""8 - 36.6 ft. li ps
and ''''''"'''llOn,ling SIre,,,,, of 36.600 X 12 1000 - 439 psi. .\.O 1hal ,m, net .m,,,,,,, at !he
top aoo b<mom of 1he "on<:r~!e "'Clion d"" to initi"1 prest"'SS "00 selfweight. from Eqs.
(19.2<1) aoo (19.2b) . are
I, - + 352 - 4.19 - - 87 p'i
I, - - 2147 + 439 - - 1708p. arod 1he eO",,"'le s,re,"", du~ 10 thaI
force plus selfweight a",
j, + 352 X -
158 '"
- 439 - 140r>i
134
- 2147 X - + 09 ~ - 1382 r>i
15~
and . lrcS>CS a' 'he end Of lhc be"", ar~

134
I, = +-352 ~ 299
158
,.w
/ ., - -2147 -158 - 1821
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The sureriml"""d load or 0.1'iO kipsJfl I'roduees a mid""," n""'lem or AI" + AI, -
0.7:10 x.tO' ~ - ISO Ijkip'. aoo1he c"""'rond ing stre,ses of l SO.OOO x 12 1000 -
180CI p'i in eomp"""ion and ten,ion 31 the top and bonom of 11", beam. re'pecli.'ely. Th u,.
the service load S1=seS at the top and bottom taces.re
'I - -140 - 18OCI - -1940 p'i
1,- - 1382+ 181)(l - +4 18p'i
Cone",'c SIr~S5oeS at ",iu,pa" arc ,11O\... n in Fig. 19,1 21> ~nd a' lhe beam clld in Fig, 19, 12c.
Acrording 10 lhe ACI Code (see Table 19.2). tile slres50eS penniltl-d in ,he cOfI{"reIC are
Temioo at I",,,;;fer: 10 - 3 3150 - + 184 pli

C"'''I''''''iol1 31 IrJ",f~r: In - O.W x 3150 - - 22SO p'i
Ten\i()/l al sc-r,-il't: load: f" - 7.5 5000 - + 530 psi
Co"'pre,sion al scrvke 10.'1(\' I" - 0.45 X ~ - - 225(J Pli
At 1he initial slage. Wi1h p""siress plus selr- w~ighl in place. lhe actual compress;-'e stress
of 1708 p>i is well below 'he limil or 22.50 Pli. ",id
nO ...,,,,ion OC1, a' lhe lop. allt")<lgj' 1M
p'i is allowed. While more premes< force", more ecremricily migh1 be ,uUested 10 more
fully "I ilile lhe seClion. 10 alle''1pt10 do SO in lhil beam. wilh c"OOll :ln' c"'X:Clllrici1~. would
"iolatc limils al tt... support. where self-weighl mo"...m is zero. It is aJ'P"rem 1hal at lhe ,up-
ronl. lhe ini'ial prestress fon'C octing alonc prod"c'C! lcn,i()/l of 352 psi al <he lOp of ll,c
beam (Fig. 19,12.. ), bardy below the rermilled "aJue of 6 375-0 - ,67. so "ery linle
impro.-cmcm Can to.: made, l'i""II)". al full \Cn'icc 10.'1<1. lhe 'cnsiOll of 41 8 psi is urnJ,:r lbe
aJIOY.'ed ~]O p'i. and rompr~ssi()/l of 1940 psi is well below I... rermined 2250 psi,
F LEXURAL ST RENGTH
In an ordinary reinrorceJ concrd~ 1Jt,am. lhe Slress in Ih~ lensil~ sled anJ the com-
pressi~" rorce Hl lhe concrele increase in proportion 10 Ihe applieJ mornenl up to and
som~what beyonJ sel"'.';ce 10.1J. with Ih" Jistaoce belwl..,n Ihe lwo inlental stress
resultanls r~maming essemially conSlanl. In conlraSllO Ihis behavior. io a preslressed
beam. mereas..J morn~nt is re,isteJ by a proportionate increase in the Jistnn~~
betweeo II", cornpressi~e anJ I~nsile resultanl forces. Ihe compressive result;}]ll mo.'
ing upwnrd as th~ load is mcreased. Tilt"- rnagniluJe of Ihe int ... mal forces remains
nearly conSlanl up 10. and usually son",whal beyond. seT\'i~-e loads.
This si tuation ehang~s drastical ly upon naural I~nsile era"king o f Ihe pre-
Slwssed beam. Wheo lhe l"OnCWk cracks, Ihere is a suJJeo incwa .... in the stress in tllll
sleei as Ihe lension that waS fonn~rly canied by the (:{)nCWI~ is Iran,ferred 10 i!. Afler
cracking, Ihe pre str~, ....J beam behaves es&nlinliy lik~ an ordinary r... inrorceJ con
crete beam. The compressiw resu lt ant cannot ~"Onl "lu e 10 mow upward intkfinildy,
and increasing rnorn.. nl muSI be accomllanieJ by a lh'arly proportionate increase in
sleei Slress and (:{)mpn.ssi"~ fon:e. TIlIl Slrenglh of a preslwssed beam can . therdore,
be predick-d by Ihe san", melhods developeJ for onJinary reinforced con,'ret~ beams.
witlt modifications to account for (a) lit" diff<'Tenl shape of the stress-strai n curw for
preSlr.. ssing sleei. as compared willt Ihal for ordinary reinforl'enllllll. and (b) the l~n
s;l .. slmin already present mil", preslressing sl~eI before lhe beam is loaded ,
Highly a~"Cumle pr.. diCiions of Ihe n"Auml slrength of prestress..d beams can be
made based on a ' -Imin compmibilily (lna/.ni.,- lhat accounl, ror IheS!) faclors in a
mtional and expli~il way (Rd. 19.1). For ordinary Jesign pUrpos<"s. certain apl)ro ~i
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
male relalionships have been derived. ACI Code 18,7 and Ihe accompanying ACI
Commentary 18.7 incl ude approximale equalion, for tlex uml ' trenglh Ihal will be
,ummarized in the following paragraph,.
a. Stress in the Prestressed Steel at Flexural Failure

When a prestresR-d concrete beam fails in flexure. the prest...:ssing sleel is at a strcss
/p, Ih~t is higher th~n thc effcelive preslress I", hul below the lcnsi le slrcnglh /I"" If lhe
cff.xlive preslress /1" .. fiAp, is nOlless Ihan 0.50/"., AC I Code 18.7.2 pemlils use
of cer1~in approxi male equalion s for II"" These equalions appear quile complex as lhcy
are prcsenlCd in lhe ACI Code. mainly hccause lhey are wrinen in geocml form 10
aeCOUnl for differences in lypc of preSlressing slec! and 10 apply 10 beams in which
nonpreslresR-d bar reinforeelllcm may be included in lhe fkxuml1ension zone or lhe
compression region or bolh , Separate equations are gh'en for locmbers ", jlh bonded
tcndons and unbonded tendons hccause. in the lallcf case. the inero.:ase in sleel strcss
at Ihe m.uimUln momenl section as the Ileam is overloaded is much less Ih~n if the
steel wero.: bondcd throughoul its Icnglh.
For the basic case. in Which Ihe prestressed steel provides all of the flexural rein
foreemem, the AC I Code equations can be sW\ed in simplifted fonn as follows:
l. For members with bonded tcndons:
J~, = J;" (19.b)
where p - AI" 1><1p- lip effective dcplh 10 Ihe prestressing slc'ci centroid. /J -
widlh of compression facc, 1 - the familiar relalions between stress bloc~
depth and depth to the neutral axis [Eq. 0,26)1. and p is a factor lhat depends on
thc lype of prestressing stcel used, as follows:
055 for /,..JI"< 2: 0.80 typical highstrcngth b~rs
0.40 for /", J"" 2: 0.85 typical ordinal)' strand
0.28 for /", J", 2: 0.90 typicallowrelaxation wand
2. For members with unbomkd tcndon s and with a spandcpth mtio of 35 or kss
(this includes 1110St beams).
j, = j, + 10.00:> + ~ (19.7)
"'" 100,
hUl nm grcaler Ihan/"" and nol greale r than/", + 60,000 I"i .
"
3. For mcmbers with unbomk.J tendon, arKl wilh 'pandeplh ralio gre~te r Ihan ]5
(applying (() m~ny s!ah,).
Ir> .. I". + 10,000 + ~ (19.8)

300 p
hut not greater than/I" and not grealer than /I" + 30.000 psi.
b. Nominal Flexural Strength and Design Strength

Wilh lhe stress in lh" prest ressed lensile SK" I when Ih" member faih in /lexure eSlah
Jished hy Eq. (19.6), (19.7), or ( 19.8), Ihe IIQminaJ tlexur,,1 m"nglh Can he calcu!alcd
o..loootc..,_
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Ily "-"'Illods and "'-jllmion, d.,n correspond diren]y willl th"", u",d for ordinal)' rein -
forced concrete beams_For rectangular emss "'ction,. or flanged section, ,u('h as I or
T ocams in which the stress blo.;k depth is equal to or less tllan tile a'-~mge flange
tllickne", the nomina] flexural Slrengtll i,
d - -
,
"2 (19,9)
wlwre
,, - 0.851;
IIr'!",
1)
(19 .10)
Equations (19 .9) and (19,]0) can oc cOl11bin~d as follows:
M." plr,lwe, I - 0.588 pI" (19,11 )

f.
In all case.>, lile flexural d"_';8" .,nellglh is taken "'-jual to , M. , whe re is the suengdl
redUCti<;111 fa('tor for flexure (",e Seclion 19.7e).
If tile stress block depth eXl'l-,eds the a,'emge flange thickness, tm, method for
('akulaling flexuml st renglh is exactly analogou, to that used for ordinary rein forced
('oncrete I and T ocams _11", lOla] pre'tre,,,,'<1 tensile st",,1 area is di"ided into IWO part,
for computalional purP""'s. The fi"'t part A ... al'ling at the slress/_,. pmvide, a len-
,ile fon:e to habJl('C the compre;i<Kl in the overh anging part' of the flange. 1110.,
(19.12)
The remaining pre~tresM.'{1 SK"e1 area

(19,13)
provides tension to balance the compression in the web. The 10lai R"Si~ting mome nt i~
rhe sum of Ihe conrribut ion~ of the tWO force cou ples:
h,
Ii, - -2 (19,14<1)
h,
.d - -
, "2 + 0.85/, II - II.., h, d - -
, 2 ( 19.1411)
where
,,- 0.85 /,11._ (19 .15)
As before , lh~ design strength is laken as M., where is typically 0.90, as discussed
in S~ction 19,7c,
If, after a presu~ssed ocarn is designed by elasti l' rtl<)thods aI service loads, it has
inadc'quak strength to provide tl", r~'1uired saf~ty rna!].in under factored load , non -
prestr~sS<'d rvinforc~rocnt can be added On the knsion side and will work in conrbi-
nation with tlk) prvstressing sk~lto provide the ,,,,edc>d strenglh. Such nOl\pres t ",ss~d
steel, with area II" C3n be assumed 10 act 31 its yield stress f . to contribnte a lens;orl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
I' R['STR K"S ~:D CO NC REn : 6SS
force at lhe nominal nK)llIenl of A,j,. The reader should con,ult ACI Code 18.7 and
ACI Commentary 18.7 for ~'quations for prestressed sted stre" at failure and for flex -
ural strength, which are djn.'d extension, of tho", given abow.
c. Limits for Reinforcement

TIJe ACI Cod" ellIS,ifie, prestre,sed concrete flexural members a, tension-controlled
or compre"ion-comrol led hased on the net tensile strain ,in the same manner a, dOlJe
for ordinary reinforced C!H1crel<' iJcam,. Senio" 3Ad de,,:ribes the strain di,tribution,
and the variati on of strength-reduction factor,; associated with limitations on the net
tensile strain. R~'Call that the net tensile strain excludes str.!ins due!o creep, 'hrinkage,
temp"rature, and dT<-'Ctiw prestress. To rnaimain a strength-reduction factor of 0.90
and ensure (hat, if flexural failure were to ()C('ur, it would be a ductile failure, a net ten -
, ile ,train of a( leas! OJlO5 is required. Due to the complexity of computing ne( (ensile
,train in prestressed nJelnhers, i( is ea,ier !O p"rform !I", check using (he c d, ralio.
From Fig. 3. 10a, this 'implifies to
c
- :S 0.375 (19.16)
d,
where d, i, the distance from lhe exlreme compressive fiber !O (he extreme (ensile
,teel. In many cases. d, will be the ,ame as d p ' !he distance from (he extreme ('om-
pressi"" fiber to (he centroid of tbe prestressed reinforce"",m. However, when sup-
plemental non prestressed s1<...,1 is used or tbe pres(res,ing ,lrand, are distributed
through Ihe lkpth of the "",(ion, d, will be greater than dp . Iflhe prestressed iJcam do,,,
not nIL"'( the re<juirernem, of F..q. (19.16), i! may no longer he considered a, (en,ion -
controlled, and !lie s( renglh ",'<iuction faclor must be de!ennin<.'<i as ,hown in Fi g.
3.9. If dd, 2. 0.60, corresponding t" . , :S 0'()()2, !I", sec(ioll i, considered (0 be ""ef -
winlnn,.,d, and ailernalive ~'quations musl be derived for computin g Ihe flexural
'trength (see Ref. 19.0.
II will be recalbl (ha( a ",ini"""" I""" 'i!e reiliforremem 'lUio i, required for ordi -
nary reinforced <:oncrete beam" so lha( (he iJcam, will be ,afe fnnn ~udden failun:
upon Ihe formation of flexuml cracks. For pre,tressed beam,. beeau", of the ,a"",
concern, ACl Code 18.8.2 requin:s that the (olal (en,ile reinforc'<'rnem must be ade-
qua(e 10 ,upport a faclor~'<i load of al leas1 1.2 tin"" !lJe <.T.!cking load of the beam.
cakubl<-'<i on the basis of a modulu, of ruplure of 7.5 Ie.
d. Minimum Bonded Reinforcement

To comrol cnlcking in ocams and one-way prcs(resS'-'<i slabs with ul/l"",dn/I"III/"'u,
some oonlkd reinforcement must be addc'<i in (he fonn of nonprestressed r.:inforcing
bars, uniformly distributed ovcr the (enS ion zone as dose as permissible!O the ex(reme
tcnsion fiber. Aceording!O ACI Code 18.9.2, (he minimum amount of such rcinforce,
IllCnt tS
A, .. O.OOtA (19.17)
where A is the area of that part of the cross section between lhe fkxural t~n sion foce
and the centroid of the gross concrete cross section. Exc~ptions ar~ plovid~d for 1wo'
way slabs with wry low tensile stresses.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
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656 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 19
EXi\C\.IP LE 19.2 FI~ulrnl ." ... ngth nr p .... ten. lnllfll 1 b"" m. The pre'lressed I beam >bown in cro,;s see
lion in Fig. 19. 13 is prelensioood usi ng fj,"" !
low relanlion ,In:ssn: lic,.:d (jl"ll<k 270 in,
diameter 'trand . carrying .treel;' " preslre" f". - 160 h i. Concrete ,;("'n~lh is J; -
-moo p'i . Cakulat. Ihc deSign 'I"'ngth of Ihe beam,
S"UniON. The e/t",'li"e pmsi'"s, in Itle '1I1Ill<i, of 160 x,; i, well "bow O, ~ X 270 -
D .S hi. eOllfinning Ihal llIe appro, imale ACl eq ualion, are al'Plioable The tensile rein
for<.""me nl mlio i~
0.765 1
12 X 17.19 - 0,00.7
and tile sleel 'Ires.f", when tile beam fail' in flexure is found from Eq. (19.6) 10 be
, _ 270 1 _ 0 ,28 0,0037 X 270. _ 248 hi

P' 0,8~ 4
Next. it is """'''at)' 10 d~c~ whetller lhe "re<;s block deplh i, greater or Ie" than lbe
"VCl1lgc flange Ihick""s, of 4 ,~ in . On the assumplion Ihat it is not greater than the fl ange
Ihidoc ... Eq. (19.10) is used,
0.765 X 24 8
" ~ ~ 4.65 in,
0.85X4 XI2
It is corn;luded from Ihi s lrial calc ulalion thai a a<.1ually e"..,eds hi ' so Ihc trial calcub
lion is nO! "alid and equali"" s for llanged memtlers mils) be used. Tile stttl Ihal 00, wilh
lbe owrha " ging flange:! is found from Eq. (19.12) 10 be
0.~5X412 - 4 4 .5
AII' - - 0,494 in'
248
and from EI:t. (19, 13).
A.- - 0.765 - 0.494 - 0.271 in'
The aC1ual stress bloc ~ ""plh i, oow found from Eq. (19.15):
0 ,271 X 148
a= = 4 ,94 in .
0. S~ X 4 X4
(" ~ -" ~
4.94
- - = ~ . 81
0.85
A cllecl sl>oold oow be made 10 ""Iermine if llIe beam can be considered ulldelTcin-
f<:>r<:ed , Prom Eq, (19. 16).
c ~,81
- , - - = 0.338
d, 17.19
FIG URE 19. 13 1

P"'Ilensiooe<l be,m of r===co.- r-- 2"4
Example 19.2. av.h f - 4.5" ] ]
4" 12" 17.19"
'" _
----._/,""
_.
51 9" .
Av _ 0.765",2
avoh f - 4.5"
o..loootc..,_
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Thi, is To, than 0,375 for a: 0,005, confin"ing that th i' can be ron,idered to be an
und"rr";nfon;ffi pre,tre'>N beam a,~1 - 0.90. TIoe oom;".1 fle.",,1 'tre"tth. fmm EQ.
(19.14b). is
M. _ 0,271 x 248 !7.19 - 2,4") + 0.85 x 4 12 - 4 4 ,~ )").19 - 2.2~
= 28 18 in-kips = 235 ft-kiJl'
and. finally. tm. des;rn stre "r,h;s M. = 211 ft-kip"
" ~ _, 19.8 PART IAL P RESTRESS IN G
Early in th~ (I<wdoprnt'nt of p~str~sSi'd ,'Oncr~te. the goal of pn'strt'Ssing was th~ corn
pl~t~ dimination of conc~te t~nsile stress ut S<)r"iIT load , This kind of design. in " 'hich
tllll ~rvicc' 1<XKl tensile' Slre,;s limit/~ ~ 0 ... ofl~n ~fcrr~d to as/nil prest"''';''!: ,
While full prest~ssing ofTers many advantages over nonrrest~ssed construe
tion. WUIIl probkrns can arise. Heayo1y p~str~,;sed ~ams. particul~rly th~ for which
fulll",~ load is seldom in rlac~. may hn>'~ exn'ssiwly large' upward deflection. or
camb.?r. which will mcrea& with linkl because of ConC~te crc"'r und,r the ~cc~ntri,'
prestr~" force. Fully prestresS<)d b.?arns may alw haw a te'ld~ncy for sewre longitu
dinal shortening. causing large ~straint forces "nles,; special provision is mad,' to per
mit fr<Je rnowmenl at O n~ ~nd of each spw!. If shortening is Jl"rrni t1ed to occur freely.
prestr~,;s los~s due to elaslic and creep deforrualion may be large , Furtlwrrnor~. ,f
h~avil y prestresSi'd beams ar~ owrloaded to fail u ~. they may fail HI a sudd~n and bril
tie moo:k. with httle warning befor~ collapse.
Toda)' th~re .. g~neral recognilion of the ad"antages of part;o/",estn'sS;"II. in
which fl"xura! t~nsile stn.'ss and SOUle I"nited cracking is penniued under full S<)n-iIT
load. That full load may ~ infrequently applied. Typically. m3Jl)' beams carry on ly
dead Io.-ul much of the tinw. or dead load plus only pan of tllll ~f\'ln' he load. Under
tllIlse conditions, a partially prest~s5<'d beam would nonnall)' not be SUbj~l1to n~xural
kn,;ion. and cracks tliat forrn occasionally. when Ihe full Ii"" 1<XKl is in pl~. would
doS<) compldely when that li,'~ load is removed. C ontroll~d cracks prove no more
obj~ctionable III pn.'stres>ed l'O'lC~te slruclur~s lhan in reinforced concrete struc1u~s ,
Wi,h panial ~str~s>ing, ex'e"iw cami:>cr and troubl~sorrl\J axial short~ning ar~
avoid,d , Should O\'erloading occur. there w,1I lx' ampl~ warning of distr",;s. with
nleusive cracking and large deflecli ons (Re fs. 19.10 to 19, J.l).
Although th~ umount of prestr~ssing sted may be r~duced in partially pm
str~>Si'd beams compared with ful ly pn.'stress~d beams. a proJl"r safdy margin lIIust
stili i:>c maintained. 3Jld to achieve' the rtec~"ary flexural sireugtit. partially pr~stres>ed
beams lIIay Tt'quire additional tensil e reinforwntelll. hi racl. partially prestn,ssed beams
an.' often ddined as beams m whi clt (a) flexural cracking is penniued at full seH'iIT
load and (b) th~ main fl ~xura l kusion r~mforcem~nt ;'lCludes both pres t~ssed and
nonprt'St~ssed steel. Anal)',;is indicat ~,;. 3Jrd tem confirm. that such nonp~str",;sed
sted is fully str~,;Si'd tof. at flexural failure.
TIkl ACI Coo:k doc'S not sp"<"lfically utemion partial prestressing bul ~s llIc1"de
th~ concept apli"i!ly in the classification of fl~xural members. CIa" T flexural mem
bers rc'<lui~ scrvice lew! str~ss checks ",rd have maximum allowable tensile' str~sses
abow Ih~ modulus of rupture. Class C n,xural nwmber-s do not r.'<luire stres,; chc'<.'ks
at se,,'ice load but do rc'<lui~ crock control checks (S,'ction 19.18). Th~ d~signations
o..loootc..,_
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65S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 19
of Cia" T and Cia" C flexural member.; brings Ihe ACI Code imo doser agreerr>em
wilh Eumpean pr.lCtice (Rds. 19. 13 IQ 19_15)_
TI", three da~"" of prestr~ssed nexural "",mber>. U. T, and C. provide the
designer witb considerable flexibilily in achieving ~'{Oonomical design,. To allain tile
required strength , supplemental reinforcemem in tl'" fQnn of nOn prestressed ordinary
steel or unslressed prestressing strand may be r"'luired, Reinforcing bars are Ie"
expensive than high-slrength pre,tre"ing ,teeL Strand. hQwever, at Iwice the coSI of
o rdinary reinforce"",n!. provide, 3 times lhe slrength, Labor costs for har plaeemem
are generally similar to those for placing unslre,sed ,trand on ,ite. Simi brly. the addi -
tion of a small number of sirands in a plant prcstressing bed is ofien more economical
than adding reinforcing bars. Thc desigr",r may selL'{Ot Ihc ",rvice le,-el perfonmlllce
,trategy hesl suited for the project A criterion Ihat indudes no ten,ile slress under
dead load and a tensile siress kss than the modulu, of rupture al the service livc load
is possihle with Cia" U and T flexural n",mbe". while Cia" C members use pre-
,trcssing primarily for deneclion controL
l1Je ehoic" of a im il able degrL'" of prestress is gQven..,,] by a number of facwrs,
TI,ese include Ihe nalure of the loading (foJ example, higbway Qr railroad bridges. and
,torage warehou",s). Ihe ratio of li,-e 10 dead load. tI", frequency of occurrence of the
full service load. and lhe presence of a corrosive environment _
'- _, 19.9 F LEXU RAL D ESIGN B ASED O N C O N CRETE STRE SS liMITS
As in reinfoKed com:rele. problems in prestressed <:onerele can he separated generally

as analysis problems or design problems_ For lhe former, with lhe applied load,. the
<:oncretc ,' ross se<"lion. sIL",1 area. and Ihe amount and point of appli"atiol1 of Ihe pre-
,tress for,'e kno wn. Eq, _(19.1) 10 (19.4) permil the direci calculation Qf Ihe resulting
<:oncrete ,trcs"", '!be "'lualions in S,-"CIion 19 _7 will predict Ih~ fiexural strengtb,
Howe",,, if the dimensions of a ,'Oncrele seclion. the s1<-"e1 area and ,'el11mid locat ion.
and the aJnQum of preslress are to be found-given tbe loads. limiling ,tre,,,,,, and
requ ired \trenglh---{he problem is complicaled by the many interrelaled variables.
'!bere are al leasl three praclical appmach .." to the flexural design of a prestressed
concrele member. Some ~ngin""e" prefer to assume a concrete "'<"lion. calculale Ihe
r"'luired pre'tress force aJld ""~"ntri<:ili~s for what will pmbably be the mntmlling
load slage , then check Ihe slre,ses al all slage, u~ing the pfl'{Oeding "'luations, and
finally che,' k the flnu ral ,trength. TI", Irial s<-'{Otion i, Ihen revised if t>l'{Oessary_ If a
beam is w be ,' hosen fmlll a limiled number of standard shapes, as is often tI", <:ase
for shoner 'pans and ordinary loads. thi, procedure is pmbably be,!. FQr longer span,
or wl",n cnslomized shape' are used, a morc efficient memocr may re,u lt by design -
ing the nOss set'lion SO Ihal Ihe specified con<:rete sire" limils of Table 19_2 are
closely matched. TI,is crOS, ><-'{Otion, do", to "ideal"' from tile limil sIre" viewpoint.
may then be modified to meel funclional fl"<juirements (e,g . prQviding a bmad top
flange for a bridge deck) or 10 meet !ilrenglh requiremems. if "ec,,,sary. Equalion,
facilitaling this approacb will be developed in Ihi, s<-'{Otion. A Ihird method of de'ign
is based on load balancing, using the concept of ,-"<]uivalent loads (><-"" $e<"lion 19.2b).
A trial ",'{Otion is ('Ilo",n. afler which Ihe prestress fOKc and lendon pmflle are selL,'ted
to pmvide uplift fOfl'CS a, to ju,t halance a sp'-'{Oifi,-d load, Modifications may lhen be
matle. if n~eded, to ,alisfy slress limils or ,trenglh requirements. TI,is third approacb
will be [b-eloped in S,-"CIion 19.12.
o..loootc..,_
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I'R['STR K'~ ~:D CO NC REn : 659
NO!aliO!l i, estah!i<lted f"'naining 10 II", anowab!~ concrete Slres.-;e, al !irniling

stages a, foUows:
(;.i = allowah!e compres.,iYe <Ires, immedialely afler lran,fer
In = allowahle tensile stress imnk!diatd)" a fler lmnsfer
J.., = allowahle compres.,iYe <Ires, al service load . after aU losses
j., = allowahle tensile stress al service load. afler alllo,ses
n,e values of tit"", limit ,Ires,"", a re norman)" ",t b)" specification (see Table 19.2).
a. Beams with Variable Eccentricity

For a Iypical Class U or T ""am in which lhe Icndon eccentricil)" i, I"'nnitled to ,ary
along the spall. flexural ,t",,, distributions in tlte concrel~ al the maximum rnornetll
,""ction are ,hown in Fig. 19.14<1. The eccentric preslress force. having an in itial '"diue
of Pi. produces Ihe linear s{"''' di,triootion (I). B..'Cause of the upward camber of II",
FIG URE 1'1.14 o

Fl.,",.,i . <ress dimi bolioos
for beam, wi,h variable
= "(fi<ily: (<I) rna.imun>
mome"' .e<."ti(~" (h) surron o
soclioo.
1
+-7~-----~---- ~~f~ -
"
~~J
", Md + MI
5,
M,
5, U
f . _ Pi
lei
'" ~ A,
0 Pi akloe 0 P; alone
0 Pi + M~
0 p. aJona
0 p. + Mo
10'
0 P.+ M~+ M,,+MI
,.,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
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hoeam a, that force is appli~d. the self-weight of the "",,,,be r is immediately intro-
du,ed. the flexu",1 slr~sses resuiting fmm the n">rllent M" are superimpo ...-d. and the
distribution (2) is the first that i, actually attained. Al thi s 'tage. lhe tension at th~ top
,urface is nm to cxceed /" and the co",pression al the b01l0m ,urface is 11(" to exceed
/,;. a, suggesl<'d hy Fig. 19. l.ok..
it will be assumed that all II", lo,ses ,,,,,ur al this stage. and Ihat II", >IreS, di,-
trihUlion gradually change, to di , tribmion 0). The losses produce a ...-duct ion of I~n
,ion in the arllllUnt !l/, at the lOp ,urface, and a reduction of compr~"ion in the amoum
!l/~ at the bo1lom ,urfac~.
As the superimpo",d dead load moment Md and lhoe ",,,,ice liw load n">rnent M,
are introduced. the asso<;ial ,-d flexural Slresses. when , uperimpos<."<1 on ,trcsse,
already present. produce distribution (4). At this slage. the tension at the bonom sur-
face mu,t IIIlt be greale r Ihan [". and lhe ,ompress;on at the top of the seclion ",u,t n01
exceedf,., as shown.
n", r~qui remellls for lhe ...-etions ",oouli S, and S, with re'pt."{1 to the top and
lxmom surfaces. re'p"'tiveiy. are
S, 2:
Ma + M, (.,
I"
Ma + M,
S) 2: ,h)
f>
where Ihe available stress rangestl' and II, al the (Op and bonolll face can be calcu
lated frolll tile specific-d ~tress lil1li(S/~.l;,,};,. and I". onCe tile s1n:~s change8 !It, and
!l/l' associaled with prestress loss. are known.
The eff<xtiv~ness ralio R is defined as
I'
R ~ -..!.. (l9.18)
I',
111l1S. the los. in pr~stres> force is
P, -P,= l-RP; (J9 .19)
The changes in stn.,ss at tlt~ top and bottom races. !l/, and !:J./ 1. as losses occur. ar<l
~qual to (J - R) limes 1lle eorr~sponding stn.'sses due to til<' ",itial pr~stress rorc~ 'l
aCI;III: al",,,,:
I, " l - R Jo, ; + -S, "0 (c)
Mo
Ji= l - N - };' +S2 (J)
where !:J./, is a redUClion of lension al lhe lOp su rface and /J.li is a redUClion of COIll
pres~ionllihe bo1l0m surface.' Thus. Ihe Slress ranges available as Ihe superimposed
load momenlS M d + M , are applied are
} i,=};, - li - 1;,
1- R (c,
, N,oc th>t ,''' ""..,' tim", ",,h "l,

,.u ",b..~ >{,;r,, ["'J' nl> '~"'i- ,,,,. ~"',' " is "'" " ..,id<"ITt! ,if>O<J 'll'"0"1"". " "'''0' ~"',' <hani<" """ "'
M. S, oro~, "'" talx ., 1Ib>oI",< ,~ I "",.
o..loootc..,_
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I'R['ST R K"S ~:D C()NC REn: 66 1
and
Mo
- R - (j)
Sl
n", minimum ace~ptable value of 5, i, thu, establi<hed:
I - R 1>1" + M J + M,
(l9 ,20)
R/" l ,
Similarly, tl'" minimum value of S2 is
- R 1>1. + 1>1" + M,
S, 2: (19 ,21)
j" R/o
1lte <'IUSS 5<-'<'lion muSl be S<)1~led 10 provide al I~ast lhese valll~s of 5 , and S1 '
Furthcnllow, since Ie ~ S," ] ~ S;.C1' lhe cenlroidal axis muSI be localed such lha!
,", ~)
or in lerms of lh" tolal SIlClion depth h ~ '" + ';,

s,
" 5, + S,
(19.22)
"
From Fi g, 19,14<" lhe conerel" cvnlroidal Slress ml<kr initial condilions/" ., is
giwn by
f, ,.; = f ., - h" /., - fri' (19.21)
The initial pre,lre", fo"-,,, is easil)' obtai,,<-...t by multiplying the ,'aluc of lhe concrele
~-elltroidal StreSS by the Cutl<'rete cross-",oional area A c'
(19.24)
The eccentricity of the preSlreSS force may be fmllld hy considering the flexural
me,,,,s that must be imparted by the bending moment PI'_ With rel"r~tl<'e to
Fig. 19.14, the flexural stress at tbe top surflli.'e of the beam resulting fmm the eecen -
trie pre~tress force alone is
", =J;,- f ",
-,- + -M" (II)
, S,
from which th" '<"'-luired ~eeentriei ly is
-S , + -M" (19,25)
1', P,
Summarizing Ihe design pnll..,S, to determine the best em,S ",,<1ion and tbe
rc<.juired presu-css force and '-"CCeutricity based On stress limitati!H'" the rcqui'<'<1 ",,,,lion
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
moduli with re,!",ct to the top and bouom surf,,,:es of the ITICmOer nre found from F..qs,
(19.20) and (19.21) with the centroidnl nxi, locntN! using Eq. (19.22). C,;mcrete
dimension, nre cho",n to salisfy these requirement, as nearly "s po,,_~ih!c. The con -
crele l"mroidal stress for this idenl """tion is given by Eq. ( 19.23), the desired initial
pre't res~ force by Eq. 09.24), alld its eccentricity by Eq. (1 9.2'i ).
In practic~l situation" ,'ery ",l dOIll win the <'Onerete "" ,tion chosen have exact ly
the "-'quired value, of S, and S~ a, found by this metl,,><l, nor win tl'" concrete ce ntroid
be exactly al the theoreticany ideal leveL Rounding concrete dimensiorlS upward, pro-
viding brooo flanges fOf fun'-1ion~1 reasons, or u,ing standnrdiz.ed <'TOSS-"-"-'I;onal shap<:s
wi!i result in a member whose section prorenies win eXl"-..,.,] Ihe minimum require-
mellis. In ~uch a case, the ,tres"" in the connete as the memOer pas"" from the
unloaded slage to the full service load 't"ge win slay within the a!iow"ble limil', hut
the limit strc,ses will nOl he ohtairk.'<l exa'--tl),. An infinite number of <'ombinations of
prest ress force ami eccentricily wi ll .ati'fy the requi rements. Usually. the design
requiring the lowest value of prestress force, and tl", largesl practical ",-'Ce ntricity, will
he Ihe """t cCQnomicnl.
'!be total ec,-"ntricity in Eq. (19.25) include, the lenn Me p,. As lQng as the beam
is deep enough to aUQW thi, fu!i c<'Ce ntricity. the girder dead load "",,"ent is carried
with 110 addition~1 p<:nahy in tenm of prestre" force , section , Of stre~s "lOge. Thi, abil -
ity to carry the benm de"d load "free" is a l11~jor contrihutio n of \"driable ",-'Centricity.
n,e stress distribution, shown in Fig. 19.14<" on whi<'h the design eqmtion, are
based, apply at tl'" maximum moment """tion of the n",mher. Elsewhere, Mo is less
and, mn,,-"-!ue ntly. Ihe prestres, eccentricity or the force muSt be r~duced if the S! r~ ss
limits fa a nd fei nre not to be exceeded. In many Ca"". tendon ""eentrici ty is reduced
to zero at tbe suppon ,,-'dions, where all momentS due 10 transverse I,wl are zero. III
thi , case, tbe ,tress distributi on, of Fig. I9 .1 4b are obtained. The stress in the concrete
is unifon"ly equal to [he centroidnl value f ed under CQnditiofls of initial pre,tres, nnd
ic< after losses.
ll<>sl(:l> "r beant ,,1110 .'adaM. fl"'''''trldt)' I"nd""... A p<>St.tens;oned prestressed con_
crete beam; s to CJ"Y an interm;tt~nt h e load of 1000 lWft and '"I"'rimpose<l <kad lo.d of
500 Iblft, in addition (II its o"n weight, OIl 40 ft simpl~ spa". Norm'l-density concrete will
b.: "sed with <ksign strength I; ~ 6000 psi , It is estimated lilat, at Ih" time of tran,f.r, the
concrete will hOI" 'l1ahoed 70 pen,.nt 01'/; . or 4200 psi . Timc-depel1<knt los"" may be
assumed to be 15 l",rCe"1 of the initial prestress, gi"ing "n etTccti,.ne" rmio of 0.85,
Detenni "" the required roncrete din",nsions, ntagnit ude of pre,tress force, and eccentricity
of the ' Ieel ,,,ntroid based On Act StresS limitatiom for a Cia,s U b.:,Ill, " giwn ;n SectiO<1'
19.4 ,nd 19.5
S()'.UT1()~. Referrh'g to Table 19.2, Ihe stress limil' are:

I~ ~ - 0,60 X 4200 ~ 2520 psi
1,, ~3 4200 x + 195ps;
I" = - 0,60 X 6000 = - :1600 psi
/., - 7.5 6000 - +58 1 psi

The ,d f.weight of the girder will be esti mated a, 250 Iblll. The "",ice "","",n" due to
tranwc~ loading are
M. x i X 0,250 X 40' x .SOft)dps
M. + M, . i X 1.500 X 40' - 3OOft kips

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
I'R['ST R K"S ~:D CO NC REn: 663
FIGUIU : 19,15 o
Desig" cumpl< of ""am
,, ith ".riable "n,ricit)' of
- 2429
,<0000;: (aJ e n:> = ,ioo I
din>en , joo" (I co<ICrete
"rn",,", mid'pan (p<i)
P~ + M,
14" I
L_=-_L-_r-'__- -_- - '- - - Ap - 1.53 in
2
o
P, - 279~ips + 452 - 2521
1"1 1'1
The r~'1ui l'C"", =tion moduli wi{h respect 10 the lOp ond oonom surf""" of the coocre1e
be.,,,, ore fOllnd from 1',1,. ( 19.201 "nd (19.21 I.
- RMe +M,,+M, 0.15 X:I{l + 300 12.000 ,
S , '" 0.85 X 195 + 3600 - 980io
RI" f"
- RM .. + M,, + M, 0.15 X :I{l + .>00 12.000
s, .. 581 + 0.85 X 2520
f" Rf~
The ,'3Iu", obtained for S, and S, sugges{ lhat an ",ymmetrical seclion i. mOst appropriate,
How',,'.r. a symmetrical ""'tio" i, ,;elected for , implicit)" ,,1<1 to en'ure su fl1dem oompre"
si"" are. for fte,u",1 strength. ll>e 28in. ~p I ",01ion .oown in f ig. 19, 15<, will ,n.:et the
require" >em, and has ,,.., follOW'ing properties:
I, - 19.~in'
S = 1.122 in '
11 , ~ UOin'
" - 82.9 in'
We - 250 Ib/ft a' a,sumed
Next. the c""crete centroid,] stres< i, foond from Ell (19.2.1 J:

, ', I
icaKf'- f.- I " K 195 - '2 195 + 2510 - 116.1 psi
h
""" from Eq. (l9.24) the initial pre. tr~S5 for"" is
Pi - Ael", - 240 X 1.163 - 279 ~irs
From Ell. (19.25). lhe rc'lnircd 'cndon eccCn tricil}" at 'he lIIa.imum lIIomcnl S<."<:l ion of the
beam i,
-S,I'i , -M"Pi - 1 9~ + 1163 1422 -t- ~O X 12.000

279.(0) 279.(0)
- 9.07 in.
EI>o:wht"fC al(",g l11e S]1.' ''. 11", cCC<:1I1ric ily will be rcd""'ed SO Ihallh" co.-.:mc \lteSS li",ilS
will noI be ,iobted.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The required inilial presu" .. fOl'fi" of 279 kiJlS will be pro"ided ",i>lg lendon, consi'ling
of ~ in, dian"'l", Grade 270 Iow'rela,ali"n smlJld, ("'.., 5""lioo 2, 16). T"" minimum len,il~
>ltc"glh i'l". - 270 ksi. and fhe yield S1renglh may he whn 351", - 0.90 X 270 - 243 hi
Ac,:ordin~ 10 I"" ACE Code (see S"'-1ion 19,4). I"" ""noi"ible ,U-Css in I"" sirand immooi-
mel)' afler transfer Inu>! tIOI exceed O.82f", - 199 hi or 0.741"" - 200 hi. TI>c fiTSI crile_
rion comrol,. The required 'lfI"
of pre"re"ing slc..-1 is
. ""_ _279 _ L40in-,
The eross->eclional llNa of one ~ in, diame1er ' Irand i, 0.153 in'; ""nee. lhe number of
\t",tI(\s required i,
,.w
NumiJerofsl.--aml' = 0.153 = 9,2
Two r,,'e-,'rand I"ndon, will be used. ,,; shown in Fig, 19, I ~" each Slresscd 10 139,5 kips
immedialely following Iran,fer.
II il good praclice 10 chock I"" calculalion, by "oolimling Ihal SIre" limil' are nul
exceeMd 01 crilkal load Slag"-'. The 101' 3Jld oonom ,urf",,, eoncrt1e ,W,-"" produced. in
Ihis Case, by lhe sepam. loadings "reo
1',: I, - .
,
279JIOO
27'),000
9.07 X 14
82 ,9
9,07
- +6 18 ",i
I, =
X
" - 2943 psi
1',: I, -
""
0.85 X 618 - 525 JlSi
82.9
I, = 0,85 - 2943 = - 2502 ",i
50 X 12.00)
- - 422 p,i
1422
I, - + 422 "';
300 X 12,000 2
- - 532 JlSi
1422
j, - +2 532 psi
Thu,. wbtcn lhe ini'ial Jlfe>Ite'" force or 279 kips i, applied and the heam .elf.weighl acl'.
lhe 101' ami oonom SlreSseS in Ill" concrele m midspan are, ""pc'Cli,'.ly,
j, ~ + 61 8 - 422 ~ + 196j15i
I, - -294 ,1 + 422 - -2521 psi
When the pre$1,.,. force has dc>crcased 10 i1' e/focli"e "alue of 237 ki", and Ihe full sen.'i,..,
load is applied. lhe concrete me~"" "'"
I, - + .~2.~ - 422 - 25.12 - -2429ps;
I, ~ - 2502 + 422 + 2512 ~ +452psi
The", , Iress di'lribU1ions are , .......'" in Fig. 19,15h. Comparison wilh lhe ,pedfied limil
SIresses confinns Ihl( (he deoign is "ui,1':Ie(0I)'.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I'R['STRK'~ ~:D CONC REn: 665
b. Beams with Constant Eccentricity
The design melhod pr.:scnted in lhe previous 5<-x(ion was bascd on s(ress conditions al
(ht IllJXimUln moment 5<--.;(ion of a beam. wilh thc maximum value of moment Mo
result ing from (he self-weigh( inllncdia(cly ocing superimposed. If PI and e were 10 be
held cons(an( along (he span. as is onen convenient in pwcnsioned prestressed con
s(ruclion. (hen the Slress limi(s fr,. and f e would be ucceded elscwhere along (he span.
where M" is less (han ilS max imum valuc. To a_oid (his condi(ion. (he conSlalH <-''cn -
(ridly mUSl be less than (hm given by Eq. (19.25) . hs maximum valuc is gi'cn by con
ditions Jt (he support of a simple sPJn. where Me is zero.
Figure 19.16 shows (he f1c~ural Slrcss disllibu(ions al (he support and midspan
5<--.;(ions for a ocJm wi(h cons(an( ecccntricily. In (his cascoIhe s(ress limi(s In and lei
are nOl (0 be violated when (he ccce~(ric preslress moment aC1S ~Ione. as al (he sup
ports. The S(ress changes ,j./ , and 1/ 1 as losses occur arc equal 10 (I - R) limes (he (OP
and oo((oln surface Slresscs. respce(ivcly. due 10 ini(i~1 pres(ress alone:
I ,- I-RI" (a)
f, - I-R -/c, (hI
FI GURE 19.1 6 o
Flex",.,1 >lf~SS dimibmioos
for beam w;,h NnSlanl
eccentricilYof 1<001000:
"
r ;!'f,
'-
(a) ma,;mum IllQm<n'
' 'ppox! ""'lion. o
"',Iioo: (hl
" M<f "f M,
r $,
1
"
\ c,I
/
t
Concrete
cenlroid
--- --- ----------
V
,~
c,
;i ~,~ ~
~'"
0 0
,lf2
'"'"
Md + Mr
$, $,
'.
0 Pi akloa 0 P, alornl
Pi + Me p. alone
P~ -I- Me {OJ
0 P. -I- Me + M<f ~ M,
(.)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
In this case. t h~ avaitabl~ str~ss r.Illg~s b"lw"",,, limit strcs."'S must pmvide for tl",
dT~ct of Mo as well a, M d and M,. as "-,,,n from Fig, 19. 16<,. and are
1,, =/', - f, - fe.
= Rf;, - IN (e)
j l,. =j;, - / d - 11
= j;, - "In (t.!)
and til.: requirements on the "-""tion moduli Jrc thm
Mv + M" + Al,
S, a: (19 ,26)
Rf" f"
AI" + M J + M,
S,2 ( 19,27 )
/" NI",
The concrele eentroidal stress may be found by Eq. (19 ,23) and the milial prestress
force by Eq. (19.24) as before , Ho,,:ewr. the expression for required eccentricity d if-
fers. In this case. referring to Fig. 19.161>.
P" ,
~ = frl - /.ri ,
from which Ihe requir~"<I eccentricity is
s, (19.2R)
.. = j" - Ie,, I',
A significant d i fl'e r~nc~ bi:twl",n b"ams wilh variable eecentricity and thosc with eon -
stant eccentril' ity will be nol<.'<i hy com[X,ring Eqs. (19.20) and (19.21 ) with th~ cO!T~
spOnding F.q,. (19,2bl and (19.271. In the first casc. tire section modulus rl'<lu iren"'nt
is governed ""'inly by the ,upe rimposed load momellls MJ and M" AI",ost all o f the
self-weight is l'lUTied "fr~." that i,. without incrca,ing "",tion mod ulu, or prest r~ss
force . by the simple expedient of increa,in!: tbe <.'U,<,ntricity along th~ span by the
amount Me I',. In the second case. tl"" ecce ntricity is controlled by conditions at the
suppons. whe re M" i, zero. and the full moment ,110 due to ",I f- weight must be
included in detennining seetion m<)duli. Ne\'~nhel~". ""ams with constant eccentric-
it y are often u>ed for pmcti cal rea,on'.
EXAM PLE 19A u.,; i~nof t..am .. ith con,t,mt """"ntridly tendons. The beam in the p<""ooing exam-
ple i$ to he rl'designed using straight tendons with consta"t eccentricity. All OIlier design cri_
teri, are II., same as befOre, At the suworts. " 1emror.uy concreIC t"'lSile ~tre sS Irl ~
6 I n - 390 p,i is pennil1e.t ftkip" The "",ment due
'0 SUperimrosN dead loa<! and Ij,'e 100<1 j, 100 ft-l ip'", before.
USing 4', (19.26) ,nd (19.27 ), the r"'lui",,,,ent' to< section mod uli are
54 + 300 12,000
1080 1'"
0,85 X 390 + 3600
1560 1'"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I' R['STR K"S ~:D CONC REn : 667
, + 333 0
- 11 -2312 + 392)
rr r-'"-, ,,1_ _-;1 II

1.
T>j - 268 kips

L,.-"'"'"
w
j
,.) "'" 2116 21 4 1 2519
'" ,,'
~' I G U RE 1'1.17
o....ign e.\an)pl. of beam with coostant ",,,ntridty of teooo",: (til cross ""'lioo dime",ioo,; (b) ,tresse; at
midspan (I"i): (e) <1re,' at ,upport, (psi).
One<" again. a symmetrical seclion will be chosen. I~angc d ime",ioo, alld web width will
be ~CI~ uod'3nged comparctl wilh the 1)f',wious c., ampic. bin ill ,hi; case a beam depth of
.\0.0 in. i, requhd. TIle dimension, ofllle cross =1;011 are 'OOW" in Fig. 19.17". TIle fol-
io," ing propcT1ics are obtai""d:
I, - 24.01J..t in'
S: 1606;n'
A, _ 252 in'
" : 95.6 in'

K. _ 263 1b1ft dose 10 lhe lSlu,ned ,-al,,<:
The coocrelc c<'ntroidal Slress. from Eq. (19.13). is
, ', I
/,,, :/,,- 1, /" - /,, = 3'lO - Z 390 + 2520 - 1065 psi
lnd from 1'.<). (19,24). Ihe i"ili,1 preSln"Ss f(l<l;e is

Pi - A,/,-c; - 2~2 X LOM - 268 lip'
From Eq. (19.28). lhe requir"d ronSI."t e-c""ll1ricil~ i,
e: , - JM
J,
, -P, :
S,
190
. + 1065 "'"
"'i,":,,,
268.000 = 8.72 in
"gai n. Iwo tendon, will be used 10 provide Ihe ""luired P'l"lreS' force. each com[>OSt'd
l-
of mulliple in. diameler Gf"3<k 270 lowrel,xmion "rand<. Wilh the ma~imum permis<ible
su'"" i~ lhe stranded ~abl~ juSt atier InUlsf", of 199 ksi . the lotal required st""I"-"'~ i,
A,. - 268 :15"
199 - L._ "'-
A tOlJI of nine 'Int"'!> is ""lui,"'-', F", practical rea>oo,. two identical fi'- estr~1ld lendo!"
will he used a. befo.... in thi' case being me' sed 10 134 lip, .
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The calculations will be che<"ked by ,erif}'i ng the concrete stresses at the top and bonom
of tl'" be;)", fo< Ihe criticallood \lages, The ""mpone,,' st",-" c'Ol1,riootion, are
268.000 8,72 x 15.0
Pi: I , ~ + .1921"i
252 95.6
/, - 268,(XXI
252
, 8.1295.6
x 15,0
- - 2519pli
P,: I, - 0.85 X 392 - + .133I"i

1,- 08~ - 2.~!9 - - 214 1 1"i
54 x 12.000 .
.11": I , - - 1606 - -403 pSI
I, - +403I"i
300 x 11.000
M. +M,: I ,- -
'606
1, - + 22" 2I'si
Superimposing the aprroprbte stress ""ntrib<l1ion,. the stress distri butions in t he coocrete at
midspan and at the suppon, are obt~il"!d . .., shown in Fig, 19.17b and ('. resllC",i'dy, WI"!n
the initial pre'tress force of268 kil" oct; alone, as at the ,upport" the Slresse; at the topand
bouom surfac't:s 3r~
1, = + W2J1Si
I , ~ - 2519 JlSi
After I",,,,,. the prestre,. force is ,,>duced to 228 lip; and the suppon SIresses are reduced
a<.'COI'dingIY,'\1 midSjXll1. Ihe beam weight i<; imnlC'diaocly SIIperillllX>Sed. and stresses result-
ing from P, plus M. are
I, ~ + 392 - 403 ~ - II psi
I, = - 251<) + .f03 ~ - 21161";
When 1M full """i"" load acts, together with P,. lite mid'jXln SIre,se. are
I, ~ +333 - -l-In - 2Nl ~ - l.lllpsi
I, ~ - 21 4 1 + olin + 2N2 ~ +504l"i
If we check agai"'t the specified limiting 'tre,ses. ;t is ",,'idem thaI the ooign i, satisfactory
in Ihi, respec1 :lIthe critic3ilood &t3g,lS .nd loealions.
______ 19.10 SHAPE SElECTION
O'l<' of the SIX..:ial f~atures of pn.'suessed co{)ctvle design IS the f~edom to select
cross-section proportions and dimension, to Smt the >~cial requirements of the job at
hand. The mernlJ.)r d<'pth can ~ chang<'d. the w~b thickness modifi~'<l. and Ihe f1ang~
widths and thickness"s varied md"pendem ly to produce a beam with nearly ideal pro-
portions for a given case.
Several wltltlton precast sha~s are silo,,"'n itt Fig. 19, 18. Son~ of Ihese are Stan
dardiud and mass produced. ernplo)'ing reusable' stc".1 or filJ.)rglass fonus. Oltlt'rs a~
individually proportiO'K..:l for large and important works. nte doubl~ T (Fit'. 19, t Sa) is
probably th~ ,nosl "idely used cross secl ion in U. S. prestressed construclio{). A flat
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
I'R['ST R K'~~:D CO NC REn: 669
=v (II) DoutJje T
v
(b ) Single T
I
(e) I Girde,
,
6
(d) Bulb T
,
u
(e) Chann~ slab (/ ) Box girder (9) Inve rted T
FIGUIU : 19.18
Typical beam c,,",' section,.
surface is providc'd. 4 to 12 ft widc. Slab thicknesses and web !kpths vary. !kpending
upon requil"\:JlIems. Sp.1ns to 60 ft are not unusual. The single T (Fig. 19.1Sh) is more
appropriate for long~r spans . to 120 ft. and he.1vier loads. The I and bulb T sections
(Fig . 19.18,; .1nd <I) arc widely uSI."d for bridge spa ns :md roof girders up to about
140 ft. while th~ channel ,1:1b (Fig. 19.1&) is su itabk for fl oors in the ill1cnnediate
span range. The box girder (Fig . 19. ISf) is ad ,anlJg~'Ous for bridges of ill1ermediate
and nl.1jor span. TlJe invel1ed T section (Fig . 19.IH!!) provides a bearing ledge to ClIIry
the ends of prl'Cast deck members spanning in the perpendicular direction. Local pre
casting pbnts can provide catalogs of avai lablc shapes. This information is also avail
able in the PCI De""X" /lwulbo"k (Ref. 19.8).
As indicat~d. the cross section may be symmetrical or unsymmctrical. An
unsymmdrical section is a good choice (I) if the availahle stress rangesf" .1nd/" at
the top and bottom surfaces.1rc not the samc: (2) If the beam mus! provide a 11m. use
ful surf.1ce.15 well as offering lood-c.1JTyi ng capacity: (3) if the beam is to become a
(XIl1 of composite construction. with a c.1st-in-place sbb acting together with a precast
w~b : or (4) if the beam mus, provide suppo" surfaces. such as shown in Fig. 19.18X.
In ru:ldition . T st'Ctions provide increased t1 c.~ural strength. since ,he imemal ann of
the resisting couple m maximullI !ksign load is grearer ,han for rcctJngular sections.
General ly spcaJ.:ing. I. T. and box S<.'Ctions with relatively thin webs and flanges
are morc efficiem than members witMthicker pJrJs. However. sevend factors limi t the
gain in d li ciency that may be ob,aillt!d in this way. These include th~ instabili,y of
very Ihin o \"erhanging compression pans. the vulnerabil ity of thin P:111S to break age in
handling (in the case of precast construction). and the practical difficulty of placing
concrete in very thin elemenrs. The desi gner must also re.:ognizc the oced to provide
adequate spacing and concrete proK'Ction for tendons and anchorages. the impol1ance
of construction dc plh limi'al ions. and the need for Imeral srahi lily if ,he b.:am is not
braced by other members againsr buckling (Ref. 19. (6).
" 19.11 T ENDON P ROFtLES
The equalions developed in Sccrion 19.9a for lnembers wilh vllIiable t~ndon l'Ccen
trici ly cotablish the I\.""quircmenrs for section modul us . prestress force. and ('Ccenrric
ity aI Ihe maximum moment section of the mcmher. EIscwhere along lhe span. the
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
eecenlricily <;If Ihe 'led must be "-'<Iuced if II", cmlc",(e sl",,, limils for II", unloaded
,tage arc n01 to be aceeded, (Altern ativel y. the seclion musl be increased. as demon -
,trated in Section 19.%,) Conversely. there is a minimum eceentrieily. or upper limil
for!l", s1<-",1 eentroid. such Ihat lhe limiling conc",le sl",."" are nol exceeded when
rhe beam is in Ihe full service h~d "age.
Limiling ic.:;ation, for II", p",stre';,ing s1<-",1 centroid at any point along the span
tan be e,tabli,Iu.'<I using F..qs. (19.2) and (19.4) . which give tire vnlues of OOncrclc
,tress nt lhe lOp and Ixmom of the beam in II", unloaded and servi~.., load ,tage"
respecti,'ely. The Slresses produced for those load stages ,hou ld be oompa,,-'<I wid, II",
limiting sU"sses applicable in a partirular ease. such as Ihe ACI <Iress limits of Table
19.2. This permits a ,ol uti on f<;lr lend<;ln oceentrieily e as a function of distanc:c X along
the <pan.
To indicate Ihallxllh ,-'<'Cernric'ily e and mon",nls M" <;If M, are func'lions of di<-
tance x from the suppon, they will be written as <'(x) and MJt) or M,(x). ""peetively.
In writing smlemenl, of inc><jualily. it is eonVenienllO designate len,ile ,t",,, as larger
than zero and compressive Slress as smaller than zero. Thus. + 4'5-0 > - 13'5-0. nnd
- 600 > - 1140. for example.
Clmsidering fi,,;! rhe unloaded slage. d", len,ile slress al lhe top of II", beam
mu,t not exc",-'<Ij". Fr<;l11l Eq. (19.2i,).
P, ,,x (", M ax
- --- - ---
A, r' 5,
Solving for the maximum ecc:cmricity gi,-es
{"S, S, Mo x
< -- + - + - - (19,29)
P; A, P;
A{ {he bottom of the unloaded beam. the stress most not exceed the limiting initial
compression. From Eq. (l9 ,2h),
" -"-
+- (",
' , + --
M, x
(h)
S,
"
He nce. Ihe &Ccond lower lim;1 for (he s(eel centroid is
,, x s - /"S
- -l - -Sl + -
M a X
-- (19.30)
PI Ac 1',
Now con.<idering the n",mber in lhe fully loaded ,rage. lhe upper limit values fur
I)", en'entricily may he fouoo. From F..<j. (19.4,,).
P, e x ~, M,x
/,.,:S 1 - -- - --- (c)
A, S,
"
from which
/,.,5, S, M ,x
~ -- + - + --- (19 ..11)
" 1', A, P,
and using Eq, (19 ,4b)
P, f ' X (", M,x
/., 2: + - -' + - - (d)
A, 5"
"
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I'll'r......... c-.... I rHl
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I'R['STRK'~ ~:D CO NC REn: 67 1
FIG UIU: 19, 19 Limning rone tor

Tn,;call;m;t;ng zone fo.- Upper lim il , steel centroid
cen1roid of pro""",ing Sttti.
from which
(19.J2)
Using Eqs. (19.29) and (19 ,3{). the low~r limit of tendon eccentricity is eslab
lished al successi"e points along tilt: span. Th~n. using Eqs. (19.31) :md (19.32). lhe
correspondi IIg upper limit is establ ished , This upper I imit may well be negati\'~. indi-
cating that the t~ndon cemroid may be abow lhe concrete centroid at that localion ,
It is often convenient to plot the ell\'dopc of acceptable lendon proftles. as dooe
in Fig. 19.19. for a typical case in which both d.:ad and live loads are uniformly dis
tribuled. Any tendon centroid f~lling completely within the shad~d zone would be sal
isfac10ry fro111 the point of view of concrele stress limits. 11 should be ~111phasiZ<.>d that
it is only the tendon ce mroid lhat must be within the shad~d zone; tndividual cables
are olien outside of it.
The tendon profile aclually used is often a parabolic curve or a cmenary in lhe
case of posl-tcnsion~d b.:atns. The duct containing tilt: pres1ressing s1~"C1 is draped to
the desired shape and held in that position by wiring it to the trans\'~rsc web rein
forcement . alier which the concrele may be placed , In prelensiomxl beams. d"j1nt"d
/,,11</"',.\' arc often UR>d. The cables are held down at midspnn. at lhe third points. or at
the qum1er points of the span and held up at thc ends. so lhat a smooth curvc is approx
i m~h."d to a grenter or ksser degree.
In prac1ical cases. it is ofl~n nOt Ill'Cessary to make a centroid zone diagram. such
as is shown in Fig. 19,19. By placing Ihecenlroid nt its known locmion al midspan. al
or close to the concre1e centroid al lhe supports. and with a nt!ar-parabolic shape
between Ihose control points. sntisfaction of Ihe limiting Stress r~"{[uirements is
ensurc"d. With Ilonprismatic be~ms. beams in which a curved concre1e centroidal axis
is emploYL"d. or with cont illuous beams. diagrams such as Fig. 19.19 arc a grem aid.
---- 19.12 FLEXURAL D ESIGN B ASED ON L OAD B ALANCING
It was poimed out in S~clion 19.2b Ihallhe elk"Cl of a change in th~ alignlHcm of a
preStressing lendon in a beam is 10 produc~ ~ vertical forc~ on Ihe b.:am m (hm loca
lion. Prestressing a memb.:r with curwd or deD~"CK"d lendons. lhus. has the clk"Cl of
illtroducing a set of cqui\'alemloods. and lhese may be lrealed JUSl as any Olher loads
in finding 1110111cms or dcDl'Clions. Each panicular I~odon profIle produces il8 own
unique SCI of L"{[u ;valcm forces. Typic~llendon profiles. wilh corresponding equi\'alcm
loads and momcm diagrams. were illuslraled ,n Fig. 19.2. BOlh Fig. 19.2 and
Section 19,2b should be r~view~"d cardul ly,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 19.20

Load bal>ocing for unifOll1lly
loaded hem,,: (~) .'temal
and <qui,-aicnlload.:
Ih) co",rele ,Ire, ses resu lling
I."", axial'.... he ....ing
p
j
11 =iT.t
Concrete
j
~ =-=P=-:=m=-/ j j~HFm~j j ~
WI' Parabolic
~ffe<:t , ofpr"'lfe" pi", centroid I 1 I tendon
hendi ns .... ,"Iling from
bal>oc.d <xlemal load: 1"1
(e) <"'lC"-~ < .11,,,,,,, resulling
when load *'~'I i, f.mo"ed.
+ +
1'1
1'1
n,~ "'Iuival~n1 load com:cpt off~rs all ~h~m~ti\'e apprQaeh 10 Ihe dClerminmiOll
o f required preslre" force and ~cce n1ricily_ 11", pre,lr"" force nn<! lem]on profile can
hoc eSl:lblished >0 Ihal eX1~m~llo"ds Ihal will acl are exnclly counlerac!t."<l by the "er-
lical for"e, resulling from preslfe..ing. The nel resull, for t h~t panicular SClllt' ex ter-
nal l<;>ad" is Ihal d", ""~m is subjL'Cled ollly 1<:1 axial ('<:Impression and no ""ooing
momem. The selt'Clioll of the load 10 "" bnlanced i, left 10 the judgmem of 11",
desiglle,- Often lhe bal~nced lo"d ChOSCll is lh~ sum of the sclf-weighl and superim-
po><-"<l okad lo"d,
n,~ design appmach de><-'ri""" ill Ihis = 'lioll was introduced in Ih~ Unit""
Stales by T Y Lin in 19ti3 and is knowll a~ the /r>ad-/m/(mcing m~ll!"d_ The funda-
melll~l, will he illu'lrated in II", COnlext of the ,imply suppon~d. uniforml)' loaded
""am ,IK>wn in Fig. 19_20a. The hocam is 10 "" de,ig1l<.'{1 for a babnced lo"d con,isl-
ing of it, ow-n weight "'0' the supe rimposed d~ad load "'d' and ""me fraclional pan of
lhe live load. denoled by kl>"" _Since the extem~lload is unifonnly dislributed, il is rea-
,onabl~ 10 adopt a tendol1 having a pambolic sh~ pe . It is easily shown thai a parabolic
lemkm will pmduce n uniformly di,lribuh."<l upward load ~'<juallO
8Py
Ii' = -- (19.33)
r I'
whcre l' .. nwgni1ude of pres1rcss forcc

-" .. maximum sag of 1cndon IHCJSur"" wilh respec1 to (he chord b.:IWL"(;n i1S
end points
1 .. span lcng1h
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
If the downward load exanly equals the upward load from the lendon. Ihe", Iwo
loads cancel and nO hoending stresS is pmd ul'-'<i. a, ,hown in Fig. 19.20b. The hoendi ng
,tresse' due to preslre" ocl"ruricily are equal and opl'o,ite to Ihe hending ,tresse'
re,uiting from the exteroal load . The net resuiting sUess is uoifonn compression/u
L'qual to Ihal pmd ul'-'<i by the axial foret P co, " . Excluding consideratio" of li me -
dependent effeet~. Ihe beam wou ld show no venical delleclion,
If lhoe live load i, re mowd or increa.wd. Ihen hending slre,ses and dell"""lio",
will resuh beeause of the ""I"d""ced pon ion of II", load. Stresses result ing from thi,
differemialloading must hoe calc ulaled and , uperimposed Qn lhe axial compre"ion 10
oblain lhe net stre,ses for Ihe unbalanced slate. Refe ni ng to Fig . 19.20., Ihe hoendi ng
,tresse, f~ resulling fmm removal of Ihe panial live load ing are superimposed on Ihe
uniform compressive siress fa' resuit ing from the comhinalion of e("centric pre' lre"
foree and fu ll halru>coo load 10 pmduce the final ,Iress disuihuliQn ,hown .
Loads othe r Ihan uniformly di'lrihuted would lead naturally to the seleclion of
olher tendon ("onfigurali,"lS. For example . if Ihe external load l'<lI1si,led of a single
concentralion al midspan. a deflected lendon such a., that of Fig. 19.2a woul d be cho-
sen. with maximu m eccemricit), at midspan . varying linearly to zew occemricily al Ih"
, uppons. A Ih ird -poim looding would lead the designer to ""len a tendon defleck'<i at
Ihe third po ims. A unifonnly lo",k'() canlil,,'ver beam would be'l be slrn.<;<''<i using a
telUk", in which the L'Ccemri("ily varied paraool ically. fmm 1.em at lhe fR'" elld to y m
Ihe fixed ,uppon. in " "hich case tbe upward reaclion of lhe lendoll would be
2Py
I\' = -- (19.34)
P I'
I! should he clear Ihat for simple 'pans de'ig ned h)' Ih" load -halancing coO<."pt
it i~ necessary f<;lr Ihe tendon to h~ve zem ecce ntricily al the support, beenu", lhe
moment due 10 superimjlO,ed loads is zero Ihe re. Any lendon eccentricily would pro-
du("e an u nhal~oced moment (in ilself an equivalent load) equal to Ihe horizontal ("om-
ponent of lhe pre"ress foree times ils eccentri cily. AI Ihe ,imply SU pportL'<i ends, Ihe
requi rement of 1-"m eccentricily musl hoe relain"d .
In pmclj.,.,. Ihe load-nalaocing melhod of de'ign starts with ",I eclion nf a lrial
hoeam cmss se("{ion. ha",-'<i on experience and judgment. All approprime span -deplh
mtin is Qflen aPflliL'<i. The tendon profIle is selecl<-'<.l u,ing the maximum available
L'Ccentri('ily. and Ihe preslress for("e is ealeu !aIL'<i. The lrial design may lhen he chec ked
10 ensure Ihal connete slresse. are wilhin Ihe allowahle limit, should Ihe live load he
lota lly ab"'nt or ful ly in place. when bending "re,ses wil l hoe su rerimposed on Ihe
axial compressive slr",se,. The re is no ",sunlnce Ihal tire seclion will he adequate for
these lood slage,. nor Ihat adL'quate strenglh will be pmvidL'hse rved Ihat ohlaining ~ unifonn cOlllpre"ive ConeTele
,tress al lhe nalanced lood '!:Ige 'k"" not ensure thai lhe member will have zcm
ddleclion .11 Ihis ,tage, 11", reason for thi, is Ihat Ihe unifon n ~I re" di,trihulion i,
made up of Iwo pan" that from the eccelllric preslress force and thai frolll lhe exter-
nal load, . The preslr"" force "aries wilh tin'" h<-'Cause o f shrinkage . creep. and relax -
ation. ("hanging the vertical defle('lion asso.."ialed wilh Ihe pre'lre" force.
Concurre ntly. Ihe beam wil I experie nce l"TL'CP deflL'dion under the cOlnhined eff....:ls of
Ihe dimini'hing pr",lre" fOKe and Ih" exlernal loa,h . a pan of which ma)' be sus-
lained a nd a part of which may he siton-tenll. However. if load halancing i~ carried
oUl ha,ed on Ihe effective preslre" force P, plus se lf-weighl and eXlernal dead load
only. Ihe resul! may he near-zem deflection for thai cOlnhination.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
n,~ load -balaocing method provides lhe engillL'Cr with a usdul1<x)L For simple
'pan,. it lead, {he designer 1<:> ch(xlSe a sensihle tendon profile nnd focu"", a{lenlion
very early on the ma{{~r of def!._...{ioll. Sut tlle mo,{ imponan t ""vanlages bo:cOl!le e"i -
dem in the design of inJ"wnninate prestre' ....... membe". including b01h continuou,
benm, and two-way s labs. For ,uch ca.ws . atleas{ for "'II' unique loading. the ",e",ber
carries only axinl CClmpre"ion Ixn flO bending. This grem ty simplifie, the analysis.
EXM.II' LE 19.5 " ,'am dt'Sign initiatO"g wit h load balancing. A rust-tensioned beam is {o be <It:'i~ood {o
carry a unifonl~y di,trit""ed load ow, a 30 f{ 'pan. a, ,hown ill Fig. 19.2 L In additio" {o
i{, own wciglH. i{ IllUS! ~arry-' a dead load of I SO Ibln and a se,,';ce li"e loatJ of 600 Iblfl,
COllc",{e 'U'eng{h of 4000 p,i will be ouained a{ 28 day.: a{ {he {ime of transfer oflhe 1""_
sire" f"",,". Ihe strength will be )(XXJ I"i . l'restress los, may be a"uT!1Cd at 20 !",recn] or
Pi- On the basis {hal ahou { """.quarter o f {t.. li,'e load will be ,,,,{a;n,,d ov~r a ,uhs{amial
{ime peTiO<l. k,ofO.25 will be used in de1enninin~ {he ixllanced load,
So_~.m'IUN. On {he b.,is of "" arbi{rarily ch<>Sen span<krth r.nio or IS. "20 in, "","p.
10 in. wide ,rial ,",C1ion i. sd",,{ed. The cokulmffi ""If_we;gl" or the be",,, i, 20S Iblil ",1<1
{he ",l",,{txl lood to be balanced i.
"'... - "'. + "'. + l ...., _ 208 + 150 + ISO - .\-OS INft
Ba"d on a minimum coocrete oml.,. from ,he Sieel cent roid 10 the bottom face ofw beam
o f" in .. {he maximum eccentricity that can be used ror {he 20 in. {rial "",,{ion is 6 in. A par-
abolic {e"don will be used 10 produce a unifonnly distribu{ed upward tendon load. To <XIui!-
FI GUIU: 19.21 W1>a1 - 5081b/1t

Example <>f ""sign by load
b;,1 ...dn~:I)
be.m pro'"''
,nd ero', =,ion; (h ) fk,urnl
,{re."",{ m"in,"", IlIOment
",,-,ion (p<i)
,,'
o
+ 150 - 260 - 1480
I I -570
1'-7"'-- Balanced load

p~ + M, .
+340 - 874 -1 580

-570
'"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
I'R['ST R K"S ~:D CO NC REn: 67S
ibrote lhe suslained downwanlloading. lhe p!T5 Ires; rOl'<'e P, after I",,,,", from Eq_ (1 9 . ].1 ).
,hould he
, --- -

",,,,, I'
8,.
508 X 900
8 XO,5
114.000lb
and lhe corresponding in ilial p"'slre. s force is

,>
I' _ --.!:. _ 11".000
> , 1"3,000Ib
0.8
114.000
!.., = ~ - 570JlSi
"'"
as ; hown in Fig. 19.2Ih_ Sho\,ld the pani"lli load of ISO Iblfl be rem'Acd. the ,tre ..es 10
be sUl"'rimrosed on l", ""ult from a ,,,,I ",,,mn/load of I_SO Iblll_ The secl;oo modulus for
lhe lrial beam is 667 in' and
M ...., - ISO X
"'"
8 - 16.900Illb
H."ce. lhe unoolanced bending messes at 1M top and oollom faces are
"
16.900 X 667 - J04 psi
I, ~ + _1iJ4 ~ - 266psi
- 570
I, - - 570 - 3().1 - -8 74 p->i
Similarly. if (I..;: follli.-e 1o.">Il ,ho"ld ."lel. the >lrC~;C, 10 be , ul"'rill'poS<.xi are lho;(: rtsull ing
from a ne1 J"~'nw"'-,} load of 450 Iblft. The re~ulting , Ires,"" in lhe conere'e 31 full ",,,,ire
1000 "re
I, ~ - 570 - 910 - - 14g0psi
I, - - 570 -+- 910 - -+-340JlSi
Stres,",s in lhe concrete with live load ab"ltl and li\'e lood full y in pi"". are ' hown in Fig
19,2Ih,
h i. al>o necessary 10 in,'e."igale lhe m.,.""
in lbe inilial unloaded S1ag~. wilen llIe n"' rn
b.:r i, SUbje<.1cd 10 I', plus '00""'''' due 10 its own ",.ighl .
M . _ 208 X ~ _ 23.400 fl lb
HCIk.,<! . in It.: illili,l siage:
j,
IHOOO
" "
- --- " 23.400 X
+ ISO psi
"'"
IHOOO
33.35
, --- , ""
" 2:lA00 X
I, - "33_15" -15801lSi
WO
""
The sires,"" in lhe unloaded and full ..,,,'ire load Sl ages must b.: che<:h'<i again<;1 lhese
I"'nniucd by the ACt C<Xk:. Wilh!; - 4(M)(I psi and I;, -
3000 ]lsi.!loc Slres",,,,s permiltoo
for a Cia" U memoc"f are:
1. ~+ lMp'i to = +474p,i
1,, ~ - I800psi I" ~ - 2400 psi
The :K1ual 't,,-"5"". sllown in Fi~_ 19,2Ib. are withilt lhese limil' and "'-"'JlIably dOS<'. and
110 re. isiOl' will tit: made in the IriaT lOX W ill, cross ;celion 00 ,he basi, of Stress limi,s.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
The flexural sl"'n~lh of IIIe ""''''Ders musl no,'.' be ,""ded. 10 "n,ure Ihal an adequale
margin of ;ak,y agai '!>1 c'()1I3f'S<' ha, bttn pml'j(l<,:d. HIC "'\juired 1', of 143.000 Ib will be
prO\jded using Grade 270 strand. wi{h/... : 270.000 psi atJd / ,. = 24HlOO psi, Referring
10 Sc-cli(lrl 19.4. 11,c i"it ial ;ltc,S imme<lillely afler lranlrcr mu\1 11(){ C>.c'Ced O. U X 2/0.000
~ 200.000 psi. or 0,82 X 24.' .000 - 199.000 psi. which oonlrols in lhi' case, Accordingly.
lhe requiTC(! 'lJ'Ca of l~nOOn Ilecl is
A", ~ 143.000 199.000: 0.72 in'
T hi<; will be prol'idl:<.l using r,,'e tin. slran,Js. giving an acillal area ofO.7M in' (Table A.15),
The re,ullin~ ,tresses allbe initial ,lid fj",,1 slag"S are
143.000
I,. - 0.765 - 187.000 pli
114,000
I .. - 0.765 - 149.000 psi
Using lhe ACl appro'ima1~ "'Iualiun for ,wei ,u:"ss m failure~ ["'C Eq, (19,6)1. with f ~
0 .765 160 - OJX148, alld ? - 0 .-10 for Ille ordlnary Grad< .. 70 tendon'.lhe Mre"J p. lS
gi "en by
- ---
, ,I".
I" = f ,..
, /,
0.-10 0,0048 X 270
= 270 I
0. 85 ~
- 229 hi
Then.
,1"1,,,
,,- -0.85/,1>
--
0,765 X 229
0.85 X" X 10 = 5.15 in,
5.15
c - 0.85 - 6.06
(' 6.1X>
- - - ~0 . 379
<i, 16
Thi' exceed." <i, - 0 ..H5, reduci ng {o 0.89. The nomi,,,,1 fle>ural ,{rengllt i,
d- -" , - 0.765 X 229,000 ,,- -- 5.15

2 12
~ 1%.oool1lb
and tile d.. ign ,{reng1lt wi{h - 0 .89 is
M. ~ 0,89 X 196.000 ~ 174.oooftlb

II will be Itt.lled lh.{ tile ACI Io.'lod far{ors with respeel 10 dead .lId lil'e loo,h are. respee_
tively. 1,2 and 1.6, C alculat ing the !""lored load.
lI'. - 1.2208 + 150 -I- 1.6600 - 13<)()lb ft

1390 900
M, -
Thu<.
"
M.:> M . ""d lhe de,ign is judg~d ",,{i<fac{ory.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
'- _ 19.13 Loss OF P RESTRESS
As discussed in Section 19.6. the initial prestress foree Pj immediately after transfer is
less than the jading force PJ because of clastic shoriening of the concretc. slip at the
anchorages. and frictional losses along the tendons. llIc force is reduced further. after
a period of many momhs or even years. due to lenglh changes resu ll ing from shrin~
age aoo creep of the concrete and r.:laxation of Ihe highly stressed stcr:l: evelllually it
anains its effective "alue 1', . In the pn:ccding 8<:ctions of this chapter. losses were
accounted for. ma~ing use of an assunlCd effectiveness ratio I? .. 1', I'i' Losses have
no effect on lhe nominal slrength of a member with bondc'd lendons. hut ovcrcstim3'
tion or undcrestimmion of losses may have a pronounced erf.:.:t on service conditions
including camocr. det1ection . and cmc\dng .
The estimation of losses can he made on se"eral di ffcrem levels. Lump sum
losses. used in the early devciopment of preSiresscd conCrele arc now considered obso
lete . Values of l? hased on dewilcd calculations and verifkd in tlcld applications are
uS\.'d in design offices. as an: lables of individual loss comribUlions. For cases where
gremeT accumcy is requiJ\.'d. il is necessary to estimate the separme los8<:5 . ta~ ing
account of the condition s of memocr geometry. malerial propt:rlics. and construction
n\Cthods Ihat apply. Accuracy of loss estimation can oc impro''l'<i still funher by
accounting for the imerdepcndence oft illle dept:nde nt losses. using the summalion of
losses in a s<'''quence of discrete time steps. These ll\Clhods will be diseus8<:d hrieny in
the following paragmphs.
a. Lump.Sum Estimates of Losses

It was ,,:cogni~ very early in the develop",,,nt nf prestr",,,,d concrete that there waS
~ n~~d for approximate ~xpre,sio"s to b.. used to e'timat" pr"'tres. lo,,,,s in design.
/l.bny thousand, of sUlx-'Cssfu l pre't""",d structu"" have i1ee11 huiit baS<.'. 'pans, materials. ""n'truction procedu"". amount
of p""tress f",~'C. and "nvironm~ntal conditinns "'" nOl out of the ordi nary. thi s
appro;u;h is ,ati,factory. For such <'ondit;on_,. the American A'soc,imiol1 of Stat e
Highway and Trun'ponatiol1 Officials (AAS HTO. Ref. 19.17) ha, r<!Cormnemk'<l the
,,,Iue, in T"hl~ 19.3 for preliminary de'ign or for cenain <,,"'troll..d prec'asting condi -
t;on_,. It should be n<>ted that los"" due to frinioll must b.. added to the", valu"s fnr
P()'t-t~nsiorl<.'<1 memheTh_ The", may be calculated separatdy by the eqoation, o f
SeniooI9.I.1bb..low.
The AAS HTO r"<'()l11mend~d 10''''' of Tahl~ 19.3 includ" losse, due to dastk
,hortening, creep. 'hrinkag". and relaxation (see s..'etion 19.11b). Thus for c"'n""ri -
son with R yalues fo.- ",timating Insses , such"" were ~mploy~'<I for the. p"-'e~-ding
"xamples. which included only the ti llIe-dcpendent 10""" due to Shrinkage. ",eep. a nd
relaxation. eiast;,; shon~ning 10'1"" ,hould be esti mated by the methods discussed in
Section 19. l.1b and dedu<t..d from the tOlaL
b. Estimate of Separate Losses

For most designs. a scpllmtc esti1llat~ of individual losses is made. Such an analysis is
complicat..d by the int~rdcpcndencc of time-dcpcndcm losses. For eumpl<'. the. rcla.~
atioo of stress in the tendons is a/focled by length changes due to crl'Cp of conerele . Rate
of cre.:p. in tum. is altered by change in tendon stress . In the following si.~ subS<..'Ctions.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
TABLE 19.3
Estima te of prestress losses
Wires or Strands w ith
Ty~ of Beam Section level - 235. 250, Or 270 hi
Rcelangular Ix-,,,,;, solid slabs Up!'er boond n Ok,i
A\'cr~g. )00 ksi
Il<>x girder UPI"'r boulltl B,Oh;
",.rage 2.1.0 k,;
I ginkt ""era~e nOn - O.l5{f; - 6.0J 6,01 t 6,0
Single T. OOo,bfe T. IJ pper boond J9Jl( 1 O.l5(f; 6.0) 6.0J + 6,0
hollow c"",, .lId ,'oided ,lab ""<rage 39Jl\ 1 - 0.15(f; - 6.0)6.0] + 6,0
""ILk' "'" f,. full), Pfi""","''<II>. ..... , n'<lOCl""" or,' a1"_d f,. """ial 1""_-"
1-"",,, doc to foo;.., "'" "",100..'<1. rooioo R'<= "" .. kJ be "","pulcd :iCC,"",,,!, '" So:ction 1~ . I1 h.
F,. """""''"'"tion ",and,. Ill< ,~ I """ '1,:df,,'<1 "uy 1>.' rcdua'd by .0 ~> ; fOf 1>." ~i"k .. ; 6.0 b i r..
1t~'WIi-"1>r OCIllll> .... id ,I ~ and 1 ~im.", ; . 00 ~ . U ~ ,i foo ~""l< '1"., d lU~l< r . bolk,..' COrt' anJ ,uidcd sIaII>.
5<,"",,; Ado,",'" In,," ~" I , 19,17,
losses arc trem~d as if Ih~y OCCU1T~>d ;mkpeodently. ahhough ccrtain arbilrary adj usl
mCrtlS arc included 10 accounl for lh~ inl~rd~pcodcncc of li111CdePCl1d~nt losses. If
grcaler refinement is nccessary, a sl~p by slep approach. like Ihal mentioned in
SeClio~ 19, Dc. may be used (sec also Refs, 19,18 and 19,19).
(1 ) SUI' IITTIn; ANCIIORACES As Ihe load is 1r:lIlsfelT~-d 10 lhe anchorage dcvice in

posHcnsioncd construclion. a sl ighl inward nlO"~n""llI of Ihe Icndon will occur as lhe
wedges seal Ihemselves and as Ihe anchorage ilself deforms unlkr Siress , The amount
of Ino"~nlCnI will vary gr.:mly. depending on Ihe Iype of anchorage and on conSlruc
lion lechniqucs. The an'Klum of nlOvenlCnI due 10 scaling and Siress defornlnlion asso
cim~d wilh any par1 icu lar Iype of anchorage is besl eSlabli st-..>d by ICSI. Once Ihis
3111OUl1l IlL is delct1nined. lhe Slress loss is easily calculmed from
L
[,>1", L E, (19.35 )
II is significant 10 l101e lhat the amou nl of slip is nearly independent of the cabk
length. For lhi, reasoo , the 'tre&, I"", will be large for short teodolls and relatively
small for long lcndons. The ImK"lical conse<.juence of lhis is thal it is m""t diffi('uli to
po,Hension shon lendolls with any degree ,;,f accuracy.
(2) EL,\STlC SItOKTE,' IS(; Of Til"; COI<CKEn: In prelensiol1ed nlt!mbers. as lbe

tendon f()f('e is lransferred from IIltl fi ~~-d ahUlments 10 th;, concrete beam. daslic
inslanta",'(ju, compressive ~train wil l lake place in tbe cuncrete.lending III redu~"" lbe
stres, in tl"" Ixmde-d preSlfe!S;ng st;,el. nit! Sled slres~ loss is
I,
j,ALwic = E. E., = 'if, (19 .."l6)
where Ie i, II", concrele SlreSs al Ill<: level of 100 _wd cenlmid immedialdy after pre-
streS' i< applied:
P, M oe
+ -- (19.J7)
A,
"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
If tm, lendon, are pb.x..J with significantly diff~rent eff~clive depths, Ihe stress 10" in
each should be calculated ""par~tely.
In computing /,. by Eq. (19.37). lhe preslre" force used should be thaI afler the
los""s be ing calculnted ha,'e oceurr~..J . It is usually adt."<juate 1<> estimate this as nboul
10 percent I"ss than Pr
In pO" -t~nsioned members. if all of the slr.mds are tension~..J nt one time, Ihere
will be no I"" due to ela,tic shortening. beenu"" Ihis shortening will "'-'cur as the jack-
ing force is appli~d and before the prestres,ing force is measured. On the O1I",r hand,
if variou, .trand, are tension~..J ,,-,<!uemially. the ,tress loss in each strand will vary.
being a maximu m in the fir>j strand len,ioned and ze ro in the lasl ,trand. In mosl
ca""s. it is sufficiemly accurate to calculate the loss in the flf,t ,trand and to appl)' one-
half that \'alu~ to all Slrand"
(3 ) FRICTION AL L OSSES Losses due 10 friction . as the tendon is stressed In poSI

tensioned n",mOcrs . arc usually ""parmed for convenicllCe imo lWO pans: cun'mure
friction and wobble friction , The first is due to int~ntional boonds in thl: tcndon profile
3S spccilkd and thl: second 10 the onintemional variation of the tendon from ilS
inlcntkd profile. 11 is appnrenl thm even a "slraighC' l ~ndoll duel will ha"~ some unin
Icntional misalignnlCn1 so lhal wobble friclion muSl always be consitkrw in poSl
tensioned wor~. Usu~lIy. curvature friclion m ust be considcr~xl as wdl. TIle forc~ al
Ihe jading end of Ihe lendon f' o ' .-.::quircd 10 produce the foree f', al any poim x along
Ihe Icndon. can be found frol11lllC expression
(I9.38a)
whcre e .. base of nalUrallogarilhms
I, .. lendol1 lenglh from jacking end 10 poim x
.. angular change of lendon from jacking cnd 10 poim x. radians
K .. wobble friclion coctlicicm. 1Mb per f1
.. curvature friclion cocfflcicm
There has heen mu<'h researc h Oil frictionallo<~s in p","ressed con'truction. partic-
ularly with regard 10 the value, of K and , . The", vary appreciably. depend ing on cun -
strunion method s and malerials u~L The val ues in Tnble 19.4. from AC I Comn",n -
tary R 18.6. may be used as a guide .
TABLE 19.4
Friction coefficients for post-tensioned tendons
Wobble Curvature
Coefficient Coefficient
Type of Tendon , per ft
GJUlJrod rondon. in ""'tal sbcathing
Wife tendon. 0.00 10----0.0015 0. 15----0.25
lIigh ."rcngtb h"" O.lXJ() !_{U)(X)6 0.118-0.30
Se"en-"'ire mofld O .OOO ~-tl.OO20 0 . 1~"{U5
Unbondcd rondon'
Mast k->ated ",ire tendons 0.00 10----0.0020 0.05--0.15
M."tic"""",,,d ""'onwi,,, ,trand 0.0111 0----0 .0020 (J.05-O.I.~
rr.grea'>Od wire tendon, O.OOOJ-tl.OO20 0.0~--O.1 5
I'ref rcil>C<l "",-en wire "':mil O.O(X)3"{J.oo20 O.O~"{I . I .~
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
If one accepl' the approximation that Ihe nonnal pressure on the duct cau,ing
lhe frinional force ""ults fromlhe undiminished initial tension all the way around the
cur....e. the following simplified expression for loss in tension is oblainOO:
(19,3Rh)
where is the angle betw,-",n the tangents al the end,. The ACI Cooe pennit, Ihe use
of lhe simpl ifled fonn . if the .... alue of KI, + is not grealer than 0.3.
l1Je 10" of pre stress for the emire tendon length can be computed by "'gmem"
with each scgrnoem assumed to con,ist of either a circular arc or a length of tangent
(4 ) C KEU' OF Co."C KEn : Shortening of connete under ,u,tained load has been
discussed in &'etion 2.R. It can be expressed in tern" of the creep codncient Co'
Creep shonening mar be ",veral tiT1l<es the initial elaslic .I,,)nening, and it is e"ident
that it will resuh in loss of prestress fom, . TIle ,tress loss can be cakulatOO from
(19.}9)
Ult i male \'alues of C, for ditTerem cOn,'rete st rength, for average conditioos of humid -
ity C", are given in Table 2. L
In F..q. (19.19). the concrete 'tres'!e to be used is that at tile le\'el of the steel ""n -
troid. when the eccemric prestres, force plu, all su'tained loads are acting. Equalion
(19.37) can be used. eX"eplthatthe momem Mo should he replaced hy the mOT1l<em due
to al/ dead loads plus Ihat due to any ponion of tile live load thal may be considerOO
,u,tained.
h should be noted thaI the pre'tres..~ force causing creep is not constant but
diminishes with the passage of time due 10 relaxalion of the sleel. shrinkage of tile
concrele, and length changes as,ociatOO with neep itself. To account for thi" it i, rec-
ommended that the prestress fore" cau,ing creep be assumed at 10 I"'rcent less than
Ihe initial value 1',.
(5) SIi RIN KAI;~; OF C O..... CR~:n; It is apparent thal a oc'erease in the length of a
member due 10 'hrinkag" of tile C<KlCre(e will be jusl as dctrimemal as length chang'"
due to stress. creep, or other causeS. As discussed in Section 2.1 1. the ,hrinkage ~Imin
.. may vary between about OJl004 and O.OOOR. A typical value of 0.0006 may be used
in lieu of 'p'-'eifi,' data. The steel slress loss resulting from shrinkage i,
(19.40)
Only that pan of the shrinkage that otturs after lransfer of preSlress foree to l/Je ~ooc"'t~
n..",d he considered . For prelensioo"d memher,. transf~r "ommonly tak~s place jusl IR
hours after placing the C"'ICrele. and IIe""ly all the Shrinkage lakes pla,'e af1~r Ihat tinle.
However, post-tensioll<.'<l m."nbe" are ",Idom s!Jesse!! at an age earlier than 7 days and
often much later than Ihat. About 15 pert-em of ultimate shrinkage may IICCur wimin 7
<lays, under typieal condilimL', and about 40 pert'em hy tile age of 2R days.
(6 ) R EL\ XATIOS Ot STU:L The phenomenon of relaxation, ,imilar to creep. was
discossed in Section 2.1&. Loss o f slress due to relaxation will vary depending upon
Ihe st ress in the sk",1. and may he e,timated using Eqs. (2 .1 J ) and (2.12). To allow for
the gradual reduclion of ,t",,1 slress re,ulting from the cornhilled effee" of creep,
,hrinkage. and relaxation, lhe relaxalion calculation can he h,a",d on a prestress foree
10 pereent less than Pi.
h is illleresling to observe that the largest pan of the relaxation loss occurs
,honly after tile steel is slretched. For slr",ses ofO.RO!,... ami higher, e"en a very sh,m
period of loading will produce substantial relaxation, and this in tum will rOOuce th"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
I' R['STR K"S ~:D C()NC REn: 68 1
relaxation Ihat will oc.:nr later nt n lower ~tre" level. 1bc relaxation mte ('illl thus he
artificially nceeleratoo by ternpor~ry ownen,ioning. Thi s technique i. the basi, for
prudueing low-relaxation ,t~e!.
c. Loss Estimation by the Time-Step Method

lne 10.' calculatiollS of the preceding pnragraphs recognized the interdependence of
creep. shrinkage. and rdaxation losses in nn approximnte way. by an nrhimlTy reduc-
tion of lO per<'Cnt of the inilial prestress for"" P; to obtain tbe force for which {'r<>ep
and relaxation lo,ses were cakula1<-'<.L For cases R'quiring greater ac{'umcy. los~s enn
he calculated for discrete time ,teps o\'er the period of interesL 1bc prestress forc"
cau,ing lo"es during any time slep is tnken '-'qual to the value:u the ~nd of tl", pre-
{'C{]ing tin'" ,tel'. nceoul11 ing for 10,"', due to all cnuse, up 10 Ihat time. Accura('Y enn
he impru\'ed to ill'Y de,ired degree by reducing the length nnd increasing the numher
of time ,teps.
A step-by-,tep method de'doped by the CQmminee on l'resuess Los~s of tl",
Prestre,,,,-'<I Concrele Instit ute u"', only a small numher ohime steps and i, mk'quat~
for ordinary case. (Ref. 19.18).
.....,.- ""'" 19.14 S HEAR, DtAGON AL T EN StO N, A ND W EB REINFO RCEME NT
In prestre,,,,d concrete heams at servi"" load. tl",re are two faCIO" that greal ly reduc"
the intensity of diagoual ten5il~ str",ses. compared with 'tre,,,,~ thnt would exist if no
prestress for"" were prese nt. 1bc Ii"t of tl",,,, re,ull~ from the combination of longi -
tudinal compressi,'C ,tress and ,I",aring ,tres,. An ordinary ten,ile -reinforced -cx>llcrete
heam under load is ,h"wn in Fig. 19.22<,. The stre,ses a{'ting on a ,mall ele""'nt of the
heam taken near the neulr.il axis and near lhe support are ,hoWl! in (b). It is foulld hy
FIG URE 19,22

Principat ",,'" aMty<i. fo.-
,n ordin,ry reinforced
j j
",.."",1< be.m
1'1
(01
(0.+ v)
(o. - v) 1'1
10'
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 19.23

Principal ",,'" """Iy,i' {o,-"
.,....,sue;sed ,oc"". beam.
j j
,,'
'"
(0, -v)
,,' '"
means of Mohrs circle of siress (c) Ihal lhe principal slres,",-, act a1 45 10 Ihe axis o f
Ihe beam (J) and are numerically equal 10 Ihe shear stre" in1 en~il)'~ thus
1, = 1, = .> (1I)
Now suppose Ihal Ihe same hearn, with lhe same loads, is subj<-'<1ed '0 a precompre,-
sion sire" in lhe amount c , as shown in Fig. 19.23a an<l b . From Mohrs circle (Fig.
19.23c), the principal tensile s1f~ss is
, + , '
I, = - - + ,,1 ,h)
2 2
and Ihe direction of Ihe principal tension with re'pen 10 the heam axi s is
2,
(c)
as shown in Fig. 19.23d.

Comparison of Eq. (a) wilh Eq. (b) and Fig . 19.22.-: wilh Fig. 19.2Jc shows dml.
wilh Ihe ,arne shear stre" intensity. the principal tension in the preslressed heam is
much reduced.
lne senmd faclor working to reduce the iraensily of Ihe diagonal tension al ,",r-
vice loads resul,. from the slope of the tendons. Normally, thi s ,lope is sllch as to pro-
du,'e a shear due 10 the prestress force Ihat i, opposil~ ill direclion 10 the load-imposed
shear. TIle magnil ude of this c()uma.,"~ar i, \I. = 1', sin , where is the slope of Ihe
telUkm at lhe senior, considered (see Fig . 19.8).
It is important to !lme, however, Ihal in spile of Ihese characterislin of pre-
stre,sed hearns at >ervice loads, an inve'ligatioll of diagonal lensile ,tre",,. at service
loads Ik", s not en,u re an adequate margin of safety against failure. In Fig. 19.23<:. il is
evident that a relatively small decrease in compre"i"e Slress and increase in ,hear
stress. which may o<:,'ur when the beam i, o"erloaded, will produce a disproportion -
alely brge innea>e in d", re,uiting principal ten ,ion. In additioll to Ihis effect, if Ihe
countershear of indined tendons is u>ed to reduce design shear. ils contribution d,,,,s
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
nm increase directly with load. but much more slowly (><-'" Section 19.7). Con",-
'luently, a smnll in.,,-ease in tmal shenr may pmduce a large increa", in tn., nel shear
for which tl", ocam must oc designed . For these two fI""",,ns , il is neces.'<af)' to ba~
design for diagonal tension in prestressed ocam, on mnditions at faclor.,.j load "nhe r
than at service load. 11", study of priocipal stre",." in II", unccack.,.j preslressed ocam
is significant mlly in predicling Ihe load al which the first diagonal cldck form,.
At loads near failure, a preslressed ocam is usuall y extensively ,T.lck ..-d and
ochaws mu,'h like an ordinary reinforced ,'oncrete ocam. Accordingly. many of tn.,
pmt,--dures and e'luations developed in Sedion 4.5 for 11", design of web reinforce-
ment for nonprestre,><--d ocam, can oc appli ed to prestre~><--d ocams al",. Socar design
is ba><--d on tl'" relation
V.:i V. (19.41)
where V. is Ihc tow l shear force applied 10 the section a1 factored loads and V. is the
nominal shear strength . '-"qual 10 the sum or the co"trihu!;ons of the cOllcrete Vc and
web reinforeel11em V,:
V. = V,+V, (19.4 2)
The strength fl><iuction factor is e'lual to 0.75 for she",-
In c"'''puting II", fuCtOfl><i at Ii 2.
The ,hear force V, resist.,.j by tl'" concrete after crolCking has occurred is taken
"<Jual to lhe socar Iha! Cau~s Ihe tirst diagonal cra('k. Two tyl"'s of diagonal cmch
have ocen obse rved in t~SIS of prestressed concrete hcarnsc
I. rlexu.,,sh~arcracks, <x'Curring al nominal shenr V". s1:ut a, ,,,,ari)' vCllical
flexu r~1
cmck., at the tensio n face of the ocarn. then spread diagonally upward
(under tht influent'" of diagm'nl tension) loward lhe ('o nlpression face. TIte.>e are
Common in ocams Wilh a low value of preslress forcc.
2. Web-shu r cracb . occurring at nominal shear Vnv ' star! in Ihe weh due to high
diagonal te nsion , then spread diagonally hoth upward and downward, These are
often found in ocams with thin webs wilh high preslress force.
On tl", hasis of exteosive tests. it was e,tablisl,.,.j Iha! the shear causing flexure
st", ... r na('king can oc found u.<ing the expre"ion
(a)
where Y,,"'J ' I is the sllear force, duc to IOlal load, at which the tlc.xural crack forms
at th~ 5<-"<'tion consid~red. and 0,6 f .. l>,. d reprcsctHs an addi(jonal shear force required
to transfofln the t1c.xural crack itHO an inclined crack.
While selfweight is generally uniformly distributed. the superimposed dead and
li\'e loads may have any distribution. Con5<-'quetH ly, it is convcnietH 10 separate tile
total shear into V0 caused by the beam selfweight (without load factor) and V,,, the
additional shear force. due 10 superimposed d~ad and live loads, com:spondinll to flex
ural crac~ ing , Thus.
Vn - 0.6 /,h.<I + Yo + V,.,. (h)
The shear VC' due 10 superimposed loads can then be found convcnictHly from
_ VJ H ' 1
V,., " " ,<)
MJ'I
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
IW..<; ( W'~ O F CO NC R~: n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r (9
where VJ'i M d+!' (he rntio of superimposed dead and li~e load shear 10 IlIOllICm.
remains con,tam as the load increases 10 the cracking load. and
f, . _
,II" - - 6 I, + I"", - Ilb' (19.43)
c,
where " 2 - distance from concrete centroid 10 tension face
14>< - compressi~c streSS:H tension face resu lting from effective prestress force
alone
I", = OOllom.fiber stress due 10 beam self_weighl (unfacwred)t
The first lerm in the parentheses is a eonservati"e estimate of the modul u~ of
ruplure. The oouom-ftber Siress (lue to self.weighl is subtracted here because self.
weighl is considered separately in Eq . (1)). Thus. Fq. (I becomes
...,.. VJ+I
V" = 0.6 j,I>.,.d. Thc ,'alm of d n~oo nOI
be tahn less than O.8Oh for this and all other ~'<luations rdating to shear. according to
tlw ACl C<Xk. unless s]l'<)etfically nOkd otherwise. Additionally. the values VJ , I and
M d<l should be cornput~d for the load combination causing th~ maximum moment in
the' section. B,caus~ Vd I is the increnwntalload aoo",' the b"~JlI self-weight. the ACI
uses Ihe not~tion \liM" M ..u ' noting that ,II" comes from Eq, (1 9.43).
n,e shear fo"" causing w~bshear cracking Can be fuund from an exact princi -
pal stress calculation. in wh ich th~ principalt~nsile stress is set equal to th~ diroct I~n
sile capacity of th~ concrete' (conservatiwly tak,n equal to 4 J according to the ACI
Cod,), Ait~mmiwly. Ihe AC t Code ]l'<)nnils use of th~ approxllnute expression
(19.45)
in which/l"" is the <'omp~ssi,"" stress in the conc~te . arler loss~s . attlw e~ntroid of th"
concrete section (or at the junclion of the web and th~ flange whcn the centroid lies III
the flange) and Vp is th" wnical compun~nt of the dfoctiw pr~stress fo,,~. In a pre
knsioned beam. th" 0.31, ... contribution 10 V,"," should be adjustc..:l from zero ~t the
~am end to Its full ,'alue on" 1fansf~r I~ngth (st\<.' S~ction 19.ISb) '" from tk ~nd of
the' beam.
Afkr V" and V", have be~n cakulated. then Ve' the shear r~sis1anee provided by
the' conc~ t ~. is taken equal to the small er of the IwO valll~s ,
Calculating MO' . V</ . and V",. for a p~str"s!><.'d beam is a t~dious mailer ix><:ause
many of th~ parallldcTli ~ary along th<. lIIemb"r axis . For hand calculations. th"
~Quired QUaJl titi~s lila)' be found at discrete lnt<'fyals along th~ span. such as at r 2.
r 3. r 6. and at/, 2 from the support bee. and stirrups spaced occording ly. or computer
sp~adshects may be used.
Tu shorten the calculation ~qulTcd. thc AC! C<Xk illdudes. as a cons" rv3ti,'"
aitemaliye to the aoo," procoour", an equation for finding the concrete sh~ar resist
anee Vo di~ctly:
'1,. =
_
0.6 I.. + 700 -
V." ~" (19.46)
M,
in which M. is th~ bending mon~nt occurring simul1aneously with sh~ar forw V. but
V,;1 M , is IIOt to be mken greakr than 1.0, When Ihis equat ion is used. V,. n"'-..:I not be
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
laken less Ihan 2- J;h_d alld mUSI nOI be laken greater Ihan 5 - f(" h~d , While Eq ,
(19,46) is lemplingly easy 10 use and may I>c adequate for un iformly loaded mcmocrs
of minor imponance. ils use is apl 10 rcsu ll in highly UllCconomical designs for I
ocam! ",ilh medium and long spans and for composile conslruclion (Ref. 19.20).
When shear rcinforcemellllloCrpcndicular 10 lhe axis oflhe beam is used, ils con
Iriool ion 10 shear s(renglh of a prcslressed beam is
A,.{,d
V 0 --' - (19.47)
, .\'
Ihe sallie as for a nonprcstressed llIember, According 10 the ACI Code. Ihe val ue of V,
must not b.: takcn greater Ihan 8- J,h.d.
The lotal nominal shear strenglh V, is found by summing the contribulions of lhe
concrele and sleel. as illdic~lcd by Eq. (19 ,42):
A,I,II
v ~ V + --
<
(19,41\)
"
Then. from Eq , (19.41).
V. _ V"" -Ve + V,
from which
A,J,d
v ~ n -.,- ( 19,49)
" ("
The required cross-sectional area of one slirrup A, can b<' calculalc'{) by sUllabl~ trans-
position of Eq , (19 ,49).
A, = ."V'".-c-?"c'" (19.50)
f,d
Normally. in praclical design. Ihe engi neer ",ill seIL"t a Irial Hirrup si?e. for "'hieh the
required spacing is found _Thus. a more convcnient form of the last cqlJ31ion is
<- ~
-,A""',,,dec (19.51)
V. V,.
A minimum ,.,-.,a nf shear reinfof<'emeni i, ~uired in all pre,tres",d C<;lnCrel~
mem bers wl"'r~ the l<;11al fa('!()red ~I",ar for('e is greatcr lhan one -half the de'ign sl",ar
'trength provided hy tl", concrete V,. Exceptions ar~ made for .labs and fQ(lIiIlS',
conade-joist floor c0l1s1ruction. and c~nain wry shallow beam,. a~'Cordi ng to tl",
AC I Code. The mini mu m are a of shear reinfon:emem to be provided in all othe r ca""
is cqual 1<;1 [he smaller of
A , = 0 _75 (19.52)
,,"
," ----
A"
SOf,d
If""~ II
h.
(19.53)
ill which Ar , is (he crosS'R'Clional Mea of thc prestressing Sll'Cl. I", is Ihe lensile
slrength of the prestressing steel. and all olher terms are as defined above ,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
n,~ ACI Cod" comains ~"rtain restriclion, on 1m, maximum spacing of web
reinf'JH,ernenl {() en,ure Ibm an)" pownlial diagonnl CTacl,; will iJt, cmssed by at leasl a
minimum an>oul11 of web Sk'el. For preslr~=..J memben;, Ihi, ma~irnu", spacing is n<;ll
to e~ce~d the ,mailer ofO.751! <;IT 24 in. If tbe value \', exceeds 4 Ib.,I.
tbe,,", limil>
are r~duc~d by balf.
EX"' ,\ 1PL E 19.6 T he "nsymmelricall beam ,how" in Fig. 19.24 carries an effective IlreSl"'" fore, of 2&8
kirs and sup",,", a su""rimpose<j tkad load of.'45 Iblfl aOO sen';,. liw load of 900 Iblli.
in addilion 10 its own weig~ 1 of 2.55 Ibltt. on a 50 ft ,imple WII". At tile maximum mo'nenl
se.;.'lion. lhe off"'-'Ii"e ""plh 10 lhe main sd is 24 .5 in. (=entri";ly IIA in.l, n.. 'IrJ/lds
are ddlecled upward "arting LS n from Ihe ,uflPOI1. and eccentricil), i, reduced linenrly 10
,w, at the SUI>pOi1 . If COII,,,"I" w;lht; ~ 5000 rsi and Mirrors with !,- m 60.000 psi a", "",d,
and if lhe pre'lressed Slrand, hn". 'Ireng1hf.. - 270 lsi. whal i. ,he ",quircd ' Iirr"p ,pac
illg al a point 10 fl from lhe support'!
S()'.\ f[1"~. Ex" crosS 5e<"I;on with lhe ~iven dimt:llsioll'. il is ~a';ly confirmed t~at I, -
24.200 in'. A, - 245 in ' . and r - I , A, - 99 in' . AI a di>!.""" to fl from ltoe support cen
lerl;"". 1toe 1"'Kkm ""centricity is
"
~ - II .4 X 15 - 7,6 "'.
.
correspoooing 10 an effeclive deplh J from ltoe oompressioo face of 20.7 in. According 10 the
ACI Code, the largef ,al"c of ,/ - 0.80 X 19 - 23 ,2 in, will be ,,<;Cd. Cllkllla,ioo of I'd is
ba",d o n F.q', (19.43) aoo (19.44). The botlom-fiber sl",,, due 10 .ffe~li'e pre,S !",,, octing
alone is
,> 288,000 7.6 x 15,9
= - 2600 rsi
245
""
"'.x
M . ,o - - ,- I - x - 0,255 x 5 x 40 - 51 ft-kirs
, .r ~ 0.155 x 15 = .>.8 kips
F IG URE 19.2-1 r---- 1B" ~
I~I I
P"'Ilensiooe<l be,m in
Example 19.6.
rrL
I I r
"
.-
A 24.5'
29" 19" ~ j-- j-- r
lkT -,. ... I J

~ 1Z' ~
15.9"
AP'I - l,75in~
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
.nd the oonom fober ,tress due 10 this load is
"','
f 14 - - """c~OOOooc'c",,,,,9
24.200 ,~ ps,
- "N~.. .
Then. fro'" F.q. (19.43).
24.200 4~5 + 2600 - 402
- 333.000 f\.lb
15.9 X 12
The Mio of ,upcrilllpose<J load she", to moment at the >CC1ion is
V, l - ~' 30
~- ~ - - - - 0.075ft
M , .T I -' 400
Equmion (19A4) i, lhen ",ed to del"'m;"" Ilk: ,hear fon:e at which n~,"r~ -s~e"c cmch can
he expected 10 f"'Ill.
+ 3800 + 0.075 X ",0.000

,
V" - 0.6 5000 .S X 23.2 X 1000 - XU ~ips
The lower limil of 1.7 5000 5 X 23.2 1000 = n,9 kirs does fI()I romrol.
CalcuJati"" of V~.is haS<'d on Eq. (19.45). The ,I""" of the teoo()llS at the SC"tion under
co",i<k"'tion is soch thaI 'in - tan ~ II ,4 (15 X 121 ~ 0,063, Co",cquemly. lilt: ,,"r-
tkal compo"""1 of the etTecliv~ pre'tress l<>rre is V, - 0.063 X 288 - 18. 1 ~ips. The con_
crete rompres,i"e su-e,s at lilt: '"'ction c<:ntroid is
288.000
f,,- 245 1 170 psi
Equati()ll {19,45) can "",",' he ~",'oold occur.
3.5 5000 + 0.3 X 1170 5 X 23.2 + 18.100 X 1000 = 87.5 kips

,
ThuS. in lilt: prcsen' ~.'",.
V, = V" = 33.5 l ips
At the secliol1 ronsidered, lhe total ,hear force al r:K"tored load, is
V. = 1.2 X 0,600 X 15 + 1.6 X 0.900 X 15 = 32.4 kips

When No. J (No, 10) U stirrups are used. for which A,. = 2 X 0.11 = 0.22 in'. the ""I"ired
,pacing is fOlu>d from liq , (19.51) to be
_ 0.75 X 0,22 X 60.000 X 23 ,2 = ,

s- 3_in.
32.400 - 0. 7~ x 33.~00
Equali()ll (19 ,5 ~) is liIcn applied to e,Wblish " mo, inoum Sjlocing crilerion.
1.75
022= -- ~ - ~ -
. 80
270
60
s
23 ,2 ,
2:1.2
- - = O,OO9ls
.< = 24 .1 in.
TI>e (l!her criteria f(l< ma .im"m SI)(ICing. lhrcefounhs X 29 - 22 in. mod 2.. in .. toowe,'cr,
control hl're. Oren U stirrups will be used, Jt a sp:>ei ng of 22 in.
l'(l< comrarioon . Ihe concrele sl>eaT will be calculal(.-.j on II>e ba,;s of Eq. (19 ,46 ). The
ratio V. M. is 0.07 5. and
__ 0.075
0.6 500J + 700 X 1"2 X 2L
~
5 X 23 ,2 ~
,
- - - 16,7 l ips
"'"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
IW..<; I W'~ OF CO NC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 19
The lower and "pre' limils. 2 5000(5 X B-2) 1000 ~ 16.4 ki ps and 5 5000(5 x
2.1.2) 1000 - 41 .0 kil'" do ,)0( COnlml Thus, on U>e b is of V, obtained from r"l. (19.46),
I"" required spacing of No, 31No. \0) U !.Iirrups is
0.75 X 0.22 X 60.000 X 23.2
s~ - 11.6io,
32,400 - 0.75 X 16.100
For the presenl oa>t, on J<eclioo beom of intermedi .le sp,n, oearly 2 limes the web \1",,1 is
required al tilt: loc",ion inv<!slisawd if the allcmmi"~ ~xprcs,ion gi"iog I', di=lly is us..d,
--- 19.1S B ONO STRESS, T RANSFER L ENGTH, AND D EVELOPMENT L ENGTH
n,~r~ an: Iwo "'paml~ wurce, of bond sire" in pre,lressed cOnne1e beanL" (I) nex -
ural bond. which exi .., in prel~nsioned coo,lruction belween Ihe kmkm' and Ihe con -
Crete and in gmUl<'il post -tensioned conslruction be,ween the tendons and lhe grout
and belween the conduil (if any) and concrel~, and (2) prestress tr.msfer bond. gene r-
ally applicabic to pretensiolled members only.
a. Flexural Bond
Flexural Ix}]]d ,tres"" arise due to II", cbange in I~nsion along the wnd"n resulting
from differ~",",,' in bending mOnlenl aI adjac"ent ><":-lions . n,~y are pmponional to Ihe
rale of change o f bending momel11. hence to Ihe ,hear force. al a given location along
rbe 'pun. Provided rbe c<;mnere member i, une",,:ked. n~x"ral bond Slress is very low,
After ernc"k ing. il i, higber hy an ord~r of magnitud~. However, nexur.il bond Stre"
nc"d not be con,idered in designing prestres",d emlCrete beams , pr<;l"idt."<l Ihat ade-
quar~ end and"'mg~ i, fumi,hed (or Ihe r~ndon. either in the form of rnec"hani,"al
anch<;lrage (po,I-lensioning) or stmad ernhedm~nt (preten,ioning).
b. Transfer Length and Development Length

For pretensinn~"<l beams, when rbe external jacking (orce is rel~ased, rhe prestre"ing
force is tr.msferred fT()m Ihe sted to Ihe CQI1<"rere n~ar Ihe ~nd, oftbe member by bond.
over II dislance which is known a, the tmn1er lengtll. The lransf~r length depend,
upon a number of factor.;. including the sl~el stress, rhe ("onliguralion of the s1<,,1 <TOSS
><->elion (e.g . strands ,s. wire,), rl", conditi on of lbe ,urface of rhe steel. ami tbe sud -
denn"" with which Ihe jac king force is rej~ased . Bas..,,} <;In rest, of ,..,,,ell-wire pre-
'Ire ssing strand (Ref. 19 .21). rhe effective presrress!", in the sled may be assumed 10
acl at a tmllsfer lengtb fmrn rl", end of rl", member equal to
I, = i"
3 d. (,,)
where I, ~ Imnsf<'T I~ngth. in.

d~ ~ nominal sirand diameter. in.
f", ~ effeclive preslress. ksi
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
n,~ same le~ts ind il'a t~ that the additional distance pn,t the original transfe r
length I>l><:essary to develop the fail ure strength of the st""] is closely represe nted by
tbe expression
(h)
where the qunmity in jXtr~ntr.:s.:s is thc Stress increl",-,m abovc the cflccti"c prestress
level. in ~s; un;ts. to reach the calculatcd st~cI stress at failure I!". Thus thc total devel
opl",-,m length at fndur~ is
Id=I, + /{ (c)
'" ,
/J = I". - ~ If" db (19 ,54)
The ACI Cod<,- does not r~'<lu;n.' that nexural bond StreSS be checked in dther prd~n
sioned or posH~nsion~d member,. bu t for plV\~nsioned strand it is required !hat tlk<
full dewlopment length. giwn by Eq, (19 ,54). be provid~d beyond the critica l bend
ing ""ction. Inwstigation may be limit~d to !hose eros> sections near~st each md of
th~ nwmber that are required to dt'-\'elop t!wiT full fkxural S!r~ngt h umrer the specifi~d
factored load.
___ 19.16 AN CHORAGE Z O NE D ESIG N
In prestres",'{) concr~k' beams. the pr~S!ressing fore<' is irttrodu(~'{) as a load conc~n

tration acting owr 3 rdativdy small fruclion of th~ total m~mocr depth. For poSt
t~nsioned ocmns with mechanical 3nchorag<'. the load is applied at th~ end face. whil~
for plV\~nsioned beams it is introduc;,d sonk<what more gradually owr the transfer
I~ngth , In either case. the compressive stress distribution in the coocrete beconws lin
ear. conforming to that dictated by the owrall eccentricity of the applied forces. on ly
after a distance from lhe end roughly equal to the Mpth of the beam.
nlis lTansi tion of longitudi nal compressi,'e stress. frorn concentrat~d 10 linearly
distribut~d. produces transverse (wrtical) lensi Ie stresses that may lead to longilUdinal
cracking of the member. TIl<) pall en! and magnitude of the concrete stresses d~Jl<'nd on
til<) location mid distribution of the concentraled forees applied by the tendons.
Nu merous studies ha,e been made using the 11Ielhods of classical elasticity, photo-
elasticity. and finite el~~nt analysi s. and typical results are givt'n in Fig. 19.25. Here
til<) beam is lo.1ded unifonnly owr a ht'igllt equal 10 h 8 31 an eccentricity of 3h 8.
Contour lines are drawn through points of <'<lual wrtical t~nsion. with coefficients
expressing til<) ratio of ~ert ical Slr,'ss to awrage longitudinal compression. Typical ly.
there arc high IJllr"li".~ ''lTe,'.,'e.,' along th~ axis of the load a short distance inside the
end zone and high splIl/i"K "Ire,'.,'e.,' at tite loaded face.
hi many llO:SH~nsioned prestressed I beams. solid ~nd blocks are provided. as
shown in Fig. 19.26, Whi Ie tll<)se are often necess.1ry to accommodat~ ~ ndanchorage
hardware and supplemental re;nforcemt'rtt. ttwy are of little use in reducing trlmsverse
tension or ~",oiding cracking.
Steel reinforcenl<'nt for ~ndzork< SlTesses may be in the fonn of vertical bars of
relmiwly small diameter and close spacing and should be well anchored m til<' top and
bonom of the nl<'mocr. Closed slirrups are common ly used . with au;>.iliary horil011lal
bars inside the 90 bends ,
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I'l l'r......... c-.... I THI
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 19.25

CO",oon. of o'lual ,"<!tical
,(,.,,,. o.' ~If'I,Jf"'''' N,f.
1~. 1~ . )
--......,
~ 0-2
0.1
,"
"
,. D Tens ile stress zone

0.3 Coefficient ot ~
FIG U RE 19.26
PosHcn,;ooed I beam ,d,h
/ '''''
,~
.,"
rec,,"!ular ond block
}--
Il--- __
- + ----___ ~
Il-- -
& l, ,,-,Tendons
Ralional design of {he reinforcement for ~OJ ZOnes must recognize {hal horizon -
tal 'T~cking i, likely. If ad,-"~ua{e reinforceme nt is provided. so Iha{ {he era,k, an"'
restricted 10 a few inche, in I~nglh and to 0.01 in. or less in width . these era,k, will
nOi be delri memal lo the pe rformance of {he beam e it her at ""rvice load or al tbe fa,,-
tored lood slag~ . It slKlU ld be noted {hnt end-zone str~sses in pre{en,ioned and bonded
p<"t-Ien,ior~ beams do nOi increase in pm!,onion to loods . The failure ,{re" /p, in
the ,endon at beam failur~ i, atuioed only a{ {he maximum moment section.
For prelc,,-,ioll,,d !nell/her.f_ hased on {ests reponed in Ref. 19.22. a very simple
'-><Iuatinn has Ix"n pmp<,,,,d for {he design ,;,f eoo-zone reinforc~meJl{ :
P,I!
A, = 0.021 - (19.55)
(.I,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I' R['ST R K"S ~:D C()NC REn: 6'.1 1
FIGU IU: 19.27

P"<H<",iooOO md I'
, 'I ,
block: (<I) locoJ ""d
gcn<ml zone; (h) "rul
,M -I;' model.
~
,
,
V
-
Bursting
1,
J
L
-;r;' (~-''-,- - - - - - -
,
P,
"
(,' (0'
where fI , .. total crosssc.;tional area of slirmps necessary, in '

", - inilial prestress force. Ib
h .. total memher depth. in.
/, - allowable stress in stirrups. psi
I, .. transfer length. in.
An allowable stress J; - 20.000 psi has been found in tests to produce acceptably
snwll crad widths. The r~'<luircd rcinforcemc11I having total =a A, should be distrib
uted over a length equal to " 5 IJ)casun:d from ttJ,., end face of Ihe hemn. and for most
eftieicnl crack cOnlrolthe ftrst stirrup should be placed as close to the end face as prac
tical. II is re.:OtlH11C1I(kd in Ref. 19.22 that wrtical reinforcement according to Eq .
(19. 55) be provided for (/11 pretension~d members, unless lests or experience indicates
that cracking docs not occur at service or overload slages.
For posltensioIK>d members. tllC end region is dividlXl into two zones: local and
gellCral. as shown in Fig. 19.27<1. The lowl Z"'I'" is a rectangular prism immediately
surrounding Ihe anchorage device and any conftning reinforcement aroulhl the device.
llt.: X",uemi ~""'" consists of a n:gion lhat is approxlmmcly one stnIClUral depth /, from
the end of the beam and includes the local WIIC. For internal anchors . such as us~'!I in
slabs. the gCllCral zone e.xtends a dimnce h ahead of alhl behind the anchorage hard
ware. Stresses in the local zone :lrc octennillCd based on tests. The posttensioning sup
pi ier speciftes the reinforcenlCni details fOf the local ZOIIC.
Stress variations in the general zone arc nonlinear and arc charact~riz~d by a
transition from the local lOne to an assumed un ifoflll stress gradi ent ~ distance IT from
the anchor. Reinforcement in the general zone may be d~sign~>d by one of three melh
ods. These methods include equilibriumt>aRxl plasticity models. such as 1he stmt
andtie model. linear stress analysis such as ftnit~ clenlCnt analysis. and simplifted
elasticity solutions similar to the photoclastic model shown graphically in Fig. 19.25
or elasticily amdyscs descritx'<l in Ref. 19.23. Simplifted ~'quations arc not permilled
for nonn:ctangular cross soctions. where IOU hi plc anchorages :lre used (unlcss closely
spac~xl). or where discontinuities disrupt the force flow path.
Strutandtie design approaches for highway girder anchoragcs =
detailed in
the AASH TO Slwuiurti Sf'~dfiwli"nsf"r lIiXI1I<""-I' Briti!:", (Rcfs. 19. 17 and 19.23).
An abbreviated "ersion of the AASH TO Spc<:iftcalions is incorporated in ACI
Commentary R 18.1 3. ACI Code 18.15 requires that compl~x. mu lt iple anchorage sys
tems conform to the full AASHTO Speciftcmions.
For the comillon case of a rectangular cnd block and simple anchorage (Fig.
19.27"), ACI Commentary 18.13 offcrs simpllftLxl equations bnsed on test results and
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
,trutand tie modeling. The "'ngnitud~ of th~ hur<ting force T",,,, and the locmion of
il> centroid distance from the front of the anchor d"",,, may be cakulak-d a,
T..", = 0 ,25::i:f'.. ,- -"/, (19.'i6)

arid
(19.57)
whcre ~f',. .. sum of total faclOn:d post-lcnsiooi~g forcc

<I .. depth of anchorage device
~ .. ahsolutc ,'aluc of ccccmricily of anchorage dC"icc to centroid of con
crete section
It .. depth of cross seclioo
The use of the faclOred poSHensioniog force i'" ...."Cogni,.<:s tbm the tendon foree is
acting as a lo;uJ. Helice. the maximum jJcking SIf<'SS 0 _80/po is muhiplied by a 100ld
factor of 1.2 to calculalc P,..
P,. = 1.20.80/1'" A", = O.9t!{""Ar , (19.51\)

Tr~n'verse rein forcement A, = T..", /, is added in a region that i, cent~red Oil
the I",eation d""", to ('all)' the hursling foree.
I" case" where the simplified equation, do n01 apply. a stru t-and-tie model
(Chapter 10) Or finite element analy,is may be requi red to design the bursting zone.
EX,\,\/ PL E 19.7 Il<>sl(:l> or .nd_lon. ,..,I nfo...,.,m."t ror i>"'1. t<n<io,,'" beam. End,zolle rei llforc~""'nt i,
to be (ksigoed for the reclangulor rosHcnsio..w beam sho"'n in Fig. 1 9 . 2~ . The initial pr~
"n", force P, of 150 kips i. "l'Plied by tWO do",ly 'poeM tendons having 3 rombined
",:centricit)' of 8,0 in. Mm"';,,1 provenie, are!.~ K 42:10 psi and!, ~ 6{I,000 psi.
S()UTTl"~. TI>e n:c1angul.r "Clion and the closel)' sp3Cd allChornge devie." .1I0w the use
of the si mplified ACI equation , _
d""u ~ 0_5h - 2e ~ O_5]O - 2X 8 ~7 in.
FIG UIU: 19.28

DI:,ign of .",., .tcnsi()r.OO
r-- 12' ""1 30"
I iiI I iI
.nd..". zon", (<I) ""tion",
end 3"""""; ( h) OM ' Q "" I 4 No.4 (':'k>- 13)
'" in f orcem<n, . closed stl"ups
I I I I
'" -C------ -r-mrr------
L I,
9.5"
.1
" _~~'~''~t-
1"-J w....9-J
2 ,5'
I
'"' 10/
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
I' R['STR K"S ~:D CO NC REn : 6 '.13
The in;l;al JlI"Slres>ing force is 250 kip;. which rorresf'Ollds 10 3 london >lress leHI of
0.82f".. The rn,"imum jackjng >lrC' S le"cl in the wndons is 0.9'Vw or 0.80 f .... In thi , ex,m-
pie. only the inilial f'Il,,'ress i, rro,-i<led. lienee. lilt' faclorc'illendon force i, cakulaled as
0.'4
P,. - 1.2 0.82 250 - 344 kip;
for which
T""", - 0.25:l:P" 1 - 0.25 X :l44

, - 68.8 kips
m
The area of steel needi.'<llo resist T.. ~ ,;'
T_ 68.8 ,
A ,_ ~ -- ~ ~ 1.35 in-
f, 0.85 X 60
Using No.4 (No. !.l) dosed ,,;rrups wil h an are" of2 X 0.2{) in' gi"e,
1.35
" = , = .\.4 stirrups
X 0.20
four NO.4 (No. n) dosed \l irrups will be used. The firsl slirrup win be placed 2t in. from
IIIe 3lK"lIor plole. and the Oilier three Slirrups will be placed) in. on ce nter. as sllo"'n in FIg.
19.28h, cenlering llle ' Iimrps a disl,,,,,e (I",,~ fromlhe anchor pl~le. l11c do>Cd &limrps
en, ure Ihal anchorage requirements are SJlisfk'<l. [)elails of lhe rt'infon-emcnl in tile local
>))!IC ~re IlOl shown.
___ 19.17 DE flECTIO N
JkfllX'tion of Ihe slender. relatively flexible beams Ihal are made possibk by pre
stressing must be p redict~d wilh care. Many n""mbers. satisfJctory in all Olher
respecls. have proved to be unservic.:able because of excessi"e deformJli on. In some
cases. the absolule amount of deflrxtion is e'cessive. Oft~n. il is Ihe differential defor.
mation between adjacenl members (e.g __ pr.xast roof-d<.'Ck unilS) thaI causes prob
lems . More oftcn Ihan not. any difflcultics that occur arc associ~led with upward
dcnecti on due to thc suslail""d prestr.:ss load. Such d iffkultics are easily avoided by
proper consi!kration in design.
Whcn the prestress force is first applied. a beam will normalJy camber upward .
With the passage of time. concrete ~hrinkage Jnd creep will cause a graduJI reduClion
of prestress force . In spite of Ihis . the upward ,kn~ction usual ly will irn;rease. due to
the differe nt ial creep. affeCling Ihe highly S1re~sed bottom fibers more than the top.
With Ihe application of superi I11posed dead and Iive loads. this upward deflL'Ction will
be partially or compktely overCOI11C . an,! 7,ero or downward defl.xtion obtain~d.
Clearly. in compUling deformalion. careful all~ntion mUSI be paid to both the age of
the conC,""le al the time of load applicalion and Ihe duration of the loading.
The prediClion of deflection can be approached at any of ,,-,veral kVeis of accu
racy. depending Ilpon the nalllre and importJnce of the work . In SOI11C ca,,-,~. it is suf.
ficicnl 10 place limitations on the ~pan-deplh ratio. based on pasl experience.
Generally. defleclions must be cJkulat~d. (Calculalion is required for (1/1 preslress-cd
n""mbers . according to ACJ Cod<: 9.5.4.) Th~ approximate meth<Xl de~cribe<:l here will
be found sufficiently accurate for I110St purposes. In special cireul11stJnces. where il is
il11portanl 10 obta in thc best po~~ible informalion on dcfk ction at all imponanl load
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
6'M IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 19
stages. such as for long-<I"'n bridg~s. th~ only satisfa<'!ory approach is to use a <um-
mation pmn'<lure based on in,'remental defl~,tioll at di,cret~ time step"~ a, described
in Rds. 19.1. 19.8. 19.24. and 19.25. In this wny. the ti me -del"ndent changes in pre-
stre" foree, mnterinl pml"nies, and loading Can be accou nted for to tbe d~sired
degree of :tCcur.u:y.
Normally. the defl<-'Ctions of primary int~rest are those al the initinl slage. when
the beam is acted upon by the initial preslres< force P, and its own weight. and one or
more cOl11hinaliolls of load in se rvi,..,. w]-;"n the prestress fore~ i, rl'<luc<--d by losse, to
the effective value P,. [kfl ection, nre l1uKlif,ed by creep mKkr th~ sustained preslress
foree and du~ to all othe r stlslai n<--d loads.
TIJe shon-tenn defloclion ll.,. d ue to the inilial p.-e<I"''' foree Pi can be found
based on the varialion of pr~stres" momenl along the span. making use of l11onJent-
aren p.-inciples and sUI"'l""iti on. Fo r stmicnlly delemlinale beams, the ordinates of
the mome nt diagmm resuiting from ti", ",'centric pre<lress force are directly propor-
tionallO Ih~ ~'Ccentrici t y of lhe sl",,1 ,,,ntroid lioe wilh respeci 10 Ihe <"<,"new centroid.
For ind~lerminale beams, =ntricity sbould be measured 10 the thrusl line r.llher Iban
to Ihe sl~el c~ntroid ("-'" Rd. I 9. I ). In either ca<;c. dJe efTed of preslress Can nl>o be
regardL-d in tenn, nf ~'<Juivalent loads and deflection, found using familiar defleclion
~'<Jualions.
lne downward defleclion ll." du~ to gird~r <;elf-weight. whicb i, u,ually uni -
formly dislribu1<--d. is easily found by conventional nJean,. Thu " Ihe nel ddle,'lion
oblai ned irllln~dialely upon preSlre"in g i,
(19.59)
where the Ilcgati" e sign indicates upward displaccme~t.
Long-tertn dct1cctions due to preslress occur as that force is gradually reduciog
frol11 Pi to 1',. This ca~ he accounted for in an approxi mate way by assuming that creep
occurs under a constant prestress forcc equal to tile average ofille initial and final "al
ucs, Corresponding to this assumption. tile lotal deflection resulting from prestrcss
alone is
wbere
- -
"
, +
2
" c, ( 19,60)
, - I',
- P,
and C, is sct equal to the ultil11atc creep cocfficient C. for the concrete (sec Table 2. I) .
The 10ngterl11 wflection due to self-weight is also iot:reascd by CR'CP and can
be obtained by app lying the crN:p cocfficient dir~'Ctly to the insta ntaneous value . Thus.
the total nlCmb.:r deflection. after losses and creep d<!flcctions. wben cfkcti~e prc
strcss and self-weight oct, is
- - I + C, ' ( 19,61)
The defied ion due to superimposed loads can now he added. wilh lhe creep
~x!Cffic;ent imroduc<--d {() aCn>unt for the long-lenn eff~ct of the suslailled loads. to
obla in Ihe nel deflectio" at full service loading:
-''-+~-'''' c, + ,, + (1 9.62)
2
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
TABLE 19.5
Deflection and crack width requirements for prestressed
concrete me mbers
Class
Co ndition U T C
U""'>cked T",nsiti"n bel"'e." c"",ke<:l
cracked and
ot>Cfocked
Gro" """,ioo C"",~ed ",,01;00- C"", ked SI;""-
bilinoar beha" io< bili""", bch.,;or
where tl J and tll :lre the imlll~'di~l~ den~'Cli"ns due 10 superimpos<.'d dead and live
I"ads. rcspecli"cly.
The >clecli"n of s.:cli"n propcnies f<>r the cakulalion <>f dct1eclions is d~pendcn1
upon l h~ crac~illg in the seclion. Tahle 19.5 defines the ap proprial~ seclion properties
and dcn~Clion calculalion nlClhodolof;Y for Class U. T. and C nlCmb.:rs (Refs, 19.1.
19.23. and 19,24), Bilinear behavior in Tabl~ 19 , ~ imphes lhal defl eclions based on
loads up 10 the crac king 1l101llen1 arc bas.:d on lhe gross ,,-'Clion. and deneclions on
loads grealcr Ihan lhc crac~ing load :lrc Nised on the cffeclive craded section proper
tics (Ref. 19.8),
EXM.II' LE 19.8 TI", 40 ti simply ,ul'JlOi1ed T beam shown in Fig. 19.29 i, pre'ire,sed wilh a tOrt" of 314
kips. ",;nll n parabolic lendon w;lh an ecce nlridlY of J in. above lhe concWe "''' Imid ot lhe
"" ppom and 7.9 in, below Ihe "" " lfOid aI midspan. After !i"",der-ndem 10,,",' h,,"e
occurred. Ihi s l>resln". is reduced 10 267 kip' . In add;{; OO 10 i{< o,,'n weighl of .,1.10 IbJfl, lhe
girder mu,! "arTY" ,hon'lenn '"rerimposed live load of 900 IbIt!. E,{imale (he della1ion
at all critical otag"-' of loading. The c=p co<fficiem c;. - 1.0. E, - 4 X 10' p'i. J nd nlUd
ulus ofn'pture = 53Q p'i ,
Cent roid -
-_
~ ----
i'.3! _ __ .
'---- "" ---~

(b)
I') 0.942 x lQ'l [ u,,____, ___+ - C - p ] 0.942 x 10~
FIG UR E 19.29
'0'
T ""aon of b , mpie 19.8: (til cross sec1;on; (b) {<!KIon profile; (e) onomen! from ini{ial I"",{re"ins focce (in-Ib),
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
6% IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 19
SOI.UTION. II il ealily coofirnie<llhOi Ih. sire" in [tie bou",n fiber when [he beam carries
U>e ""ximum looJ to be coosid,,,,,<1 is 80 p,i cOlnpr~s\ioo. """'ling Ih.., r~quircmcnls for 'I
Class U member. All defleclion calculal;oo, can. therefore. be OOSl'<l 011 lhe nKlmen! of ;ne,
lia of lho; grQS.\ concrcle Sl"Clion. I, ~ 15.800 in' . , is C<:ln,'enicrn 10 calculate lbe deneclion
due 10 preslress and Ihal due 10 girder load separalely, sU!",rimposing Ihe ",su lls laler. For
lhe eccenlricilies of lhe lendon profile shown in Fig. 19,291>. Ihe nprlie"lion of I'" - ~ 14 kips
ca use, lhe mome nl, shown in Fig, 19.2'k. ArPlying lhe seeO!ld "",ment ",e, lheorem by
laking nKlmems of Ihc M f.'1 diag"'''' OClwoxn mi,lspan "wi Ihe ' npporl. aboul lhe '''Pllon.
produces Itle ,'enical displacement belwe." lho", lwo roints a. foil""'s:
lhe minus .i~" i,wlicaling upward deflc<;,ion due (0 inilioll pre.\1.-.:S' alone. Ille downward
defle<1ion due 10 Iht ",If weighl of lite ~irder is calculaled by Ihe "'eil known equation
----
5,../ '
~84n
5 X 330 X 4(1' X 12'
:J8J X 12 X 4 X 10' X 1~.800
_ + (1.3(1 in,
Wh,," these IWO ",sulls"", ,up"rimroscd. ltle net upward detk'("lion when inilial prestress
and ginlcr lood actlogClher is
'" 1- - -0.87 + 030 - -0. ~7in
Shrinbge and creep of the coocrele cause a ~radual reduclion of preSl"''' forct" from P, : :J IJ
kiP'> to P, - 267 kips and reduce Ihe bendi ng ""-,,rlCnl d"e to prcsu'cs, proponiorr,11cly,
Concrele c=p, howe"",.. ocls 10 incre= both the upward deflecl;oo compor1Cnt J"" 10 the
I're>In;ss for-ce and the do,,"nwanJ ,lellCCIion COIl'porlCnl due 10 lhe gil\k.'T load, The ,oel ,len",,-
tion after the", chang'" lake place is fourrd using Eq. ( 19.60), "'im 11.,.. = - 0.87 X 267 314
- - O.N in. :
0.87 1- 0.74
-O.N - 2 X 2,0 + 0,3(1 I 1- 2,0
- 0.74 - 1.61 + 0,9() = - 1.4~ in.

In spile of prestrcs. loss. lhe upward denoxl;on is considerably InrgCT Ihan bdOl1.'. Finally.
"' the 900 Iblfl shorH cnn sU!",rimpo5C<lload is arPlied, ltle nel defleel;oo;s
900
- - 145 + 030 - - - O"' in.
'''3:10 '-'-'
Thus. a nel upward deflection of ,boul I 7~0 ti",,, lhe span is obtained when !he ""' mber
carries ii, f,,11 ' UPCriml>OS<."d load,
--- 19.18 C RAC K C O NTROL FO R C LASS C F LEXURAL MEMBERS
111e "''--'''iee lewl Slress lim; tal;ol1s for C lus, U arid T nn ural n\embt>rs are sume;;>nl
10 ~'()mrol cmeking al service loads , C lass C flexural mcmr..,rs 111"SI s:nisfy Ihe cmek
conlrol pro"is;ons for ordinary .-.:inforced coocrele members. modir.ed by ACI Co&l
18.4.4. T l\ew requir;>r11~nIS lake Ihe fonll of limitations on Icndon spacing and on Ihe
change in Siress in lhe prestr;>ssing Icndon under service load.
For C lass C presn-"ssetl flau rul n\embers nOi subj~>Cted 10 fatigue or aggn.,ssi,'e
<?XjXlSure. IIIe spacing o f bond..:! re;nforeenL<'nl neareSI II", exlreme lension face may
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
nOl exceed that given for nonprestressed concrete in &'Ction 6.3, Aggre5.~ive ~,(,"di
tions occur where the tendons ma)" be exposed 10 cocmical mtad.: and indude ",awa-
ter and coITmive ind ustrial envimmr", ms. In the"", situations, Ihe de'igner shou ld
incre"se the concrete cove r or reduce toc len,i Ie 'tres""", based on professional j udg-
ment . <'onll nen,urnte willi the exposu,," risk.
n", spacing require me nts for rein(orcen",m in Cia." C n",mbe" may be ,ati,-
fied b)" u,ing non prestressed bonded tendons, The spa<'ing betw""n Ixmded tendon"
however, may not eX<'",-xl Iwo-thirds of the maximum 'pacing for nonpre'tre,~d rein -
forcern<em given in Eq. (6.3). When both c-onw mional reinforcern<em and bonded len -
dons are used to meet the spacing requirements . the spacing between a klUkm and a
bar may not cxc'-'t.xl fiw-sixth, of that pemlin ed in F..q, (6 .3). When applying F..q. (6.3 j.
!lr", is subslit uted for /" wl",re !lIp, is the di tTerence between Ihe tendon s1r~ss a1 ser-
vice loads ba.",d ntl a trnck<.xl ..,.:tion and the d""otllpre5.~ion ,tres'I", . ",hi<' h i, '-'<Jual
to the sl ress in the lendon when coocrele sIre at the level o f Ih" te ndon i, 1.em, ACI
Code I &AA permits /.., to be ,aken as the dT'-'Cti\'e pre'tre5.~/,.. . 1he magnitude of !lJ" ,
is li mited 10 a maximum of 36 hi, When !lIp, i, Ie than 20 hi. Ihe rN!u('ed 'pacing
requ irerr>ents ",-'Cd nol be appli <xl. If the effeclive depth of the member exceeds 36 in"
additional skin reinforcement along the ,ides of the member web. a.~ described in
$eni,"l 6. 3, is "-'<Juired to prevent ex~",ssi\'e ,urfal" (T.lck widlhs ahove the main flex-
urnl reinfor<'ement,
REFERENCES
I Y.I . ,\ . II . Nib, ... Il.';$" of 1'"""" " .",1 C"" c,.,.". 20d <>.1.. 'OOn Wi"'l', NN Y,,<I.. I'JX1.
iY.2 ,\ . I'. N"-",,,"L I'''''''."d Co.",,.,.,,
A'"'I)',;, aN! Il." g . M.-(Or, ,,,_II 'II . Nc',," Y,n. I ~X 2 .
I Y.l. 'I' Y. Lin afI<l N. II. Bo rn,. Il.';g" of 1'1>'"".,.",1 n""'"",, S"',,"""_,.
.1,-01 <>.1,. -'<!ho \\1k y. N",, Y,n.
! Y~1.
IYA. I . R. I.it>O ~. M .. tc", 1',.,.",.,..,-",1 Omc,"". 1,01 ",-, V.. NMnn<1 Roinh<,.1. N,,,,,' Y'"" , 1% 4.
lY.~ E. (; . N "w~. P.-t." """d C;,.,..,...,.. I"""'n' I b lL ! "' ~~' '''' ''' CIHI<. NI . 2(~12
1 ~ .6. M. I' roHin, ...1 ]). Mi,ctIdl. 1' ,,_V{,,~d C"""""" s,,,,,',.,.,.,. Prontice 11.11. t;"SI<...",'1 (li n',. Nl.
1\1\1 1.
IY.7. 1\'.,,-7' .,i''''"8 M"""",. "~ 001 .. rw .-r;,",h"'i"i t "~i'",o. 1'110<" " . ,\/, I'!'J(I
i Y.~ 1'0 IN, iK" H ,UIItro.,j, . 5l~ "1 __ I ~c",,-, ~I \,,,, ,,-,,-,,--<I Co)OCf" '" lo"i' ",". ellie0w' It. I\I\I'J
IY.Y. ,fI'
Mmt"'" Q"",I;", (,,,,,,,,,/ f'" I'I'''U$ ,,",I P""lucti"" "I I'",c,,'v aM P(t ." "_',,,,d o"":"" . .,~ 0" ..
MNl rllb-VlI . 1",~.,lIt""~ """-" C""" ",,,, I" ~i'""'. lll " "O". II.. 19'~
I Y.I (]. p. w. ,\1><1<... " D",.; . 0( P.l!1;'lly 1\",,,,,,,,,, C""'-'flO!O 11".",-:' 1. AU. "'~ . (,.t. on. 10. 1%7, t'I'.
W!----Ion
I Y.I L ,\ . It Nil """, " I)i"", ~,'" of ' IJe,ii" <Jl 1'an;,lly 1"""""'''''' ('<",e""" 1I<. m-, 1' !' W ,\I><IL~" (Ref.
l Y.IOI.l ACt. '01. fi~. on.~ . 1')68. 1'1'. 4 5- 4 7
IY.!2. P. w. "1><1" .00 n . K. B:u\lh>n-Roy. 1'""",,,,,1 Omc",,, 1J.';wwr '" HibIJI".... :JnI "I.. C,'""-'''' ...1
C,""'''1< ,\,,,,e"'.,. 1-,,,,,"-,"- I~ I
1 ~ . Il . IIU Commi"",-, 4 2' . Sw"-of,"'-Arr R,f"'" , .. n,,,;,,II)' /,,,,,,,.,.,,,1 C,.... ,," (M;I 4! ,l.5!1._\1\1~
,\"""k." C,,,,,"-'", lo,,;'u,,'. ]'''-' ';0;" ", I till ~ MI. 1999
IY.1 4. CUI_IW I (~" ' rornmi",..... " 1"''''"''''';01...1 R ,~,"nmc'lk4O""" r..- ,I>< DC,ii " 'Jl,j l'oo~ r "","," ,~
1"," "",,-,1 C,,"",,,,' S1r"eru",,:' r " ",,", . 00 C,"""" ... ,\ ","-;" h(>o. 1.,.. 1,,".1910.
I Y . I~ . C,xluif /'r,mic, fi ,rrhdm.e,.m lllS<' 'if n""'"",,. eP III). Brio;'" S,,,,,,l>fth lo"it",;oo. I A"""-"'. I ~ n
lY.lfi y. ("'y,"', L<II;' g~,,, IJbiy. of 1'''_ 'H.",d ()"":''''. " '~" I >nd ,. -""'" "" k y. Ne.... y",~ . Iyn
IY.! 7. .'i~,,,,k,,,1 SfWCifk''';('''' fi" 1I;~h",1Y R,;,IX"- 17,h eJ .. ,\",,,rican M""",,(ion o( So ... lli ~h~'y "",I
'1"""-'1"""""'" ()(f,:iol<. W",~i" ~',"' , IX;. 210 1.
I ~ .I ~. PC! Commm"" ,., I""""",,, I .., ,,,, . .oR",.. " """ ." " 1'0.- L~ i m.>tio~ 1'rL",,,,,-, I"""",;' J. 1'"""",'<1
(".,"" 1,,-,,-- " ,~. 20. "0. 4. 1'i15. f'f'. H-1~.
I Y.I Y. p. /j,. R K rr"" "". N . I. &0<1. ...., E. H. 11',,01.:"" " 1 :'h (Juh" ~ Pr,~,,,,~, tA"''''." 0",, " ImC ..01. I .
"O. ~ . 19J9. rr . .12- 3 ~.
I Y.20. I . C . M >ct ; "-~" "",I I M 1t.1n,.",. "1\''1'"",1 (""'11'" io ~oo.r l'ftw;""", fe< !l.dnf"",,,,, ...1
1"",11,,,,,,,, 0""",-,, lie"" " . 1. ACI. ,, ~ . 6ti. ,n 4. i _. !'P. n b-- ,j(jj
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
69S IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 19
Iq.! I. N, W, 11'0,,", - ' 1', W, K.... , "FIc.or,] \~ >0><1 '1'<,,,, of 1't\".." .. "",'I',,,,,,,w", 1"_",,." l AC/, " . , 30.
M . 7. Iq.w, 1'1'. 7~3-.m .
Iq.n W. T M,,>llall - ' A 11, ~ 1 'H OC '" . 'C,,""' ~ ,. H,_i,on,,1 C""'ki " ~ iO , he \;,x\, " r Im",,"""-'J
I'.~"",,", 0"":,,:,,, (0 ;","",." J. P""",mi 0"", hl>t.. 'QI, S. ..,. S, 1%2. 1'1'. Sl>--7~ .
,q.!J. j, E. n""n, n, B~. C R,"""', I). S""",", (;. 11"011<""".,," II. F.Ic".,,~ ...,,"""""'"" 7......,
"d n r,,,,,,,,~... , r.. \\)~ _ T,,,, , ;,,,, C""""," {; i ~Ic"",." N01RP R,p"" 3S6. 'l'r"'-"I""'''ioo R<",,,,,,, 11,,,,,,1.
N""'..I "'"""Y I'''.-,~ lI""hi"~W"" 1)(;. 199-l,

Iq 24 ,\0 C"' oni"", 435. "I)"r... " .... ,,,- 1'n:~"",':O! (;"."'''',< M" .r.,,,,." ,I. AC/, "' . 60. ..,. 11 . 1%3.
1'I'.1(W7-m8,
19 2S I), E. B "",~ o ' , 'V",,,,,ai,,,, (1'C'''''''''' S'r"(1~,,,. Md",,~ - II;II. Now Y,oI;. 1977,
PROBLEMS
19.1. A reclangulur concrele beam wilh widlh h = II in. nnd loml d~plh" = 28 in.
is posI'lensioned using a single parabolic 1~,ldon wilh an eccemricily of7.8 in ,
al midspan and 0 111. al Ihe simple ,uppons, 1lIe inilial preslress fon:e P, =
334 kips. and Ihe efTL'l'liwness mlio R = 0.84 , Til.> member is 10 carry su~r
imposed dend arnllive load s of 300 and 1000 Iblfl respecliwly. uniformly dis
lribulM over IIIe 40 fl span. S~cilied concrele sirenglh/: = 5000 psi, and HI
llle link' of tmusfer !~ = 4000 psi. Dclenlline the n~xural Slress di slribution s
in Ihe conCn:ie al midspan (a) for inilial Coooilions before applicalion of su~r
imposed lood and (h) al full service load , Compare wilh Ihe ACI limit Slress..' s
for Class U members .
19.2. A prelensio!l<-'<l pre,lressed beam has a reclangulur cross section of 6 in. widlh
and 20 in. 100ai d~plh , II is buill using nonnalocnsil} conCn:ie wilh a specifi~d
slrength/; = 4000 psi and a suenglh m lransfer of I~ = 3000 psi. Siress lim
ilS are as follows: !# = 165 psi. lei = - 1800 psi. I., = 475 psi. andf,., =
- 1800 psi , TIle elfectiwn~ss ralio R may be ass umed equal 10 0,80. For Ihese
condilions. lind Ih~ inilial preslress force P; and e<.'<'enlricily ~ 10 maximi:e Ihe
su~rimposed lood monleul MJ + M, lhm can be carri~d wilhoUi exceeding Ihe
Slress limils , Whal uniformly dislributed load can be carried on a .W fl simple
span? Whm I ~ndon pror,le would you recommend?
19..1. ,\ prdensio'led beam is 10 carry a superimposed tkad load of600 Iblfl und ser
vice live lood of 1200 Iblfl on a 55 fl simpl~ span. A synl11lelrical l seclion wilh
I:> = O.SI, will be used. F1ang~ Ihic kness h = 0,211 and w~b widlh 1:>. = 0,41:>.
f
The member will be preslress..'<l using Grade 270 simnds , Tinle-de""ntkm
losses are eSlimaled al 20 perc~nl of P;. Nonllal -density concre le will be u s~d.
wilh!: = SOOO psi andf~ = 1000 psi.
(a) Using slraighl slmnds, lind llle required com-rele dimensions . preSiress
force, and <lCCemricily, Selecl un approprial~ number and si're of lendons,
and show by SkdCh lileir plac~lIlenl in Ihe seclion.
(I: Revise 11w tksign of part (a) using wndons ha!"JX'<l m Ihe Ihird poi nls of Ihe
span. wilh ec'cemricily reduc~d 10 z"ro at llle suppons ,
(t-) ConHllcm on your r~su ll s. In bolh cases, ACI Slress limils arc 10 be
applied , You may assunle Ihal deneclions are!lOl crilical and Ihm Ihe beam
is Class T al full service load.
19.4. TIle hollow core scclion shown in Fig. P 19,4 is pr~slressed wilh four! in , dimn
eler. 270 hi lowrelaxmion slrands and is simp ly supported On masonry wnlls
wilh a span I ~nglh of 20 fl. cenler-Io-c~nler of ,hc supports. In addilion 10 Its
selfweigll1. Ihe seclion carries a su~rimposed he load of 225 psf. Mal"rial
pro~rties are!; = 5000 psi aoo !~ = 3500 psi. lNlermine (a) if service load
slresses in llle scclion are suilable for a Class U n,,-,ural nlember using R = 0.82
and (h) ,f Ih,' r.eclion hns sufficienl capacity for llle speeitied loods.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
r1G Uk E 1'19.4
I?S. For th" ocam in Problem 19.4. mak" a detaikd compuwtion of the losses ill the
prestressing force. Compare your results to lhe assumed value of R .. 0.82.
1? 6. Establish the r.:quired spacing of No. 3 (No. 10) stirrups at a ocam cross sec
tion subject to facloroo load shear V. of3S ,SS kips and moment AI, of 474 fl
kips. Web width 1>., - 5 in .. eff(."Cti,c depth Ii - 24 in" and 101al depth h ..
.10 ,no The concrete shear comribution may oc based on lhe approxi n1:1\e rela
tionship of Eq, (19,46). Use /,. - 60.000 psi for stimop SI~'C1. and ta~ ef; ..
5000 psi.
19.7. A symmetrical prestressed I hcam having total deplh 48 in .. flange width 24
in .. flange thickness 9.6 in .. and web thickness 9.6 i n. is 10 span 70 fl. It is poSl
+
tensioned using 18 Grade 270 in, dial""ter lowrelaxation strands in a single
tendon having a parabolic profile. with " .. 18 in. at midspan and zero at the
supports , (The curve can oc approxi111a1lxl by a circular are for loss calcula
tions.) The jacking force PJ .. 618 kips. Ca1culatc losses due to slip. clastic
shortening. friclion, creep, shrinkage. and relaxation , E.~press your resu lts in
tabular form both numerically and as pt:rcemagcs of inilial prestress Pj' Ch'CP
effl"Cts may be assumed to occur under the cornbilla1ion of prestress force plus
selfweight. 11Ie ocam is prestress..>d when the concrete is ag~xI 7 days.
Anchoragc sl ip .. 0,25 in .. cocfficicnt of strand friction" 0.20. codficient of
wobble friction " 0.0010. creep c.xfficiem .. 2.35. "Iember propcr1i~s are as
follows: Ac - 7.,7 inl.lc - 192.000 in' . ", - c I " 24 in ...( - 5000p5i. t~ ..
4.000.000 psi. E, .. 27.000.000 psi, wc " 150 pef. and Co - 2.65.
I?K. The concrete T beam shown in Fig. P19,g is posttensioned at an initial force
PI - 229 kips. which reduces after I year 10 an effective value P," 183 kips.
In addition 10 ;IS own weigh\' (he oc:un will carry a superimposed shor1-1erm
li~e load of 21.5 kips at midspan , Using the approximate method described in
Section 19, 17. find (0) the initial defloction of the unloaded girder and (1)) the
defleclion at the ag~ of I y~ar of the loaded girder. The following dala arc
given: A, - 450 in l" '1 - 8 ,n .. I, - 24,600 in', E, - ),500.000 psi. C,_- 2,5,
n GU k E I'I?JI
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SEISMIC DESIGN
20.1 INTROD UCTIO N
Eanhquakes re,u ll fmm the sudden mo\'ement of tedonk plates in the emh's nus!.
n.e moven~nt takes place at fault line,. and the energ)' reka~d is Ir~nsmitt~'<i thr()l.lgh
tl~ emh in the form of wave, that cau,", ground moti(Hl many miles from the epi c'<'n -
ter. Regions adjacent to active fault lin~s are th;, mo,t prone to ""perierJ<:~ eunhquakes.
The map in Fig. 20.1 shows the IIlluimuIII cOl1sidewd g""''''/ I1Imitm for the contigu -
ous 48 ~tmes. TI", mal'!""d value, repre'"'nt the eXI"-<:t~'<i peak acceleratioll of a single
degree-of-fre<.'{lom system with a 0.2 """ period and 5 pereent of critical damping.
Known as tl", 0.2 M!C wer:/m/ wW"""~ acee/em/io" 5,_ (suhscript ,'" for .,'MOri period).
it i, u~" along with the 1.0 St.'C srect ral re 'pon"" acceleration S , (mapped in a simi -
lar manr~r). to establi!;h the loading nitcria for seismic ""sign. Ace"demtion, S, and
S r are haSt.'<i On hi storical reconh and local geology. For Illost of the country. tl",y rep-
resent eanhquake ground Illotioll with a "Iikd iho<KI of ~xce~'<.iance o f 2 pereent in 50
years," a value Ihat is equivalent 1U a return peri(xl of about 2500 years (Ref. 20.1).
As experknced b)' Strudure,. eanhquakes collsist of r~ndom horizontal and ve r-
tical movements of the eanh's surface. A, lhe gmund mows, ineni a tends to keep
muc"tureS in pla~,<, (Fig, 20.2). resulting in the imposition of displacement, and fOR'eS
that can have cataslrophic results. The purpose of seismic design is to proponio" slruc-
tures So Ihal they can with,tand the disp1acem~m, and Ihe force!; induc"cd by the
gmund motion.
Historically in Nonh Americ"a. sei,<mic design has eml'hasi,~d the effl'Ct~ of hor-
izolltal gmund motion. hecaus" the horizontal coml'onems of ~n eanhquake u.<ually
exceed the venic"al component anJ hecause !;tmclurcs are usually much sti ffer and
stronger in ""fK,n"" 10 "enical load, than lhey are in re'fKmse 10 horizontal load,.
Experien~'<' has shown Ihat the horizontal <,<,mfKmerns are Ihe nK,,1 desuu,;ti"e. Fur
stmc"tuml design. the intensity of an earthquake i, u,ually descrihed in tenlls of lhe
ground acceler~tion as a fr~ction of Ihe acceleration of gmvity. i.e .. 0. 1. 0.2. or 0.3.<;.
AlttK"'gh peak accder~liorr is an imfK,nam design parameter. Ihe freqnency charac-
teri,tic, and dumtion of an eanhquake are also imponam: lhe do",r lhe frequerrey o f
tl'" e~nhquake nK>!iorr i, to the rratur~1 frequenc"y of a Slruc"ture and the longer lhe
duration of the earthquake. the greater the fK>!ential for damage.
B",, ,,d on elasti<' hehavior. stfU('tures subjected to a major eanhquake w<",ld he
R'<juired to undergo large disl'l'u:~mem,. H <)wev~r. Nonh American practic"e (Ref.
20.2) requires that structure, he designed for emly a franion of tl'" forees as-"ocialed
with th",se di'ptate"",ot~. n.e re1ativd)" low ""sign furees are justifi~'<i by the obser-
\":nions that buildings design<,'{1 for low furees have beha"l'<.i sati'factorily and Ihat
muc"tureS dissipate significant energy as the material, yield and behave inelastically,
700
o..loo ot c..,_
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FIGUIU : 2(1,1
Map slM,,,,;ng
maximum cop,idcreJ
c"nh'l LL1ko !"",nd
moIioo. Il2 s:
.plrnl ""1"'"'"
ocC<'lef.tiOll
(5 p"n .""n' of "ri,ic.1
dampin~). for the
"'"';goou, Un;,ro
Stotes. (Un!",/ Swo
G"""X,i,,' I.n",.)
701
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FI GU IU: 20,2
S,,,,,,,ure ,ubjcc!<d to ground
moIioo, -
Inertia forces
""""" 10
'-- subjecled
earlhquake.induced
""~,
-
Ground mo.iOl1
n,is nunl inear hehavior. however, usually translates im" i""",a.<;lxl di'placement'. which
may r~sull in major r,o,~"rucluml damage nnd "'quire signilic"aJll dUClil i!y. Displ",:e-
melli' may also be of soch n rllllgnilmk thal1he st"'''glh of Ihe slructure is aff""loo by
,labililY cunsider.uions, sud as discusSlxl for slender columns in Chapter 9.
f>t,si gners uf strunures lhal may be subjec1<xl 10 earthquakes, Iherefore. an:
facoo wi1h a choice: (a) providing adequate sliffness and 'I"'nglh!o limil the response
of ,Iructure. lu til<' dastic range OJ (b) providing lower-strenglh strunures. wilh pre-
,umably lower initial co.,I,. Ihal have ,he ahilily tu with,mnd large ineia.qic deforma-
lion, while mainlaining lheir load-carrying cnpahility.
" 20.2 S TRUCTURAL R ESPO N SE
n.., ,afely of a struclure subjec1<xl to ,~ismic" luading r~sts on 1h~ de,ig11<'''' under-
,tanding of Ihe response ,;,f 11", ,Iruclure 10 ground molion. For many years, II.., goal
of earthquake de'ign in North Am~rica has been 10 COnstrucl buildings Ihm will wid,-
,tand mix/emIt' e<lrt}"f1U1ke., withoUi dalllllSt' "nd -",,"ut' t'ml/ul'Ulkt',," without col/ltp.,e.
Building codes have umlergon" regular modilicntion as mnjor earthquakes haw
eXf'OS"d weaklle,se, in existing de'ign crikria.
Design for e arthquake, differs from de'ign for gravily alld wind luad, inlhe rel -
alivdy greater sen,iliyity of earthquake-induc"ed f':>r<:es lu Ihe geumcuy of the struc-
lure. Wilhoul can:ful de'ign. forc"" and displacenl<'nts cnn he c01lcemmk"{1 ill portion,
of n slrutlure Ihal are nOi capable of providing adequale 'Irength Or duc"lility. Sleps lu
'tr~ng1hen n member fur one Iype uf loading may nnually inc"rease the forces in lhe
member alld change 'he mode of failure fmm duclile 10 hrittle.
a. Structural Considerations
n.., duser Ihe frequellCY of Ihe gmund m01ion i, 10 01'" uf the nalUr.ll freque""ies of
a ,Iruclure. Ihe grealer the likelihood of Ihe struclure experiencing reSOHaIlCe, resu h -
ing ill all in("rease in bolh di'placement and damag~. Therefore. earthquake respoII",
depend, sirongly (HI Ihe geollleiric properties of a struclure. e'pe{"inlly height. Tall
buildings respond Illore slToIIgly 1<> long-period (Iow-fr~quency) g round I1Kllion, while
,hon building' re'pond more ,trongly 10 .tK,rt-period (high -frequeoC)') ground
motion. Figure 20,3 shows Ihe shapes for Ihe principal modes of vibrmion of a Ihree-
,tol)' fml11C slrutlUre. The rdative cuntribUliun of each Ill<Kle 10 Ihe Interal displace-
melll of the ,trunure depends on Ihe frequency Chnra('leristics of Ihe ground mOlion,
n.., lirsl mode (Fig. 20,3;,) usually provides til<' greale,t comribution lu laleral di,-
o..loootc..,_
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S ~] S~ II C DE.<;IGN 703
FIGUIU : ;W,)
Modal 'hapes fo.- three_
'tory builo:ling' ia) 'iM nlOde :
(~) SCCMd mode: (r l 'hird
mode. (A,h'IH,Jf~ ... ~'f 10.1. )
' f---f
, /
O~V=-
,., Displacement
'I ,,'
FIGUI{ E 20,4
Son nM.tory ,"pponing a
;tiif uppe' "mclUre. -
Aelative displacement
1--------------
------------- l'
~
I
Stiff upper
structure
icr~~~'"c=~~cci~ ___ Ois~aC<!ment

.r COIIC60ttaled,
requi ring high
ductility
placcment. The mller a slructure. the more sU>C~p1jhle it is to the efT~clS of highe ,
mode, of vibmlion. which are genemlly addil ive to the efTen, of the lower modes and
tend to ha~e the grCaleSl influence on d", uppe' stories. Under any circum'tances. th"
longer lhe dumtion of an eanhquake. tt;., greate, d", pot ential for damage.
n", configumtion of a slrutture als" has a majo' efTc"{"t on il. ""fXlflSC to an
eanhquake. Slructures with a discontinuity in stiffness Of gc"Onletry can be ,ubje,ted
to undesi ra bly high displaee"",nl, OJ for,"",. For example. the di,cominuan<."e of .Ilea,
walls. infill wall ,. Of e,-en cladding at a particular ,tory I<-ovel. ,uc' h a, shown in
Fig. 20A. will have tt;., resuh of concemrating die displacement in the open. or o,,,ft,"
story. 'Jbo;, high di~placemem will. in tum, ' <-"quire a large amoum of dunility if tt;.,
structure is not to fail. Such a design i, nol ,econ",,,,mled. and the stiffening "",,,,bees
should be continued to tt;., foundation. The problem, a,snciated with a sof! stOfy are
illuSlfaled in Fig. 20.'i. which show. the Olive View HO'lpilal fOllowing the 197 1 San
Femando earthqua ke. 'Jbo;, high dUelility "demand" ('Ould not be satisfied by the ('01 -
umn at the right. with low amountS of 1r.U1S\'ersc ",inforc"cnlent. Even the columns al
""nl er. "'ilh significant tranS\'erse reinfo,c~"lent. penofll"--u poo rly lJccau", the tr~ns
vc ,,,, reinf""."ement was not c<Hll inued into the joint , ,~su lti"g in the foumli"" of
hi nge, al d", column ends. Figure 20.6 illu~trates structures with vertical geometric
and plan irregularitie,. whkh "" ull in tOfsion indut~d by gmund motion .
Wilhi ll a slructure , sliffer membe" tend to pick up a greater fXmion of the l""d.
When a fr~me is c"ombilled with a shear wall. this can haw th" positive effecl of ",duc-
ing tt;., di'placemems of Ihe slruetu", and decr~a,i ng bOlh slruetural and n"nstructural
damage. Howevc " when tt;., effect' of higher stiffness n"'mbers. such a. masonry
infill walls , are not considered in the design. unexp'-"{"ted and often unde,irable resuhs
Can occur.
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7W IW.." I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Lnapl<r 20
FIGUIU: 2(1,5
Dam.oge to ,oft "o<y
col"",ns in ,lie 0 1;'.. Vi.",
Ho<pital "". result of the
1971 San Fern.ndo
c>rthquako. (PhN'W~~ ' h l>y
Janw-, L SImi"', C"""",' offll'
f-""na Em")I""")' M"""II'"""'
AR''''~')
FIGUItE 2(1,6
Structure, with (a) \'en i""1
g"""lt"(ric and (h) pbn
im:gularitic>. (1Uk>l'rMfmm
Rff. 20,j"
'" 1'1
Finally, nny dis<--u"ion of suuctural consider.ltions would be incomplete with"ut

emplm'izing the nt...,d to pr<;lvid" adequate separation between ,truClure . Lateral dis-
placements can r~sult in strunures {"oming in contact during all ~anhquake , resulting
in major damage due (0 hammering, as ,hown in Fig. 10.7, Sp",--ing r'-'<Iuirement. to
ensure that adjacent <tructure, do nOi come into contact a, the re,ult of eanhquake-
indu""<.l m<)tion are specified in Ref. 10.2.
b. Member Considerations
Membe", designed (or seismic loading mu ,tl"'rfoml in a duetile fashion and di"ipat~
energy in a manner that does not compromise the strength of the structure. BOIh tl",
o verall design and the ,truetur." details mu~t be con,idered It, meet thi , goaL
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S ~] S~II C DE.<;IGN 70S
FIG UIU: 2(1,7

Dam.oge <"used h)'
h,m"",rin8 for building,
with i"aoojua'e ",,,,,m';,,"
in j98 ~ Me.",o Cit)'
c>rtbquako. ( PhN'W~~ ' h
by Ad /4'''"1<.1
n,t prinl-ipal method of ensuring ductility in n",mbers subj""t 10 shear and

bending is to provide confinemern for the <,<,"crel~. This is accomplished through tl",
use of clOS<."<l hoop" or spi",1 reiofofl'ement. whiCh enc-I"se the l-ore ,;,[ beams nnd
columns. Spe"ific criteria are discus",d in Section, 20A. 20.'i. and 20.6. When con -
finement i, provided. beams and columns can und~rgo m;mlinear cyclic ben<iing whik
maintaining their flexural 'trength and without deteriorating due to diagonalten,ion
c",cking, The formation of duct;/" hinge" allows reinforced <,<,"crete f",me, to di"i -
pate energy.
Su('ces,ful sei~",ic- de'ign "f fr~t!"'s require~ that the struCture, be proportimled
so that hinges occur at locations that least compro",ise 'trength. For a f",me undergo-
ing !ale",1 displacement. such a. ,hown in Fig. 20.&,. the flexural c-apacity of the
members at ajoint (Fig . 20.8b) ,houl d be such that the columns are strunger than tbe
beams, In this w",y. hinge, will form in tl", benm, rather than the column,. minimiz-
ing tbe portion of the structure affected by nonlinear behnvi or nnd maintaining tl",
overa ll vertic-nl load capacity. For lhese rensons. the ""'~ak iJcllln-,ln'"g ,'"Ium!!"
approach is u",d 10 design reinforl't."<l corK'rete f",me, subjeci 10 ",ismi,- loading.
When hinge, form in a heam. or in extreme l-as,,, within a column. the moment,
at tbe end of the member. which are governed by flexural "renglh. dele"nine the sl",ar
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FIGU IU: 2(1,8

Frame IUlbjc<-1Cd k> la'er.1
loodi n~: I) Jeflectw snape:
(~)",umen" ",,!ing (}f\ beam-
oolon," join!; (e) d<-fleetw
,h.pe and fortc, ""'ing on 3
bc,m: (d) fOITes acting (}f\
facc, Of. join' d"" ' 0 la,entl
''''' ,.,
/ /
'"
M ' (h-~~4
, ') M
/ . - - - 1. - - - 1
,. M'+M
'"
'"
thm mu,t be carri,,"d, as illu,trated in Fig. 20.8<:. l1lc shear V corresponding 10 a tlex
ural f3ilur.: at ooth en ds of a beam or col umn is
,. .W ' + M
I.
(20.1 )
where ,\I ' and M .. f1e~u ral capacities at the ends of the member
I, - dear span betw~cn suppons
The member must be checkcd for adequacy uod~r the shear V in addition to
shear resulting from dead and livc gravity 10Hds. Tnmsv~rsc rcinforcemenl is add~d.
as required. For mcmbers with inadequale shear capacity, the response will be domi
nal~d by the formation of diagonal cracks. rather than ductile hinges. resu lt ing in a
substantial rcdUClion in the energy dissipation capacily of Ihe member.
If short members are used in a frame. Ihe members may be unintentiomdly
strong ,n flexure compared 10 lheir shcar capacil}'. An example would be columns in
a ,lrUClure wilh cL.:cp spandrel beams or wilh "nonslruclUrar' walls wi1h openings Ihal
cxpose a portion of Ihe columns to the fu 11 lal~ral load. As a rcsulilhe exposed region.
called a "apri", whmm, responds by undergoing a shear failure. ns shown in Fig. 20.9.
The laleral displacement of a frallle places beamcolumn joints uod~r high shear
siresses because of Ihe chnnge from posilive 10 negalive bending in Ihe flexural mClll
beTS from one side of Ihe joint 10 Ihe olher. as shown in Fig. 20.&/. The joint muSI be
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S ~] S~II C DE.<;IGN 707
FIGUIU : ;W,?
Sb<ar failure in, '-"pli,..,
col""'" wiloo,,, adequate
'mn,YcrSe rcinfo,,:cmcn .
(Ph"",!,,,,t"' I",'.lacl M""IoI,.J
able to withstand the high shear s1resses and aUow for a (-hange in bar slres~ from 1en-
sion 10 compressi"n hetw(..,n the fa(-e, of the jQint. Such a transfer of shear and bond
is often "",de difficult by congestion of reinforcement th rough lhe joint. Thus, de'isn -
ers must ensure that joints not only haw ad~qunte slreng1h but nre construclabl~. Two-
wny ~ystem' without beam, ar~ e'I"'(-inlly vulnerahl~ be(-ause of low ductili1y n1 the
slab-column im~rsection .
Additional discussion of sei,mic design cnn be found in Refs. 20.3 to 20.7.
"- 20.3 S EISMIC L OADI NG C RITERIA
In the Unit<'il States , the design criteria for ennhquake loading are based on design
pnlCt..Jures developed by the Building Sei~mi,- Safety Council (Ref. 20.1) nnd incor-
porated in Mi,,;mum lk., ig" UNt".' for /J,,;h/;"8.' "tid Otlra S/rtu-wre. (SEJIASCE 7)
(Ref. 20.2). The ,'alues of 1he sp~dral response ncceleration, S, nnd S, are ob1ailled
from dctailed map' produced b)' the United Stat~s Geok.gical Survey' (e,g . Fig. 20. I)
and included in SElIASCE , . The "nlues of S, and S , are uS<..J todewnnine Ihe '1"',-,-
tral response an:d~ralion' Sus and S", dmt are uS<..J in design.
(20.2)
SIll - ~F,S,
J
(20.3)
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70s IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 20
where F" and F" are site coefficient. that mnge from 0.8 to 0.25 and from 0.8 to 0.35.
respectively. as a function of th~ geote"hnical properties of the building site and the
values of S, and S" re'pt.'Ctiveiy. Higl"'r "alues of F. and F" are possible for some site,.
lne <x",ffici ents Fa and F" incre"", in magnitude as , ite condition, chang~ from hard
rock to thi, k. soft days and (for softer foundation,) as the values of S, and S, dt.'Crea",.
Structure, are assign~d to on~ of ,i~ wi,wnir de.,ig" ('llIegories, A th rough F, a,
a fUllction of (a) structure occupanty and u'" and (b) the values of SJ)S and SOl'
Requirements for ",ismic design and detailing are minimal for Seismic De sign Cate-
goric, A alld B hut become progressively more rigorous for Seismi c [k'ign Categorie,
C through F
As presented in Table 1.2. arthquake loading is induded in two combination,
of factored load.
u= L2D + 1.0 + LOL + 0.2S (lOA)
U = 0.9D + 1.0 + 1.6H (20.5)

where D = dead load
E = eanhquake load
H = weight or pr~"u re from ,oil
L = live lood
S = ,now lood
The valu"s of the earthquake load E u." ,d in Eqs. (20.4) and (20.5) are. respe.:tivdy.
E - Qf: + 0.2S"p (20.6a)
(20.6h)
where Q t ' - effect of horizontal seismic forees
- reliability factor
is taken as 1.0 for Slruct ures in Seismic Desig.n Catq!,ories A through C and as " for
structures in Scismic D\:sign Categories D through F. where
20
. r = 2 (20.7)
:5 .5 for Seis",ic Design Category D

:5 .1 for Seismic Ixsign Categories F- and F
where r_,. is the ratio of rhe design story shear resisted by the single clement carry-
ing the mo~t shear in a story to the total story shear for a given direction of loading.
For braced frames, rhe value of r"", . is cql,allO the lateral foree component in the most
heavily loaded braced clement divided by rhe story shear: for moment frames, r_~ is
rhe sum of the shears in any two adjacent columns in the plane of the moment frame
dividL'd by the story shear (Ref 20.2). Other criteria for r""", arc spt.'Cif'ed for build-
ings with shear walls (Ref 20.2).
Equations (20.4) and (20.6.-1) are used when dead load adds to the effects of hor_
izomal ground motion, wh ile I!qs. (20.)) and (20.6h) arc uS\.'d when dead load coun -
teract'; the effects of hori7,onwl ground motion. Thus. the total load factor for dead
load is greater than 1.2 in Eq . (20.'1 ) and les~ than 0.9 in Eq. (20':;).
SE I/ASCI': 7 specifies six procedures for determini ng the horiwntal earthquake
load Q,. These procedurcs include thrce progrcs~ively more detailc'd methods that rep-
reo;cnt carrhquake loading through the uo;c of equivalent static lareral loads. mo,itll
o..loootc..,_
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EoI6 ..
re.<I,..,IIu ,"IJecrrum """I.I'-<i.,', /i""", rimt' -llisrory "'Ullysi., and ",,,,linear rime-hi.,'wry
"""Iysi.. The ~th(KI sel<-'Ck"<1 depends nn the seismic design ,'alegory. Buildings in
Sei,mic lX'ign Category A (Sos less lhan O. lb7g and S", le<> than OJJ67S. where S i,
the ac'Cd~>J1Ition of gr.l"ily) may be de'ign<-'<l by any of the method,. The K"quiK'<lleveI
of ,oplli51ication in detennining 0 11 increase" how<-,,'er, with in,' rea"" in Sos and SOl
and the nalure of lhe suuctuml o,xupancy or use. MOOl reinforc-ed conerele sUuclure,
in Seismic De'ign Categories B lhrough F must be designed u,ing equ;mletU lareml
foret' "'UlI)'.'is (Ihe nK"t derailed of1he three N!uivalent smic 1aler~l load procedure,),
modal resp<Jnse analysis, or time-hislory analysis, These proc..'<lures are discussed nexl,
a. Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure

According 10 SEIIASCE 7 (Ref 20.2), <-"qui\'alem laleml force analy,is Illay he applied
10 all slruclures wilh Sus less than O.DS and Sm less than O. 133g, as well a, ,truclU re,
,uhjecled to much higher de,ign spe('tml re'p<Jnse accelemlions, if lhe structure, 111..",1
""nain requirerncl11s, More sophi,ticak"<1 dynamic analysi, procedures l11us1 he used
olherwise.
The <-"qui"alent 1aler~1 force procedure provide, for Ihe calculation of the lotal
later~l force. ddinoo as the (ksign base shear V. which is lhen distributoo OVer the
height of Ihe building . The design base shear V is calculall'<l for a giwn dir""1ion of
loading al'cording 10 d", equal ion
V = C,W (20J\)
where II-' is the total dead load plus applicable ponion, of other Imds . and
S".1 (20.9)
C, = R I
Which n<-cd nOl be greater lhan
(20.10)
but may nOl he I~" Ihan

C, 0,44/S,J> (20.11)
or for the highcst sei smic design calegories (E and Fl,
O,5S,
C, = -----;:J (20. I 2)
where R = respo,,~ rnodifkation factor (depend., on the structural 'ystem). Value, o f

R for reinfofl'ed concrete stfU{'turesmng~ from 4 1<\ 8, based on abil it y of
the Slru<:tur,,1 sy.' tem to sosmin eanhquake loading and 10 di,sipate energy
I = OG<,' upancy imponarrt faclOf = 1.0. 1.25, or 1.5. depending upon the (K'CU -
p~ncy and usc of lire struCture
T = fundamenlal period of Ihe muclure
According 10 SEIIASCE 7, th" period T can k ealcula1<-'<l based on an analysis
tlrat aen", "ls for the suuctuml propenie, and deformalional dHlfllcterislic, of the ele-
ments wi1hin the 'Iru .... ure. Approximate methods rna)' als" k UM.'<l in which the fun -
dam"ntal period of lhe ,tructure may he calculated a!i
T - C,h ; (20 ,1.1)
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where II, .. heighl aocwc Ihc b.1se 10 the highcsi Icvel of S!rUClUre, tl
C, - 0 ,016 for reinforc~d ~oncrelC IOOIOCIll-fCsisl ing frames in which frames
resist 100 percem of r~'{)uired sei s mic force and ~re nOI cnclosed or
adjoincd by more rigid componellis Ihal will prevent fml11c from deneel
ing wh~n subjected 10 sei s mic forces. and 0 .020 for all olber reinforccd
conerele buildings
X" 0 ,90 for C, " 0 ,016 and 0.75 for C, " 0.020
Ah emalely. for struclure, mIl ~xceedi ng 12 stories in height. in which Iht laleral
force-re,isting system <"<,"si,ts of a moment -resisting fr~me and Ihe ,lot)' height is at
teast 10 ft.
T = O.tN (20.14)
where N - numocr of stories.
For shear wall strUClUrcs. SEIIASCE 7 pennilS Tto be approximated as
0 ,00 19
T " ~ II" (20.15)
C.
100 ' II, A,
wh"re c. AB ;, /" 1 + 0.S3 hr l),
(20. 16)
wh"re A~ = ha"" area of SIIU l"tufC. ft 2

A ; = area of ,hear wall. ft2
D; = length of shear wall i, ft
" = numher of sl",,,r walls in building tlmt are dfe<"1ive III re,isti!!g laleral
forces in di ra tion under ,"(,"sidemlion
Thc (olal base shear V is dislrihuted over the heighl oflhe SlruCtufC in accordance
with Eq. (20 ,17).
F ..
v (20.17)
where r, lateral seismic force induced a1 level x

"', . Wi ponion of IV at level x alld level ;. respectively
I". I"~ hcillhllO level x and level ;. rcspeelivcly
k .. cxponent rclaled 10 sllUctural period . .. I for T S O , ~ St-" and .. 2 for
T ~ 2.5 sec , For 0 ,5 < T < 2.5. k is octcnnined by linear inlerpolalion
or sel to a value of 2
n", design shear at any ,tory V, equals the .urn of Ihe forces r, at and ahove that
'1(1)'- For a I{).,IOI)' bu ilding with a uniform mass distrihution owr lhe height and T
= 1.0 sec lhe lateral fon:;c5 and 'tory shears are distrihuted a.~ ,hown ill Fig. 20.10.
At each level, V, is di.tributed in pJoponion to the stiffnes, "fthe dement. in the
\'erti,'al lateml forcc-resiMing system. To a("("ount for uninl em i<;",al huilding irregular-
it ies that may cau~ a horizontal Ior;ional moment. a minimum 5 percenl eccentri city
mu,t he applied if lhe veni,' al Imeral forcc--resisting systems are ,'ollliected by a fhK"
'y,lem that is rigid in il, own pla",,_
In addition to the criteria just descrihed. S Ell ASCE 7 include, crileria to account
for oven uming effe,'ts and pmvides Ii nt its on '1(1)' drift. P-Il effect' IllUSt he ,'onsid -
e red (a.~ discussed in C hapter 9), and lhe effect' of upward loads I1lUSt be accounted
for in the de'ign of horizontal canlile' -er compone nt , aad prestressed me mbers.
o..loootc..,_
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S ~] S~II C DE."I GN 7 11
FI GU IU: 2(1,10
F,...... b"",d on SEIIASCE 7
(Ref. 20.2) "'lui,'.lem /
lalOml (OIT< p<o<cdun::
la) struc1ure; (b) disni ootioo /
of latol"1l1 force. Owr hoi gIn;
(c) 5t"') shear .
"
.. , ,
/
I"
,., 1')
b. Dynamic Lateral Force Procedures
SEI/ASCE 7 includes dynamic lateral forcc procedures that in"oh'c the use of (a)
rcslX'nse spectra. "'hich proviw tltt: earthquake-induccd forces as a function of the
natural periods of the structun:. or (b) til~-history analyses of the slructurnl n:slX'nse
based on a scri~s of ground motion acceleration histories that arc represelllati~e of
ground motion ex]X."<:ted m the site. Both proced ures require the dcwlopmc~t of a
mathematical model of the struclUre to rcprcsell1 the spatial distribution of mass and
sti ffness. ReslX'nse spcclrn Jre used to calculme pe:lk forces for a "'sufficient number
of nodcs to obtain the combined modal mass participation of at least 90 perccll1 of the
actual mass in e~ch of 1,,"0 orthogonal dir~"<:tions" (Ref. 20.2). S"ICC lhcsc forces do
not alway s act in Ihe same direction. as shown in Fig. 20.3. Ihe peak forces are avcr
aged slatislicall y. in most cases using the squ~re rOOl of Ih~ sum of Ihc squares 10
obtain l-quivalell1 stalic lateral forces for use in design . In cases where the periods in
Ihe translational and 10~ional lllodes :lre dosely sp:lCcd and result in signilic:mt cross
correlation of Ihc modes. Ihe so-called wtllp/tle '1"",/m/;c Wmh;I1(1/;1I11 melhod is
uso.-d (Rcf. 20.8). When lil~- hislOry analyses. Which may i!lClude a lillCar or nonlin
ear tl'presctllation of the struclure. are used. dcsign forces are obtained direclly from
Ihe analyses . BOlh 11Iod:d reslX'nse spo.:clrum and lil~ -hislory proc~-durcs provide
more rcalislic rcprescll1alions of the seismically induced forces in a slruclure than do
equivalcll1 lalernl force analyses. The details of these mdllods arc prese nted in Refs.
20. I and 20.2.
, 20.4 ACI S PECIAL P ROVISIO N S FOR S EISMIC D ES IGN
Crileria for seismic design are COll1aiOl-d in Special Provision s for Seismic Design.
Chapler 21 of the ACI Code {Ref. 20.9).11Ic princip:d goal of Ihe Spo.:cial Provisions
is 10 ensure ~dcqu~le loughness under inclastic di,placclllelll reve~als broughl on by
earthquake loading. TIIC provisions accomplish Ihis goal by rtxtuiring Ihe designer 10
provide for COIICfCie confincmenl and inclaSlic rolalion capncilY. Thc provisions apply
o..loootc..,_
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10 fr~I!"'s, waUs, coupling beams, diaphragms, and lru,ses in .trul'lures subj"'-'ll'<l 10

"high seismic risk ," corresponding to Seismic Design Calegories D, E, and E and to
frame" includ ing two-way slab systcms, SUbjl'Ct to "m<xleratdintefll",diale seismic
ri~k," corresponding to Seismi c De,ign Cmegory C No special rt,<!uirements an"
placed on .trul'lures subject to low or no seismic risk. StllKOtural systcms de'igned for
high nnd Ill<l<kmte sei,mic risk are referred to a, v",cial and ;ml'n1ledial<'. respecti,'ely.
TI", ACI Special Pro"i.i!HlS are baSt.'<l On many of tI", observations made earlie r
in Ihis chapler. The efIect of Il(xlStruC1ural den"'nt. !HI ,wemll struC1ural respon",
must be considered , a, must the respon", of the nonsuu('[ural denICnts themselv~s,
Structural ele""'nts that :U~ not specificall)' p"'portioned 10 carry eanh'luake londs
must also be con,idered,
l1JC load facwrs used for ennh'luake l"ads are given in F.A]s. (20A) and (20.5).
TI,e strength -reduction factors uSt.'<l for seis mic design nr~ tI", same ns tll<)", used for
non""i smil' ru,'ign (Tabl e 1,3). with Ihe additional ""luiren",nts thai = 0 .60 for
shear, if the nominal shear l-apacity of a member is less thnn Ihe shear hased on tI",
nominal /laural slrength [St.'" F--<]- (20 .I)J, and = 0.85 for sbear injoims and diag-
,,,,ally reinforced coupling beams.
To ensure ade'luale ductility and toughness under inelastic rotation, ACI O I<Ie
21 .2.4 sets a minimullll-oncrele strength of 30Cl0 p,i. For lighlweight aggregnte con -
crete, an upl'l'r lim il of 50Cl0 psi is placed on concrete strength: lhis limit is hased on
a lack of experimemal evidence for higher-suength lightwei ght l-oncrete"
U",kr ACI Code 21 .2,5, reinforcing 'teel musl n,.,.,1 ASTM A 706 (see Table
2.3). AST~l A 706 specifies a Gmde 60 Sleel with a maximum yield strength of78 hi
and a minimum tensile strength equal to 80 hi . The actunl wns;le strength must be n1
leasl 1.25 time, lhe ,,,:Iual yield str~ngth. In addilio" to reinforceme nt manufaC1ured
under ASTM A 706, the Code allows the usc of Gmdes 40 and 60 reinforcenlCnt meet-
ing the re'luirel11CntS of ASTM A 615. pmvidoo thatlhe actunl yield strength d<",s nOI
exceed Ihe .pecified yield by more than 18 ksi and th at the actual tensile sirength
exceeds the actual yield 'trength hy m leasl 25 per~'Cnt, TI,e upjlCr limit~ on yield
strength are used to limillbe maximum momem capacity of the section hecause o f tI",
dependency of the ennh'lnake-;ndutc<l shear on 1IIC moment capatity [E<J. (20, 1)1- TI",
minimum r,uio of tensile strength to yield sirength helps pmvide adc'quate inel"stic
mtation capacily. E"idenl-e reponed in Rd. 20.1 1 indicates that an increase in die ratio
o f the ultimate nl<)lnent to the yield mome nt result~ in an incr~ase in lbe nonlinear
ddonnation capncily of flexuml n"'mbers.
Confinemem fOJ conl-rete is prm'ided by trnns"erse reinforcen"'nt consisting of
stirrups. rnxlps, and crosstie,. To ensure adl'qua1e anchomge, a .1'I<i ...."ic /wok [w ilh a
hend nol Ie" Ihan 1350 and a 6 bar dia""'ler (hut not l~ss Ihan 3 in.) extension thai
engage, lhe longiludi nal reinforl""",nt nnd pmj<.'Ct~ imo Ihe imerior of the stirrup or
rnx:>p] is USl'<l ntl sl;rrups, hoops, and cro"ties. H()ops, shnwn in Figs. 7. ll a, 1:_ nnd
20. 11 , arc closed tic, that lo an be made up of several reinforcing elemems. each hav-
ing seismic h'Xlks at both ends, or continuously wound lies with scismic h,x)ks at bot h
end,. A (-m.mie (see Fig. 20.11) is a cmu inuous reinfnrcing bar wilh a seismic hook
at one end and a hook with not less than a 90 bend and nt least a 6 bar diameterexlen -
sio" at the mher end . TI,e hooks ntl crosstie. must engage periphefnllongitudinal rein-
forcing bars.
In the following sections, ACI "-'quire"",nt, for frames. wall" dinphragm'. nnd
trusse, ,ubj l'Ct to ",ismic loading nre discussed. Sections 20.5 ""d 20.6 describe the
ge neml design and detniling cri1eria for memhers in suucture, de.~ig"'-'<l for region, of
high seismic ri,k. Spel'ific shenr strength rt,<!u irements nrc presented in Seclion 20.7,
$eni,"l 20.8 describe, ft.'quiremcnt. for fmme, .ubp,ct to moderale seismic risk.
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
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FIG UIU: 2(1,11

Example of Imo""r><:
reinforcement in co l"",ns:
<XIn>ce"ta'o em<"l
e"laging the sa"",
longi tudinal ban; mUSt ha,'o
90" hooks on opposite ,ides
of <XIlumn._ (M"I"Mf""" Hif
20,/0,)
X ... 14in,
_. 20.5 ACI P ROVISIONS FOR SPECIAL M OMENT FRAMES
AC I Code Chapt~r
21 addresses four memOCr types ,n frame structures. ternll"d ",e
~';<l1 ris~: flex ural nICmb.:rs. members suh
",(mlf'" frames. subjoct to high scismic
jected 10 bending and axial load. joill1s. and members not proporlioocd to resist carlh
quakc forces , Twoway sinh syslcms witho ut beams are prohibited as lateral
load-resisting structures if suhjeclto high scismic ris~,
a. Flexural Members
F1 exuml members arc defined by AC I Code 21.3.1 as suuctund members thaI resist
earthquake-induced forces but haw a faclored axial compressive load thaI docs not
cxcocd AJ; -IO. whcre A, is the gross area of the cross section. The mcmbers must
have a clear spanta-effcclivc d.'pth ratio of al least 4. a width-la-depth ratio of at least
0 .... and a web widlh of not less than 10 in. nor more th:m the support wid th plus thrce-
quarters of lhe flexural member depth on either side of lhe support , 111e minimum
clear span-to-depl!> mlio hclps ensure IhJt flexural rather lhan shear strength domi-
nates mcmb.:r beh:wior under inelastic load revcrsals. Minimum web dimensions hclp
provide adl'quate confinemen! for Ihc concretc. whereas lhe widlh relati "c to Ihc sup-
port (typically a column) is limiK"d to provide adcquate momenl transfer between
beams and columns ,
In accordance wilh ACI Cod~ 21..1.2. both top and bo1l0m minimum flexural
steel is required , A, ..... should not be less than gi~en by Eq, (3.41) but need 110t be
greater than four-lhirds of that required by analysis. with a minimum of two reinforc-
ing bms. top an d bonom, Ihroughout the memb.:r. In addition. the positi~e 11IOl1lent
capaci ty at the face of columns muSI be :H leasl one-hal f of the negative moment
strcnglh al Ihe same locat ion . and nei ther positi~e nor negalive momem slrength at any
Sl'etion in a member may be less than one-fourth of the maximum moment strenglh at
either end of the nICmb.:r. These criteriJ :Irc dcsigncd to provide for d UCli1c behavior
throughoul the memb.:r. although the minim um of two reinforcing bars on the lOp and
bollom is lxlscd princip:d ly on constructio n r~'q u ireme n t s. A maximum reinforcement
ratio of 0.025 is sct 10 limit problems with SK"<l1 congeslion and to ensure adequate
mcmb.:r size for carrying shem lhat is governed by the flex ural capaci ty of the mem-
ber [Eq , (20.1)[.
To obla in ductile performance, Ihe location of lap splices is limited , They nmy
not be used wilhin joims. wilhin twice the member dc plh from Ihe face of ajoint or at
o..loootc..,_
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olher location, where flexural yidding is eXI"'Ck-d a< a re'u It of laloeral displacerr>em
o f the frame. Lap splices must be enclo,,--d by hoop, or spirals with a maximum spac-
ing of one-fourth of the dfediw depth or 4 in. Welded and mechanical wllI'",--lion,
may be used, provided that they are not used within a distann, '-'<Jual to twice the
member deplh from the fa~" of a column or boearn or section, where yielding of th"
reinf<;lrce",ent is likely to OCcur due \() inela,tic displacements under lateral lood.
Transverse reinforc"ment is requi rro drroughoU! flexural memhers in frame,
resisting earthquake-induced forces. Atmrding to ACI Code 21.3.3, transverse rein -
forcement in the form <;If hoop' must he used over a length equal to twice the "",,,,boer
depth n",a,ured from the face of the ,upponing memher loward midspan, at both end,
<;If II", flexural memher, and ",'er lengths '-'<Jual \() twice the member depth On both
,ides of a se('\ion where flexural yielding is likely to occur in cotu,,-"'tion with inelas-
tic later,lI displacement, of the frame. The Ii"t hoop must be localoed not more than 2
in. from II", fat" o f the supporting memboer, and the maximum spacing of the hllOp'
mu,t nrK exCt.",d one-founh of the effective depth. S times the diameter of the s",all -
est longitudinal bar, 24 ti",es the diamewr of the hoop bars, or 12 in.
To provide adequate support fw longitudinal bars on the I"'rimeter of a flexural
member when the bars arc pla<-ed in compression due to inelastic rOiation, ACI Code
21 .3.3 ""luires that hoop, be arranged '0 Ihat nery comer and altemate longitudinal
bar is provided lateral support by tie" in accordance with ACI Oxle 7.10.5.3.
Arrangements meeting tllese ('riteria are illustrat<--d in Fig . 8.2. Where hoop' are not
required, ,tirrups with seismic hooks at both end, must boe provide"l throughout the
member. with a maximum spacing of one-half of the eff""tiw depth. Hoop' can he
marie up of a single reinforcing bar or two reinforcing bars consisting of a stirrup with
seismic hooks at both ends and a crosstie. Examples of hoop reinfor~'Cmelli are pre-
sented in Fi gs. 7 .1 Ill, C--<, and 20. 11.
b. Members Subjected to Bending and Axial Load

To help en,ure constructabilily ""d adequate confinement of the concrete, AC I Code
21A. I requires that memboer~ in frames de'igned to resist earthquak~-inducerl forc~s.
with a factored axial force exc,->e<ling Azl,' 10, have (a) a minimum cross-sectional
dimension of at lea,t 12 in. when measured on a str~ight line passing through the g'-'o -
metric centroid and (b) a ratio of Ihe shonest cross-sectional dimension to the perpen -
dicular dimension of at least 0.4.
To obtain a weak boeam-strong mlumn design. ACI Code 21 .4.2 require, that the
nominal flexural strengths of the <-olunm, framing into a joint exceed the nominal
tlexuml strength, of the girders fmming into the joint by at least 20 I"'rcent. Thi,
requiren"'nt is expr~,sed a.~
6
!of 2: - M. (20.18)
c 5 '
where 1M, = ,urn of Illl",,,,nt, at joint fa.."" corresponding to nominal flexural

,trengths of columns fr~ming into joi nt . Values of M, a,-" ba""d on the
factored axial load. <.'()nsist~nt with t]", directi",! of the bter~l rortes.
resulting in the lowe,t flexural strength.
':.M. = ,urn of Illl",,,,nt, at joint fa.."" corresponding to nominal flexural
,trengths of girde", fr~rning into joint. In T-beam cOll~trunirlll. where
the ,lab is in tension under Illl",,,,nt ut the face o f the joint, slab rein -
o..loootc..,_
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S ~] S~II C DE.<;IGN 71 5
fon:e"",nt within tm, eff",-,ti"e fl:U1ge width (sec Section 3.8) i, assun""\
to contribute 10 flexural ~trellglh if the slab reinforce""'nl is dneloped
at II", critical section for flexure.
As shown in Fig. 20.8h. the flexural slrengths are summc-d SO that the column
moment, opp""" the beam momenl,. Equalio" (20.18) mu,t be !;ati,lied fOJ beam
moments acting !x,th dock wi,,, and l~,unterdockwi", 0" the joi nl.
If F..q. (20.18) is nOl satisfied fOJ beam mornents aCling in both directions. the
lx,lumns must mc""t the minimum requ irements for transverse reinforc"ment in ACI
Code 21A.4 (described below) over the full height oflhe nlember bul rna,. nm he enn -
~idered as adding strength OJ sliffness 10 the strul'ture. if ~uch additions ",sist in ('ar-
rying eanh<juake-induced load. If. however. the sti ffness of tl'" column.' increase" the
de,ign I)a>c shear or the ~ffects of torsion. lky mUSl he induded in the anal,.sis . but
stillm",. not he con,idered a, contributing to 'truclural capacil,..
In accordance with ACI COOe 2 1.4.3. th~ column reinforcement ratio hased on
tl'" gross section ~ must "",cllhe n.,<[uiremem: 0.0 1 :S , :S 0.06. Wdtk-d 'plice, and
"",dmnical n",rn..><:tion, in column.' mu~t ,ati,fy the same rl'<[uiremem, """,('i lied fOJ
!lnural "",mhe",. wherea, lapped splil-e, must he design ..,,1 for tension and are per-
mined only within lhe c"nter half of columns.
ACI Code 2 I AA specifie. the u><! of minimum transve"", reinfortemem over
lenglh lu from each joint face and on both side, of an,. >cdion wh"re Il~ xural )'ield -
ing i, likely hecause of inelastic lateral di'piacement of the frame. The lenglh /(> rna,.
nN be kss than (a) the d"pth of lhe n",mber at the joint face or at the "",tion wher~
naural yielding is li kel,.w ",-'cur. (h) one-sixth of tI", clear span of the n",mi>er. or
(c)1 8in.
"linimum tr.1nsve"", reinforl-en"'nt is s"",cified in t"rms of tl'" ratio of the vol -
u"", of Ihe lransverse rdnforcement to the volume of the core confi ned b,. the rein -
forcell"'nt (m"asured out -tn-oul of the co"fining ,teel) , for spiral s or circular h'K'p
reinforl-ement a'
, .0,12/; (20 ,1'})

I..
bul !KK less than specified in Eq. (8. .~). whereJ." is the 'pecified yield sirength oftran<-
,""r>c reinforcement. -
To provide similar confincn",m using rectangular IKK'p reinforcement. ACI OKk
21A,4 requires a minimum total cn";'-"""ti"nal aren of tran,verse r~inforce""'nt A,.
al<Klg the length "f the longitudinal reinforce""'''t that may n"t he less than
(20,20)
.,iI. (,
A ... = 0,09 - _.- (20 ,21 )
f,.
where A,. = cross-sectional area of col umn core, measured out-to-OUI of lransversc
reinfor<:emcnt
.' = spad ng of trJnswrse reinforcement
"e- cross-sectional din-..:nsion of column cOre. measured ce nter-to-center of
conlining reinforcement
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Eqmtions (20.20) and (8.5) nL't...J not he ,atisfied if lhe member CQ r~ alone pm\'itks
adequat~ strength 10 r~,ist the eanl"luake eff""ts. In an'ordance with ACI Code
2IA.4, the 'pacing of trdnSVenl<' reinforcement within 10 may not ex~=..J one quaner
of thc minimum memher dimension, 6 timc, the diamet~r of the longitudi nal bar. Of
14 - ",
", - 4+ (20 ,22;,)
J
4 in, ,. ", ,. 6 in. (20 ,221
where h, is tl,., maximum horizontal spacing of h<x,p or cro,stic legs On all fa<'~, of
lhe column. The cm"ties or legs of <:>wrlapping hoops may nm be spa<'ed more than
14 in" as ,h<,wn in Fig _ 20_11.
For region, out,ide of I", when the minimum lranSverse r~i nforcerr>ent defined
aho\"c is not pm\'ided, Ihe spacing of 'pirdl or h,x,p reinforceme nt may not ex<'ced 6
lin"" the diameter of the longitudinal ml umn hap; or 6 in.
To acmunt for the major ducti lity de'mnds Ihat are placed on columns Ihat sup-
pon rigid membe" I"'c Figs. 20A and 20.5). the Code sfll'Cifie, Ihat. for such ("01
umn,. the minimum transverse reinforcement ",,-!uiremenl, must he satisfi ed thmugh
out the fl,1/ column height arnl thai the transwrse reinforcement must exlend inlo the
dismminued stiff m."nher for at lea.~t lhe development lenglh of tl", largest longitudi
nal rdnforcement for wall, and at least 12 in _ into foundations,
EX"' ,\ 1PL E 20. 1 Relath'. n.~ural sl .... ngth" of members al a Joint and mi nimum I ..." " -e ..... enlum"
r";nf..",e ment. Tlle eHe"".. joint sho"'O in Fig, 20. 12 is pan of a .-.i nfolttd <"OIlCrete
frame designed to ,",sisl earthquake lood,_ A 6 in_ slab, 001 sh""n. is re;nf""ed with No, 5
(No , 16) bars ,paced 10 in. <'Cnt<Tto~nter at lhe sam" lewl "' the flex ural 'teel in the
beam" The member sectioo di"",nsiollS aoo reinforcement are as ,hown_ lbe frame '{Ory
heigh t is 12 Ii. Mmcrial 't.-.nglll, a.-.,; ~ 4000 psi aooJ, = 60.000 psi. Th" "m, im"m fae
lorN axiallood rn, lhe upl'er column framing inlo lhe jO' ''1 i, 2210 kip'. a,\d the maximum
fael"",d .xi.1 10"" "" lhe lower cohllTm is 2306 ~ips. Detenro iroe if lhe nominal fI~wfJl
slrengtbs of 1M column. excud lhose of ,lie heams hy at Ie," 20 percent, "' requ;rN by
Eq. (20, 18). 00 tktermine the mi nimum tran"'elSe TCinf.,.-cemem rt'q uirN o,'"r the length
lo ;n lhe col",rulS
S. 'UnJu N. CI>ec~i~M the relati"e fle.ufJl 'trength' in the I",,,,,, of the 'paoorel be,ms wiil
be ,uffid, "" sine, tb;s is clearly ,he tommiling case f()C lbe joi n'- In oddi';on, ""","se ,he
beam .-.infon;"mcnt is Ihe same On both side, of!he joint, si"gl~ """'r..-iro~ will ,,,fr ,ce
for oolll dockw;se .. ,\d oO<J nlerdodw;se beam ,wn>ents_
The negati"" no",i"~1 Ilexoml ,trenglh "f the beam al the joint i, gow lOC'e top
' Ieel. which consim offi,'e No_ 10 (1'0_on ) bars ill Ih' beam, plus fOIl. No_5 (1'0_16) !.latS
in the ,I.!.l within the elTocliv" widlh of the top flange, A, = 6.35 + 1.24 = 7.59 in'. The
)";.Id f"". in lhe 'Ieel ;,
AJ, - 759 X 60 - 45$ kip'
The ,tr""live dejl1h ;, II - .16_0 - I __~ - 0,5 - 1_27 2 - .13A in . '00 with str." hlock delKh
" = 455 (0.85 X 4 X 27) = 4.96 in" tile nominal moment is
AI, = ,
, .%
33,4 - - - 1172fl kip'
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S ~] S~II C DE."I GN 717
FIGU IU: 2(1,11 Sjlaoore l beams

ExlC,;", beam..,,,lum,, j<';'" 27' x 36" (lop flange
for fuamples 20. 1 ,00 20,2: effective width - 54")
(a) plan "icw, (hI emS,
""'liOll Ih,oogh ' p"fl<lrel
Minimum
transversa
5NO.9 29) bottom
5 No. 10 (No, 32) lop
(No.
beam, (.-) eW.' ,",clion
reintorcement
ih,oogh oorm.1 beam. NO!e - No.4 (No, 13)
t~~~t=::::::::t~ 21'
NOrmai
Ib.I <"nfl"in8 rcinfor<."m,,", hoops aoo crossties
is not """" n. except fOf C 4" spacing -_~ ~ beam
X 36-
",Ium" boop, and e",,,,ie< 5 No. 9 (No. 29) top
in (~l . 5 No. 8 (No. 25) Dotlom
Column 36' x 36-

12 No. 11 (No. 36)
story height ~ 12'
,.}
Iii I
I
H""", " "
cmsslies 1II1 I I
I!!II I I I
~-"
for clarity
1111\ I I
I :.I-.-l.. I-
1 ii ii i
(b) (o)
The JIO'iTiw nominal flewml slrenglh of lhe be am m lhejoinl is determined by lhe- OOtlom
IICC!. r,"C NO), 9 (NO). 29) "MS. A, - 5.00 in' , The- yield !<m"<! in Ihe ,ICei ;s
A,I, - 5.00 x 60 - 300 kips
The effCCli ... depTh i, d ~ ,16,0 - I.~ - O.~ - 1, 128 2 ~ 1.l.4 in .. and "'ith Slress block
depth" - 3(X)' (0.85 X 4 X 54) - 1,63 in .. lhe-lIOminal ll\O!t\Cnl hi
,II
."~ -
;00
,
1.6.1
3.>.4 - - - ~ 815 ft kips
The minim um nominal fle, ural stITnglhs of The columns in Ihis ~xample depend OIl 11,e
maximu", faclored "~ial loaJ<. "hkh are 2210 ""d 2.106 kip" for 1he "pper and lower
column,. IT'1l""'1i,ely. For lhe 36 X J6 in, ~olum"'. 110;, gi\"Cs
,- :-; -, - 4 ~2:~')(i - 0.426

p. 2.106
/ , A, 4 X 1296 ~ O,44.S low.... rolliinn
W;lh l<>lal ,"infor~e11lC"' of 12 No. II (No. 36) bars. Au ~ IM.n in' and 110. rt"infon;e-
nl<',,1 ralio , - 18.72 1296 - fl,fll44. U,ing C,,",'", 10 Ihe center of the bars of J in.,
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71 S 'W.." I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Lnapl<r 20
~ 06 - 6),36 = 0.83. (jTaph, A.7 aOO A.8 in AppeOOi, A are al>PfOPliate for Jetennin
ing the flexural capacilY.
I'or the "WC'
,olumn.
M,
' . - - - - 0,167
/,A,h
36
M ,~ 0 . !67X4 X 12% X T2 ~ 2597 fl-kips
"or tl.., low~, column.
M, - O.l64 X 4 X 12% X - "- 2550 ft_lips
Checling tile ,l"iotive flexural capacitk~.

"
M,. _ 2~97 .;. 25$0 - 5147 I)-b ps
M. ~ 1172+815~ 1987ft-kip'
By impc'<"tion. M, 2: % M"
Minimum ,r;:mwcrsc rcinfOfttmem is I"C<jllircd owr a Icn~{h I. (In either \iM (If lhe j(lim,
According {(l ACI Code 21AA. I" i, tile greater of (0) {lie do.1'lh h ~ 36 in .. (bl om~,iX!h (If
lile dear Sp;ln - I 12 X 12 - 36) ,6 - IS in,. or IC) 18 ilt, Since e,-cry com..-r and al' ernate
longitudinal bar mu,{ nave lawral ,upport 000 ~ause {lie spacing of crow;e, and leg' of
hoops is limiled {o a m~, i n""n (If 14 in. wi,h in lile plane of tl'e ''''''IVerse reinforcement.
tile ",lien", sIlo"'n in FiB. 20,12<, will lie used. giving" maximum spacing of 'ligh{l y Ie
than 12.5 in. The ma,i",u'" SJ'>eing (If tranS"t1SC reinfor<.'Culi:nt s is limited {(l the s",,,lIer
of Olli:-<juartc, of tile minimum member Ji,,-.,n,ion = -'6 4 = 9 in .. 6 ti"-.,, {Ik diameter of
the lo"g;tuJinaTbar. (, x 1.41 - SA6 in .. or
14-12.5
". - 4 + ;
- 4 ..S in.
with 4 in, -'" s, -'" 6 ;n. A 4 in, 'pacing will be used.

Using No. 4 (No, 13) bars. 'he cross-sec,ional d imension of 'he col"",n cor~. ce ntcr-Io-
center of tile coofining '{etl. i, I., = -'2,5 in __ aOO tile CfOS'-SC<"1ional area of colu"", core.
WI IO-Out (If the C()!lr.n; n~ Sk'Cl. is A,., = 33 X 3.1 = 1089 i,, '.
For I,. ~ 60 hi. the {O{al area of tran"..."" ",inforcenli:m with (lie 4 in. 'pacing is the
larger 0; Eqs. (20,20) ar~1 (20,21 ).
4 X )2,5 X 4 129(,
A .. - 03 60 1089 - 0.49 in'
4x32.5x4 "
,1.. ~ 0,09 60 ~ 0.7~ In-
T he requirement for O,7R ;nl i, sa{i,fled by four NO.4 (No. I.l) bar leg'
c. Joints and Development of Reinforcement
1lle design " I' beam--column joint, is discuss~d in S~<:tion 11.2. n,~ forces acting nn
a joint ,ubjected to latemllnads am i l1us{ rd{~d in Fig. 11.4, The factorcd shcar acting
(In a join! is
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V. =T, +C, - V""

(20.23)
=T,+ T). - V('Q/
where 'r, = lensile force in ncg~ti\'c moment be~m sleel on one ~ide of ajoint
'1', = tensile force in ~ilive 'nomenl be~m steel on one ,ide of a join!
C1 = compressive force counteracling t,
V"" = she~r in (he column at lOp and houom faces oflhe joinl corresponding 10
Ihe nel momen{ in Ihe joint and poin{s of inlkcrion ~I midhcight of
col um ns (see Fig. 11.5)
For seismic d~sign. the forces T, and T, (= C,) mUSI be wscdon a stress in lhe
reinforcement of 1.251,. In acC<Jrdance wilh ACl Code 21.5.3. lhe
ne~I, ...1 lension
nominal shear capacily of a joinl depends on lhe degree of confinement provided by
members framing in{o Ih~ joi nl-
For join{s conti ned on al l four faces 20 J~ AI
For join{s confined on three faces or IWO opposite faces 15 l e A}
For olherl' 12 J~ AI
where A j is Ihc effeclive croSS'SCC1ional area oflhe joi n! in a plane parallel 10 Ihe pl~ne
of reinforcemcnt general ing shear in the joi"C The joinl deplh is Ihe overall depth of
the column. For beams f... ming in{o a support of larger widlh. the ~ffective width of
the joint is Ihe smaller of (a) beam widlh plus joint depth or (b) twice the smalkr per.
pendicul~r (lislance from the longitudinal axis of the beam to lhe column side. The
dfL"Ctivc area of a join{ is illustrated in Fig. 20.13. 111e nominal shear Strenglh for
Iighlweight aggregate concrete is limi ted 10 IhrL"equarters of the values given aho\'e.
To provid~ ad<."<)uale conllneme n! wilhin a join\. the trans\'erse reinforcement
used in columns m~st be C<Jn{inUL"<1 through the joint. in accordance wilh ACI Code
21.5.2. This reinforceonenl may be rL"<luced by onehalf within Ihe deplh of (he shal
10w~SI f... ming member and the spacing of spirals or hoops may be increased to () in"
if beams or girtkrs frame inlOall four ~ides of the joint and the ne~ural nlCmber~ co,'er
at least threefounhs of the column widlh,
~' I { ;U RE 10.13 Elfecti\l1!

Effeeli"e area of joinl ,Ii" joinl width
,..h"'h mu,l be t"",;de .......:! " b+h
separale ly fOf fon:<> in .oco Joint deptil - h
d;rC<.~;Qn ()f fram;ns _N,,,,,
in plane oj
reinJo(cemenl
'hat ,he joint ill",,,-;ued generating shea, _
doc> "'~ ml..,' ,"00;';0<1<
nece;sar)" 10 be eoo, i.rered
"' confined bee,u", ,be
formi "l m.mbe ... do OO!
""'Of at leas, i of cochjo;n,
foc., (IoiJapf<J -""'" k ef 10, /0,)
Aeirrlorcemenl
g.enera~ng shear -1J~~V
D<rectioo of forces
genera~"g shea r
o..loootc..,_
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720 ' W.." I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Lnapl<r 20
For joim, where the he~m is wider than th~ WIUllUl, tran,vefSC r~inforcen"'nt.
as r""uired forcotumns (AC I Code 21.4.4), mu ,' he provided to confine the fl~xural
st~eI in the beam , unl~" confine men! i, provi<k'<l by a tr~""'~r~ flexur~1 member.
To provide adequate devdop"",m of bea m reinforcement passing through a
joint. ACI Code 215.1 r~quires that the mlumn dimension pamlld to the heam r~i,,
foreement must be at least 20 times the d ia""'ter of the largest longitudinal har for
nQonnl- "'~ight concrde and 26 time, the bar diameter for lightweight "onnde. For
beam longitudinal reinforceme nt that is temlinated within a column. both hooked and
straight r"inforcerr>em must be ~xteml~d to the far face of II", column core. 11", rein -
foreement must be ancho,,-'<l in compression a, Ikscrihed in Section 5.7 (ACI Code
Chapler 12) and anchored in tensioo in ,,,:c"rd~nce with ACI Code 2 15.4. which
requires th~t the development length of bars with 90 hooks muSt he not l~ss than I",
&'. 6 in .. or
f,d~
I ~ -- (20 ,24)
"" 65 J~
For lightweight aggregate concrete. Ihese valucs are. respc<:ti\'Cly. lCldl>' 7.5 in .. and
1.25tilllcs the value in Eq. (20.24). The 90' hook must be located within tbe confined
core oftbe column.
For straight bars anchor~>d within a column core . the development kngth Id of
oollom bars must lie al lc:tst 2 , ~ timcs the value required for hooks: (, for top bars must
be at least 3.5 times the length required for hooks.
According to ACI Code 21.5.4. straight bHfS that are termioated at a joint must
pass through the confined core of a column or a boundary ekment (dis.;uss..:d in
SeC1io~ 20.6). Because of the l",,'cr degree of confi~emen t provided outside of the
confinl>d region. the Code requires that any portion of the straight emb.:dmcnt lcngth
thai is not within the core must b.: increas.;d by a factor of 1.6. Thus, the required
de~elopment length 10M of a bar that is not entirely emb.:ddc--d in conlined concrct~ is
IJ .. 1,6(IJ - 1,.) + 10k (20.25a)
' "", = 1,6/0 - 0,6( .. (20.251

where IJ required de,'clopn",m lenglh for a straight bar emb.:dded in confined con
-
cr.:tc
IJc .. kngth emOcddc>d in conflllcd concrete
EXAM PLE 20.2 o.,;j~1l <of u teri". j;>int, De,ign tile joint ,how n in Fig. 20.12,
So. ~.mWN. As disc"'...... in Chap'", I I. aj<Jint ",,,,t be detailed so thm the beam aoo wI
"mn bars do ,lOt imerfe", with each OIher aoo so tMt placem""t and consolidation of ,lie
concrete is pmctical. Bar plac.",ent i, . howo in Fig, 20.12.
[)e,'elop"'''nt of the sp",ldrd beam t1"mrn! 'tttl withi n the joint is ched,,,d ba,;<,d on lh"
requirement tMt the rolu,"n di lllcn,ion "'u,t be at k.'t 20 {ime, the bar diamet~r of the
largest bm;. Th i. '''lui",ment is met for the No. 10 (No. 32) bars usN as top ",inforcen",m.
20 >( 1.27 - 25.4 in. < J6 in.
Th" fl~xural 'teel in the OOfltlal beam must be aoch"",d within the core of tile col umn
based Oil Hq, (20.24). b"t n(>( leS\ ')o3n &I~ or 6 in. For the No. 9 (No, 29) \Op bars. Eq,
120.24) wntrol,
Ifj . ~ in,
o..loootc..,_
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The , arne hold, true fOf {ru, No, 8 ( No. 25) bonom bars, which must al", be otIChored in {en-
sion (ACI Code 12. 1 1.2) because la'eTal loading will subjox( (he beam (0 Mh roSiliw .1I1d
t1egali\'e Ixtlding nlOm,mlS ol lhe ex!Crior joint
14.6 in,
Sitlce .1.51"" j. IIO! a\'ailable for lru,!Op bars and 2.51", is 1101 a,'.ilable for {he bonolll bar .
a ll nc., ,,rol '\Iccl from Ihe norn,al beam 'M\I be anchorc'<.1 using hook>. nOl straighl ",in_
forre n",,,r. ex!etlded 10 the far face of !he column rore. as shown in Fig. 20. 12b.
To chec k the shear strenglh of the jOint. Ihe she",r fo.-..'Cs .'>Cling On the joi nt "'"\1
be cal-
c ulaled based 011 a me" of 1.2V, in t he flewral rt'inforce'tIenL By inspec1iOl1. ,ru,ar in lhe
plaTIC of tlle sv.1Ildrcl bc;lm will comrol.
The !ensile force in {ru, IJega!ive Sled is
T] = 1.25 X 635 X 60 ~ 476 kip<
For on dfcc!i,'e deplh of 34,4 in . (Example 20, II on<l " depth of Sire" block " ~
476, (0.85 X 4 X 27) - 5.! 9 in" Ihe ""-"11(.'" dl'" 10 tIC!?-'Iiw bending is
M '""
- -
5.19
33,4 - - - , ~ 1222ft- ki llS
l'or jJOSi! i v~ belKiing on III< OIlier sid.: of!he column,
T, = 1,25 X 5.00 X 60 = 375 kip>

m
a= 0 .85 X 4 X 54 = Ul4in.
M' HJ - - , - '''' = 1012 h -killS
The rolumn ,hear corresrotldin~!O 111< ,um of lru, nKlme nts M ' atld M and based on
(he free body of Illc rolumn lJc(ween as;U'tlCd midl'ciglll in'loxtiOIl points. as sIKl,,'n in Fig,
W.I4<., is V,... ~ (1222 ... 1012) 12 ~ 186 k illS. The shear forces acting 011 the join! art'
\ho,,"n in Fig. 20, 14/>, and ,he fact""-,,I joim sll<a r is
V, - T, -I- T, - Ve... - 47fl -I- 37~ - 186 - b6~ k ip'
FIG URE 20.14

F"",bod), diagram< in

j
_ _ _ _~- VcoI - 186 kips
plan< of 'I,;uldrel be"m fOf
,1
:! ""''(
Examp le 20.2 : (0) colomn
'M;oin! region; (b) forres ... - S' M' _ YroI - 186 kips
""lin~ "" joinl due IQ laroral
''''' I-T, ~ 47Skips
... - s'
' LJ_~
Vu - T, -I- T2 - Vcol
- 665 kips
TY
rol '"
(,'
o..loootc..,_
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For" joint ronf",e<l on th ree faces with an dfecti,-e cross-.s<:clional ar~" Ai - 3b x 3b =

1296 in'. the nominal and <ksign capa';;tie, of the joi nl are
1229 kips
Since V. > V. ' the joint is sari,foctnry for ""'"'.

Becausc the j<Jim is not ~",'Iincd on all four 'ides. the Intn,,"",,", rei"force"'''"t i" th., ,01
umn mu,t be eontin""d, unchanged, through the joint.
d. Members Not Proportioned to Resist Earthquake Forces
Fr.lll1e memhers ill Slfucture, d~,igned for seismic loading dmt are nO! prop"nioll~d
to l-any ~anhquak~ forl-~' must still be ablc 10 ,uppon Ihe factore-d gravity load, [...,<,
Eqs. (20A) and (20.5)) for which Ihey are design~..-:I a, the stmClures undergo lateral
displacemenl. To provide m"-'quale 'trength and dU,lilily, ACI Code 21.11.1 require,
thai d",sc members be designed based on mOIl",m, ,-onesponding 10 the desigll di<-
placem~m. whi,-h ACI ComrfJemary R21.11 sugge'ls should be based 011 ",odd, thai
will provide a cOlIscn'atiwly large eSl imale of di'pla,-emenl. In thi s ensc, ACE Code
20.1 1.2 p"nnil. the load factor for live load L to be redutt."'! 10 0.5, excepl for garag~s,
places of public a,,,,mhly, nnd area, whe re L > 100 psf.
When the induced mOIl",m, and shears. combined with the faCiofl...! gravity
momentS and shears ('lee Table 1.2). do nO! exeeed tl", de,igll capacity of a fr~n'"
memDer. ACI Code 21.11.2 fl'quires dun Il",mbers with faclore-d gr~vity axi~1 fo"""
below A.J; 10 contain minimum longiludinal lOp and bollom reinforcefllent ~s pro-
vided in 'Eq. (3A I). a r~infOJ,-cn"'nt r~tio not gre~ter th"" 0.025, ~nd at lea,t Iwo con -
tinuons bar> top ~nd houom. In addition. stirrups lire requiR"'! with n maximum spac-
ing of d 2 throughout.
For memDers with factored gr.wity axinl force, eX<'",-"ling Ar/;
10. the longilU -
dinal reinforcen",m mu,t n"",1 tho: requirements for column, proportioned for eanh-
quake load,. and the tr~n,,"erse reinforcement must consist of htKlp' nnd eros<ties. a,
used in column, designoo for ",ismic londing [as required by ACI Code 2L4A.I(C)
and 21.4.4.3). Thc maximum longitudinnl 'pacing of the trnnsve~ reinforcemem ."
may not be more Ihan 6 times the di~me1er of the snmUest longitudinal bar or 6 in.
througlKlut the coiumn l"'ighL In ndditi on. d", Imns""rse reinfo"",mem musl '-arT)'
,hear induCt....! by inela,tic roMion at tI", ends of the n",mber, a, r<-'quifl...! by ACI OK'"
21A .5 (discussed in Section 20.7). Membe" with factored gravily axinl force, ex""'-...! -
ing 35 ""rcem of the axial "np,,,:ity without eccentricity 0.35P" musl be d"signoo with
trnns,-""", reinforcement ~'qual to al least one -hnlf of dml specifioo in AC E OKIe
2IA.4.1 [see Eq,. (20.20). (20.2 1). ~nd (20.23)1-
If tl", indue.,,] momem, or shea" nnder the design lateral dispiacen",nl. exceed
the design IlKlIlIent or s!>enr strengths. or if ,nch a cakulntion is nOI fTL"Ide, ACI OKk
21 .11.3 re<Juires th~tthe lI",mhe" n'l<.",1 tI", material crileria for con,-rete and 'lee! in
ACI Code 21.2A and 21 .2.5 (sec Section 20A). along with criteria for fIIeehanical and
welded splice, (AC! Cooe 21.2.6 ""d 2 I .2.7.1. re'p"niveiy). For frame n",mbe", with
fnetOJed gravily axial load, below A.J;-IO. t!Je minimum reinfofl-emem eritcrin spec-
ified in ACI OKle 21 .7.2 must he ""'!.
along with the fl'quirement Ihn1lhe shear capac-
ity of the member fIIU,t be ~d<-'quate to cany forees indul'-"'! by flexurnl yidding under
o..loootc..,_
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the critcria of ACI CtxJe 2 1.3.4 ["'" Fig. 20.16 and Eq. (20.28) in St.,<-,tion 20.71- For
members with factored gr~\'ity axial forces exu..,ding AJ;
10, the longitudinal rein -
force""'nt ratio ' must be within the range 0 .01 to 0.06 and all K"-Iuiremem. for tr~ns
verse reinforcement arKI shear capacity specifi ed for columns de,ig"'....J for eanhquake-
induced lateral loading mu,t be ,ati,fied. In addition. the tra""'e",,, column
reinfQrcement must be c<HlIinued within tbe joints, a, required by ACI Code 21.5.2
(sec Section 20.'ic) for frame, in zone, of high seismic risk
. 20.6 ACI PR OVtS tO N S FOR SP ECIAL STRUCTU RAL W AL LS,

C OUPLING B EAMS, D IAPHRAGMS, AND T RUSSES
ACI Code Chapter 2 1 include, requirement' for stifT struct ural 'y'tem~ and "",,,,be,,
that <:any eanhquake forces or di,tribute eanhquake force~ betwt...,n portion, of struc-
tures that carry eanhquake forces. Structural walls. coupling beams, diaphragms,
trusse,. strut,. tie,. <:hord,. and ,'ollector element, are in this category. 'l"t;., general
requirerr>ems for these ",e",be", are presented in this ,,-,,-,tion. n", requirements for
,hear design are presentl...J in Senion 20.7c.
a. Structural Walls
To ensure adequate ductility. ACI Code 2 1.7.2 K"-Iuires that structural walls have min -
imum shear reinforcement ratio, in both d", longitudinal and transverse diK,,-,tions
and of 0 .0025 and a ma~imum reinforcement ,pacing of 18 in. If tl", shear force
a~,igned to a wall ~xcet....Js 2Ai>'t ..where A,~ is tl'" flet area <:.r the concrete section
bounded hy the web thickness and the length of the section in the directiQn of the fac-
tored shear fOKe. at lea't two cunain~ of reinforcen",nt must be used. If. however. tl",
factored ,hear is not greater than A" fe' the minimum reinforceme nt criteria of ACI
Code 14.3 govern.
Boundary e/cmellls are added along the edge, of structural walls and diaphragm,
to iflcrease strength and ductility. The ele",ents iocludc added longitudinal arn.l trans-
verse reinforcement and may lie e ntirel)' within the thickness of the walt or may
require a larger cross se(,tion, as shown in Fig. 20.15. Under ,'ertain <"<",ditiofls. open -
ings must be bordered by boundary den"'nt~. For watl~ that are continuous fmm the
base of the ,trunure to the top of a waiL compres~ioll zoneS must be reinforced with
'p'-"-'ial boundary dement' when the depth to the neUlml axi~ (' exceeds lhe value given
in F..q. (20.26).
,,"',.,.-;:-h.
(' 2: """
'~J"
(2fU6)
~' IG U RE 10.15
Cross secti"", of MJUCtur,1
with Ix,uooary
wall<
0:: : : : : : : : : : :
dem.n ... Bounda ry
elements
D: : : : : : : : : : :0
o..loootc..,_
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whcre I, and I,., are Ihc lenglh and widlh of Ihe wall. rcspeclivcly. and ,is Ihe dcsign
displacemen1. In Eq. (20.26). , h, is nOI luken greater Ihan 0.007. When sp.:ciul
ooundary cienICnls are requir~"d bHscd on Eq . (20 .26). Ihe reinforcemcm ,n tlIC bound
ary elcmem must be e~ tend~"d "Crlieally from Ihe critical seclion a dislunce equal 10
Ihe grcmer of 1, _or .11.- 4 V.
Struclural walis are also rc"quired 10 have boundary elcnICnls at boundaries and
around openings where lhe maximum ex treme fiber compressi\'c Slress unocr factored
loads cxc..'Cds 0 ,2- J~ . Stresses:\I"C calculalOO bas.."d on a linear claslic Inodd using lhe
gross cross scclion [- - (P A) :t (My I ) ]. n.c boundal)' clemenlS 11Xly be discominu.xl
once lhe ealculaled compressive Slress drops below 0.151;. 11k: confincmelll provid.xi
by lhe bou rd11)' elemclll increases bolh lhe duclilily of the wall and ib ability 10 carry
repcmed cycles of loading. When required, lhe boundary elcmenl must eXlcnd horizon
lally from lhe eXlrcme compressivc fiber a dislance nOi less Ihan c - 0 , II., or c-2.
whiche,'er is grcaler. When flang~"<l scclions are us.."d. lhe boundary elcnl<:nl is defmed
based on Ihe c!fcclivc fl ange widlh and eXlends atleasl 12 in , imo the wcb, Trans\,c=
reinforcemelll wilhin the boundary elcnl<:m mUSI nrcci Ihe rcquirenrcms for col umns in
ACI Code 21. 4. 1 through 21.4.3 (diS(;usscd in SWion 20.5b), but need nOi nlCel lhe
R-'quircnrcms in Eq. (20.20). TIlC lransw= reinforcelnt!111 wilhin a boundary clcmem
mUSI cXlcnd into the support a dislnncc equal 10 ar !cast Ihc dcveloplnt::m !cnglh of lhe
laI]eSI longillldinal rcinfofCenr.:nl. e~ccpl wherc Ihe boundary clenr.:nl ICl1ninmcs al a
fOOling or mat. in which casc Ihe lransve= rein forccmenl mUSI extend at least 12 ,no
inlo the founrulion. Horizomal reinforce nrclll in lhe wall web mUSI be anchored wilhin
lhe confined core of Ihe boundary clemen1. a requiremcm th~l usually requires slmldard
90' hooks or nl<."Chanieal allCoorage ,
Whcn boundary elelllCms arc nOI required and whcn Ihe longiludinal reinforce
nrclll ralio in Ihe wall boundary is grealer Ihan 400-/,_. thc transverse reinforcemenl al
Ihc boundary muSI consisl of hoops at Ihe wall boundary willi crosslies or kgs lhal arc
nOI spaced more Ihan 14 in. on celller cXlcnding ilo Ihe wall a dislance of c - 0.1/ ..
or c-2. whichevcr is gremcr. m a spacing of nOI gremcr than 8 in. Thc lransvcrsc rein
forcenrcm in such cases mUSI be anchored wilh a slmldard hook around (he edge rein
forccl1rcm, or Ihe edge reinforccl1rcnl muSI be enclosed in U stirrups of the snnrc size
and spacing as Ille lralls~e= reinforcemelll. 11lis rcquiremclll n~'Cd nOI be nrcl if lhe
maximum shcar force is less Ihan A,, - };.-.
b. Coupling Beams
Coupling beams lmlll~lt strul'1ural wall 'IS shown in Fig. 20.16.-:,. Under lateral load -
ing. tll<."y can increase the sti ffne" of the structun: and dissipate energy. Deeper cou -
pling beam, can be sub~too to signifll'ant ,hear. which i, carried dfecliwly by diag-
onal reinforcement. ACl'ording III ACI Code 21.7.7. coupling beams with clear spml tn
total depth rmios I, "of 4_0 or great~r may Il<' designed using the criteria for flexural
members de,,:ribed in s"ctiorl 20,'ia. In this case. however. Ihe limilation, On widlh-t()-
depth ratio and IQlal width for flexural ",embers need not be applied if it can be 5.hllwn
by analysi, that Ih ... beam has adequate lateral stabil ity. Coupling bcan~' with I. h <: 4
may be reinfoTl'ed using two intc r,,-"('{ing groups of diagonally placed bars that are ')'m-
metrical abmll the midspan (Fig _ 20, IM)_ Such reinforcement is not effectiw unless il
is placed m a ,k..,p angle (Refs_ 20.12 alld 20.13) and. thu,. is nQl perrnined for cou -
pl ing beams with I, It 2: 4. Coupling beams with I, " I... ss thall 2 and a faeton."d shear
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FI GU IU: 2(1,16
C""pkd shear ..., ll , aod
c""pli ng "",m , (b"",/c o
"u'l""d In"" Re! '!o_IQ. )
o
o
R
(a) Coupled shear walls
Total area of reinforcement in

each group of diagonal bars, AY 4 l eA",. where A,p is th~ coocrete area resisting shear. must be reinforced with
two ,nte=Cling groups of diagonal reinforccment. [IS show n in Fig. 20, 16b. "nkss it
can be .hown thatthc loss of stillness and strength in thc beams will 1101 impair Ihe VCT
tical load-carrying capacity of the struct ure. egfCSs from the structure. or the imcgrity
of I10nstructural components and their connections to the structure, The criteria for
shear reinforccn~ " t in coupl ing beams are diseuSSl"<! in &"(;tion 2O.7c.
c. Structural Truss Elements, Struts, Ties. and Collector Elements

To pro"ide adc-quate confinement and ductility. structurai truss elemems. struts. tics.
and colleclor clements wilh comprcssi~e stresses great~r than 0,2/; must nll"Ct the
same tran5'"erse reinforcement rcquirenk: "ts as columns in seismic load- resist ing
fra mes. but over the fu ll length of the clements. TIle spt."(;ial trans verse reinforcement
may be disco "tin ued at a section where the calculated compressive stress is less than
0.15/;. Comprcssive stresses in these eicments arc calculated for the factor~>d forces
using a lineJr elaslic mood and the gross section properties of the clements,
Continuous reinforcel1k:n1 in still structural systems mU51 be anchored and spl ic~>d as
requ ired by ACI Code 21.5.4 [sec Eqs, (20. 14) and (20.15)).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIG UIU: 2(1,17

F(>rec< t'onsi<krcd i" lbe
' ..... de'ign of n"",,,l
member< subjecled u>
",i,mie loading . W 2 is the
,he ... HTnplmding 10
gr:I\'ity load, baXI 01\ I ,2D
+ 1.0t + 0.2.1"
d. Structural Diaphragms
I--l oors atxl roofs serv~ as struclUral diaphragms in huildings , In add ition 10 suppon ing
vcnical dead. live. and snow lood. tllcy conneCI and t mnsf~r la l~ml forces between the
mcmocrs in the vcnicallaleral force- resisting system and suppon other huild ing cle
nloOnlS. such as parJ itions. that may resi,t horizontal forees \xlt do nOI act as pari of the
verticallalernl forec-rcsisling syslcm , 1--100T and roof sl~bs thm act as diaphragms may
he monolithic wilh the other horizomal cictncnls in the structures or may include a
topping sian ACI Code 21.9.4 requires that concrete slahs and composile lopping
slabs designed as struclUral diaphragms 10 Imnsmil canhquake forees must be at leasl
2 in. thick. Topping slabs placed o"er precast tloor or roof clemenls thm do not rcly
on compos ile action must be at leas. 2-!- in. thick.
'. _. 20.7 A CI PR OVISIONS FOR SHEAR STRENGTH
a. Beams
A prim" concem in the design of seismical ly loodcd Slructurcs is the shear induced in
mcmocrs due to nonlinear hchavior in tlcxure [Eq. (20, I)]. As discussed in S~~tion
20.2 . increasing the tleJIural strenglh of hcams and col umns m~y increase the shear in
these members If the structure is s ubjectc-d to se"ere Imeralloading. As a result. lhe
ACI Code requires thm ocams and columns in franloOS thai are pan of a ImcrJ l load-
resisling syslem (including some nlCmocrs that are not designed to carry htcralloads)
oc designoo for the combined eff,,'<;ts of faclOred gravity load and shear i ndun-d by lhe
fonnalion of plastic hinges at the ends of Ihe I11cmocrs.
For mcmocrs wi th a.\ ;allo:1ds less tilan AJ,'- 10. ACI Code 21.3.4 requires that
the design shear force V, oc bas..-d on t"'" focloroo tribulary gnwily load along the span
plus shear induced by m<}tl1Cnts of opposite sign CO/1"\:spondil\g 10 the "probaNc tlexural
strength" MI'" Loading corresponding to this case is shown in Fig. 20.17. lhc probable
OeJIund strength M,~ is tnISCd on the reinforcing sted achieving a ,tress of 1.2~.
<i - - "2 (20.27,,)
l.25f,A J
(20.27h)
0.85h
lhc \hear V, is given ily
+ ,
W
- - (20 ,28)
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
where /If"" alld Mpa .. probable Illoment s(rengths at two ends of memocr whcn
moments arc ac(ing in lhe same sense
I... Icnglh of Illemocr octw.",n faces of suppons
w 2 .. efrect of fac{(lred gravity loods a( each end of mcmocr (based
on 1.20 + I.OL + O.2S)
Equation (20 .2S) should be cvaluat.xl scparatcly for moments m bolh ends acting in
(he clockwise and (hcn counterclockwise diTt.~lions.
To provide adequa(c dUClili(y and concrele confinemeU1 . lhe (ransverse reinforce
ment ovcr a lenglh equal (0 (wice (he member depth from lhe face of the support. al
bolh cnds of (he flcxurol mcmber. mUSI bc designed h:1Scd on a concre(e shear capac
ity Vo .. O. whcn (he earthquakeinduced shear force in Eq. (20.28) (M"" + M(><I,
is onc-half or more of the maximum required shear s(renglh within Ihat length and lhe
fac(ored axial compressive force in the member. including earthquake cffc~(s. is below
Agf;20.
lIeam '~8r design. An J 8 in. wide by 24 in. de"l' reinforced ctlllC",(e beam spans
bc(woxn 1"'0 imerior column> in a buildil!E fr~",,, designed for a regi"" of high ,.,ismie risk
The dear .'pan i, 24 1i and (be ",i"forcemcm al!he foce Of lbe "'won consi,(s offour No
10 (No. 32 ) lOp ban;,nd four No. 8 (No. 25) bonom ban;. n", elfcctiw IIcp(b i, 21.4 in, lor
ho!h (op and ho!lom Meel . The maximum fOC10m! S~3l" 1.2V" + I.OV, is J2 killS aleaeh end
o f the ream . M,ueri,ls Slreng(hs aref; = 5OCoO p,i and/, = 60.000 p,i, Design lhe shear
reinf""" "''''''1 for {he regions adjacenllo 11.. cnlumn fae,,-,.
S()'.UT1"~. The probablo ""'''len! "",ng!hs M pr are has.ed on a ,(ttl S(re<i, of L2~ f,. r....
nega(iw bendi n8. the are" ofswel is ii, = 5.00 in' a( bo!h ends Oflh" beam. (he Sire" block
depth is <l - 1 .2~ x: .H18 x: 60 (0.85 x: .S x: 18) - 4.98 ilt.. and (he probable 'ltenglh is
M"" -
1.25 x: .S.08
12
x: 60 4.98
21.4 - - -
,
For [lO,;(i"e bending. d.. area of >led is ii, - .1 .16 in' . die elfcc(i"e 1''';(1(h i, 90 il! .. (he ,tress
block <lep!h <l = I ,25 x 3.16 x: 60 (0,85 x: 5 x 90) = 0.62 in ., and (he probable Sl",ng(h is
I.2.S x 1,16 x 60 0.62
.'>I,." = 21.4 - = 417 fl-kip;
2
"
The ~ffe<1 of fac!ored gra\'i(y loads If 2 = 1.2D + I.OL = .l2 kip;, giving a design shear
fOfCC a' cIlCh end of !I", bc;)"'. ac<:or\ling!O BOl, (20.281- of
600 +4 11
V._ 2~ +32_ 4 2 + 32_74kip;
Since (he canhquakc-ind'K"ed force. 42 kips. is g",a(er !ban one-half o f {he ma~imum
....X1uired ,hear Slrenglh. tllC Iranwerse hoop rcinforttmctl1 mu,( be de>igncd '0 resist (ilC full
value of V, (i.e" V, '" V,) o'cr a Ic"~!h 2h = 48 in. from (he face of {he column. in acco.--
dancc wi,\> ACI Co<Ic 21 .3.3, The ""lx im" m Sp;l<;ing of (IIC hoops. is ba\i!d (\11 the s", lIcr
o f d 4 ~ 5,4 in .. 8d~ fo.- (he smaliesl longi(udinal bars ~ 8 in,. or 24", fOf (he hoop bars
lussu rn..:d (0 be No.3 (N o. 10) bars J - 9 in .. or 12 in. A ""ICing . = 5 in, will be u\i!d.
The area of ,hear reinforcem~m wilni " a dislance" is
-'60,,',x:'c'c21.4
~ 'cC' - O)8i,,'
.
Pru"iding ,uwon for c()fllCr and al(ema(e loogi!Ud inal ban. in ac<:ordance wilh ACI C,......
21.3 . .1. leads (Ollie use of o.'ed'pping Ilooi' ",i"force"",nl. shown in Fig. 20.18. and a lotal
",~a of (ran ,verse ,(oxl A,. - 0,44 in'.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
72S IW.." I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUC T U R .<; Lnapl<r 20
FIGUIU: 2(1,18
C""flguratiofl of boop
reinforcement fo< beam in
t ~,,-~~
I I I I
E.. mpk 20 .3
II II II l - No.3(No"O)
i hoopsCS"
I I I I
I I I I
.. ...l,__.IL.!!
The first hoot> i< placed 2 in, from the face of the colu",n. Tn., other boc>ps are spaced at
5 ill, wi,hin 48 in, from cad, column facc. T",nIVCrse rcillflln'cmcm for the balancc of tile
beam is cakulated ~ on the value of V, at that location and a oonzero conerell' contri-
bollion V" Tt>e SliJ'liJIlS m"st have ;cismic hooks alld a lIl,"im,,'" spacing of J 1.
b. Columns
In accordance wilh ACl Code 2 1.4.5, shear provisions similar 10 those used for beams
to account for tIK: formation of inelaHic hinges mUSI also be appliL..1 to members with
axial loads grealer than AJ,' 10. In this case. the loading is illustrat<:<:l in Fig. 20.19<1.
and the facton:d shear is
v, = "_el ,~,,+_ ' _ICf'cI (20.29)

I.
whe", I. i, the cl enr dislan,'e betw""" beam" and AI"" and AI"", are hased on a stcel
tensile st"'"gth of 1.25 I,.
In Eq. (20.29). M"", aoo M"." "'" the maximum prob"ble moment 'trength' for
the rnnge of fa<"lo",d axinl loads to whi,' h the column will be suhjectcd, as shown ill
Fig. 20.1 9b; V" howe"er, need nOl be g",atcr than a value ba ...... 011 AI", for tl", tr,,,,-
ve rse members framing into the joint. For n",,1 frame,. the btt~r will c"ntrol. Of
C,,"rse. V, may nm be les~ than th~t obtain~d fmm the analysi~ of the structure unde r
factllJ"d I"ad,.
nl<: ACl C"de requ ;",s that tl", transverse ",infor,'cn",nt in a column "ver n
length '" (the g"'aic r of the depth of the member at the j"int face, one-,ixth of tl", dear
'pan, o r 18 in .) fmm ench joint face must be pmportion~d to re,ist shear based on a
""ncrete she~r capacity Vc = 0 when (a) the earthquake-indu,'ed she~r f"rce i, one-
half or m"te of the maximum required ,hear st renglh within those lengths ~nd (b) tl",
factored axial compressive f"rce , including earthquake e ff~'Cl' , i, Ie" than AJ; 20.
c. Walls, Coupling Beams, Diaphragms, and Trusses

According to ACI Code 21.7.3 and 21 ,9.6, the factored ,hear fOI\"e V, for walls , cou -
pi ing beam,. diaphragm', alld tru,se, must be obtnined fro", anal)',i. based "n the fa<'-
to",d (including earthqllake) loads.
In ""<'"nln",,,, ",ith AC I Code 21.7,4. the """,inal ,hear 'trength V. of structural
walls and diaphragm, i, ta ken a.~
V, = A", c I, + .f,,' (20.30)

o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
FIGU IU: 2(1,19

(a) FOR"" _"n. itkrcd in thl;
,lie.. de,ign of colun," ,
"
~i"':',j1'/ '
ubjected to ",i,mi, loading
Ih) Column ime""'tion
diagram """I to tktermi!l<.
~' .
'. -
ma., imum probable mO.Ie"t Mpl1 MI'/'
"","gtb,_ N(~< that AI,.- for I,
I.
L- '.
column, is u,ually g()\'emed
by M", ufthe girder> framing
into ' joi nt. " tner than M_ .
~MI'/~
'.
'"
'. Mpr - M"""
101
wh~re A" . .. nd area of conerel~ seelion bounded by lhe web (hickncss and lenglh of
lhe seclion in lhe direclion of shear force
. .. ralio of dislribulCd shear reinforcemenl on a platle Ikl"Jkndicular 10 lhe
plane of A",
- c - .lO for it,,' I" ::s 1.5. - 2.0 for h.-I" ~ 2.0. and ,'aries Itnearly for inter
medi~1e ,"alues of II~ I,.-
The values of /'.' and I. used to calculale c are Ihe height and lenglh. reslkclivcly, of
lhe emire wall or diaphragm or ~gtlk:nlS of (he wall or diaphrngm./~ is nl<!asul"l'{( itl lhe
dircclion of Ih~ shear force. In applying Eq . (20.30), (he rotio 11 . 1. is lhe l(lJger of the
ralios for lhe elllire membt:r or Ihe ~gmC nt of lhe mcmber being considcred. 11le usc
of - ( grcmer Ihan 2.0 is l>ascd on lhe higher shear slrenglh observcd for walls wilh low
aSIX"'1 rallOS.
As descrihcd in &"<;Iion 20.6. ACI Code 21.7.2 I"l"quircs Ihal walls and
diaphragms contain diSifibul00 shear reinforcement in (wo onhogonal direc(ions itllhe
pla~ of the nlemOcr. For /,,,1,, ::s 2.0. lhe reinforcement rano for slcd crossing lhe
plane of A" .. - ,.. muSI al kasl l"qual . The nominal shear S\renglh of all wall piers
(vcnica l regions of a wall separated by o~nings) Ihm logdhcr carry lhe lateral force
is limited to a maximum value of 8A,~ - f. wilh no individual pier assumed 10 carry
grealer Ihan IOA,p- E. where A", is Ihe lowl cross sectional area and A", is Ih~ cross
,,-,clional area of an individual pier. The nominal shear streng(h of horizontal wall
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
"'gnlents (region' of a wall bounded by o!",nings alx,,"e and below) and coupling
beams i, limit~d to 100c, ' [ .
For coul'l ing ream, reinfo",ed with two intersecting gmups of diagonally placed
bars sy mmetrical about tbe midspan (Fi g. 20.161, each gmup of the diagonally
placed bar. I1mst consist of at least four bar, assembled in a core. wilh sid~, mea,ured
to tbe our~ide of the tmn,wr", reinfor,-ement that are no ,mailer than O.'ii>. perpendi -
cular tQ the plane of the beam and 0.21>_. in the plane of the beam and perpendicular to
tbe diagonal bars. The nOlllinal strength pmvided by the diagonal hap; is given by
:S 10 J~A ", (20.-'1)
where A,,; = t<>lal area of longitudinal reinforce",,,nt in [In individual diagO/ml

A'r = ~rea of concret~ ",,,tion r~sisting shear
= angle between diagonal reinforcement and longitudinal axis of coupli ng
beam
lne upper limit in F..q. (2031) is a safe upper bound based on the ex!",rimental
ob", ,,.-ation tlmt coupling beam, remain duttile at sllear fo",e, exc",->ding this ,'alu~
(Ref. 20.13 ). Each gmup of the diagonally placed bars muSt be ~ndosed in tr~nsve rse
reinforce"lent meeting tile ""luirement' for columns in ACt Ox'" 21.4.4.1 through
21AA3. di~cus",d in Section 20 ..%. The diagonal bars mu,t be devdofX-'<i for t~n,ion
in tile wall and must be ('onsid~roo when ('alcuiating tI", nominal flexur~1 strength of
the coupling beam. In this case. the horizontal component of the bnr forn, A"Ji, ,-os
,hould be used to calculate M . Longitudinal and mllls~erse reinforcen"'nt must be
added. as shown in Fig. 20.161> to sati sfy the r~quirements for distributed horizontal
and vertical reinforcement sfX-",iti ..'<i for deep beams in AC I Cooe 11.8.4 and 11.8.5
(see Section lOAd).
According tQ ACI Code 21 .9.7. th~ maximum nQminal ,hear str~ngth of
diaphmgm' is giv~n by F..q. (20.30) wilh < = 2.0. For diaphmgm' consisting of either
ca't-in-place ~'omposite or noncomposite topping ,labs. the ma ~ imum shear force may
nOi exc..>ed
v, = An '/" (2032)
where An' i, ba",d on the thickne ,-,; of th~ topping slab. Web r~inforcer""nt in ti",
diaphr~m is distributoo unifonnly in both direction,. Finally. V, may not exc..>ed
&\,.., j , . wl",re A,~ is d", gm" ,-mss-""':Iional area of the diaphragm.
. 20.8 ACI PR OVIS IO N S FOR INTERMEDIATE M OMENT FRAMES

IN REG IO N S OF M ODERATE S EISMIC RI SK
ACI Cod~ 21 . 12 governs tl", design of frnrncs for fllIXlerate sei,,,,ic ri,l.:. 11", re'lui re-
mems indude ,!",citied loading nmi detailing "-"luiren"'nts. Unlike regions of high
",ismic risk. tWQ-way ,lab 'y,tems without t>.,ams are allowed to ",rve a, Interal
load--resi,ting system,. Wnlls. diaphmgms. and trusses in region, of mooerate ""ismic
risk are designed using the main part of the Cooe.
ACI Code 21.12.3 offers two options for the ,hear design of fmn'" members.
11", tirst "ption i. similar tQ that illu-';trak'<i in Figs. 20.17 and 20.19 and Eq,. (20.2 8)
and (20.29). with tbe cxl-eption 1hat the probable strengths Mp< are replaced by the
nominal strength, M,. For beam,. j ,. is 5uiJst itUl<-'<i for 1.25J~ in F..q. (20.27). For
columns. the momelll, u",d at the top and bottom of the colun;n [Fig. 20.15 and F..q.
(20.29) are based on tile capacity of tl'" evlurnn alone (not considering the I11On",111
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
S ~] S~II C DE.<;IGN 73 1
capacity of the ""am, fmming into the joint,) and arc hased on the factoJed axial load
1'. that re,ults in the maximum nominal nx)ment cap'K'ity.
As an aitcmati,'C to designing for shear induced by the fonnatioll of hinges at the
end, of the lIIemhers, ACI Code 21 .1 2.3 alk,ws shear design \() be hased on load cOm-
bination, that includc illl eanhquake dfL'et that is twice that required hy the g<we ming
huilding c,xle. Thu s, Eq. (20.4) oc'eollle,
U = 1.2D + 2.0 + LOL + 0.2S (20.11)
For bea"" and columns, the Code prescribe~ detailing requiremenl' that are nm
as slringent a, those used in regions of high >cis",ic ri,k bul that pmvitk greater con -
fille~nt and increas"d ductilil J compared tQ those used in sUuclUres not de'igned for
eanhquake loading. For bealll', the posilive-molllent slrength at Ihe fat" of a joim
lIIu,t be at I"ast olle-third Qf the negati\'c-molllem 'trength at lhe joint, in acconiallce
wilh ACI Code 21 .1 2.4. B01h Ihe pmitive and negative mon",nt 'trength along the full
length of a beam must be at least o",,-fifth of the maximum mOlllent slrength at 11",
face of either joint Hoops are required at bOlh ends of beams ove r a lenglh equal to
twice tl'" member depth: tl'" first htXlp must Ix: placed within 2 in. of d", fat'e of 11",
,uppon, and tl", maxilllum spac'ing in this region may nm exceed onc-fQunh of 11",
effectiw depth, 8 times the di"""'ter of 11", 'ilia lieS! longitudinal bar, 2,; ti,,,,,, lhe ,ti r-
rup dian",ter, or 12 in. The maxilllum stirrup ,pacing elsewhere in Ix:am, i, one-half
of the dfecti,,, depth.
For c'olunms. within length '0 fmlll the joint fac'e, the tie spac illg .'0
may nm
exc'...,d 8 time, thc diameter of the ,matiest longitudinal bar, 24 ti,,,,,, the diameter of
the tie Ilar. one-half of the smallcst c'm,,-sectional dimension of the colu mn, or 12 ill.,
in al'cordance with ACI Code 21.8,5, The length '" must be greater than one-,ixth of
the column dear 'pan, the maximum cmss-senional dimension of the ~Illher, or 18
in. The flfst lie lIIust be 1,x:alL'<.I not nlQre than .," 2 fmlllthejoim face, and the lie spac-
illg may nm exceed twice the spa<'ing " a anywhere in the member. III acconlance with
ACI Code 2 I .12..~ ,Old 11 . 11.2, lateral joint reinfof('e~nt with:m area as specifH...J in
Eq. (4. 13) mu ,t be provided wilhin tl", column f<;lr a depth not less Ihan the depth of
the decresl flexural ""'mller framing inl<l the join!.
For two-way slabs wilhoUl beams, ACI C,xle 2L!2.6 require, design for eanh -
quake effecI' usillg Eqs. (20.4) illld (20.5). Under these loading conditi,"", the rein -
foreeme nt provided 10 resist the unbalanced mome nt transferred between tl", ,lab illld
the column AI, (M, in $eoioll 13.11) must be pla<"d within the ('<;Ilull1ll strip.
Reinf"f('e~m to resist the fmclion of lhe ullllalalll'ed moment M, defined Ily F..q.
( 13. 16.:,), AI "" = I AI . = pM" oot not les, thilll one-half of the reinforcen",nt in tl",
columll strip at the suppon, must be <'oncentrated near tl", c'olumn . This rei nforce'r>em
is placed within an dfl'eti"" slab width I,x:ated between line' I j/, on either side of tl",
columll or column capital, where Ir is the t<llal thick""ss of the slall or drop panel.
To ensure ductil~ behavior through<X1t two-way .Iall, without beams. at least 0""-
quaner of tbe top reinforcen",m at the supp"n in column ,trip" mu,t he c<mtinuou,
throughout the span, a, mu,t bottom reinforcement "qual tQ at le1l,t ont.~lhinl of the top
reillfof('e~nt a1 the ,upport ill column ,tri",. A minimum of one -hal f of all Ilottom
reinforee~1l1 at mid'pan in txxh ('<;IIunu1 anJ middle strip, must he continuou, illld
dndop it, yield strellgth at the fa<'e of the support. For discomi nuous edges o f the slab,
hoth tl", top and txxlOm reinforcement muSI be deveiop<..'<.1 at the face of the support.
Finally. at critical ",'dio", for Iw,>-way ,hear at wlumns (Section 11.lOa), V. may not
exceed 0.4 V, .. Thi, pr<",ision may be wain,,1 if tl'" eanhquake-induct.'<.I factoTeri ,h"ar
,tress transferred b)" <'ecemricit)" of shear at the poillt of maximum shear ,tress d""s nm
ex<'eed ",,,,-half of the design shear stress v. (see Section 13. I I).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
REFERENCES
20.1 H",M,"* s"il ..i<: s..!,",' C""JI.:i1 NIiHKI' }I...:""""",,I,d I'"~'i>i",,, ft" "",i, .. i, /I.q"i<IIWoti !",,.."'"
H"iMi" .~, ~,Id 0,1", Sin""""',", 20JJ ,"<I_, ! 'an I 1'Im'''';'><1', 1-1.IotA IN 1',., 2_ Lom,ocmary. I'I,MA
Y'<). h"\lcral J:mc'lcocy M"""l:cm<IlI A~'oc)'. W''''""~'O'1. IX::, M..ch 2001
20.2 Mi"imu'" I-"'i~" lA"",), for H"ildi"Rl' ""J Or"'r 5""",",,,,, ~LUASCE 7.()2, Amrfic...."'-"k.y 0( Ci"iI
1 '.nJ ioc<.- ", Ii.""~", 'A.2001_
2Il.) S. K_ (i"'' ' . A. w. I".ocl, Jr., :md I). ,\ . honcll', Ik'~" ",C""cr,~ H",Mi"*'ft,r Earllrq"",- aoJ "l"J
/-i:,,,",,', 200 ",1. 1\1tI1arnJ Ce""'"LA,,,,,,i.hOll, Sb>lk . II.. and JIlI<'ma' .....1 O.,fcn:occ of Uwldin~
Off"ia]" W h ill~". CA. 1'l9~ _
20A WA' L1I<n ..... C. Sera.. th"l11_ ,"" Ii""hq .. ,ke "_~i",eri"_~ Hlm, Ib..>/:. C~C 1'11",. Ih" ~"'OII. 1'1.,
2003
2O_S T 1'. "",)'.00 .'1. J. N. 1',i<>H~. s"i'NUc I-"'i~" 'f }I.""Jon'fil C""cr", ,,,,,I M<JSMJ)' H"iMi"*,. Jolin
"'if<}' & s<.". foc ., Nc-I.' \'<n. 1"'12_
20_~ G. G. I'<ocli, and A. J_ K.P!'''_ t:'lnhq",~ ""i>"Jn' C..... 'nw S"I<a"'''_ E & I-N S~. /<,",,' Yo,l.
20_7
'W'
Com",,, Srn,Ci."" iN fdrlll<,!idU "'11;0., . IN'i", .t ANII>" '" E. I\(.~b, ,-.I" I,., ~.m... SckDUr", &
H",k,..., 1'''I:land. 1'I'!4_
' 1\~'hni<,.I,
20_~ s,."""" AN'ryi,i, '1 Sa!e"" .}I.,wNJ ,,'/K"'d' SUlK,","., SI"I/ASO; 4 ,~~. An.:,k"" S<"'j<t)' ,>f Ci"il [ rlj! i,
occ= RowOII. YA, 20JJ
20_9 H"ildi"* O.k }I.,quiff",,""'fo,s'fIK,"m/ 0"'0.", 1>1.:1 J 1U12. A,,,,-"fican eooc",,,, In,li L"lC.I'>nni"ll'
"., Hill, . .'11. 2002_
20.10 C""''''''''dl)' "" H"ildi"~ C... /, "<'I"i"'''''''''!'''
S'"",,"m/ C,,,,,,"'e. AU .II S~.o1. A<n",k:rJl C,,,,,,,,-',,,
In>!i,u L,', Farrnin ~ ''''' Hill,. MI . ~)1 (f'lJ Mi,,,,.-d .. pan of ~,f. 211.9)
20.11 AC! CouuHi",-" )S~, J/"'III"""!du,U'u fo' IJe'iR" 'f 1J"",, CoI""'N J""u," ill !oJoooIi,hic ".ilifon'eJ
C"""",,, 5,n;c,"",_. ACi ) S2~ ~I, Am..";,''''' C"""1\1,' I n ~i,",<. l'..-mi"';Loo Ilill, . .'11 , 200]. 18 !III
20.12 r I.ru")' and J. K BiflIl<,)" "l)i",,,,,II), ~<," f",,:cd C.",Iin~ B":llnl ,>f S"'-.r "'. 11,," in Slum iN }I.,iJr
1""",/ CO"""", SP..12, Am<ric:m (;ooc,<,oo I""i ,",o. 11<'I1OH. M!. I~J",!III. S7\I 7\1~_
20.1) G . 11_ U"",,-')'. K :. . Soi . II . G_ Rabtlao. A. E Fi""w, H. G. ~""",II, .00 W_ G_ C(d,)" He"""ior of
O",,~i"~ H""., ""d" 1A.:Jd }I." '",,, /, (RIM6~ . OI1. 1'001'00 Cm...-", A""",iatioo, SI.cnIOC, II.. 19S()_
PROBLEMS
20 .1. An illt~rior column joinl ill a reinfOTc~d cOllcret~ fnHn~ locat~d m a r~gion o f
high s.eismic risk ,'On sis!> o f 28 in , wi<k by 20 in. deep bi'mm and 36 in. wi<k
b~' 20 in. deep gird~rs framing into a 28 x 28 in , column , nl~ slab lhickn~.s
is 5 ,n" and Ihe dfedi,-e owrhnnging nange width on eith~r sid~ of Ih" w~b
of III<) nexural rt-.:mbi'rs is 40 in. Girda reinforcenk)nl at the joinl consi.ts o f
fi,'e No. 10 (No. 32) lOp blU> and five No.8 (No. 25) OOllom bars. B~am rein-
forcemt'm consists of four No , 10 (No. 32) top bars and four No.8 (No , 25)
bollom bars. As Ih" l1exuml skel crosses tlk) joint. liM lOp and bottom girder
bars reSI on liM re'~<1i,'~ lOp and bollom ~am bars , Column rei n force'rk'nl
consists of 12 No , 9 (No , 29) bars ewnly spac~d around th" ~rilH"lt'r o f IIIIl
column . similar to th" placem .. nt sho"'n m Fig. 20.12 , Clear coy.. r olltlk) ou l-
.. nllOSI main n~xural and column longiludinal reinfon:-~n~nt is 2 in. Assume
No , 4 (No. 13) slirrups and lies. For eanhquake loading, Ih~ maximum fac-
tored axial load on the up~r ~'Olunm framing inlo the joinl is 1098 kips nnd
tlw maximum faclOn.'<l aXIal load On lh~ lower column i, 1160 kips. For a
franl<) SIOTy heighl of 13 fl. <kknllirl<) if the nominal nauml slrengths of Ihe
columns exc&-'{] Ihose of tlk) t.emHs and gird .. rs by at leasl 20 percent . a nd
<kknllirw lh .. minimum Imnswrse reinforcenlllnl k"luired in the columns
adjacent 10 lh .. ~ams , US<lf; = 4000 psi andf, = 60,000 psi.
20.2. Design th" joinl and Ihe transverse column r.. inforcement for IIIIl n~m~rs
desnit.ed in Problem 20.1. nl~ factor~d shears d ue 10 eunhquake load are
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
29 kip' in the upper mlumn and 31 kip' in the lower column. M inimum fa,"-
tored axinlluads are 21 and 25 kip, below the for,"e, speci fi ed in Problem 20. 1
for the upper and lower columns. respectively.
20.3. III E~ample 20. 1. the columns are spaced 28 ft on center ill the direction of tt;.;,
,pandrel beam,. The total dead load on the spandrel beam (including self-
weight) is 2 kip'lift and the total live load is 0.93 kip'lift. De'ign tt;.;, spandrel
hocam lran,verse reinforceme nt for a building subj'-'Ct \() high seismi," risk .
20.4. Repeat Problem 20.3 for a frame suhjen to IIl<l<krate/intermediate seismic
risk.
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I b<k M.... ,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
DESIGN AIDS
TABLE A.1
Designations, diameters, a reas, and weights of standard bars
Ba ' N o_ Cross-Sectional Nominal Wei9ht,
Inch-Po~nd Diameter, in. Area, in' M,
;
, "" , - 0.:\75 0. 11 0.376
! - O.W
, " i - 0.62~
O.XI
0.31
'.Offl
I.OP
" 1~ 0.750
," " OM , .>m
, "
"
, - 0.87.1
1 - 1000
O.W
0."
''''
2.670
".12 1'; - 1. 128' '.00 3.400
"
" " I,-
" - 1.270
10410'"
Il ~ 1.69,1'
1.27
1.56
2.25
4303
.1.313
" " 7.650
" " 2:\ - 2,2Sr '.00 13.600
' B""" ",I ,ho.. "",,*,~ ,of , i ~ l h; of ' " incll incll,jOO in "" ... " i ..1 ~i'" Y>CIe< <lr ,~ Nt>. I'~ .. , "io,"
~i" , ,,,'1<~ nj" ,Io.. r...,,,,,, t..r ;, ''1, i,.I<'''1 to , he (Ii' H ""'~ uf. I'bi " t>ru" " ,'ing I~ " , "" "'eighl I"~ I<~ ., ,ho
,let(""",1 ""',
' I\at nwnl>cr "I'P"",irn>!,., ,tl< nUlTwr of rnilliml"K'n ioclu<ll"d in ,b<' oominoi ~i:ll!"'cr of rhe ror, B"" ore
"I1o>l wilh thl> <Ie";""";'",
''''1'1'''''';''''''' u' """'C~ t in.
7JS
Dooioootc..,,_
I b<k M...., I ."..... '" 0.."" I00I. ~ "" --- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
736 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Appendix A
TABLE A.2
Areas of groups of standard bars, in 2
Bar No.
Number of Bars
Inch.
, , , , "
"",.
Pound
.'"
3 5 5
UO ,'" " "
0.20 0.'"
'''' '.00 1.40 1.80 ' .00 2.20
''''
.'"
5 0.31 0.62 0.9.1 L2.j I.~~ 1.86 2.17 lAS 2.79 3.10 3A I 3.72
,, n" ,."' 0.44 0.88

1.2<1
1:\2
180
1.76
,.3.16'"
,.w
.\.00
'M
.\.60
:Hl8
-1 20
3.52
.w
3.96
~ AO
,.., .m
.00
4,84 5.28
7.20
, " ." "" ' .00
1.58
' .00
2.37
.\.00 '.00
3.9.1
5.00
4.7-1
.00
5.~3
,.00
6.32
.00
7. I I
,.00 10.00
'.ffl
11.00
9.48
12.00
8,89
"'"
1.27 ,.~ 38 1 ~ .08 6.35 7.62 10.16 11.43 12.70 13 ,9] 1~.24
,.SO ." ,.'" 1092 14.Q.1 15.60 1716 18.72
""
3.12 6.2.J 9.36 12.48
2.25 4.50 6.]5 11.25 13.50 15.]5 18.00 20.25 22.50 24 .]5 27.00
""
'00
12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00 .16.00 4().00 48.00
" '00 '.00 28.00 .12.00 ~.oo
TABLE A.3
Areas of bars in s labs, in 2 /ft
Bar No.
Spacing.
Inch
Pound: 3
5 5 , , , " "35
in.
, Sl:
" " " " " "
3.14
" "5.06
,j
,.~ 0.78 1.23 1.77
'''' '.00 6.25
.j
IUS
0.33
0 .67
,.052"
LOS
0.92
15 1
1.32
2.06
''''
2.69
2.36
H3
3.00
'J.>
3.'" ."
5 ..16
4.17
5
S1:
0.29
0.26
.M
0.47
0.43
0.82
0.74
0.67
1.18
".,
0.96
'"'
, .~
UI
2.09
1.88
1.7 J
2.67
,.2.18'"
.137
.1.W
2.76
.1."l5
HI
S 0.22 0..19 0.61 0.S8 120 157 l.on 253 .1.1 2
",
.w
0.19
0.36
' .J.>
0.57
0.53
0.82
0.76
1.11
1.0.1
lAS
1.35
1.85
1.71
2.3-1
2.17
,.'M'"
0.18 0 ..11 0.71 'm
'j
, 0.17
0.15
0.29
0.26
0.49
0,46
0.41
0.66
0.59
'"
O'X)
0.'"
1.26
Ll8
1.05
150
1.3.1
2.02
1.89
1.69
' .5<>
2.34
2.08
0.1.\ 0." 0..17 o..n 0.72 0.94 152
'"" 0. 11 O.W 031 OM 0."' 0.78
1.10
, .00 1.27
1.87
1.56
Dooioootc..,,_
I b<k M...., I ."..... '" 0.."" I00I. ~"" --- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
[It~~I (;N A I DS 7J7
TABLE A.4
Limiting steel reinforcement ratios for tension-controlled members
3
, pol , psi = 0.005 = 0.004 = "0 =
" "" '"" 0 ,85 0 ,020} 0 ,0232 0 ,0050 0 ,0011
'""
'""
0 ,8 ~
0."'
0.0271
0.0319
0 ,0.110
0 ,0:164
0 ,0050
0 ,00l{)
0 ,00.l{)
0 ,0017
0 ,005}
"'" 0 ,75 0 ,0.159 0 ,04 10

0 ,00l{)
0 ,0058
'''"
"""
0 ,70
O,M
0,0390
0,04 14
0 ,0446
0 ,0474 0 ,00.'>0
0 ,00l{)
0 ,0063
0 ,0067
"'" O,M 0 ,0 166 o , o~n 0 ,0071
'""" '"" 0 ,85 0 ,0 16} 0 ,0 )86 0.00><> 0 ,003.1
'""
'""
0 ,8 ~
0"'
0.0217
0 ,0255
0 ,0248
0 ,0291
0 ,0010
0 ,0010
0 ,0038
0 ,0012
"'" 0 ,75 0 ,0287 0 ,0328 0 ,0010 0 ,0016

0 ,00l{)
'''"
"""
0 ,70
O,M
0.0312
0,0332
0.0357
0 ,0.179
0 ,0010
0 ,0010 0 ,00.'>4
"'" O,M 0 ,0373 0 ,0426 0 ,0010 0 ,0051
"'"" '"" 0 ,85 0 ,OlJ5 0,0)5.1 0 ,003.1 0 ,0027
'""
'""
0 ,8 ~
0."'
0,0 181
0 ,0213
0 ,0206
0 ,0243
0 ,0033
0 ,00:0
0 ,0032
O,OOH
"'" 0 ,75 0 ,0239 0.027.1 0 ,003.1 0 ,00.19
'''"
"""
0 ,70
O,M
0,0260
0,0276
0 ,0298
0 ,0.116
0 ,0033
0 ,00.13
o,oon
0 ,0012
0 ,0015
"'" O,M 0.0311 0 ,0355 0 ,0017

7 ~.OOO
'"" 0 ,85 0 ,0 108 0 ,0124 0 ,0027 0 ,0022
'""
'""
0 ,8 ~
0."'
0,0 145
0 ,0170
0 ,0 165
0 ,0 194
0 ,0027
0 ,0027
0 ,0025
0 ,0028
"'" 0 ,75 0 ,0 191 0.0219 0 ,0027 0 ,00.11
'''"
"""
0 ,70
O,M
0,0208
0,0221
0 ,0238
0 ,0253
0 ,0027
0 ,0027
0 ,0033
0 ,00.16
"'" O,M 0 ,0249 0 ,0284 0 ,0027 0 ,0038
" ~ 0,8.1
L 0,00.1
, J. 0.003 -<-
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
ns IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Appendix A
TABLE A.Sa
Flexural res istance factor: = 1 - 0 .588- psi
40,000 psi 60,000 psi

, psi , psi
3000 '000 '000 '000 3000 '000 '000 '000

0.(1())5
0.0010 .,
W W
""
.," '"'" .w
""" "'" '"
00
.w
00
W
'""' '""' '""'

0.0015 00 00
0.0020
" "" '"" "" '"
0.0025
,""" '" '" '"

11~
'"no ""m
'" '" '"
1.18 '" '"
0.0035 1:16 137 138
157 ""
m '"' '"233 ""
m
0.0040
O.OOH '"
'" '"
175 '"
'" m
'"
2.12
259
'" 263
,""" '" '"'
21}
195
'" 282
'" '" m
0.0053
'"
229 '"
2.13
215
no '"
3.15
314 317
'"
' .0000
0.0065
0.()(}70
247
232
"" 252
m
2H
m "" '"m"" '"
372 '"
}7~
'"'"' '"m '"' '"

J8~
'" ""
'"
,~
0.0075
o.oow .110
"" 426
453 m
'" ""
:m '" 43~
'"
m
'"
0.0083
,00>0
317
m
'" '"
345
329
'"'" '"
,~ m
""
485
'"
0.0095
0.0100
.152 359 363
.18 I '" .S22 532 5.18
W> .l76
394
'" '"
.\52
'"
m
~58
58.1
'"
0.0105
0.01 10
.185
41 2 "" 40.1
421 575 <ro '"
0.01 I.S ""
'" 429 '"
435
'" '" '"
ow 634 '"
"3
0.0120
0.0125
435
'" '"46.1 m
'"
m
476
m
'"
"'"
""
,OJ .
"'"
W>
""
no
0.01 .10
0.OLl5
0.01 40
."
483 ""
'"
514
'"
'" '" '"
~ ,
'"""
7.16
""
733
""
"" 52.1
""
~29 3m
m
757
'"
0.0145 514 531 547 759
'"' '"'"
00150
'"
,.,
547
'" '" '" '"' ,OJ
.. ,
"*'
..,
"m
0.0155 .\ 45 563 575 582 828
00160 m
""
'" '"
"" ""
on
825
'"
0.0165 .S75 8n
""
0.0170
0.0173
0.0180
0.0185
589
""
'"
6.13
612
628
""
""
'"'"
'"
."
'"'"
'"
'"
'""""
m
."
'"
920
'"'M ..
'"
'"
'"'
0.01 90
O.Ol95
0.Q200
...'" ."
"" ""
M '"
'" '"'"' '"
"'"
10.11
1013
10.16
1059
OJ>
"" n~ 737
'"'
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
TABLE A.Sb
Flexural resista nce facto r: = 1 - 0 .588 - ps i
40,000 psi 60,000 psi

, psi , psi
3000 '000 '000 .000 3000 '000 '000 .000

MOl
,."" '"
155 ""'" ""
'" '"
'" '"
m
17~
2.12 '"
233 '"
2.14
,n
O .OO~
'" '"
"m''''.. '"'
282 289
no
'"
'00; 2.12 2.13 3.15 ;.0'
"' "'
0.007
''''"
'.00>
265
'"
3:15
""
'"
"'
.'"
w,
-'45 '"
347
"..
385
'"
483 .'",
394
'"
'"
""
,m
'"
.1 II
0.010
O.QI I
'"
." '"
m
381
n, '" '"
,., '" ""on
'" ~7S
""
0.012
o.on
435
..""w
'"
,w '"
""
....'" '"
""
'"
." '"
''''
W>
no
0.01 4 ".. 52.l 529
'"' '" 757
'"
O.QIS
'" "' 558 565 7,11
'" ." 821
0.016
,.,
"" ,W
'" "" no 825 852
m
."
0.011
". '" 626 635
'" ""
O.QIS
0.019
0020
,n
on
""
on
""
'"
,m
725
'"m
703
.'",
"" '"
'"
1031
""
Ion
1059
I I().I
0.02 1
0.012 '"'
m
736 757
'" Ion
11 15 1149
754 "" '"' ""
837
o.on
0.014 '"
'"
820
852 n,
'm
1156
,'"
1193
12.17
O.02S 853
'" , .w ""'
0.026
o.on '"'
." '"943
on
%0
1322
L163
..
O.()2S
0.029
0.030
'",
'" '"''
10.1 1
."
1028
1059
O.():l l 1014 1059
"'''
11 19
0.032
oon
0034
"'''
1115
1142
11 49
11 79
O.():lS 1170 1208
0.036
om7 "" 1237
1265
0.038 'm
O.():l9 1:122
'''"'
0,(14 I
'w,
1376
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
740 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCT U R .<; Appendix A
TABLE A.6
Param~.~t.o'"'',-- .,"""d- ;. for elastic, cracked section beam analysis, where
= . 2, + .2 - = 1 - 1'
7 8 9
0,0010 0.112 0.%3 0,11 9 0.'"' 0.115 0 , 9~8 0,1 )2 0.9 .~

00020 0.154 0.949 0,1 64 0.945 0.173 0,942 0,180 0.9-10
O.OOJO 0. 18~ 0.9:18 0, 196 0.9.15 O.W] 0,931 0,217 0.928
0.0010 0.210 0.930 0,223 0.926 0.2.15 0,922 0,246 0.91 8
0.00'>0 0.2.; 2 0.92J 0,246 0.918 0.258 0.914 0,270 0.910
0.0054
0 .00~8
0.0062
0.240
0.247
0.920
0.918
0.915
0,254
0,262
0,269
0.915
0.91:1
0.910
0.267
0 .27~ .,."".
,
0,9 11 0,279
0,287
0.907
0.""
0.901
0."""
0.254
0.261 0.91:1 0,276 0.908
0.283
0.290 0,903 '''''
0,J03 0.899
0.0070 0.268 0.91 1 0,283 0."" 0.:!98 0,901 0 ..111 0.896
0.0072 0.211 0.910 0,287 0.9().1 0.:101 0.<>00 0,J1 4 0.895
0.0074 0.214 0."" 0,290 0.90.1 0.'" 0,899 0 ..118 0.894
0,0076 0.277 0"'" 0,293 0."" 0.:108 0,897 0,:121 0.89,
00078 0.280 0.907 ,.""
0,299
0.90 1 0..11 I 0,896
0,895
0,325
0,328
0.892
0.0080
0.0082
0.28:1
0.286
0."'"
0"'" 0,3O.l
'''"'
0.899
0.314
0.317 0.894 0,331
0.891
,m
0.0084 0.289 0.9().1 0,306 0.898 0.321 0,893 0,334 0.889
0.0086 0.:!92 O.90.l 0 ..m8 0.897 0.324 0,892 0 ..138 0.887
0.0088 0.29~ 0.902 0,:111 0.896 0.327 0,891 0,:141 0.886
0."'" 0.298 0.901 0,314 0.895 0..l3O 0,890 0,3./4 0.885
0.0092 o.m 0.'>00 0,:117 0.894 0.3.'12 0,889 0,)47 0.884
0"'" 0.3(13 0.899 0,320 0.89.1 0335 0,888 0,350 0.883
0,:12.1 0,887 0,J53
''''''
,.om
0.306
0.308
0.898
0.897 0 ..125
0.892
0.892
0.338
0.34 1 0,886 0 ..155
0.882
0.882
0,0100 0.311 0.896 0,:128 0.891 0.344 0,885 0,:158 0.881
0.01( 0.316 0.895 0 ..133 0.889 0.349 0,884 0 ..164 0.879
0.0108 0.321 0.893 0,]38 0.887 0.354 0.882 0,:\69 0.8/7
0.0 11 2 0.325 0.892 0,34.l 0.886 0.359 0.880 0,374 0.875
0.01 16 0.3:10 0.890 0,348 0.884 0.11>4 0,879 0,:179 0.874
0.0120 0.3.14 0.889 0 ..153 0.882 03'" 0,877 0 ..114 0.872
0.0124 0.n9 0.887 0,:157 0.881 0.374 0,8 75 0,389 0.870
0.0128 0.343 0.886 0 ..162 0.879 0.37 8 0,874 0 ..194 0.867
0.0132 0.347 0.884 0,:\66 0.8")8 0.383 0,872 0,)98 0.867
00136 0351 0.883 0,370 0.877 0387 0,8 71 0,4O.l 0.866
0.0140 0.35~ 0.882 0,:174 0.875 0.392 0."" 0,407 0.864
,""
..
00 1./4 0.159 0.880 0,378 0.8/4 0.196 0,868 0.4 12
0.0148
0.0152
0.11>:1
0.367
0.879
0.878
0,382
0 ..186
0,]90
0.87:1
0.871
0.<00
0.""
0,867
0,865
0.4 16
0.4 20 ,
0.861
0.01'>6
0.0160
0.371
0.374
0.876
0.875 0,394
0.870
0.869
0.408
0..112 '"'"
0.863
0.424
0.428
0.8W
0.857
0.0170
0.0180
0.383
O..l92
0.872
0.'"
0.403
0..11 2
0.867
0""
0.421
0..130 '''''
0,857
0.4:17
0,./46
0.8~
0.8.1 I
0,420 0.438 0,8 54
0.0190
0.0200
' .<00
0..107
0.867
0."'" 0.4 28 '''''
0.857 0..146 0,851
0.45.5
0.463
0.848
,.'"
Dooioo ot c..,,_
I b<k M...., I ."..... '" 0.."" I00I. ~"" --- ...
SIno<oo _ ~ -~
EoI6 ..
AIDS
[I t~~I(;N
'"
TABLE A.7
M aximum numbe r o f ba rs as a sing le layer in b eam st e ms
i in. Mallimum Size Aggregate, No . 4 (No. 13) Stirrups
Bar No. Beam Width in.
Inch
Pound ,
,,,
" ,, ", ", ",
,, ",, ", " " " " "" ",.
"'" ,, , , '",, "",, ""
, ,
,,, ,,," ""
"
"" "
,,, ,,, ,,, ,,
22
," "", ",,
,,,
25
"" "
U
""
"
" , ,
, ,, , ,,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ",,
"
"
"
"
""
"
,, , ,, ,, ,, ,, , , ""
in. Mallim um Si ze Aggregate, No. 4 (No. 13) Stirrups
Bar No. Beam Wi dth , in.
Inch.
Pound ,
"
,,, "'" ,, ",, ",, ", ", ", ", ", " " "" "
,,, ,,, ,,, ,, ,,, ,, ,, ",, "
" "
""
"
" "" ,, ,, , ,, ,, ,, "'",, "", "
"" n
, , , , , , , ""
"M iruHl"HI " ",""..." ct."'''' .,",,~'d to '"', 1\ in , .,) " '" 1',), 4 (~". 1.1) "'''''p.
51,."".- AJ;q>!ed fn~" ",t, H, US<'tI "y [..."rIi"' " of "T< ~";"an eo...."t'" (n.","" ,
Ni ..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I b<kM .... ,
o..loo ot c..,_
SIno<oo _ ~
EoI6 ..
TABLE A.a
Minimum number of bars as a sing le layer in beam stems governed by crack control
requirements of the ACI Code
! ) 2 in. dear C01l&r, sides and bottom
Minimum Number of Ball: as a Single Layer of a Beam St em
Bar N o. Beam Stem Widlh , in.
Inch
Pound
" " ", ", ", ", ", " ", ", ", " ", ", ",
.1-14 lo-n
"
, , , , , ,"' , , , , ,
"
) 1t in. dear cover, sides and bottom
Minimum Number of Bars as a Single Layer of a Beam St em
Bar No. Beam Stem Width , in.
Inch
Pound
" " ", ", ", ", ", ", ", ", ", ", ", ", ",
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, , ,, ,, , ,
,~ IO-Ll
.1-14 16_H
, , , ,
" " "'
Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I b<k M.... ,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
TABLE A.9
Design strength fo r slab sectio ns 12 in. wi de, ft-ki ps; = 60 ksi;
=. 2(1 - 0.59 /- )
Effact iva Dapth ,in .
, psi
3000 0.002
0.003
3.0
0.'
"
3.5
1..1
1.9
4 .0
1.7
2.5
4.5
2.1
3.2
5.0
2.6
3.9
5.5
.1.2
"'.3
.0
'"5.'
5
4.5
'.0
3 .0
5.2
33
.,
8.0
10.0
' 0
' .5
12.7
10.0
10.5
15.6
1 2.0
15.2
:22 .5
"00; 2.5 3.3 4.2 5.1 ' .3 10. 1 13.2 16.7
""
20.6 29.6
O. OO~ 2"..1 3.1 4.1 5. 1 6.4 33 10.7 12.4 16 .3 20.6 2~.4 )6.6
.1.7 75 12 7 30 . I 43 .4
0.000
0.007 "3 , 4. 2
4.8
5.5
6. 1
7.0 8.7 "
10.5
10 8
12.5 14.7
14.8
17.0
19..1
22.2
24.4
28. 1 .14.7 49.9
0.008 3.5 4.8 6.3 7.9 9.8 11.8 14. 1 16.5 19.2 25 .0 31.7 )9. I 56 ..1
8.8 11}9
"""
0.010
3.9
' .3
5.3
5.8
7.0
7.6 9.6 11.9
13.1
14.4
15 .6
171
18 .4
20.1
21.:1
233
27. 8
30.5
35.2
38.6
43,4
47 .6
62 .6
68.6
.
2q 33.]
0.011
"' .0 6.:1 8.3 105 12.9 15.6 18 .6 21.8 41.9 51.7 74.4
.,.,
4000 0.002
0.003
U
1.9
17
2.5
2. 1
3.2
2.7
:1.9
3.2
'"5' 4.5 5.2
33

10. I

12.8
10.6
15. 8
15.3
n7
' .00; " 2.6 3..1 4.2 5.2 '.3 ' .5 10.2 13.3 16.9 20.8 30.0
" w.,
0.005 2.) 3.2
.1. 8
4.1
4.9
5.2 6.5
" 9.3 10.9 12.6 16.5 2~ . 8 37.2
0.000
0.007 "3.2 4.J 5.7
6.2
7.2
7.7
8.9
9.3
10.7
110
12.8
1.l.0
1.' .0
15.0
17.4
19.6
12.7
24.9
28.7
30 .7
.; 5.5
44 .2
51.1
."" ,
,.
3.'
0.008 4.9 6.4 8.1 10.0 12.1 14.5 17.0 19.7 25 .7 32.5 .to. I 57 .g
5.5 7.2 9. 1 11.2 13.5 16.1 18.9 21.9 28.6 )6.2 44 .7 64.4
,.
0.010
0.011
H 6.0
6.6
7.9
8.6
10.0
10.9
123
n .4
149
16.2
17 .7
19.,
20 8
22.7
24.1
26.3
.1 1. 5
34.,
39.9
43.4
49.2
.H6
70.9
77.2
0.012 5.3 7.1 9.3 11.7 14.5 17.5 20.9 24.5 28.4 .17. 1 46.9 57 .9 83.4
O.OP 5.6 7.6 9.9 12.6 15.5 18 .8 224 26 .2 30.4 .19. 8 .'>l:U 62 . I 89.5
0.01 4 ' .0 8. I 10.6 IH 16.6 20.0 23 8 28 .0 32.5 42 4 53.6 66.2 95 .4
:sooo
0.01 5
0.002
0.003
' .00;
6.3
"
' .0
8.6
2.6
U
1.9
11.2
17
2.5
3.4
14.2
2.2
3.2
43
17.6
2.7
4.0
5.2
.
21.2
3.2
'.3
25 .3
,.'"5.'
'"
..,,
4.5
34.4
5.2
"
10..1
45 .0

10. I
13.4
%.,

12.8
17.0
70.2
10.6
15.9
21 .0
IOU
15.3
n8
30.2
0.005
0.000
"
2.)
3.'
3.2
.1. 8
4.2
5.0
5.3
6.3
6.5
7.8 ,.,3.' "112
I 1.0
I.l. I
12.8
15.2
16.]
19.9
21.1
25.1
26.0
3 1.0
37.5
44 .7
0.007 3.2 4.4 5.7 7.3 9.0 10.9 12.9 1.' -2 17.6 no 29. 1 .; 5.9 51.7
."" '.5,
,
3.'
0.008 5.0 6.5 83 10.2 12.3 14.7 17.2 20.0 26.1 3.>.0 .to.8 58. 7
5.6 7.3 9.2 11.4 13.8 164 19.2 22.3 29.1 )6.9 4~ . 5 6~ . 5
0.010 6.1 8 .0 10.2 125 152 18 1 212 24.6 32. I 40.6 ~. 2 72.3
0.011 6.7 8.8 ILl n .7 1M 19.7 23.1 26.8 35. I 44.4 .~ 1. 8 ]8.9
"
0.012 5..1 7.3 9.5 12.0 14.8 17.9 21.3 25.1 29. 1 .17.9 48.0 59 ..1 85.4
O.OP
0.01 4
0.01 5
0.016
0.017
.,
.,
5.7
'.5
1..1
7. 8
8..1
8.9
9.4
9.9
10.2
10.9
11.6
12.3
12.9
12.9
1.~ . 8
14 .7
15.5
16.4
15.9
17.0
18.1
19.2
20.2
19.3
20.6
21.9
23.2
24.4
22 .9
24 5
26. I
27.6
29.1
26 .9
28 .8
30.6
J2.4
34 .1
31.2
33,4
35.5
37.5
39.6
40. 8
4.1.6
46.:1
49.0
51.7
51.6
55.2
58.6
62.1
65.4
63 .7
68. 1
72.4
76.6
80.8
91. 8
98. 1
104.3
110..1
116,,1
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
744 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Appendix A
TABLE A.10
Simplified t ension d evelopment length in bar diamet ers for
uncoat ed bars and normal -weight concret e
No. 6 (No. 19) and Smaller No. 7 (No . 22) and Larger
ps; ps;
(I) BOItom bars

ks ;
."'" '''''' ."'" "''''
Sp;K-ing, ,(>Vcr
,00 tie, 1""
.,'"'"
2.~
""
2.1
"
"
""
.,
32
"" "
"w
C.", " or h
., " " "
"" "" "w " ""
"W .H
"
'" " " " " M
"
(2) Tup bars
., B N n
"
"" ""
Spacing_ em..:'
and I;e; a. per
" " ""
"''"'" '""
C,,,, a ')f h
'" M
" .~-~
"'" "'""
"
"
'"
"'"
"n
"
.
"
"
"
""
'"
uS< u: Ck-ar ,roci.; 0(""" "'i"li .......~Iop<-..J ,.- 'PIkul '" d, . .. k..- (' ..""~, '" 1/,. """ "'inup' '" ,i<.. 'hr<",~ho.." I, 001 k .. th"-'l
the C""',, "';n,,,,,,,"
ca", b; <.:Icar <p"..-in; "f """ "'-in., ,Icwk""... ,~ ",I .., ... '" 2.1, . "" dcar ~,~ ... b> '.,n d,.
' lit;! C.-.nmj,",o -IOlj ""-"n"",,.h ,"'" ,he ",I"", i .. lie"",,1 f.- "'" <i,,,, NO. 7 (No. 12) and I" i'"" "" " ", j r'lf .11 "'" <i,,,,
Dooioootc..,,_
I b<k M...., I ."..... '" 0.."" I00I. ~"" --- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
AIDS
[It~~ I (;N
'"
TABLE A.11
Development length in compression, in.
= great er of (0.02 ) or 0.0003 (Minimum length 8 in. in all cases.)
, psi
Bar No . 3000 <000 5000 6000
Inch s...ic Basic Basic Basic
Pound ksi Confin~d Con fin~d Confin~d Confin~d
, "
"
'"'" "
"
"
" " " " " " "
"
'-'
"'
'"'" ," ," " ,"
""
"
" ," " "
"
, "' ", "

"

"

" '"'" "
," "" ," ," ""
,"
"
"' " W
", ", ",
" '"'" "
" "" "
," "

" ""
00
"'-' " " " " " " W
7 n
'"'" W
" "'-' " "'-' "
"' "" "" "" ""
, "
""
, " ""
,
" .-"
.,'"'" "" "" "" "" " "
n
" " " "" "
" "
" .,'"'" " "'-' "
""" "" """ "
"
" "" " "" "
"
.12
'" '"
" '"'" " "
" " "" "" " "" ""
00
23
'" " '"

U
" " '"" 2.1
"
" '" '"'" " " n" 13
" " ,."", "
"" "" "" "" "" ""
"' 77
" " .,'" "." " " " "'" "" "" ""
'" 77
2:1
'"
77
32 '"" '" B
'" B
" " .,'" " "" " " 77 W 77

"
'" " .n "" 77
" ."'" " "
" 77
" " '"
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
746 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R ~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Appendix A
TABLE A . 12
Common st ock st yles of welded wire reinfo rcement (WWR)
Stee! Area, in' ft We ight
(Approximate ),
St .... 1De.ignation Longitudinal Tran.verse Ib per 100ft>
Ro lls
6 X 6-W U X WL4 0 .028 0.028
6
6
X
X
('-W2 ,0
6-W2.9
x W 2,0
X W2 .9
0.040
OO~M
0 ,040
O()~M W""
6 X &- W4,0 x W4.0 O.OW O.OW ~
4
4
X
X
4 W IA
4-W2 ,0
X WL4
X W2 ,0
0 .042
0.""'
0 .042
0."'" "
4
4
X
X
4 W2.9
4_W4 ,0
X W2 .9
X W4,0
OO!!7
0 ,120
OJ)~7
0 ,]20
".,"
Sheets
6 X 6-W2 .9 X W2 .9 OO~8 O .()~M W
o.ow o.ow
.,""
~ X ('-W4 ,0 X W4,0
~ x 6-W5,5 x W55 0,110 0,1 10
4 X 4 W4,0 X W4,0 0,120 0 ,]20
Dooioootc..,,_
1 b<k M.... , 1 ."..... '" 0.."" I00I. ~ ""--- ...
SIno<oo _~ -~
EoI6 ..
[It~~ I (;N A I DS 74'
TABLE A.1JA
Coefficients for sla bs with variable moment of inertia
'" '"
rI1 rI1
load wpsJ
~
T 0,
,
,,I, ,,
12 in perpendcum direction ,B
Co lumn Uniform Load St iffness Carryover

Dimension FEM = Coeff. Factor Fact or
,
000 000 0.08.1 0.08.1 ' .00 . 00 0,:\00 0'"'
() , o.~ 0.08.1 0= UI 4 ()4 O';()4 0500
0,10 0.082 0."" 4.03 4, 15 0,513 0.499
() 15 0.081 0.089 4.07 4 32 0528 0.498
0." 0.079 0.09.1 4. 12 4,56 0.548 0.495
02.~ 0.077 0.097 H8 H 8 O,5H 0.491
0." 0."
0,10
O.O&<
0.083
0.084
0"'"
4.05
4.07
."
4, L~
0.:10.\
0513
0.50.1
0.'\03
0,1 5 0.081 0.089 4. 11 4,3.1 0.528 0.501
020 0.080 0.092 4.16 4 ,58 O.S48 0.499
O.B O.or8 0"" 4.22 4,89 0,5 B 0.494
0.10 010 O.OMS 0.085 4.18 4 1g 0 5n 051.1
(1,) 5 0.08.1 0.088 4.22 4, }6 0,528 0.311
02() 0.082 0.091 4.27 4,61 0548 0.'\08
0,25 0."" 0.095 434 4,93 0,573 0.5(1.1
0.15 o L~ 0.086 0"'" uo 4,.w 0526 0..~2 6
0,20 0.'" 0."'" 4,46 4,M 0.546 0.52.1
O , 2.~ 0.083 0.094 4S1 4,98 O.S? I 0519
0." 0,20 0.088 0.088 4.72 4, 72 0.543 0..5-"

o,n 0"" 0.092 4.79 505 O.56I! 0.'\)9
0,25 0,25 0."'" 0."'" 5. 14 5,14 0,563 0.563
... pp!K..wc "'"'" c, J, - c, I,. h ~ '"t..~ " 'I.. ~,,, slurs I><',,~('n ,t..",. m'~ ... ,bo.. " .. ~Wl " "'i ll '" , lijUl ,ly in ("m~
Slin..." i, K .. - I;. ,F: J!< i I U , ","-I I:.. - . .... ,,It: Ill , '
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
74.11 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Appendix A
TABLE A.1JB
Coefficients for sla bs with variable moment of inertia
Load wpsf
~~L '" -----1~~

1.25 h ,
I 6 3 6 I
,,I, /, .1
,
12 in perpendicuta r directioo
B
CQlumn Uniform Load St iffne55 Carryover

Dimension FEM := Coeff . Factor Factor
,.,
,00 O()() o.OS8 0..0.88 .t.7S 4 78 0 54 1 D..~41
0.'" 0..087 0..089 '.00 4,82 0,545 D.~I
O,lO 0..087 0..0.90 U3 4 ,94 0 553 0.5 41
0,1 5 0.085 0..093 4.87 5,1 2 0,567 0..540
020 0.0.84 O~ 4.9.\ D6 ()S g.~ 0537
O.B 0..0.82 0..100 ' .00 5,68 0."" 0..534
O.OS ()O.~ 0..0.88 o.OS8 4.84 .M O .54.~ 0. ..'\45
O,lO
0, L~
0..0.87
D . 08.~
"."'"
0..093
4.87
4.91
4,95
5 ,lJ
0.5B
0567 "'"
0.543
0,20
o,n "0..082
."" ".""
O.lIX)
4.97
5.0.5
5,38
QO
0.584
0.606
D.~I
0.537
0,10 0,1 0 0..089 0..089 4.98 4,98 0,5H 0..553
0, I ~ D.OS8 0..092 5.0.1 .~ 16 0 566 0.5.11
0.'" 0..086
""" ,m 5,42 0,584 D.~9
02.~
0,) 5
"= "~ 5.17 5,74
5,22
0606 0.5 46
0.15
020
0,25
""'"
0.089
0..087
""'"
"""
0..097
5.22
5.28
537
54 7
5,80
0.565
0583
0..565
0.56.1
0..559
0""
0 20 0 20 0..0'12 0..092 555 55.~ 05g(l 0.580
0 25
0,25
o,n
"."'" "."" 5.64
5.98
5,88
598
0,602
0 598
0..577
0.598
""" """
"l'l'hcoNe ,,1><," <, 1Io"""."fl tho."" nl""" ,"" ".",,,,,,-, ~'iII f>c ,l i" hLly in ''ffi~.
I , ~ ", r,. h)f '""'-~ ,,'!J<;,oft\/lil"
' Stiff",' i> K", - t.J:- I!lt 121, >n<l K... - l~. r!li Ill,
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
TABLE A.1JC
Stiffness factors for columns with variable moment of inertia
L
c''' ,;=o===r=;C==!-lI
,',
L 'I'
e,. ;==='='===l~
1
Slab Halfdepth Stiffne Factor Slab Halfdepth Stiffness Fa ctor
om ,.,,, 0. 14 9.43
0_02
o~ ,...
4.4.'1 0.16
0.18
11.0 1
13 ,0 1
.'"
.'"
_S.54
6 . 2~
' .W
0.22
IB6
18,87
0. 10 7. 11 0.24 2:1.26
0.12 8. 15
... d;of"'u r""" S II Si,"", """ "xl J Mi, ... " IJe,ig" 1'"",,,,,, I ll><; I""i.."'nl l '""",, Mclhoxl: J, )0("1, " .
(>8 ... " 1I. 1 ~7 1 .rr. 8l~"
TABLE A.14
Size and pitch of spirals, ACI Code
. , psi
Diamete r of Out to Out
Column, in.
t. ~ 40.000 psi
of Spiral. in. " 00 "'" ."" '''''
14. 15 I I. J 2 H i-Ii 4-24 Hi
1,1
"
17- 19
20-2.1
" 16
14-
17_2Q
..,
~2
l..., 1
l...2 1
1
Hi
i-Ii
Lil
I
4-2~
1,1
H
H
H
24-:\0 21-27 t-21 >-' Hf H
I, - 60.000 p.i
14. 15
16--23
11. 12
13- 2Q
H1
-It
..",
1:,1 ..
~,
L
t- >1
H
..
Hi l _21
24- 29
'"
2 1- 26
n Hi t' ;
1
t-2:
H
Hz
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SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
TABLE A.1S
Properties of prestressing steels
Sevl.ln.Wirl.l Strilnd, . 270 ksi
Nominal
Diameter
(In.)
Area,
in' ,,,
Weight, 0]
kips
0.7S
kip.
0.'
kips kips
l:0,3 U O , OS~ O. ~ 161 17.2 18.4 230
~ 0, 500 0 , l~) 0,52 28.9 )1.0 no ~L:\
.
h' . 0 , 167 O , ~J 31.6
4(17
.U.& .16 I
49 ~
4~.1
I
O:! I ~
'" ~8
(O.@) 074
.
Prestressing Wire
Diameter
Area.
in' ,,,
Weight. 0.'
kips
0.'
kips kip.
5,78 7,22
0.192
0.196
0 ,0289
0 ,0.'02
0 ,098
0 , 100 ""
""
5.05
5.2& <'" 7 ,55
0 .:250
0276
0.0491
0.o.~9&
0.170
0.200 ""
235 'M
8.25 9.42
11.24
11.78
14,05
Deformed Prestressing Bars
Nominal
Diamete r
(in.)
Area,
in' ,,,
Weight,
ksi
0.'
kips
0.'
kips kips
, 028 098 157 30,5 .~ 8 4, .5
0 ,85
0 ,85
.1 ,01
'" 89..l 102.0 127,~
1:\6,0
"
1.25
3.01
4.39 ""
'"
95.2
131.J
108.8
150.0 187 ,5
1.15 4.39
'''' 140.0 160,0
159,6
000.0
2.17,0
" 1.58 5.56
. ... ....,,0.1 In"" P(l/J.,#8" 110041",,*. ~ I h 0.1 ..

'"
1"",.<tII'n;~n,;,\<-J
165.9
Cr.,,:,,:," 10>1;''''0. Ch;"""l'_ II .. IWi,

~llK'! in, ' [I<{'i,1 .. r ...... ""'. >li~hlIy l:.<lIcr ,",'waI dialTl""7 ,han ,I..:! in, ".-.nd
<J're,''''''';!lj w;"" ''''Y in Jill"':"" from O. J()'; It, O.27~ ie, ... ful l l i ~;D ~ i, ~ ;"'n In III< PCI f)"jlt" 1I"m)NHik
"!'or ,h; ~n j>UJJ>O><'>. <he fo!"",'i "~ "","HI,,.;,,,", "'" .:u;.fllL'I<lfy for d"';.,..,,,," rn.r>: E, ~ !'I.COl/IXIlI"i and/, - O.~~ I,.
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GKAI'H ,\.1
Momon' c'p""i'y "r
rec(.ng"lar ""'(;00'.
,"'"
,
0
.j~ "'"
"11;
""
"
""
o O~ O~ O~
- .,.
7S2 Of..'l I<:S O~ Cosc lu:n : !oTR UC"U R!~~ App:DdiI A
G 1(t\!'11 ,\.I
~k/J;'~)#
M<JmrnI ~apaci ry 0(
~ ~ ul ...,t;oos..
~~. \~'~.
fL..,'
'1'1
, <00
>1',l!

fI61- ~
0.002 0."'" 0006 0 .006 0.010 0.0 12 0.014 0.0 16 0.018
P - AM
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G itA I' H ,\.2

Location of point< whore
,
""" can be bent up Dr CUI off
Ii" .imply ,uppor1<d ocam, ,
,"
unif... mly loaded.
,"
S
0

c
D
"
, "
D

,"
, "'
"E, ,,
~
""
00
"", ,., ,., ,. ,.,

"
Ded mals 01 span length
--
Na. .. 0. _ _
-
Dotitooltooc_
754 Of..'lI<:S O ~ c o sc lu:n : !oTR UCTU R!~~ App:DdiI A
GKt\I'1i ,\ .3 0
Apprn>inwc Ioxationo '"
pomI' '" ~ bar> Can bo befI,
up 01 _'n .. <uo off ('"
comin""", bo.ms uniformly
"
Ioackd ODd buill ,n,"I1"Uy 20
" 'iIll their """"","' 111011.11",
10 II>< rocff",ictll> in the ACI 30
COO<.
;;
.,
BOO

!too
1B "
, eo
~ "
i
! "'"
.~,
i
:f
;;
,
5
0
0.5
DecJmals of dear span length
I Ni..... .Jl.o.w;...DoIoo, I lad< M .... ,
o...o.otc..,_
GKAI'H ,\.4
~~
In"''P''latioo dill'" {o,-
I"cral di,{ribution of slab
m",ncn"
;
~ '~"
~~
B, - 0
I
I {3, > .
,
,-""-' 1 0'
~ ' t-
'0
"
<. 0
~
"
I "'"

F= f:: ~
"0 ",
~: ' .0
Ratio/zl/,
o..loootc..,_
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756 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Appendix A
'.0
Inte raction diagra m
"
~;o~
"
" r:
,
.: o
o o
" L
"
,. ~
"
n;f. . "
~
' .0
U
n;tr
0.'
." 0.'
0.'
"
"
OA
0.'
0.'
0.'
0.25 0.30 0.35 0 40 0 4 5 050 055 0.60 0.65
GRM'H A.5
Column strength interacti"., Ji'g,am fo, rttt.1ngular ",,,,,ion with h,,, on roo, race. ",,,I - 0.60 (f",
in'ltbCl,oo, 1 use "nly).
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"
"
.'~ "
4j: '0
0
0.'
<
0.'
0.'
0.'
0'
OA
03
0.'
O.
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 015 0-20 025 030 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0 ,60 0.65
GRM'H A.6
Column strength interaction Ji'g,am fo, rttt.1ngular ",,,,,ion with h,,, on roo, race. and - 0,70 (f",
in'ltbClioo, 1 use "nly).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
75S IW..<; I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Appendix A
'.0
Inleradion diagram
"
~;"~
"
" mE r, :" .. :
" ""
" L
"
"
"
..
.~ "
, .0
0..<1-.:'"
c"
0 .'
," 0 .'
0 .'
'"
"
0 ..
"
o.,
00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 OAO OA5 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
GRAPH A.7
Column "'<ngth int"r.>etion diagr.om fOf ",<tangubr section wi th bar> Oil four f""'" and - 0 .80 (for
in,{mcriooal u.e only).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
0'
0.0
0.00 0 .05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
GRM'H A.8
Column strength interaction Ji'g,am fo, rttt.1ngular ",,,,,ion with h,,, on roo, race. and - 0.90 (f",
;n' ltbCl;oo,1use " nly).
o..loootc..,_
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" InteractiOl1 diagram
"
,.
,,
"
,.
"
"
"
"~ ,
,
, .0
0:1
,""'
co
0.'
0
<
0 .'
0 .'
0.'
0 .'
o.
0'
o.,
0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0 .30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
GRM'H A.9
Column strength intcraction Ji'g,am fo, rttt.1ngular ",,,,,ion with h,,, on end f",c< and - O.6() (fo, instructional
u '>e onl y).
o..loootc..,_
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"
",
"~
,
,
.. 0
Cl~I~
0.'
.<
0.'
0.'
0'
"
0 ..
0.'
0.'
o. ,
0.0
0_00 0_05 010 0_15 020 025 030 0_35 0.40 0.45 050 0_55 060 065
GRM'H A. IO
Column strength interaction Ji'gram for rttt.1ngular ",,,,,ion with h,,, on end f",:e< and - O.7() (for instructional
u'>e only).
o..loootc..,_
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' .0
Inte raction diagram
,.,
,.,
"
,.,
U
"
U
,.~ ",.,
n: '-~
CIt: ,.0
,
" 0.'
0.'
0.'
0'
0'
0'
0'
02
0.'
(; KAPil ,\ .11
Column meng{h interac{ion diagram f",. ,{ans"lar 5e(1;OO with bars on end face, and - 0.80 (f",. in,{n!C1;ooal
"~ ()nlyl.
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GRM'H A. 12
Column strength interaction Ji'g,am fo, rttt.1ngular ",,,,,ion with h,,, on end f",:e< and - O.9() (fo, instruct ional
u'>e only).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
764 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUC T U R.<; Appendix A
'.0
Interaction diagram
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
,.,
o.1~ u
'0
o."l~
0.'
" 0'
0'
0.'
0'
0.'
0.'
0.'
0.'
0.25 0.30 0.35 0 .40 0,45 O.SO 0.55 0.60 0.65
GRAPH A.U
Column ","ength int"r.>etio .. diagr.om fOf circular =~io .. with - 0 .60 (for i .. "ructi"nal","" "" lyI.
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
'.0
InteractOoo diagram
"
"
"
"
"
,.
"
.1i, "
u
"-~ I~ "
0.'
.<
'"
"
0.'
0 .'
OA
0.'
0.'
0. '
0 .0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0 .20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0 .40 0.45 0 .50 0.55 0.60 0.65
GR,\ I'U A. 14
Colomn ""'n8th interactioo di"l'ram f'" dl"(ol", stetioo ,,ilh ~ 0.70 (f", in' tructional "'" ooly).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
" Interaction diagram
"
"
U
LO
"
,.,"
"
~
0.; ....~
, "
~I~ "
.< "
"
",.,
"
"
"
,",
" 0.00 0.05 0.10 0 .1 5 0.20 0 .25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
GRM'H A. IS
C"lumn strength interacti"" Ji'gram for eireul", ,",cti"n with - O.SO (for instructional use ool}-).
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
'0
IOlsractioo diagram
1~ - 4ksi
" ly - 60ksi
Y ~ 0 .90
"
"
"
'5
,..
U
"
Q~~
"
"I ~
'0
0'
<
0.'
0'
0.'
0.5
0'
0.'
02
0'
0.0
0.00 0,05 0 ,1 0 0,15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
GRM'H A. 16
Column strength interaction Ji'gram for eireul", ",ction with - 0.90 (for instructio"al use ool}-).
.".....8, SI _ _
o..loootc..,_ F......, ...1.. _ u.n..
SIno<oo_~ 1051_
EoI6 ..
SI CONVERSION FACTORS:
INCH-POUND UNITS TO SI UNITS
Overall Geometry
Span, I ft _ 0 ,3048 m
Displacements 1 in , - 25.~ mm
Surf""e arc, I It ' - 0,0929 tn'
Yolu",.. 1 It ' - 0,0283 nI'
I vd' - 0.765 tit'
Structural Properties
I in , - 25Amm
N" 1 in' - ~5,2 mil"
5<.!;00 modulus I in ' - 16.39 X 10' mm'
MoolCl\! of inertia 1 in' - 0.4162 X 1000",m'
Materia! Properties
Density 1 lb ft' - 16.03 kg m'
Modulu,.0<1 >Ire" I Ib in' = 0,((J6S95 MPa
I lip in' - 6.~9.\ MPa
Loadings
Coo<o<ntratod load, I lb - 4 A48 N
1 lip - 4.448 ~N
DenSity I lb ft' - 0.1 57 1 ~N m'
U ... " load, I kip n ~ 14 ,59 IN m
Surface loads 1 lb ft' - OJ}.t79 kN no'
1 ~ip 1) ' ~7 ,9kN m'
Stress ,lnd Moments
I Ib in' - 0,((J6S95 MPa
I kip in' - 6.895 Ml'a
Momen! or ,O]U, I ft lb ~ 1, 356 N m
1ft-k ip - 1,356 IN -,n
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo_~
EoI6 ..
Index
m""hanical. 178 delailing. 183. 347

in nodalwne . 325. 330 ",1""lion of, 93
AASHTO ,,,,,,,ilicalion,, 10, 16, web reinforcement. 180 spacing of. 93
16,147 wdded wire fabric. 181 splices. 195. 197
Abeles, P. W, . rl'J7 A nchor.. ge wne. prestress. 689 Be","andgirder floors. 601
A(Celer'IOrs ..H Anderson. N. S" 313 Beam-<:olumnjoints.348
ACl Anderson. R. G.. 633 Ikarns
Code, 16 Approximate analysis. 389 (OmpressiOlI reinforced.95
CodeCommemary. 16 Arches. conCre1c. 7 <:racked da'li,' seclion
load faclors, 18 AREMA manual. 10. 17.26 analysis. 70
moment coefficients, 395 Armer. G. S. T., 541 deep.ns. 336
'!afely provisions. 17 ASe E Load Specificalion. 10. 11,26 doubl)' rcinforn><l, 95
strenglh ,,-><luetion faclors. 18 ASTM spe<ificalion. 30. :>4. 36, 54. ove""info,,:ed.90
Adams, P. E ..>17 58,59.204 prop<lnions of. 95. 107
Adebar, P.. 161. .~n Avrah"m. C. H" 503 T secliOil. 104
Admixtures, concrete, 36, 50 Axial (OInpression. 21. 251. 288 lension-reinfo,,:ed. 67. 71
Ad,.,."coo .<trip melhod. 51J Axial forces, effcrl on shear, 139 UJKra<'kl><l elaSli,' seclion
Aggregales.29 Axiallension.25 analysis. 69
coarse, ]0 Azizinamini. A .. 63 unde""inforced. 80
fine. 30 Ikaulieu. D.. 317
heavyweighl. J() Bending. Set' Flexure
lighlweighl, JO Biaxial column t>ending. 274
Ahmad. S, H.. 6J, 160 (OI"puler analysis. 280
Air entrain ment . .12, 36 B-regions, 321 load conlour melhod. 276
Aliayma, Y.. 160 Balancoo slr"in condilion reciprocal load melhod. 217
Alcocer, S., 345 beams. 79. 98 Biaxial sirengih of concrele. 46
Alignmenl charts for columns, 301 columns, 261 Binney. J. R" 732
Allowahle Slress de,ign, 16 Balanced sleel r"lio Birkland. H, W.. 161.409.633
Anal y,i, of continuous beam, and compression-rei nforrud Bir1<1and. p, W.. 161.633
frames, 375 beams. % Blakey. F. A.. 541
approximale, 389 Tbeams. l06 Bond. Su ,,1.<0 lk~c1opmenl length
elaqic. ]81 lensiOlI reinforced t>eams. 19 (OmpressiOlI. 182
limi l, .197 Bao.A .. 478 <:racked senion analy,i,. 164
p<lnal mel hod. 392 Ban/han- Roy. B. K" 697 ne,ur..!. 163
preliminary. 388 Bar designalions, 53 moditication foc1""'. 172
."bframe . .180 Barham. S.. 62 preSlre,,.,,j t>eams. 688
Anchorage Bamey, G , B .. 732 sire" dislribulion. 166
hootoo. 176 Bar.;, reinforcing lension. 172. 195
in joinls. 354 cutoff and ocnd p<lims. 183 ultimale slrenglh. 168
771
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
772 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Indo,
Booth. E.. 732 Collins. M.I'.. 62.147.161. 249. definition or.

Bowks.1. E.. 573 573.697 density. 30
Brackets. 368 Column footings. 551 f~tiguc. 43
Bmndw,eg. A .. 282 Columns. 251 heavyweight. 30
Bmnwn. D.. 4 ~. 62. 228. 478. 698 ACt Code pru~isions. 269 highstTCligth. 50
Br~cn. J. E.. 198. ~ 17. 409. 698 aAi~lIy loaded. 20 lightweight, 30
Bresler. I:!.. 62.160.283 balaoced failure. 261 mixing. 33
Bridges. 6. 7 with bending. 258. 291 mod" l"s of elasticity. 39
Broms. B .. 228 biaxial bcnding of. 274 placing. 33
Brown. R, L.. 27. 282 computer analysis for. 280 I'oisson's ratio, 40
Building Seismic Safely CounciL load comour Illl:tho<l. 276 prestressed. 2
707.732 re<'iprocalload method. 277 propunioning. 1. 31. ~2
Building systems. 599 capli,'c.706 protectioll for steel. 93
beam-and'girder,601 circular. 21. 268 quality comro!. 34
composiw . 603. 604 design aids. 281. 756 shril' kage. 47
f131 piales. 609 distribute":! reinforccnwm. 265 strunglh: in combined
!lat slabs. 608 equivalent. 444 stress. 46
one ",ay joisls, 605 Euler load. 288 in compression. 38
precast 617 intcraction diagrams. 259, 756 gain wilh age. 40
stcel-deck rcinforced slabs. 604 latcml reinforce=nt. 253 in tensi"n. 43
Iwo-way joisls. 61 I re,'tangular. with bending. 258 stress-strain cllr,cs. 22. 38
Iwo-way slabs. 608 saf~ly provi sions . 269 sustained load behavior. 4 1
Bundled reinforcement. 182 slerKk,. (.a Slcudcr ,'olu mns) thermal coeffici ent. 47
Burdell. 0 .. 698 spirally reinforced. 21. 253 Conncelions of pre":::'St
Bums. N. H .. 697 spli e.:s in. 281 dements. 626
tied. 2 1. 25~ Conway. H. D .. 345
unbraced frame all~lysis. 307 COrbels. ~68
"'rsym"'ctric~lI y n.:infort..::d. 267 Corley. W. G .. 63. 418. 632. 732
Column-supponw slabs. 424. 609 Con",,. joints. 366
Canadian National Standard. 147 Combinw fOOlings. 560 Comer-supported elemtnts. 533
Cantibcr rct~ining walls. 587 Compacling of concrel':' 36 Coumcrfon rt1aining walls. 594
Capaeily red ucli"n facturs. 19 Compalibility torsion. 231 Coupling beams. 724. 128
Capitals. column. 2. 4. 607 Compression. 3Aial. 38 Co<'cr rcquiremerlls for batS- 93
Capli, c col umn, 706 Compression field Ihcory. 147 Cov.a". H. 1.. 62
Car<knas. ,\. E.. 6n modifle..:!. 149 Cracked seetion clastic analysis- 70
Carino. N. J .. 62. 63 shear. 147 Cracking. 202
CarraS<Juilio. R. L.. 62 Compression mcmbers. 251 ACI Codc provision!;. 206
Cement. 28 Compression !;tcci yield test, 99 fle."ral.203
compositiun.29 Comprussion struts. 321 vari~bles affecting. 2o.t
high early strength, 1.29 Compressionrci"fon.'~..:! beams. 95 width of cracks. 2o.t
hydration of. 29 Conccntratexl loads on slabs. 501 Cracking torque. 2M
port land. 28. 29 COnCrt1~ Cranslon, \Ii, B .. 3 17
t)'l1<)s. 29 admiAtuTCs. 1.36 Crawford. R. E.. 54 1
Chang. D. C .. 317. 409 biaxial strength. 45. 46 Creep of conCTClC
Chen. )( C .. 373. 633 compacting of. 3~ coefficient. 24
Chen. W. F.. 732 components. I spc<'ifrc. 43
Choi. O. c.. 198 compr.:ssion strength . ~8 timevariation or. 43
Cho",. L .. 345 consistcnty.32 Cross. H.. 409
Chu . K. H .. 503 creep. 4 1 Curing of ~x>n"TCtc. I. :w
Clifton. 1. E .. 63, 198 curing. 1.33 C"""'at ure vs. mome"t. 224
o..loootc..,_
SIno<oo _~
EoI6 ..
INDEX 773
CUlOff IX'irll5 for bars in [)C,dopmcmlenglh. l69 ElX'xy-<:oaloo bars. 58. 171
beam. 183 IICI Code pro,isions. 172 Eq uilibrium melhod for slabs, Sa
Cyl indrical shell,. 3. 5 oondloo bars. 182 Strip llK:lhod for slabs
compr.:ssion. 182 Equilibrium lorsion. 231
hookc<l bars. 176. 179 Equivalent c"<)lumn. 444
modification factors. 172 Eq ui,'ale"l fmmc m~lhod for
seismic d.:sign. 718 slabs. 442
Dn:gions. 321. 327 slirrups. 180 basis. 442
Dappe<l beams. 342 lension.l72 by computer. 450
Dan-i". D .. 62.198 Diagonal cracking. 118. 122 <lef)C<:lio" anal)'sis. 469
Davis. H. E.. 61 Diagonallension ('qui"alenl columll. 44-t
D.::baiky. S. Y.. 160 IlOmogcncoos beams. 117 for horiwntalloads. 476
Rocp beams. 328 prestressed concrete beams. 681 mom~nt analysis. 445
ACI Code provision. 335 rein forced concrete beams. shear design. 450
rcinforccmenl of. 336 115. 118 Equi,alenl lateral foree
shear in . 336 Diaphragms. seismic . 723 procedure. 7fJ9
D.::flc,lions.209 Din:d design IOClhoJ for slabs .427 Equivalent load, frolll prestress
ACI Code provisions. 215 colu ",n d.:sign. 433 r01\'.:.637
cOrllin uous beams. 2 17 lateral distrib!lIion of Emsl. G, C . 4fJ9
cOrllrol of. 209 momcms . .429 Euler load. 288
creep. 217 minimum thickness. 435 hl~ruJcd nodal WI,,"". 325. 331
elTccli,c mOmefll of inertia momenlS at critical
for. 210 seclion,.427
claslic. 216. 219 sh.:ar on sup)XIrting t.:ams. 432
l1al plales al1<l flal slabs. 469 DiSt."<)ntilluily lines in slabs. 511
immcdiale. 208 . 216 Disronl;n uity regions. 321 Facton.-d loads. 18
loadhislory cfkcl. 212 Distribut ion sl.:1:l in slabs. 4 17 Fallsen. H. 8 .. 478
longlen" multipliers. 2 12. 217 Dolan. C W,. 111. 633 Fancl la. D. A .. 732
permissible. 218 Dome!. A. W. 732 f ang. H. Y.. 573
shrinkage. 221 Drawings. lypical enginccring. 6~2 Fans. yield lin.:. 501
suslained load. 212 DunlOrllci!. P,. 317 FatigllC slTength
lhenna!. 221 concrelc.43
Iwo-way c<lgc-suPlX'rtcd reinforcing bars. 57
siaM . .420 FEMA pro,-;sions. 26
o.:",;ky. E. C. 503 Fcrguson. l', M,. J98
<lcPaulo. N. I.. 198 Earth pressu", on walls. 575 Fi"td. M,. 598. 633
D.::plh. minimum Ecc'<:ntric col umns. 258 f iorato. A. E.. 63. 732
beams and oncwa) slabs. 215 Edge-suPlX'rtc<l slabs . .4 14. 420 Flange wi<lth of T beams. 104
Iwo-way slabs . .435 ElTccli,e flange widlh. 104 Flat plal~s. 2. 4. 608
R--sign aids. 90. 271. 735 ElTccli,e !cnglh of columns. Flat slabs. 2. 4. ro7
D.::sign mcthoJs 289. 303 Flcxural bond. 165
allowable Slress. 16 EITCCli,c mOmCfII of inertia. 210 Flexural r.:sistancc factor. 83
allernativc basis. 16 ElTccli,e span length. 383 Flcxur~. Su ul.\'O Beams
clastic. 16 Ehsan;. M. R, . 280. 283 assumptions. 64
s.:rvkc load. 16 Elgabry. A. A .. 478 elastic cracked >ct'tion
strength. 16 Ellingwood. B,. 27 analysis. 70
ullimate strenglh. 16 Elmicma. E. L.. 160 ~lastic uncracked section
wor'<.ing Slress. 16 EI",naty. A. H .. 160 analysis. 69
D.::lailing. joim. 347 Engin...:ring <lrawings. fle,ural strength analysis. 72
rklwiler. G .. 62 lypical. 632 homogeneous b.:ams. 64
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EoI6 ..
774 IW..<; I W'~ OF CONCR~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Indo,
Floor sySt~"'S G()(o. Y.. 198 Iguro. M.. 160

bea", and girocr. 2 Goowans. A.. 283. 478. 632 Incla>!k m()meM rcdislribulion.
edge-supported slab. 420. 608 Grahalil. C J . 478 399. 405
1131 phlcs. 2. 4. 609 Gra,ily ''-'lain;'' walls. 585 Intlcdi()n poinls for appr(MimalC
!lat slabs. 2. 4. 608 Grid slabs. 611 analysis. 390
grid slabs. 611 Guralnick. S. 1\ . 478 Ingcrslev. 1\ . 503
hfl slabs. 61 1 Guslafson. I'. E.. 478. 632 Imegral beams in slabs. 460
o~ .... ay joists. 2. 3. 605 Guy()n. Y.. 697 Imcgrity. StfUClUrul. 190. 6~1
precasl. 617 Imcraction diagrams
sleel (kd reinfon"cd. 6Q.l for axiallond plus be"ding.
Iwo-way joisls. 611 259. 753
Iwo-way slabs. 420 for biaxial c()lu"'" t.;nding. 274
waffle slabs. 61 I Hage.S. E..317 for biaxial strcnglh of
Fly a,h. 37. 50 Hamad. B. S.. 198 <'oncrcte. 46
Fokk.xJ plalcs. 5 Ham",ering.704 Imemat ionaJ Building Code. 26
r""OOl;"s.545 Hanna. S. 1'1.. 478 I~nberg. J.. 160
column. 551 Hansen. W.. 62
comb;"cd.56O Hanson. J. M .. 63. 632. 697
grid. 569 Hanson. N. W.. 697
I()ads on. 547 Hanson. W. E.. 573. 598
mal. 560 Haldwr. D. S. 478. 503 Jcamy. I'. R.. 198
spread. 545 Hatfield. E. 63 Jennewein. M .. 161. 345
slrip.568 Hawkias. N. M .. 161.478.503 Jensen. E. A.. 62
IWO-l"olumn.562 Hayes. 8.. 503 Jirsa. J. 0 .. 198.373. 478
wall. 549 Heiman. J. L.. 478 JoI~1ns.:n. K. W. 503
r-ord. J. S.. ~17. 409 Hclgawn. T.. 63 Joinls. 347
Foundati()ns. See Footings Hc>!cr. C J .. 198 bar anchorage ill. ~54
FrncwTC encrg). 170 Hctcncyi. M .. 573 beam-c()lumn.349
FracwTC rneeltloics. 45 Highslrcnglh C()ncrcl~. 50 bcamginJcr. ~61
Frosch. R. J.. 205. 228 Hillcrborg. A .. 489. 541 dassiflcalion of. 349
Furlong. R. W.. 317 Hillcrborg melhod. Se, Sirip mclhod loads and fon:cs. 349
f()r slabs rcinforcement in . 353
Hilstlorf. H. K.. 62 shear S1T~ngUI. 351
Hinojosa. R. C. 478 >!rulaod-lie models. 360
H()ffman. E. S.. 478. 632 wide-beam. 358
Galambo,. T. V. 317 H()gncslad. E.. 110. 283. 503. Joisl tloors. 605. 611
Gallagher. R. H.. 409 573.632 JOIICS. L. L.. 503
Gaha"ilCd bars. 58 Hook> JUn:wiCI. R. E.. 632
Gamble. W. L.. 478. 503. 541 de'c!opnll:nlicnglh. 177
Gardner. M. J.. 478 modiflcalion fact()r.;. 177
Gebler. S. H.. 63 slmidard dimensions. 176
Gcrc. J. M .. 317 for slim,ps. 180
Gcrgdy. i'.. 198.228 H(),cr. K. C. 62. 63. 228 Kaar. R. H.. III. 228. 698
Gcrgdy-Lull equati()n. 205. 228 Hsu. T. T. C. 61. 62. 160. 249. 258 Kappo,. 1\. 1.. 732
Gersllc. K. H.. 6J Huntington. W. C. 598 Kani. G. N. J. . 160
Gcsund. H.. 503 Kanli.J .. 62
Ghaffari. H. H.. 198 Kelly. J. W. 61
Ghali.II .. 478. 503 Kelsey. J .. 63
Gh()ncirn. M. G .. 249 Kemp. K. 0 .. 54 1
Gh()sh. S. K.. 63. 732 ideali zation ()f slruclure. 382 Khal oo.A. R. 160
Gosain. N. K.. 198 Idun. E. K.. 198 KOlUI . R. 62
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I NDEX 77S
Kmmri6<.'h. F.. 573 Loss of premcss force. 677 Mokhlar, A. S .. 478

Kr~gcr. M, E .. 478 lump sum eslimate. 677 MOI1lCfll cocfficicnts. ACI. 393
Kripanarayanall. K, M .. 633 separale loss..-'S. (;)77 Momcfll ,s, ,'u,,"'alure in beUlIiS. 224
Kri z. L. B.. 110.283. 373 lime-Sl~P "'''lhod. 68 1 Momc!I1 diStribulion !I1ctllOd. 382
Kuchma. D.. 62. 160.573 Lower I:KHJnd lheorem. 4S6 Moment lIIagnificaliOl' il1 colulllns.
Kupfer. H.. 62 Luan. S .. 62 288. 293
LuIZ. L. A.. 198.228 Momcfll of incnia. 385
Momc!I1 redistribution
ACI Code provisions. 405
in beams. 402
LaFraugh, R, W .. 47H io slabs. 485
l.ai. s. M.1\.. 317 MacGregOf. J. G .. 27. 147. 160. 161. Momc!I1 reduction in beams. 408
Lampen, P.. 24'J 249.31 7.697 Morsch. E.. t61
l.aterallies in columns. 21. 164 Magurn. D. D .. 632
u"e, S. L., 110 Malll.'T. D. R. H,. 503
Lt."et, K, ]1.1 .. 40<) Mains. R. M .. 198
Leigh. W.. 40Sl Malhotra. V. M .. 62
l.e n"'how. R.. 503 Marqucs. G. L. I.. 373 Naama". A. E.. 62. 697
u "On, R. , 478 Marshall. W. T.. 698 Nawy. E. G .. 697
l.ibby, J. R.. fin Man i. P. 147. 16 1. 345 NEHRP Ittolllmcndali()ns. 27
Li ft ,Iab<, 61 1 Manincl. S.. 62.160.283 Nuvi. L.. 408
l. ight - gau~e Sll..,1 deck ,labs, 604
Mas!. R, F.. 161 Net tensi le strain. 80
Lightweight concrete .10 Malhey. R. G .. 198 N~ulral a~is in beams
l.imit analysis. W7 Matrix analysis. 382 elastic, 71
Limi t Males design J!>el hod. 77 Mallock. A, H.. 110. 161. 167. 228. ultimate. 76
l.in, T. y', 671. 697 249.283.373.409.698 Ncville. A. M.. 63
Lin se, D. H., 63 McCube. S. L.. 198 Nichols. J, R.. 477
l.ive loads MrGu ire. w.. 409 Nines. J. M .. 283
buildings, 9. 10. II McHenry. D.. 62 Nilson1\. H.. 62. 63. 160. 198.228.
placement, 377 Mehta. p, K.. 62 283.478.697
Load balancing in prestressed Mcinheit. D, E. 373 Nilswn.!. H. E.. 373. 598
beam~, 671
Mcsri. G .. 573. 598 Nodalw11Cs. ~21. 324
Load contour method for Microsilica. Se.- Silica fume <lilllcnsions.329
co lu mn" 276 Mindcss. S .. 62 exlended. 325
Load (ombinaliotts . .H8 Minimum depth of slabs. 417. 435 rcsoluliOl' of fOft'<lS. 330
Load foemf<, ACI. I 7, 18 Min imum sicci ratio io n",ure. 84 strenglh.333
"",.
,\ SeE live loads. 9, 10,16
t..lin illlum wcb Sled area. 133 Nodes. 324
NOfris, C. H.. 228. 409
Mirza. S. A.. 27. 198
combi nalions, 378 Mikhdl. D.. 161. 198. 249. N()V;ak. L. c.. 345
dead,8 478.697
~an h pn:ssure. 575
t..li xing of l'OocrdC. J2
en,imnmental.IO MLCCcnlrc.601
faclored.18 Modi!iL'<l ,'ol1lpreSSiOl1 fid<l.
li \'e. 10 147. 149 Odhaf~n. V. H .. 317
placemenl of he loads. Modulur ralio. 22 ObJu. T.. 160
'), .177 Modulus of clasticil)' Ohe Vkw Hospita l, 704
seismic, 707 of conCfCle. 39 One-way joiS1S. 605
snow, 10 of prestTCssing stccls, 60 One-way slabs. 4 14
\'ariabililyof. 12 of reinforcing bars. 55 <listribmirnt SI~'C1. 4 17
wind. I I Modulus of ruptUTC. 45 minimum thi ckness. 416
Losberg, A.,.17O. 598 Mochlc. I. f'.. 478 Shrillbgc rcil1forccmmt. 417
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776 IW..<; I W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; Indo,
Oneway slabs-Con/, single Ts.619 Rcinforcemenl. 52

Icrnpemlure sleel, 4 17 slabs. 619 Ix" selection. 94
I)'pical slc'Cl ralios. 4 16 wall pancis. 619 bars. 52
Openings in slabs. 467. 528 Preliminary design. 388 bend points. 183
Orang"n. C. 0 .. 198 Preston. H, K.. 697 compression. 95
O,'crrcillfon'l..:i t..:~rns. 90 Prestressed concretc. 634 <'o.cr requirements.
ullowable Slresses in 94. 207
cOI,,'rclc.645 cutoff points. 183
allowable slresses in defonnations.53
steel. 644 cpo.y -coalcd. 58
P deh~ melhod. 314. 710 unchorage W]\CS. 689 fatiguc slrength. 57
Plm nell. F. No. 283 0000 messes. 688 ga l,'anill'<J. 58
P:wd. R. 63 crack corurol. b96 grades and strength. 54
Park. R.. 3n. 501. ~38. 54 1 deflection. 693 maximum number of bars in
Parmc. A. L .. 283 ciastk analysis. 646 beams. 95
Partial preslressing. 657 equivaicllt loads. 637 maAimum ralio. 81
PaIl~W loading of beams and flexural design. 6.'i8. 67) minimum Ilumber of bars in
frames. 378 flexural strength. 6~2 beams. 95
Pauley. T.. 3n. 732 load balancing. 671 modu lus of elasticity. 55
Paulwn, K. A.. 63. 228 loss of prem.:ss furec. 677 prestressed. ~9. 642
Pal. M.. 409 panial prestressing. 657 slab. 433
Peabod)'. D .. Jr .. 478 rosHcnsioning.640 sPl"'ing r.:quircm.:nts.
Peck. R. B.. 573. 598 pretensioning.64O 94. 207
Penelis. G. G .. 732 shap.: selcdir",. 668 splices in. 195
frang. E. 0 .. 317. 329 sl><:ar Ilcsign. 68 1 stalldard sizes. 53
Pickett G.. 6.1 uansfcr icngt h. 688 stressstrain C\,r,cs. ~5
Pile caps. 570 Prestressing steels. 642 torsional. 242
Pister. K .. 62 allowable stresses. 644 welded wire fabric. 58
Plastic an ly,i>. 397 gra<k'S and strcngths. 59 wdding of. 55
PI.%tic <xnlroid of columns. 267 relaAation of stress. 61 Reb.ution of prestressing
Plastic hinges strcss,slrain cun..:s. 60 steels. 61
in beams l",d frames. 399 Prelcnsioning.640 Resisl~nce factors. fl~xurnL 83
in slabs. 484 Prieslly. M. 1. N .. 732 R.:1aining walls. 575
PI.%ticity theory Pro,eda.A .. 160 <'antilevtT.587
lo",cr bou,Kllill'Ol'em. countcrfon.594
486.508 design b.%is. 583
upper bound theorem. drainage for. 584
486. 508 gn"ily.585
Plasticizers. 37 Rubbat. B. G .. n2 stability "nalysis. 580
Por1al method. 392 Ramamunhy. L. N.. 283 structural design. 583
Por1land cement 28 RmllC.laniunpour. A. A .. 62 R.:1:trdcrs. set. 37
POSl-icn,ioning.641 R",nire~. 1. A.. 373 Rkhan. F. E.. 27. 282. 573
Prttast concrete Ruths. C. H .. ~7J. 633 Rillcr. W.. )61. 146
beams. 620 Rebars , Su Reinforccmellt Rob.:ns. C .. 698
brackets. 368 Rc<:iprocallooo analysis of Rogaisky. D. M .. 161
building examples. 624. 625 columns. 277 Roller. J. J.. 160
columns. 621 RCdangular Slress block. 78 Rotation cup;lCity al hinges. 404
conncctions.626 RedislTiblllion of moments. 398 Rotation r.:quire="t at
corbels . .168 i\CI Code lIIethod. 405 hinges. 402
dooble Ts.619 in frmn.:s. 397 Rusch. H .. 43. 62.110
roof and floor unit.s. 619 in slabs. 484 Russell, H. G .. 63.160.732
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INDEX 777
fial slabs. 450 two-way edge suppor1ed.

fOOlings.552 420.607
Safety homogen~..:>tIs beams . 69.115 types of. 412
ACI Code provisions. J7 joints. 351 yidd linc lheory (,It'f Yield line
con,idermion!i. 12 prestressed concrele beams. 681 analy,is)
inde x. IS rein foreed concrele beams. 114 Slate. I': 0 .. 61. 62. 160.283
margin of. 14 rein foreement: beams. 125 Slender columns. 28 7
reduction f"'tor. 15 stud strips in slabs. 462 AC I Code provisions. 297
Stroctu",l. 14 truSS models for. 146 in braced frames. 291.
Sal:lIniza'affgh. S" 198 ,aryingdcpth beams. 144 296. 299
Sanders. D" 698 wall,. 615 defined. 287
S,anlon. A" 478 Shear stud Strips in s labs. 462 cffecti"e length focw. 289. 3m
Schlaich. J" 147. 161. 345 Shear friclion mClhoJ. 155 I1l<)metlt magnif,cation b <:tor.
Swn. N. L. 698 Shcarh.:ads in sbbs. 452. 456 288.293 . 295.299
Srrnwtllom<). c.. 732 Shells P-delta mcthod . 314
Second or<kr column anal pis. 11 4 cylindrica l. 3. 5 radius of gyrarion. 287
Secondary mon",nt, in rolumns. 287 folded plale. 5 second order analysi, . 287. 3 14
Secondary torsion. 231. 24 1 spherical. 6 ,lenden'ess ratio. 287
Seismic de,ign. 700 Shen. J. F" 373 ,lability illdex. 298
ACI Code provisions. 71 1 Shioya. T.. 160 in unbraced frame,. 295.
,'(Jupling t...ams. 72~ Shiu . K. N .. n2 296.307
diaphragms. 723 Shrifikage Ikflcctions. 22 I Slcndenless wio. 287
frnn", . 713 Shrinkage of concrete. 47 Slump lest. 32
with modemte ""ismic Shrin kage reinforccment in Smadi. M. M .. 62
risk. no ,labs.4J? Soongswang. K .. 373. 633
shear .trength. 726 Siess. C. P.. 63. 16 1. 478 Sotdh W:K~er Drivc n"ilding.
walls. diaphragm,. Silica fume. 37 51. 600
U"''''''. 72~ Simmonds. S. H" 503 S07.cn . M. A .. 63. 478 . .503
hammering. 704 Singh. R. [I" 503 Space InlSS analogy. 23 7
joint det"iling. 717 Si'~unilitram . V" 62 Span lenglh. 383
load factor,. 18 Slabbllnd fl(JO)<'j. 603 Spl,:cific creep. 43
reinforcement for. 712 Slabs Spectral resJlOnse acceleration. 700
Seismic loading. 707 column,upponed.424 Spirally reinforced col"mns.
base s1",,,,,,. 709 concentrated loods on. 501 23. 253
niteria.707 dcnection of. 469 Spiral,. column . 253
di,placements. 702 direct design melhoJ. 427 Splices in reinforcing bl"."
dynamic la1eral forces. 711 distribution steel. 4 17 in columns. 195. 281
equivalent Imcral forces. 709 edgc-.supponed.420 compre,sion . 195
,nemt...r re'JlOns.e. 704 equivalent column. 444 rension.l96
Structu",1 ""JlOnse. 702 equivalent frame method. 442 Splil cylinder Slrenglh. 44
Seismic lOn,'s for the United iluegral beam for shear. 460 Spre.'d footing,. 5-<5
States. 701 lateral distribution of Sprenger. H. 345
Se,,'keability. 12.203 mom~nts. 429 SI. Venan\. 321
Set retarder>. 37 minimum thickness. 416. 435 Slabil;t}' inde x. 298
Shafer. K " 161. ,45 moments at critical Sl."Ctions. 427 Stability of relaining walls. 580
Sl1ah. S. I'" 6~ one-way. 414 Slanton . J. F.. 633
Slle:Jf.114 openings in. 467 Static I1l<)n\nl in slabs. 425
ACI Code provisions. 160 rein forcement for flexure. Steel,
""d "xial load . 119 415.433 prestressing. 59. 642
d""p beam . 335 shear in column,upponed. 4.50 reinforcing. 5 I
flat plme slabs. 450 static I1l<)n\nl in. 425 welded wire fabric. 58
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77S IW..<; t W'~ O F CONC R~:n: STRUCTUR.<; tndo,
Stirrups. 127 space truss analogy. 234. 237

anchorage of. 180 thin-walled tube analogy. 234
forces in. DO T b.:ams. 104 Transfer length in prestress,:J
Strain lim it in Ilc",re. 68 balanc"" Sled rdtill. 107 ocams, 688
Strength ~ff~cti>'e 11 an~~ wiJth. 104 Transfol1uro Stttion
Jesign, 1.1. 17 propol1ioo . 107 for l>cams. 69
nominal. 17 strength "nalysis. 105 for columns . 23
reduction facto~. 19 T joints. 368 Trcl\:e, R. A .. 198
R'quir.:<l. 19 Talbot, A. N.. 573 TroACL G. E.. 61
>ariabililyof. 15.82 Tanks. 8 Truss models. 327
Stresssuain Cun'CS Tasuji. M. E.. 62 bmdcrs.368
concrete. 22. ~8. 4 1 Taylor. 1'. J. 478 joint Jcsign. 360
in flcAure. 72 Taylor. R.. 503 shc:u <lesign. 146
pre;>lR'Ssing slee ls. 60 Temper.. ture reinfllrc~""'nl in Two-way l-dgc-supponcJ sbbs
rcinforcing bars. 21. 22. 57 slab<;,417 behavior. 420
Strip method for siaM. 508 Ten.illn reinforccment for flexure. 423
aJ"alll.'eJ. 5~2 axial. 25
busis. 509 strengtl, of con'"'~tc, 45
contin uity. 515 ti.,,;.321 .334
comer-supponeJ Ten.illn(lInlrolled
dCll",nt'.534 seclions.767 Ua ng. C. M.. 409
Jisconti"uity lines. 511 TerLaj!hi. K . 5H, 598 Ultimate Straili of coner~le. 73
flxedcdg~.515 Tht-nnalcoefllciem Uncracked clastic section
hoks. 528 III' con(ret~. 47. 49 analysis. 69
load JimibUlioos. 510 III' st"d. 52 Undcrrcin fort'<:d b.:ams. 80
reeta"gular slabs. 513 TI",nnal <kfl~,tions. 221 Upper oound theorcm. 486
unsupponeJ edgcs. 520 Thol~n . .\1. L.. 198 Uribe. c.!'.! .. 345
Stn,clUnll i,"egrity pro>ision,. Thombum, T. H.. 573. 598 Ul k" . S .. 409
190.6~3 Thurlima nn. B .. 147.249
Strul'wml systems. 2 Ti".
Strut-andtie ntcthoJ. 130. 321 and,ordge for. 330
ACI pro>'isions for. wlu mn.253
Valley. 1'.1 . 317
331.J~5 strength of. 334 Vanderbilt. M . D .. 4 78
B-regio",s. 321 with stnllS. 321. 324 Variable angle truss model. 147.246
Dregions. 321. 327 Timmhcnku. S.. 62. 317. Variab le Jcpth beam shc:u. 144
Japp..-d ocam ends. 342 5~8. 541
Vecchio. F. J.. 161
Jeep b.:ams. 335 Tllrsion. 231 Vil1l1al work unalysis of slabs. 492
noda l ZOl"'S. 324 ACI Cod~ provi sions. 240
Struts. 321 "ompmibility, 231. 24 1
ooule-shaped. 32~ cr~('king torque. 234
capacity of. 330. 332 "'Iuilibrium, 231. 2.. 1

prismatk. ~22 minimal. 24 1 Wall fOOlings. 549
rectangul:u. 323 in plain mncrct~. 232 Walls
Sturman. G. M .. 62 plus sl",,,,. 239 buiIJi"g.614
SupcrplasticizCTS. 37. 50 primary. 231. 241 pre.:ast. 618
Support conditions. 386 in rt>inforred Cllncrete. 2:15 relaining.575
S>ab. L. E.. 632 rein fo""m~n1. 242 seismic. 723
Sysltms. bllilJing. 599 secondary, 231. 241 shc:u. 614. 723
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INDEX 779
Wang. p, T.. 62 Woinows);y- Krieger. S,. 541 limilalions.502

Walle~. D, B .. 478 Wol lm an. G .. 698 local ion of yield lioes. 487
Waler-cc"",nl ralio. 31. n Wood. It. Ii .. 503. :.41 skewcxJ yidJ lines. 497
Walsl~in. D.. 198 Wood.B. R.. JI7 vinual work method. 492
Web reinforcem.:nl Workman. E, B.. 697 Young. J. F.. 62
anchorage. 180 Yn. W. W.. 228
<.lesi gn of. 135
inclined. 129
vertical. 127
Weldtxl wire fabric. 58 Yamal aki. L 478
Whiling. D.. 63 Yield line analysis. 483 Zasla,'sky.A .. 503
Whilncy. C. S .. 110 corner dfeclS. 499 Zia. p.. 697
Wide beam join IS. 358 edge elTecls. 499 Zicmian. K D.. 409
Wilbur. J. B.. 228. 409 equilibriu m mClhod. 490 Zsully. T. C .. 160
Winler. G .. 27. 62. 228. 345 fans al tOnCcnlr.I1':o load,. 501 Zuo,J .. 62. \98
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RCC Design of Concrete Structures Nilson #S#

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CONCRETE, REINFORCED C O NCRETE, AND P RESTRESS ED CON CR ETE

C""aere is ~ ,tolldike material ohlainaJ by permitting a carefully proponinned mix -

2 I)E.~ I(; N OF CONCREn: STRUCTll RE.~ (bap<<r I

. 1.2 STR UCTURAL F ORMS

FIG UIU: 1.1

FIG URE 1.2

4 I)E.~I(; N OF CONCR En: STRUCTll RE.~ (bap<<r I

FIG UIU: 1.3

FIG URE 1.4

FIG UIU: 1.5

FIG URE 1.6

6 I)E.~ I(; N OF CONCREn: STRUCTlI RE.~ (bap<<r I

FIG UIU: 1.7

FIG URE 1.8

FIG UIU: 1.9

FIG URE 1.10

8 I)E.~ I(;N O F CONC REn: STRUCTll RE.~ (bap<<r I

10 IW..'i I{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r I

12 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [

FIG UIU: 1.13

S ERVICEA81L1TV, STRENGTH, AND STR UCTURAL SAFETV

14 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [

Strength of th., entire structure or of a population of repditive ~truc-lures_ e.g ..

I~T R() D UcrI ON IS

""'rgi" M be a <pedfied number of 'tand~nl de"iarions .. alx",e zero. It can be

_ 1.5 D ES IGN B ASI S

The single most illlponant ch:uacteristic of any s1ructural n!Cmb.:r is i1 S aC1uai

16 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [

Consequ~"lly, Ihe llomin~1 strenglh of a m~mber mu,1 be calculaled On the basis of

, 1.6 D eSIG N C ODes AND SP ECIF ICATIO N S

_ 1.7 SAFETY P ROVt SIO N S OF THE AC I C ODE

Dt:sign strength ;;: r.:quircd strength

The I1Qminal strength S. is compuk-d (u,ually mlewhat aln"""'at;vely) by aCl-epled

p. 2:. 1'. ( l.5c)

HI IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r [

U - I ,20 ~ 1.6W + I.or + O,~ L,(>f S(>f R

Ten,;on ron,rolbf =.,;"", 090

,,,,",in, J;","""", , ~ ,t... liocar ,-,.,;....'" ,,1'

. 1.8 FUNDAMENTAL ASSUM PTIONS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE B EHAVIOR

20 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [

2. TIle .train in an embedded reinforcing bar (u nit extension or ~~)mpression) is tile

_. 1.9 B EHAVtOR OF M EMBERS S UBJECT TO AXtA L L OAD S

Long~ud inal ba rs Longmwinal ba rs

22 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: STRUCfliRES Olapl<r [

, 0,001 0.002 0.000

Actual section Translo<med seclion Translo<med seclioo

IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: STRUCfli RES Olapl<r [

26 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r [

P = falAc + wi ,,) 0.12)

where f" is the te",ile stre" in the <"<mcrei<'.

f'", = f,A" ( 1.14)

30 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2

"- ". 2.4 P ROPORTIONING AND MIXING CONCRETE

FIG URE 2.1

32 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2

'- , 2.S C O NVEYING, P LACI NG, C O M PACTtN G, A ND CU RIN G

IW..'i [{; N OF CONC RE'n: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2

, _, 2.6 QUA Lt TY C O NTROL

FIG UIU: 2.2

36 IW..'i [{; N O F CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2

'" I" = t + 2.33 - 500 fnr/, :5 5000 p,i (2.la)

I" = 0.90/; + 2.33 for lc 5000 psi (2.21

311 IW..'i [{; N OF CONC REn: ST RUCfli RES Olapl<r 2