Dynamics
Determination of the gravitational constant with a Cavendish balance 1.3.09-01
What you need:
Cavendish-balance, computerized
Data cable, 2 SUB-D, 9 pin
Circular level
Complete Equipment Set, Manual on CD-ROM included
Determination of the gravitational constant
with a Cavendish balance
PHYWE Systeme GmbH & Co. KG D - 37070 Gttingen
02540.00 1
14602.00 1
02122.00 1
P2130901
Output voltage of the free and damped oscillating Cavendish balance.
that the beam is subjected to
damped oscillation across a new
equilibrium position. The gravita-
tional constant can be determined
both from the difference in the angle
of rotation of the different equilibri-
um positions and from the dynamic
behaviour of the swinging system
during attraction.
An integrated capacitive sensor pro-
duces a direct voltage that is propor-
tional to the angle of deflection. This
can be recorded over time by an in-
terface system, and the value of the
angle of rotation that is required be
so determined.
Mechanics
What you can learn about
 Law of gravitation
 Torsional vibrations
 Free and damped oscillations
 Forced oscillations
 Angular restoring moment
 Moment of inertia of spheres
and rods
 Steiner`s theorem
 Shear modulus
Principle:
Two small lead balls of equal mass
are positioned one at each end of a
beam which is held suspended by a
thin tungsten thread, so that it can
swing freely across its equilibrium
position. When two further, but larg-
er, lead balls held on a swivel arm are
now brought near to the small lead
balls, forces of attraction resulting
from gravitation effect acceleration
of the small balls in the direction of
the larger balls. At the same time,
the twisted metal thread generates a
restoring moment of rotation, so
Tasks:
1. Calibrate the voltage of the ca-
pacitive angle sensor.
2. Determine the time of oscillation
and the damping of the freely
swinging torsion pendulum.
3. Determine the gravitational con-
stant, using either the accelera-
tion method, the final deflection
method or the resonance method.
Laboratory Experiments Physics 25
 Determination of the gravitational constant
with a Cavendish balance
Related topics
Law of gravitation, torsional vibrations, free and damped oscil-
lations, forced oscillations, angular restoring moment,
moment of inertia of spheres and rods, Steiner`s theorem,
shear modulus.
Principle
Two small lead balls of equal mass are positioned one at each
end of a beam which is held suspended by a thin tungsten
thread, so that it can swing freely across its equilibrium posi-
tion. When two further, but larger, lead balls held on a swivel
arm are now brought near to the small lead balls, forces of
attraction resulting from gravitation effect acceleration of the
small balls in the direction of the larger balls. At the same time,
the twisted metal thread generates a restoring moment of
rotation, so that the beam is subjected to damped oscillation
across a new equilibrium position. The gravitational constant
can be determined both from the difference in the angle of
rotation of the different equilibrium positions and from the
dynamic behaviour of the swinging system during attraction.
An integrated capacitive sensor produces a direct voltage that
is proportional to the angle of deflection. This can be record-
ed over time by an interface system, and the value of the angle
of rotation that is required be so determined.
Equipment
Cavendish-balance, computerized 02540.00
Data cable, 2 x SUB-D, 9 pin 14602.00
Circular level 02122.00
Fig. 1: Experimental set-up
PHYWE series of publications Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG D-37070 Gttingen
LEP
1.3.09
-01
Tasks
1. Calibrate the voltage of the capacitive angle sensor.
2. Determine the time of oscillation and the damping of the
freely swinging torsion pendulum.
3. Determine the gravitational constant, using either the accel-
eration method, the final deflection method or the reso-
nance method.
Set-up and Procedure
1. Preparation of the system
Place the Cavendish-balance on a stable surface and align it
by means of the levelling feet and the circular level. Carefully
move the balance beam of the pendulum from which the small
lead balls are suspended to arrange it both as symmetrical as
possible and parallel between the two fixed plates of the sen-
sor. It is absolutely necessary to ensure that the beam can
swing freely.
Turn the swivel arm so that it is exactly at right angles to the
beam, then place the large lead balls on the swivel arm.
Important note: Always place the two large lead balls simul-
taneously on the swivel arm, or simultaneously remove them
from it, otherwise the system will tip over and the tungsten
thread may snap.
Large fluctuations in the ambient temperature must be avoid-
1 ed during the experiment.
1 Connect the Cavendish-balance to the interface with the sig-
1 nal cable, and the interface to a PC with the data cable.
21309-01 1
 LEP
Determination of the gravitational constant
1.3.09
with a Cavendish balance
-01

The following is valid for a: a = arctan 2(ws-dp)/ lb. Using the

measured values for U, we have:

F1 = a1/U1 = 0.0222 rad /0.5379 V

= 0.04127 10-2 rad/V (small slit)

F2 = a2/U2 = 0.03296 rad /0.7974 V

= 0.04133 10-2 rad/V (large slit)

Use the average value for F obtained from the two measure-
ments in the further evaluation.

F = 4.131 10-2 rad/V (1)

Theory and Evaluation

1. Determination of the time of oscillation and the damp-
ing of the freely and damped swinging beam.
Start the pendulum swinging gently. The connecting line
Fig. 2: Voltage dependence for the determination of the cali- between the two large lead balls is hereby at right angles to
bration factor F the balance beam, so that they do not exert any attractive
(left part of the curve: oscillation of the small slit across force on the small lead balls. Fig. 4 shows the change in volt-
the calibration pin; the curved right part (oscillation age over time with damped swinging of the torsion pendulum.
across the large pin) shows that the slit did not touch The following settings are recommended:
the calibration pin here. Range: 1 V;
Sampling rate: 2 Hz;
Number of points: 8192 (1 h and 8 min.);
2. Calibration of the system LPF: no
With the balance beam at its rest position, check that one if its
slits lies opposite the calibration pin. Should this not be the
case, adjust to this position by very gently turning the thread The oscillating time determined from several periods in this
holder. Balance the signal voltage as near to 0 volts as possi- measurement example is T = 239.3 s.
ble with the help of the off-set adjustment. The following set- Equation (2) describes the change in voltage over time U(t).
tings are recommended:
Range: 0.5 V (small slit); 1 V (large slit); U(t) = U0 + U*e-lt cos (v t) (2)
Sampling rate: 10 Hz;
Number of points: 4096 (6 min. and 49.6 s); U0 = the voltage of the equilibrium position, generally U0 0;
LPF: no U* = initial amplitude, l = damping constant)

Now allow the beam to swing past the calibration pin several
times. Pay attention here that the calibration pin does not pro-
trude too far into the slit. Swinging can be started by alternate
swivelling of the large lead balls to bring the pendulum to res- Fig. 4: Change in amplitude over time for free and damped
onance. Should this not be successful, very gently turn the oscillations of the balance beam
thread holder to get started. Fig. 2 shows the typical saw-
tooth course of a calibration curve. A sinusoid curve shows
that the calibration pin did not touch the inner edge of the slit.
Record calibration curves for each of the two slits to obtain a
reliable value for the calibration factor. Determine the average
calibration factor F for the beam for both slits from the differ-
ence in voltage U and the angle of swivel a (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Geometry for determining the angle calibration factor F

2 21309-01 PHYWE series of publications Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG D-37070 Gttingen
 Determination of the gravitational constant LEP
with a Cavendish balance 1.3.09
-01

Using x = e-1/2lT (3) 2. Determination of the gravitational constant

we obtain from equation (2): 2.1 The dimensions and values listed below have been
used in the following calculations:
t1 = 0 S U1 = Uo + U*
M = Average mass of a large lead ball = 1.049 kg
T m = Average mass of a small lead ball = 14.50 10-3 kg
t2
S U2 = U0 - (U1 - U0) x
2 (4) rsb = Average radius of a small lead ball = 0.67 10-2 m
2
rlb = Average radius of a large ball = 2.82 10-2 m
t3 = T S U3 = U0 + (U1 - U0) x d = Distance of the axis of rotation to
the centre point of a small lead ball = 6.66 10-2 m
tn
1n  12
T (n-1) n-1
S Un = U0 + (U1 - U0) x (-1) R = Distance between the centre points
2 of small and large lead ball in an
extreme position = 4.62 10-2 m
Using equation (3) for the three successive reversal points Un, mb = Mass of the balance beam = 7.05 10-3 kg
Un+1 and Un+2 we can find from them the zero line U0 of the lb = Length of the balance beam = 14.9 10-2 m
damped oscillation. wb = Width of the balance beam = 1.29 10-2 m
db = Thickness of the balance beam = 0.14 102 m
Un1  x Un Un2  x Un1
U0

(5) W = Distance between the outer
1x 1x surfaces of the glas plates = 3.5 102 m
rh = Radius of the beam hole for the
Using equation (5) for three successive reversal points we can ball holding = 0.45 102 m
therefore determine both the dimension x = exp(-1/2 l T) and rAL = Density of the aluminium beam = 2.7 103 kg m-3
also, with x known, the zero line U0 of the damped oscillation.
1
 2 lT Un2  Un1
x
e
(6) 2.2 Determination using the acceleration method
Un  Un1
Start with the pendulum carefully positioned in the rest posi-
A satisfactorily accurate average value for x can be obtained tion, and with the large lead balls in their neutral middle posi-
from several triplets of reversal points, whereby a start can be tion. The following settings are recommended:
made both from the upper reversal points and from the lower Range: 0.1 V;
reversal points. Sampling rate: 10 Hz;
An average value of x = (0.845 0.035) is obtained for the free Number of points: 2048 (3 min. and 24.8 s);
and damped oscillations in Fig. 4. LPF: 5s
Using equation (3) and with T = 239.3 s, a damping constant
of l = 1.4 10-3 s-1 is obtained. Rapidly change the positions of the large lead balls without
allowing then to hit the glass walls.
The force of gravitation will now cause the small lead balls to
be accelerated in the direction of the large ones, the small
ones fall on the fixed large ones, so to speak.
Fig. 5 shows the displacement of the beam during this accel-
eration.
Fig. 5: Amlitude of the oscillation as a function of time during
the acceleration phase Using the assumptions, that are valid here, that in each case
the masses of the pairs of lead balls are approximately equal,
and that the acceleration is negligible because of the distance
of the large balls to the small balls, then we have for the accel-
erating force F:

mM aR2
F
2G 2

m a SG
(7)
R 2M

Where G = gravitational constant and a = acceleration.

Due to not ideal surface of the large lead ball one of the balls
can be in direct contact with the glas plate and the other only
(with the distance G (approx. 1/10 mm) far from the glas plate.
Is W the distance between the outer surfaces of the glas
plates and is the balance beam with small balls in the middle
between the glas plates, then we receive for R:

1 1
R
W  rlb  G
4.62 10 2 m
2 2

PHYWE series of publications Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG D-37070 Gttingen 21309-01 3
 LEP
Determination of the gravitational constant
1.3.09
with a Cavendish balance
-01

When s is the displacement of a small lead ball during the vibrations), these can be determined from the observation of
acceleration process over the time t, then we have: at least three reversal points of the oscillating torsion pendu-
lum.
Condition for the rest position of the pendulum: if the moment
s 1t2
s0  n0 1t  t0 2  a 1t  t0 2 2
1
(8) tG of the gravitation force FG is equal to the torsional moment
2
tT of the filament.
On changing the position of the large lead balls at the time t0
4 p2
and with a displacement of s0 , then no = 0. tG
FG d
tT
D D
I D (10)
Plotting s(t)-s0 as a function of (t-t0)2, as shown in Fig. 6, then T2
the acceleration a can be determined from the slope of the
straight line. (D = directive moment; I = moment of inertia of the oscillating
After a time of (t-t0) = 30 s, the acceleration curve deviates system)
from linearity, which can be attributed to the growing influence Inserting the moments of inertia of the balance beam Ib and
of the angular restoring moment of the torsion thread. the small lead balls 2 Is in (10), then it follows that (the beam
The value for the displacement s(t)-s0 is obtained from Fig. 7: has two holes for ball holding):

s (t)-s0 = d tan a
m 1l2  w2b 2  2m a r2sb  d2 b  2mh a r2h  d2 b
1 2 1
I
(11)
12 b b 5 2
(a = voltage value for the displacement x calibration factor F)

1.404 10 4 kg m2
From (7) and (8) we have:
The mass of the balance beam is calculated from the dimen-
s 1t 2  s0 R 2 sions of the beam and the density of the beam material. The
G
(9)
1t  t0 2 2 M
gravitaion force FG has three components: F1 = attraction
force between the large balls and the close-by small balls;
35.41 10 6 m 4.622 10 4 m2 3 F2 = attraction force between the large balls and the father
11 m


5.54 10 small balls; F3 = attraction force between the large balls and
1.3 103 s2 1.049 kg kg s2 the beam with two holes. For the moment of gravitational
force tG we receive:
(literature value: G = 6.672 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 )
tG
2 1F1 d  F2 1
d2  F3 d2
2.3 Determination using the equilibrium method
Here, the gravitational constant is determined from the differ-
3 1m  mh 2 11  f1 2  mbF2 4 d
2GM
ence in the rest positions of the pendulum at the two extreme
(12)
positions of the large lead balls. R2
With the large lead balls in their neutral position and the pen-
dulum at rest, the equilbrium position is given by the angle 0. (See Appendix for a detailed calculation of the correction fac-
When the large lead balls are brought to their other extreme tors f1 and f2).
position then, because of the attractive force, the pendulum From (10) and (11), we finally have, for the gravitational con-
swings across a new rest position 01. When, following this, stant G:
the large lead balls are brought to the other extreme position,
2p 2
G
a b R2 I
1
the pendulum swings across the rest position 02. The angle d (13)
T 2M d 3 1m  mh 2 11  f1 2  mbf2 4
of deflection D required for the calculation of the gravitation-
al constant G is so given by D = 1/2 (02 - 01). m3
Should it not be possible to reach stable rest positions
9.726 10 8 D
because of external influences (temperature fluctuations, kg s2

Fig. 6: The distance (s-s0) as a function of (t-t0)2 during the Fig. 7: The geometry for determination of the distance s dur-
acceleration phase ing the acceleration phase

4 21309-01 PHYWE series of publications Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG D-37070 Gttingen
 Determination of the gravitational constant
with a Cavendish balance
Fig. 8 shows a measurement according to the equilibrium
method. During the first three oscillations the large lead balls
were in one of their extreme positions. After approx. 800 s
they were swivelled to their other extreme position and, after
a further four oscillations, back to the initial extreme position.
The voltage difference determined from the zero positions of
each of the oscillation segments, which were calculated using
equation (5), is U = 33.2 mV.
From this, qD = 1/2 U F = 68.57 10-5 rad. With this value
for qD, a gravitation constant
G = 6.67 10-11 m3kg-1s-2 is obtained (literature value: G =
6.672 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 ).
2.4 Determination using the resonance method
When the large lead balls are brought to their extreme posi-
tions in-phase then the oscillation of the balance beam reach-
es the resonance condition. In the extreme position the dis-
tance between the small and large ball is constant (R =
const.), gravitation force and its moment are also constant. Is
Ue the stable rest position of the beam and UD the amplitude
if the large ball ball is brought to its extreme position, then
(Ue-UD) is the new rest position. For the time dependent
amplitude we receive according to Eq. (2):
U1t 2
1Ue  UD 2  1U1  1Ue  UD 2 2 e lt cos 1vt2 (14)
(U1 is the first reversion point; t = 0)
For the second reversion point U2 (t = 1/a T), if the large ball is
brought to its other extreme position we receive:
U2
1Ue  UD 2  1U1  1Ue  UD 2 2 x with x
e lt (15)
Fig. 8: Measurement of gravitation constant G with the equi-
librium method. During the first three oscillations the
large balls were in their extreme positions. After 800 s
the large balls were moved to their other extreme posi-
tions and after four oscillations in the initial positions.
PHYWE series of publications Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG D-37070 Gttingen
LEP
1.3.09
-01
For the third reversion point U3 (t = T), if the large ball is
brought to its initial extreme position we receive:
U3
1Ue  UD 2  1U2  1Ue  UD 2 2 x (16)
From Eq. (15) und (16) we receive for any reversion points pair:
3 1Un1  Ue 2  1Un  Ue 2 x4 1  12 n
UD

1x
3 1Un2  Ue 2  1Un1  Ue 2 x4 1  12 n

(17)
1x
According to Eq.(17) Ue can be calculated from three reversion
points and for known x-value UD can be calculated:
3x Un  11  x2 Un1  Un2 4 1  12 n
UD

2 1x  12
(18)
Fig.(9) shows the voltage as a function of time for the reso-
nance method. At the point with maximal amplitude the large
balls were brought to their other extreme positions.
For calculation of UD many values of the reversion points were
used: UD = 16.33 mV (see Fig.9 and Eq.18). For the angle of
deflection qD we receive: qD = UD F = 67.46 10-5 rad.
With this value of qD and according to Eq. (13) the gravitation
constant is:
G = 6.5610-11 m3 kg-1 s-2
(literature value: G = 6.67210-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 ).
The resonance method is rather quick and exact, only three
reversion points are needet for calculation of the gravitation
constant.
Fig. 9: Measurement of gravitation constant G with resonance
method
21309-01 5
 LEP
Determination of the gravitational constant
1.3.09
with a Cavendish balance
-01

3. Apendix. Consideration of systematic errors (Q = cross-sectional area of the beam; r = density of the beam
material (Al = 2.7 g cm-3)). A large lead ball acts on the mass
3.1 Calculation of f1; Influence exerted by the large lead balls element with a torsional moment:
on the most distant small lead balls (see Fig.10)
MQr
dt3
F3y dx
G x dx
t2
2F2y 1d2
2G 2
Mm dx 2 3
d sin a c1  a b d
R  4d2 B R
(17)
1
2G M m R R2  2 lb

G M mb x dx

 d (14) t3

21R2  4d2 2 3
2
R lb dx 2 3
c1  a b d
 12 lb
B R
2G M m

 d f1 1
 2 lb

R2 x dx


dx 2 3
c1  a b d
 12 lb
3
R B R
with f1

0.0352
21R  4d2 2 3
2

1
 12 lb
 2 lb  21bx  2c2


R3
The moment th of the gravitation force between the large balls xdx

R3
and the point like masses mh of the beam holes:  12 lb X2X 2X
 12 lb
2 G M mh
th
d (15) with X = ax2 + bx + c; = 4ac - b2; a = 1; b = -2d; c = R2 + d2
R2
Taking both large lead balls into consideration we obtain
The moment t2 of the gravitation force between the large balls for t3:
and the most distant small balls reduced by th :
x
 12 lb
2GMmbd R3 d1xd2
a 1 b
1
t3
(18)
R2 R2
1m f1  mh 2
2GMd dlb xd 2
t2
(16) 1 a b x
 12 lb
R2 B R

2 G M mb d
t3
f2 ; f2
0.202
R2
3.2 Calculation of f2; Influence exerted by the large lead balls
on the balance beam (see Fig.11) For the whole moment tG we receive (taking both corrections
As the large lead balls also exert attraction on the balance into consideration):
beam, this influence must also be taken into consideration:
3 1m  mh 2 11  f1 2  mb f 2 4
When dm = Q r dx for a mass element of the beam at a dis- 2GMd
tG
(19)
tance x from the turning point (Fig. 11). R2

Fig.10: The geometry for calculation of the influence of the Fig.11: The geometry for calculation of the influence of the
large lead balls on the most distant small lead balls large lead balls on the balance beam

6 21309-01 PHYWE series of publications Laboratory Experiments Physics PHYWE SYSTEME GMBH & Co. KG D-37070 Gttingen