Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
1
C H A P T E R
Design,
produce and
evaluate
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
5.3.1 Justifies responsible practices and ethical use of information
and software technology.
5.3.2 Acquires and manipulates data and information in an ethical
manner.
5.5.1 Applies collaborative work practices to complete tasks.
5.5.2 Communicates ideas, processes and solutions to a targeted
audience.
Overview
The first section of this chapter introduces students to project work
and the four stages in project development. The remainder of this
chapter provides a detailed explanation of each stage. You will
learn the problem solving processes and techniques involved in the
development of a solution.
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Project development
The development of an information technology solution is not
haphazard. It requires a logical and organised approach to ensure
that the most suitable solution is obtained. There are four stages in
developing a solution (see Figure 1.1). The acronym DDPE can be
used to remember the four stages:
Defining and analysing the problem involves identifying the
problem to be solved. The exact requirements of the problem
need to be determined and whether it can be solved using
information technology. All factors need to be identified, such
as technical, operational, time, financial and ethical.
Designing possible solutions involves generating different
solutions to the problem. It may require investigating solutions
to similar problems. It often involves using application software.
However, if the problem requires a specific solution, then the
solution may involve programming.
Producing the solution involves
Defining and building the solution to solve the
analysing the
problem problem. It involves applying the
Change in requirements application software to the
problem or writing software.
Evaluating the solution involves
Designing
possible checking the results of the
solutions solution and making sure it solves
all aspects of the problem. It can
Change in design
be used to highlight and improve
any part of the solution.
Producing
the solution Project development aims to produce
a solution that is as efficient and
error-free as possible. There are three
Change in solution
important features:
Evaluating Each stage has certain tasks to
the solution be completed. It builds on the
decisions of the previous stages.
Figure 1.1 Stages in project development However, in the development
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Management
The most efficient way of solving a problem is through careful
planning and making the best use of your available resources.
A project plan describes what is to be done, who will do it, when
it will be done and how it will be done. It outlines the resources that
will be needed and the expected results of each stage in the project.
When developing a project plan you need to be aware of the overall
stages of the project and the tasks that have to be completed. The
project plan should effectively use the talents of each member of the
group. Different tasks are assigned to each member and the
workload spread across the group. A journal and diary entries are
used to record and monitor the progress of the project. A project
plan is prepared by a project leader. A project leader is responsible
for the project from the beginning to the end. They ensure the
project is meeting its goals and resolve any conflicts.
A Gantt chart provides a quick method of determining if the
project is on time. Gantt charts are used in meetings to review
progress and identify problems. A Gantt chart is a bar chart with
each bar representing a task. The vertical axis of a Gantt chart lists
the tasks and the horizontal axis shows the time frame (see Figure
1.2). The success of a project depends on accurate time estimates
for each task. Tasks can be concurrent or dependent. Concurrent
tasks are tasks performed at the same time. A dependent task
requires another task to be completed before it can begin.
File management is an important but often neglected part of
project planning. If an efficient file structure and naming system is
implemented time will not be wasted. The importance of backing
up your project cannot be overstressed. Unfortunately there have
been group members who have lost all their work the day before
the project was to be completed. This problem is avoidable. Group
members need to implement a process for backing up their project
on a regular basis.
Communication techniques
Communication techniques include a variety of strategies and skills
for dealing with other people. Strategies for effective
communication are categorised as verbal, written and graphical:
Verbal communication is the use of the spoken word. It involves
not only the words themselves but also the tone and the
loudness of the voice. For example, this has been a great day
could have a negative or a positive meaning depending the way
Tutorial
the words are spoken. Effective verbal communication skills
allow you to inform, persuade and motivate others. You should
choose your words carefully and practise any major speeches.
When conducting an interview the questions should be
thoroughly prepared before the interview.
Written communication involves creating something for others
to read. It could involve writing a letter, poem, newspaper
article, text on a website or a manual. When producing a
written document you should consider the appropriateness of
the solution. Figure 1.3 shows two documents that are not
appropriate solutions. The first document is a formal document
that is inappropriate to remind Rebecca to clean her room. On
the other hand, the second document is an informal document
that is an inappropriate request to purchase a business. When
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Rebecca Hi Davo
It has become apparent on I like your department stores and
numerous occasions, that you have love to spend time in them. I will
not made the necessary effort to give you heaps of money to buy
clean your room. Let this document your business.
serve as a notice to remind you to What do you think mate? Ripper
clean your room. of an idea.
Figure 1.3 Two documents that are inappropriate for their purpose
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Exercise 1.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ is an organised series of activities to design, produce
and evaluate technology solutions to solve a problem.
b In the development of a solution there is often a good reason
to _______ to the previous stage.
c A Gantt chart is a quick method of determining if the project is
on _______.
d When using written communication consider the _______ and
the target audience.
2 True or false?
a There are five stages in developing a solution.
b Each stage is always separate and distinct
c File management is not a neglected part of project planning.
d Inactive listeners understand and appreciate the point of view
of other group members.
3 At what stage in developing a solution is each of the following
tasks undertaken?
a Building the solution
b Identifying the problem
c Checking the result
d Generating different solutions
4 a What is a project plan?
b Describe a Gantt chart.
c Explain the difference between a concurrent and a dependent
task.
d Why is it important to create a backup of a project?
e How are the roles and responsibilities of a group determined?
f List five strategies for effective collaboration.
Development
5 Writing a letter to a friend is a simple problem solved using a
computer. Classify the tasks in writing the letter using the four
stages of project development.
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Exercise 1.2
1 What am I?
a A clear definition of the problem.
b An overview of the solution and how it will solve the problem.
c A factor that affects the solution.
d A series of questions to gather specific information.
2 True or false?
a A great deal of time can be wasted by solving a problem that
does not exist.
b Surveys only contain closed questions.
c Operational constraints determine the information technology
requirements of the solution.
d Schedule constraints determine if time is available to produce
the new solution.
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Development
5 Research printed text or the Internet to find
examples of different surveys. Construct a
survey to collect data on an interesting topic
based on your research. Ask members of your
class to complete the survey. Analyse the
results and draw some conclusions.
6 Peter, Kerry and Alice have been asked to work in a group to
produce a report on their businesss financial performance. They
decide to divide the document into three parts and meet in two ICT 1.1
weeks to join the parts together. What are some of the potential
problems with their strategy? Outline a more effective plan to
solve the problem.
Design techniques
There are many different techniques that can be used to design
possible solutions. The following are some common design
techniques.
Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge
using diagrams (see Figure 1.6). It consists of nodes and links.
The nodes represent the concepts and the links the relationship
between the concepts. Concept mapping is used to generate
ideas, communicate complex ideas and design complex
structures such as websites.
Brainstorming Observation
Storyboard Prototype
IPO table
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Feasibility study
Deciding on the most appropriate solution is an important part of
this stage. A feasibility study is an analysis of potential solutions and
a recommendation on the best solution. The constraints outlined in
the first stage of developing a solution form a set of criteria to make
the recommendation. The recommendation is based on technical,
operational, financial, schedule or ethical constraints. Once the
Specifications
Specifications are a detailed description of the solution. It is
common for specifications to be divided into external and internal.
External specifications outline the appearance of the solution. The
format and layout of each document, screen, menu or report must
be specified. It may also involve choosing data types and the format
of those data types. Internal specifications provide the technical
information to build the solutionthe hardware and software that
is required to produce the solution. The software requirements of
the solution may be satisfied by using a software package. However,
the solution may require writing software to meet the particular
demands of the problem.
Exercise 1.3
1 True or false?
a Brainstorming is a working model of the solution.
b An IPO table consists of three columns.
c The nodes in a concept map show the relationship between the
concepts.
d Specification is a detailed description of the solution.
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Development
5 Your family would like to create a yearly newsletter that contains
the major achievements of each family member. Create a prototype
using a word processor or desktop publishing program. Discuss the
prototype with your family and make any changes.
6 Draw a storyboard that represents between five and ten pages of a
website. It should describe the layout of text, graphics and any
buttons. The storyboard should include the home page and
indicate links between the pages.
Application software
Application software (or simply, an application) is a computer
program used for a specific task. It can be used to solve many
different types of problems. A brief description of the common
types of application software follows:
Word processing allows the user to enter characters and create
documents. It is used to write letters, reports, assignments,
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Testing
Testing ensures that the solution is working correctly. It is a good
Moving the goal
posts refers to a idea to test the solution throughout its development. The early
change in the detection of an error reduces the amount of work required to fix
definition of the the error. If the solution involves implementing a system then both
problem after
producing a the hardware and the software need to be tested:
solution. Hardware testingdiagnostic software is used to test whether
the processor is operating efficiently (see Figure 1.8).
Peripheral devices are tested to ensure they are working
appropriately. Networks are tested to ensure transmission
speeds have been achieved.
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Exercise 1.4
1 What type of application software is being described?
a Allows the user to enter characters and create documents.
b Uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to
organise and store data that requires some type of calculation.
c Creates a graphic by dividing the picture into a number of
objects, such as straight lines, curves and shapes.
d Allows users to combine text graphics, animation, audio and
video into a multimedia product.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Producing the solution involves _______ what has been
designed.
b A DBMS allows the user to enter, maintain and provide access
to a _______.
c A web browser will display a website if the _______ is entered
directly into the browser.
d Testing ensures the _______ is working correctly.
3 Explain the difference between:
a a desktop publishing program and a word processor
b importing and exporting.
4 a What is application software?
b Compare bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
c What is the purpose of presentation software?
d How do you test software?
e What is documentation?
Development
5 Use a word processor to write a letter urging people to donate
blood. Draw a first aid sign using a graphic program. Use the copy
and paste commands to import the first aid sign into the letter.
6 Create the spreadsheet in Figure 1.7. Enter appropriate formulas in
the range of cells H7:I9 and B11:G12. Modify the July sales by
doubling the quantities sold.
7 The presentation of the information is just as important as the
content. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your
answer.
Evaluation criteria
Evaluation criteria are
accepted standards used to
make judgements about
solutions. Criteria are
dependent on the type of
problem and the size of the
project. The following
criteria are commonly used
for evaluation:
Functionality of the
solution is whether the
solution works. The
solution must solve the
problem in an
appropriate way. Does it
do what it is supposed
to do? Was an
advertising brochure
part of the solution?
Did the solution
contain images on the
topic? Was a website
created and do all the
links work?
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Methods of evaluation
The method of evaluation is the way the evaluation is carried out.
It should be completed according to a plan in a systematic way.
Evaluations are carried out by an individual or a group. The group
could be peers, the end user of the solution or a specific target
group, such as the students in Year 9. There are three common
types of evaluation methods:
Testingchecking every part of the solution. For example,
testing a website would involve accessing each web page and
checking the links.
Inspectionusing an expert to complete an examination of the
solution. For example, a professional web designer would
complete an inspection of a website.
Inquirygathering information from users of the solution. This
information is collected using surveys, interviews or simply
observing the operation of the solution. For example, an
inquiry of a website would involve asking questions of people
who have accessed the site.
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Tasks
1 Design tickets and certificates that could be used if your school
was completing the project.
2 Do research into the features of the latest presentation software. ICT 1.2
Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.
Exercise 1.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Evaluating the solution involves _______ the results of the
solution.
b Evaluating the solution can be used to highlight and _______
any part of the project.
c _______ of the solution is whether the solution works.
d _______ information has been verified to ensure that it is
correct.
2 True or false?
a Systems in organisations are in a constant process of evaluation,
analysis and development.
b Ethical information must not break copyright, invade privacy or
contain offensive material.
c There are two common types of evaluation methods: testing
and inspection.
d Functionality of the solution is a method of evaluation.
3 What am I?
a The last stage in developing a solution.
b An accepted standard used to make a judgement about the
solution.
c Information that is appropriate to the requirements of the
problem.
4 a Why can evaluation of a solution be an ongoing process?
b List five different evaluation criteria.
c Describe the functionality of a solution.
d What characteristic of information refers to the age of the
information?
e Explain the difference between testing and completing an
inspection of a solution.
Development
5 Create a concept map for the information presented in the case
study. Each key concept should be represented as a node.
6 What evaluation method was completed in the case study? How
would you evaluate the solution in the case study? Construct an
evaluation criteria that could be used in the case study.
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Statements
1 A quick method of determining if the 6 A technique for representing
project is on time. knowledge using diagrams.
2 What is to be done, who will do it, 7 A detailed description of the
when it will be done and how it will solution.
be done. 8 Third stage in developing a solution.
3 First stage in developing a solution. 9 An accepted standard used to make
4 A factor that impacts on the solution. a judgement about the solution.
5 A working model of the solution. 10 Fourth stage in developing a
solution.
Terms
a Concept mapping f Gantt chart
b Constraint g Producing the solution
c Defining and analysing the problem h Project plan
d Evaluating the solution i Prototype
e Evaluation criteria j Specification
3 Explain the difference between the 6 Briefly outline five commonly used
first and the second stage in evaluation criteria.
developing a solution.
e Tester
Project development
Create at least five forms that could be used in project development. A form is a
document with blank spaces for information to be inserted. Examine this chapter
to determine possible forms. For example, you might decide to create a form for a
project plan by constructing a table with the headings What, Who, When and
How. The forms you create in this project can be used for project development
throughout the course.
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2
2
C H A P T E R
Past, current
and emerging
technologies
Syllabus outcome
5.4.1 Analyses the effects of past, current and emerging
information and software technologies on the individual
and society.
Overview
This chapter provides an overview of past, current and emerging
technologies. It explores the impact of these technologies on
individuals and society. You will also learn about the effect of these
technologies on the environment.
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until his writings were rediscovered in 1937 that his great genius
was appreciated.
Ada Augusta Byron (or Countess Lovelace) was one of the great
women of computing. She helped Babbage to adjust and correct
some of the problems in his work and her notes on Babbages
works were accepted for publication in the book Taylors Scientific
Memoirs. Ada Augusta Byron is dubbed the worlds first
programmer because she developed the idea to repeat a set of
instructions over and over again, in what is now called a loop.
Herman Hollerith worked for the United States census bureau.
In 1886 Hollerith developed a tabulating device based on Charles
Babbages punch card system. It collected and tabulated data using Ada Augusta
Byron was the
80-column punched cards and was first used in the 1890 census. only legitimate
Hollerith continued to develop tabulating machines and his daughter of the
Tabulating Machine Company became a division of the company poet Lord Byron.
Her relationship
later re-named IBM. with Charles
Howard Aiken worked with IBM. In 1939 he constructed a fully Babbage was
automatic calculator called the Mark I. It was 17 metres by 2.5 regarded as
controversial.
metres and contained three million electrical connections and 805
kilometres of wire. The Mark I was an electromechanical machine
and could perform four basic operations. Input was entered on
punched cards and output recorded on an electric typewriter. It
could perform three calculations per second and could store up to
seventy-two numbers.
Eckert and John William Mauchly (see Figure 2.2). It was 30 metres
long, 3 metres high and contained 18 000 vacuum tubes. ENIAC
was a great success for its time and was used by the military for
calculations relating to rockets. It was able to perform over 5000
operations per second. However, the vacuum tubes created very
large amounts of heat. This resulted in a malfunction every 15
minutes.
Another great pioneer of computing was John von Neumann
who, in 1946, led the development of EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer). It could store both instructions and
data in its memory. Von Neumann then went on to find new
applications for computers and he helped scientists such as Robert
Oppenheimer and Edward Teller at Los Alamos apply them to
atomic bomb research.
In 1951, UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) was
designed by Eckert and Mauchly and delivered to the United States
of America Bureau of Census. It was the first commercially
available electronic computer. It could process both numerical and
alphabetical calculations with ease.
Grace Hopper developed the first compiler in 1952. She also
conceived the idea of a programming language based on English
that led to the development of COBOL. Grace Hopper is regarded
as one of the great pioneers of programming.
Computers in the
future may weigh Jim Backus of IBM developed a high-level language called
no more than FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation) in 1954. It resembles the
1.5 tons. A science symbolism used in mathematics and has undergone continued
magazine
predicting the
development.
rapid developments William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from Bell
in technology Laboratories developed the first transistor in 1947. In 1958 the
in 1949.
transistor was used in a computer, and greatly increased the
computers processing speed to 10 000 operations per second, as
well as reducing the size of the computer.
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a
high-level programming language designed by John Kemeny and
Thomas Kurtz in 1964. It is a useful language to teach
programming concepts.
The integrated circuit consists of hundreds of electronic
components such as transistors, resistors and capacitors packed on
a small piece of silicon wafer. Computers made after 1966 that used
this technology were smaller, more reliable, cheaper and able to
work at high speed (100 million calculations per second).
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Exercise 2.1
1 What am I?
a First mechanical calculator.
b First electronic digital computer.
c First commercially available
electronic computer.
d First popular personal computer.
2 Copy and complete the following
sentences:
a Joseph-Marie Jacquard
invented the _______.
b _______ developed a tabulating
device that was used in the
1890 census.
c EDVAC could store both _______
and data in its memory.
d Microsoft designed an operating system
called _______ for the IBM PC.
3 What person invented these computers?
a Analytical Engine
b Mark I
c ENIAC
d Apple II
4 a What contribution did Ada Augusta Byron make to the
development of computers?
b Describe the effect on computers that the invention of the
integrated circuit had.
c Describe the specifications of the IBM PC released in 1981.
d Describe the difference between the 80286 and 80386 processors.
e What is the importance of the Macintosh computer in the
history of computers?
Development
5 Charles Babbage is regarded as the father of the modern computer.
Do research to find more information about Charles Babbage.
Write a report that describes Charles Babbages contribution to the
modern computer.
ICT 2.1
6 Construct a table that summarises the history of the computer. The
table should consist of two columns. One column for the year of
the invention and another column describing the invention. Sort
the table chronologically on year.
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Figure 2.5 The Internet has revolutionised banking for many people
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Issues
When new information technology is introduced the impact is not
always positive. There are often benefits for some people and negative
effects for others. For example, ATMs are a convenient technology for
many people, however, there are some groupssuch as the elderly
who may have difficulty with the technology. Some people do not
enjoy using the technology and prefer a more personal service. ATMs
have also changed the way bank employees work.
Information technology benefits society but it may be a
disadvantage for an individual. For example, if the new information
technology increases productivity it often leads to staff redundancies.
It has forced people to learn new skills. Individuals need access to
information and to be proficient in the latest technologies. If people are
incapable or not given access to information they will be disadvantaged.
We need to ensure all parts of society, including Aboriginal and
indigenous people, have the same access to information technology
as other Australians. Satellite technology has enabled some
Aboriginals in remote communities to communicate with each
other. However, many Aboriginal and indigenous people have not
had the opportunity to learn or use information technology.
Information technology has heightened a range of ethical issues
for people directly or indirectly involved with the technology. These
issues include copyright, piracy, privacy, security, accuracy of data,
changing nature of work, appropriate information use, equity and
health concerns. These issues present society with huge challenges
and will be discussed throughout this book.
Project: Efragrance
Efragrance is a new business that sells perfume on the Internet. It
currently has eighty brands and a database of 1000 potential
customers. The owner of Efragrance requires an advertising campaign
to promote the business. Jackson Hughes is a consultant who has been
contracted to solve the problem. The problem was solved using the
four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Jackson discussed advertising
ideas for Efragrance with the owner. He investigated all current
methods of selling perfume. Customers were surveyed on the
current level of service. A project plan was written and submitted
to the owner.
Design possible solutions: Jackson wrote a feasibility report that
recommended increased advertising on the Web, newsletters with
discounts for regular customers and a warehouse to process the
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Tasks
1 Design a banner advertisement that would be appropriate for this
project.
2 Create a prototype of a newsletter that could be used by Efragrance.
Exercise 2.2
1 True or false?
a Broadband and the use of optical fibres have decreased the
speed and volume of information transmission.
b Computer and communication technology have joined
together.
c Internet banking allows customers to view their account
balances and transaction histories.
d The impact of information is always positive.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Shops use a (a) system to efficiently process transactions. Printing
and publishing industries are dependent on (b). Designers use (c)
software to produce drawings of products. Doctors use (d) to help
diagnose a patients illness and recommend a possible treatment.
3 Unjumble these words:
a ildtaig
b gimnerg
c twnrkeo
Development
5 Information technology and the use of the Internet will produce
the paperless office. Do research into the paperless office. Describe
the concept of the paperless office. Do you agree with this
ICT 2.2 statement? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Collect ten news articles in the next two weeks on the impact of
information technology. Categorise the articles as positive or
negative. Briefly summarise one positive and one negative article.
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Environmental considerations
It is argued by many people that we need to look after our
environment if we are going to survive in the next century.
Information technology is having an impact on the environment by
increasing the consumption of fossil fuels, building mountains of
waste and producing toxic chemicals in the manufacture of
integrated circuits. We have limited natural resources and must take
steps to preserve our environment for the next generation.
Recycling
Consumers have demanded that manufacturers build computers
that are energy efficient and recyclable. They want a green PC that
is quiet, made of recycled plastics and can operate on less power
than a light bulb. The green PC should be designed with the aim
of reducing waste and chemical emissions. Some ways of making
the green PC include:
packaging it from recycled cardboard that is CFC
(chlorofluorocarbon) free
ensuring that the plastic casing is easily removable so that it can
be recycled into roof tiles or new PCs
providing instruction manuals made from the minimum
amount of recycled paper or using onscreen manuals
developing the PC using products that are water-based and CFC
free
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Exercise 2.3
1 True or false?
a Most consumer devices have embedded intelligence.
b Information technology is decreasing the consumption of fossil
fuels.
c Portable computers are the ideal green machine.
d Computers have resulted in the paperless office.
2 What am I?
a Emerging technology that puts a computer into a device.
b The process of making a product smaller.
c Machines that are constructed atom by atom using the
processes drawn from molecular biology.
d The state in which the computer consumes less power when it is
idle.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ computers will have a CPU and keyboard stitched into
the garment.
b Consumers are demanding computers that are more energy
efficient and _______.
c LCD screens use far less power than _______ screens.
d Paper consumption from _______ is destroying our forests.
4 a Describe some of the tasks performed by wearable computers.
b Compare the speed of todays computer with a computer built
with nanotechnology.
c Describe the effect of information technology on the
environment.
d List some of the ways of making the green PC.
e How can software be environmentally friendly?
Development
5 New technology is constantly
emerging. Do research to find
two recent technological
developments. Outline these
developments. Predict the
impact of this technology
on our society.
6 Information technology is
a major environmental
problem. Do research to find
any recent improvements or
concerns regarding the
impact of information
technology on the environment.
Write a summary of your research.
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Statements
1 First commercially available electronic 6 Computers connected over hundreds
computer or thousands of kilometres
2 First electronic digital computer 7 Current technology used by banks
3 First popular personal computer 8 Current technology used by shops
4 One of the first personal computers 9 Emerging technology that uses
to feature a GUI processes developed from molecular
5 Computers that are connected within biology
a building or group of buildings on 10 Emerging technology that effectively
one site puts a computer into a device
Terms
a Altair f Macintosh
b ATM g Nanotechnology
c Colossus h POS
d Embedded technology i UNIVAC
e LAN j WAN
e Tester
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3
3
C H A P T E R
Data
handling
Syllabus outcomes
5.3.2 Acquires and manipulates data and information in an
ethical manner.
Overview
The emphasis in this chapter is on data handling. You will learn
about data and information, data coding, data sources and data
types. The storage of data, both primary and secondary, is
examined. The chapter concludes by outlining data transmission,
data compression and data security.
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Analog
Analog data is represented by using
continuous variable physical quantities such
as voltages. For example, an analog clock
shows a second hand continually sweeping
around the clock face, measuring small units
of time. At any moment the clock will give
you an instant measure of the exact time,
since you can estimate parts of a second as
the second hand moves. Most natural events
in the real world, such as temperature, light
and pressure change smoothly and slowly
Figure 3.1 An analog device like the hands of the clock (see Figure 3.1).
Sounds, images and video are naturally in
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Digital
Digital data is represented using discrete measurements in the form
of digits or numbers. For example, a digital clock shows the time as
a certain number of hours and minutes. Here the time does not
change continuously, but in a series of steps, jumping from second
to second and minute to minute. Data is not represented
continuously, but in discrete quantities using digits. Numbers, text
and other characters are naturally in digital form.
Information technology uses data in digital form using only two
digits: 0 and 1. Two digits are easily represented electronically by
circuits in the computer being off or on. The digit 0 is used to
represent the electronic state of off and the digit 1 is used to
represent the electronic state of on. Each on or off digit is called a
bit (BInary digiT). A bit is the smallest unit of data stored in a
computer. A group of eight bits is called a byte (see Section 3.2 for
more information).
Data is processed in words. A word (or word size) is the number
of bits processed by the computer at one time.
When the computer moves bits from one place to another it
takes one word at a time. Most computers use word sizes of 8, 16,
32 or 64 bits. The bigger the word size, the faster the computer.
Exercise 3.1
1 True or false?
a Information must be attractive and easy to use.
b Sounds, images and video are naturally in digital form.
c Information technology works with data in analog form.
d A bit is a binary digit.
e A group of eight bytes is called a bit.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Data can be thought of as _______ facts that mean little by
themselves.
b Information is _______ using a range of hardware devices.
c _______ data is not represented continuously, but in a series of
steps.
d A _______ is the number of bits processed by the computer at
one time.
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Development
5 Some countries have the knowledge and finance to take advantage
of the digital revolution. Do you think these countries will share
the wealth generated from the digital revolution? Will the rich get
richer and the poor get poorer? Justify your answer.
6 A modem is a device that enables the transmission of data from
one computer to another. It works with data in both analog and
digital form. Do research to find more information on a modem.
Write a summary of your research.
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ASCII
ASCII (pronounced ass-kee) is a code that represents letters,
numbers, and symbols as binary code. It is the standard method
used by personal computers and stands for the American Standard
Code for Information Interchange. A standard 7-bit ASCII was
designed when computers were not extensively used outside of the
US and UK. It only allows 128 different characters (27). This was
not large enough to handle all the characters used in the languages
of western Europe.
Extended ASCII was developed using an 8-bit
binary code to extend the character set. It is now
the most widely used code. The 8-bit ASCII
code allows for 256 different characters (28),
starting with 00000000 and going through to
11111111. There are 96 keyboard characters
including 26 upper case letters, 26 lower
case letters, 10 digits, and 34 symbols. The
8-bit ASCII code also contains 32 control
characters that are used to control computer
functions such as a carriage return and a
form feed.
To change a character into its ASCII binary
code you need to refer to the ASCII table in the
appendix. For example, the letter K is the decimal
number 75 and its ASCII binary code is 01001011. The computer
uses the binary number 01001011 to represent the letter K.
It should be remembered that computers work with other data
types besides text. However, a group of bits can also represent every
other data type such as graphic, audio and video. We will examine
data coding for these data types in later chapters.
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Approximate
Unit Symbol Meaning value Exact value
Byte B 1 1 (20)
Kilobyte KB Thousand 1000 1024
bytes (210)
Megabyte MB Million 1 000 000 1 048 576
bytes (220)
Gigabyte GB Billion 1 000 000 000 1 073 741 824
bytes (230)
Terabyte TB Trillion 1 000 000 000 000 1 099 511 627 776
bytes (240)
Exercise 3.2
1 What am I?
a An arithmetic system using a base of two.
b The ASCII code for full stop character.
c A code that changes letters, numbers and symbols into an 8-bit
binary code.
d Another name for the binary system.
2 True or false?
a The place value in the binary system doubles in value for each
additional place.
b An 8-bit ASCII code can represent at most 255 different
characters.
c The binary number 10 represents the same amount as the
decimal number 10.
d ASCII stands for the American Standard Code Interchange
Information.
3 Convert these measurements to the units indicated (approximate
value only):
a 80 GB = ? B
b 4 TB = ? B
c 140 000 000 B = ? MB
d 3 000 000 000 B = ? GB
4 a List the first twenty binary numbers from 0.
b What is the next binary number after 10011110?
c What is the ASCII code for the per cent symbol?
d What is the character that is represented by the ASCII code
00100001?
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Development
7 Write a sentence for a friend in
your class. Convert this sentence
into ASCII code. Swap and
decode your sentences.
8 Perform the following calculations.
a Add 001010012 and
101011002.
b Add 100101012 and
000101002.
9 Hexadecimal is an arithmetic
system used by computers.
Do research to find
information on hexadecimal.
Write a brief report that
summarises the results of
your investigation.
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Primary sources
Primary source is when data is
collected first hand. Many
organisations prefer to generate
their own primary data because
they consider it meaningful and
reliable, although it is time
consuming and costly.
Surveys and interviews are a
common method of acquiring
primary data. These involve
collecting sample characteristics,
attitudes, behaviours and opinions.
A survey is delivered by mail, face-
Figure 3.2 These people are completing a survey
to-face or online. An interview is a
meeting of people face-to-face. Specific questions are asked to
determine the interviewees opinions and feelings (see Figure 3.2).
A predesigned form or table is often used to collect primary
data. A form is a document with blank spaces for information to be
GIGO (garbage in
collected. For example, an online registration form is used to collect garbage out)
primary data for mailing lists. Forms and tables for data collection means that when
need to be carefully designed. It is often necessary to try to inaccurate data is
entered into a
anticipate answers that people may give to individual questions or system, the resulting
possible results for an event. information will
also be inaccurate.
However, it is
Secondary sources sometimes taken
Secondary source is the use of data collected or created by someone to mean garbage
else. Secondary data is available as printed text and on the Internet. in gospel out. In
other words,
Printed text has been the main medium for spreading people always
knowledge since the beginning of the seventeenth century. It can believe that the
take many different forms, such as books, magazines, newspapers, information
displayed is true!
newsletters, reports and journals. The sheer quantity of printed
information means that an individual can absorb only a very
small proportion. Searching for particular information from
printed text involves using tables of contents, summaries and
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Data types
Data exists in several different forms. The data type is the sort of
data such as text and hypertext, graphics, audio, video and
animation.
Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other special
characters. A word processor allows text to be entered and
documents to be created (see Figure 3.4). It is used to write letters,
reports, assignments, articles and books. Text is also entered into
most software applications. Text is edited in many different ways such
as deleting, inserting, moving and copying. The meaning of the text
is determined by reading the text. Text is stored as an ASCII code.
Some common file extensions for text include DOC, TXT and RTF.
The data type in some applications, such as a database, needs to
be detailed. It requires the user to specify the exact nature of the data:
alphanumericall keyboard characters
numericnumbers only
alphabeticletters only
Booleantrue or false
currencymoney
dateday, month, year.
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Exercise 3.3
1 State the data type of the following files:
a photo.bmp
b music.mp3
c film.mpg
d data.doc
e cartoon.gif.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The (a) has become a major source of data. Websites present (b) on
a particular topic. Each single document is called a (c). In addition
to the World Wide Web, data is collected from (d).
3 True or false?
a Primary source is when data is collected or created by someone else.
b There are two types of graphics: BMP and JPG.
c A word processor allows text to be entered and documents to
be created.
d Video is made up of frames that contain individual images.
4 a Describe some of the different products that use printed text.
b What is hypertext?
c How are graphics created?
d How are sounds edited?
e What is animation?
Development
5 Choose a recent event that has been widely reported in
newspapers and on television, radio and the Internet. Compare and
contrast three different data sources on the event in terms of
accuracy, currency and organisation.
6 The amount of information available in printed form and on the
Internet is increasing at a very fast rate. Will the amount of
information continue to increase in the future? Why? Many people
are suffering from information overload. Outline some strategies
that people could adopt to reduce information overload.
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RAM
RAM (random access memory) is
where data and instructions are held
temporarily. It depends on a supply of
electricity to maintain data storage.
When the power to the computer is
shut off, everything in RAM is lost. In
Figure 3.8 DRAM chips can be easily slotted into the
motherboard other words, RAM is volatile memory.
The data in RAM can be accessed
randomly. That is, a byte of memory is accessed without touching
any of the other bytes. There are two main types of RAM:
dynamic RAM (DRAM, pronounced dee-ram) is memory that
must be constantly refreshed
static RAM (SRAM, pronounced ess-ram) is memory that does
not have to be updated or refreshed.
RAM is regarded as the working memory of the computer.
Programs and files currently in use are stored in RAM. RAM is one
A buffer is a
of the factors that affects the computers performance. For this
temporary data reason RAM manufacturers are continually inventing new designs
storage area. It to provide the fastest possible access times at the lowest possible
allows two parts of
cost. This has resulted in different types of DRAM and SRAM
a computer system
to work at chips. Memory is upgraded by inserting DRAM chips into special
different speeds. slots on the motherboard (see Figure 3.8)
For example, a
print buffer
temporarily stores Cache
data to be sent to Cache (pronounced cash) is a temporary storage area used to store
the printer because
the printer does
data that the computer can access quickly. There are two common
not operate at types of cache:
the same speed as Cache memory is high-speed memory located between the CPU
the processor.
Therefore, part of
and RAM. It improves performance by using SRAM and
the cache may be reduces the need for the CPU to access the slower DRAM chip.
used as a print Disk cache works the same way as cache memory. It stores the
buffer.
most recent data from the disk in RAM and when the CPU
needs access to data from the disk, it first checks the disk cache.
Disk caching improves the performance because accessing the
data from RAM is a thousand times faster than accessing a disk.
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ROM
ROM (read only memory) holds data and instructions that are fixed
at the time of production and cannot be changed by the computer. It
is permanent memory that only allows data to be retrieved (read)
and not entered into storage (write). The software that is stored in
ROM is called firmware. Storage of software within the ROM protects
it from being damaged or changed. Most personal computers contain
a small amount of ROM that stores important programs such as
booting the computer and checking for input and output devices.
The instructions that allow the computer to communicate with input
and output devices are called the ROM BIOS (Basic Input/Output
System). The computer manufacturer sets the actual contents of
ROM and it is non-volatile. Non-volatile memory does not lose its
contents when the power to the computer is turned off.
Exercise 3.4
1 What am I?
a The receiving and retaining of data over a period of time.
b A temporary storage area used to store frequently requested
data and instructions.
c The software that is stored in ROM.
d Data and instructions that are fixed at the time of production
and cannot be changed by the computer.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
(a) storage is internal storage as it uses (b) circuits located on the
motherboard. It consists of RAM, (c) and ROM. RAM is an
abbreviation for (d) access memory.
3 Explain the difference between:
a dynamic RAM and static RAM
b RAM and ROM
c cache memory and disk cache
d volatile and non-volatile memory.
4 a List some other terms for primary storage.
b Why is RAM described as volatile memory?
c How is memory upgraded?
d What is ROM BIOS memory?
Development
5 How much RAM is on your computer? Count the number of characters
on a page of text (including spaces) and estimate the number of bytes
required for this page. How many pages of text can be stored in your
RAM? (Assume all the RAM is available to store the text.)
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Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a very long, thin strip of plastic, coated with a thin
layer of magnetic material. Modern tape is wound on two reels
inside a cartridge. Data is read from and written to tape using a
tape drive that winds the tape from one reel to the other reel
causing it to pass a readwrite head. A magnetic tape can store large
quantities of data in a small space at a relatively low cost. Magnetic
tape is often used as a backup or copy of data (see Figure 3.9).
The main disadvantage
with magnetic tape is that it
uses sequential access to
retrieve data. This form of
access starts at the beginning
of the tape and reads all of the
data until the required item is
found. Sequential access to
data is slow, making magnetic
tapes unsuitable for data that
is often updated. Magnetic
tapes have a variety of sizes
and formats such as QIC
tapes, DAT cartridges and 8
Figure 3.9 Magnetic tape is used for storage
mm cartridges.
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Magnetic disks
A magnetic disk is a circular piece of metal or plastic, the surface of
which has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material.
Magnetic disks use random access (or direct access) to retrieve data.
This form of access allows data to be found directly without
accessing all the previous data. Random access allows data to be
retrieved much faster than sequential access used on magnetic tapes.
A disk drive is a device on which a magnetic disk is mounted. The
disk drive spins the disk and uses one or more heads to read and
write data. If the disk is permanently attached to the drive it is called
a fixed disk (hard disk).
A floppy disk (diskette) is a magnetic disk made of flexible
plastic and covered with magnetic material. Even though floppies
do not have a large storage capacity (1.4 MB) and are slower to
access data than a hard drive, they are portable and cheap. The
most common size of floppy disk is the 3.5 inch (9 cm). It is fully
enclosed in a rigid plastic casing and is used for storing small files.
To be used, a floppy disk must be inserted into the disk drive that is
usually built into the system unit.
A hard disk is a magnetic
disk made of metal or glass
and covered with magnetic
material (see Figure 3.10). It is
rigid and not flexible like a
floppy disk. This rigid
construction allows it to be
rotated ten to 100 times faster
than a floppy disk, giving it
faster access to data. Hard
disks store more data than
floppy disks because the data
is stored more densely. A hard
disk has a storage capacity Figure 3.10 A hard disk is a large storage medium
measured in GB with larger
capacities coming on the market regularly.
Removable cartridges are hard disks encased in a metal or plastic
cartridge that are removed like a floppy disk. Removable cartridges
are fast, though usually not as fast as fixed hard disks. They
combine the best aspects of hard and floppy disks. There are two
common types of removable cartridges used with personal
computers called zip disks and jaz disks:
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Optical media
An optical disk is a storage medium in which data is read and
written using laser technology. Optical disks have the capacity to
store large amounts of data and are very reliable.
A compact disc (CD) is a polycarbonate disk, the surface of
which is coated with a reflective layer of metal. The data is written
to the CD by a high-powered laser that burns millions of tiny holes
on the disks surface, called pits. The standard CD is 12 centimetres
wide and can store up to 800 MB. CDs use random access to
retrieve data. There are many kinds of CDs such as CD-ROM, CD-
R, and CD-RW:
CD-ROM (compact discread only memory) contains data
that cannot be changed. A CD-ROM drive is needed to read
data. The larger the drive speed, the faster it can transfer data.
CD-ROMs are convenient for storing data that remains
CD-Rs are called constant.
WORM disks. The CD-R (compact discrecordable) allows data to be recorded
acronym WORM
stands for write
(or burned) but users cannot remove the information. CD-Rs
once read many. require a CD-R drive to burn the data. They have become a
popular storage medium. A CD-R drive allows users to create
CD-ROMs and audio CDs.
CD-RW (compact discrewritable) allows the user to write,
erase and rewrite data. Erasing the disk is achieved by heating
the surface and quickly cooling it. CD-RW is slower than a hard
disk and after frequent use areas of the disk may become
inaccessible.
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DVDs (digital versatile disks) are optical disks that can store large
amounts of data. DVDs are the same size as the standard CD but
can store in excess of 17 GB. There are many kinds of DVDs such
as DVD-ROM, DVD-RAM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. Each of these
DVDs works in a similar way to CDs (discussed above) except that
they can store more data. DVD-ROM drives can play DVD movies,
read DVD data disks, read computer CDs, and play audio CDs.
Flash memory
Flash memory is an erasable memory chip
used in portable computers, mobile phones,
digital cameras and a range of other devices
(see Figure 3.12). It retains data when the
power is removed. The device is similar to a
memory chip except it can be electrically
erased. Flash memory is erased and written in
fixed blocks ranging from 512 bytes to 256
KB. Flash chips are replacing the ROM BIOS
chips so that the BIOS can be updated. It is
often called flash BIOS. A flash memory card
looks similar to a credit card and comes in a
variety of formats, such as PC card,
CompactFlash and SmartMedia. Figure 3.12 Flash memory card
Another type of flash memory device is a
memory stick. A memory stick is a portable storage device that is
connected using the USB port. It is compact, light, reliable and easy
to handle. A memory stick allows easy transfer of image, audio and
other data between computers and peripheral devices. Memory
sticks are available in a range of different sizes including 1 GB.
Exercise 3.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Magnetic tape is often used as a _______ or copy of the data.
b A _______ is a circular piece of metal or plastic, the surface of
which has been coated with a thin layer of magnetic material.
c A floppy disk does not have a large storage capacity and is
_______ to access data than a hard drive.
d Zip disks are slightly larger than a _______ and about twice as thick.
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2 What am I?
a Magnetic disk made of metal or glass and covered with
magnetic material.
b A type of removable cartridge that is suited to store large files.
c A compact disc that allows the user to write, erase and rewrite data.
d A hard disk encased in a metal or plastic cartridge that is
removed like a floppy disk.
3 Unjumble these words:
a fplypo idks
b izp kdsi
c afhls emyomr
d sdki rdiev
4 a What is magnetic tape?
b Explain the difference between sequential access and random
access.
c List three different types of magnetic disks.
d Outline the advantages of using a memory stick for secondary
storage.
e Why are optical disks used for secondary storage?
f What is a DVD?
g Describe the appearance of flash memory.
Development
5 Formatting prepares a disk to accept data by organising it into
sectors and tracks. It destroys any data that is currently on the disk.
Is it appropriate to delete a file by formatting a disk? Give a
reason. When is it appropriate to reformat a disk?
6 Do research into the experience offered by some museums and art
galleries using the Internet and optical disks. Is it appropriate for
artwork to be reproduced using information technology? Justify
your argument by using some examples.
Data transmission
Data is transferred between computers and devices in two ways:
serial transmission or parallel transmission. Serial transmission is
the transmission of data one bit at a time through a single line. It is
used to transmit data to peripheral devices, such as a keyboard and
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Data compression
Data compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits required to represent
results in a smaller
the information. It allows the user to store more data and makes file. However, it
data transmission faster. Compressed data must be decompressed takes more
computing power
to extract the original data. The amount a file is compressed is
to use a
measured by the compression ratio. The compression ratio compares compressed file.
how much larger the uncompressed file is to the compressed file.
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Exercise 3.6
1 True or false?
a Serial transmission is much quicker than parallel transmission.
b Parallel transmission is used inside the system unit for
connecting disk drives.
c Asynchronous transmission is faster and more efficient than
synchronous transmission.
d Lossy compression is used to compress audio and video files.
e Lossless compression results in a file that is not always identical
to the original file.
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Development
5 A method for detecting errors in the asynchronous transmission is
to attach an additional bit to the binary code. This additional bit is
called a parity bit. Do research into parity checking. How does it
work? Give an example.
6 Data compression is important for download times. Explain this
statement. Examples should be used to illustrate your answer.
7 Construct a table to compare text, graphic, audio and video data
types. For each data type consider the typical file size, file format
and software program to edit the data.
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unlawful access
unauthorised access to data
in a computer system
burglarystealing a
computer with its data
vandalismintentional
damage to a computer
system
virusescreating or
introducing computer
viruses
software piracyillegal
copying of software
natural disasterevents
such as a fire or flood that
could destroy data
accidentalunintentional loss or damage to data.
All of these threats, except accidental or natural disaster, involve a
person committing a computer crime. A computer crime is any
Hacker was
originally used to illegal activity that involves the use of computer technology. People
describe someone who gain illegal access to data in computer systems are called
who wrote hackers. Hackers and computer crime are a growing problem that
computer
programs. It was
present our society with some difficult issues.
derived from Even though hundreds of cases of computer crimes are reported
hack writer, each year, many crimes go unreported. There are several reasons for
which described
pulp fiction writers
this: organisations are reluctant to face adverse publicity,
in the 1920s. publicising the event could give others ideas, and in some cases the
crime is not discovered. Are organisations encouraging computer
crime by not reporting it? Are organisations that do not report
computer crime guilty of a crime themselves?
A second issue is that computer crime is not held in the same
One way people light by the community as other criminal activities such as armed
online keep track of robbery. Whereas the community holds an armed robber in fear or
you is to use your contempt, a hacker is often regarded as clever and the crime is not
Internet service
provider (ISP) regarded as dangerous or threatening. If a burglar and a hacker stole
address to follow $300 000 from a business, does it make any difference how the
your activities. money was taken? Should the penalties for both crimes be the same?
Whenever you use
your browser, your Computer criminals have stolen peoples personal data and
ISP address is effectively become that person. They have obtained credit card
available to others. numbers, drivers licence numbers, phone numbers and even birth
details. People often provide this data by completing online forms.
However, computer criminals have obtained sensitive information
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Project: DataProtect
DataProtect is a business that specialises in the security of data. It
protects organisations from viruses, disk crashes and system bombs. An
employee of DataProtect has been asked to write a brief document on
simple precautions to avoid data loss on a PC. The problem was solved
using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: The employee discussed the size
and format of the document with the manager. Each employee was
surveyed on possible content for the document. A project plan was
written and submitted for approval to the manager.
Design possible solutions: Three draft solutions to the problem
were completed. Each solution contained an overview for data
security but emphasised a different aspect of data security. Each
solution was discussed with the manager who preferred the
solution that emphasised backup procedures.
Produce the solution: The document was created using Microsoft
Word. It contained simple precautions on protecting passwords,
regular backups, use of anti-virus software, sharing data, installing
a firewall, downloading data and opening unknown emails. A draft
copy of the document was printed and checked. The final copy was
presented to the manager.
Evaluate the solution: The manager was pleased with the
document. It will be part of the documentation given to customers
of DataProtect. Customers will be asked for feedback on the
document as part of the evaluation.
Tasks
1 Do research into current precautions for data security on a PC.
ICT 3.2 Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.
2 Create a document that would be appropriate for this project.
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Exercise 3.7
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is the stealing of data from one organisation and
selling it to another organisation.
b People who gain illegal access to data in a computer system are
called _______.
c _______ are used to verify personal characteristics such as
fingerprints.
d The opposite process to encryption is called _______.
2 True or false?
a The cost of replacing data that is deliberately or accidentally
damaged or lost can be enormous.
b Information alteration is the illegal transfer of money from one
account to another.
c The weakest link in the security of any computer system is the
people in it.
3 What am I?
a The illegal copying of software.
b An illegal activity that involves the use of computer technology.
c Security method that prevents data from being intercepted
during transmission.
d Secret words or numbers that are typed on the keyboard to
gain access to the system.
4 a What is data security?
b Why are computer crimes often not reported?
c What is the purpose of a firewall?
d Do you think a hacker and an armed robber who stole the
same amount of money should receive the same penalties for
their crimes? Explain your answer.
Development
5 The Internet is basically insecure. It was originally designed for
communication between people who were trusted. Any
unprotected computer system accessing the Internet is completely
vulnerable. A firewall is an essential tool for all Internet users.
Investigate the protection offered by three firewall programs. How
would you rate the protection offered by these programs? Write a
report of your investigation.
6 A survey on Internet and network security found more than 36 per
cent of local IT departments had experienced severe breaches. Do
research into computer crime. Describe some examples of security
breaches. What penalties have been imposed?
7 Websites keep a record of your visits and may be able to identify
you by name. Anonymisers hide your identity and also encrypt the
addresses you visit so your ISP cannot keep a record of them.
Research the Internet for more information on anonymisers.
Summarise your investigation.
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Terms
a Animation f Lossy
b Analog g Magnetic tape
c ASCII h RAM
d CD i ROM
e Firewall j Text
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4
4
C H A P T E R
Hardware
Syllabus outcomes
5.1.2 Selects, maintains and appropriately uses hardware for a
range of tasks.
5.3.1 Justifies responsible practices and ethical use of information
and software technology.
Overview
This chapter outlines the hardware used in a computer system.
Hardware is classified according to its function and specific
hardware devices are examined. Hardware systems are also classified
according to their capabilities. You will learn troubleshooting
procedures when dealing with hardware problems and the basic
procedures for the care and maintenance of a computer.
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Exercise 4.1
1 What am I?
a The brain of the computer.
b Main circuit board that contains the computers vital components.
c A dedicated chip that works with the main CPU to increase the
speed of the computer.
d A pathway of wires on the motherboard that connects various
components.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the
letter in brackets with a suitable term:
Data is entered using an (a) device and
processed in some way before being (b)
using an output device. If necessary the
(c) can be retained on a (d) device for
later use.
3 Explain the difference between:
a input and output
b a tower and a desktop computer
c expansion slot and expansion
card
d a male and a female connector.
4 a What are the five functions of
hardware?
b List four components found on
a motherboard.
c What is an integrated circuit?
d What is the purpose of an
expansion card?
e Describe a PC card.
f Why has the USB become the standard
method for connecting peripheral devices?
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Development
5 Examine the contents of the system unit. Find the motherboard,
power supply unit, CPU, memory chips, buses, ports and expansion
slots. Identify each expansion card and secondary storage device.
6 Identify a peripheral device that is connected to a computer using
an expansion card. Investigate a popular example of this expansion
card. Briefly explain how this expansion card works.
7 There are different types of buses on the motherboard, such as the
expansion bus. Do research to find more information on different
types of buses. Write a summary of your research.
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Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a CPU contained on one integrated circuit.
Microprocessors are used in personal computers and many
consumer devices such as cameras, digital watches, toys, game
machines, DVD players, microwaves and motor vehicles. Most of
the worlds microprocessors are hidden from view in these
electronic devices. These devices are special-purpose, with
programs etched in the silicon that cannot be altered.
Project: Buying a PC
Adel Manning is a university student who needs to purchase a new PC
within a tight budget. She has decided to develop criteria for buying a
PC. Adel wants to ensure she does not purchase unnecessary equipment.
The problem was solved using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Adel asked friends and family
about the type of system and software they purchased. She read
computer magazines and accessed relevant Internet sites for the
latest information on equipment and prices.
Design possible solutions: Adels research resulted in a huge amount
of data. Much of the information was written using technical
language. Adels criteria needed to focus on the tasks the PC will be
performing and the applications required to complete those tasks.
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She also wanted the criteria to consider her needs in the foreseeable
future. She wrote a draft of the criteria and discussed them with
some friends.
Produce the solution: Adels final criteria compared hardware with
the same configuration in terms of price, reliability and performance.
Additional memory, peripherals and software were included.
She was not tempted to copy software. Software piracy is theft.
Compatibility with her current PC was also one of the criteria.
Evaluate the solution: Adel used her criteria to purchase a new PC.
She has been very happy with the performance of her new PC. Adel
will be able to upgrade the PC when required it the future.
Tasks
1 Create criteria for
buying a PC that
would be
appropriate for
this project.
2 Describe any
social and ethical
issues that would
ICT 4.1 be a concern in
this project.
Exercise 4.2
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Processing changes _______ to produce information by
following a series of instructions.
b The CPU stands for the central _______ unit.
c The _______ directs and coordinates the entire hardware system.
d The AND operator is an example of a _______ operator.
e A _______ is a CPU contained on one integrated circuit.
2 True or false?
a Motorola makes the Pentium processor.
b ALU is part of the CPU that performs data calculations and
comparisons.
c Registers provide fast access to data.
d The address register stores the data to be processed.
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Development
5 Microprocessors are used in personal computers as well as in
consumer devices. List the microprocessor devices that you have
used in the past two days. Do research into three microprocessor
devices. Describe these devices in terms of input, output, storage,
process and control.
6 Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of instructions
using multiple processors or CPUs. Investigate parallel processing.
Outline some of the advantages of parallel processing.
Keyboard
A keyboard is an input device consisting of a series of keys in a
standard layout. It allows the entry of text, numbers, instructions The QWERTY
keyboard is a very
and commands. There are many different types of keyboards, each inefficient layout.
designed to meet a particular need. For example, the keyboard on It was originally
an automatic teller machine (ATM) contains special keys that allow designed to slow
typists down. The
the withdrawal of money. Each type of keyboard has a different most commonly
arrangement of letters, numbers and symbols, which is called its typed letters
layout. The most common keyboard layout for personal computers (A, O, E, T, N, and
S) are away from
is the QWERTY keyboard.
the typists index
The QWERTY keyboard is divided into four major areas: fingers.
Alphanumeric keysletters and numbers on the keyboard.
A numeric keypad is located on the right-hand side of the
keyboard. It is for quick entry of numbers.
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Pointing devices
Pointing devices are input devices that control an onscreen symbol
called a pointer. They are good at giving commands to the
computer and for creating certain images. However, pointing
devices are not effective for entering large amounts of text. There
are many different types of pointing devices:
A mouse is a small hand-held input device that is moved over a
flat surface to control the movement of a pointer. The bottom
of the mouse is usually a ball that senses the movement of the
Tutorial mouse. If a button on the mouse is pressed or clicked, it allows
a character or command to be selected from the screen. There
are a large variety of mice using different types of technology to
improve their tracking, resolution and ease of use. A mouse
may have one or more buttons and a scroll wheel.
A trackball is a pointing device
that is similar to a mouse except
that the ball is on top of the
device instead of the bottom. It
allows the cursor to be moved by
rotating the ball in the desired
direction.
A pointing stick or trackpoint is a
small device shaped like a pencil
eraser. It moves the pointer by
sensing the direction and amount
of pressure applied to the device.
A pointing stick is located in the
keyboard on many portable
Figure 4.6 A graphics tablet computers.
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A touchpad or trackpad, is a
flat rectangular surface that
senses the movement of a
finger. When you move your
finger on the touchpad it
makes a corresponding
movement of the pointer.
A graphics tablet is an input
device that consists of a
special electronic pad and a
pen called a stylus (see Figure
4.6). The stylus performs the
same point-and-click
Figure 4.7 A PocketPC with pen input
functions as a mouse.
Graphics tablets are used by artists and designers.
A joystick is a pointing device consisting of a small base unit
with a rod that can be tilted in all directions to move the
pointer on the screen. Joysticks are frequently used to provide
fast and direct input for moving characters and symbols in
computer games.
A light pen is a pointing device consisting of a small rod that
looks like a pen. The tip of the pen has a light detector that
senses the intensity of light on a screen and emits signals so that
the computer can calculate its position. A light pen is used to
select information or draw directly on the screen.
A touch screen enters data by detecting the touch of your finger.
The users finger interrupts a matrix of infrared light beams
shining horizontally and vertically across the screen.
A pen input device uses special hardware and software to
interpret the movement of a pen. Pen input devices are
becoming increasingly popular (see Figure 4.7). They are used
in most personal digital assistants (PDA) and palm computers.
Scanners use a
software standard
Digital input devices called TWAIN.
Some people
Data must be digitised before it is used by a computer. There are a suggest this is an
range of input devices that capture and digitise data. acronym that
Scanners are input devices that make a digital representation of stands for
Technology
any printed image. The digital data can be printed, edited or Without An
merged into another document. They may be single-pass scanners Interesting Name.
that scan only once or multiple-pass scanners that scan for each
colour. There are three common types of scanners:
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flatbed scanners look similar
to a small photocopier with
the document remaining
flat and stationary during
the scanning (see Figure
4.8)
pen scanners are wireless
devices that look like a
highlighterwhen the pen
scanner is dragged across a
line of printed text it creates
a text file
drum scanners are high
Figure 4.8 A flatbed scanner
quality scanners used in
publishing applications.
Digital cameras are input devices that capture and store images in
digital form rather than on film. Digital photos are limited by the
amount of memory in the camera, the quality of the lens and the
output device. The main advantage of digital cameras is that
making the photos is both inexpensive and fast because there is no
film processing. Most digital cameras compress and save their
images in standard JPEG or FlashPix format.
Digital video cameras are input devices that capture video in a
digital format (see Figure 4.9). The video files are initially captured
onto a tape and then transferred directly to a computer for editing.
Video editing software is used to edit the video including titles,
sound and special effects. There is an increasing range of video
effects that can be achieved using
this software on a personal
computer.
Microphones are input
devices that capture sound.
Sound travels through the air in
waves and is analog data. Audio
is sound that has been digitised.
A sound card is an expansion
card that allows the PC to accept
microphone input, play music
and other sounds through
speakers or headphones (see
Figure 4.9 A digital video camera Figure 4.10). Sound cards are
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Exercise 4.3
1 True or false?
a The QWERTY keyboard is the only keyboard layout for personal
computers.
b A mouse has one button and a scroll wheel.
c Touch screens enter data by detecting the touch of your finger.
d Most digital cameras compress and save their images in
standard JPEG or FlashPix format.
e A flatbed scanner is a high quality scanner used in publishing
applications.
2 What am I?
a A pointing device that is similar to a mouse except that the ball
is on top of the device instead of the bottom.
b A common type of scanner that looks like a highlighter.
c Input device that captures video in a digital format.
d An expansion card that allows the PC to accept microphone
input, play music and other sounds through speakers.
e Input device used extensively in retail industries to input
product identification at point of sale.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Scanners are (a) devices that make a (b) representation of any
printed (c). The digital data can be printed, (d) or merged into
another document.
4 a List the four major areas of the QWERTY keyboard.
b What is one advantage and one disadvantage of a pointing
device?
c How does a light pen work?
d What type of pointing device is popular in most PDAs and palm
computers?
e What is the main advantage of a digital camera?
Development
5 The QWERTY keyboard is the most common keyboard layout. Do
research into the QWERTY keyboard. How was it named? Who
designed this keyboard? Why does the QWERTY remain the most
popular keyboard layout when it is very inefficient?
6 The Dvorak keyboard is a very efficient keyboard. Do research into
the Dvorak keyboard. Describe the layout of the Dvorak keyboard.
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Screens
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback
about what the computer is doing. It can display text, numeric,
image and video data. All images on the screen are made up of tiny
dots called pixels. A pixel or picture element is the smallest part of
the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total
number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. For example,
an image described as 1024 (columns) 768 (rows) has 786 432
pixels. Resolution is also measured by the number of dots per inch
(dpi). For example, an image described as 300 dpi refers to a square
inch grid with 300 pixels on each side.
A monitor is a screen that can display text and graphics. It uses
cathode-ray tube (CRT) technology similar to a television. Images
are produced by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of the
screen containing a coating of phosphor. The electron beam usually
starts in the upper left-hand corner and moves left to right and top
to bottom in a series of zigzag lines called a raster scan. Colour
monitors use three beams to strike red, green and blue phosphor.
The raster scan is repeated to maintain the image as the phosphor
only glows for a short time. This is called refreshing. Monitors come
in all shapes and sizes. The most
widely used monitors are 15 to 21
inches diagonally, but the actual
viewable area is usually smaller.
Monitors are capable of displaying
millions of colours. The number of
colours depends on the amount of
memory installed on the graphics
card.
LCD screens are flat-panel displays
that use liquid crystal display (LCD)
technology (see Figure 4.11). They
consist of a backplane and any
number of segments or dots. A voltage
is applied between a segment and the
backplane causing a segment to
darken. LCD technology provides
displays that are very light, take up less
room, produce no heat, have no glare, Figure 4.11 An LCD screen
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Printers
A printer is an output device that produces a paper copy of any
required data. The paper containing the data is called a hard copy
or printout. Printers are classified as impact and non-impact
printers. Impact printers make an image on the paper by using
Printing the some sort of physical contact, while non-impact printers make an
contents of the image using some other method. Impact printers include dot
screen including
any text and matrix printers, and non-impact printers include laser and inkjet
graphics to a printers.
printer is called A dot matrix printer transfers ink to the page by the impact
a screen dump.
between a pin, a printer ribbon and the paper. Dot matrix printers
are reliable and cheap, however, they are noisy and do not produce
the highest quality output. Dot matrix printers have resolutions
from 60 dpi to 180 dpi. They are useful when duplicate copies are
needed from one print job such as credit card receipts.
Inkjet printers produce text and images by spraying very fine
drops of ink onto the paper (see Figure 4.12). The print head of an
inkjet contains a nozzle with anywhere from fifty to several
hundred small holes. The ink is
propelled through a combination of
nozzle holes to form the characters.
Inkjet printers produce high-quality
output in either colour or black and
white. They are quiet, light and
relatively cheap, although the ink
cartridges are reasonably expensive.
The quality of inkjet output is often
600 dpi or greater. Inkjet printers
use standard weight paper for most
tasks. High-quality images can be
printed on coated paper,
photographic glossy paper and
overhead transparencies.
Laser printers use a rotating disk
Figure 4.12 An inkjet printer works by spraying to reflect laser beams onto the
fine drops of ink onto the surface to be printed paper to produce text and images.
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Speakers
Sounds are produced using speakers. A small speaker is usually
located in most personal computers inside the system unit.
However, high quality stereo speakers are often connected to the
computer using a port and a sound card
(see Figure 4.13). The speakers are
sometimes built into the sides of the
monitor. In addition to sounds and music,
speakers work with voice. Voice output is
achieved in two ways:
A person talks into a voice input device
such as a microphone. The words are
converted and stored as digital data. This
digital data is changed back to voice so
that the user can hear the words.
Voice synthesis is the artificial production
of human speech. The words in memory
are analysed and sounds generated for
letter combinations. Rules are applied
for intonation to make the voice Figure 4.13 Speakers can be added to the
realistic. computer
Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high-quality drawings
such as maps, charts and building plans (see Figure 4.14). The
drawings are often larger than the available paper sizes of a
standard printer. Plotters operate with commands from the
computer and can draw an amazing array of shapes and figures.
There are two different types of plotters:
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Pen plotters produce
images using coloured
ink pens over the
surface of the paper.
Depending on the
output, pen plotters
are either flatbed or
drum. A flatbed plotter
looks like a drafting
table with pens
suspended over it. The
pens are instructed by
the software onto the
paper and then moved
in a certain direction.
Most flatbed plotters
have different coloured
Figure 4.14 Plotters
pens with different
widths. They are used in engineering and drafting applications.
A drum plotter works the same way except the paper is rolled
around a drum or cylinder. The pens only move to the left or
right with drum rotating. The drawings from a drum plotter are
restricted to the width of the printer but are unlimited in
length.
Electrostatic plotters create images by moving paper under a row
of wires. When the wires are given an electrostatic charge they
touch the paper and create the drawing. Electrostatic plotters
produce high quality output and are faster than pen plotters.
Exercise 4.4
1 Explain the difference between:
a a raster scan and refreshing
b an impact and a non-impact printer
c a flatbed plotter and a drum plotter.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A monitor uses _______ technology similar to a television.
b An _______ is a flat-panel display that uses liquid crystal display
technology.
c Sounds are produced using a _______.
d A _______ is an output device used to produce high-quality
drawings.
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3 True or false?
a A pixel is the smallest part of the screen that can be controlled
by the computer.
b A 17-inch monitor has a width of 17 inches.
c Dot matrix printers produce the highest quality output.
d Inkjet printers are quiet, light and relatively cheap.
e High-speed laser printers can print over one hundred pages per
minute.
4 a What is the resolution of a screen?
b How does CRT technology produce an image?
c List some of the advantages of LCD technology.
d How does an inkjet printer produce text and images?
e What are the advantages of buying a laser printer?
f What is voice synthesis?
g List two different types of plotters.
Development
5 There have been great improvements in the resolution of screens.
Investigate the standard resolutions that were widely used in the
past. Write a report on your investigation.
6 Do research into laser printers. Compare and contrast three different
laser printers. Your answer should focus on speed, quality and cost.
4.5 Classification of
hardware systems
A computer is classified according to its power and capabilities. To
measure the power of a computer, many different criteria are used,
such as its storage capacity and the speed of the CPU. It is common
to divide computers into supercomputers, mainframes, personal
computers, and portable computers. However, with advances in
technology the differences have become blurred and the criteria are
constantly changing. In fact, personal computers now have the
capabilities that were only available in mainframes a few years ago.
Supercomputers
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive
type of computer (see Figure 4.15). Supercomputers are used for IBM is the largest
hardware company
applications that demand maximum power, such as aerodynamics
in the world. Big
design and simulation, and processing geological, genetic and Blue is an informal
weather data. A supercomputer generates so much heat that it name for IBM.
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Mainframes
A mainframe computer is an expensive computer about the size of a
refrigerator that is used for large computing jobs (see Figure 4.16).
It is very powerful and capable of processing vast amounts of data
very quickly, but is slower, less powerful, and less expensive than a
supercomputer. When you withdraw money from a bank account
or buy a product using EFTPOS the transaction involves a
mainframe computer. These
computers are installed in a special
room where environmental factors
such as temperature, humidity and
dust are closely monitored. Users
generally access a mainframe using
terminals in a similar way to
supercomputers.
Personal computers
A personal computer or PC is a
relatively low cost computer that is
Figure 4.16 Mainframe computers are used for intended for home and light business
large computing tasks use. It is a desktop computer with a
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Portable computers
Portable computers are compact self-contained computers that can
be carried around and used with a battery pack or mains electricity
(see Figure 4.17). Laptops, notebooks and handheld computers are
referred to as portable computers. These computers are light (1 or 2
kilograms), compact and easily transported. Many portable
computers compare favourably to powerful desktop PCs. Portable
computers are usually contained in a single case with a screen,
trackball or touch pad, hard disk and optical drive. They easily
allow a range of peripherals and
networks to be connected.
Portable computers generally
cost more than PCs with the
same capabilities and are also
more difficult to upgrade.
Handheld computers are small
enough to store in the pocket of
a jacket. They are sometimes
referred to as personal digital
assistants (PDAs) or palmtop
computers. Handheld
computers are used by people
who value mobility over a full-
sized keyboard and screen.
Figure 4.17 Portable computers are more expensive
than PCs
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Exercise 4.5
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The (a) of the CPU and its (b) are often used to measure the speed
of a computer. It is common to divide computers into (c),
mainframes, (d) and portable computers.
2 Unjumble these words:
a pesomurcpeutr
b lmptoap
c estingmarhi
d abprotel
3 What am I?
a The fastest and most expensive type of computer.
b An input and output device, usually a keyboard and a monitor.
c A computer small enough to store in the pocket of a jacket.
d An acronym for the most common type of computer.
e A computer designed to provide software and other resources
to other computers over a network.
4 a What are the applications completed by a supercomputer?
b Describe a mainframe computer.
c What is timesharing?
d Why are millions of personal computers used throughout the
world?
e List some of the names for a portable computer.
f Describe a portable computer.
Development
5 A personal computer
has the same
capabilities that were
only available in
mainframes a few years
ago. Is this statement
correct? What is the
current speed of the
CPU for personal
computers? What was
the processing speed
of mainframes and
supercomputers a few
years ago?
6 Handheld computers such
as palmtops have become very
popular. Do research into
handheld computers. Describe the
latest features for these devices. Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of a handheld computer compared to a PC.
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Troubleshooting
Computers and their peripheral devices will not last forever. It is
important to be able to locate the fault so that it can be repaired.
Peer checking is a common method of determining whether a piece
of equipment is faulty. It involves swapping the device with another
device that is working. For example, a monitor is checked by
replacing it with another monitor and keeping all the same cables.
Peer checking is a useful method of troubleshooting for keyboards,
mice, screens, hard disks and most peripheral devices.
Common operating faults are overcome by carefully analysing
the situation. Some of the basic problems involve:
Starting up: Turn the power off and check the power chord
connections. Press the button to turn on the system unit and
the screen.
Blank screen: Check that the screen is turned on and that the
monitor cable is connected to the computer. Check the settings
for brightness and contrast.
Not reading data: Check that
the disk drive is connected to
the computer. The drive cable
needs to be firmly connected. If
you cannot read a CD or DVD
it is usually the disk that is
causing the problem. Clean the
disk and check for scratches
(see Figure 4.18).
Not printing: Check that the
printer is turned on and
correctly connected to the
system unit. Ensure there is
paper in the printer and that
the operating system recognises Figure 4.18 Cleaning CDs is an important
troubleshooting task
the printer.
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Mouse not working: Check that the mouse is being used on a flat
surface that is dust free. Remove the mouse ball and gently clean
it to remove any dust. Ensure that the operating system
recognises the mouse in use.
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Exercise 4.6
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a If the mouse is not working remove the _______ and gently
clean it to remove any dust.
b A PC toolkit provides the necessary tools to connect any _______
device.
c Use a vacuum cleaner carefully near _______ as it can remove
components and jumpers.
d Protect your system from viruses by installing an up-to-date
_______ program.
e Most warranties become void if an _______ person tries to
repair the product.
2 True or false?
a If the PC is not reading data it is usually a problem with the CD.
b Commercial cleaners should be used to clean the surface of the
screen.
c Defragging your hard disk will make disk operations faster.
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Development
6 Write a checklist that a person could use to ensure that they are
correctly setting up a PC. Your checklist should contain information
to prevent any damage to the PC.
7 Create a table to store information on your PC. The information
should contain purchase details, serial numbers, warranties and
a history of problems. Complete the table with
data relevant to your computer.
ICT 4.2
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e Tester
Project: Personal computers
Buying a personal computer can be a very costly investment, particularly if you
buy a computer that does not meet your needs. What reasons do you have for
purchasing a computer? Put these reasons for buying a computer in order.
Examine the current prices of hardware for a personal computer. Construct a table
that compares the hardware that could be purchased for $1000, $3000 and $5000.
For each price scenario state the hardware component, its specifications and price.
Ensure that the prices quoted are in Australian dollars. Do the computers you
have specified meet your needs?
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5
5
C H A P T E R
Issues
Syllabus outcomes
5.3.1 Justifies responsible practice and ethical use of
information technology.
Overview
It is important to consider the ways in which information
technology is affecting people and some of the issues that are
causing concern. In this chapter we categorised issues as legal,
ethical, social and industrial. This topic includes issues such as
copyright, piracy, privacy, nature of work and ergonomics.
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Piracy
Software piracy (or pirating) is the illegal copying and/or It is estimated that
more than one-
distribution of software. Software piracy costs software developers third of all
billions of dollars each year and results in higher prices for software. software in use is
Software developers are protected by copyright so that they receive illegally copied.
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software and deserve returns for their efforts. The fact that it is
relatively easy for anyone with a computer to make copies of
software is irrelevant. If people infringe copyright, authors are not
getting royalties and they will be reluctant to spend time developing
and maintaining good software.
On the other hand, some people argue that they are forced to
copy software. They believe software is too expensive and they
cannot afford to buy it. If software companies reduced their prices,
people would not infringe copyright and they would increase their
sales. This would result in a greater return to the software authors.
Software authors are not losing royalties because they would not
buy the software in the first place. Has the cost of software
decreased in recent years? Has there been a corresponding decrease
in software piracy?
Intellectual property
Intellectual property is the original creative work of a person that can
be legally protected. It includes the ideas developed by writers,
musicians, film-makers, scientists and inventors. Intellectual
property laws aim to reward and encourage people with innovative
ideas (see Figure 5.2). Ideas are easy to copy. Most existing copyright
and patent laws that evolved in the age of print and mechanical
inventions are inadequate for current information technology. The
legal system is updating intellectual property laws. It is struggling
with difficult issues about innovation, property, freedom and the
rate of change in
information
technology. Is a
teenager who
copies music
files from the
Internet a
computer
criminal? What
about a student
who posts a
video file
containing part
of a movie on
their website?
How about a
Figure 5.2 World Intellectual Property Organization website musician who
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Legislation
Legislation is the creation of laws to protect individuals and to
ensure that society is equitable and fair. There are laws protecting
people trying to gain employment and also to protect them in their
daily work.
The Anti-Discrimination Act promotes the equality of opportunity
between all persons. Discrimination is the unfair treatment of
people on the basis of race, sex, age, religion, sexuality or disability.
Organisations are required by law to ensure that their work
practices are non-discriminatory.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Act (EEO) provides all
workers with an equal chance to seek and obtain jobs. It aims to
eliminate all forms of discrimination in recruitment, selection,
training and conditions of employment. EEO protects employees
from all types of harassment, including electronic harassment.
Email could be used to abuse, threaten or harass other workers.
Occupational Health and Safety Act (OH&S) requires employers
to maintain a safe working environment and protect workers
against foreseeable risks. Ergonomic principles and industry
standards for information technology are discussed in Section 5.4.
The Internet has created confusion about your rights against online
crime, privacy and intellectual property. For example, if a person in
South Africa defrauds an Australian citizen by using their website
that operates from a server in Germany, where has the crime been
committed? If the country does not have a law covering the fraud,
then the criminal cannot be prosecuted. Clearly, we need uniform
laws to protect people online.
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Exercise 5.1
1 What am I?
a The illegal copying of software.
b Software that can be freely
distributed and used.
c A small program that attaches
itself to an application.
d A program that scans a file or disk
for a range of well-known viruses.
2 True or false?
a Information published on the
Internet is protected by
copyright.
b A software licence is a legal
document that defines how
you can use the software.
c A Trojan horse infects other
machines through computer
networks.
d The Anti-Discrimination Act
requires employers to maintain
a safe working environment and
protect workers against foreseeable
risks.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing
the letter in brackets with a suitable term:
(a) is the right to use, copy or control the work of authors and
artists. Text and (b) obtained from a website should not be
reproduced without (c). Internet sources must be correctly (d).
4 a List the information displayed when citing an Internet source.
b Why do software developers need to be protected by
copyright?
c What is the purpose of intellectual property laws?
d Why is the Internet a great environment for a virus?
Development
5 How would you respond to a request from a friend for a copy
of a software program that you have just purchased for $450?
Justify your answer.
6 Viruses are a serious threat. Investigate the recent viruses that have
caused a major problem. Write a report of your investigation.
7 Napster was a website that provided an opportunity for people
to break copyright. The owners of Napster were prosecuted.
Do research to find information on Napster. Summarise the results
of your investigation.
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Inappropriate use
Hackers and computer crime are examples of the inappropriate use
of information technology. These are growing problems and pose
difficult ethical issues. Computer crime was discussed in Chapter 3.
Offensive material on the Internet, such as pornography, cruelty
and violence, is also a concern. The Internet allows children to
access any material they wish, either deliberately or unintentionally.
It is also distressing that paedophiles are using the Internet to find
potential children for their hideous crime. Should offensive
material be banned from the Internet? Is banning any material
compromising our free society? Governments and law enforcement
bodies around the world have made many unsuccessful attempts to
censor material on the Internet.
The Internet Industry Association (IIA) represents the
Australian Internet service providers (ISPs). It has released a code
of conduct that deals with censorship of online content. The code
requires ISPs to remove offensive content from their servers and
block access to classified material hosted on overseas websites. The
federal government has passed a law requiring ISPs to subscribe to
the IIAs code. The difficulty with censorship is the enormous
number of websites and the fact that thousands of new websites are
published daily. Monitoring websites on a global basis is
impossible. Clearly there needs to be international agreement on
offensive material. However, this agreement may be difficult to
obtain and regulate.
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name the software will check if the data is text. It would not
accept a date for a persons name.
A check digit is a digit calculated from the digits of a code
number and then added to that number as an extra digit. For
example, the ISBN 0 85859 921 4 has a check digit of 4 and it is
calculated from 0 85859 921.
Bias means that the data is unfairly skewed or gives too much
weight to a particular result. One common fault that leads to bias is
if the person collecting the data has some benefit to gain from the
outcome. This is called a vested interest (for example, if a doctor
from a tobacco company conducts medical research into the effects
of smoking). Data can be displayed in a biased way using tables and
charts. For example, tables can be constructed without all the
relevant data and the scales chosen on a chart may distort a trend.
Bias becomes an ethical issue when the relevant information is
knowingly misrepresented.
Exercise 5.2
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a ______ issues are a set of beliefs about what is right and wrong.
b Email should not be used to promote _______, for sexual
harassment or contain offensive material.
c A _______ is a type of data validation to determine whether the
data type is correct.
d Bias becomes an ethical issue when relevant information is
knowingly _______.
2 What am I?
a The ability of an individual to control their personal data.
b The extent data is free from errors.
c A type of data validation that compares data to a set of
accepted data.
d Data that is unfairly skewed or gives too much weight to a
particular result.
3 Unjumble these words:
a teraemsd ovdie
b tdaa vlitdaanio
c eytp ckehc
4 a How can the use of email be an invasion of privacy?
b What are some of the problems with the IIAs code?
c List four ways of collecting inaccurate data.
d What is the purpose of data validation?
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Development
5 Write a code of conduct for the use of information technology
in schools. The code of conduct should be directed at students
and needs to address the use of email.
6 The Data-Matching Act permits certain agencies to check records in
different government departments such as the Tax Office,
Department of Social Security, and Department of Employment,
Education and Training. It aims to catch people who are cheating
the welfare system. Do you think this is an invasion of your privacy?
Justify your conclusion.
Nature of work
The introduction of information technology has created significant
changes in the workplace. There are increases in part-time work and
the use of contracted labour. Employees are required to be multiskilled
and undertake ongoing training. It is also likely that people will
change jobs many times throughout their careers, which was not
common practice twenty years ago. Technology is a major factor to
changes in career paths. In the next ten years new jobs will be created
and existing jobs changed to reflect developments in technology.
Information technology has led to economic progress, new job
opportunities and a more prosperous society. Employment
opportunities have been created for workers with the right skills.
Most people who use information technology do not find it stressful
and enjoy the interaction. However, new developments have cost
many workers their jobs and had a negative impact on their work.
Surveillance of employees at work is a concern. Employers can
monitor their staff using a video camera (see Figure 5.5). They can
also use software that provides information on the number of key
strokes a minute, the length of rest breaks, what files were opened
and read employees email messages. Research has found that
workers who are monitored suffer much higher degrees of stress
and anxiety than unmonitored workers. Do employees have the
right to privacy in the workplace? Is it only a matter of time before
surveillance in the workplace is extended to the streets in which you
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Project: Telecommuting
Marc and Tracy are married with a young child. They have recently
moved to a 3-hectare property in the Southern Highlands of NSW. Marc
is an accountant who works in Sydney but would like to work from
home. The problem was solved using the four stages in project
development.
Define and analyse the problem: Marc gathered as much
information as possible on telecommuting. He interviewed three
people who are currently working from home. Each person
outlined the advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting.
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Tasks
ICT 5.1
1 Do research into telecommuting. Write a brief report that
summarises your investigation.
2 Would you like a job that provided an opportunity to work at
home? Give reasons for your answer.
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Exercise 5.3
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in
brackets with a suitable term:
Telecommuting provides participants with (a) hours and savings on
transport, (b), food and time. Telecommuting benefits people who
are (c) or are required to look after small (d).
2 True or false?
a A person can expect to have many different types of jobs
throughout their career.
b Most people who use information technology find it stressful.
c Wealth is a factor that influences a persons access to
information technology.
d People from other cultures should be excluded from the
benefits of information technology.
3 What am I?
a Watching over a person.
b People who work at home instead of in an office.
c A meeting that allows people in different places to see video
images of each other on a screen.
4 a Describe some of the benefits that have resulted from the
introduction of information technology in the workplace.
b How are employers carrying out surveillance of their staff?
c What is the least expensive form of videoconferencing?
d List two ways websites could be developed to make them more
accessible for disabled people.
Development
5 People who are information poor will become disadvantaged and
the social outcasts of the next century. Do research into the effect
of information technology on developing countries and then
outline your view on this statement.
6 Woman are not taking advantage of information technology in
the same numbers as men. Do you agree with this statement?
Justify your conclusion.
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Ergonomics
Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work
environment. It is the process of designing or arranging workplaces,
products and systems so that they fit the people who use them. The
way a computer is used and the work environment can have an effect
on the body (see Figure 5.9). This includes the desk, chair, hardware,
software, keyboard technique and indoor climate. The relationship
between all these factors affects health and efficiency. The incorrect use
of computers can cause health problems, such as eyestrain, headaches,
backaches, fatigue, muscle pain and repetitive strain injury (RSI).
1 5
The top edge of the 5 To reduce eye strain, focus
monitor should be at eye on a distant object, then
level or slightly lower focus on a close object
1
repeat this several times
2
Keep your elbows level
with the keyboard and
ensure your wrists remain
straight at all times 2
3 3
Do not lean forward or slouch
in your chair shift positions
often and stand up to stretch
at least once an hour
4
4 6
Use a fully adjustable chair Make sure your feet
that provides support for are flat on the floor
your lower back contoured 66
chair seats relieve pressure
on the legs
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the front edge of the desk and the keyboard. This reduces the
strain on the forearms when typing.
Chairs must have an adjustable seat height that ranges from 370
to 520 millimetres from the floor. This allows a clearance of 200
millimetres between the seat and the desk. An adjustable backrest
must be between 170 to 250 millimetres above the seat and fit
snugly into the small of the back. The seat should be flat, well
padded, and slanted slightly backwards. This forces the participant
to lean against the backrest and maintain good posture.
The low-level The hardware and its placement are an important ergonomic factor
radiation emitted too. The system unit bought as tower or mini-tower can be placed
from monitors has
been linked to
away from the screen, keyboard and mouse to provide increased
miscarriages in desk space. The recommendations for the screen, keyboard and
pregnant women, mouse are outlined below.
as well as
The screen should be about an arms length away with the user
leukaemia.
However, the proof looking down on the screen. It should also be between 15 and
is inconclusive. 30 degrees below the eye level and adjusted so that it is at right
angles to the line of sight. Adjustments of angle, brightness, and
contrast should be possible, to cater for individual differences.
The keyboard must be detachable and positioned so that the
forearms are parallel to the floor. The angle of the keyboard
relative to the desk should be between 5 and 18 degrees with the
keys requiring a minimum of pressure.
The mouse must fit the hand and be easily moved. The button
should require a minimum of pressure. The sensitivity of the
mouse should be easily adjusted to suit the operator.
The work environment is affected by factors such as lighting,
indoor climate and noise.
Incorrect lighting can cause eyestrain, a burning of the eye,
double vision, headaches and can reduce visual powers. Lighting
needs to be uniform, and bright enough for all text to be read
easily on the screen, keyboard and paper. All parts of the work
environment should have non-reflective surfaces to minimise
glare. Glare is reduced by using window shades, diffusers on
Electronic smog
overhead lighting and anti-glare filters on screens.
is the result of
excessive electro- If the climate of a room is uncomfortable, it can cause
magnetic fields and weariness, sleepiness, loss of performance and increased errors.
static electricity The temperature range when a person feels comfortable varies.
generated by
large numbers of For a clothed and resting person, the temperature should range
electronic devices. between 20 and 23C. If the relative humidity of the air is
between 30 and 70 per cent it will not create any discomfort.
Air movements, such as draughts, are unpleasant if they exceed
0.2 metres per second.
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Exercise 5.4
1 True or false?
a The recommended height for a desk is between 660 and 680 mm.
b The screen should be about 30 cm away and adjusted so that it
is at right angles to the line of sight.
c The keyboard must be detachable and
positioned so that the forearms are
parallel to the floor.
d Noise levels in the work environment
should exceed 55 decibels.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is the relationship between
people and their work environment.
b The screen should be between
_______ and 30 degrees below the
eye level.
c Incorrect _______ can cause
eyestrain, burning of the eye and
double vision.
d A comfortable temperature range for
a room is between _______ and 23C.
3 Unjumble these words:
a omieonrgcs
b ajutabdsle rebackst
c ledehtacab rdkboeya
4 a What are some of the health problems that may occur from
incorrect use of computers?
b What is the recommended height for a chair?
c Describe the ergonomic recommendations for a keyboard.
d What are the effects of an uncomfortable climate in a room?
Development
5 The majority of people who use information technology at work
are not aware of their rights and responsibilities. Outline your view
on the importance of rights and responsibilities in the workplace.
6 Ergonomics is being blamed for many health problems. People ICT 5.2
have been doing repetitive jobs for centuries without knowing
about ergonomics. Analyse these statements.
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1 Which of the following licences can 7 Which of the following does not
be freely distributed and used? influence a persons access to
a Site license information technology?
b Network license a Culture
c Shareware b Disability
d Public domain c Privacy
d Wealth
2 What do anti-virus programs do?
a Scan a file or disk for a range of 8 Which of the following statements
well-known viruses is incorrect?
b Cost organisations billions of a Proportions of woman in the
dollars in lost productivity workforce have been increasing
c Reduce the amount of software b Surveillance of employees raises
piracy the issue of privacy
d Guarantee to stop every virus c Telecommuters can experience
loneliness and isolation
3 Which of the following laws aim to
d Most people find information
reward and encourage people with
technology stressful
innovative ideas?
a Anti-Discrimination Act 9 What is the process of ergonomics?
b Equal Employment Opportunity Act a Ensuring equality of access to
c Occupational Health and Safety Act information technology
d Intellectual Property Act b Designing workplaces, products
and systems so that they fit the
4 A code of conduct would allow people who use them
participation in which of the c Checking the accuracy of the data
following? d Monitoring the work of
a Illegal activities employees
b Email
c Unauthorised access to data 10 Which of the following is not an
d Offensive material ergonomic recommendation?
a The screen should be at eye level
5 Which of the following does not and at right angles to the line of
affect the accuracy of the data? sight
a Bias data b Furniture needs to be adjusted to
b Mistakes in entering the data suit each persons body
c Mismatch of data c The seat of a chair should be flat,
d Out-of-date data well padded and slanted slightly
backwards
6 Which of the following is not a d Lighting needs to be uniform and
method of data validation? bright enough for all text to be
a Range check read easily
b List check
c Type digit
d Check digit
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Statements
1 The right to use, copy or control the 7 People who work at home instead
work of authors and artists. of the office.
2 Legal document that defines how 8 Meeting that allows people to see
you can use the software. video images of each other on a
3 The illegal copying of software. screen.
4 The ability of an individual to control 9 Relationship between people and
their personal data. their work environment.
5 The extent data is free from errors. 10 Health problem caused by the
6 Checking the data before it is incorrect use of computers.
processed into information.
Terms
a Copyright f Piracy
b Data accuracy g Privacy
c Data validation h RSI
d Ergonomics i Telecommuters
e Licence j Videoconference
e Tester
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Project: Issues
Investigate an issue associated with information technology and prepare a report
based on this investigation. During this report you need to develop and apply
skills in data gathering, data validation and the interpretation of data. Data
gathering could include surveys, interviews, books, magazines or the Internet. It is
important to distinguish between facts and opinion. Remember that an issue is
debatable. The report should contain evidence on both sides of the issue. You
should conclude by giving your view.
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6
6
C H A P T E R
People
Syllabus outcomes
5.5.3 Describes and compares key roles and responsibilities of
people in the field of information and software technology.
Overview
This chapter examines the roles and responsibilities of people in the
field of information and software technology. Careers are divided
into three sections: system development; operations and
maintenance; and end user support. Each section describes a range
of career opportunities and career paths.
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Project managers
Project managers supervise all aspects of a project (see Figure 6.1).
Project managers are required to determine the goals of the project,
a costing of the project and
ensure the project is delivered
on time. Project managers are
also responsible for resolving
any conflicts and checking the
work of each member of the
team. A project manager only
needs a broad understanding
of the information technology
industry. However, project
management does require
good interpersonal and
Figure 6.1 Project managers supervise their teams leadership skills.
Systems analysts
Systems analysts solve computer problems and enable information
technology to meet the needs of the user. They help an organisation
realise the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment and
personnel. Systems analysts are involved in the planning,
implementation and maintenance of the computer system. They
must have good management and personal skills to be able to
interview users of the system, determine their hardware and
software requirements and develop a plan of action.
Most systems analysts have university degrees in either
computer science or business. They must have a broad knowledge
of computers and keep up-to-date with recent developments in
information technology. They are often required to test new
products. Systems analysts are given a variety of titles such as
computer analyst, systems consultant, or systems officer.
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Programmers
Programmers design and write software. A programmer depends on
a systems analyst to provide a detailed description of the users
requirements. This description is called the design specifications. A
programmer writes programs using a programming language such
as Visual BASIC, PROLOG, Java or C++. It is common for several
programmers to work together as a team under a senior
programmers supervision. Programmers usually have completed a
degree at university. There are two types of programmers, the
systems programmer and the application programmer.
A systems programmer writes the systems software such as the
operating system. For example, they could make changes to the
way the CPU communicates with peripheral devices or the
relationship between workstations on a network.
An application programmer writes software to handle a specific
job such as a program to track inventory. The software may be
written by revising an existing software package. Application
programmers are usually focused on business, engineering or
science.
Software engineers
Software engineers design, create and modify
software to solve a computer problem. They
are focused on developing software
products including the certification,
maintenance and testing of the software.
Most software is very large and complex. It
is often built by a team of experts guided by
a software engineer. The team includes
programmers, engineers, designers and
marketing people. Software engineers must
have good programming skills and a
detailed understanding of software
technologies. They are more concerned with
developing algorithms than writing the
program code. Project management is an
important feature of software engineering.
Software engineers require a university
degree in information technology and Figure 6.2 A job advertisement for
programming (see Figure 6.2). a software engineer
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Multimedia specialists
Multimedia specialists are involved in the integration of text,
graphic, audio, animation and video. They could be involved in
authoring commercial CD and DVD products, designing websites
or creating promotional demonstrations. Multimedia specialists
require a combination of skills and experience in different areas.
IT skills in greatest
The development of a multimedia product may require content
demand at present providers and technical staff:
are in the areas Content providers are people who provide the material for the
of clientserver
multimedia product. This may include text, drawings, video
applications,
Internet, footage and audio tracks. Generally these people are skilled in
multimedia, data- their field without necessarily having any technical skills in the
base management software or hardware areas.
and system
software support. Technical staff modify the material developed by the content
providers into the appropriate format for the final product.
They include design staff who work to develop the overall
theme and look of the product.
Web designers
Web designers are
responsible for the
creation and
management of a website
(see Figure 6.3). They
must have a good
knowledge of
programming, excellent
writing skills and a
detailed understanding of
design. Web designers
must be able to sell a
design idea to their
client. They work closely
with clients and must
develop websites to meet
Figure 6.3 A web designer works closely with others to their clients needs. Web
develop products to meet a clients needs designers are often
required to work long
and irregular hours to meet deadlines. They must be flexible and
able to work under pressure. Web designers usually operate within
a team and must enjoy working closely with people. Web
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Computer engineers
Computer engineers design and invent new hardware and software.
They are involved in a range of projects such as the design,
development, testing and supervision of new integrated circuits.
Computer engineers are attracted to new developments such as
robotics and machines with artificial intelligence. Computer engineers
usually construct prototypes before building the new product. They
work as part of a team. A career as a computer engineer requires a
university degree in engineering or computer science.
Exercise 6.1
1 What career am I?
a Designs and invents new hardware and software.
b Designs, creates and modifies software to solve a computer
problem.
c Supervises all aspects of a project.
d Solves computer problems and enables information technology
to meet the needs of the user.
2 True or false?
a Systems analysts are often required to test new products.
b Software engineers are concerned with writing program code.
c Web designers usually operate within a team.
d Computer engineers depend on systems analysts to provide a
detailed description of the users requirements.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A web designer is responsible for the creation and management of
a (a). They must be able to sell their (b) to their client. Web
designers must be flexible and able to work under (c). They need to
be competent in (d) development.
4 a What is the role and responsibility of a project manager?
b Describe the role of the systems analyst.
c How does a programmer write programs?
d Explain the difference between a systems programmer and an
application programmer.
e What is a multimedia specialist?
f List a project that would involve a computer engineer.
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Development
5 The most important qualification for employing people in the
information technology industry is experience. Do you agree with
this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Research the newspaper or the Internet to find the employment
opportunities and pathways for careers in system development.
Write a brief report that summarises the result of your
investigation.
7 Design an advertisement for a job opportunity for a programmer.
Managers
Managers oversee the computer
operation and ensure that
personnel and machines are
working efficiently. Managers
must have leadership skills as
well as technical knowledge
about systems development, so
a degree in business and
information systems is
generally required. They have a
variety of titles, with slightly
different roles, including
information systems manager
(see Figure 6.4). An
information systems manager
plans and oversees all the
information resources in the
organisation.
Figure 6.4 An information systems manager
oversees the computer operation in an
organisation
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Computer operators
Computer operators look after computing resources in a large
computer system such as a mainframe. Their tasks often include
preparing, starting up, and running the computers and peripheral
devices. A computer operator is responsible for the maintenance of
hardware and software, security, virus scanning, regular backups
and providing consumables. If the equipment breaks down they
attempt to fix the problem and, if necessary, liaise with a technician
to fix the problem. Many computer operators receive their training
on-the-job, although university qualifications are becoming necessary.
They need a logical mind and to be able to work under pressure.
Technicians
Technicians install, maintain and repair the hardware of a computer
system. To prevent the computer from breaking down, they
perform routine checks and service. This may involve checking for
loose connections, cleaning any moving parts and running
diagnostic programs to check that everything is working correctly.
If a component such as a motherboard is not working they replace
it and take it back to a workshop for repair. Technicians must have
a thorough understanding of information technology and usually
have a strong background in electronics.
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of her time dealing with hardware but also needs to install software
and run tests on computers to make sure they are working correctly.
Tasks
1 Fadia gets to use equipment that other people dream about.
Describe the latest equipment that people dream about.
2 Does a career as a computer service technician interest you?
Give reasons for your answer.
ICT 6.1
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Database administrators
Database administrators install, maintain and control databases.
The Internet and the expansion of e-commerce have resulted in a
rapid increase in job opportunities for database administrators.
Determining the best structure of a database to meet a clients
needs is an important role of the database administrator. However,
they also need to maintain the security of the database and ensure
the data is not accessed or altered by unauthorised users. Most
database administrators work for a medium or large business and
need to have completed a university degree. They require a broad
knowledge of information technology and excellent
communication skills.
Exercise 6.2
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A network administrator (a) new hardware and software, maintains
(b) on the network, trains staff, changes (c), enforces licensing
agreements and provides (d) backups.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Computer operators may liaise with a _______ to rectify a
problem.
b Technicians would _______ a component if it is not working.
c Network related problems are often very _______.
d The _______ has resulted in a rapid increase in job opportunities
for database administrators.
3 What career am I?
a Installs, maintains and repairs the hardware of a computer
system.
b Responsible for the security and administration of a network.
c Oversees the computer operation and ensures personnel and
machines are working efficiently.
d Looks after the computer resources in a large computer system.
4 a Describe the qualifications required by a manager.
b What are the tasks performed by a computer operator?
c How does a technician perform routine checks and service?
d What is the role of a data entry operator?
e List the knowledge required to be a network administrator.
f Describe an important role performed by a database
administrator.
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Development
5 Research the newspaper or the Internet to find the employment
opportunities and pathways for careers in operations and
maintenance. Write a brief report that summarises the result of
your investigation.
6 Design a job advertisement for a job opportunity for a technician.
7 Investigate information technology courses at your local TAFE.
Briefly outline the career paths for each course, the content taught
and any requirements for admission.
Training specialists
Training specialists teach users how to operate their computer
systems. Training is needed in the installation of a new computer
system and to ensure users are efficiently using software
applications. There are many opportunities for qualified instructors
in schools, TAFEs, universities and private industry. Trainers
present information to individuals, at meetings, workshops or
conferences (see Figure 6.6). They may be asked to develop training
documentation, multimedia presentations or create a tutorial for
the computer. It is essential that trainers keep pace with the latest
developments in information technology. Trainers usually require
industry qualifications such as a Microsoft Certification.
Future growth in
demand for IT Support staff
skilled people is Support staff provide hardware and software support to a range of
expected to
increase by over
users. Their roles and responsibilities may include advice on backup
24 per cent in the and virus detection, undertaking preventative maintenance,
next three years. installing hardware and software, documenting solutions and
responding to problems. Support staff need a broad knowledge of
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Help desk
Alexis works on the help desk for a business called IT Results.
His day involves answering a constant stream of phone
callsfrom people who have forgotten their
passwords to people whose computers do
not work. Most problems can be dealt
with immediately. However, if this is not
possible, Alexis records the problem
and passes it to a technician. Alexis
enjoys his job but it can be quite
stressful. When people have deadlines
and their computer is not working they
can get very angry. For this reason, help
desk staff need excellent communication
skills and the ability to solve problems
quickly and effectively.
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Help desk staff are most needed when there is a new or updated
system being installed. Users will have questions and need help until
they become familiar with the new software, or hardwares operation.
Alexis has been able gain a huge variety of knowledge and skills
working on the help desk. The experience gained has the potential to
open career opportunities in the future. Alexis would like to move
from help desk into help desk management where you actually visit
the user or client to fix problems.
Tasks
1 Would you be interested in working on a help desk? Give reasons
for your answer.
2 Developments in information technology will make the help desk
unnecessary. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for
your answer.
Consultants
Consultants are experts who charge a fee for providing advice or
service. They draw on their experience gained in one or more areas,
such as education, finance or engineering. Consultants must have
good technical skills and the ability to communicate their
suggestions effectively to their clients (see Figure 6.7).
Sales staff
Sales staff are
employed by an
organisation to sell the
companys products.
Sales staff provide
information to
customers to enable
them to choose a
product that meets
their needs. Sales staff
in information
technology may have
customers who want
to purchase a new
computer, a piece of
software or who are
Figure 6.7 Searching for a job on the Internet (screen capture taken
inquiring about a new
23 July 2004) computer game. They
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Exercise 6.3
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The _______ is a person who makes use of information
technology.
b Trainers develop training _______, multimedia presentations or
create computer tutorials.
c _______ staff receive incoming problems for service from the
phone or email.
d Sales staff need to keep pace with the constant _______ in
hardware and software.
2 What career am I?
a Experts who charge a fee for providing advice or service.
b Teach users how to operate their computer systems.
c Provide hardware and software support to a range of users.
d Employed by an organisation to sell their products.
3 Unjumble these words:
a ephl keds
b nde rues
c raetinr
4 a Describe the type of support provided for end users.
b Describe some of the opportunities for training specialists.
c What are the roles and responsibilities of support staff?
d Why do most information technology organisations employ
help desk support staff?
e List the skills needed to be a consultant.
f Describe the knowledge required by sales staff in information
technology.
Development
5 Some software companies charge a fee to provide user support. Do
you agree with a user-pays system? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Research the newspaper or the Internet to find the employment
opportunities and pathways for careers in end user support. Write
a brief report that summarises the result of your investigation.
7 Design a job advertisement for a job opportunity for a help desk
staff member.
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e Tester
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Project: Careers
Create an employment database of the career opportunities in the field of
information technology. The careers described in this chapter will provide a basis
for the database. However, students are expected to find recent information on
each career and other careers not specified in this chapter. The employment sites
on the Internet and newspapers have appropriate information. Each career will be
a record in the database. Suitable fields for each record should be chosen, such as
name, job description, qualifications, personal qualities and salary. Students are
expected to create forms for data entry and to be able to search the data for
specific information.
ICT 6.1
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7
7
C H A P T E R
Software
Syllabus outcomes
5.1.1 Selects and justifies the application of appropriate software
programs to a range of tasks.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
Overview
This chapter will develop your knowledge of software. It examines
the two main types of software: system software and application
software. You will also learn about interface design and the
graphical user interface (GUI).
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Operating
system Operating system
The operating system (OS) is the software that supervises and
controls the hardware (see Figure 7.1). It is usually stored on a hard
disk. Most of the time the operating system is working in the
background. As you use an application it interacts with the
Hardware
operating system. For example, to print a document you select the
print command of the application and a message is passed to the
Figure 7.1
operating system, which performs the task. The most common
The role of the
operating system operating systems are Windows, Linux, UNIX and the Macintosh
operating system.
The operating system starts automatically when the computer is
turned on. Starting up the computer and the operating system is
called booting the system. A ROM chip that contains the BIOS
(basic input output system) executes a power-on self test (POST) to
make sure hardware is connected and operating correctly. After the
POST is completed successfully, the BIOS loads the operating
system. The operating system runs continuously whenever the
computer is on.
Operating systems The operating system performs a variety of tasks:
can be likened to Scheduling hardware operations: The CPU is required to perform
the conductor of
an orchestra many different tasks. However, it can only work on one task at a
because they time. The operating system determines when the CPU will
control the entire perform each task. A common way of allocating CPU time is
resources of the
computer system.
called time slicing. A time slice is a fixed amount of CPU time.
With this technique, each task in turn receives a time slice. The
operating system also directs the CPU to switch between
different tasks to take advantage of idle time on one task.
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of each file, such as the file name, size, type, or date modified. It
is possible to create new files, delete files, open files, close files,
rename files and copy/move files (see Figure 7.2).
System settings: The operating system is used to change the
computers settings. For example, the control panel allows you
to change a computers theme, desktop background, screen
saver, screen resolution, time and communication settings. For
security the operating system may provide each user with a
name and password. It is possible to change the way users log
on and off.
There are different types of operating systems. Single-tasking allows
only one task to be performed at one time. Palm OS is used on a
Palm handheld computer and it is a single-task operating system.
Multitasking allows several applications to work at the same time.
Windows and Mac OS are multitasking operating systems. In
addition to single and multitasking, operating systems are classified
as single-user and multi-user. A multi-user operating system allows
many different users to access the computers resources at the same
time. UNIX is an example of a multi-user operating system.
Utility software
Utility software performs routine tasks to support the operation of
the computer system. Most operating systems contain utilities to
assist in the management of the system. However, users often purchase
more powerful utility software (see Figure 7.3). Some common
examples of utility software include:
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Exercise 7.1
1 Explain the difference between:
a a file and a folder
b single-tasking and multitasking
c a disk scanner and a disk defragmenter.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a System software manages all the _______ needed to run the
computer.
b A _______ is a fixed amount of CPU time.
c A file is a collection of data that is recognised by a _______.
d _______ performs routine tasks to support the operation of the
computer system.
3 True or false?
a BIOS executes a POST to make sure the hardware is connected
and operating correctly.
b Spooling is the specific software for each type of peripheral
device.
c UNIX is an example of a single-user operating system.
d Most operating systems do not contain utility software.
4 a What is an operating system?
b List four tasks performed by the operating system.
c How does the operating system manage memory?
d List some of the tasks that can be performed by file management.
e What utility is used to remove an application and any
associated entries in the system files?
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Development
5 New versions of utility software are constantly being developed.
Investigate the latest utility software. Create a presentation to
outline the features of the current utilities. Will these features be
included in the next version of the operating system? Give reasons
for your answer.
6 The Internet allows computers using different operating systems to
view the same document. How is this possible? Do research into
ICT 7.1 HTML. Write a report that summaries your investigation. Illustrate
your answer using examples of HTML code.
Software packages
A software package is a complete and documented set of programs
supplied to several users. Software packages can be bought to cover
nearly all requirements. They include word processing, desktop
publishing, spreadsheets, database management systems, paint
programs, draw programs, web browsers, video editing software,
animation software, presentation software and authoring software.
A brief description of these applications was given in Chapter 1.
Software packages usually include printed documentation with
instructions for installing the software. Installing software transfers
files to the hard disk to enable the software to work. Most software
packages contain onscreen tutorials, onscreen reference material and
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help files (see Figure 7.4). It is also common for software companies
to supplement and update their help files with online help from
their website. This requires the user to register their software
package with the software company using the product code.
Wallyware
Most software packages have new versions being developed. These is application
versions contain new features and any errors (or bugs) in the previous software collected
version have been repaired. The version of the software package is often by the user to
boast about having
recognised by the year, such as Macromedia Dreamweaver MX2004. It it, though it may
is also common for a new version to be given a new number, such as 6 never be used.
in Internet Explorer 6. Minor changes to the software package may be
shown using tenths, such as Lotus Approach 9.5.
When you purchase a new version you are upgrading your
application software. It is important when upgrading or
purchasing new software to check that your hardware and
operating system are compatible. The latest versions of the
software often place greater demands on the hardware and
operating system. Upgrading your software may require an
upgrade in your hardware and operating system. Compatibility
requirements are usually specified on the software package and
should be checked before the application is bought.
Office suites contain several applications. Microsoft Office comes
in different versions for different users (see Figure 7.5). It includes
the core applications of Microsoft Word, Excel, Access, PowerPoint
and Outlook. The cost of an office suite is less than the total price
of each application. Integrated software contains several applications
Figure 7.5 Microsoft Office bundles word processing, database and other
applications together
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Custom software
Even though software packages are very flexible they cannot be
used for some specific tasks. Custom software is written for a
customer and is not for several users. Some custom software is
developed for a single customer or client. It is written to fit the
exact requirements of the problem and is labour intensive. For
these reasons custom software is very expensive. Custom software is
written by a programmer using a programming language.
Programming languages are a set of codes and rules that enable
the computer to operate in a desired way. They are divided into two
groups: low-level languages and high-level languages.
Low-level languages are the lowest level of computer languages
and depend on the hardware of the computer system. They
process calculations much faster than high-level languages.
Tutorial
Low-level languages include machine language and assembly
language.
High-level languages use English-like codes where each
statement corresponds to several lines of machine code. It does
not depend on the hardware of the computer system, so the
programs are portable. Since high-level languages are closer to
English, programs are easier to write and often shorter in length
than programs in low-level languages.
Programmers write software using high-level languages. There are
many high-level languages available such as BASIC, Java, Pascal, C,
COBOL, FORTRAN, APL, PROLOG, Ada and Logo. Each is
designed for a particular purpose. Today most programmers use
Visual BASIC, C++ or Java.
Visual BASICdeveloped by Microsoft to allow users to create
Windows applications. It is an object-oriented language that
allows users to create the interface using objects, set the
properties for those objects and write instructions for the
interface using BASIC programming language.
C++based on the original C programming language for the
UNIX operating system. It is an object-oriented language.
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Hardware requirements
A computer system is made up of hardware and software that work
together, processing data to achieve a purpose. The relationship
between hardware and software is important. Software depends on
a particular hardware configuration to work effectively. It is written
and tested using a certain processor, memory and peripherals. This
is often described as the system requirements for the software. All
software companies are required to clearly state the system
requirements of their products.
Application software is available to complete many different
tasks. Each task may require different data types and levels of
processing. This affects the hardware requirements of the system.
For example, authoring software that combines text, graphics,
animation, video and audio will place greater hardware demands
on the system than a word processor that only processes text. The
system requirements for application software are frequently
changing as new and more powerful versions of the software are
developed. The system requirements may also include specific
peripheral devices. For example, it is suggested for authoring
software that the system includes a DVD burner to create a DVD.
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Tasks
1 Design an advertisement for clean up Australia day for your local
community.
2 Create a storyboard for a multimedia presentation for your local
community.
Exercise 7.2
1 True or false?
a Microsoft Works is an example of a software package.
b High-level languages process calculations faster than low-level
languages.
c A software package is usually more expensive than custom
software.
d The system requirements may include specific peripheral devices.
2 What am I?
a A complete and documented set of programs supplied to
several users.
b The process of transferring files to the hard disk to enable the
software to work.
c A bundle of software that contains several applications.
d Programming language that excels at producing web-based
applets that work on different platforms.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Users (a) their software when they purchase a new version.
However, it is important to check software and hardware (b) before
purchasing the software. The (c) versions of the software often
place greater demands on the (d).
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Development
5 People should not have to upgrade their hardware after a few
years to use the latest software version. Discuss this statement.
Your answer should contain examples of application software
currently being updated.
6 System requirements are frequently changing as new and more
powerful versions of the software are developed. Do research into
the system requirements for the popular application software.
Construct a table to summarise your results. ICT 7.2
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Exercise 7.3
1 What am I?
a A small picture that represents a program, file, folder or shortcut.
b A special folder to store deleted files.
c An onscreen list of available commands and tools.
d The first widely used operating system.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The GUI gives instructions using a (a), and clicking on icons and (b).
In 1984 the Apple (c) made the GUI popular. Today a GUI provides a
consistent (d) for a range of applications.
Development
5 The rapid growth of Linux is challenging the dominance of
Windows. Do research into Linux. Write a summary of your
investigation. What is your opinion of open source software?
Would you be willing to volunteer your time to write software for
free? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Operating systems in the future may be very different from those
we use today. Do research into natural language interfaces. Outline
some of the advantages and disadvantages of natural language
interfaces.
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Functionality
A window is used to display the contents of files, folders and
programs. More than one window can be opened at the same time
(see Figure 7.8). Each window is stacked on top of each other. The
active window is the highlighted window and all commands are
performed on the active window. The title bar is the horizontal bar
at the top of the window. The left side of the title bar contains the
name of the file. Special buttons in the top-right corner of the title
bar are used to rearrange windows:
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Windows that have not been maximised can be resized and moved
on the screen:
resizepoint to the border of the window until it turns into a
double-headed arrow, then drag the borders to the required size
movedrag the title bar to its new position.
Opening (running or launching) an application starts the
application. Applications must be installed before they are opened.
Installing adds the program files to the hard disk so that the
application will work correctly. Exiting an application quits the
program. The operating system will display a dialog box for the
user to save any work that has been changed.
Navigation
Menus are an onscreen list of available commands and tools. The
menu bar is a horizontal bar located below the title bar. To open a
menu, click the menu name. A menu will either drop down or pop
up on the screen. The user then clicks the desired menu option.
Some menu options may be confusing:
light grey options are unavailablethe user needs to perform
another task before selecting this option
options with an arrow () open to a submenupointing to
the arrow opens the submenu
options marked (or ) indicate the current active option
clicking this option turns it off
options followed by dots () open with a dialog box that
requires further information.
Scrolling is the method of moving within a window if the contents
do not fit the window. The document can be scrolled up, down or
sideways using the scroll bars. Scroll bars are located at the bottom
and side of the window. Pressing the scroll bars provides the user
with a scroll tip. It may show the current page or any information
to help the user move through the document.
Dialog boxes are message boxes requesting further information
(see Figure 7.9). Information is entered using:
tabappears at the top of the page when there are two or more
pages of options
text boxtype in text such as the number of pages to be printed
option button (or radio button)selects one option from a group
check boxclick to turn an option on or off; more than one
option can be selected from a group
list boxpresents the user with two or more options that are
viewed using a scroll bar
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drop-down listonly
one item is visible and
the rest hidden; click
the arrow to the right
of the box to display
all items
spin boxtext box
that has controls to
change the settings
by set amounts
sliderdrag up, down
or from side to side to
increase or decrease
the setting
command buttons
Figure 7.9 A dialog box provides options for the user
OK to confirm
selection and Cancel to quit.
Consistency of elements
The following commands are consistent in all applications
developed for a GUI:
A new document is needed to start work in an application. It is
selected from the File menu, the New Blank button from the
standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+N or Command+N. A
dialog box appears displaying the templates and wizards
available for that application.
Opening a document retrieves a previously saved document. It is
selected from the File menu, the Open button from the standard
toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+O or Command+O. A dialog box
appears allowing the user to select a file from a particular disk
and folder.
Closing a document removes the active file but keeps the
application running. It is selected from the File menu or the
Close button at the top-right of the title bar. To close all open
documents, press shift and click Close All on the File menu.
Mistakes are easily corrected using the Undo and Redo
commands from the standard toolbar or Edit menu. The undo
or restore command reverses the last action such as changing a
font style. If you decide that you want the change after all, select
the redo or undelete command.
Cut and paste moves a block of text or graphic to another place
in the same document or to another document. To cut a block
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of text, select the Cut command from the Edit menu, the Cut
button from the standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+X or
Command+X. After the selected text has been cut it is necessary
to move the cursor to the new location where the text is to be
inserted or pasted. To paste a block of text, select the Paste
command from the Edit menu, the Paste button from the standard
toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+V or Command+V.
Copy and paste copies a block of text or graphic to another place
in the same document or to another document. To copy a block
of text, select the Copy command from the Edit menu, the Copy
button from the standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+C or
Command+C. This command copies the block of text into the
clipboard but does not remove it from the document as the Cut
command does. The text is then pasted into a new position
using the Paste command.
Drag and drop is an easy way to move or copy a block of text or
graphic a short distance using the mouse. To move a block of
text using drag and drop editing, point to the selected text and
hold down the mouse button. Drag the text to the new location
and release the mouse button.
Printing a document transfers a copy of it onto a piece of paper.
This is called a hard copy or a printout. To print a document,
select the Print command from the File menu, the Print button
from the standard toolbar or press Ctrl+P or Command+P. The
application must recognise the printer otherwise an error
message will result.
Finding text locates specified characters, words or phrases in a
document. This is a useful feature if you have a long document.
To find text, select the Find or Search command from the Edit
menu or press Ctrl+F or Command+F.
Saving a document stores the document
permanently onto a
secondary storage
device such as a
hard disk. Saving a
document is selected
from the Save
command from
the File menu, the
Save button from
the standard toolbar
or by pressing Ctrl+S or
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Exercise 7.4
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ is used to display the contents of files, folders and
programs.
b Applications must be _______ before they can be opened.
c _______ moves a block of text or graphic to another place in the
same document or to another document.
d Opening a document retrieves a previously _______ document.
2 True or false?
a Restore increases the window so that it can be viewed using
the entire screen.
b Options with an arrow () indicate the current active option.
c The option button selects one option from a group.
d The save command is used to update a file that has previously
been saved.
3 What am I?
a Text box that has controls to change the settings by
predetermined amounts.
b Appears at the top of a dialog box when there are two or more
pages of options.
c Commands used to easily correct mistakes.
d Easy way to move or copy a block of text or graphic a short
distance using the mouse.
4 a List four special buttons located in the top-right corner of the
title bar.
b How do you use a menu to select a command?
c What is scrolling?
d How do you close a document but keep the application
running?
e List three ways you can print a document.
Development
5 Examine the navigation features of a GUI in three different
applications. Demonstrate your proficiency in using menus, scrolling
and dialog boxes. Outline the similarities and differences in the
navigation features of these applications.
6 Investigate the consistency of elements in the applications developed
for your GUI. Construct a table that summarises the uniformity in
completing the same task in a different application. The table should
contain more than one way of completing the task.
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Terms
a Application software f Software package
b Custom software g System software
c GUI h User interface
d Menu i Utility software
e Operating system j Window
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8
8
C H A P T E R
Artificial
intelligence,
simulation
and
modelling
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter examines artificial intelligence and simulations. First, you
gain a basic understanding of artificial intelligence and the areas of
artificial intelligence, such as expert systems and neural networks.
Second, you will learn the requirements, purposes, advantages and
limitations of models and simulations. The chapter concludes by
discussing the use of modelling and simulation programs.
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Historical perspective
Artificial intelligence became available with the development
of the first electronic digital computer called the Colossus in
1943. It was built by a team led by Alan Turing to break
German military codes (see Figure 8.1). After building this
computer Turing wrote a paper titled Computing Machinery
and Intelligence in 1950. It effectively started the field of
artificial intelligence. The paper contained a concrete test for
determining whether a machine was intelligent. The Turing
test involves two people at the computer. One person sits
alone in a room and types questions into a terminal. The
Figure 8.1 Alan Turing
questions are on any topic. The answers to the questions
appear on the terminal and the person has to determine whether
the answer is written by another person or the computer. If the
person repeatedly chooses the computer then it has demonstrated
intelligent behaviour.
The term artificial intelligence was first used at a conference in
Dartmouth, USA in 1956. The conference was organised by John
McCarthy who is regarded as the father of AI. In the past fifty years
the progress in artificial intelligence has been steady rather than
spectacular. It includes the following developments:
John McCarthy headed a team that developed the programming
language called LISP (LISt Processing) in 1958. LISP was
completely different from the popular procedural languages
such as FORTRAN. Every expression is a list of calls to
functions. LISP dominated AI research for many years and is
still used today.
Joseph Weizenbaum wrote a program called Eliza (Eliza
Doolittle) in the 1960s. The program acted as a therapist and
encourages the user to talk. For example, if the user types My
father never liked me, the program, recognising the keyword of
father, would respond with Tell me more about your family. If
the user did not type any keywords the program would respond
with a neutral sentence such as Thats very interesting.
Weizenbaum was surprised that people took his program
seriously and thought the computer intelligent. He spent several
years arguing against artificial intelligence.
PROLOG (PROgramming in LOGic) was developed in 1970 at
the University of Marseille in France by Alain Colmerauer and
Philippe Roussel. The decision by Japanese computer designers
to work with PROLOG instead of LISP made it very popular.
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Artificial vision
enables computer-
controlled devices to see
through the use of
cameras, scanners and
sensors (see Figure 8.2).
Visual images are
captured by a camera and
digitised by an analog-to-
digital converter. These
images are stored on the
computer as a grid of
individual dots called Figure 8.2 Sensors are used in many robots so that they can see
pixels. Artificial
intelligence techniques are used to analyse and interpret the image.
In addition to robots that are equipped with cameras and sensors,
artificial vision is used for security screening. A camera can digitise
the image of a persons face or fingerprint to decide entry into a
security area.
Artificial intelligence needs software to receive data from input
devices, to process and store this data, and then to make logical
decisions to produce an intelligent response. Software for artificial
intelligence is written using non-procedural languages. Non-
procedural languages are used in which the programmer specifies
what to do and the system determines how to do it. The two most
popular non-procedural languages are LISP and PROLOG.
Exercise 8.1
1 Which person was responsible for this development in AI?
a Outlined new theories on artificial vision in the 1970s.
b Developed the programming language called LISP.
c Started the field of artificial intelligence.
d Developed the programming language called PROLOG.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ aims to give computers the ability to think like human
beings.
b MYCIN was a famous_______ system developed at Stanford
University.
c _______ allow intelligent systems to make a response involving
movement.
3 True or false?
a Most people describe a computer as intelligent.
b John McCarthy is regarded as the father of AI.
c John Weizenbaum spent several years arguing for artificial
intelligence.
d LISP and PROLOG are two procedural languages.
4 a What is the meaning of the word intelligence?
b Describe the Turing test?
c What is artificial vision?
d Why does artificial intelligence need software?
Development
5 Some people argue that computers are capable of making
intelligent responses. Other people argue that computers are
machines that follow instructions and will never be intelligent.
Discuss this issue. Your answer should contain references to current
developments in AI research.
6 Construct a table to compare and contrast the intelligence of a
person with that of a computer. What are the tasks performed well
by a computer? What are the tasks people find easy but computers
find difficult? Your answer should contain at least ten different tasks.
Intelligent systems
Intelligent systems are systems that receive data from the
environment, react to that data, and produce an intelligent
response. People are intelligent systems. They receive data through
sight, sound, touch, taste and smell, and then use reasoning,
knowledge and feelings to produce speech and movement.
Information technology is being used to create intelligent systems.
One example of an intelligent system is the interpretation of a
natural language.
Natural languages are the languages of humans such as English,
French, Chinese and Arabic. If intelligent systems are going to
produce what people would consider an intelligent response, they
should be able to use natural language. Natural language is the means
by which we share our knowledge. It is not an easy task to teach a
person or a computer a natural language. The main problems are
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syntax (the rules governing the way in which the words are arranged),
and understanding context to determine the meaning of a word. To
interpret even simple phrases requires a vast amount of knowledge.
For example, teaching the computer the word square must take
into account the following contexts:
this shape is a square
fair and square
the square of two is four
a square meal
out of square
square up
square root
square a debt
youre a square
Natural language processing
is applied in many applications,
however, the results must
be checked by the user. Word
processors contain spell
checkers, grammar checkers
and auto-correct features that
identify and correct likely
spelling errors. Voice
recognition programs provide
Figure 8.3 Natural language processing
96 per cent accuracy even for
continuous speech (see Figure 8.3). Automatic translation
programs are able to accurately convert data to another language.
All these applications have been influenced by AI research. But the
development of natural languages is one of the challenges facing
artificial intelligence. It is going to require further developments in
information technology before a satisfactory solution is found.
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Neural networks
A neural network is a computer system that works like the human
brain and is capable of learning. It contains a large number of
processors connected in a similar way to nerve cells in the human
brain. These processors or nodes form a network and act like cells
in the brain. A neural network finds relationships between sets of
data to develop an understanding of the situation. In an early
demonstration researchers trained a neural network to read aloud.
A neural network
It learned to do this task by being shown thousands of examples. was first proposed
Neural networks are very good at finding a link between the data in 1947 by doctors
W. McCulloch and
and a result. They are being used by:
W. Pitts.
financial firms for economic forecasting
insurers to decide if a potential customer is a good risk
marketers to predict which products will sell
manufacturers to predict how much material they will need
investment companies to make predictions.
Even though neural networks have been very successful, their
applications are still limited. Most neural networks contain a few
thousand nodes compared to about 100 billion in the human brain.
As a result, neural networks take a very long time to train;
recognising visual images requires the processing of large amounts
of data. Neural networks are in the developmental stages and
billions of dollars are being spent on research.
Exercise 8.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a a knowledge base and an inference engine
b an expert system and a neural network.
2 What am I?
a A piece of software to search through databases for relevant
data.
b A computer system that works like the human brain and is
capable of learning.
c A program that springs to life when it is relevant.
d A ready-made expert system except that it contains no
knowledge.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
(a) systems ask users a set of questions and compare their answers
to a (b). The knowledge base is a set of general facts and (c) rules.
The (d) applies the ifthen rules in the knowledge base.
4 a What is an intelligent system?
b Why is it difficult to teach a computer a natural language?
c List some of the applications of expert systems.
d How does a neural network work?
Development
5 Computers are becoming more intelligent, not allowing students
to think. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your
answer. Your answer should contain examples of tasks performed
by a computer that could be classified as intelligent.
6 There are many websites that use artificial intelligence, such as
predicting share prices and a home-loan analyser. Investigate two
websites that are applying AI. Write a report that describes the
features of these two websites.
7 Use an expert system shell to create an expert system. You will
need to decide on the subject area. Possible subject areas include
choosing a sport, pet, computer or movie. Test your expert system.
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Exercise 8.3
1 What am I?
a The use of a model.
b Software used by many businesses to model the way their
business works.
c A model of the space shuttle used by astronauts for training.
d A type of computer used at NASA to construct a more detailed
map of the universe.
Development
5 Most computer games involve a simulation. Compare and contrast
a computer game to the real situation.
6 Modelling and simulation programs are freely available from the
Internet. Use a simulation program and perform the simulation.
Write a report to describe the use of this program. Evaluate the
value of this program.
7 Modelling and simulation make life too predictable and are not
benefiting our society. Do you agree with this statement? Why? Do
research to find current applications of modelling and simulation to
illustrate your answer.
8.4 Requirements of
models and simulations
There is a range of hardware and software that can be used to
construct models and perform simulations.
Hardware
Creating a model and performing a simulation can be completed
Lit 1.2 on most computer systems. However, to achieve accurate and more
realistic simulations hardware capable of performing computations
quickly and with a high degree of precision is required. If the
simulations are complex, such as scientific applications, then a
supercomputer or mainframe may be required. These computers
can process data at very high speeds and have extensive storage
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Software
Software for modelling and simulation systems consists of
modelling programs, programming languages, spreadsheets and
simulation programs.
A modelling program is any program that allows the user to
create models and simulate a real situation. Even though
spreadsheets are used as modelling programs, there is more
sophisticated software that specialises in creating models. These
The Simula programs are very complex, usually containing a programming
(SIMUlation language, and have more flexibility in viewing and reporting data.
LAnguage) is
a programming
One example is called EasyFlow. This modelling program is for
language designed fluid dynamics and has applications in aerospace, architecture,
and built by electronics and the environment.
Ole-Johan Dahl
All general purpose programming languages such as BASIC
and Kristen
Nygaard at the and C++ are used for modelling and simulation. However, specific
Norwegian simulation languages, such as Dynamo and Simula, have been
Computing Center
developed for modelling and simulation applications. They
in Oslo.
contain definitions of the essential elements of a model and
procedures for modifying and observing the model.
Simulation programs have been developed for many different
fields, such as business, science and mathematics. These programs
contain a model and allow the user to make predications and
Lit 1.4
decisions based on the model (see Figure 8.8). In business, packages
Lit 1.5
such as Marketplan and Brandaid are used for marketing, Callplan
and Detailer for sales, and Mediac helps prepare advertising media
schedules. There are also many simulation programs in science and
mathematics that
are used to test and
teach theories. For
example, a program
called Catlab
teaches the
principles of
genetics by
modelling the
breeding of cats
with different
colours.
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Exercise 8.4
1 True or false?
a Analog computers can accept data directly from peripheral
devices in analog form.
b A special screen mounted in a helmet is often used for parallel
processing.
c Programming languages cannot be used for modelling
simulation.
d Simulation programs have been developed for many different
tasks.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The ability to perform _______ quickly is an important aspect in
modelling and simulation systems.
Development
5 Simulation of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, is an attempt
to save lives at the risk of interfering with nature. Does this
application of technology further separate society from natural
systems and result in a heartless attitude to the environment? Give
reasons for your answer.
6 The requirements of models and simulations are constantly
changing. Do research to examine the hardware needs for
operating simulation programs. Write a summary of your
investigation.
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Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is a software package that can be used for modelling
and simulation. It is a rectangular grid made up of rows and
columns to organise and store data that require some type of
calculation. A spreadsheet creates a model using formulas to
represent the real situation. For example, a spreadsheet could be
used to calculate loan repayments. It would use a formula that
relates the interest rate, time period and present value of the loan.
Spreadsheets can present data in tables and charts and make
predictions based on trends.
All spreadsheets consist of rows that run horizontally across the
screen and columns that run vertically down the screen. Rows are
usually numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, while columns are often
named in alphabetic terms A, B, C, up to Z; then AA, AB, AC up to
AZ; then BA, BB and so on. The intersection of a row and column in
a spreadsheet is called a cell. The position of the cell in the
spreadsheet is called its cell
address (or cell reference) such
as A2. A range is a group of
adjacent cells in a single row or
column, or in several adjacent
rows and columns. For example,
the range B5:C7 contains the
data in cells B5, B6, B7, C5, C6
and C7.
A spreadsheet is very
particular about the type of data
that is entered into each cell.
There are three main types of
data called labels, values and
formulas (see Figure 8.9):
Label is text entered into
a cell to provide some
explanation of the Figure 8.9 A spreadsheet containing labels, values and
spreadsheet. Calculations formulas
are not carried out using this data. Labels are used for headings
in rows and columns.
Values are numbers stored in a spreadsheet on which
calculations can be carried out.
Formulas are instructions to perform a calculation. The answer
to the calculation will always appear in the cell that contains the
formula. The formula itself is not shown. The user can create a
The word formula formula or select a predefined function such as average.
has two plural Formulas often contain cell addresses that are used as
formsformulas
and formulae.
parameters.
The latter is most Spreadsheets have many features that make them easy to use. Some
often used in of the features include editing data, workbooks, templates, macros
scientific work.
and charts.
Editing data is completed on the spreadsheet or using the
formula bar. Cut and Paste, Copy and Paste, or Drag and Drop
are used to copy values, labels, cell references and formulas into
other cells. The Fill down or Fill right instruction copies the
contents of a cell into a range of adjacent cells.
A workbook is made up of one or more spreadsheets called
worksheets or sheets. These sheets allow the user to organise
Lit 1.6
related information in a single file.
A template is a document created for repeated use. A
spreadsheet template contains labels and formulas to solve a
particular problem. The user enters the values to obtain the
required solution. A template saves time and effort.
A macro is a series of commands stored in a file that can be
executed by pressing a few keys. Macros allow many operations
to be performed automatically, such as opening menus,
choosing commands or entering text.
A chart is a graphical representation of numerical data. Charts
convert data in rows and columns into a picture that is read at a
glance. Charts make data easy to understand. Trends are
revealed and comparisons can be made instantly. Charts assist
people to make quick and accurate decisions.
Whatif predictions
Whatif predictions are a process of making changes to the data and
observing their effects. It answers whatif? questions: What if the
interest rate increases by 1 per cent, what would be the effect on my
loan repayments? What if I buy a car with a fuel consumption of 8
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Spreadsheet design
A spreadsheet must be well designed and easy to use. There is no
correct way to design a spreadsheet. Each particular problem has its
own design requirements. However, a well designed spreadsheet has
four easily identifiable areas called the instruction, input,
calculation and output (see Figure 8.11):
Instruction areainformation about the spreadsheet or
directions for use of the spreadsheet. It is usually at the top of
the spreadsheet and includes a title, a description, the author
and date. Larger spreadsheets include a brief outline of their
structure, directions and parameters.
Input arealabels for headings and values on which
calculations are based. The format of values and labels is often
completed after the data has been entered. For example, when
entering money values do not include the $ sign as these values
can be format to currency after the numbers have been entered.
All inputs should be labelled clearly so the user knows where
and how to enter the data.
Exercise 8.5
1 Explain the difference between:
a variables and parameters
b labels and values
c templates and macros
d an instruction area and an input area of a spreadsheet.
2 What am I?
a The instructions in a spreadsheet to perform a calculation.
b One or more worksheets.
c The process of making changes to the data and observing the
effects.
d A graphical representation of numerical data.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
All spreadsheets consist of (a) that run horizontally across the
screen and (b) that run vertically down the screen. The (c) of a row
and a column is called a cell. A range is a group of (d) cells in a
single row or column.
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4 a What is a spreadsheet?
b How are rows and columns numbered in a spreadsheet?
c List the three main types of data in a spreadsheet.
d How is data edited in a spreadsheet?
Development
5 Create the three spreadsheets shown in this section. Answer the
following questions by referring to these spreadsheets.
a What is the parameter? Give an example.
b Use the Fill Down command to enter data. Describe the steps
to use this tool.
c Explain the difference between an absolute and relative
reference. Give an example.
d What is a function? List ten different types of functions and
give an example using correct syntax.
e Use Goal Seek to perform a whatif prediction. Describe the
steps in your prediction.
6 Design a spreadsheet to analyse your time management. For each
day of the week, enter the amount of time (in hours) you spend on
sleep, eating, television, homework, study and other activities. Use
the spreadsheet to total the hours for each activity and find the
weekly averages. Design the spreadsheet using four easily
identifiable areas. Construct appropriate charts from this
spreadsheet.
ICT 8.2
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Statements
1 Provides information and solves 6 Item of data that may change.
problems that would otherwise 7 A rectangular grid made up of rows
require a person experienced in that and columns to organise and store
field. data that require some type of
2 A system that works like the human calculation.
brain and is capable of learning. 8 A process of making changes to the
3 A set of general facts and ifthen data and observing their effects.
rules. 9 A system that receives data from the
4 A representation of some aspect of environment, reacts to that data and
the real world. produces an intelligent response.
5 A device used for training and 10 It aims to give computers the ability
experiments to simulate movement, to think like human beings.
flight or some other condition.
Terms
a Artificial intelligence f Neural network
b Expert system g Simulator
c Intelligent system h Spreadsheet
d Knowledge base i Variable
e Model j Whatif predictions
e Tester
Project 1.1
Project 1.2
Project 1.3
Cross project 1
Cross project 2
Cross project 4
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9
9
C H A P T E R
Authoring
and
multimedia
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
The chapter examines multimedia and develops skills in using
authoring software. First we describe the types of multimedia
products and recognise the features of data types for multimedia
products. Multimedia software and the design principles used in
multimedia products are examined.
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Education
Multimedia is very effective at helping people to learn. A good
multimedia product that uses different data types maintains the
users interest. The interactive nature of multimedia allows the user
to control the learning. It addresses each users particular needs.
Multimedia also allows training to be carried out at convenient
times and is developed to cater for a wide range of abilities. It is a
cost effective method of teaching people.
Computer based training (CBT) is a type of multimedia
product used for education and training. A person uses CBT at
their own pace. Information is presented using different types of
media and the user has the opportunity to review misunderstood
concepts. CBT is designed by experts in their field to cater for
different rates of learning. Interactivity in CBT is the basis for an
individual to progress through the system. CBT usually contains
some form of assessment to determine whether an individual is
ready for the next level.
Entertainment
Multimedia designed for entertainment is generally classified as
computer games. Computer games provide a high level of
interactivity. The responses of the user determine the game being
played. The sequence of actions is determined by the game
designer. Games tend to be time restricted and contain complex
animation. The level and amount of text is limited. Depending on
the type of game the navigation may be deliberately hidden until
the user reaches a certain level. Computer games feature high-
Information
Multimedia provides users with an easy way to display information.
The user controls when, how and what information will be
displayed. The interactive nature of multimedia allows the user to
search using related keywords to find specific information. This is a
distinct advantage over printed forms of the same material. A
multimedia encyclopaedia is a good example of multimedia being
used to store information. It displays information using text,
graphics, audio, animation and video. This makes it easier for
people to understand the information.
Multimedia kiosks allow people to use a touch screen and select
information about an organisation or service. Information
displayed depends on the selections of the user. Multimedia kiosks
commonly provide information about items, the location of items
or a map to a particular product or service. They use large
navigation buttons with few options. Kiosks can also be used to
provide information to the organisation. The selections made by
the user are a source of information about the interest in a product
or service.
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Exercise 9.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The result of multimedia is called a _______
b _______ is a key feature of multimedia.
c Hypertext links are usually identified by an _______.
d A multimedia _______ is a good example of multimedia being
used to store information.
2 True or false?
a Multimedia requires at least four
data types.
b Multimedia products are very
demanding and require the
latest technology.
c CBT is designed by experts in
their field to cater for
different rates of learning.
d Computer games provide a
low level of interactivity.
3 What am I?
a The presentation of
information using text,
graphics, animation, audio and
video.
b It is used to navigate through a
multimedia product.
c A type of multimedia product used for
education.
d A multimedia product that allows people to use a touch screen
and select information about an organisation or service.
4 a Why is the Internet an example of an interactive environment?
b What is hypertext?
c How are developments in information technology affecting
multimedia?
d Why is multimedia very effective at helping people to learn?
e Describe some of the features of computer games.
f Why is multimedia used to display information?
Development
5 Games have been a driving force for improvements in information
technology. Do research into the latest computer games for the PC.
What are the system requirements for these games? Describe the
multimedia features of these games. Write a report that
summarises your investigation.
6 Compare and contrast a multimedia encyclopaedia with a print
encyclopaedia. Describe the data types used in both multimedia
and print encyclopaedias. What navigation methods were used in
the multimedia encyclopaedia?
Text
Text is data in the form of letters, numbers and other special
characters. Text is written using a word processor or within the
authoring software. It is edited in many different ways, such as
deleting, inserting, moving and copying. Some common file
formats for text include:
DOC (document) is the format used by Microsoft Word. DOC
files maintain their formatting and can contain other data
Lit 2.2 types.
Lit 2.3 TXT (text) files or ASCII is a standard format to store text and
numeric data. It is essentially raw text without any formatting.
Each byte in the file contains one character that conforms to the
standard ASCII code.
RTF (rich text format) is a standard developed by Microsoft for
specifying the format of text documents. RTF files are actually
ASCII files with special commands to indicate the formatting of
characters and paragraphs.
PDF (portable document format) is a file format developed by
Adobe Systems. A PDF file contains a combination of text and
graphics. Documents downloaded from the Internet are often in
PDF format.
Graphics
Graphics are pictures such as drawings, paintings or photographs.
Graphics are used to create interest and provide information. They
can be stored, edited and transferred in similar ways to text. Graphics
are created using graphics programs or captured using a scanner,
digital camera or video camera. All graphics are displayed using
tiny dots called pixels. A pixel (picture element) is the smallest part
of the screen that can be controlled by the computer. The total
number of pixels on the screen is called its resolution. There are
two types of graphics: bit-mapped graphics and vector graphics.
Interactive Bit-mapped graphics (raster graphics) store and manipulate each
pixel. They produce good quality images where shading and fine
detail are needed. However, when resized bit-mapped graphics
become ragged and suffer loss of resolution. Enlarging the graphic
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Audio
Sound travels through the air in waves with a particular amplitude
(volume) and wavelength (pitch or note). Audio is sound that has
been digitised or represented in the form of digits. Audio is used to
explain concepts, reinforce selections and for special effects. Audio
signals from a computer are converted into analog sound waves for
transmission through speakers. Sounds are edited in many different
ways, such as deleting, changing the speed, adding an echo,
overlaying (mixing) sound files and altering the quality of the
sound file. Some common file formats for audio include:
WAV (pronounced wave) is a format that stores either 8-bit,
16-bit or 32-bit sound. It has no compression so there is no loss
of quality. One disadvantage with WAV sound files is that they
result in large file sizes.
MP3 (MPEG audio layer 3) compresses a sound file by
removing the high and low frequencies out of our hearing
range. MP3 has made it possible to download quality audio
from the Internet. However, it can be compressed too much and
result in low quality audio.
WMA (Windows Media Audio) is a compressed audio format
used for Windows Media Player.
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, pronounced
middy) is a standard connection for computers and electronic
musical instruments. MIDI files require less storage as they only
contain the note information. The quality of the sound in MIDI
files is dependent on the synthesiser.
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Animation
Animation is the apparent movement of an object. It is the result
of a series of graphics or frames presented in rapid succession.
Animations often direct the attention of the user to an area of the
screen or an interesting feature. They are usually started
Tutorial
automatically when a frame is viewed or by the user clicking a
button. When creating an animation the user needs to consider the
size of the graphic and the speed of the movement. Some common
file formats for animation include:
SWF (ShockWave Flash object) is a popular animation format
created by Macromedia (see Figure 9.4). It is vector-based and
compresses to very small file sizes. It is used extensively on the Web.
Video
A video is made up of frames that contain individual images. When
the video is played, the frames are displayed in sequence. The
number of frames per second is the frame rate. Video has a frame
rate ranging from 15 to 60 frames per second (fps). Some common
file formats for video are:
MPEG (MPG, Motion Picture Expert Group) is a family of
formats for compressed video that has become a standard.
MPEG-1 is a suitable standard to create a video CD at the
quality of VHS tape. MPEG-2 is a higher quality standard at the
level of a DVD. MPEG-4 is a format designed for transmission
over the Internet.
AVI (audio/video interleaved) is a video and audio format
developed by Microsoft. It is limited to 320 by 240 resolution
and 30 frames per second.
DivX is a compressed format based on MPEG-4 technology.
DivX can be quickly downloaded from the Internet without loss
of quality.
WMV (Windows
Media Video) is a
compressed video
format used for
Windows Movie
Maker (see Figure
9.5). It is based on
MPEG-4
technology.
MOV (Movie) is a
video and
animation format
developed for
Apple QuickTime
(see above).
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Exercise 9.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a a bit-mapped graphic and a vector graphic
b a JPEG and a GIF file
c cel-based animation and path-based animation.
2 True or false?
a Vector graphics are created and edited in a drawing program.
b GIF files are bit-mapped graphics.
c An MP3 file is a much larger file size compared to WAV.
d MPEG-1 is a suitable standard to create a video CD.
3 What am I?
a File format that is essentially raw text without any formatting.
b The staircase pattern caused by enlarging each pixel in a bit-
mapped graphic.
c Sound that has been digitised.
d A family of file formats for compressed video.
4 a List common file formats for text.
b What is a pixel?
c What is the main advantage of a vector graphic compared to a
bit-mapped graphic?
d How are sounds edited?
e What is an animation?
f What is the frame rate?
Development
5 File formats for the different data
types are constantly changing.
Do research into the most
popular file formats for text,
graphics, audio, animation
and video. List software that
could be used to create or
edit these formats. Construct
a table to summarise your
results using three headings:
Data type; Software
application; File format.
6 Your school wants to create a
multimedia product for a kiosk
in the foyer of the school. The
multimedia product aims to
display information about the
school for the community. Describe
the information that could be displayed
by each data type. Design a home page
for the kiosk.
Presentation software
Presentation software is used to make a multimedia presentation to
a group of people. A presentation consists of a series of slides. A
slide is an individual screen or page of the presentation. Each slide
may contain text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Each of
these elements is treated as an object. A presentation is a group of
objects positioned on one or more slides. Some popular
presentation software includes Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus
Freelance and Aldus Persuasion (see Figure 9.6).
Presentation software often allows you to create several different
types of documents such as:
Onscreen presentationsslides displayed on a monitor or
projected onto a screen. The timing of the presentation is
controlled either automatically or manually. Automatic requires
the user to set the timings for each slide so that the slides
advance by themselves. Slides advance manually by clicking the
mouse button.
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Multimedia authoring
Multimedia authoring software is used to create and edit a multi-
media product. It allows the user to combine the different data types
such as text, graphics, audio, animation and video. Multimedia
authoring software is designed to produce self-contained applications
for a CD or DVD, as a part of an information kiosk or to run on the
Internet. Multimedia authoring software provides a much greater
level of interactivity than presentation software. A multimedia product
is created by first developing each of the data types. It is often completed
by a group of people, each of them specialising in a data type such
as video or audio. They create their part of the project using Lit 2.5
separate applications and import files into the authoring software.
Authoring software also allows the user to create the interactivity.
Most authoring software shares similar features. Some popular
authoring software includes:
Macromedia Directoruses a movie to create the multimedia
product. It treats each file as a cast member of a production.
These files will appear at a particular time, position and appear
for a certain length of time. A cast window is used to store
different data types and a store window is used to synchronise
the different elements.
Macromedia Authorwareuses a flowchart to create the
multimedia product. A flowchart consists of a number of icons
that represent a specific programming task such as a selection.
Macromedia Authorware specialises in creating multimedia
training courses.
HyperStudiouses a card-and-stack user interface that was
originally introduced with Apples HyperCard. A multimedia
product is constructed as a stack of cards. A card represents a
screen and contains different data types. Buttons are placed on
the cards to provide the interactivity.
Asymetrix ToolBookuses a similar interface to HyperStudio
except a book replaces a stack and a page replaces a card. It uses
OpenScript as a programming language.
Web authoring
Web authoring software is used to create and manage a multimedia
website. Websites contain a range of data types, such as text,
graphics, animation, audio and streamed video. The web authoring
software will position and display objects, as they would be viewed
through a web browser. Many programs allow the user to manage
entire websites using tools that automate repetitive tasks. Some
popular web authoring software includes:
Macromedia Dreamweaveris the industry standard used by
professional designers (see Figure 9.7). It creates HTML
(hypertext markup language) code that is efficient and
compatible with any browser or platform.
Microsoft FrontPageis used by small business and home users.
It has an intuitive layout with easy to use templates. Users have
the ability to view and edit the HTML code.
Web animation software such as Macromedia Flash has developed
into a multimedia program. In addition to creating animations
such programs now include text, graphics, audio and video.
Macromedia Flash also contains programming languages for
creating interactive applications.
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Tasks
1 Construct a storyboard that would be
appropriate for this project.
2 Do research into the features of the latest
multimedia authoring software. Write a brief
report that summarises your investigation.
Exercise 9.3
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Multimedia authoring software is used to (a) and (b) a multimedia
product. It is designed to produce self-contained (c) for a CD or
DVD, as a part of an information (d) or to run on the Internet.
2 True or false?
a Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular web authoring program.
b Presentation software allows you to create audience handouts.
c Macromedia Director uses a card-and-stack user interface.
d Web authoring software will position and display objects, as
they would be viewed through a web browser.
3 Unjumble these words:
a etasenoptirn wsarofte
b gaouthrin
4 a What is the purpose of presentation software?
b List some different types of documents that can be created by
presentation software.
c How is a multimedia product created using multimedia
authoring software?
d What is web authoring software?
e Describe Macromedia Dreamweaver.
Development
5 Create a multimedia presentation on a multimedia product. The
product could be a software application such as an educational
program or a computer game. Your presentation should use
different data types.
6 Investigate the authoring software that you have available in your
school. Write a report that outlines the steps taken to construct a
multimedia product. Share your investigation with the class.
Design principles
The different data types must be combined into one effective
multimedia product. The design of each screen should be based on
the three basic design principles:
Consistent: Layout, format and style should be the same
Lit 2.6
throughout the multimedia product unless different data types
demand a change. Readability is improved when similar items
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Exercise 9.4
1 What am I?
a A storyboard layout that has no particular structure.
b A serif typeface commonly used for text.
c A series of frames each representing a different action or
screen image.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The position and (a) of a graphic or animation is dependent on its
(b) and balance with the other design elements. Graphics and
animations are edited and adjusted to suit the screen (c). Titling is
the placement of a (d) to accompany a graphic.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a The layout, format and style should be the _______ throughout
the multimedia product.
b Bullets and _______ are common ways to organise text in a
multimedia product.
c Audio and video place extra _______ on the users computer
system.
d A _______ is a printout of all the text, graphics, animation,
audio and video used in the production.
4 a List the three basic design principles.
b Describe the design principles for using fonts.
c What is the purpose of a colour scheme?
d How should audio and video be used in a multimedia product?
e Describe multimedia storyboards.
f List the four basic storyboard layouts.
Development
5 Do research into at least three websites that offer advice on design
principles for multimedia. Write a report that summarises your
investigation.
6 Create a multimedia product for a kiosk for the foyer of your
school. The multimedia product aims to display information about
the school for the community (Exercise 9.2, Question 6):
a Construct a storyboard for the multimedia product.
b Describe the design features used in the product.
c Outline any issues that have been raised in developing the
ICT 9.2
product, such as privacy and copyright.
d Display your multimedia product to the class.
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Statements
1 The presentation of information using 6 Software used to make a multimedia
text, graphics, animation, audio and presentation to a group of people.
video. 7 Software used to create and edit a
2 A key feature of multimedia. It multimedia product.
allows the user to choose the 8 Software used to create and manage
sequence and content of information. a multimedia website.
3 Graphic file format to store and 9 A printout of all the text, graphics,
manipulate each pixel rather than as animation, audio and video used in
shapes and lines. the production.
4 Graphic file format to store pictures 10 A series of frames each representing
as a collection of objects such as a different action or screen image.
shapes and lines.
5 Animation process of generating the
intermediate frames between two
objects.
Terms
a Bit-mapped graphic f Script
b Interactivity g Storyboard
c Multimedia h Tweening
d Multimedia authoring software i Vector graphic
e Presentation software j Web authoring software
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Project 2.1
Project 2.2
Project 2.3
10
10
CHAPTER
Database
design
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter will develop your skills with databases. First it
examines database development and then the collection,
organisation and storage of data. Next you will learn how to edit,
search and sort records. The chapter concludes by investigating the
methods of presenting information and integrating data.
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Data dictionary
A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field in a
database. It contains information about the characteristics of each
item entered in the database, such as the field names, data types,
field sizes and field descriptions (see Figure 10.2).
Field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully
selected to avoid confusion. Field names should be relatively
short, clear and avoid the use of punctuation.
Data type or field type is the kind of data in the field. Each field
stores data of a single data type. Some common data types
include:
Textused for text or numbers that do not require
calculations, such as phone numbers
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Exercise 10.1
1 Explain the difference between:
a a flat file database and a relational database
b a file and a record
c a table and a form.
2 What data type am I?
a Numeric data to be included in mathematical calculations.
b Data that can be only one of two possible values.
c Data used for text or numbers that does not require calculations.
d Data created in other programs.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A database is an _______ collection of data.
b _______ is the number of characters allowed in each field.
c A primary key is a field where each item is _______ and must
have a value.
d Data in a _______ is usually entered using a form, retrieved
using a query and printed using a report.
Development
5 Create the personnel database using the data in Figure 10.3.
Construct a data dictionary using appropriate data types for each
field. Adjust the field sizes where necessary. Select a format for the
Date hired field. Design a form similar to Figure 10.4. Enter the
employee data into a table.
6 Create a database of your friends. Possible field names include:
Friend ID; Last name; First name; Address; Suburb; Post code; Phone
number; Gender; Age. Construct a data dictionary using
appropriate data types for each field. Adjust the field sizes where
necessary. Enter data into a table. Design a form that displays all
the fields.
Sources of data
The data entered into a database is very structured. Data is
organised into a file, records, fields and characters. For this reason
the collection of data requires careful planning. It consists of four
steps:
deciding what to collectwhat will be a file, record and field
identifying the source of the datawhere the data can be found
determining how the data will be gatheredwhat the questions
in the survey, questionnaire, interview or mail out will be
gather the datacollect and enter the data into the DBMS.
The source of the data can be classified as primary or secondary.
A primary source is when data is collected first hand. Many
organisations generate their own primary data because they
consider it meaningful and reliable, although it is time consuming
and costly. Data from primary sources is acquired through
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Exercise 10.2
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in
brackets with a suitable term:
The data entered into a database is very (a). It is organised into files,
(b), fields and characters. The source of the data is classified as (c)
or secondary. After the data is collected it must be checked for (d).
2 True or false?
a A secondary source is when data is collected first hand.
b Magnetic disk storage is used as a backup medium for
databases.
c Data validation errors have been reduced by using check boxes,
option buttons and drop-down lists.
d A data dictionary is used to assist in data validation.
3 What am I?
a Another copy of the data that could be used to rebuild the
system.
b It is used to detect missing data or typing mistakes.
c It occurs when a file is broken and stored in separate segments
of a disk.
d Checking whether the entered data is accurate.
4 a List the four steps involved in the collection of data.
b Describe the grandfatherfatherson backup procedure.
c How do errors occur in data?
d Explain the difference between data validation and data
verification.
e Why is it difficult to ensure the accuracy of the data?
Development
5 Many databases contain inaccurate information about individuals
that may cause them inconvenience and harm. The Australian
Freedom of Information Act aims to protect individuals from ICT 10.1
inaccurate data. Do research into this law. Write a report that
summarises your investigation.
6 Obtain three data entry forms from different sources such as your
school, Internet and local community. Comment on the data
validation used on these forms. Select a poorly designed form and
suggest improvements to this form. Design a new form.
10. 3 Methods of
processing and analysing
data
Database management systems allow users to process data by
editing and analyse data by sorting and searching.
Editing
Editing is the process of changing data. It involves inserting data,
deleting data, moving data and modifying the data structure.
Data is inserted into a field in a table or form by placing the
cursor in the desired location. New records are inserted by
moving to the last record and typing in the new data. The user
can insert new records by choosing an appropriate command. It
does not matter where the new records are inserted, as the
records can be rearranged by sorting.
Data is deleted from a field in a table or a form by placing the
Museums around cursor to the right of the existing character and pressing the
the world
maintain a Backspace key. A block of text is deleted by selecting the data
database of and pressing the Delete key. The user can replace existing data
objects in their by selecting this data and typing in the new data. To delete a
museum. The
database consists record, the user selects the records and then presses the Delete
of a description of key or chooses an appropriate command.
each object, a Data is moved and copied using the Cut, Copy and Paste
photograph, a
report on its
commands. These commands are available on a block of text,
condition, its one or more fields, whole records or the entire table.
dimensions, its The structure of the database can be edited to meet new
source and the
date received.
requirements. This involves changing the data dictionary. To
add a field, the user will first decide on a field name, field size
and data type. The user will then go back to each record and
enter data into that field. It is convenient to use a table to enter
new data into a field across many records. Deleting a field
should be done with caution. If a field is deleted, all its data
from every record is gone. It may also require forms to be
redesigned.
Sorting
Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. It is a way
of organising the data. Sorts can be performed in either ascending or
descending order (see Figure 10.6). Ascending order arranges data
from smallest to largest (09) or from first to last (AZ).
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Descending order is
the reverse: from
largest to smallest
(90) or from last to
first (ZA). When a
text field containing
numbers is sorted it
will be arranged
according to the
order of their Figure 10.6 Sorting by last name in the personnel database
characters not the size of the number. For example 25 will appear
before 9 when sorted in ascending order. The first letter 2 is less
than the first letter 9.
To sort records the user first chooses a field on which the sort is
to be based and then selects ascending or descending order. Data
can be sorted on more than one field so that records are arranged
in precise order. A two-level sort uses two fields such as Last name
and First name. If Last name is the primary sort and First name
is the secondary sort, the records are arranged alphabetically by last
name and if there are records with the same last name they are
sorted by first name.
Searching
Searching is the process of locating data and information. For small
databases the Find or Search commands are adequate. However,
for large databases the most efficient way of searching is to
construct a query. A query is a search of a database for records that
meet a certain condition. It is a question you ask of the database.
For example, what employees have a last name of Fisher? The
results of a query are usually displayed in a table but can be used as
the basis for a form, report, graph or even another query.
To create a query, the user selects the Query command and
selects the fields to be displayed. A simple query is constructed of
the form: Field name-Operator-data such as Last name = Fisher.
DBMS have different ways of entering a query. Query by example
(QBE) requires the
user to enter the data
against a field. For
example, if you were
looking for a person
with a last name of
Fisher you would Figure 10.7 A query in the personnel database
type =Fisher in the Last name field and leave the remaining fields
blank. The DBMS would then search the database and select all the
records that have Fisher as a Last name.
Queries are constructed using an operator. Operators represent
the action to be performed in the query. Operators are classified as
either relational or logical. Relational operators (=, <>, <, >, <=,
>=) are symbols or words indicating the relationship between two
expressions. Some DBMS have additional relational operators such
as begins with, contains and does not contain. Logical operators
(and, or, not) are used to combine two or more single queries. It is
important to understand the difference between these operators.
The and operator requires both the first and the second query
to be true. It only retrieves the records that appear in both
queries. For example, if you require an employee with a last
name of Fisher who lives in Blacktown, the query would be:
Last name = Fisher and Suburb = Blacktown.
The or operator requires either the first or the second query to
be true. It retrieves all the records from both queries. For
example, if you require all the employees with a last name of
Fisher as well as the employees who live in Blacktown, the query
would be: Last name = Fisher or Suburb = Blacktown (see
Figure 10.8).
The data in a query can
contain wildcard characters.
Wildcard characters represent
one or more unknown
characters. Some common
wildcard characters are the
asterisk (*) that substitutes
for any number of characters
and the question mark (?)
that substitutes for one
character. A query such as
Last name = Be* would find
last names such as Bee, Bell,
Beat or Beatle. However a
query Last name = Be?
would only find last names
such as Bee and Bed.
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Mathematical calculations
There are a variety of mathematical calculations that can be
performed in a database. For example, you can calculate the average
of the values in one field or multiply the values in two fields. When
instructing the DBMS to perform a calculation it is important to
follow the correct syntax such as =Avg([Salary]). For example, if
one parenthesis (bracket) is omitted an error message will result.
Database calculations are performed using either:
a predefined calculationuses functions such as sum, average,
count, minimum and maximum
a custom calculationthe user writes a formula to perform a
calculation such as =[Salary]*1.2 and a separate field is usually
created to store the calculated results.
Exercise 10.3
1 True or false?
a The structure of the database involves changing the data
dictionary.
b Descending order arranges data from largest to smallest (90).
c The or operator only retrieves the records that appear in both
queries.
d Wildcard characters represent only one unknown character.
2 Explain the difference between:
a sorting and searching
b relational operators and logical operators
c a predefined calculation and a custom calculation.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a It does not matter where new records are inserted, as the
records can be rearranged by _______.
b Sorts are performed in _______ or descending order.
c Operators represent the action to be performed in the _______.
d When instructing the DBMS to perform a _______ it is important
to follow the correct syntax.
4 a How is data deleted from a field?
b Describe a two-level sort.
c What is an adequate method of searching small databases?
d Describe a wildcard.
5 Write out queries for each of the following. Make up appropriate
field names.
a All customers who live at Camden
b All employers who earn more than $100 000
c All the girls who play netball
d All students in Year 10 as well as those students who live at
Wollongong
Development
6 Open the personnel database created in Exercise 10.1, Question 5.
a Edit the salary of these employees: James Bell, $45 789 and
Jane Cook, 66 979.
b Delete David Adams and Elizabeth Roberts as employees.
c Insert the following new record: 11, Tan, Daisy, 76 Muston St,
Mosman, 2068, 9969 2345, 19-Mar-05, $50 654.
d Sort Post code in ascending order.
e Complete a two-level sort in ascending order. Primary sort is
Last name and the secondary sort is First name.
f Construct the following queries:
i all the employees who live at Blacktown
ii all the employees with a last name of Fisher
iii all the employees with a first name of Tway
iv all the employees whose last name contains the letter p
v all the employees who live in a court (Crt)
vi all the employees whose salary is greater than $51 000
vii all the employees whose last name contains the letter a
and first name contains the letter e
viii all the employees who live at Blacktown or whose
postcode is 2031.
7 Open the friends database you created in Exercise 10.1, Question 6.
Construct the following queries:
a all the friends who are female
b all the friends who are younger than you
c all the friends who live in a particular street and are male
d all the friends who live in the same suburb or are the same age
as you.
10. 4 Methods of
presenting information
A DBMS presents information using tables, forms and reports. It is
possible to change the format of information in each of these objects.
Report
A report is the formatted and organised presentation of data.
Examples of reports are invoices, mailing labels and telephone lists.
The purpose of the report will determine its content, format and
style. Before creating a report the user may need to select the
required records by constructing a query. For example, a report of
all employees who live at Blacktown. The next step is to select the
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Design principles
When designing forms and reports keep it consistent and simple.
The layout, format and style should be the same throughout the form
or report. Similar items should be grouped together using spacing,
colour or borders. Both reports and forms should be designed to
promote reading gravity. Reading gravity involves reading information
from the top to the bottom of the page and from left to right. For
this reason position headings at the top of the page and the body of
the text underneath. A serif typeface such as Times Roman can be
used for the body of the text. Care should be taken using font
variations such as bold and italic. A sans serif typeface such as
Arial, Verdana or Georgia is appropriate for headings. Use different
Macros
Macros are a set of actions the user creates to automate common
tasks. They perform a particular operation such as opening a form
or printing a report. Macros are used for repetitive tasks. For
example, you may need to print a report each day. If you stored the
actions to print a report in a macro, then every time you ran the
macro it would print the report. Macros save time and reduce
keyboard errors. They are used to open menus, choose commands,
enter text and do hundreds of other tasks. Any sequence of actions
that you perform can be recorded as a macro. Creating a macro is
slightly different in each DBMS, however, it involves entering or
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Exercise 10.4
1 True or false?
a Before creating a report the user needs to select the required
records by constructing a form.
b The report header appears once at the beginning of a report.
c The readability is improved by using plenty of yellow space.
d A report is only designed in tabular layout.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Macros save (a) and reduce keyboard errors. Any sequence of (b)
that you perform can be recorded as a (c). A macro is executed by
selecting the (d) macro command.
3 What am I?
a A formatted and organised presentation of data.
b A section of a report that appears once at the end of the report.
c A set of actions the user creates to automate common tasks.
4 a List the standard sections of a report.
b Describe a well-designed form.
c What are some of the selection tools that can be added to a
form?
d How can a user change the design of a report?
e Outline some of the conventions that should be considered
when designing reports.
f What is the purpose of a macro?
Development
5 Open the personnel database created in Exercise 10.1, Question 5.
Create the following reports:
a a tabular layout of all records, sorted on last name
b a tabular layout of employees who live at Castle Hill
c a column layout that contains only the employees first name
and last name.
6 Open the friends database created in Exercise 10.1, Question 6.
Design a report using a tabular layout. Construct a macro to
automatically open and print this report.
10. 5 Integration
Integration is the process of merging data from other sources. You
can transfer data between a database and other applications in
several ways.
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Project: BuyIT
BuyIT is a new business that sells personal computers. The manager
needs to create and maintain a database of its products. Lowana Taylor
was contracted to develop the database. She solved the problem using
the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Lowana examined the range of
products for inclusion in the database. She discussed the
advantages and disadvantages of a database with the manager. A
project plan was written and submitted for approval to the
manager.
Design possible solutions: Lowana determined a structure for the
database. She sketched possible designs for tables, forms and
reports. A feasibility report was written and presented to the
manager. The recommendation from the feasibility report was
accepted by the manager.
Produce the solution: The database was constructed using
Microsoft Access. A database dictionary was created using seven
fields: Product ID; Product name; Product description; Serial
number; Price; Supplier; Purchase order. Tables and forms were
built and the data entered. Reports were generated and the
manager trained on using the database.
Evaluate the solution: The manager is very pleased with the
database. BuyIT has expanded in the last six months and a separate
table to organise suppliers is being considered.
Tasks
1 Construct a data
dictionary using the
seven fields listed in
this case study.
2 Use a DMBS to
create the database
for this project. Enter
data into the
ICT 10.2 database. Design
appropriate tables,
forms and reports.
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Exercise 10.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is the process of merging data from other sources.
b Macros are used to _______ the importing, exporting and
linking of data.
c To export data you _______ the data to be transferred.
d Mail Merge saves time and makes each document look as if it
was _______ written.
2 True or false?
a Importing is the action to copy data produced by another
program.
b Linking occurs if the copy is not connected to the source.
c The data source in a mail merged document is usually a word
processor.
d The Copy command is used to remove data.
3 Unjumble these words:
a tiinteaogrn
b amli emreg
4 a What is importing?
b When is it useful to link documents?
c What are the three steps in carrying out a mail merge?
d How do you set up a merged document?
Development
5 Create the letter shown in
Figure 10.12. Use the database
constructed in Exercise 10.1,
Question 5.
a Insert the merged fields
from the personnel
database into the letter.
b Merge the letter and the
personnel database so
each employee receives
an individual letter.
6 Create personalised
invitations to your next
party. Design an invitation
using a word processor or
publishing program. Merge
this document with the friends
database created in Exercise 10.1,
Question 6.
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Terms
a Data validation f Macro
b Database g Mail merge
c Field h Query
d Form i Record
e Integration j Report
Project 3.1
Project 3.2.1
Project 3.2.2
Project 3.3
Cross project 1
Cross project 2
Cross project 4
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11
11
CHAPTER
Digital
media
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter examines the purpose of digital media and the types
of digital media products. It explains different manipulation
techniques and the digitisation process of data types. The chapter
concludes by outlining how to display and distribute digital media
products.
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Exercise 11.1
1 True or false?
a E-music has been made possible using compressed file formats
such as WAV.
b Electronic games are commonly played over the Internet.
c Animation is the result of a series of graphics presented in
rapid succession.
d AVI is a common file format for animation.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Digital _______ refers to text, graphics, audio, animation and
video processing.
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Development
5 Draw a personal computer using a drawing program. Alter the
graphic using different line sizes, colours and patterns. Group all the
objects to make the graphic appear as a single object. Move and
copy the graphic. Make the graphic larger (4x) and smaller (1/4).
6 Open a digital photograph of a personal computer in a graphics
program. Reduce and enlarge the digital photograph and compare
the results with Question 5. Write a brief report to explain your
investigation.
7 Create an advertisement for a personal computer using a DTP
program. The advertisement should contain a banner heading,
column text, graphics and different fonts.
8 Do research into one current application of digital media. Prepare a
brief report that summarises the result of your investigation.
11. 2 Manipulation
techniques
Digital media involves the processing of digital data. Processing
involves editing the data using manipulation techniques for each
data type.
Graphics
Graphics are created using a graphics program or captured using a
scanner, digital camera or video camera. There are two types of
Audio
Audio signals from a computer are converted into analog sound
waves for transmission through speakers. Each sound wave has an
amplitude, wavelength and frequency. The amplitude is the height
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Animation
Animation is created using path-based and cel-based animation.
Cel-based animation creates an animation by using a sequence of
individual still images each displayed in a frame or cel. Path-based
animation creates an animation by displaying the movement of an
animated object onto a fixed background in a particular sequence
or path (see Figure 11.5). Animation software uses different
animation techniques such as tweening and morphing.
Tweening creates the intermediate frames between two objects
that are to be animated. The animation software enables the
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want a video effect to change the clip into black and white or be
given an old-aged look (see Figure 11.6).
Transitions are special effects used to change from one video
clip to the next. Before the one clip ends the other clip starts to
play. There are many different types of transitions such as a fade
effect. Transitions are placed between the video clips on the
timeline.
Adding a picture involves importing a graphic file or capturing
a picture from a video clip. The graphic file is displayed as a
thumbnail and is dragged onto the timeline. The user
determines the duration of the picture.
Adding audio involves a narration or
background music. A narration is
added by talking into a microphone
when viewing the timeline of the
video. To include background music,
import the music file and drag it
onto the timeline that specifies
audio.
Titles and credits provide the
finishing touches to your video by
adding text. Information displayed as
text is usually the title of the movie, the
date the movie was produced and the author
of the movie. Text can be formatted and animated
in many different ways.
Exercise 11.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a cropping and resizing a graphic
b amplitude and wavelength of a sound wave
c trimming and splitting a video clip.
2 True or false?
a Enlarging a vector graphic creates a staircase pattern called
aliasing.
b Ray tracing is a common technique for rendering.
c Tweening is the smooth change between two different images.
d A graphic file can be dragged onto the timeline of a video
production.
3 What am I?
a It converts a graphic into a more realistic image.
b Increases or decreases the volume of sound.
c Audio command that adjusts the strength of sounds at
different frequencies.
d Special effects used to change from one video clip to the next.
4 a What are some of the colour effects for editing a graphic?
b List some of the ways a sound wave can be edited.
c How is path-based animation created?
d What is morphing?
e What is a timeline in a video production?
f Describe the information displayed in the titles and credits
of a video production.
Development
5 Open a digital photograph in a
graphics program. Perform the
following manipulation
techniques: cropping, resizing,
rotating, distorting, rendering
and changing the colour. Save
each manipulation as a
separate file.
6 Open a piece of music in an
audio program. Perform the
following manipulation
techniques: amplifying,
using a filter, fading and
adding an echo.
7 Open a video clip in a video
editing program. Perform the
following manipulation techniques: splitting,
trimming, adding atransition, using a video effect
and inserting a title.
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Text
Text is digitised using a standard method of conversion such as ASCII.
It works by assigning each character with a decimal number and
converting this number into binary code (see Chapter 3). A scanner
creates digital data from any printed page of text. However, unless
instructed otherwise it will represent this text as an image. Optical
character recognition (OCR) software converts text on paper into
digital data that can be edited. The software matches the image
from a scanner to the shapes of individual characters. Characters
that are read are stored using ASCII codes and characters that
cannot be read are usually indicated with a tilde (~).
Graphics
Graphics are digitised using a process called bit-mapping. Bit-mapping
is the relationship between the graphic on the screen and the bits in
memory. All graphics are made up of tiny dots called pixels. Each
pixel in a graphic is assigned one or more bits. The number of bits per
pixel is called the bit depth (or colour depth). At the simplest level,
a graphic with a bit depth of one would have two colours. The 0 bit
would be white and the 1 bit would be black. To determine the file
size of a graphic in kilobytes we use the following formula:
File size = Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
The file size is affected by the resolution of the graphic. The resolution
is the total number of pixels on the screen. It is calculated by
multiplying the horizontal and vertical dimensions in pixels. This is
shown in the formula. The division in the formula is used to convert
bits to bytes (8 bits = 1 byte) and bytes to kilobytes (1024 B = 1 KB).
Example: What is file size in KB of a black and white image (1 bit per
pixel) with a resolution of 300 by 180?
File size = Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
= 300 180 1
8 1024
= 6.59 KB
Example: What is file size in KB of a 250 by 192 graphic with 256 colours
(8 bits per pixel)?
File size = Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
= 250 192 8
8 1024
= 46.88 KB
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Audio
Sound is digitised using a method called sampling. Sampling converts
a sound wave to audio. It has three important characteristics called
the sampling rate, bit resolution and the number of channels:
Sampling rate is the number of times a sample (slice) is taken
from the sound wave. During a sample the amplitude of the
wave is measured and converted to a number. The higher the
sampling rate the better the sound but the larger the file size Lit 4.3
(see Table 11.2).
Bit resolution (or sample size) is the number of bits per sample.
The most common sampling sizes are 8-bit, 16-bit or 24-bit
sound. The larger the bit resolution the better the quality sound.
Voice is often produced using 8-bit sound. CD quality stereo
sound requires at least 16-bit resolution and larger file sizes.
Channels used by the sound. Mono uses one channel and stereo
uses two channels (left and right) of sound. Stereo sound results
in better sound.
Table 11.2 Sampling rates and their uses
Video
Video is made up of frames that contain individual images. To
satisfactorily play a video we need to consider the speed at which
the image can be shown. The speed of a video or animation is
called the frame rate. It is measured by the frames per second (fps).
The higher the frame rate the smoother the video or animation
(see Table 11.3).
Table 11.3 Comparison of frame rates
File size = Frame rate Time (s) Horizontal pixels Vertical pixels Bit depth (in KB)
8 1024
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Data compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits required to represent
the information. It allows the user to store more data and makes
data transmission faster. The amount a file is compressed is
measured by the compression ratio. The compression ratio
compares how much larger the uncompressed file is to the
compressed file. If a compressed file is half the size of the
uncompressed file, the compression ratio is 2 to 1 (2:1). A higher
compression ratio indicates greater compression of data. High
compression ratios can be achieved with graphic, audio and video
files. For example, an MPEG file can provide a compression ratio
up to 200:1. However, some quality may be lost at very high
compression ratios. Data compression is either lossy or lossless
compression. These concepts were examined in Chapter 3.
Exercise 11.3
1 What am I?
a Relationship between the graphic on the screen and the bits in
memory.
b Digitising process that converts a sound wave to audio.
c The number of bits per sample in an audio file.
d The speed of a video or animation.
2 a What is optical character resolution?
b List the minimum number of colours in a colour graphic.
c What is the sampling rate?
d Identify the sampling rate and bit resolution for serious music
production.
e What is a frame grabber?
f Explain the compression ratio.
3 Calculate the file size of the following graphics (answer to the
nearest KB):
a 8-bit colour graphic with a resolution of 530 by 510
b 16-bit colour graphic with a resolution of 620 by 800
c colour graphic with a resolution of 490 by 420 and 64 colours
d colour graphic with a resolution of 232 by 185 and 65 536
colours each with 256 tones.
4 Calculate the file size of the following audio files (answer to the
nearest MB):
a sampling rate of 11.025 kHz with an 8-bit sound for 5 min 07
sec in mono
b sampling rate of 44.1 kHz with a 16-bit sound for 2 min 35 sec
in stereo
c sampling rate of 48 kHz with a 16-bit sound for 3 min 40 sec in
stereo
d sampling rate of 96 kHz with a 24-bit sound for 2 min 41 sec in
stereo.
5 Calculate the file size of the following video files (answer in GB
correct to one decimal place):
a frame rate of 25 fps, 25 min, frame resolution of 352 by 288
pixels with 24-bits per pixel
b frame rate of 25 fps, 5 min 28 sec, frames resolution of 340 by
260 pixels with 16-bits per pixel
c frame rate of 30 fps, 10 min, frames resolution of 400 by 320
pixels with 24-bits per pixel.
Development
6 Pia has scanned a picture taken on her holiday. She wants to
ICT 11.1 display the photograph using 24-bit colour. Is 24-bit colour suitable
bit depth? The picture has a resolution of 500 by 700. Calculate the
file size of this picture. What would be a suitable compressed file
format for this picture? Give reasons for you answer.
7 Investigate the properties of at least three different graphic, audio
and video files on your computer. Write a summary of your
investigation. Your answer should contain references to file format,
resolution, bit depth, sampling rate, bit resolution and frame rate.
Displaying
The media used to display digital media products is dependent on
the data type, the audience and the hardware requirements of the
product. Display devices include screens, printers and speakers.
A screen is a display surface that provides immediate feedback
about what the computer is doing. It can display text, graphics,
animation and video data. The screen displays data using pixels.
The space between the pixels is called the dot pitch. Screens that
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Distribution Laser is an
acronym for Light
The media used to distribute digital media products is also Amplification by
dependent on the data type, the audience and the hardware Stimulated
Emission of
requirements of the product. Distribution involves optical disks, Radiation. It is a
the Internet and streaming. narrow beam of
Optical disks are a storage medium used to distribute digital light in a single
wavelength.
media. Data is read and written using laser technology. Optical
disks have the capacity to store large amounts of data. CDs and
DVDs are optical disks.
Figure 11.8 Streamed video is available on the Web and also now
available on Mobile phones
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Exercise 11.4
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ use LCD technology to project images onto a large
screen.
b The print head of an _______ printer contains a nozzle to spray
fine drops of ink.
c _______ is a storage medium where data is read and written
using laser technology.
d The Internet is a network of _______ used to display and
distribute digital media.
Development
5 The display and distribution of
digital media is constantly
changing. Do research into
the latest innovations to
display digital media.
Write a report that
summarises your
investigation.
6 Digital media should
only be distributed using
the Internet. Outline the
advantages and
disadvantages of using the
Internet to distribute
digital media.
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Project: DigitMedia
DigitMedia is a business that specialises in personal computers and Project 4.1
digital media. It aims to expand into your local community. Visit local Project 4.2
information technology businesses to obtain an outline of their Project 4.3
services. Create a promotional campaign for DigitMedia. The solution Cross project 1
should include advertising brochures, business cards, advertisements
Cross project 2
for newspapers, a monthly newsletter for clients and a video to be
Cross project 3
streamed through their website. This is a group project to be developed
Cross project 4
using the four stages in project development.
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12
12
CHAPTER
The Internet
and website
development
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter will develop your understanding of the Internet and
intranets. It examines the uses of the Internet, Internet software
and types of protocols used on the Internet. You will learn about
the World Web Wide (www) and developing a website.
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Historical perspective
Even though the history of the Internet is relatively short it has
undergone many significant developments.
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was the
basis of the Internet. It was established in 1969 by the US Department
of Defence. The aim of ARPANET was to allow scientists at different
locations to share information and protect against a nuclear attack.
The ARPANET was built with no central authority because that
would make the entire network vulnerable to attack. Lit 5.1
Telenet was the first commercial version of ARPANET and was
launched in 1974. In 1979 Usenet was established with a focus on
newsgroups. Newsgroups allowed users to conduct discussions on
particular topics. In 1981 BITNET (Because Its Time Network)
connected IBM mainframes around the educational community and
the world to provide mail services. A link (gateway) was provided to
connect BITNET to ARPANET.
The Internet arrived in 1982 when ARPANET adopted the TCP/IP
standard. The number of hosts on the Internet reached one thousand
in 1984. The domain naming system (DNS) was first implemented
in 1984. In 1986, the National Science Foundation (NSF) agreed to
be the backbone for the US Internet service. It connected its huge
network (NSFnet) to the Internet and provided five
Interactive
supercomputers to service the increasing volume of traffic.
A friendly user-interface to the Internet started in 1990. A simple
menu system called gopher was developed to access files and
information for the University of Minnesota. HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee for
embedding links in text. In 1991 the World Wide Web (or Web) was
introduced using this HTTP protocol. It has changed the appearance
of the Internet. Mosaic was developed by Marc Andreessen in 1993.
It was the first graphical browser to display hypertext documents.
Intranet
An intranet is a private network that uses a similar interface to the
Web. It is essentially a smaller version of the Internet that exists
within an organisation. Intranets support email, newsgroups, file
transfer, web publishing and are accessible to users by a browser.
The main purpose of an intranet is to share information and
computing resources among the members of an organisation. The
information may be staff news, product information, telephone
directories, policies, employee manuals and calendars. This information
Internet addresses
Each computer
connected to the
Internet has a
unique address
called an IP address
(Internet Protocol
address). Most IP
addresses use four
bytes (32 bits)
grouped in four
8-bit segments,
separated by a full
stop (period). For
example, the IP
Figure 12.2 An Internet address is used to locate information on the Web
address for
Microsoft is
205.188.200.58. IP addresses are difficult for people to understand,
so another addressing system is used based on a domain name.
A domain name is the address of a specific computer on the
Internet. Domain names are translated into IP addresses. Domain
names are easier for people to remember than IP addresses as they
are based on natural languages. A domain name consists of a number
of separate parts. Each part is separated by a full stop and is called a
domain. For example, the domain name www.hi.com.au:
www stands for World Wide Web
hi is the name of the specific computer
com is the organisational domain
au is the geographical domain.
Organisational domains include edu for education, mil for
military, gov for government, com for commercial, and org for
non-profit organisations. The United States is the only country
without a geographical domain, although some US sites have
adopted us as the geographical domain. Geographical domains
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Exercise 12.1
1 True or false?
a Broadband connection uses a higher bandwidth than a dial-up
connection.
b The Internet arrived when ARPANET adopted DNS standard.
c The Web was the first graphical browser.
d A URL contains a domain name.
2 What am I?
a An organisation that provides access to the Internet for a fee.
b The basis of the Internet.
c Private network that uses a similar interface to the Web.
d The address of a specific computer on the Internet.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The Internet is a connected set of (a) using the TCP/IP standard. A
dial-up connection requires a (b) and telephone line. The (c) was
introduced in 1991 using the (d) protocol.
4 a What is provided by the Internet?
b List three ways of establishing a connection to the Internet.
c What contribution did the NSF make to the development of the
Internet?
d Explain the difference between an intranet and an extranet.
e Describe an IP address.
f What is a URL?
Development
5 Do research into the history of the Internet. Identify the key
historical events for the Internet. Include additional events not
mentioned in this section. Construct a timeline of these events.
Briefly describe and state the importance of each event.
6 Compare and contrast an intranet and the Internet. Outline the
features of the school intranet.
Email
Email (electronic mail) is the transmission of electronic messages
using a computer. Email is the most widely used Internet service.
It requires email software to send, receive and manage email. Most
browsers include an email component and there are also separate
email applications such as Microsoft Outlook Express and Netscape
Mail. In addition to email software the user needs an account and
an email address.
Email addresses are unique and consist of two parts separated
by the @ (at) symbol in the form name@domain name. The first
part is the name of the account. It is often a persons username and
is chosen where a user signs up for an account. The second part is
the domain name. It is the location of the persons account on the
Internet. The domain name identifies the specific computer or
server where the email messages are stored. For example, the
address adam@yahoo.com consists of the following parts:
adam is the username
yahoo is the name of the account on the Internet
com is the organisational domain.
An email message is usually short without a lot of details. When
email is sent, it is stored on the server where the recipient has an
account. It stays on the server until the person checks their email.
Email is sent using a header. The header contains information
needed to deliver the message. The senders email address is usually
automatically inserted. The email header contains four main parts:
Toemail address is the address of the person receiving the
message, which must be correctly typed
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life on the Internet easier for everybody. Some of the rules for
netiquette include:
keep messages short and to the point
be polite and avoid offensive language
avoid sending abusive or insulting messages (flames)do not
participate in flame wars
avoid using all capital letters as it is considered shouting
use emoticons to express feelings such as :) for happy or :( for
sad
use abbreviations and acronyms such as IRL for in real life or
BTW for by the way
make the email subject line as meaningful as possible.
Research
A search engine is a program that finds websites and web pages. It
accesses a database of indexed websites that can be searched using a
keyword. This index is built by regularly scanning for new websites
and accepting submissions from website authors. A search engine is
accessed using a browser. There are dozens of search engines
available on the Web, including Yahoo!, Alta Vista and Google (see
Figure 12.4). Each search engine has a different method of building
its index and often obtains different results from the same search.
Some search engines provide web directories. A web directory
organises the Web into categories and then smaller subcategories.
This allows the user to browse through the categories until they
find a relevant site.
Search engines require the user to enter one or more keywords
related to their topic of interest. Most search engines allow users to
search for specific items such as images. When the user enters a
keyword and clicks the Search button, the search engine scans its
index and lists the
websites that
contain that
keyword. Some
search engines
allow a search to
be restricted to
just Australia.
This can be an
advantage when
researching. The
Figure 12.4 Yahoo! is one of many search engines on the Internet listing of websites
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Messaging
A newsgroup is an online area in which users conduct discussions on
a particular topic. People read messages and join in discussions by
sending or posting messages. The entire collection of newsgroups is
called the Usenet (Users network). Newsgroups are read each day
by people from all over the world and provide a large diversity of
opinion and knowledge. Each newsgroup is classified into eight
major categories: computers (comp.), social issues (soc.), science
(sci.), recreation (rec.), discussion (talk.), miscellaneous (misc.),
newsgroups (news.) and alternative (alt.).
A message board (or discussion group) is a popular web-based
discussion group (see Figure 12.5). Message boards are provided by
many websites. Discussion groups contain useful information. For
example, FAQ (frequently asked questions) provide concise and
detailed information
relevant to that group.
Some discussion groups
and newsgroups are only
for authorised members
and require a username
and password. For
example, a discussion
group for a university
course would be restricted
Figure 12.5 Discussion group to students taking that
course.
Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet service that
notifies users when one or more people are online. It has become
one of the most popular Internet activities. Instant messaging
services are provided by many organisations such as ICQ, AOL,
Microsoft and Yahoo!. They enable users to create buddy lists, check
whether a buddy is online and exchange messages. There are
currently no standards for instant messaging. Individuals on a
buddy list need to be on the same or compatible instant messaging
program.
Exercise 12.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a email and chatting
b an attachment and a search engine
c forwarding and replying.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ are unique and consist of two parts separated by the @
symbol.
b A mailing _______ is a group of people who want to receive the
same messages.
c A web directory organises the Web into _______.
d A _______ is a popular web-based discussion group.
3 What am I?
a Used to store email addresses.
b Code of acceptable behaviour users should follow on the
Internet.
c Online area in which users conduct discussions on a particular
topic.
d Real-time Internet service that notifies users when one or more
people are online.
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Development
5 Create or obtain two email addresses.
a Create a brief email message.
b Send an email message to one of the email addresses.
c Send a carbon copy and blind carbon copy to a friend.
d Read and reply to the email message.
e Create a simple mailing list.
f Create and send an email message that contains an attachment.
6 Use three different search engines to find information about
netiquette. Compare and contrast the results of the three search
engines. Which search engine do you prefer? Give reasons for your
answer.
Browser software
A web browser (or browser) is a software program that allows users
to access and view web pages. The most widely used web browsers
are Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator (see Figure 12.6).
Online service providers (OSP) such as America Online (AOL) and
CompuServe provide a browser free of charge as part of their
subscription package. Web browsers display web pages, link to
other web pages and download information to your computer.
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and edit thumbnails. Audio, animations and video are easily inserted
onto a web page. Authoring software also allows users to create
tables, frames and forms. These are powerful tools used to create
professional web pages.
Types of protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the transmission of data
between computer devices. Some of the protocols used on the
Internet include TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP and SMTP. TCP/IP was originally
developed by the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a United States
common language for data transmission and error detection across Department of
the Internet. It works by breaking information into smaller packets Defence for
computers using
of data. Each data packet contains the information and the address the UNIX
of the receiving computer. The TCP standards inform the receiving operating system.
computer what is inside the data packet and the IP standard tells It is now used by
every computer
the computer where and how to send the packet. Each data packet on the Internet.
might take a different route but eventually reaches the same
destination where all the packets are reassembled into the original
information.
Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) is a standard for transferring
the contents of a web page into a browser for viewing. It does not
download files that make up the web page. HTTP is a one-way
system as data is only transferred from the web server to the
browser. Whenever http appears in a URL the user is connecting to
a web server and using the HTTP standard.
File transfer protocol (FTP) is a standard to upload and
download files. An FTP server is a computer that allows users to
upload and download files using FTP. Whenever ftp appears in a
URL the user is
connecting to a file server
and not a web server.
Some form of file transfer
will then take place.
Simple mail transfer
protocol (SMTP) is a
standard for outgoing
email. Most email
messages are sent using
SMTP. POP3 (Post Office
Protocol) is a standard
for incoming email. Figure 12.7 Popular web authoring software for the home user
includes Microsoft FrontPage
Project: My website
Preneeth Kumar is a student who wants to create a website about his
family, friends and interests. His sister Rani has agreed to supervise and
assist in the development of the website. Preneeth solved the problem
using the four stages in project development.
Define and analyse the problem: Preneeth surfed the Internet
and gathered design ideas from other personal websites. He
investigated the possibility of including pictures and videos of the
family. A project plan was written.
Design possible solutions: Preneeth developed two possible
solutions. Each solution had a different website structure and
design. Both solutions had a large multimedia component.
Preneeth made a choice and presented his recommendation to
his sister. Rani agreed but suggested a simplified version.
Produce the solution: The website was constructed using Microsoft
FrontPage. He created the website structure and used a consistent
layout for each page. Preneeth imported pictures, audio and video
into the appropriate pages. Links were added and tested. His sister
provided some technical advice on using tables and creating
animation. Web pages and files were uploaded to a web server
to become part of the Internet.
Evaluate the solution: Preneeth tested his website using another
computer. He checked each web page and ensured all links were
working. Preneeth was happy with his website.
Tasks
1 Outline a website structure that would be appropriate for this
project.
ICT 12.1
2 Describe any social and ethical issues that would be a concern in
this project.
Exercise 12.3
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Web _______ software is used to create and manage a
multimedia website.
b The refresh command _______ the current web page from the
server.
c The _______ interrupts the download of a web page.
d _______ is a standard for incoming mail.
2 True or false?
a OSPs provide a browser as part of their subscription package.
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Development
5 Examine the range of software in your school to create a website.
Investigate any templates and wizards available with this software.
Which piece of software do you prefer? Give reasons for your answer.
6 Create a web page that briefly describes the types of protocols
used on the Internet. Do research into Internet protocols to ensure
that the information on your web page is current.
called a web page. A web page can contain text, images, sounds,
video clips and links to other pages. Web pages are stored on
powerful computers called servers or web servers. Each server may
store thousands of web pages from different websites. To view a
particular web page your computer asks the server for a particular
page to be sent.
Internet security
The Internet has generated a whole underground industry of
threats such as viruses, hackers and spam. However, there are many
ways of controlling access to information on the Web.
A cookie is a file that is stored on the hard disk after the user
visits a website. It is used to measure a users behaviour and work
flow habits. Privacy is often an issue raised with cookies. Cookies
store the information about the web pages visited and the transactions
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Exercise 12.4
1 What am I?
a A worldwide collection of documents that use the HTTP standard.
b A file that is stored on the hard disk after visits to a website.
c Checks all incoming data for the purpose of verification and
authentication.
d A program that claims to be one thing but will cause damage
when the program is started.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A (a) is a group of electronic documents that present (b) on a
particular topic. Each electronic document is called a web (c).
Websites are stored on powerful computers called (d).
3 Unjumble these words:
a ewb gepa
b oxpry rseevr
c asntirviu aroswfte
4 a What is a key feature of the Web?
b List six different types of websites.
c What is the purpose of most cookies?
d How does a proxy server improve security?
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Development
5 Find at least one website where the focus is commercial,
information, business, news, portal and personal. What are the
features of these websites? Justify your classification of these
websites.
6 Why is the Web an important medium to publish information?
Describe the ways the Web is different from other publishing
media.
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Designing a website
There are three basic design principles for a website (see Figure 12.11):
Consistencylayout, format and style should be the same
throughout the website unless different data types demand a
change. Readability is improved when similar items are
grouped.
Navigationpeople need to understand the structure of the
web pages. Colouring different areas of the page, using visual
symbols (icons and arrows), inserting clear page headers and
creating simple hyperlinks improves navigation.
Simplicitydo not overuse design elements as this will create
visual clutter and confuse the visitor. The overuse of colour,
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Exercise 12.5
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ image is a small preview representation of the real
full size image.
b Links are usually identified using an _______ character and/or a
different text colour.
c Each _______ is considered as a separate window and could be a
separate HTML document.
d Many different colours can be distracting and reduce _______.
2 True or false?
a HTTP is used to create web pages.
b Streaming audio is heard before the entire file has been
transferred.
c Ordered lists are usually shown with a bullet.
d Web forms have an invisible part that stores data in a database.
3 What am I?
a The first page viewed by a visitor
to a website.
b A set of special instructions that
indicate how parts of a document
will be displayed.
c A picture, icon or button that
changes when the mouse is moved
over it.
d Rows and columns of cells that are
filled with characters or graphics.
4 a Describe an intermediate page of a
website.
b How do you create HTML code?
c Identify the contact information
that is needed on most websites.
d What is a hyperlink?
e Describe some of the information
often displayed in a frame.
f Why is navigation an important
design element?
Development
5 Investigate the features of three different
websites. Identify the features that you like and
those you dislike. Write a report that summarises your
investigation.
6 Create a simple website on a topic you find interesting.
a Describe the features of the website.
b Create and test the navigation used in your website. ICT 12.2
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Statements
1 A connected set of networks using 6 A software program that allows
the TCP/IP standard. users to access and view web pages.
2 A private network that uses a similar 7 A standard for transferring the
interface to the Web. contents of a web page into a
3 An online area in which users conduct browser for viewing.
discussions on a particular topic. 8 A worldwide collection of electronic
4 Transmission of electronic messages documents that use the HTTP
using a computer. standard.
5 A program that finds websites and 9 A file that is stored on the hard disk
web pages. after the user visits a website.
10 The first page of a website.
Terms
a Cookie f Intranet
b Email g Newsgroup
c Home h Search engine
d HTTP i Web
e Internet j Web browser
Project 5.1
Project 5.2
Project 5.3
Cross project 2
Cross project 3
Cross project 4
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13
13
CHAPTER
Networking
systems
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter provides an overview of networking systems. It
examines the nature of a communication network and data
transmission. You will learn network basics and the different
network topologies. The chapter concludes by describing network
operating systems.
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13. 1 A communications
network
A network is a number of computers and their peripheral devices
connected together in some way. The simplest form of network is
when one computer is linked to another computer. The Internet is
a connected set of networks that links millions of computers.
Computers communicate with each other through a network. The
role of a network is to transfer data from one location to another.
Data stored on one computer can be obtained by people using
other computers, often thousands of kilometres away. The power of
one computer is not restricted to one room, but can be made
available anywhere.
Tutorial Networks have changed the way we live and work. In most
workplaces they are a necessity. There are a number of advantages
in establishing a network:
Sharing peripheral devices: Networks enable users to share
peripheral devices such as printers, hard disks and Internet
Lit 6.1 access. It is common to find a small number of high-quality
network printers shared by a large group of users on a network.
Sharing peripheral devices reduces costs and allows more
people to access the equipment.
Sharing applications: Networks enable users to share applications.
Networks that share applications usually require a site licence or
a network licence. These licences allow the software to be used
on the same site or for a certain number of users. Network
licences cost less than purchasing multiple copies of the software.
It also takes less time to install or update the network software.
Sharing data: Networks provide a very fast method for sharing
and transferring files. Many networks have a file server to store
data. Data stored on a file server can be accessed from any
computer on the network. Users can instantly send a file to
another user on a network. Users can also access their files from
different locations. Sharing data increases efficiency and
productivity (see Figure 13.1).
Security of information: Networks secure files by restricting
access to authorised users. The entire network is backed up on a
regular basis. It is not dependent on users backing up their files.
Firewalls are used to protect data on the network from hackers.
Improved communication: Networks enable users to work
together in ways that otherwise would not be possible. Email
and messaging systems make it easy to communicate and share
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Protocols
A protocol (pronounced PROH-tuh-cahl) is a set of rules that
governs the transfer of data between computers. A protocol defines
how a link is established, how data is transmitted and how errors
are detected and corrected. When the same protocols are used,
different types of computers and devices can communicate with
each other. There are numerous protocols that have been developed
for specific technology (see Figure 13.2) including:
TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a
standard for data transmission and
error detection across the Internet.
The TCP standards inform the
receiving computer what is inside the
data packet and the IP standard tells
the computer where and how to send
the data packet.
IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange/ Sequenced Packet
Exchange) is a standard used for data
transmission in local area networks
(LAN) that use the Novell NetWare
operating system.
NetBEUI (NetBios Extended User
Interface, pronounced net-booey) is
a standard used for data transmission
Figure 13.2 Network protocols in local area networks that use
Windows NT and LAN manager.
AppleTalk is a set of local area network standards for Apple
Macintosh computers. It is built into all Apple computers and
Apple laser printers.
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Exercise 13.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Networks enable users to share _______ devices.
b Files and applications on a network are _______ to authorised
users.
c _______ of a network requires considerable time and expertise.
d TCP/IP is a standard for data transmission and error detection
across the _______.
2 True or false?
a The Internet is a connected set of networks.
b Sharing data on a network is a major disadvantage.
c Networks are inexpensive to install.
d Networks are targets for hackers and viruses.
3 What am I?
a A number of computers and their peripheral devices connected
in some way.
b A set of rules that governs the transfer of data between
computers.
c A standard used for data transmission in the local area
networks that use Novell NetWare.
4 a What is the role of a network?
b List five advantages in establishing a network.
c How do networks improve communication?
d What are the consequences if the server of a network goes
down?
e Why is a virus a concern on a network?
f List four protocols commonly used on a network.
Development
5 A business is planning to establish
a local area network to improve
efficiency and productivity.
What would be some of the
benefits of networking?
Installing a network is
expensive. What costs are
involved in establishing a
network?
6 Network protocols are
often developed in
conjunction with
improvements in technology.
Do research into two protocols
that are commonly used on a
network. Prepare a report that
summarises
your investigation.
one way
both ways
one at a time
simultaneous
both ways
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Data transmissionwire
Wire transmission transfers the data through wires and cables. These
cables must be protected from damage, they take up space and can
be difficult to install. However, wire transmission can carry large
amounts of data with little interference from other signals. Wire
transmission includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable or optical
fibre cable (see Figure 13.4). Lit 6.2
Grounded
Insulator Cladding
shielding
Glass
Insulation optical fibre
Inner conductor
Data transmissionwireless
Wireless transmission moves the data through air and space. It does
not need a fixed physical connection between the source and the
destination. Wireless networks allow devices to communicate using
radio waves, microwave and satellite:
Radio waves are used to transfer data by connecting a small
radio transmitter to each device (see Figure 13.5). The
transmitter sends and receives data through the air using radio
waves. The most common wireless networking standards are
802.11b (11 Mbps) and 802.11g (54 Mbps). The major problem
with radio waves is their lack of security. The signals can be
intercepted by anyone.
Microwave is a high frequency radio signal sent through space
in a straight line from one antenna to another. It has been used
for several decades to transmit
both voice and data. Antennae
are placed on tall buildings or
mountain tops to continue
transmission over long
distances. Even though it is
reasonably error free, weather
conditions or objects such as
trees and buildings will
obstruct the signal and affect
the transmission. Microwave
transmission is commonly
used with satellites for long
Figure 13.5 Wireless PC Card distance transmission.
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Exercise 13.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a simplex mode and half duplex mode
b bits per second and baud rate
c twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable.
2 What am I?
a Transmission mode that allows transmission in both directions
at the same time.
b A very thin fibre of clear glass or plastic that uses light waves.
c Transmission media that moves data through air and space.
d A high frequency radio signal sent through space in a straight
line from one antenna to another.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Wire transmission transfers data through wires and (a). It can carry
large amounts of data with little (b) from other signals. Wire
transmission includes (c) cable, coaxial cable and (d) cable.
4 a List four common units of measurements for transmission speed.
b What is the bandwidth?
c What are the reasons for choosing UTP for wire transmission?
d What are the advantages of optical fibre cables?
e What are the major problems with radio waves?
f Why have wireless networks become popular?
Development
5 Investigate the latest standards for wire transmission. Construct a
table that compares each standard in terms of cost, distance and
speed. Which standard of wire transmission would you prefer? Give
reasons for your answer.
6 Eddie has three computers at home. He would like these computers
to share files, applications and peripherals. Eddie is not sure which
data transmission medium would be most appropriate. What advice
would you give Eddie? Give reasons to explain your answer.
Types of networks
Networks are classified as local area networks, wide area networks
or as virtual private networks.
A local area network (LAN) is a network on one site, such as
within a building or group of buildings. A LAN is often a
collection of computers and peripheral devices. LANs enable
users to share resources and communicate with each other more
effectively. These tasks are completed using a network operating
system (NOS). The physical arrangement of the devices on a
LAN is called the network topology. There are many possible
network topologies, such as star, bus and ring.
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a very large
area. It is often made up of a collection of LANs (see Figure 13.6).
A WAN may use a private leased line, the normal telephone
network or a combination of both. A private leased line is
dedicated to the network. It offers higher transmission speeds and
more accurate transfer of data than those available through the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). PSTN links are
relatively cheap if computers do not require constant connection.
However, the link is not guaranteed and can be interrupted.
A virtual private network (VPN) is a private network carrying
encrypted data across the Internet. It uses the PSTN and the
Internet to create an organisations network. A VPN aims to
provide an organisation with the same capabilities as a LAN but
at a much lower cost. It uses encryption and other security
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Components of networks
There are a range of components for networks such as servers,
workstations, hubs, switches, routers, bridges, gateways, repeaters
and network interface cards.
A server is a computer that provides resources to other
computers on the network. The server provides access to files,
applications or peripheral devices. There are different types of
servers, such as the following:
A file server is a controlling computer in a network that
stores the programs and data shared by users. The files
stored on this server can be retrieved by authorised users.
A print server is a computer in a network that controls one
or more printers. Print servers have printers attached to
them and are accessed by authorised users. If the printer is
busy the data to be printed is stored in the print server and
placed at the end of a queue. A print server can be used with
or without a file server.
A mail server is a computer in a network that provides email
facilities. It stores incoming mail for distribution to users
and forwards outgoing mail to appropriate devices. Some
mail servers can be accessed from the Internet.
A web server is a computer in a network that stores and
distributes web pages. When a network user accesses a web
page from the Internet it is stored in the web server.
Websites are downloaded and stored on web servers. When
you browse the Internet you are travelling from one web
server to another.
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Exercise 13.3
1 What am I?
a A private network carrying encrypted data across the Internet.
b A controlling computer in a network that stores the programs
and data shared by users.
c A link between two different types of networks.
d A network with no central server but each computer is both a
server and a client.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A _______ is a network on one site such as within a building or
group of buildings.
b A workstation is a _______ on a network.
c A _______ is a very intelligent hub that directs data packets to
and from other networks.
d A NIC is an _______ that allows a device to be connected to a
network.
3 True or false?
a A WAN is often made up of a collection of LANs.
b Each node is connected directly to a hub.
c A bridge is used to rebuild a fading signal to its original
strength and shape before transmitting it onwards.
d Most networks use a peer-to-peer network for their LAN.
4 a Describe a VPN.
b List four different types of servers.
c Why is a switch a better type of hub?
d How does a gateway work?
e Why is a NIC given a unique address?
f Where are peer-to-peer networks used?
Development
5 Investigate a LAN either at your
school or in the local community.
Draw a plan that shows the
arrangement of devices on the
network. Identify all components
of the network. What types of
data transmission media are used
on the network?
6 VPNs have been used by some
organisations to save money.
However, there are risks in
establishing a VPN. Do research into
VPNs. Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of a VPN.
7 Hubs, switches and routers are used as central connecting devices.
Do research to find more information on these devices. Write a
report that summarises your investigation.
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Security of information
A network aims to share resources and provide communication for
users. It provides an opportunity for hackers to access data.
Network security requires careful planning and needs constant
review to ensure procedures are appropriate. Security of
information involves storage, backup and data security.
Lit 6.4 Networks are required to store huge quantities of data. Storage
Lit 6.5 involves using magnetic disk and magnetic tape. Magnetic disk
storage is used when immediate access to data is required. It uses
direct access. This form of access allows data to be found directly
without accessing all the previous data. Magnetic tape is used as a
backup medium. It can store large quantities of data inexpensively.
Magnetic tape uses sequential access. This form of access starts at
the beginning of the tape and reads all of the data until the
required item is found.
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Exercise 13.4
1 Explain the difference between:
a a star topology and a ring topology
b Ethernet and token ring.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Network topology is the physical _______ of devices on a LAN.
b The central node in a _______ topology is usually a hub, switch
or router.
c Logon security involves protecting _______ and passwords from
unauthorised access.
d _______ is used to prevent data from being intercepted during
transmission.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Bus (a) is an arrangement where all the nodes are attached to a
cable called a (b). It can still operate if one (c) fails and nodes are
easily added. However, data (d) can occur on the bus.
4 a How do devices in a bus topology access data?
b What is CSMA/CD?
c Describe the storage devices used on a network.
d Why is it essential to perform regular backups of data stored on
a server?
e What is user identification?
f When are access controls granted?
Development
5 A LAN is to be constructed with eight nodes in a star topology. The
central node is a switch. Use graphics software to show this
arrangement. Illustrate how a star network transfers data.
6 A LAN is to be constructed with a file server, printer and five
workstations in a bus topology. Use graphics software to show this
ICT 13.1 arrangement. Illustrate how a bus network transfers data.
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resources.
File managementgives users access to the remote hard disks
on the server. It provides a file system and the ability to manage
a network directory. Drives and directories are mapped for
users.
Applicationshandles requests from users to share applications.
The NOS is used to install software. It is easier for network
administrators to comply with software copyright laws using a
network. Access to the application files is restricted.
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Tasks
1 Research the Internet to find current solutions for creating a simple
network. Describe these solutions.
2 Do you think a wireless network would be a better solution for ICT 13.2
Angela? Give reasons for your answer.
Exercise 13.5
1 True or false?
a A NOS is an operating system to support computers connected
on a WAN.
b Most of the NOS is installed on the server.
c File management is a NOS task that adds, removes and
organises users.
d It is easier to secure data on a large number of computers than
data on a network.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
A NOS must be able to manage the flow of data between a (a) and
the Internet. Most NOS provide a (b) to protect the network. A (c)
who attempts to enter the network through the (d) will be blocked
by the firewall.
3 Unjumble these words:
a wfalirel
b aoprdssw
4 a Describe the administrative tasks performed by the NOS and
the administrator of a network.
b Why do administrators find it easier to comply with software
copyright laws?
c How does the NOS manage
resources?
d What is the purpose of
anti-virus software?
e Describe the logon
procedure.
f What is a
password?
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Development
5 A NOS provides a file system and the ability to map drives and
directories for users. Explain this statement. What are the
advantages of restricting access for users?
6 Efficient networks are dependent on the network administrator.
Research newspapers and the Internet to find information about
the role of a network administrator and employment
opportunities. Write a brief report that summarises the result of
your investigation.
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Statements
1 A number of computers and their 6 A network where there is no central
peripheral devices connected in server but each computer is both a
some way. server and a client.
2 Set of rules that govern the transfer 7 A computer that provides resources
of data between computers. to other computers on the network.
3 The number of bits transmitted in 8 The physical arrangement of devices
one second. on a LAN.
4 The maximum number of electrical 9 A network topology where all the
signals transmitted in one second. nodes are attached in the shape of a
5 A network that uses one or more closed loop.
computers as servers and all the 10 An operating system to support
remaining computers as clients. computers connected on a LAN.
Terms
a Baud rate f NOS
b bps g Peer-to-peer
c Client server h Protocol
d Network i Ring
e Network topology j Server
e Tester
Project 6.1
Project 6.2
Project 6.3
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14
14
CHAPTER
Robotics and
automated
systems
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter provides an overview of robotics and automated
systems. It starts by examining robotics and the types, purpose and
use of robots. You will learn the function of robots including the
use of sensors and actuators. The second half of the chapter
describes automated control and automated systems.
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14. 1 RoboticsRobotics is the study of the design, construction and use of robots.
People have been excited about robots for a number of years. The
term robot was first used in a classic play written in 1923 by Karel
Capek called R.U.R. (stands for Rossums Universal Robots). Robots
were mechanical men and women created to serve the human race.
The term android is now commonly used for human-like robots.
The robots in R.U.R. were developed to the point where they
revolted against people and proceeded to take over the world.
Karl Capek derived
Authors have since written many fictional books and movies
the word robot
from the Czech containing good and bad robots.
work robotnik Isaac Asimov wrote a science fiction book called I, Robot in
meaning slave 1950. It contained three laws of robotics that may still be relevant
labour.
to the future development of robots:
a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm
a robot must obey orders given it by a human being except
where such orders would conflict with the first law
a robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the first or second law.
The development of robots started in the textile industry in the
eighteenth century. Joseph-Marie Jacquard perfected an automated
looming machine to repeat the repetitive work on looms by weavers.
The industrial revolution spread automation to many other industries.
However, true robots were not possible until the invention of the
electronic computer in 1943. The first robot was called shakey. It
was built by researchers at the Standford Research Institute in 1968.
Shakey was larger than several humans, controlled by a computer
the size of a room and used a television camera. It took hours to
arrange blocks into stacks. In 1973 the first commercial industrial
robot was available. It was developed by Richard Hohn for Cincinnati
Milacron Corporation. The robot was called T3 (The Tomorrow
Tool). It tracked objects on a moving conveyor.
The vision many people have of robots is not matched by reality.
A robot is a computer-controlled machine designed to perform
physical tasks. It is more flexible and adaptable than other automated
systems. Robots are able to perform many tasks more quickly, cheaply
and accurately than people. A typical robot will have a movable
structure, actuator, sensors, power supply and processor. The
processor receives data about the environment from a sensor.
Robots change their actions to some degree in response to changes
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Types of robots
Robots consist of industrial robots and domestic robots.
Industrial robots are automated machines that work on assembly
lines. They are designed to do exactly the same action over and over
again. For example, robots are used to weld panels on a car coming
down an assembly line (see Figure 14.2). Industrial robots need to
be taught each action. The exact sequence of actions is stored in a
program. Industrial robots are not restricted to one task. They can be
re-programmed to perform a different task, the same as a computer.
Domestic robots are mobile robots that work in homes and
businesses. Providing mobility for a
domestic robot is an important
consideration. Wheels or tracks are used
if robots are to move over smooth
ground. Rough terrain requires other
methods, such as building robots with
legs. Domestic robots have been
developed to vacuum a house when the
owner is asleep. They are being used in
hospitals to transport medications and in
museums to protect galleries. Researchers
are predicting robots will become a
normal part of everyday life in the near
future. Figure 14.2 Robots in a car assembly line
Purpose of robots
The population of robots is expanding at an extraordinary rate. The
purpose of robots includes:
Performing dangerous tasks: Robots perform tasks in unsafe
environments, such as cleaning up hazardous waste. They reduce
the risk of injury in the manufacturing industry, such as
welding car bodies.
Performing repetitive tasks: Robots are able to repeat their
actions accurately. They never become tired and can complete
jobs requiring extreme precision. Robots will always perform
their task in exactly the same way, such as drilling a hole in the
same position.
Operating in remote locations:
Robots are able to complete
tasks in locations difficult for
people to access, such as at
the bottom of the ocean or in
outer space (see Figure 14.3).
Robots are used to
manufacture integrated
circuits. The tiny
components on a silicon
chip require very precise
placement that is difficult
Figure 14.3 Robots in space
for humans.
Saving labour costs: Robots are able to work 24 hours a day,
without lunch breaks, sick leave or holidays. Robots are
expensive to design and install but when operational reduce
labour costs.
Use of robots
Robots are used in a range of situations, such as the following:
Explorationinvolves robots exploring dangerous or remote
locations. Remote robots are commonly used for this task. The
robot is partly controlled using radio or infrared signals. The
operator directs the robot to go to a certain spot then the robot
uses its sensors to find its own way. Robots are used to explore
inside volcanos, other planets or to seek out landmines.
Assembly linea series of workstations that gradually produce a
product. Robots are used at these workstations to perform a
physical task such as welding, painting or part fitting. Robots
and people usually work together on the assembly line.
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Exercise 14.1
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ was the first robot.
b A robot is a computer-controlled machine designed to perform
_______ tasks.
c One purpose of a _______ is to operate in remote locations.
d An _______ is a series of workstations that gradually produces a
product.
2 What am I?
a The study of the design, construction and use of robots.
b The author of the science fiction book called I, Robot.
c Automated machines that work on assembly lines.
d A mobile robot that works in homes and businesses.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
Robots are able to perform many (a) more quickly, cheaply and
accurately than people. They are able to (b) their actions accurately.
Robots will also perform in (c) environments and operate in (d)
locations.
4 a When was the term robot first used?
b What makes up a typical robot?
c How is the mobility of a domestic robot an important
consideration?
d List the three main purposes of robots.
e Describe the use of robots in exploration.
f Why would a robot be used for maintenance and repair of
equipment?
Development
5 Do research into the representation of robots in movies and on
television. Construct a table that identifies and describes the
characteristics of at least five different robots in movies and
television.
ICT 14.1
6 Robots will free millions of people from dirty, dangerous and
boring industrial work and their application will enrich society.
Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.
Sensors
A sensor is an input device that measures data from the
environment. Sensors are used to detect different physical
conditions such as temperature, light, motion, touch, pressure and
flow of fluids.
Temperature sensors measure the temperature of the air or a
body. The control of temperature is very important in many
industries. Different temperature sensors are required for
Lit 7.1
different applications, such as thermostat, thermistor,
thermocouple and thermometer. Some types of temperature
sensors may be inappropriate for use due to the large range of
temperatures, the sensitivity of the sensor or their breakability.
Light sensors detect the presence of light or the intensity of light.
They are used to control the motion of robots and their
interpretation of the environment. Researchers are working very
hard at the interpretation of light images received by light
detectors. Photoresistor and phototransistor are two types of
light sensors.
Motion sensors measure the movement of objects. There are
sensors to detect position, distance, speed and acceleration. A
common motion sensor includes slotted wheels attached to a
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Actuators
An actuator performs the
physical action of the robot.
Some common actuators are
electric motors, stepper
motors, solenoids and
hydraulic pumps.
Electric motors are the
most common type of
actuators. Direct current
(DC) motors are capable Figure 14.5 Stepper motor
of high precision, fast
acceleration and high reliability. DC motors use battery power
and run continuously in one direction and then in the other
direction. AC motors use normal electrical power and do not
produce their greatest force until they achieve maximum speed.
Stepper motors (or step motors) allow movement in small
precise steps (see Figure 14.5). A stepper motor is used when
precise positioning is requiredit can move in either direction.
Stepper motors are not suitable for heavy loads.
A solenoid is a coil of wire around a magnet. When an electric
current passes through the wire, a magnetic field is generated.
This magnetic field moves the magnet one way or the other
Computer control
Robots are controlled using a processor. The
processor inside the robot is often a microcontroller.
A microcontroller is an integrated circuit with a
CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and input/output ports
(see Figure 14.6). A microcontroller has all the
components of a computer except that it is a
dedicated device. Microcontrollers are often
described as the heart of the robot.
Microcontrollers also can receive data from
sensors, store and process that data and send
the information to an actuator such as a motor.
A computer is often used to give instructions to
the microcontroller. The computer transmits
infrared or radio signals to the microcontroller.
Figure 14.6 A microcontroller controls
the robot
Software
Robot software is designed to give the user total control of a robot.
The software allows the user to control the movement of the robot
while it intelligently avoids obstacles, builds a map for the robot,
sends the robot into specific areas, allows the user to control the
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robot from the Internet and to see and hear what the robot sees
and hears. Robots are also given instructions using a variety of
programming languages.
Non-procedural languages such as LISP and Prolog are used
with complex robots to allow them to make intelligent responses.
The programmer specifies what to do and the system determines
how to do it. Common high level languages such as BASIC are also
used to program robots. They require the programmer to specify
every action using a series of commands. Microcontrollers can be
purchased with the BASIC language built into their integrated Lit 7.2
circuit. The user downloads their programs for the robot using
their personal computer.
Exercise 14.2
1 Explain the difference between:
a a motion sensor and a touch sensor
b a DC motor and an AC motor.
2 True or false?
a Robotic arms have seven degrees of freedom.
b Light sensors are used to control the motion of robots.
c Hydraulic fluids are compressible fluids.
d Non-procedural languages are used with simple robots.
3 What am I?
a End effectors capable of grasping, holding and controlling an
object.
b Sensor used to measure the exertion of a force.
c Integrated circuit with a CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and
input/output ports.
d A common high level language used to program robots.
4 a What are the degrees of freedom?
b List six different types of sensors.
c What is a flow sensor?
d Describe a solenoid.
e What tasks are performed by a microcontroller?
f List some of the tasks the user can complete using robot
software.
Development
5 Robots are at the cutting edge of technology. Do research to find two
recent developments in robot technology. Describe this technology.
What impact will these developments have on our society?
6 Do research into the hardware available to construct a robot. Write
a report that summarises your investigation.
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Project: Robot
Amy Nguyen is interested in robotics and wants to build a robot. She
has no previous knowledge about robots. The aim of the project is to
create a simple robot that will be able to move around obstacles in her
house. The robot is to be controlled using her PC.
Define and analyse the problem: Amy investigated a range of
products that could be used to build her robot. She browsed the
Internet and read books on robotics. Amy discussed her project
with a friend who had a robot.
Design possible solutions: Amy arrived at two possible solutions.
She decided to use Lego blocks because of their low cost and
portability. Lego blocks are easily expanded to more complex
robots and tasks.
Produce the solution: Amy purchased the Lego blocks, a
microcontroller, software, two motors, two touch sensors, a light
sensor and a infrared transmitter. She installed the software into
her PC and tested all the products. Amy spent the next few days
building her robot. She used RCX code to create a program for the
robot. Amy tested her robot to ensure it obeyed her commands.
Evaluate the solution: Amy had successfully built a simple robot.
There were no problems with the hardware devices or the
software. Amy plans to create a more complex robot in the future.
Tasks
1 Research the latest hardware and software available to build a
simple robot. Write a brief report that summarises your investigation.
2 Describe the robots you think will be available in the future.
Exercise 14.3
1 True or false?
a Automated computer devices use a feedback principle.
b Automation is the application of machines to tasks once
performed by people.
c The motor vehicle industry adopted the automation concept in
the 1950s.
d Automation has increased the production of most goods and
lowered their costs.
2 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The application of automated (a) to industrial processes is called
automation. The development of automation has become
dependent on (b) technology. This has resulted in (c) systems that
have become increasingly sophisticated and (d).
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Development
5 Do research into the history of automation. Identify the key
historical events for automation. Construct a timeline of these
events. Briefly describe and state the importance of each event.
6 Automation is the cause of unemployment. Critically discuss this
statement. What is your opinion of the effect of automation on
employment?
Sensing devices
Sensors are input devices that measure data from the environment.
They send data to a processor that issues commands to an actuator.
Sensors are used in a range of situations such as red-light traffic
systems, car navigation systems and security systems.
Red-light traffic systems are used to catch drivers who pass
through a red light. The system has three essential components: a
digital camera, a trigger and a microcontroller. The digital cameras
are positioned at the corner of an intersection. The cameras are
pointed at cars driving through the intersection. A trigger is set
off when a car has moved past a particular point in the intersection.
A microcontroller is located in the camera. It constantly monitors
the traffic signals and the trigger. If a car has set off the trigger and
the traffic light is red then the microcontroller instructs the camera
Types of actuators
Actuators perform a physical action and are used in a range of
situations such as opening and closing automatic doors. Automatic
doors are opened and closed using motion sensors and an actuator.
The motion sensor is located in a box above the doors. The motion
sensor sends out microwaves and waits for the reflected energy to
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Controlling devices
A microprocessor is a CPU
contained on one integrated
circuit. Microprocessors are
used in many automated
systems such as televisions,
refrigerators, microwave
ovens and washing machines
(see Figure 14.10). These
devices are controlled by a
program stored in the
microprocessor on one
integrated circuit. The
microprocessor decides how
the device should respond to Figure 14.10 Microprocessor used in a refrigerator
the data collected from a
sensing device. Microprocessors are used for control since they are
small, cheap and reliable. Automated systems may have more than
one controller.
A controller receives information from an input device such as a
sensor and changes the output if required. The output is the signal
sent to an actuator. A controller does not have to be complicated.
A variable resistor attached to a light dimmer switch is an example
of a controller. When the strength of the resistor is adjusted, the
size of the current flowing through to the light is altered. The
controlling device may also be a microcontroller. A microcontroller
is an integrated circuit with a CPU, RAM, ROM, timers and
input/output ports. It has all the components of a computer except
it is a dedicated device.
Exercise 14.4
1 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
(a) devices send data to a processor that issues commands to an (b).
Sensors are used in a range of situations such as (c) systems, car
navigation systems and (d) systems.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a _______ is provided using sensing devices and actuators.
b Red-light traffic systems contain a _______, trigger and
microcontroller.
c Car navigation systems use a _______ voice to provide directions
throughout a journey.
d A _______ is a CPU contained on one integrated circuit.
3 True or false?
a Automated systems use automated control to perform a task.
b Some security systems use a light beam and a light sensor.
c Automatic doors are opened and closed using pressure sensors
and an actuator.
d A controller is always a complicated device.
4 a What task does the microcontroller perform in a red-light
traffic system?
b What is the purpose of the global positioning system in a car
navigation system?
c How do infrared motion sensors work?
d Describe the use of motion sensors in automatic doors.
e How does a pneumatic pump work?
f Where are microprocessors used?
Development
5 Automated systems are an accepted part of our everyday life.
Identify the automated systems that you have used in the past
week. Do research into one of these systems. How does this
ICT 14.2 automated system work? Your answer should refer to sensing
devices, actuators and controlling devices.
6 Investigate an automated system in your
local community. Analyse the
system in terms of sensing
devices, actuators and
controlling devices.
Do you think this
automated system is
effective? Write a
report that
summarises your
investigation.
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15
15
CHAPTER
Software
development
and
programming
Syllabus outcomes
5.2.1 Describes and applies problem-solving processes when
creating solutions.
5.2.2 Designs, produces and evaluates appropriate solutions to a
range of challenging problems.
5.2.3 Critically analyses decision-making processes in a range of
information and software solutions.
Overview
This chapter will develop your understanding of software
development and programming. It examines the basic
programming concepts, algorithms and control structures. You will
learn about programming languages, testing and documentation.
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15. 1 Programming
Programming is the process of writing programs and developing
software. A program is a collection of instructions that, when
executed, will complete a task on the computer. One or more
programs are commonly referred to as software or code. People
who write programs are called programmers or software
developers. Programmers write programs using programming
languages. There are many programming languages available such
as Java, Visual BASIC and C++.
Lit 8.1 Java is a popular language developed by Sun Microsystems. Java,
like all programming languages, has its own set of rules (syntax)
which must be strictly followed (see Figure 15.1). However, there
are basic programming concepts in all programming languages.
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Constant (or literal) is an item of data with only one specific value.
Constants are either numbers or strings (numbers and letters).
Variable is an item of data that may take different values, one at
a time. They are storage containers used to hold data of the same
type.
Identifier is the name of anything in a program such as a
variable. There are some restrictions on the use of identifiers,
such as always starting with a letter.
Separator is a symbol for grouping sections of the program such
as { and }. The correct use of separators is essential otherwise
the program will not work.
Assignment statement gives a value to a variable such as: x = 9.
The general form of an assignment statement is: variable =
expression. The expression can contain other variables such as:
y + 1. This will result in the assignment statement: x = y + 1.
GUI layout
The graphical user interface (GUI, pronounced gooey) gives
instructions using a mouse, and clicking on icons and menus.
A GUI provides an easy-to-use and consistent interface for a range
of applications. Modern programming languages create objects for
each component in a GUI,
such as:
text box and labels are
used to display text
option button (or radio
button) enables the user
to select one option from
a group
check box, a text box and
a small box that allows
the user to click on or
offmore than one
option can be selected
from a group
list box presents the user
with two or more options
that are viewed using a
scroll bar
command buttonsOK to
confirm selection and
Cancel to quit. Figure 15.2 Visual basic
Data type
Data type is the kind of data that can be stored in a variable. To
create a variable it must be declared. Variable declaration involves
stating the data type of the variable and an identifier or unique
name for the variable. Most programming languages have the
following data types:
integer number is a whole number without fractional parts
floating-point number is a number with the fractional parts
boolean is used to store values that have one of two possible
states such as true or false
character is used to store one character such as a letter, number
Lit 8.2
or symbol
string is used to store more than one character.
Data operators
Data operators (or operators) are used to represent an action to be
performed such as a calculation. Operators are classified as:
Arithmetic operatorperforms a calculation such as addition
(+), subtraction (), division (/), multiplication (*), powers (^)
and modulus (%). Calculations are carried out using the
Interactive standard order of operations.
Relational operatorcompares two values and returns a
boolean (true or false) result. Relational operators include less
than (<), greater than (>), less-than-or-equal-to (<=), greater-
than-or-equal-to (>=), equal-to (= =) and not-equal-to (!=).
Logical operatorcompares two values and returns a boolean
(true or false) result. Logical operators include AND (&&), OR
(!!) and NOT (!).
Exercise 15.1
1 Explain the difference between:
a constant and variable
b character and string
c an arithmetic operator and a relational operator.
2 What am I?
a A collection of instructions that, when executed, will complete
a task on the computer.
b The name given to anything in a program such as a variable.
c A component in a GUI that enables the user to select one
option from a group.
d Data type for whole numbers without fractional parts.
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Development
5 Examine the Java program in Figure 15.1.
a What is the purpose of this program?
b How could you change this program to display your name?
6 Do research to find an example of a program written using a
programming language.
a Describe the input, processes and output.
b Identify the data operators, functions, assignment statements,
variables and constants.
15. 2 Algorithms
An algorithm is a series of steps designed to solve a problem in a
finite time. An algorithm can be used to solve many types of
problems. Algorithms are not programs but are an important part
in the development of a program. In this section we examine
algorithms from familiar but non-computing contexts.
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Keywords Meaning
BEGIN Terminal: start and finish
END
IF (condition) Selection: different tasks are performed
THEN process 1 according to the condition
ELSE process 2 The ELSE statement is optional
ENDIF
WHILE (condition) Repetition: statements between the keywords
process 1 are repeated while the condition is true
ENDWHILE (Pre-test repetition)
REPEAT Repetition: statements between the keywords
process 1 are repeated while the condition is true
UNTIL (condition) (Post-test repetition)
Symbol Meaning
Terminal: start and finish
There should be only one line in or one line out
End
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Exercise 15.2
1 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a Algorithms are not _______ but are an important part in the
development of a program.
b _______ uses indented lines and keywords to describe an
algorithm.
c The flow of control in pseudocode is always from the _______ to
the bottom.
d A flow chart is a _______ method of describing an algorithm.
2 What am I?
a A method of algorithm description that is written using a word
processor.
b A keyword in pseudocode to start the algorithm.
c The lines and arrows in a flowchart.
d A symbol used in a flowchart to start and finish.
3 The following algorithms have errors in their sequence. Find these
errors and write the correct solution to the problem.
a Algorithm to read a book:
Read book
Open book to first page
Close book
Get book
b Algorithm to run a bath:
If bath is full, turn off the taps
If water is too hot, increase the amount of cold water
Put plug into bath
If water is too cold, increase the amount of hot water
Turn on the hot water tap
Turn on the cold water tap
4 a What is an algorithm?
b Why must the steps in an algorithm be performed in a
particular order?
c Why are the keywords in pseudocode highlighted?
d What is the purpose of indentation in pseudocode?
e What are the disadvantages of a flowchart?
f Name the basic symbols used in flowcharts.
Development
5 An algorithm to watch your favourite television show is shown
below:
Turn television on
Select television show
Watch television show
Turn television off ICT 15.1
a Convert this algorithm into pseudocode.
b Convert this algorithm into a flowchart.
Sequence
Sequence is the order the steps are executed. In pseudocode, the
steps are placed between BEGIN and END (see the problem below).
The sequence of four steps is indented to show structure and to
improve the readability of the algorithm. The flow of control is top
to bottom, starting at the first step and finishing at the last step.
Flowcharts always start and finish with a terminal symbol (oval).
The steps are placed between these symbols and joined by flowlines
(see Figure 15.4). The direction of flow is down the page between
the terminal symbols.
Problem: Design an algorithm to wash your hands.
Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
Wet hands
Clean hands with soap
Rinse off soap
Dry hands
END
Flowchart solution is shown in Figure 15.4.
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Begin
Wet hands
Clean hands
with soap
Dry hands
End
Selection
Selection is used to make a logical decision. It requires a choice to
be made between two or more options. The choice is made
depending on the answer to a condition. There are two types of
selection: binary and case.
Binary selection involves two choices. In pseudocode, the
keywords IF THEN ELSE are used for binary selection
(see the problem below). The condition is put after the IF keyword.
There are only two possible answers to the condition, true or false.
If the condition is true then the process after the THEN keyword is
executed. If the condition is false then the process after the ELSE
keyword is executed. The ELSE statement is not always required
and can be omitted. In a flowchart the selection is made using a
decision symbol (diamond). The condition is placed inside this
symbol and the answer must be true or false (see Figure 15.5). It is
very important that the two flowlines from the decision symbol are
labelled with true or false to determine which path to follow. The
two flowlines join together to complete the binary selection.
Begin
False True
Is it night?
End
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Pseudocode solution
BEGIN
CASEWHERE colour of signal
Green : Pass through lights
Amber : Slow down vehicle
Red : Stop vehicle
ENDCASE
END
Flowchart solution
Begin
Colour of the
signal is?
End
Repetition
A repetition or loop allows a number of steps to be repeated until
some condition is satisfied. The steps to be repeated are referred to
as the body of the loop. It is very important that each loop contains
a condition to stop the loop going on forever. There are two types
of repetition: pre-test or post-test.
In a pre-test repetition or guarded loop the condition is checked
at the beginning of the loop before the steps to be repeated are
executed. In pseudocode the keywords used for a pre-test repetition
are WHILE ENDWHILE (see problem below). The condition is
put after the WHILE keyword and the body of the loop between
the WHILE and ENDWHILE keywords. In a flowchart the pre-test
repetition is made using a decision symbol and flowlines (see
Figure 15.7). The condition is placed inside the decision symbol
and checked before the body of the loop.
Begin
False
Is car moving?
True
End
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Flowchart solution
Begin
False
Is grass cut?
True
End
Exercise 15.3
1 What control structures are represented by the following
algorithm segments?
a BEGIN
process 1
process 2
process 3
END
b WHILE (condition)
process
ENDWHILE
c IF (condition)
THEN process 1
ELSE process 2
ENDIF
d REPEAT
Process
UNTIL (condition)
e f
False
True
g h
False True False
True
2 True or false?
a Case selection involves two choices.
b In a flowchart a selection is made using a decision symbol.
c The steps repeated in a repetition are called the body of the loop.
d The REPEAT UNTIL keywords are used for a pre-test repetition.
3 Copy and complete the following by replacing the letter in brackets
with a suitable term:
The building blocks of a program are called the (a). Sequence is the
(b) the steps are executed. Selection is making a logical (c).
Repetition allows a number of (d) to be repeated.
4 a What is the sequence in an algorithm?
b Describe the flow of control in pseudocode.
c What is binary selection in an algorithm?
d Why is it important to label the two flowlines from a decision
symbol with true or false?
e What keywords are used for a pre-test repetition in
pseudocode?
f How is a post-test repetition made in a flowchart?
Development
5 Explain what the following algorithms do.
a Pseudocode:
BEGIN
print What is the capital of Australia?
get answer from user
IF answer is Canberra
THEN print Well done, correct
ELSE print Sorry the answer is Canberra
ENDIF
END
b Pseudocode:
BEGIN
set Count to one
WHILE Count is less than eleven
print Count
increment Count by one
ENDWHILE
END
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c Pseudocode:
BEGIN
set Count to ten
REPEAT
print Count
increment Count by one
UNTIL Count is twenty
END
d e
Begin Begin
False
Is Count
Input colour
> 0?
True
End End
Begin
Print Count
False
Is Count less
than eight?
True
End
Figure 15.15
15. 4 Programming
languages
Programming languages are used to create the instructions in a
program that can be understood by the computer. Each
programming language has its own set of rules that must be strictly
followed. The rules of the programming language are called its
syntax. Programming languages are divided into two groups:
Low-level languages are the lowest level of computer languages
and depend on the hardware of the computer. Programs written
Tutorial
using low-level languages are often called machine code or
assembly code. They process calculations much faster than
high-level languages.
High-level languages use English-like codes where each statement
corresponds to several lines of machine code. Programming
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Object-oriented programming
Most programmers use a high-level language and a strategy called
object-oriented programming or OOP (rhymes with hoop). OOP
requires the programmer to package the data and the methods (or
procedures) into a single unit called an object. A program consists
of a collection of interacting objects. Writing a program involves Lit 8.4
Subprograms
Structured programming aims to create well ordered and logical
programs. It involves breaking the problem down into smaller
parts. Each part is solved separately and then combined to produce
the final solution. A structured program consists of a collection of
smaller programs. Each of these smaller programs is called a
subprogram. A subprogram is a self-contained section of code that
performs a particular task. In Java, subprograms are called methods.
For example, the code below is a method in Java. It adds two
integers (parameters) and returns the result to the calling program
(larger program).
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Data structures
A file is a block of related data
stored on a storage device. Figure 15.17 Java program
Exercise 15.4
1 True or false?
a Each programming language has the same rules that must be
strictly followed.
b Most programmers use a high-level language.
c A class describes how objects behave and the kind of
information in the object.
d Object-oriented programming involves breaking the problem
down into smaller parts.
2 Explain the difference between:
a a low-level language and a high-level language
b a record and an array.
3 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a A program in _______ consists of a collection of interacting
objects.
b A _______ is a self-contained section of code that performs a
particular task.
c Each element within an array is _______ and accessed based on
their number.
4 a What is the purpose of a programming language?
b Describe the process of writing a program using an OOP
language.
c What are applets?
d What is the aim of structured programming?
e Describe an advantage of subprograms.
f What is the purpose of an array?
Development
5 Do research into a high-level programming language. If possible
complete a tutorial on a programming language. Identify the basic
programming concepts and control structures used in the programming
language. Write a report that summarises your investigation.
6 Write a program that will ask the user for their first name and print
this name ten times on the screen (see Figure 15.17). Execute this
program. Modify the program so that the persons name is printed
twenty times.
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7 Write a program that will create an array and store each letter of
the alphabet. Enter data into the array and use the array to display
a message.
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Tasks
1 Design an appropriate introductory screen for Rite Software using a
modern user interface.
2 What are the characteristics of a modern user interface?
Exercise 15.5
1 What am I?
a An error made when a programmer has failed to follow the
rules of programming.
b An error that occurs when it is impossible for the computer to
carry out the instruction.
c An error detection that involves putting a roadblock in the
execution of the program.
d Documentation that involves writing an easy-to-read program.
2 Copy and complete the following sentences:
a When a program is _______ an error message will appear if the
program contains a syntax error.
b A desk check usually involves watching the _______.
c A _______ is a program that will perform the desk check
electronically.
d Inadequate _______ makes a program difficult to understand
and modify.
3 Unjumble these words:
a ugdinebgg
b ecdk hkiecncg
4 a What is a bug?
b What is the purpose of test data?
c List the three basic types of errors.
d What is desk checking?
e Why is documentation an important aspect of writing
programs?
f Explain the difference between internal and external
documentation.
Development
5 Examine the following algorithm. What will be the output if the
user enters 4? Perform a desk check by watching the variables
(Number, Count and Temp).
BEGIN
Get Number from the user
Set Count to zero
WHILE Count is less than Number
Set Temp to Count plus one
Print Temp
increment count by one
ENDWHILE
Print Count
END
6 Examine the following algorithm. What will be the output?
Perform a desk check by watching the variables (X and Y).
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BEGIN
Set X to zero
Set Y to one
REPEAT
Set X to X plus Y
Print X
increment Y by one
UNTIL Y is four
Print Count
END
7 Edit the programs created in Exercise 15.4, Questions 6 and 7 by
inserting appropriate documentation.
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Statements
1 A collection of instructions that, 6 Control structure that specifies the
when executed, will complete a task order the steps are executed.
on the computer. 7 Control structure used to make a
2 The kind of data that can be stored logical decision.
in a variable. 8 Data structure that stores a list of
3 A series of steps designed to solve a elements of the same data type.
problem in a finite time. 9 It is used to detect and correct any
4 A method of algorithm description potential problems in a program.
that uses indented lines and 10 A written description to explain the
keywords. development and operation of a
5 A method of algorithm description program.
that uses a pictorial or graphical
method.
Terms
a Algorithm f Program
b Array g Pseudocode
c Data type h Selection
d Documentation i Sequence
e Flowchart j Test data
Project 8.1
Project 8.2
Project 8.3
Cross project 3
360 H I Te c h : I n f o r m a t i o n a n d S o f t w a r e Te c h n o l o g y