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To cite this article: Phillips DR, Conley PB, Sinha U, Andre P. Therapeutic approaches in arterial thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost 2005; 3: 157789.
TXA2
1. 2. 4.
ADP
Thrombin Par-1 GP IIb-IIIa TP
3. Fibrinogen
P2Y12
Fibrinogen,
vWf
Collagen GP VI, 21
Fig. 1. Current therapeutic strategies for the treatment of arterial thrombosis. The reaction diagram is designed to illustrate the pathways regulated by
current therapeutic strategies on unstimulated, discoid platelets (top left), stimulated platelets (top right), and aggregated platelets (bottom). The four
antithrombotic drug classes include: (1) Thrombin inhibitors; (2) GP IIb-IIIa antagonists; (3) P2Y12 antagonists; and (4) inhibition of TXA2 production.
cytochrome P450 isoform 3A4 in order to generate the active events, a narrow therapeutic index makes it a less than optimal
metabolite, a transient intermediate which covalently modies antithrombin for this class of patients. Like their parent
and inactivates the receptor. Ticlopidine has been shown to be anticoagulant, i.e. standard heparin, LMW heparins are
efcacious in conditions such as claudication, unstable angina, indirect antithrombins and utilize antithrombin III to mediate
and cerebrovascular disease [7]. However, the incidence of inhibition of thrombin and FXa. As LMW heparins have more
neutropenia associated with ticlopidine led to the development predictable pharmacokinetics than standard heparin, they are
of a second-generation thienopyridine, clopidogrel, with used in a xed dose manner. Early trials of the LMW heparin
increased potency and fewer side-effects. In the CAPRIE trial enoxaparin in unstable angina and non-Q wave MI patients
[8], clopidogrel was shown to be more efcacious than aspirin, demonstrated improved efcacy over standard heparin and the
particularly in high-risk patients (diabetics and those with a drug has emerged as the most commonly used LMW heparin
history of prior revascularization). Subsequently, the CURE [16,17]. Fondaparinux, a synthetic pentasaccharide, also util-
study [9] demonstrated that patients with unstable angina or izes the antithrombin III binding region of heparin and has
non-ST segment elevation MI received a 20% relative risk been found to be an appropriate anticoagulant for prevention
reduction if they were randomized to clopidogrel plus aspirin of deep vein thrombosis in orthopedic surgery [18]. Unlike
vs. placebo plus aspirin, and the PCI-CURE substudy [10] enoxaparin, which inhibits both thrombin and FXa, fonda-
showed that this benet extended to patients undergoing parinux acts only as an indirect FXa inhibitor. Venous
percutaneous intervention (PCI). The slow onset of action of thromboembolism prevention trials showed that fondaparinux
thienopyridines, due to their metabolism requirement, has has a superior efcacy prole to its comparator enoxaparin.
necessitated the administration of a large loading dose Ongoing trials of fondaparinux in ACS patients will show if the
(300 mg) prior to acute procedures, such as PCI, as demon- concept of attaining superior efcacy by inhibition of FXa
strated in the CREDO trial, where the maximum benet of alone (vs. the combination of FXa and thrombin) can be
clopidogrel administered with aspirin required a loading dose achieved in arterial settings.
given at least 6 h prior to the procedure. This study also
demonstrated a signicant 27% reduction in death, MI and
Combination antithrombotic therapy
stroke from 1-year administration of clopidogrel plus aspirin
following PCI, compared to 1-month dosing [11]. Arterial thrombosis developed at sites of spontaneously or
mechanically disrupted atherosclerotic plaque is triggered by a
multitude of highly thrombogenic materials (i.e. brillar
GP IIb-IIIa antagonists
collagen and tissue factor). It is the result of complex
The GP IIb-IIIa antagonists are designed to bind to the integrin interrelations between coagulation and platelets orchestrated
on unstimulated platelets and on platelets after stimulation. GP by local rheological conditions. An emerging strategy in the
IIb-IIIa is an attractive antiplatelet target as it is (i) on the nal treatment of arterial thrombosis came with the realization that
common pathway mediating platelet aggregation irrespective combinations of antithrombotics provide greater therapeutic
of the agonist used to induce platelet activation, (ii) platelet- benet than are provided by drugs used singly. Accordingly,
specic, and (iii) responsible for a variety of aggregation- the combination aspirin-plus-clopidogrel is rapidly becoming
dependent platelet functions including those in coagulation, the new standard of care for the management of patients with
inammation, brinolysis and vascular cell proliferation. Three non-ST segment elevation ACS and in patients undergoing a
GP IIb-IIIa antagonists have been developed: integrilin, a PCI. In support of this trend, the CURE study demonstra-
cyclic heptapeptide modeled after the active site of the ted that aspirin-plus-clopidogrel caused a 20% relative risk
disintegrin found in the southeast pigmy rattle snake; abcix- reduction of vascular death, MI, and stroke compared with
imab, a Fab fragment of a mouse/human chimeric antibody aspirin-plus-placebo [9]. The dual antiplatelet therapy (aspirin-
against GP IIb-IIIa; and tiroban, a synthetic inhibitor of GP plus-clopidogrel) was also more effective and safer than a
IIb-IIIa. All were designed to be infusible i.v. drugs and are combination aspirin-plus-warfarin in coronary artery stenting
therefore only administered to patients in acute settings who [19,20]. The remarkable efcacy of the dual anti-platelet
have a high risk of experiencing an ischemic event such as those therapy has prompted the initiation of several clinical trials in
undergoing PCI (with or without stent placement) or those indications as diverse as atrial brillation, peripheral arterial
with symptoms resulting from acute coronary syndrome (ACS) disease, peripheral arterial bypass surgery, secondary and high-
[12]. Use of these drugs has shown a remarkable reduction in risk primary prevention, acute ST-segment elevation MI and
death and MI for these indications [1315]. heart failure [21]. Finally, although anticoagulants were
routinely used in the development of antiplatelet agents,
analysis of these data shows that these combinations often
Anticoagulants
provided a clinical benet that was greater than anticipated.
ACS patients, whether undergoing an invasive revasculariza- We and others have used thrombosis models to evaluate
tion procedure or not, are treated with aspirin and antithrom- synergisms between various pathways. Because TXA2 and
bin therapy in the form of unfractionated or LMW heparins. ADP activate different pathways, it was anticipated that
Although unfractionated heparin is effective in reducing clinical combinations of inhibitors of the two pathways would confer a
studies are needed to better dene the underlying mechanisms of 1 mg kg)1) produces an unacceptable number of bleeding
this phenomenon. Aspirin use is also contraindicated in a events [44]. Direct thrombin inhibitors such as angiomax have
signicant population of patients, i.e. those with gastrointestinal also been studied as replacements for unfractionated heparin.
bleeding and those with aspirin-induced asthma. In the REPLACE 2 trial of PCI, angiomax and provisional GP
IIb-IIIa inhibitor compared favorably to heparin plus GP IIb-
IIIa [45]. The primary end point of the trial combined efcacy
Clopidogrel non-responsiveness
and safety parameters and the angiomax arm of the trial was
The primary limitation of clopidogrel is that this drug statistically not inferior to the heparin arm. However, the
demonstrates weak and somewhat variable inhibition of benet related to reduction of bleeding with the use of
P2Y12 [36]. Following a 600-mg loading dose of clopidogrel, angiomax is questionable. In REPLACE 2, the control group
the extent of inhibition of ADP-induced aggregation (5 lM was likely to have been over anticoagulated as the observed
ADP) varied from 33% to 78% in healthy individuals, at 6 h ACT values in the heparin arm were higher than the
post-dosing [37]. This effect is further exaggerated in patients recommended ACT range (200300 s) for use of heparin in
undergoing PCI/stent placement [38,39]. The antithrombotic conjunction with GP IIb-IIIa. As angiomax is substantially
effect of clopidogrel is likely to be dependent on a number of more expensive than standard heparin, economic considera-
factors including but not limited to variations in P450s, tions also contribute to its limited use in PCI patients.
polymorphisms of the P2Y12 receptor and receptor signaling
pathways. Measurements of platelet aggregation and markers
Limitations of anticoagulants oral
of platelet activation (GP IIb-IIIa and P-selectin detection by
specic antibodies) show that clopidogrel resistance is detected Warfarin is the only anticoagulant in chronic use. While the
in 31% of the patients on day 5 and 15% of the patients on day drug provides tremendous benet to affected individuals, its
30 of the treatment regimen [40]. A prospective study of PCI anticoagulant response is inuenced by a variety of factors such
patients with non-ST segment elevation MI showed that up to that >50% of patients are usually outside of the therapeutic
25% of the patients were resistant to clopidogrel [41]. When the range. Due to the large variability in the anticoagulant effect of
patients were stratied into quartiles based on resistance to warfarin and its narrow therapeutic index, a large unmet
ADP-induced platelet aggregation, the most resistant patients clinical need exists for an anticoagulant with predictable xed-
had a 40% adverse event rate during a 6-month follow-up dose usage. The need for a warfarin substitute has led to
period so they are obviously being denied adequate protection numerous drug development projects that have focused on
based on inhibition of P2Y12. It has also been reported that the inhibitors of coagulation proteases that specically inactivate
antiplatelet activity of clopidogrel is blocked in patients treated the protease active site. Ximelagatran, an oral thrombin
with a widely used cholesterol lowering medication (atorvast- inhibitor, was the rst to show that the strategy of direct
atin) which is undoubtedly linked to the metabolism require- coagulation protease inhibition does translate into effective
ment for efcacy [42]. A second limitation of these drugs stems anticoagulation and leads to antithrombotic activity in deep
from their irreversible mechanism of action, which inactivates vein thrombosis and atrial brillation patients [46]. Two studies
the P2Y12 receptor for the lifetime of the platelet. While this is suggest that ximelagatran is at least as effective as warfarin in
not a particular problem with aspirin, which is also irreversible, preventing stroke in high-risk patients with atrial brillation
this feature has led to limited use of clopidogrel before PCI in [47]. The studies also showed that there are incidences of
patients who are at increased risk of undergoing CABG increase in liver enzymes which would require surveillance for
procedures, as the risk for bleeding following clopidogrel potential liver toxicity in future patients. Unfortunately, safety
treatment requires postponement of the procedure for problems of ximelagatran related to serious liver toxicity has
57 days, or transfusion of large numbers of platelets during led the FDA to recommend against approval of this thrombin
the procedure. inhibitor. While several new experimental agents with the
potential to be an effective and low variability anticoagulant
have been evaluated in clinical trials, none of these are available
Limitations of anticoagulants i.v.
for therapeutic use, so the search for a warfarin replacement
Each anticoagulant has evolved unique issues. Replacement of remains a work in progress.
unfractionated heparin has had mixed success. Although the
current ACC/AHA guidelines (2002) prefer enoxaparin over
PAR-1
unfractionated heparin, recent data do not support this
preference. In the SYNERGY trial, enoxaparin was found While drugs that inhibit thrombin or prevent its formation are
not to be superior to unfractionated heparin [29]. In A to Z, for a mainstay in the armamentarium used for the treatment of
patients on a GP IIb-IIIa antagonist (tiroban) and aspirin, arterial thrombosis, as of this writing, no efcacy trials have
enoxaparin was found to be non-inferior to standard heparin been performed to determine whether antagonists of PAR-1,
[43]. LMW heparins also have a narrow safety window. For the thrombin receptor on platelets, could provide a therapeutic
example, in unstable angina patients treated with enoxaparin, a benet. Potent and selective PAR-1 antagonists capable of
25% dose increase in therapeutic level (1.25 mg kg)1 vs. inhibition of thrombin-induced platelet aggregation have been
reported in the literature. Peptide mimetic antagonists such as and may not have suitable pharmacokinetic properties to be
RWJ-58259 are effective in models of thrombosis and vascular viable drug candidates.
injury and could have potential as therapies for treating
thrombosis and restenosis [48]. An oral PAR-1 antagonist,
Secondary aggregation receptors
E-5555, is being developed as a drug candidate for ACS but
denitive clinical efcacy trials have not been reported [49]. While the initial interaction of platelets during thrombosis is
dependent upon GP IIb-IIIa, it has become apparent that
signaling reactions initiated by plateletplatelet contact are
Future directions for antithrombotic drug development
required for thrombus stability. Several mediators of aggrega-
New antithrombotics are required not only to overcome the tion-induced signals have been identied. One is GP IIb-IIIa
limitations of the current drugs to better manage arterial itself which becomes tyrosine phosphorylated and also associ-
ischemia, but also to address the inammatory activities of ates with numerous signaling and cytoskeletal proteins follow-
platelets which contribute to progression of atherosclerotic ing platelet aggregation. The importance of the outside-in
disease. The successes and limitations of current therapies signaling in the enhancement of platelet aggregation was
coupled with the advances made in our understanding of demonstrated by the generation of knock-in mice where
platelet biology are instructive in the design of new drugs to tyrosine residues Y747 and Y759 were mutated to phenylal-
more effectively regulate validated targets, in the identication anine [60]. The so-called DiYF mice displayed selective
of new targets that may safely provide increased benet and in impairment of outside-in signaling resulting in the formation
the development of the proper combination of antithrombotics of unstable aggregates. In addition, as shown in Fig. 2, ex vivo
for the various arterial ischemic indications. perfusion chamber experiments on type III collagen have
shown that the DiYF mouse has defective thrombosis. Another
protein involved in secondary platelet aggregation is CD40L, a
Agonist receptors
tumor necrosis factor family member mainly expressed on
While platelets are activated by numerous agonists acting on activated T cells and platelets [see 61]. CD40L is cryptic in
multiple receptors, the only validated agonist receptor for drug unstimulated platelets, but rapidly becomes exposed on the
discovery is P2Y12. The requirements for improvements over platelet surface after stimulation where it is subsequently
clopidogrel are clear more potent inhibition of P2Y12; less cleaved, producing a soluble hydrolytic product termed
variability of inhibition between different patients; no require- sCD40L [61]. We have shown that mice lacking CD40L have
ment for metabolism resulting in less delay in onset to action; a thrombosis phenotype and that normal thrombosis is
and quicker recovery of platelet function following discontinu- regained upon infusion of sCD40L [62]. Interestingly, sCD40L,
ation of use. While these requirements can most likely be best in addition to being a ligand for CD40, is also a ligand for GP
achieved by an orally available reversible P2Y12 antagonist, IIb-IIIa, a reaction that depends upon its KGD sequence, a
preclinical data indicate three promising candidates in devel- known GP IIb-IIIa binding motif. sCD40L also triggers
opment with different properties. One is cangrelor (AR- outside-in signaling by tyrosine phosphorylation of GP IIIa, a
C69931MX), a nucleotide, intravenous compound that revers- reaction which is defective in the platelets from the DiYF
ibly antagonizes P2Y12 [50]. AZD-6140, an orally available mouse [63]. While inhibition of primary platelet aggregation
direct-acting P2Y12 antagonist [51], is presently being evaluated and this secondary aggregation mechanism are both inhibited
in phase II clinical trials. Prasugrel (CS-747), a thienopyridine by GP IIb-IIIa antagonists, a potential drug target is the
prodrug similar to clopidogrel which is more rapidly converted metalloproteinase responsible for CD40L cleavage. Another
to the active metabolite than is clopidogrel, has completed protein released upon platelet activation that functions to
phase II trials and will be evaluated in phase III trials in ACS consolidate platelet thrombi is Gas6. Gene targeting of Gas6
patients [52]. also demonstrates a thrombosis phenotype [64]. Gas6 binds to
ADP also acts on P2Y1, a Gq coupled receptor. Studies using three receptors on platelets, Tyro3, Axl and Mer, but genetic
either selective antagonists of P2Y1 or P2Y12, as well as gene- targeting of any one unexpectedly inhibits Gas6-induced
targeting strategies [5356] have demonstrated distinct roles for platelet stimulation. However, as Gas6 also induces tyrosine
these two ADP receptors. P2Y1 is responsible for initiation of phosphorylation of GP IIIa, apparently by a mechanism
aggregation to ADP [55], while P2Y12 is critical for amplica- independent of binding to the integrin, it has been proposed
tion of the aggregation response by released ADP, and for that Gas-6 signaling could be therapeutically regulated through
stabilization of platelet aggregates and the growing thrombus inhibition of Gas6-GP IIb-IIIa cross-talk [65].
[57]. In addition to the different roles of these two receptors in Plateletplatelet contacts induce the activation of additional
initiation and stabilization of thrombus growth, one could signaling mechanisms which are involved in aggregate stabil-
argue that the selective tissue distribution of P2Y12 (platelets, ity. One involves Eph kinases and ephrins, specically EphA4
megakaryocytes and glial cells), vs. P2Y1 (which is ubiquitously and ephrinB1, which through receptor ligand interactions on
expressed) makes it the preferred drug target. Although there the platelet surface enhance the binding of GP IIb-IIIa to
are selective P2Y1 antagonists which have been used as in vitro immobilized brinogen in the presence of physiological
tools [58,59], none of these have been clinically evaluated as yet, agonists [66]. Recent work from our laboratory using both
G13, to varying extents. In mice lacking both Gq and G13, no coronary stenting [84], an effect not observed with anticoag-
platelet activation was possible by ADP, TXA2, or thrombin ulants plus aspirin, suggesting that P2Y12 antagonism had an
[27], suggesting that at least Gq or G13 is required to induce some anti-inammatory effect distinct from its antithrombotic mode
activation, and that activation of Gi-type proteins alone is not of action. Targeting of CD40L, another platelet-derived
sufcient for activation of mouse platelets. In these Gq/G13 inammatory protein, either through a blocking antibody
double-decient platelets, adhesion of platelets to collagen was [85] or via gene-targeting [86], greatly inhibited lesion progres-
not affected; however, aggregation in response to collagen brils sion in either LDLR)/) or apoE)/) mice, respectively. Soluble
as well as formation of stable aggregates on collagen-coated CD40L (sCD40L), the shed hydrolytic product of CD40L,
surfaces was completely eliminated. In addition to targeting of G 95% of which is platelet-derived, has been shown to be a
protein subunits, targeting molecules involved in kinase signa- primary risk factor for atherosclerosis/ thrombosis [87]. In
ling pathways have resulted in mice with impaired platelet addition, the binding of platelet-derived sCD40L to endothelial
functions, which is not unexpected given the fact that kinases of cells can lead to the expression of tissue factor, a potent
the src family (Csk, src) have been shown to be physically procoagulant. Clopidogrel has been shown to inhibit
associated with the cytoplasmic domain of GP IIb-IIIa [77]. The ADP-induced CD40L expression, and to lower CD40L levels
platelet phenotype of mice lacking the tyrosine kinase syk, in patients undergoing PCI [88], while aspirin does not. Thus,
critical for downstream signaling through the collagen receptor some forms of antiplatelet therapy, including P2Y12 inhibition,
GPVI, and also activated during outside-in signaling and can inhibit platelet pro-inammatory responses. Finally, recent
activation of GP IIb-IIIa, exhibited defects in platelet activation data show that targeting of GP Ib-IX-V complex, a platelet
induced by ADP epinephrine [78]. Mice lacking the adapter adhesion receptor, in the apoE)/) mouse blocks leukocyte
protein SLP-76, which is on the syk signaling pathway, have recruitment and the development of atherosclerotic lesions [89].
been shown to have defects in GP IIb-IIIa signaling and collagen Thus, studies of the role of platelets in inammation may
receptor responses [79]. The important role of downstream provide new potential targets for CVD through inhibition of
signaling molecules identied through gene-targeting studies atherosclerosis and/or thrombosis.
may provide new opportunities for therapeutic intervention for
blockade of platelet activation, thrombus formation, and
Platelet monitoring
adhesion.
The pharmaceutical industry and drug approval agencies
expect that the early inroads into personalized medicine in the
Evolving paradigm on the relationship of thrombosis
administration of selected chemotherapies will ultimately
to inflammation
extend to all drug classes. These early examples include
Not only are platelets critical players in mediating thrombosis, screening for HER2 positive individuals in the treatment of
but recently their role in inammation has become more breast cancer with Herceptin and the screening for EGF
appreciated. Although it is widely accepted that inammatory receptor for the treatment of lung cancer with getinib [90].
activities that orchestrate the progression of atherosclerosis are More generally, by the time this manuscript is published, the
derived from traditional inammatory cells such as monocytes CYP450 screen will most likely be available to detect the
and neutrophils, emerging data suggest that products released various isoforms of P450 which will be useful in projecting
from platelets during thrombosis are actively involved in this drug levels in individuals treated with a wide variety of drugs.
process and that platelets are a primary source of inammatory While such strategies will be of value in selecting and dosing
proteins within the circulation. For example, Schober et al. [80] antithrombotics, particularly for chronic use, access to blood
reported that platelets deposit RANTES onto endothelial cells of patients treated with antithrombotics continues to provide
in the injured vessel wall, and that this interaction is mediated the best opportunity for monitoring the effect of any therapy
by P-selectin, a surface receptor mediating the attachment of or any combination of therapies on each patient being
platelets to leukocytes and endothelium. Additional work from treated. While suitable assays are available to monitor
this laboratory showed that infusion of activated platelets into anticoagulants, the monitoring of antiplatelet drugs is not
the apoE)/) mouse greatly enhanced the rate of atherosclerotic routinely performed.
lesion progression [81]. The exposure of P-selectin following Evaluations of data from the current antithrombotics and
platelet activation is a key mediator of plateletleukocyte their limitations have dened the assays required to bring
interaction, and facilitates atherosclerotic lesion development, personalized medicine to the patient treated with antiplatelet
as demonstrated by Burger and Wagner [82]. In patients with drugs to prevent arterial thrombosis. First, platelet function
acute MI, plateletleukocyte interaction is increased compared should be monitored in the context of thrombosis. Platelet
with controls, and P-selectin levels have been shown to remain thrombosis in vivo is initiated by adhesive proteins exposed on
increased for at least a month following initial presentation in the vessel wall and stable thrombi result following adhesion,
ACS patients with non-ST segment elevation [83], and even in activation, aggregation, and thrombus stabilization, all occur-
patients with stable coronary artery disease. Antiplatelet ring under conditions of shear. As thrombus stability is one of
therapy with a P2Y12 antagonist plus aspirin was shown the issues, continuous monitoring of thrombus formation is
to decrease plateletmonocyte interactions that occur after essential for determining the effects of drugs that effect targets
involved in thrombus stability, for example, in prostanoid advantage of studying platelet interactions with a thrombogenic
metabolism and in ADP release. Although methods currently surface under specic conditions of shear rate with either non-
available such as light transmittance aggregometry, the Ultegra anticoagulated or anticoagulated blood. Major contributions to
Rapid Platelet Function Assay and platelet activation markers the eld of thrombosis have originated from use of perfusion
such as P-selectin expression are effective in monitoring the chambers. For example, the critical role of VWF and its
ability of end products of any one of these pathways to activate interactions with GP Ib and GP IIb-IIIa to mediate platelet
platelets, they are ineffective in monitoring thrombosis, the adhesion and thrombus growth under arterial shear rates, the
physiological response of platelets to thrombogenic surfaces involvement of GP VI and of the integrin a2b1 in mediating
under shear. Furthermore, while the PFA-100 device is capable platelet adhesion and activation on collagen. Inhibitors of P2Y12
of monitoring the time required for a platelet plug to form in and Cox-1 have also demonstrated antithrombotic activities in
apertures coated with ADP or collagen, it does not provide a this system [92]. However, perfusion chambers are mostly
continuous monitoring of the thrombotic process. A second utilized by academic institutions or by pharmaceutical and
requirement for the personalized monitoring of drugs to biotechnology companies in order to identify or validate targets
prevent arterial thrombosis is that it should not only be and to develop antithrombotic drugs. Several limiting factors
responsive to diverse drug classes but also be capable of have prevented their use as a bedside device for monitoring drug
determining the net effect on thrombosis achieved by combi- efcacy in clinical trials the skill required to determine
nations of antithrombotic therapies. At the present time, the thrombus size was not readily available in clinical settings; quick
four drug classes used to treat patients at risk for arterial readouts for the patient were not available; end point quanti-
thrombosis, aspirin, GP IIb-IIIa antagonists, clopidogrel and cations left investigators without knowledge of the kinetics of
anticoagulants, are used in combinations not properly evalu- thrombus formation, the more critical information.
ated for their net effect on thrombosis. Drugs against Results from several laboratories, however, have made
additional platelet and coagulation protein targets will become progress in modifying these devices to circumvent these
available. Required are technologies that will readily permit difculties. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the utility of monitoring
evaluation of how combinations of these drugs affect throm- the kinetics of thrombosis in perfusion chamber assays. In one
bosis in patients receiving these drugs. A third requirement is instance, using non-anticoagulated samples of blood, we have
that the method must be capable of monitoring individual shown that inhibition of P2Y12, Cox-1, or FXa did not
differences in response to therapy. As outlined above, individ- signicantly reduce thrombus size after a 4-min perfusion
ual differences in response to aspirin and clopidogrel have been period over a collagen-coated surface. However, when more
observed differences which appear to affect clinical outcome. than one of these targets was inhibited, pronounced anti-
While currently available techniques such as light transmittance thrombotic activity was observed. In another experiment, when
aggregometry, Ultegra, or PFA-100 are useful in monitoring human blood was anticoagulated with an FXa inhibitor and
responsiveness to both of these drugs as monotherapy, they are perfused through a chamber in the real-time assay, we observed
ill-suited to measure individual differences when combinations that P2Y12 antagonism with clopidogrel did not affect the
of drugs are employed, the emerging norm. It is also anticipated
that this problem would be amplied when drugs against
additional targets would be introduced. Finally, as the antico-
70
agulants routinely used in blood collection such as citrate or
direct thrombin inhibitors such as PPACK affect thrombosis, 60
volume (M3/M2)
Mean thrombus
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