EXPERIMENT: 1

Object: To find the wavelength of Sodium light by Newtons ring.

Apparatus required: A Plano convex lens of large radius of curvature, optical
arrangement for Newtons rings, plane glass plate; sodium lamp and traveling
microscope.
Formula used: The wavelength of light is given by the formula
=D n2+p Dn2 / 4pR

Where D n+p = diameter of (n+p)th ring

Dn = diameter of n th ring,
P = an integer number,
R = radius of curvature of the curved face of the Plano- convex lens.
Procedure:
(1) If a point source is used only then we require a convex lens otherwise while using
an extended source, convex lens L1 is not required.
(2) Before starting the experiment the glass plates G1 and G2 and the plano convex
lens should be thoroughly cleaned.
(3) The centre of lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass
plate G1 at 45.
(4) Focus the eyepiece on the cross-wire and move the microscope in the vertical
plane by means of rack and pin on arrangements till the rings are quite distinct.
Clamp the microscope in the vertical side.
(5) According to the theory, the centre of the interference fringes should be dark but
sometimes the centre appears white. This is due to the presence of dust particles
between glass plates G2 and plano-convex lens L2. In this case the lens should be
again cleaned.
(6) Move the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes. Fix up
the crosswire tangential to the ring and note this reading. Again the microscope is
moved in the horizontal plane and the cross wire is fixed tangentially to the
successive bright fringes noting the vernier readings till the other side is reached.
This is shown in fig. (2)
(7) The radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is determined by Boys method
as discussed below:
If an object is placed at the principal focus of convex lens placed over a plane
mirror, its image is formed at same point and the distance from the lens is equal to
the focal length f of the lens as shown in fig. (3i).
If the mirror is removed and the object is moved along the axis, a position will
come where the image of the object formed by the lens coincides with object as
shown in fig. (3ii). If the direction of a ray starting from O is such that it is
incident normally on the spherical surface, the ray returns to its previous path and
forms the images at the same point. Since the refracted ray is normally incident on
the surface, it appears to come from the centre of curvature C. Hence in this case
TO=u and TC=v=R we have

.
Knowing the value of u, the value of R can be calculated because the value of f is already
known with the help of fig. (3i).
The radius of the curvature can also be determined by the using a spherometer. In this
case Where l is the distance between the two legs of the spherometer as shown in fig.(4).
H is the difference of the readings of the spectrometer when it is placed on the lens as
well as when placed on the plane surface.

RESULT: The mean wavelength of sodium light = 0 A

Standard mean wavelength = 0 A
Percentage Error = %

SOURCES OF ERROR and PRECAUTION:

(1) Glass plates and lens should be cleaned thoroughly.
(2) The lens used should be of large radius of curvature.
(3) The sources of light used should be an extended one.
(4) Before measuring the diameter of rings, the range of the microscope should be
properly adjusted.
(5) Crosswire should be focused on a bright ring tangentially.
(6) Radius of curvature should be measured accurately.

VIVA- VOCE
Q.1. What is Newtons ring?
Q.2. Why are these rings circular?
Q.3. Why do you an extended source of light here?
Q.4. Why do the rings get closer as the order of the rings increase?
Q.5. On what factors does the diameter of ring depend?
Q.6. Do you get rings in the transmitted light?
Q.7. Why Is the centre of the ring dark?
Q.8. Sometimes the centre is bright. Why?
Q.9. What will happen when the glass plate is silvered on its front surface?
Q.10. What will happen when sodium lamp is replaced by white light source?
Q.11. What will happen if a few drops of a transparent liquid are introduced
between the lens and plate?
Q.12. Why do we make the light fall on the convex lens normally? What will happen
if the light incident obliquely?
Q.13. How can you determine R?

Figure1
Figure 2 Figure 3

OBSERVATION: Value of one division of the main scale=cm.

No of division on the vernier scale=
Least count of the microscope = cm.

Table for determination of (D2n+p D2n) :

No. Micrometer
Of reading
The Diameter D2 (D2n+p - D2n) Mean p
rings Left Right
End End D=(a-b) =(a-b)2 cm2 Cm2
a cm. b cm. cm.
cm2

20 .
19
18 .
17 .
16
15
14
13 . 8
12 .
11 .
10 .
9
8
7
6
5 .

Table for determination of R:

S.No Position of Position of f. cm Position of

object lens lens in u R = uf /f-u
placed on absence of .cm
plane plane
 mirror mirror
1
2
3

Using spherometer method:

S.No Spherometer Reading

Zero reading on plane Reading on lens h =(b-a) Mean h
surface cm. cm.
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total
cm. cm.
(a) (b)
1
2
3

Distance between the two legs of spherometer l = cms.

Calculations:

Using Boys method:

R = uf /f-u = cms
Using Spherometer method:
R = (l2 / h ).+ (h / 2)
The wavelength of sodium light is given by:
= (D2n+p - D2n)/ 4pR = 0 A

The value of (D2n+p D2n) can also be obtained using a graph as shown in fig.(5). The
graph is plotted between the square of diameter of the ring along Y-axis and
corresponding number of ring along X-axis.

Figure 4 Graph
 Experiment No.2

Object: To find the wavelength of Sodium light by Fresnels biprism experiment.

Apparatus used: Optical bench with uprights, sodium lamp, biprism, convex lens, slit
and micrometer eye piece are already fitted on the optical bench.

Formula used: The wavelength of the sodium light is given by the formula in case
of biprism experiment.
= 2d / D
Where = fringe width,
2d = distance between the two virtual sources,
D = distance between the slit and screen.
Again 2d = (d1d2)
Where d1 = distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in one position.
d2 = distance between the two images formed by the convex lens in the second
position.

Description of the Apparatus:

Two coherent sources, from a single source, to produce interference pattern are obtained
with the help of a Bi-prism. A bi-prism may be regarded as made up of two prisms of
very small refracting angles placed base to base. In actual practice a single glass plate is
suitably grinded and polished to give a single prism of obtuse angle 170 0 leaving
remaining two acute angles of 30 each.
The optical bench used in the experiment consists of a heavy cast iron base supported on
four leveling screws. There is a graduated scale along its one arm. Te bench is provided
with four uprights which can be clamped anywhere and the position can be read by
means of Vernier attached to it. Each of the uprights is subjected to the following
motions:
i) Motion along bench
ii) Transverse motion
iii) Rotation about the axis of the up[right.
iv) With the help of the tangent screw, the slit and bi-prism can be rotated in their
own vertical planes.
The bench arrangement is shown in the fig.

Action of Bi-prism:
The action of the Bi-prism is shown in the fig.
Monochromatic light source S falls on two points of the prism and is bent towards the
base. Due to the division of wavefront, the refracted light appears to come from S1 and
S2. The waves from two sources unite and give interference pattern. The fringed are
hyperbolic, but due to high eccentricity they appear to be straight lines in the focal plane
of eyepiece.

Procedure:
Adjustments:
i) Level the bed of optical bench with the help of spirit level and leveling screws.
ii) The slit, Bi-prism and eye-piece are adjusted at the same height. The slit and the
cross wire of eye piece are made vertical.
iii) The micrometer eye piece is focused on cross wires.
iv) With an opening provided to cover the monochromatic source, the light is allowed
to incident on the slit and the bench is so adjusted that light comes straight along
its lengths. This adjustment is made to avoid the loss of light intensity for the
interference pattern.
v) Place the bi-prism upright near the slit and move the eye piece sideways. See the
two images of the slit through Bi-prism; if they are not seen, move the upright of
Bi prism right angle to the bench till they are obtained. Make the two images
parallel by rotating bi-prism in its own plane.
vi) Bring the eye piece near to the bi prism and give it a rotation at right angle of the
bench to obtain a patch of light. As a matter of fact, the interference fringes are
obtained in this patch provided that the edge of the prism is parallel to the slit
vii) To make the edge of the Bi prism parallel to the slit, the bi prism is rotated with
the help of tangent screw till a clear interference pattern is obtained. These fringes
can be easily seen even with the naked eye.
viii) The line joining the centre oft the slit and the edge of the Bi prism should be
parallel to the bed of the bench. If this is not so, there will be a lateral shift and the
removal is most important. This is shown in the fig.
(a) In order to adjust the system for no lateral shift, the eyepiece is slowly moved
away from Bi-prism; the fringes will move to the right or left but base screw
provided with Bi-prism, is moved at right angle to the bench in such a direction so
that bridge in such a direction as to bring the fringes back to their original
position.
(b) Next move the eye piece towards the bi-prism; the fringe system will move
towards right or left but this time, they are brought to their original position by
moving the screw of eye piece.
On using the above process repeatedly, the lateral shift is removed.

Measurements:
(A) Measurement of fringe width ():
i) Find out the least count of the micrometer screw.
ii) Place the micrometer screw at such a distance from bi prism where fringes are
distinct, bright and widely spaced, say 120 cms.
iii) The cross wire is moved on one side of the fringes to avoid backlash error. Now
the cross wire is fixed at the centre of a bright fringe.
iv) The crosswire is now moved and fixed at the centre of every second fringe. The
micrometer readings are noted. From these observations can be calculated.
(B) Measurement of D:
The distance between the slit and eyepiece uprights is noted. This distance gives
D.The value of D is corrected for the bench error.
(C) Measurement of 2d:
The distance 2d between the two virtual sources can be measured with the help of
fig.
i) To obtain the value of 2d, the positions of slit and Bi-prism uprights are not
disturbed.
ii) A convex lens is introduced between Bi-prism and eye-piece and moved in
between to obtain the second position where again two sharp and focused images
 are obtained. The distance between two images is noted. In the first position the
distance is noted by d1
iii) The lens is again moved towards the eye-piece to obtain the second position
where again two sharp and focused images are obtained. The distance in this case
is denoted by d2. Knowing d1 and d2 , 2d can be calculated by using the formula:
2d = (d1 d2)

Result: Wavelength of sodium light = 0A

Standard value of = ..0A
% Error = %

Precautions and Sources of Error:

i) The setting of uprights at the same level is essential.
ii) The slit should be vertical and narrow.
iii) Fringe shift should be removed.
iv) Bench error should be taken into account.
v) Crosswire should be fixed in the center of the fringe while taking observations for
fringe width.
vi) The micrometer screw should be rotated only in one direction to avoid backlash
error.
vii) The fringe width should be measured at a fairly large distance.
viii) Convex lens of shorter focal length should be used (f = 25 cms. approx)
ix) Motion of eyepiece should be perpendicular to the lengths of the bench.

VIVA VOCE

1 What do you mean by interference of light?

2 Is there any loss of energy in the interference phenomenon?
3 What are the different types of interference?
4 What are interference fringes?
5 What is a Bi-prism?
6 Why are the refracting angles of the two prisms made so small?
7 What is the purpose of the Bi-prism?
8 What is the effect of changing the distance between the slit and bi-prism on the
fringe width?
9 How o you measure 2d?
10 How will you locate zero order fringes in Bi-prism experiment?
11 How can you measure the thickness of mica sheet?
12 Are the bi-prism fringes perfectly straight?
13 What is the construction of sodium lamp?
Observations:
Pitch of the screw = .cm
No. of divisions on the micrometer screw = .cm
L.C of micrometer screw = .cm

(1) Table for fringe width :

No. of Micrometer No. of Micrometer Diff. for 20 Mean for 20 Fringe width
fringes reading (a) fringes reading (b) fringes a-b fringes =
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total [Mean/20]
 cms. cms.
1 21
3 23
5 25
7 . . 27 . . . .
9 29
11 .. .. 31 .. .. .. .. ..
13 33
15 35
17 . . 37 . . . .
19 39

(2) Measurement of D:
Position of upright carrying slit = .cms
Position of upright carrying the eyepiece = .cms
Observed value of D = .cms
Value of D for bench error = .cms.

Measurement of 2d:

Micrometer Reading
I st position of the 2 nd position of the 2d = (d1 d2) Mean 2d
S.No. lens lens
I II .d1 I II .d2
image image image image
1
2
3

Calculations:

. = .2d/D = 0A

Figure 1
Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Object: To find the wavelength of white light with the help of a plane transmission
diffraction grating.
Apparatus required: A diffraction grating, spectrometer, mercury lamp, prism,
reading lens.
Formula used: The wavelength of any spectral lines can be calculated by the
formula:
(a +b) sin = n

or = (a +b) sin
n

where (a +b) = grating element

= angle of diffraction
n = order of the spectrum

Procedure for the determination of angles of diffraction:

The spectrum obtained in a grating is shown in fig.
(1) Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and adjust the different
spectral lines (violet, green and red) turn by turn on the vertical cross wire for first
order. Note down the reading of both the verniers in each setting.
(2) Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and again the
spectral lines on the vertical cross wire and note the readings.
(3) Now rotate the telescope to the right of the right of the direct image and repeat the
above procedure for first order as well as for second order.
(4) Find out the difference of the same kind of verniers (V1 fromV1 and V2 fromV2)
for each spectral line in the first order and then in the second order. The angle is
twice the angle of diffraction for that particular color. Half of it will be angle of
diffraction.
(5) Find out the angles of diffraction for other colors in first and second orders.

Result: The wavelength is given in the table.

Color of Spectral . . %
line Observed 0A Standard 0A Error
Violet I .
Violet II .
Blue .
Blue Green .
Green . .
Yellow I .
Yellow II
Red .

Sources of error and Precautions:

(1) Before performing the experiment, the spectrometer should be adjusted.
(2) Grating should be set normal to the incident light.
(3) While taking observation, telescope and prism table should be kept fixed.

VIVA-VOCE

Q. 1. What do you mean by diffraction of light?

Q.2. What is difference between interference and diffraction?
Q.3. What is diffraction grating?
Q.4. What are requisites of a good grating?
Q.5. What is grating element?
Q.6. How many orders do you get here? Why?
Q.7. What is main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?
Q.8. Why is the prism spectrum more intense than the grating spectrum?
Q.9. What is dispersive power of grating?
Q.10. On what factors does the dispersive power of a grating depend?
Q.11. What will happen if the width of clear space and ruled space is made equal?

Observations:
No. of rulings per inch on the grating, N =
Least count of spectrometer = cm.
Reading of telescope for direct image =
Reading of telescope after rotating it through 900
Reading of circular scale when reflected image is
obtained on the cross wire =
Reading after rotating the prism table through 450 or 1350 =
.
Determination of angles of diffraction:
Spectrum on left Spectrum on right
side, reading of side, reading of
Order of Color of Kinds of telescope telescope 2 = a-b Mean
spectrum light vernier M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total degrees
(a) (b)
degrees degrees
Violet V1 ..
First V2

Green V1 ..
V2

Red V1 ..
V2

Violet V1 ..
Second V2

Green V1 ..
V2

Red V1 ..
V2

Calculations: Grating element (a + b) = 2.54/ N= .per cm.

where N is number of ruling per inch on the grating.
The wavelength of various spectral lines in the first order (n= 1)
Can be calculated by

= (a+b) sin = (a+b) sin

1
0
violet = A
Calculate for other spectral lines.

Wavelength in second order is given by

= (a+b) sin
2
violet = A0
Calculate for other spectral lines.
Mean value of violet = .A0.
Figure.1

Figure.2
 Experiment No.4

Object: To determine the refractive index and Cauchys constant of a prism by using a
spectrometer.
Apparatus Required: Spectrometer, given prism, mercury source and reading lens.
Formula Used: The refractive index of the prism is given by the following formula:

= sin (A + m / 2)
Sin (A / 2)
Where A = angle of the prism,
m = angle of minimum deviation.

Procedure:
(A) Measurement of the angle of the prism.
(i) Determine the least count of the spectrometer.
(ii) Place the prism on the prism table with its refracting angle A towards the collimator
and with its refracting edge A at the centre. In this case some of the light falling on each
face will be reflected and can be received with the help of the telescope.
(iii) The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB
and the cross wires are focused on the image of the slit.The reading of the two verniers
are taken.
(iv) The telescope is moved in other side to receive the light reflected from the face AC
and again the cross wires are focused on the image of the slit.The readings of the two
verniers are taken.
(v) The angle through which the telescope is moved or the difference in the two positions
gives twice the refracting angle A of the prism. Therefore half of this angle gives the
refracting angle of the prism.
(B) Measurement of the angle of minimum deviations:
(i) Place the prism so that its centre coincides with the centre of of the prism table and
light falls on one of the polished faces and emerges out of the other polished face, after
refraction. In this position the spectrum of light is obtained.
(ii) The spectrum is seen through the telescope and the telescope is adjusted for
minimum deviation position for a particular color (wavelength) in the following way:
Set up telescope at a particular color and rotate the prism table in one direction, of course
the telescope should be moved in such a way to keep the spectral line in view. By doing
so a position will come where a spectral line recede in opposite direction although the
rotation of the table is continued in the same direction. The particular position where the
spectral line begins to recede in opposite direction is the minimum deviation position for
that color. Note the readings of two verniers.
(iii) Remove the prism table and bring the telescope in the line of the collimator. See the
slit directly through telescope and coincide the image of slit with vertical crosswire. Note
the readings of the two verniers.
(iv) The difference in minimum deviation position and direct position gives the angle of
minimum deviation for that color.
(v) The same procedure is repeated to obtain the angles of minimum deviation for that
color.
Result: Refractive index for the material of the prism:
S.No Color Calculated Standard % Error
1 Violet
2 Blue
3
4
5

Precautions and sources of error:

(i) The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays.
(ii) Slit should be as narrow as possible.
(iii) While taking observations, the telescope and prism table should be clamped with the
help of clamping screws.
(iv) Both verniers should be read.
(v) The prism should be properly placed on the prism table for the measurement of
angle of the prism as well as for the angle of minimum deviation.

VIVA -VOCE
1. What do you mean by refractive index?
2. Does the angle of minimum deviation vary with the color of light?
3. What do you mean by pure spectrum?
4. How vary with wavelength?
5. Can you not use a monochromatic source (sodium lamp)?
6. What is the construction of mercury lamp?
7. What is an eyepiece?
8. What is the construction of Huygenss eyepiece?

Observations:
(i) Value of the one division of the main scale = 0.5 degrees
Total number of vernier divisions = 30.
Least count of the vernier = 0.5 / 30 = 1 minute.
(ii) Table for the angle (A) of the prism.
Telescope reading for reflection Telescope reading for
S.No Vernier from first face reflection from second face Difference Mean A Mean A
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total a-b = 2A value degrees
reading reading (a)degree reading reading (b) of 2A
reading
V1 ..
1 . .
V2 .

2 V1

V2 . ..
3
V1 .

(iii) Table for angle of minimum deviation (m).

Dispersed image. Telescope in Telescope reading for direct Difference Mean
S.No Colour Vernier min. deviation image a-b Deviation
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total (m).
reading reading (a)degree reading reading (b)
reading
 V1
1 Violet
V2 .

V1
2 Blue
V2 .
V1
3 Green
V2 .
V1
4 Yellow
V2 .

Calculations:
Angle of minimum deviation for violet =
Sin (A + m1)
for violet = (2) = .
_____________
Sin (A / 2)

Angle of minimum deviation for blue = ..

Sin (A + m2)
for blue= (2) = .
_____________
Sin (A / 2)
Similarly find the value of for other colors.

Figure 1
 Experiment no. 5

Object: To find the wavelength of Sodium light by Michelson Interferometer

Apparatus Used: Michelson interferometer, sodium lamp, condensing lens and a pin.
Formula Used:
(1) The wavelength of sodium light is given by
= 2(x2-x1) / N
Where x1=initial position of the mirrorM1 of Michelson interferometer.
X2=final position of the mirror M1 of Michelson interferometer i.e.,
(x2-x1) = distance moved by mirror M1.
N = number o0f fringes appeared at the centre of field corresponding to
distance (x2-x1).
(2) The difference of two wavelengths of sodium lines (2-1) is given by
(2-1) = av2 / 2x
Where av2 =12 = (mean of 1 and 2)2
x = distance between the two indistinct positions of mirror M1.
Description of Apparatus:
Michelson interferometer is shown in figure. It consists of two excellent optically plane,
highly polished plane mirrors M1 and M2 which are right angles to each other. There are
two optically flat glass plates G1 and G2 of the same thickness and of the same material
placed parallel to each other. These plates are also inclined at an angle 45o with mirrorM1
and M2. the face of G1 towards G2 is semisilvered.The mirror M1 is mounted on a carriage
which can be moved forward or backward. The motion is controlled by a very fine
micrometer screw (capable of reading up to 10-5cm). The mirrors M1 and M2 are provided
with three leveling screws at their backs. With the help of these screws the mirrors can be
tilted about horizontal and vertical axes so that they can be made exactly perpendicular to
each other is a telescope which receives the reflected lights from mirrors M1 and M2.
Adjustment of the interferometer: In order to obtain the circular fringes, the
following adjustments are made:
(i) The distance G1M1is made nearly equal to G2M2 with the help of drum head
H1i.e., movable mirror M1 is moved by turning the drum head until the two
distances are nearly equal.
(ii) Light coming from sodium lamp is rendered parallel by condensing lens Now a
pin is introduced between condensing lens L and glass plate G1. On looking through
the telescope (being towards glass plate G1 for receiving the emergent light from M1),
four images R1,R2, R3 and R4 are observed as shown in the fig. (2). The images R3 and
R4 are brighter while R1 and R2 are fainter. By adjusting the screws behind the mirror
M2, the brighter images R3 and R4 are made to coincide.
(iii) The pin is now removed. Usually localized fringes appear in the field of view.
To obtain the circular fringes, the mirror M2 is further tilted with the help of
screws attached behind it in such a way that the spacing between the fringes
increases. After the slight adjustments circular fringes appear in the center of the
field of view. If the center of the fringes is not at the center of field of view, then
it is also adjusted by screws.
(iv) By moving the eye in linear or lateral direction, the fringes should not
converge or diverge. If they do so, then again by a final tilt of mirror M2 the
fringes are made stationary.
Procedure: (1) For the wavelength of monochromatic light:
(i) The position of mirror M1 is adjusted by turning drum headH1 so that a bright
spot of circular fringes appears at the center of field of view. The micrometer
reading is noted.
(ii) The mirror M1 is moved away so that a good number of fringes (say 25)
appear at the center of the field. The micrometer screw reading is again noted.
(iii) The procedure is repeated to take 20 readings.
(2) For the difference of wavelengths:
(i) The interferometer is adjusted for circular fringes. The mirror M1 is moved till
there is maximum indistinctness of the fringe pattern. The micrometer screw
reading is noted.
(ii) By further movement of mirror M1the fringe pattern becomes clear. Again the
mirror is moved until the next position of maximum indistinctiveness is obtained.
The micrometer reading is noted.
(iii) The procedure is repeated for a number of consecutive positions of maximum
indistinctness.

Result: (1) The wavelength of sodium light = oA

(2) The difference of wavelengths = oA.

Precautions and sources of error:

(1) Glass plate G1,G2 and mirrors M1 and M2 should not be touched or cleaned.
(2) The micrometer screw should be handled carefully.
(3) The screws behind the mirror M2should be rotated through a very small angle.
(4) There should not be linear or lateral displacement of circular fringes when
viewed by eye.
(5) The position of maximum indistinctness, the fringes should almost disappear.
(6) There should be no disturbance near the experiment.

VIVA VOCE
1. What do you mean by interferometer?
2. Are two mirrors simply plane mirrors?
3. What type of glass plates are G1 and G2 and how are they mounted?
4. What shapes of fringes do you get?
5. Where the circular fringes are formed?
6. What will you observe with white light source?
7. What are localized fringes?
8. When the mirror is moved through a distance / 2, how many fringes appear or
disappear?

Observations: (I) Table for wavelength of monochromatic light.

Least count of rough micrometer screw = 0.001 cm.
Least count of fine micrometer screw = 10-5 cm.
S.No. No. of Position of mirror M1 Difference Mean
fringes Main R.M.S F.M.S Total x for 200 Difference
 appeared scale reading reading (cm) fringes(cm) x (cm)
reading (cm) (cm) (200x)
(cm)
1 0 . . .... . . .
2 25 . . .. . . .
3 50 . . .. . ..
4 75 . .. . ..
.. .. . .. . ..
.. .. . . . ..
20 400 .. .. . .. ..

Table for difference of wavelengths (1 2)

S.No Position of mirror M1 Difference
Main R.M.S F.M.S Total between 5 Mean Mean x(cm)
scale reading reading (cm) consecutive 5x(cm)
reading (cm) (cm) positions
(cm) 5(x) cm
1 . .
2
3
4
..
.. .
.. .
..
10 .

Calculations:

(1) = 2x / N = 2() / 200 = cm.

(2) 1 2 = av2 / 2x = (5893 x 10-8) 2 = cm

Where av = 5893 x 10-8cm.

Figure 1
 Experiment no.6
Object: To find the resolving power of a Telescope.
Apparatus Required: Telescope with a rectangular adjustable slit, a black cardboard
with narrow white strips on it, traveling microscope and meter scale.
Formula Used: The theoretical and practical resolving powers are given by
Theoretical resolving power = /a and
Practical resolving power = d/ D
Where = mean wavelength of light employed,
a = width of the rectangular slit for just resolution of two objects,
d = separation between two objects,
D = distance of the objects from the objective of the telescope hence
/a = d / D.
Procedure:
(i) Mount the telescope on a stand such that its axis lies horizontal and the rectangular
lines marked on cardboard or glass on another stand such that they are vertical.
Place the two stands at a suitable distance.
(ii) Illuminate the object with source of light. Now open the slit with the help of
micrometer screw and move the telescope in the horizontal direction such that the
images of two vertical sources are in the field of view of the eyepiece.
(iii) Gradually reduce the width of the slit till the two images just cease to appear as
two. Note down the reading of the micrometer. Again close the slit completely
and note down the micrometer reading. The difference of the two readings gives
the width of the slit (a) just sufficient to resolve the two images.
OR
If the slit is not provided with micrometer arrangement, the slit is gradually reduced till
the two images cease to appear two. Take the slit and measure its width with the help of
traveling microscope.
(iv) Measure the width (d) of white or black rectangular strips with the help of traveling
microscope.
(v) Measure the distance between the object and the slit which gives D.
(vi) The experiment is repeated for differently values of D.

Result: The theoretical and practical resolving powers of the telescope are shown in the
following table.

Theoretical and Practical Resolving Powers:

Distance Theoretical Resolving Practical Resolving Power
Power (/a) (d / D)

Precautions and Sources of Errors:

(i) The axis of telescope should be horizontal.

(ii) The rectangular object drawn on the card-board should be vertical.
(iii) Backlash error in the micrometer screw should be avoided.
(iv) The plane of the slit should be parallel to the objects.
(v) The width a should be measured carefully.
(vi) The minimum width of the slit for resolution should be adjusted very carefully.
(vii) The distance D should be measured from the slit of the telescope to the cardboard.

VIVA-VOCE

1. What do you mean by resolving power of a telescope?

2. On what factors does the resolving power depend?
3. Define the magnifying power of the telescope.
4. What is Rayleigh criterion of resolution?
5. Why have the objectives of telescopes large apertures?
6. What is the resolving power of a normal eye?
7. What does the term 200 inch written on the telescope indicate?
8. What will be the resolving power of this telescope?

Observations:
(i) Mean value of = 5000 x 10-8 cms.
(ii) Table for width (a) of slit when micrometer arrangement is attached.
L.C of screw = ..cms
S.No Slit Reading Width of Theoretical Distance D
Slit when images When slit is closed slit, resolving cms.
cease to appear
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total
a=(X Y) power(/a)
X Y
1
2
3
4

When micrometer arrangement is not used.

Table for the width of slit (a).
Least Count of microscope = ..cms.
S.No. Distance D Micrometer Reading a = Y-X cms
One end Other end
M.S V.S Total X M.S V.S Total X
1
2
3
4

(iii) Table for the distance between two objects (d)

Least Count of microscope = ..cms.
Micrometer Reading
One end Other End d = Y-X cms.
M.S V.S Total X M.S V.S Total X

Figure 1
 Experiment No. 7
Object: To find the wavelength of He-Ne laser source.
Apparatus Required: He-Ne laser source, two uprights with micrometer, laser
screen, graph paper, optical bench of laser source etc.
Formula Used: The wavelength of He-Ne laser is given by the formula:
. = d/D
Where = fringe width
D = Distance between slit and the screen
= wavelength of He-Ne laser source
d = distance between two slits.
Procedure:
1 Mount the double slits on the uprights and place near the laser.
2 Adjust the position of the screen and the double slit to get a clear parallel fringe
pattern on the screen.
3 note the fringe pattern on the graph paper from the screen.
4 Find the distance between the slit and screen and also find the distance between
the two slits.
5 Now change the distance between the source and the slits and record the pattern
formed on the screen.
6 After recording the pattern find the distance between every two consecutive
pattern and then find the mean fringe width.
7 After finding the value of mean fringe width we will calculate the value of
wavelength of He-Ne laser source.

Result: The wavelength of Laser beam is ..

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1 The slit must be narrow and close to each other as laser beam is very thin.
2 Keep the distance of the screen on the eyepiece from the slit sufficiently large to
observe measurable fringe width.
3 slit should be adjusted for a vertical position and very near the beam coming from
the laser source.

VIVA VOCE
1 What is LASER?
2 What is the meaning of Population Inversion?
3 What are the types of Laser?
Observations: Distance between the source and the screen D = .cms.
Distance between the two slits = d1 and d2.

Observation Table For fringe width:

Case I
S.No Fringe width cms.
1 1 =
2 2 =
3 3 =
4 4 =

Case II
S.No Fringe width 2

1 1 =
2 2 =
3 3 =
4 4 =

Calculations:
Mean = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ) / 4 (For I case)

Mean = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ) / 4 (For II case)

For case I:
1 = d1 /D
= .cms.
For case II:
= d2 /D
= .cms.

Figure 1 Figure 2
 Experiment No.8
Object: To find the specific rotation of sugar solution by using a polarimeter.
Apparatus Used: Polarimeter, A balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and source of
light.
If the polarimeter is employed a half shade device, a monochromatic source should be
used, but if biquartz device is used then white light can be used.
Formula Used: The specific rotation of the [plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in
water can be determined by the following formula,

S = / l.c = .V / l.m
Where = rotation produced in degrees.
l= length of the tube in decimeter.
m = mass of sugar in gms dissolved in water.
V = volume of sugar solution
Procedure:
(i) If the polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source
should be used and if biquartz device is used then white light can be used.
(ii) Take the polarimeter tube and clean well both the sides such that it is free
from dust. Now fill the tube with pure water and see that no air bubble is
enclosed in it. Place the tube in its position inside the polarimeter.
(iii) Switch on the source of light and look through the eyepiece. Two halves of
unequal intensity is observed. Rotate the analyzer until two halves of the field
appears equally bright. Take the reading of the main scale as well as vernier
scale and find out the total reading.
(iv) Prepare a sugar solution of known strength. The procedure for preparing it can
be seen under the heading observations.
(v) Take the polarimeter tube and remove the pure water. Fill it with the prepared
sugar solution and again place it in the polarimeter.
(vi) Rotate the analyzer to obtain the equal intensity position, first in clockwise
direction and then in anti-clockwise direction.
Note down the position of the analyzer on main and vernier scales in the
two directions. Find the mean reading. The difference between this and
previous reading gives the specific rotation.
(vii) Repeat the experiment with sugar solutions of different concentrations.
(viii) Measure the length of the tube in centimeters and change it in decimeters.

Result: The specific rotation for cane sugar at a temperature o C and Ao =

.

Standard Value: .% dm / kg / m3

Percentage Error: ..%.

Sources of error and Precautions:

 (i) The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned.
(ii) Water used should be dust free.
(iii) Whenever a solution is changed, rinse the tube with the new solution under
examination.
(iv) There should be no air bubble inside the tube.
(v) The position of analyzer should be set accurately.
(vi) The temperature and wavelength of light used should be stated.
(vii) Reading should be taken when halves of the field of view becomes equally
illuminated.

VIVA-VOCE
1. What do you mean by polarized light?
2. What does polarization of light tell about the nature of light?
3. Define optic axis and principal section.
4. What is specific rotation?
5. What is polarimeter?
6. Is there any arrangement which can work with white light?
7. What is bi-quartz plate?
8. Can you find from your experiment, the direction of rotation of polarimeter?

Observations:
(A) Preparation of sugar solution:
Mass of watch glass = gm. = kg
Watch glass + sugar = gm = kg
Therefore mass of sugar taken m = . Gms = . Kg
Volume of the solution V = . Gm.. = kg
Concentration of the solution m / V = ..gm / c.c = ..Kg / m3
(B) length of the polarimeter tube l = .decimeter
Room temperature = .degree centigrade

(C) Table for the specific rotation:

Value of one division of the main scale = .
No. of division of vernier scale = .
Least count of vernier =
Mean Conc. Of Analyzer reading with pure water Mean =(a-b) in
Analyzer reading with pure water solution gm/c.c b=X+Y/2 degrees
Clock-wise Anti clock-wise Clock-wise Anti clock-wise
M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total M.S V.S Total X M.S V.S Total Y
X Y
(m/V)

(m/2V)

(m/3V)

Calculation:
Draw a graph between and concentrations. The graph is shown in fig. From graph find
out the value of for a particular concentration. Then,
 S = .V / l.m = 0 / dm/kg/m3

Figure 1

Figure 2
 EXPERIMENT No.9

Object: To compare the capacitances of two condensers by De-Sautys bridge and

hence to find the dielectric constant of medium.

Apparatus Used: Two condensers, two high resistance boxes, accumulator, Morse
key, galvanometer (ballistic) and connecting wires.

Formula Used: The ratio of the capacitances of two condensers is given by:
C1 /C2 = R2 /R1
Where R1 and R2 are the resistances introduced in the two other arms of wheat stones
bridge, the two arms of which contain the two capacitances, C1 and C2 (fig.)

Procedure:
(i) Set the galvanometer and lamp and scale arrangement.
(ii) Make the electrical connections as in the fig.
(iii) Adjust a suitable resistance in resistance box R1 and depress the knob O to charge
the two condensers. Release the knob O, thereby discharging the condensers
through the galvanometer. The spot of light will move either towards left or right.
(iv) By trial now introduce such a resistance in R2, of course R1 remaining the same, that
by discharging the condensers, the deflection remains unaltered.
(v) By changing the value of R1 and finding the value of R2 such that there is no change
in the deflection of spot, other readings are taken.
(vi) Obtain the ratio of R2 / R1 which is also the ratio of the capacitance of two
condensers.

Result: The ratio of the capacitance of the given two condensers =

Sources of Error and Precautions:

(i) The galvanometer coil should be made free properly.
(ii) The resistances R1 and R2 should be non-inductive.
(iii) For sufficient sensitiveness of the bridge, the battery should be of high E.M.F.

VIVA-VOCE
1 What is the order of the resistances R1 and R2?
2 What happens when you press the Morse Key?
3 When are the condensers discharged?
4 Is there any restriction over the choice of resistance now?
5 Does this method give accurate result?
6 What do you mean by capacity of a conductor?
7 What is the effect of dielectric constant on the capacity of a condenser?
8 What are practical unit of e.s.u. of capacity?

Figure 1
Observations:
S.No R1 ohms R2 ohms Direction R2 for R2 / R1 Mean
of balance
deflection
. left
1 500 * No * ..
.. Right
.. Left
2 * No *
. Right
. Left
3 . * No * ..
. Right

Calculations:
(i) C1 / C2 = R2 / R1 = .
Same as we calculate for other sets also.
 Experiment No.10
Object: To find the flashing and quenching potentials of Neon/Argon and also to find
the capacitance of unknown capacitor.
Apparatus Required: A condenser of unknown capacity, 3 condensers of known
capacity (say 32F, 50 F, and 100 F), resistance of the order of few mega-ohm, an
Neon/Argon flashing bulb, stabilized DC power supply of 250V; one way keys as per
requirement.
Procedure:
1 Draw the diagram showing the scheme of connections as in the fig. Make the
connections with all the condensers in the parallel with a separate key to operate
and high resistance R in series with the circuit containing power supply with
stabilized output of 0-250V D.C.
2 Connect the condenser C1 in the circuit by inserting K1. Also insert the key K to
connect power supply and increase the voltage till neon lamp just begins to flash.
As already explained, the bulb starts flashing and quenching as it is connected in
parallel with the condenser. Note the flashing and quenching time for 20 flashes.
Take out the key K so that the power supply is disconnected.
3 Put in the key K4 for the circuit of unknown capacity C0 so that C0 nd lamp are in
parallel with each other. Since C1 and C0 are in parallel their capacities get added
up and total capacity in parallel with the lamp is (C1 + C0). Again insert the key
K and adjust the power supply voltage again to the some value as in previous
case. Note the time for 20 flashes. Remove the key K1 and K4.
4 Now repeat the experiment with the capacity C2 alone and ( C2 + C0 ) andC3 alone
and (C3 + C0). Then repeat the experiment with known capacities ( C1 + C2 ),
( C1 + C2 + C3), ( C1 + C3 ),and ( C1 + C2 + C0), ( C1 + C3 + C0) and
( C1 + C2 + C3 + C0) each time taking the time for 20 flashes.
Result: The flashing and quenching potential of Argon/Neon bulb = .. and the
capacitance of the unknown capacitor is .
Sources of Error and Precautions:
1 Count the number of flashes very carefully.
2 Connections should be tight
3 Capacitors should always be connected parallel to the lamp.

VIVA VOCE

1 What is an Argon/Neon bulb?

2 What is the principle of Neon /Argon bulb?
3 What is flashing potential?
4 what is quenching potential?
5 Why the bulb flashes and quenches?
6 What is flashing and quenching time?
7 Why neon/argon is used in the bulb?
8 Why high resistance is needed in series with the circuit?

Figure 1
Observations:

S.No Known Capacity C Time for 20 flashes Flashing and quenching

time
Without C0 With C0 Without C0 t With C0
t0
1 C1 = F
2 C2 = F
3 C3 = F
4 (C1 + C2 ) = F
5 (C1 + C3 ) = F
6 (C1 + C2 + C3 ) =
F

Calculations:

Draw two graphs on the same scale and on the graph paper. One between C and t and
another between C and t0. They will be parallel lines as shown. Now draw three lines
ABC, DEF and GHK parallel to X-axis as shown, where they cut the graphs, draw CL,
BM, FN, KP, EQ and HR parallel to Y-axis as shown. Now the unknown capacity is
given by:
(a) C0 = CL CM = .. F
(b) C0 = CN CQ = .. F
(c) C0 = CP CR = .. F
Mean C0 = . F

Figure 2
 EXPERIMENT No. 11
Object: To find the temperature coefficient of resistances for platinum, using a
platinum resistance thermometer and a callender and Griffiths bridge.
Apparatus Used: Callender and Griffiths bridge, platinum resistance thermometer,
galvanometer and connection wires.
Formula Used:
The temperature coefficient of resistance, , is given by the formula:

= R2 R1 / R1 t2 R2 t1
Where R1 = resistance of the platinum wire at t1o C
R2 = Resistance of the platinum wire at t2o C
Using a Callendar and Grafith bridge the resistance R, is given by the formula:
R = r +2 x ,

Where = re sistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire.

r = resistance introduced in resistance box.
x = distance of null point from middle point (electrical zero.)
The proper sign is used according as the balance point lines to the right or left of the
electrical zero.
Procedure:
(a) Determination of electrical zero:
Complete the connections as shown in fig. Short circuit the gaps PP and CC i.e.
connect the terminals by a thick copper wire. Make the resistance R zero by moving the
key of variable resistance. Now make the cell circuit on by inserting the plug key.
Determine the position of null point by moving the jockey on the bridge wire. The null
point gives the position of electrical zero.
(b)Determination of resistance per unit length () of the bridge wire:
To determine the value of , the gap (PP) and (CC) are short circuited. The value from
R is adjusted to a small value r to obtain the balance. Let the balance be on the left side of
O at a distance x, then,

0 = r - 2x
= r / 2x
Determination of R2 and R1 at steam temperature and room temperature
respectively:
(i) Connect the compensating leads and platinum leads of platinum resistance
thermometer to the callender and Graffiths bridge at CC and PP respectively. Other
connections are made according to the circuit diagram shown in fig.
(ii) Place the bulb of thermometer in a tumbler of ordinary water bath at room
temperature and wait for some time to ensure that it has acquired the temperature of
water. Note the temperature of water with the help of mercury thermometer. By
introducing a suitable resistance, in the circuit of compensating leads with the help of
moving coil resistance, balance is obtained. This length of the bridge wire is noted. Using
the following formula the resistance of platinum wire R1 at room temperature is
calculated:
R1 = R + 2x
Where R = resistance introduced in the moving coil resistance.
x = length adjusted on bridge wire to get the null point.
(iii) Now the platinum resistance thermometer is placed in hypsometer or in a hot water
bath and wait for some time such that it acquires the constant temperature of the bath.
Note this temperature also and determine again the resistance of the platinum wire as
described above in the point (ii) let the resistance at this temperature be denoted by R2.
(iv) Calculate the value of using the relation,
= R 2 R1 / R1t2 R2t1

Result: The temperature coefficient of resistance for platinum = .per o C

Standard result: The standard value of temperature coefficient of resistance for

platinum = .pero C

Precautions and sources of error:

(i) The end of the connection wires should be well cleaned; moreover connections should
be made tight.
(ii) The balance points for the measurement of R1 and R2 should be determined only
when the temperature acquired by the platinum resistance thermometer is steady.
(iii) Jockey should be pressed gently on the bridge wire.
(iv) The jockey should never be kept pressed while it is being moved on the wire.
(v) Protect the galvanometer with a shunt while approximate null point is obtained

VIVA-VOCE

1. What is the temperature coefficient of resistance?

2. What is its unit?
3. Why have you chosen platinum for this purpose?
4. What is the use of determining ?
5. Why are there mica discs inside the tube of the Pt-resistance thermometer?
6. Why do you record observations when the temperature is falling? Cant you record
them when it is rising?
7. What are the advantages of platinum resistance thermometer?
8. What are its disadvantages?

Observations:
(a) Determination of electrical zero:
S.No Resistance Position of Electrical Zero Mean
introduced in balance point Electrical zero,
moving coil cms. cms.
resistance
1 0 49.9 49.9
2 0 . .
3 0 . . .
4 0 . .
(b) Determination of :
S.no Resistance Distance of Distance = r/2x Mean
introduced null point between ohm/cms
in moving on bridge electrical
coil wire cms. zero and
resistance null point,
cms.
1 . .. .. .
2 . . . .
3 . . .. . .
4 . . . .

(c) Table for the determination of R1 and R2:

S.No Temp. of Resistance Shift of Resistance of Mean ohms
bath used in dial, balance platinum
r from wire in
electrical thermometer
zero cms. ohm
1 Room R = r 2x
2 temp. = ..0C 2.0 . R1 = . R1 = .
3 . R1 =
1 Temp of R1 =
boiling
water 3.5 . R2 = R2 = .
2 = 0C . . R2 =
3
Calculations: The resistance per unit length is given by
= r / 2x = ohm/cm
The resistance of platinum resistance thermometer is given by R = r + 2 x. Using this
formula, calculate the value of R1 and R2 at room temperature and steam temperature
respectively. The temperature coefficient is given by
= R2 R1 / R1 t2 R2 t1 = .pero C

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4
 Experiment No. 12
Object: To find the frequency of A.C mains by using sonometer.
Apparatus Required: Sonometer withy non-magnetic wire (brass wire) stretched
over it, step-down transformer of 6-8 volts, horse shoe magnet, meter scale, screw gauge
and half kg weights.
Formula Used:
The frequency of A.C mains is given by the following formula:
n = 1/2l (T/m)
Where l = length of the sonometer wire between the two bridges when it is thrown
into resonant vibrations.
T= tension applied to the wire.
m = mass per unit length of the wire.
Procedure:
(i) Connect the primary of the step down transformer to A.C mains, while the
secondary to the two ends of the sonometer wire.
(ii) The horse shoe magnet is placed in the middle of the wire such that the magnetic
field is applied in a horizontal plane and at right angles to the length of the wire.
(iii) Hang a mass M ( say kg) from one end of the wire and adjust the distance l
between two bridges C and D symmetrically with respect to magnet till the wire
appears to be vibrating with the maximum amplitude. Note the distance l between
the two bridges.
(iv) By increasing the tension on the wire, repeat the experiment for three or more
different tensions.
(v) Take readings with decreasing weight.
(vi) Measure the diameter of the wire in mutually perpendicular directions at various
points.
(vii) Note the density of the material from the table of constants.

Result: The frequency of alternating current = c/s.

Standard Result: The frequency of A.C mains = 50c/s

Percentage Error: .%

Precautions and Sources of Error:

1 There should be no kinks in the sonometer wire.
2 Pulley should be frictionless.
3 Horse shoe magnet should be placed in the middle.
4 mass of the hanger should be included in tension,T.
5 The distance between the two bridges should be altered very slowly otherwise
resonance point would be missed.
6 The diameter should be determined at various points.

VIVA VOCE
1 What do you understand by A.C?
2 What do you understand by frequency of A.C and what is its value?
3 Does direct current also have any frequency?
4 What is Flemings Left hand rule?
5 What is the principle, according to which the wire begins to vibrate, when the
alternating current is passed through it?
6 What is the function of the transformer here?
7 Can a rubber string be used in place of wire?
8 Why are the bridges provided on the board?
9 Will the frequency of sonometer wire change by changing the distance between
two bridges?
10 What is the function of sonometer board?

Observations:
1 Table for the determination of l and T.
S.No Mass Vibrating
hung Position of the I bridge Position of the II bridge length l (M)/1 Mean
from the meter (M)/1
wire M (x1 x2)
kg Wl Wl Mean Wl Wl Mean meter
increasing decreasing xl increasing decreasing x2
meter meter
1 . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . .
5 . . . . . . . . . .

2 Table for the measurement of diameter of the given wire.

Least count of screw gauge = value of one division of main scale in cm.
Total no. of divisions on vernier scale
Zero error of screw gauge = cm.
S.No Reading along any Reading along
direction perpendicular Uncorrected Mean Mean Mean radius
direction diameter corrected corrected r = (D/2) cm
Total Total (X+Y)/2 cm diameter cm. diameter (D)
M.S C.S X cm. M.S C.S Y cm.
cm.
1
2
3

Calculations:
N = 1/2 [g/ r ]2 1/2
x M/l = c/s.

Figure 1
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13
Object: To determine the velocity of ultrasonic wave in non-conducting medium by
piezo-electric method.
Apparatus Used: Ultra sonic spectrometer, sodium lamp, R.F.oscillator, glass cell for
containing experimental liquid, quartz crystal, convex lens fitted in a stand and spirit
level.
Formula Used:
(i) The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid is given by
V = (vD / dn / n)
Where, v = Frequency of R.F.oscillator
D = distance of the crosswire of the eyepiece from the objective of the
telescope,
= wavelength of sodium light,
dn = distance of the diffracted image.
(ii) The compressibility of the liquid is given by
C = 1 / V2
Where = density of the liquid,
V = velocity of ultrasonic waves in experimental liquid.

Procedure:
(i) The ultrasonic spectrometer is shown in the fig. The glass cell is filled with the
experimental liquid and placed at its proper place inside ultrasonic spectrometer with its
opposite walls facing the telescope and collimator. The crystal is dipped in the liquid near
the wall of the cell as shown in the fig. The leads of the crystals are connected to R.F.
oscillator.
(ii) Switch on the monochromatic source of light. Now adjust condensing lens L, slit of
the collimator, height of the glass cell and eyepiece, a sharp and clear image of slit is
obtained in the telescope.
(iii) The oscillator is switched on. The crystal now oscillates and ultrasonic waves are
propagated in the liquid. The frequency of the oscillator is adjusted, using dial, to match
the neutral frequency of the crystal. Now resonant vibrations are produced and a number
of diffracted images appear on both sides of the central image in the telescope. In case,
the diffracted images are not seen, the position and the orientation of the crystal is
adjusted.
(iv) The distance d1, d2, are between first order, and second order, respectively. They are
measured on the scale provided in the telescope. The diffraction pattern is shown in fig.
dn1 = d1 / 2 and dn2 = d2 / 2

Result:
(i) The velocity of ultrasonic waves in given liquid = .m/sec.
(ii) The compressibility of the given liquid = .cm 2/ dyne.

Precautions and Sources of Error:

(i) The walls of the cell should be properly cleaned.
(ii) The liquid should be filtered twice or thrice before filling it into glass cell.
(iii) The crystal should not touch the walls of glass cell.
(iv) The crystal should be placed parallel to the incident beam.
(v) The leads of the quartz crystal should not cross each other at any point.

VIVA-VOCE

1 What are ultrasonic waves?

2 How can they be produced?
3 What is piezoelectric effect?
4 Why the diffracted images appear?
5 Why do you use sodium light?

Observations:
(i) Wavelength of sodium light = 5893 x 10-8cm.
(ii) Distance of the cross wire of the eyepiece from the objective of telescope D = cm.
(iii) Density of the liquid = gm / c.c
(iv) Frequency of the R.F. oscillator v = .x 106

Table for n and dn

Least count of the scale = .cm
S.No Order of Position of
spectrum diffracted image d = (a-b) dn = d/2
(cm)
On left On right
side of side of
central central
image image
(a) (b)
1 1 . . . .
2 2 . . . .

Calculations:

(i) V = vD / dn1 / 1 = ..cm/sec = met./sec. (For first order)

V = vD / dn2 / 2 = ..cm/sec = met. /sec. (For second order)

Mean Value, V = .met./sec.
(ii) The compressibility of the liquid C = 1 /V2 = .cm2/dynes.

Figure 1