Instrumentation and Control Engineering

What is a Manometer?
A manometer may be any device that measures pressure. However, unless
otherwise qualified, the term manometer most often refers specifically to a U-
shaped tube filled with fluid. This type of manometer can be easily built as part of a
laboratory experiment to demonstrate the effect of pressure on a liquid column.

Construction
A simple manometer can be built by partially filling a clear plastic tube with a
colored liquid to allow the fluid level to be easily observed. The tube is then bent into
a U-shape and fixed in an upright position. The levels of the fluid in the two vertical
columns should be equal at this point, as they are currently exposed to the same
pressure. This level is therefore marked and identified as the zero point of the
manometer.

Measurement
The manometer is placed against a measured scale to allow any difference in
the height of the two columns. This height differential can be used directly to make
relative comparisons between different test pressures. This type of manometer can
also be used to calculate the absolute pressure when the density of the liquid in the
manometer is known.

Use
One end of the tube is connected with a gas-tight seal to a test pressure
source. The other end of the tube is left open to the atmosphere and will therefore be
subjected to a pressure of approximately 1 atmosphere (atm). If the test pressure is
greater than the reference pressure of 1 atm, the liquid in the test column is forced
down the column. This causes the fluid in the reference column to rise by an equal
amount.

Calculations
The pressure exerted by a column of fluid can be given by the equation P =
hgd. In this equation, P is the calculated pressure, h is the height of the fluid, g is the
force of gravity and d is the density of the liquid. Because the manometer is
measuring a pressure differential rather than an absolute pressure, we use the
substitution P = Pa Po. In this substitution, Pa is the test pressure and P0 is the
reference pressure.

Working Principle
A device used to measure the pressure at any point in a fluid, manometers
are also used to measure the pressure of gas and air.

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Instrumentation and Control Engineering

'Pressure' or the intensity of pressure is defined as force per unit area, or P =

F/A, where P is measured in N/m2. Fluid pressure is measured with respect to
varying individual reference that is device or procedural specific. When it is
measured with respect to absolute zero (or complete vacuum), it is called absolute
pressure. When it is measured either above or below atmospheric pressure, it is
called gauge pressure.
The term manometer is derived from the ancient Greek words 'mans',
meaning thin or rare, and 'mtron'. A manometer works on the principle of hydrostatic
equilibrium and is used for measuring the pressure (static pressure) exerted by a still
liquid or gas. Hydrostatic equilibrium states that the pressure at any point in a fluid at
rest is equal, and its value is just the weight of the overlying fluid. In its simplest form,
a manometer is a U-shaped tube consisting of an incompressible fluid like water or
mercury. It is inexpensive and does not need calibration.
A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a fluid-
filled tube where an applied gas pressure causes the fluid height to shift
proportionately. This is why pressure is often measured in units of liquid height (e.g.
inches of water, inches of mercury). A manometer is fundamentally an instrument of
differential pressure measurement, indicating the difference between two pressures
by a shift in liquid column height.

Types
Manometers come in a variety of forms, the most common being the U-tube,
well (sometimes called a cistern) and inclined:

Manometers: (a) U-tube; (b) well type; (c) inclined type.

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Instrumentation and Control Engineering

The U-tube manometer, shown in Figure above (a), is the most common
form of manometer. Applied pressure causes a displacement of liquid inside
the U-shaped glass tube, and the output pressure reading P is made by
observing the difference h between the level of liquid in the two halves of the
tube A and B, according to the equation P=hg, where is the specific gravity
of the fluid. If an unknown pressure is applied to side A, and side B is open to
the atmosphere, the output reading is gauge pressure. Alternatively, if side B
of the tube is sealed and evacuated, the output reading is absolute pressure.
The U-tube manometer also measures the differential pressure (p1 p2),
according to the expression (p1 p2) = hg, if two unknown pressures p1 and
p2 are applied respectively to sides A and B of the tube. Output readings from
U-tube manometers are subject to error, principally because it is very difficult
to judge exactly where the meniscus levels of the liquid are in the two halves
of the tube.In absolute pressure measurement, an addition error occurs
because it is impossible to totally evacuate the closed end of the tube. U-tube
manometers are typically used to measure gauge and differential pressures
up to about 2 bar. The type of liquid used in the instrument depends on the
pressure and characteristics of the fluid being measured. Water is a cheap
and convenient choice, but it evaporates easily and is difficult to see.
Nevertheless, it is used extensively, with the major obstacles to its use being
overcome by using coloured water and by regularly topping up the tube to
counteract evaporation. However, water is definitely not used when measuring
the pressure of fluids that react with or dissolve in water. Water is also
unsuitable when high-pressure measurements are required. In such
circumstances, liquids such as aniline, carbon tetrachloride, bromoform,
mercury or transformer oil are used instead.

The well-type or cistern manometer, shown in Figure above (b), is similar to

a U-tube manometer but one half of the tube is made very large so that it
forms a well. The change in the level of the well as the measured pressure
varies is negligible. Therefore, the liquid level in only one tube has to be
measured, which makes the instrument much easier to use than the U-tube
manometer. If an unknown pressure p1 is applied to port A, and port B is open
to the atmosphere, the gauge pressure is given by p1 = h. It might appear
that the instrument would give a better measurement accuracy than the U-
tube manometer because the need to subtract two liquid level measurements
in order to arrive at the pressure value is avoided. However, this benefit is
swamped by errors that arise due to the typical cross-sectional area variations
in the glass used to make the tube. Such variations do not affect the accuracy
of the U-tube manometer to the same extent.

The inclined manometer or draft gauge, shown in Figure above (c), is a

variation on the well type manometer in which one leg of the tube is inclined to
increase measurement sensitivity. However, similar comments to those above
apply about accuracy.

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 Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Manometer Basics
With each leg of a U-tube manometer exposed to the atmosphere, the height
of liquid in the columns is equal. Using this point as a reference and connecting each
leg to an unknown pressure, the difference in column heights indicates the difference
in pressures.

With both legs of a U-tube manometer open to the atmosphere or With a greater pressure applied to the left side of a U-tube
subjected to the same pressure, the liquid maintains the same level manometer, the liquid lowers in the left leg and rises in the right leg.
in each leg, establishing a zero reference. The liquid moves until the unit weight of the liquid, as indicated by h,
exactly balances the pressure.

The fundamental relationship for pressure expressed by a liquid column is:

p = P2-P1 = gh
where:
p = differential pressure
P1= pressure at the low-pressure connection
P2= pressure at the high-pressure connection
= density of the indicating fluid (at a specific temperature)
g= acceleration of gravity (at a specific latitude and elevation)
h= difference in column heights
The resulting pressure is the difference between forces exerted per unit of
surface area of the liquid columns, with pounds per square inch (psi) or newtons per
square meter (pascals) as the units. The manometer is so often used to measure
pressure that the difference in column heights is also a common unit. This is
expressed in inches or centimeters of water or mercury at a specific temperature,
which can be changed to standard units of pressure with a conversion table.

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Instrumentation and Control Engineering

All pressure measurements are differential. The reference can be zero

absolute pressure (a total vacuum), atmospheric pressure (the barometric pressure),
or another pressure. With one leg of a manometer open to the atmosphere, the
measured pressure is that which exceeds atmospheric pressure, which at sea level
is 14.7 psi, 101.3 kPa, or 76 cmHg.
This measurement is called gauge pressure, and
the relationship for a positive pressure is
expressed by:
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure +
positive gauge pressure
For a negative pressure (vacuum) measurement,
the column heights reverse and the relationship is
expressed by:
absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure +
negative gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is a measurement relative to atmospheric pressure and it varies with
the barometric reading. A gauge pressure measurement is positive when the unknown
pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure (A), and is negative when the unknown
pressure is less than atmospheric pressure (B).

Pressure Relationships

A graphical representation of positive and negative gauge pressure shows the differential aspect of all pressure
measurements, where gauge pressure is the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure.

Variations on the U-Tube Manometer

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Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Carrying this variation in tube sizes further is the well-

type (or reservoir) manometer. As pressure is applied to the
well, the level falls slightly as compared to the level rise in the
column. By compensating the column's scale graduations to
correct for the well drop, it is possible to make a direct reading
of differential pressure. There are connection guidelines
placed on well-type manometers, compared to the U-tube
style:
Connect pressures higher than atmospheric to the well;
connect pressures lower than atmospheric to the tube.
For differential measurements, connect the higher pressure to
the well.
In a well-type manometer, the cross-sectional area
For raised-well of one leg (the well) is much larger than the other manometers, the well
leg. When pressure is applied to the well, the fluid
connection can be lowers only slightly compared to the fluid rise in the
used for gauge and
vacuum other leg. measurements.
A variation of the well-type
manometer is the inclined-tube (or draft gauge) manometer. With an inclined
indicating tube, 1 in. of a vertical rise is stretched over several inches of scale length.
The inclined-tube manometer has better sensitivity and resolution for low pressures.

Low pressure and low differentials are better handled with an inclined-tube
manometer, where 1 in. of vertical liquid height can be stretched to 12 in. of
scale length.

Indicating Fluids
Liquid manometers measure differential pressure by balancing the weight of a
liquid between two pressures. Light liquids such as water can measure small
pressure differences; mercury or other heavy liquids are used for large pressure
differences. For an indicating fluid 3 times heavier than water, the pressure
measurement range is 3 times greater, but the resolution is reduced.
Indicating fluids can be colored water, oil, benzenes, bromides, and pure
mercury. When selecting an indicating fluid, check the specifications for specific
gravity, operating temperature range, vapor pressure, and flash point. Corrosive
properties, solubility, and toxicity are also considerations.

Quick Fact

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Instrumentation and Control Engineering

A sphygmomanometer, a type of manometer, is commonly used to check

blood pressure in humans. Systolic pressure reading is the mercury reading on the
pressure gauge when the pulse is first heard while diastolic pressure reading is when
the pulse can first no longer be heard.

Manometer Applications
Used in the maintenance of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems, low pressure pneumatic or gas systems.
Construction of bridges, installing swimming pools and other engineering
applications.
Climate forecasting.
Clinical applications like measuring blood pressure and in physiotherapy.
Piezometers are used to measure the pressure in pipes where the liquid is in
motion.
References:
Robinson, Allan. 2017, April 24. What is a Manometer. Retrieved from
http://sciencing.com/manometer-2718.html
The Working Principle, Types, And Applications of a Manometer. Retrieved
from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/manometer-working-principle-types-and-
applications.html
Manometer Working Principle. Retrieved from
http://www.allinstrumentation.com/measurements/pressure-
measurement/manometer-working-principle/
Thomas, Dave. 2001, October 1. Manometer Basics. Retrieved from
http://www.sensorsmag.com/components/manometer-basics

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