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SM

QUESTIONS Control of Microbiological


AND ANSWERS Activity in Cooling Water

Bulletin 240
Why is it important to control
microorganisms in cooling water?
Microbiological growth is one of
four major harmful phenomena
that can occur in a cooling water
system. The formation of bio-
deposits on heat transfer surfaces
results in significant heat transfer
loss. These biodeposits or slime
layers can lead to the promotion of
three other major problems: corro-
sion, scale, and fouling. Microbio- Figure 3 An example of micro-
Figure 2 An example of underdeposit
logical is in the center of the cooling growth biological slime accumulation
water treatment triangle in Figure 1
because of its significant impact on
the other three problems. Can microbiological growth lead compared to other common
to scale formation? foulants. Common biofilms are
four times more insulating than
Yes. All mineral scales require a
calcium carbonate scale.
site upon which nucleation can
occur; biodeposits can effectively
provide this site. Also, micro- Are all microorganisms the same
biologically induced corrosion in a cooling system?
by-products can serve as nucleat-
No, there can be potentially thou-
ing sites for scale formation.
sands of different types of microbes
Figure 1 Cooling water treatment in a given cooling system. Some
triangle species will not be problematic
How does fouling result from (i.e., form slime layers or be
How can corrosion occur due to biofilms? corrosive); others will.
microbiological deposits? Because biofilms are slimy and
sticky, the potential for foulants to What types of microorganisms do
Underdeposit corrosion takes place
accumulate in such films com- cause problems in cooling
beneath biofilms and can result in
pared to inorganic deposits is
severe pitting of metal surfaces. systems?
much greater. See Figure 3.
Anaerobes are bacteria that thrive
The three most common types of
in an oxygen-free environment like
microorganisms are bacteria,
that which exists under a biofilm. How insulating is a biofilm algae, and fungi.
These anaerobes generate acidic compared to other foulants found
by-products which corrode metal in cooling water systems?
surfaces. Once the pitting begins
Table 1 illustrates the relative
to occur, it is difficult to stop due
thermal conductivities of biofilms
to the layer of protection covering
the anaerobes. See Figure 2.
Table 1 Thermal conductivity of Why are algae a problem? How is microbiological growth
cooling water foulants (the lower the controlled?
thermal conductivity, the more insulating Algae require sunlight to grow. As
the material) a result, algae are found on cool- There are physical means by
ing tower decks and fill areas that which microbiological activity can
Thermal are exposed to sunlight. Algae be minimized. Backflushing and
Conductivity, grow to form layers or algae air rumbling of heat exchangers
Foulant Btu/hr ftF
mats that result in pluggage of and cleaning of filters are ex-
Calcium Carbonate 1.31.7 deck distribution ports and filter amples. These physical methods
Calcium Sulfate 1.3 screens. If removed, algae can will not destroy or prevent the
Calcium Phosphate 1.5 cause fouling downstream of a growth of microorganisms; chemi-
Magnesium tower. Additionally, algae con- cals called biocides are used for
Phosphate 1.3 sume oxidants that are used to this purpose.
Magnetic Iron Oxide 1.7 control microorganisms in typical
Biofilm 0.4
systems, translating into a higher
usage rate of these oxidants. What kinds of biocides are there?
Finally, algae provide nutrients for There are two major types of
How do bacteria cause problems? other non-algal microbes in a biocides: oxidizers and non-
A variety of bacteria can be harm- system. See Figure 4. oxidizers. Oxidizers oxidize
ful in cooling systems. Some important cellular components in
bacteria types produce slime microorganisms, resulting in
layers, some cause corrosion, and death. Non-oxidizers kill differ-
others react with compounds in ently; they react with specific cell
the bulk water, resulting in harm- components within a microbe to
ful consequences. ultimately destroy that cell.

What are some of the more What are some common


commonly found types of oxidizers?
Figure 4 Bacterial growth increases in
bacteria? the presence of algae Chlorine gas has traditionally been
Pseudomonas is a commonly the biocide of choice for many
found slime-forming bacteria type. years. Due primarily to safety
What problems do fungi cause? concerns, chlorine gas is being
Sulfate-reducing bacteria, also
The largest problem caused by used less and less as a biocide in
known as SRBs, are anaerobic
fungi in cooling water is destruc- cooling water. Liquid sodium
corrosive bacteria that react with
tion or rotting of cooling tower hypochlorite, also known as
sulfate in water to form the very
wood. Soft rot takes place in the bleach, is one alternative to gas-
corrosive acid, hydrogen sulfide.
water washed or flooded portions eous chlorine. Bromine, another
Iron depositing bacteria react with of a tower; deep rot takes place in oxidizer, performs very effectively
soluble iron to form insoluble iron areas that are not exposed to a as a biocide and has some distinct
oxide deposits. constant flow of water, i.e., the advantages compared to chlorine.
plenum areas. Deep rot is the
Denitrifying bacteria are anaero- more damaging of the two types;
bic bacteria that can be most once the rotting begins within the Are there any other oxidizing
problematic in closed systems wood structure, there is no biocide programs for cooling
where nitrite is used to inhibit method to stopping it.
corrosion; denitrifiers convert
water treatment?
nitrite to nitrogen dioxide and Ozone and chlorine dioxide are
nitrogen. two other oxidizing chemicals that
are available. Ozone is a very
Nitrifying bacteria are found in strong oxidizer and efficient
systems where ammonia is biocide; but because it is such a
present; they react with ammonia strong oxidizer, ozone can destroy
to form nitric acid, a very strong organic-based corrosion/scale
corrosive acid. inhibitors present in a typical
cooling water system.
Chlorine dioxide is another strong Because of the many changes in
oxidizer that is used heavily as a microbial composition that take
bleaching agent in pulp and paper place in a system, it is very diffi-
mills. In open recirculating cooling cult without on-site testing to
water applications, chlorine determine what biocide is most
dioxide is not typically used effective for your system.
because of its high volatility;
chlorine dioxide exists as a gas in
water and is much more readily What testing should be run to
stripped from water than is determine an appropriate non-
chlorine or bromine. oxidizer program to use and at
Figure 5 Effect of molar ratios of
what dosage and frequency
What are the advantages to using activated bromide on chlorine kill rate should the program be applied?
bromine? Because each cooling system has a
added to activate the bromide ion unique microbiological population
Bromine is a quicker acting biocide
in sodium bromide to form the that exhibits a resistance to vari-
than chlorine in typical cooling
biocidal hypobromous acid ous non-oxidizing biocides, a
water applications where the pH
compound. selection test should be performed
is greater than 6.8. Less free avail-
on the system water to accurately
able residual bromine is required
determine the most effective non-
to maintain sufficient microbio-
oxidizer program for that system.
logical control as compared to When should non-oxidizers be
The Nalco SELECTICIDE test will
residuals that must exist with the used? provide results that indicate the
use of chlorine. This reduction in
Non-oxidizers should be used in best performing biocide program
residual oxidant requirements
systems where a high oxidant and the beginning dosage at
translates into less oxidant in plant
demand is present. An example is which to initiate the program. The
discharge, less delignification of
a system in which hydrocarbon- frequency of additional slugs of
tower wood, less corrosion/scale
based leaks take place. Such leaks non-oxidizers is determined by
inhibitor degradation, and less
result in an increased demand and monitoring the performance of the
corrosion. See Figure 5.
consumption rate of an oxidant program over time and altering
program. Non-oxidizers are not the frequency of slugs based on
consumed by such leaks and are performance.
Does bromine react with
available for microbial destruction.
ammonia?
Yes, bromine does react with am- Will the required dosage of a non-
monia to form bromamines. Unlike What non-oxidizer program oxidizer program change over
chloramines (chlorine-ammonia should be used in my system? time?
reaction product), bromamines are
almost as biocidal as bromine. The microbiological makeup of Because the microbiological
Chloramines have very little any cooling water system is like a profile of your cooling system may
biocidal effectiveness. moving target. Due to the large change over time, so too can the
variety of factors that can alter the required concentration of non-
microbe population in a system, a oxidizer to achieve satisfactory
non-oxidizing program that is results. Figure 6 illustrates mini-
How is bromine applied?
performing well one day may not mum inhibitory concentration, or
Bromine can be applied directly to be very effective the next. Various MIC, which is simply the mini-
a system using a stabilized dry contaminants entering a system mum amount of non-oxidizing
product. This product is dissolved through either air scrubbing at the chemical required to exhibit any
in a feeder. The solution is then tower or from process leaks play a killing effect on the microorgan-
delivered to the application point. large part in determining what isms in a given system.
A second method of applying microbe types will thrive in that
bromine is to mix sodium bromide system. Different microbe types
solution with chlorine (as gas or exhibit different levels of resis-
liquid bleach) in situ at an applica- tance to a non-oxidizing program.
tion site and pump that mixture to
the cooling system. The chlorine is
Figure 6 Minimum inhibitory
concentration

The characteristics of the micro-


organism populations present in a
system can change due to a variety
of reasons. As these characteristics Figure 7 Biofouling monitor
change, a change in the MIC for
the non-oxidizer being applied may are present in the bulk water. The with agar (food source for mi-
also occur. For the system tested in activity of sessile microbes is the crobes) and a sample of cooling
Figure 6, the MIC is some concen- most critical of the two because water, microorganisms present in
tration between 75 and 100 ppm. microorganisms cause most the cooling water are permitted to
problems when they attach to grow on the plate for a specified
surfaces. period of time. At the end of this
I've been told I need to alternate incubation period, colonies that
non-oxidizing biocides. Why? have formed are large enough in
How do I measure sessile activity? size to count. The activity levels
In a cooling water system, there are commonly expressed as colony
can exist many different types of A biofouling monitor (see
forming units per milliliter of
microorganisms. Within a given Figure 7) can be used to measure
cooling water sample (cfu/ml).
population of microbes, there may sessile activity. The monitor
be some microorganisms that are operates based on pressure drop
resistant to Biocide A, but not across a tube through which a
cooling water sidestream flows. At what level of planktonic activity
resistant to Biocide B. The other
microorganisms in that population As biofilm formation takes place should my system be maintained?
may be resistant to Biocide B, but on the tube surface, the pressure The answer to this question is site-
not resistant to Biocide A. In drop across the tube increases. The dependent. Since the objective of
simple terms, the practice of introduction of an appropriate the microbiological control is to
applying more than one biocide is biocontrol program will reduce prevent biofilm formation, then
to have a broader range of biocidal this biofilm. The pressure drop the level at which you should
effectiveness for a system in which will decrease accordingly. control planktonic activity is the
microbes with varying resistances highest possible count before
to biocides exist. microbes attach and proliferate on
How do I measure planktonic metal surfaces. In other words,
activity? one system may be able to tolerate
How do I monitor the results of a a count of 105 cfu/ml without any
Measurements of microorganisms
biocide program? growth on the surface, while
in bulk water are not as critical as
another system starts to foul if the
Monitoring microbial activity in a those of sessile microbiological
planktonic counts are greater than
cooling system falls into two activity; however, planktonic
103 cfu/ml. Factors affecting this
categories: sessile and planktonic. measurements can be an indica-
planktonic to sessile activity
Sessile refers to those microorgan- tion of what is occurring on
relationship are system flow rate,
isms that are attached to a surface. surfaces in a system. The most
system volume, blowdown rate,
Planktonic microbes are those that common method of determining
and contaminant(s). These factors
planktonic activity is the plate
are all system specific.
count. Using a petri plate filled

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