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3. During lactation, progestin-only pills may be a good option because breast-feeding affords
additional contraceptive action. Estrogen use is contraindicated during breast-feeding because the
hormone decreases milk production and because postpartum women remain in a hypercoagulable
state for weeks after childbirth.[10,53,72] Some menstrual cycle control benefits seen with COCs, such as
less cramping, also are observed with progestin-only pills. However, women taking progestin-only pills
have significantly more spotting or breakthrough bleeding, especially if they take a pill late or miss a
pill.
4. Tjd relaksasi otot polos uterus, tapi dapat juga merelaksasi otot-otot polos intestinal yg
menyebabkan peningkatan asam lambung dan mengiritasi lambung.
5. Other possible mechanisms for DMPA-associated weight gain is its glucocorticoid-like activity (18)
or DMPA associated interference with insulin action.
When researchers compared all three groups, DMPA users were more than
twice as likely as women using nonhormonal or oral birth control to become
obese over the next three years. "The findings are worrisome; however, more
research is needed to determine if DMPA use directly contributes to obesity-
related conditions and puts patients' overall health at risk," said Berenson.
Pertanyaan
1. Bagaimana dengan faktor resiko tjdnya Atherosklerosis dan PJK pada penggunaan
kontrasepsi hormonal?
2. Apakah kontrasepsi hormonal dapat menyebabkan resiko Kanker? Kanker yang mana?
3. Kenapa wanita menyusui dikontraindikasikan pada pil kombinasi?
4. Pada pemakaian kontrasepsi hormonal terjadi mual dan muntah. Mekanismenya bgmana
dan tatalaksananya bgmana
5. Kenapa bisa terjadi peningkatan berat badan pada injeksi progesteron?
6.
Author information
Abstract
Invasive cervical cancer remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, especially among women
in the developing world where screening is either deficient or absent. Of all agents linked to the
causation of this disease, high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) appears to be the strongest factor.
However, not all women with HPV develop cervical cancer. Steroid contraception has been postulated
to be one mechanism whereby HPV exerts its tumorigenic effect on cervical tissue. Steroids are
thought to bind to specific DNA sequences within transcriptional regulatory regions on the HPV DNA
to either increase or suppress transcription of various genes. Although some earlier studies were
reassuring as no increased incidence of cervical cancer was observed, subsequent research has
shown a causative association, especially among long-term users. The role of steroids was further
enhanced by the discovery of hormone receptors in cervical tissue. Some earlier studies of oral
contraceptive steroids found no increased risk, even after controlling for other risk factors, including
smoking and number of partners. However, prospective studies have shown a greater progression of
dysplasia to carcinoma-in-situ with more than 6 years of oral steroid contraceptive use. Similar
findings were also evident from other work, including the Royal College of General Practitioners Oral
Contraception Study. The WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives showed
a relative risk of 1.2 for invasive cancer in users of the long-acting progestational contraceptive, depo-
medroxyprogesterone acetate. However, in users of more than 5 years duration, an estimate of 2.4
was reported. The upstream regulatory region (URR) of the HPV type 16 viral genome, mediates
transcriptional control of the HPV genome and is thought to contain enhancer elements that are
activated by steroid hormones. It has been shown that steroid hormones bind to specific glucorticoid-
response elements within HPV-DNA. Experimental evidence has revealed that high-risk type HPV 16
are able to stimulate the development of vaginal and cervical squamous cell carcinomas in transgenic
mice exposed to slow-release pellets of 17 beta-estradiol in the presence of human keratin-14
promoter. Squamous cell carcinomas developed in a multi-stage pathway only in transgenic mice and
not in nontransgenic mice. The E6 oncoprotein of HPV 16 has been shown to bind to the p53 tumor
suppressor gene and stimulate its degradation by a ubiquitin-dependent protease system. Steroid
hormones are thought to increase the expression of the E6 and E7 HPV 16 oncogenes, which in turn
bind to and degrade the p53 gene product, leading to apoptotic failure and carcinogenesis. However,
the molecular basis of this remains to be proven