Modernity

Modern life redirects here. For the French lm, see 1 Etymology
Modern Life (lm).
The term modern (Latin modernus from modo, just
Modernity is a term of art used in the humanities and now) dates from the 5th century, originally distinguish-
social sciences to designate both a historical period (the ing the Christian era from the Pagan era. In the 6th cen-
modern era), as well as the ensemble of particular socio- tury AD, Cassiodorus appears to have been the rst writer
cultural norms, attitudes and practices that arose in post- to use modern (modernus) regularly to refer to his own
medieval Europe and have developed since, in various age (O'Donnell 1979, 235 n9). However, the word en-
ways and at various times, around the world. While it tered general usage only in the 17th-century quarrel of the
includes a wide range of interrelated historical processes Ancients and the Modernsdebating: Is Modern cul-
and cultural phenomena (from fashion to modern war- ture superior to Classical (GrcoRoman) culture?"a
fare), it can also refer to the subjective or existential ex- literary and artistic quarrel within the Acadmie franaise
perience of the conditions they produce, and their on- in the early 1690s.
going impact on human culture, institutions, and politics In these usages, modernity denoted the renunciation
(Berman 2010, 1536). of the recent past, favouring a new beginning, and a re-
As a historical category, modernity refers to a period interpretation of historical origin. The distinction be-
marked by a questioning or rejection of tradition; the pri- tween modernity and modern did not arise until the
oritization of individualism, freedom and formal equal- 19th century (Delanty 2007).
ity; faith in inevitable social, scientic and technolog-
ical progress and human perfectibility; rationalization
and professionalization; a movement from feudalism (or 2 Phases
agrarianism) toward capitalism and the market economy;
industrialization, urbanization and secularization; the de-
velopment of the nation-state and its constituent institu- Modernity has been associated with cultural and
tions (e.g. representative democracy, public education, intellectual movements of 14361789 and extending to
modern bureaucracy) and forms of surveillance (Foucault the 1970s or later (Toulmin 1992, 35).
1995, 17077). Some writers have suggested there is According to Marshall Berman (1982, 1617), moder-
more than one possible modernity, given the unsettled na- nity is periodized into three conventional phases (dubbed
ture of the term and of history itself. Early, Classical, and Late, respectively, by Peter
Charles Baudelaire is credited with coining the term Osborne (1992, 25)):
modernity (modernit) in his 1864 essay The Painter
of Modern Life, to designate the eeting, ephemeral ex- Early modernity: 15001789 (or 14531789 in tra-
perience of life in an urban metropolis, and the responsi- ditional historiography)
bility art has to capture that experience. In this sense, it
refers to a particular relationship to time, one character- Classical modernity: 17891900 (corresponding to
ized by intense historical discontinuity or rupture, open- the long 19th century (17891914) in Hobsbawm's
ness to the novelty of the future, and a heightened sen- scheme)
sitivity to what is unique about the present (Kompridis
2006, 3259). Late modernity: 19001989
As an analytical concept and normative ideal, modernity
is closely linked to the ethos of philosophical and aes- In the second phase Berman draws upon the growth of
thetic modernism; political and intellectual currents that modern technologies such as the newspaper, telegraph
intersect with the Enlightenment; and subsequent devel- and other forms of mass media. There was a great shift
opments as diverse as Marxism, existentialism, modern into modernization in the name of industrial capitalism.
art and the formal establishment of social science. It also Finally in the third phase, modernist arts and individual
encompasses the social relations associated with the rise creativity marked the beginning of a new modernist age
of capitalism, and shifts in attitudes associated with secu- as it combats oppressive politics, economics as well as
larisation and post-industrial life (Berman 2010, 1536). other social forces including mass media (Laughey 2007,
30).

1
2 3 DEFINITION

Some authors, such as Lyotard and Baudrillard, be- the methodological approach of Hobbes include those
lieve that modernity ended in the mid- or late 20th of John Locke (Goldwin 1987), Spinoza (Rosen 1987),
century and thus have dened a period subsequent to Giambattista Vico (1984, xli), and Rousseau (1997, part
modernity, namely Postmodernity (1930s/1950s/1990s 1). David Hume made what he considered to be the
present). Other theorists, however, regard the period rst proper attempt at trying to apply Bacons scientic
from the late 20th century to the present as merely an- method to political subjects (Hume 1896 [1739], intro.),
other phase of modernity; Zygmunt Bauman (1989) calls rejecting some aspects of the approach of Hobbes.
this phase Liquid modernity, Giddens (1998) labels it Modernist republicanism openly inuenced the founda-
High modernity (see High modernism).
tion of republics during the Dutch Revolt (15681609)
(Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990, chapt. 10,12), English
Civil War (16421651) (Rahe 2006, chapt. 1), American
3 Denition Revolution (17751783) (Rahe 2006, chapt. 611), the
French Revolution (17891799), and the Haitian revolu-
tion (1791-1804). (Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt. 8).
3.1 Political
A second phase of modernist political thinking begins
with Rousseau, who questioned the natural rationality
Politically, modernitys earliest phase starts with Niccol
and sociality of humanity and proposed that human na-
Machiavelli's works which openly rejected the medieval
ture was much more malleable than had been previously
and Aristotelian style of analyzing politics by comparison
thought. By this logic, what makes a good political sys-
with ideas about how things should be, in favour of real-
tem or a good man is completely dependent upon the
istic analysis of how things really are. He also proposed
chance path a whole people has taken over history. This
that an aim of politics is to control ones own chance or
thought inuenced the political (and aesthetic) thinking
fortune, and that relying upon providence actually leads
of Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke and others and led
to evil. Machiavelli argued, for example, that violent di-
to a critical review of modernist politics. On the con-
visions within political communities are unavoidable, but
servative side, Burke argued that this understanding en-
can also be a source of strength which law-makers and
couraged caution and avoidance of radical change. How-
leaders should account for and even encourage in some
ever more ambitious movements also developed from
ways (Strauss 1987).
this insight into human culture, initially Romanticism and
Machiavellis recommendations were sometimes inuen- Historicism, and eventually both the Communism of Karl
tial upon kings and princes, but eventually came to be Marx, and the modern forms of nationalism inspired by
seen as favoring free republics over monarchies (Rahe the French Revolution, including, in one extreme, the
2006, 1). Machiavelli in turn inuenced Francis Bacon German Nazi movement (Orwin and Tarcov 1997, chapt.
(Kennington 2004, chapt. 4), Marchamont Needham 4).
(Rahe 2006, chapt. 1), James Harrington (Rahe 2006,
On the other hand, the notion modernity has been con-
chapt. 1), John Milton (Bock, Skinner, and Viroli 1990,
tested also due to its Euro-centric underpinnings. This is
chapt. 11), David Hume (Rahe 2006, chapt. 4), and
further aggravated by the re-emergence of non-Western
many others (Strauss 1958).
powers. Yet, the contestations about modernity are also
Important modern political doctrines which stem from linked with our notions of democracy, social discipline,
the new Machiavellian realism include Mandeville's in- and development (Regilme 2012, 96).
uential proposal that "Private Vices by the dextrous
Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into
Publick Benets" (the last sentence of his Fable of the 3.2 Sociological
Bees), and also the doctrine of a constitutional "separation
of powers" in government, rst clearly proposed by In sociology, a discipline that arose in direct response to
Montesquieu. Both these principles are enshrined within the social problems of modernity (Harriss 2000, 325),
the constitutions of most modern democracies. It has the term most generally refers to the social conditions,
been observed that while Machiavellis realism saw a processes, and discourses consequent to the Age of En-
value to war and political violence, his lasting inuence lightenment. In the most basic terms, Anthony Giddens
has been tamed so that useful conict was deliber- describes modernity as
ately converted as much as possible to formalized po-
litical struggles and the economic conict encouraged ...a shorthand term for modern society, or
between free, private enterprises (Rahe 2006, chapt. 5; industrial civilization. Portrayed in more de-
Manseld 1989). tail, it is associated with (1) a certain set of
Starting with Thomas Hobbes, attempts were made to use attitudes towards the world, the idea of the
the methods of the new modern physical sciences, as pro- world as open to transformation, by human in-
posed by Bacon and Descartes, applied to humanity and tervention; (2) a complex of economic insti-
politics (Berns 1987). Notable attempts to improve upon tutions, especially industrial production and a
3.3 Cultural and philosophical
Cover of the original German edition of Max Weber's The
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
market economy; (3) a certain range of polit-
ical institutions, including the nation-state and
mass democracy. Largely as a result of these
characteristics, modernity is vastly more dy-
namic than any previous type of social order.
It is a societymore technically, a complex of
institutionswhich, unlike any preceding cul-
ture, lives in the future, rather than the past
(Giddens 1998, 94).
Other writers have criticized such denitions as just be-
ing a listing of factors. They argue that modernity, con-
tingently understood as marked by an ontological forma-
tion in dominance, needs to be dened much more fun-
damentally in terms of dierent ways of being.
The modern is thus dened by the way in
which prior valences of social life ... are recon-
stituted through a constructivist reframing of
social practices in relation to basic categories
of existence common to all humans: time,
space, embodiment, performance and knowl-
edge. The word 'reconstituted' here explicitly
does not mean replaced. (James 2015, 5152)
This means that modernity overlays earlier formations of
traditional and customary life without necessarily replac-
ing them.
3
3.3 Cultural and philosophical
The era of modernity is characterised socially by industri-
alisation and the division of labour and philosophically by
the loss of certainty, and the realization that certainty can
never be established, once and for all (Delanty 2007).
With new social and philosophical conditions arose fun-
damental new challenges. Various 19th-century intellec-
tuals, from Auguste Comte to Karl Marx to Sigmund
Freud, attempted to oer scientic and/or political ide-
ologies in the wake of secularisation. Modernity may
be described as the age of ideology. (Calinescu 1987,
2006).
For Marx, what was the basis of modernity
was the emergence of capitalism and the revo-
lutionary bourgeoisie, which led to an unprece-
dented expansion of productive forces and to
the creation of the world market. Durkheim
tackled modernity from a dierent angle by
following the ideas of Saint-Simon about the
industrial system. Although the starting point
is the same as Marx, feudal society, Durkheim
emphasizes far less the rising of the bourgeoisie
as a new revolutionary class and very seldom
refers to capitalism as the new mode of pro-
duction implemented by it. The fundamental
impulse to modernity is rather industrialism ac-
companied by the new scientic forces. In the
work of Max Weber, modernity is closely asso-
ciated with the processes of rationalization and
disenchantment of the world. (Larran 2000,
13)
Critical theorists such as Theodor Adorno and Zygmunt
Bauman propose that modernity or industrialization
represents a departure from the central tenets of
the Enlightenment and towards nefarious processes
of alienation, such as commodity fetishism and the
Holocaust (Adorno 1973, ; Bauman 1989). Contempo-
rary sociological critical theory presents the concept of
"rationalization" in even more negative terms than those
Weber originally dened. Processes of rationalization
as progress for the sake of progressmay in many cases
have what critical theory says is a negative and dehuman-
ising eect on modern society. (Adorno 1973, ; Bauman
2000)
Enlightenment, understood in the widest
sense as the advance of thought, has always
aimed at liberating human beings from fear and
installing them as masters. Yet the wholly en-
lightened earth radiates under the sign of dis-
aster triumphant. (Adorno 1973, 210)
What prompts so many commentators
to speak of the 'end of history', of post-
modernity, 'second modernity' and 'surmoder-
nity', or otherwise to articulate the intuition
4 3 DEFINITION

of a radical change in the arrangement of hu- 3.5 Scientic

man cohabitation and in social conditions un-
der which life-politics is nowadays conducted, Main article: Modern science
is the fact that the long eort to accelerate the
speed of movement has presently reached its
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Copernicus, Kepler,
'natural limit'. Power can move with the speed
Galileo and others developed a new approach to physics
of the electronic signal - and so the time re-
and astronomy which changed the way people came to
quired for the movement of its essential ingre-
think about many things. Copernicus presented new
dients has been reduced to instantaneity. For
models of the solar system which no longer placed hu-
all practical purposes, power has become truly
manitys home, on Earth, in the centre. Kepler used
exterritorial, no longer bound, or even slowed
mathematics to discuss physics and described regulari-
down, by the resistance of space (the advent
ties of nature this way. Galileo actually made his famous
of cellular telephones may well serve as a sym-
proof of uniform acceleration in freefall using mathemat-
bolic 'last blow' delivered to the dependency on
ics (Kennington 2004, chapt. 1,4).
space: even the access to a telephone market
is unnecessary for a command to be given and Francis Bacon, especially in his Novum Organum, ar-
seen through to its eect. (Bauman 2000, 10) gued for a new experimental based approach to science,
which sought no knowledge of formal or nal causes, and
was therefore materialist, like the ancient philosophy of
Democritus and Epicurus. But he also added a theme that
Consequent to debate about economic globalization, science should seek to control nature for the sake of hu-
the comparative analysis of civilizations, and the post- manity, and not seek to understand it just for the sake of
colonial perspective of alternative modernities, Shmuel understanding. In both these things he was inuenced by
Eisenstadt introduced the concept of multiple moderni- Machiavellis earlier criticism of medieval Scholasticism,
ties (Eisenstadt 2003; see also Delanty 2007). Moder- and his proposal that leaders should aim to control their
nity as a plural condition is the central concept of own fortune (Kennington 2004, chapt. 1,4).
this sociologic approach and perspective, which broadens
Inuenced both by Galileos new physics and Bacon, Ren
the denition of modernity from exclusively denoting
Descartes argued soon afterward that mathematics and
Western European culture to a culturally relativistic de-
geometry provided a model of how scientic knowledge
nition, thereby: Modernity is not Westernization, and its
could be built up in small steps. He also argued openly
key processes and dynamics can be found in all societies
that human beings themselves could be understood as
(Delanty 2007).
complex machines (Kennington 2004, chapt. 6).
Isaac Newton, inuenced by Descartes, but also, like
Bacon, a proponent of experimentation, provided the
archetypal example of how both Cartesian mathematics,
3.4 Secularization geometry and theoretical deduction on the one hand,
and Baconian experimental observation and induction on
the other hand, together could lead to great advances
Modernity, or the Modern Age, is typically dened as
in the practical understanding of regularities in nature
a post-traditional, and post-medieval historical period
(d'Alembert 2009 [1751]; Henry 2004).
(Heidegger 1938, 6667, 6667). Central to modernity is
emancipation from religion, specically the hegemony of
Christianity, and the consequent secularization. Modern
thought repudiates the Judeo-Christian belief in the Bibli-
3.6 Artistic
cal God as a mere relic of superstitious ages (Fackenheim
1957, 272-73; Husserl 1931, ).[note 1] It all started with Main article: Modern art
Descartes revolutionary methodic doubt, which trans-
formed the concept of truth in the concept of certainty, After modernist political thinking had already become
whose only guarantor is no longer God or the Church, widely known in France, Rousseau's re-examination of
but Mans subjective judgement (Alexander 1931, 484- human nature led to a new criticism of the value of
85; Heidegger 1938, ).[note 2] reasoning itself which in turn led to a new understanding
Theologians have tried to cope with their worry that West- of less rationalistic human activities especially the arts.
ern modernism has brought the world to no longer be- The initial inuence was upon the movements known
ing well-disposed towards Christianity (Kilby 2004, 262, as German Idealism and Romanticism in the 18th and
262; Davies 2004, 133, 133; Cassirer 1944, 1314 13 19th century. Modern art therefore belongs only to the
14).[note 3] Modernity aimed towards a progressive force later phases of modernity (Orwinand Tarcov 1997, chapt.
promising to liberate humankind from ignorance and ir- 2,4).
rationality (Rosenau 1992, 5). For this reason art history keeps the term modernity
 5

distinct from the terms Modern Age and Modernism as
a discrete term applied to the cultural condition in which
the seemingly absolute necessity of innovation becomes a
primary fact of life, work, and thought. And modernity
in art is more than merely the state of being modern, or
the opposition between old and new (Smith 2009).
In the essay The Painter of Modern Life (1864),
Charles Baudelaire gives a literary denition: By
modernity I mean the transitory, the fugitive, the contin-
gent (Baudelaire 1964, 13).
Advancing technological innovation, aecting artistic
technique and the means of manufacture, changed rapidly
the possibilities of art and its status in a rapidly changing
society. Photography challenged the place of the painter
and painting. Architecture was transformed by the avail-
ability of steel for structures.
3.7 Theological
From theologian Thomas C. Oden's perspective, moder-
nity is marked by four fundamental values (Hall 1990):
Moral relativism (which says that what is right is
dictated by culture, social location, and situation)"
Autonomous individualism (which assumes that
moral authority comes essentially from within)"
increased specialization of the segments of society,
i.e., division of labor, and area inter-dependency
increased level of excessive stratication in terms of
social life of a modern man
Increased state of dehumanisation, dehumanity,
unionisation, as man became embittered about the
negative turn of events which sprouted a growing
fear.
man became a victim of the underlying circum-
stances presented by the modern world
Increased competitiveness amongst people in the so-
ciety (survival of the ttest) as the jungle rule sets in.
5 See also
Buddhist modernism
Hypermodernity
Industrialization
Islam and modernity
Late modernity
Mass society

Narcissistic hedonism (which focuses on egocentric Modern Orthodox Judaism

personal pleasure)"
Modernisation
Reductive naturalism (which reduces what is reli-
ably known to what one can see, hear, and empiri- Modernism (Roman Catholicism)
cally investigate)" Mythopoeic thought

Modernity rejects anything old and makes novelty ... Postmodernity

a criterion for truth. This results in a great phobic re- Rationalization (sociology)
sponse to anything antiquarian. In contrast, classical
Christian consciousness resisted novelty (Hall 1990). Second modernity

Traditional society
4 Dened Transmodernity

Of the available conceptual denitions in sociology,
modernity is marked and dened by an obsession
with 'evidence', visual culture, and personal visibility
(Leppert 2004, 19). Generally, the large-scale social in-
tegration constituting modernity, involves the:
increased movement of goods, capital, people, and
information among formerly discrete populations,
and consequent inuence beyond the local area
increased formal social organization of mobile pop-
ulaces, development of circuits on which they and
their inuence travel, and societal standardization
conducive to socio-economic mobility
Urbanization
6 Content notes
[1] Quotation from Fackenheim 1967, 27273:
But there does seem to be a necessary
conict between modern thought and the Bib-
lical belief in revelation. All claims of reve-
lation, modern science and philosophy seem
agreed, must be repudiated, as mere relics of
superstitious ages. ... [to a modern phyloso-
pher] The Biblical God...was a mere myth of
bygone ages.
6 7
Quotation from Husserl 1931,:
When, with the beginning of modern
times, religious belief was becoming more
and more externalized as a lifeless conven-
tion, men of intellect were lifted by a new be-
lief, their great belief in an autonomous phi-
losophy and science.
[2] Quotation from Heidegger 1938:
The essence of modernity can be seen in
humanitys freeing itself from the bonds of
Middle Ages... Certainly the modern age has,
as a consequence of the liberation of human-
ity, introduced subjectivism and indivisual-
ism. ... For up to Descartes... The claim
[of a self-supported, unshakable foundation
of truth, in the sense of certainty] originates
in that emancipation of man in which he frees
himself from obligation to Christian revela-
tional truth and Church doctrine to a legislat-
ing for himself that takes its stand upon itself.
[3] Quotation from Kilby 2004, 262:
... a cluster of issues surrounding the
assessment of modernity and of the apolo-
getic task of theology in modernity. Both
men [Rahner and Balthasar] were deeply con-
cerned with apologetics, with the question of
how to present Christianity in a world which
is no longer well-disposed towards it. ...
both though that modernity raised particular
problems for being a believing Christian, and
therefore for apologetics.
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Latin America. Cambridge, UK: Polity; Malden,
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or, Private Vices, Publick Benets. London: Printed
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Bees, or, Private Vices, Public Benets ... with an
Essay on Charity and Charity-Schools and a Search
into the Nature of Society, to Which Is Added, a Vin-
dication of the Book from the Aspersions Contained
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an Abusive Letter to the Lord C.. Edinburgh: Printed
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Manseld, Harvey. 1989. Taming the Prince. The
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Norris, Christopher. 1995. Modernism. In The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy, edited by Ted
Honderich, 583. Oxford and New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-866132-0.
O'Donnell, James J. 1979. Cassiodorus. Berkeley,
California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-
520036-46-8.
8 8 FURTHER READING
Orwin, Cliord, and Nathan Tarcov. 1997. The
Legacy of Rousseau. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-63855-3 (cloth); ISBN
0-226-63856-1 (pbk).
Osborne, Peter. 1992. "Modernity Is a Quali-
tative, Not a Chronological, Category: Notes on
the Dialectics of Dierential Historical Time". In
Postmodernism and the Re-reading of Modernity,
edited by Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, and Mar-
garet Iversen. Essex Symposia, Literature, Politics,
Theory. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
ISBN 0-7190-3745-X.
Rahe, Paul A. 2006. Machiavellis Liberal Republi-
can Legacy. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85187-9.
Regilme, Salvador Santino F., Jr. 2012. "Social
Discipline, Democracy, and Modernity: Are They
All Uniquely 'European'?". Hamburg Review of So-
cial Sciences 6, no. 3 / 7. no. 1:94117.
Rosen, Stanley. 1987. Benedict Spinoza. In
History of Political Philosophy, third edition, edited
by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 456475.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rosenau, Pauline Marie. 1992. Post-modernism
and the Social Sciences: Insights, Inroads, and Intru-
sions. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-08619-2 (cloth) ISBN 0-691-02347-6
(pbk).
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1997. The Discourses and
Other Political Writings, edited and translated by
Victor Gourevitch. Cambridge Texts in the History
of Political Thought. Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41381-8
(cloth); ISBN 0-521-42445-3 (pbk).
Saul, John Ralston. 1992. Voltaires Bastards: The
Dictatorship of Reason in the West. New York: Free
Press; Maxwell Macmillan International. ISBN 0-
02-927725-6.
Smith, Terry. Modernity. Grove Art Online.
Oxford Art Online. (Subscription access, accessed
September 21, 2009).
Strauss, Leo. 1958. Thoughts on Machiavelli.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
77702-2.
Strauss, Leo. 1987. Niccol Machiavelli. In
History of Political Philosophy, third edition, edited
by Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 296317.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
77708-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-226-77710-3 (pbk).
Toulmin, Stephen Edelston. 1990. Cosmopolis: The
Hidden Agenda of Modernity. New York: Free
Press. ISBN 0-02-932631-1. Paperback reprint
1992, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN
0-226-80838-6.
Vico, Giambattista. 1984. The New Science of
Giambattista Vico: Unabridged Translation of the
Third Edition (1744), with the Addition of Prac-
tice of the New Science, edited by Thomas Goddard
Bergin and Max Harold Fisch. Cornell Paperbacks.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-
9265-3 (pbk).
8 Further reading
Adem, Seifudein. 2004. Decolonizing Modernity:
Ibn-Khaldun and Modern Historiography. In Is-
lam: Past, Present and Future, International Seminar
on Islamic Thought Proceedings, edited by Ahmad
Sunawari Long, Jaary Awang, and Kamaruddin
Salleh, 57087. Salangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia:
Department of Theology and Philosophy, Faculty of
Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Arendt, Hannah. 1958. The Origins Of Totalitar-
ianism Cleavland: World Publishing Co. ISBN 0-
8052-4225-2
Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Rea-
son: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Thousand Oaks,
Calif: Sage Publications. ISBN 0-8039-8975-X
(cloth) ISBN 0-8039-8976-8 (pbk)
Carroll, Michael Thomas. 2000. Popular Modernity
in America: Experience, Technology, Mythohistory.
SUNY Series in Postmodern Culture. Albany: State
University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-4713-
8 (hc) ISBN 0-7914-4714-6 (pbk)
Corchia, Luca. 2008. "Il concetto di moder-
nit in Jrgen Habermas. Un indice ragionato.
The Labs Quarterly/Il Trimestrale del Laboratorio
2:396. ISSN 2035-5548.
Crouch, Christopher. 2000. Modernism in Art
Design and Architecture, New York: St. Martins
Press. ISBN 0-312-21830-3 (cloth) ISBN 0-312-
21832-X (pbk)
Davies, Oliver. 2004. The Theological Aesthet-
ics. In The Cambridge Companion to Hans Urs von
Balthasar, edited by Edward T. Oakes and David
Moss, 13142. Cambridge and New York: Cam-
bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-89147-7.
Eisenstadt, Shmuel Noah. 2003. Comparative Civ-
ilizations and Multiple Modernities, 2 vols. Leiden
and Boston: Brill.
Everdell, William R. 1997. The First Moderns: Pro-
les in the Origins of Twentieth-Century Thought.
 9

Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-

22480-5 (cloth); ISBN 0-226-22481-3 (pbk).
Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar (ed.). 2001. Alter-
native Modernities. A Millennial Quartet Book.
Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-
2703-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8223-2714-7 (pbk)
Giddens, Anthony. 1990. The Consequences of
Modernity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
ISBN 0-8047-1762-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-1891-
1 (pbk); Cambridge, UK: Polity Press in association
with Basil Blackwell, Oxford. ISBN 0-7456-0793-4

Horvth, gnes, 2013. Modernism and Charisma.

Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 9781137277855 (cloth)

Jarzombek, Mark. 2000. The Psychologizing of

Modernity: Art, Architecture, History. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Kolakowsi, Leszek. 1990. Modernity on Endless
Trial. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN
0-226-45045-7

Kopi, Mario. Sekstant. Belgrade: Slubeni glasnik.

ISBN 978-86-519-0449-6

Latour, Bruno. 1993. We Have Never Been Mod-

ern, translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-94838-
6 (hb) ISBN 0-674-94839-4 (pbk.)

Perreau-Saussine, Emile. 2005. ""Les libraux face

aux rvolutions: 1688, 1789, 1917, 1933"" (PDF).
(457 KB). Commentaire no. 109 (Spring): 18193.

Regilme, Salvador Santino F. Jr.. 2012. "Social

Discipline, Democracy, and Modernity: Are They
All Uniquely European?". Hamburg Review of So-
cial Sciences. Volume 6, Issue 3 & Volume 7, Issue
1. 94-117

Wagner, Peter. 1993. A Sociology of Modernity:

Liberty and Discipline. Routledge: London. ISBN
9780415081863

Wagner, Peter. 2001. Theorizing Modernity.

Inescapability and Attainability in Social Theory.
SAGE: London. ISBN 978-0761951476
Wagner, Peter. 2008. Modernity as Experience and
Interpretation: A New Sociology of Modernity. Polity
Press: London. ISBN 978-0-7456-4218-5

9 External links
10 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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