ARTICLE IN PRESS

Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641

www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv

Development of a local real world driving cycle for motorcycles

for emission factor measurements
Jiun-Horng Tsaia,, Hung-Lung Chiangb, Yi-Chun Hsuc,
Bo-Jun Penga, Rong-Fang Hungd
a
Department of Environmental Engineering, National Cheng-Kung University, 1 University Rd., Tainan 701, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Risk Management, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
c
Department of Environmental Engineering, Kun Shan University of Technology, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kun Shan University of Technology, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
Received 28 February 2005; received in revised form 18 July 2005; accepted 26 July 2005

Abstract

The development of driving cycles is important for the success of a mobile source management program. A
comparison between a localized driving cycle (Kaohsiung Driving Cycle, KHM), European (Economic Commission of
Europe Driving Cycle, ECE), USA, Japanese and Hong Kong cycles was investigated in this study. The CO, THC, NOx
and CO2 emission factors of the entire KHM and ECE cycles as well as the speedtime relationship between these two
cycles were also compared in this study. Results indicated that the KHM and ECE as well as worldwide harmonized
motorcycle emissions certication/test procedure (WMTC) cycles were completely different in driving characteristic
parameters, emission factors and fuel consumption. For example, the time percentages of acceleration and deceleration
of ECE cycle are much less than those values in Kaohsiung city. In contrast, the duration of cruising mode (8.6%) in the
Kaohsiung area driving cycle is lower than those of ECE (32.3%), WMTC (2753%) Japanese 1015 mode (21.2%)
and Hong Kong (9.4%). Results further indicated the emission factor ratios of the KHM and ECE driving cycles of
2stroke new/in-use motorcycles for CO, THC, NOx and CO2 were 2.5/1.5, 1.5/1.3, 2.0/1.4 and 1.0/1.0, respectively. In
addition, the emission factors in the KHM cycle for 4-stoke cycles are higher than those of the ECE. For fuel
consumption, the KHM cycle was 10% higher than ECE cycle for the same engine type. Consequently, the KHM
pattern developed in the present study for the Kaohsiung metropolitan area should be used to truly represent the trafc
pattern, emission factor and fuel consumption.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Driving cycle; Dynamometer testing; Emission factor; Fuel consumption

1. Introduction unique in comparing to other areas of the world.

Asia has the worlds highest concentration of motor-
cycles; they are an important transportation tool that is
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 6 2751084;
fax: +886 6 2083152.
E-mail address: jhtsai@mail.ncku.edu.tw (J.-H. Tsai).
Unfortunately, motorcycles not only present trafc
problems but also emit signicant air pollutants. For
example, motorcycles with about 54% of the total
vehicle population in Jakarta contributed to more than
20% of both PM10 and CO and 40% of HC emission in
1998 (Asian Development Bank, 2002a). In Hanoi, Viet
Nam, motorcycles also contributed to signicant

1352-2310/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.07.040
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6632 J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641
amounts of air pollutants: CO (54%), HC (54%), Pb
(54%) and dust (43%) with an incredible annual
motorcycle increase, e.g., 5340 units month
1 in 1999
and 9940 units month
1 in 2000 (Asian Development
Bank, 2002b). Source proles from mobile emissions in
Taiwan in 1995 indicated that 38% of CO, 3% of NOx,
64% of NMHC and 30% of PM were emitted from
motorcycles (TEPA, 1997a), or 650, 13, 550 and 160
thousand metric tons, respectively. The same problems
of motorcycle trafc and resultant pollution are taking
place in many Asian cities. Therefore, it is clear that a
priority must be given to developing and implementing
pollution control strategies for these two wheelers if
Asian cities are to achieve clean and healthy air.
The Taiwan EPA has employed a variety of control
programs to improve the air quality since 1995. In the
past several years, stringent emission standards and fees
have controlled the stationary sources and reduced some
pollutants. Therefore, mobile source control is impor-
tant to further improving the air quality in the future.
The operation of on-road vehicles determines the
extent of pollutant generation. A driving pattern can
provide a convenient means to estimate fuel consump-
tion and emission of vehicles in a given urban area
(Simanaitis, 1977; Lyons et al., 1986). The driving cycles
of vehicles have been developed under specic driving
characteristics. Some are based on on-road driving data
such as American federal test procedure (FTP 75) and
Melbourne peak cycles (Watson et al., 1982), while
others use models or polygonal driving cycles (Kuhler
and Karstens, 1978) such as the Japanese cycle (Umino,
1991) and European driving cycle (ECE). However,
driving characteristics clearly differ from one city to
another (Simanaitis, 1977; Kent et al., 1978; Wang et al.,
1985; Tong et al., 1999). For example, the use of the
ECE cycle was unable to predict the total exhaust
emission in Turkey (Ergeneman et al., 1997). The ECE
and FTP-75 are currently employed as the motorcycle
and vehicle emission testing procedures in Taiwan, but
they do not seem suitable for the metropolitan areas.
The use of incorrect pollutant emission factors derived
from a particular driving cycle would certainly cause the
failure of vehicle pollution control strategy (Lyons et al.,
1986; Tzeng and Chen, 1998; Tong et al., 1999).
Therefore, the development of real world driving cycle
is important to trafc transport management, vehicle
pollution measurement and control strategy, energy fuel
consumption, as well as vehicle industry development.
The goal of this study was to obtain a better
understanding of motorcycle driving cycles (pattern),
obtained from speed-time data in the Kaohsiung
metropolitan area in southern Taiwan. Since driving
cycles are considered to be broadly representative of the
driving conditions in each respective jurisdiction, the
results from one study in Taipei (Tzeng and Chen, 1998)
are certainly not applicable to Kaohsiung city. Also
methodology (to be discussed later) in the present study,
including the road conditions as well as analysis of
spatial difference, differs from that of Chen et al. (2003)
who also develop motorcycle emission and fuel con-
sumption in both urban and rural areas. Specically, we
used four roads (with and without divider for cars and
motorcycles) to investigate the difference of driving
pattern between rush and non-rush hour conditions.
Also, an important element is that characteristics of the
driving cycle change with time, and should be updated
to reect the current status.
The major tasks in the present study included a
comparison of the Kaohsiung motorcycle (KHM)
driving cycle with those of ECE, FTP-75 and Japanese
models. The motorcycle exhaust characteristics (CO,
HC, NOx and CO2) and fuel consumption of the KHM
cycle and those from the current use of ECE cycle were
also investigated. It is believed that the results of the
present study should represent the driving conditions in
Kaohsiung city.
2. Experimental
2.1. Selected metropolitan area and routes
Kaohsiung is the second largest city in Taiwan with
the metropolitan population of 1.5 millions in 2003 and
the area is about 154 km2. In Kaohsiung, there are over
1 million motorcycles which contribute to about 73% of
the total vehicles in 2002. Motorcycle is the most
important transportation means for daily activity. The
mobile source accounts for approximately 74% of CO,
24% of HCs and 29% of NOx. Consequently, it is
important to develop strategy for reducing pollutant
emissions from mobile sources.
Four main routes were selected to investigate motor-
cycle driving cycles. Each direction (north2south and
east2west) has two routes (Fig. 1). All of the four
routes connect the downtown and rural area of
Kaohsiung. The same four major routes, with the ample
past trafc ow information, were previously selected to
investigate air pollution control program in 1997
(TEPA, 1997b). Further, two roads provide a divider
between passenger cars and motorcycles.
The test street distance ranges from 3.5 to 4.6 km
which matches closely with the common travel distance
in southern Taiwan (45 km trip
1). The width of the
motorcycle-driving lane ranges from 2.91 to 4.69 m; two
routes (C and D) possess the exclusive motorcycle lane
and the other two (A and B) with motorcycle trafc not
separated from other vehicles. The number of trafc
signals in the four testing routes varies from 18 to 30.
Testing durations were 07:0010:00 (rush hours in the
morning, RHM), 16:0019:00 (rush hours in the
evening, RHE) and 11:0015:00 (non-rush hours,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641
Fig. 1. Diagram and testing route characteristics of the Kaohsiung metropolitan area (Kaohsiung City Government, 2001).
NRH). Each testing period was conducted twice for
every route.
2.2. Data collection system
The 125 cm3 motorcycle (Kwang-Yang Motor Co.,
Ltd.) was equipped with a frequency-voltage transducer
and data acquisition system to acquire the timespeed
data during testing period. The device was mounted in
the front wheel. Five magnetic chips were glued to the
front wheel disk at the equal distant apart at 721
intervals and the magnetic sensor was rmly placed in a
hole on the outer hubcap of the front wheel. The
magnetic sensor detected the passage of the magnets
during wheel rotation, and the transducer transmitted
the signal to the data acquisition system. The driver
randomly selected the target motorcycle to establish on-
road driving cycle and test was terminated until the
motorcycle was out of the focus area.
The system recorded data every 0.1 s and it averaged
the data every second (10 sets of data). Thus, data had
been time-weighed and only those values within 5% of
the mean value were selected. Essentially, this serves as a
6633
ltering function, resulting in a relatively smooth-
ing pattern. Consequently, no subsequent data ltering
was performed. Further, there is no additional weighing
on the data of rush-hour (morning and evening) and
non-rush hour. All data were selected randomly and
treated equally.
The induction auto-logger transferred the speed signal
of the motorcycle into digital data. The speed of the
motorcycle at various times was then recorded by the
data acquisition system for further analysis in the
laboratory. The time scale resolution of the data
acquisition system was 0.1 s. The lower limit of the
measurement of driving speed was 0.5 km h
1 (those
with speed o0.5 km h
1 treated as idle stage) The
preliminary work has assured the stability of timespeed
data recording, stability of the retted equipment on the
motorcycle, and accuracy and precision of the motor-
cycle driving speed.
2.3. Selection of the motorcycle driving cycle
The most difcult task in developing a driving cycle
was the condensation of a large amount of speed data
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6634 J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641

into a cycle of reasonable duration. Different methods
have been used in synthesizing driving cycles, e.g., only
the average speed, RMS acceleration and percentage idle
time were used (Kent et al., 1978). Tong et al. (1999), on
the other hand, selected nine parameters to compose a
driving cycle which included average speed, average
acceleration, average deceleration, mean length of a
driving period, time proportions of driving modes,
whereas Esteves-Booth et al. (2001) developed a driving
cycle by composing ve different speeds (0, 024, 2432,
3040 and 4048 km h
1).
The present study employed the approach of xed
route vehicle chasing. There are 11 parameters in the
assessment analysis including average speed of the entire
driving cycle including the idle periods, v1 (km h
1);
average running speed excluding the idle periods, v2
(km h
1); average acceleration of all acceleration phases,
a (m s
2); average deceleration of all deceleration
phases, d (m s
2); mean length of a driving period, c
(s); time proportion of the driving cycle, i.e. idle (pi);
acceleration (pa); cruising (pc); and deceleration (pd) (%);
average number of accelerationdeceleration changes

Select the target streets

Collect the driving data

11 typical parameters

Data analysis Mean value of 11 typical parameters

Combine 10 driving
Tested driving cycle
periods by the random
method
11 typical parameters

Measure the typical parameter of

Tested driving cycle

No

Absolute relative error < 5% of each

parameter

Acceptable

Repeat 40 times
Minimize the sum of absolute relative error of

Yes representative driving cycle

KHM driving cycle

Fig. 2. Flow chart of driving cycle development.

 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641 6635

within one driving period, M; and root mean square

acceleration, RMS (m s
2). In addition, the different

(m s
2)
driving modes are dened as follows. Idling mode, zero

RMS

0.62
0.62
0.57
0.60
0.61
0.06

10.4
speed; acceleration mode, the positive incremental speed
changes 40.1 m s
2; cruising mode, the absolute incre-
mental speed changes p0.1 m s
2; deceleration mode,
the negative incremental speed changes 40.1 m s
2; and

3.41
17.1
13.7
18.5
15.4
16.1

21.2
M
driving period, the time of driving cycle (s).
The selection of the representative driving cycle is as
follows: From the data (time, speed, etc.) collected, 11

pd (%)
parameters mentioned above were determined from 46

0.43

0.19
31.0
31.1
31.2
29.1
30.6
driving trips. For each trip, there were many driving
periods, separated by idle stage, e.g., stop due to either
trafc jam or trafc light. Out of 46 trips, there were

pc (%)
approximately 316 driving periods in which 10 periods

8.0
7.6
9.8
8.9
8.6
0.2

0.3
were randomly selected. Thereafter, 10 periods were
combined into one trip (cycle) for which 11 parameters
were calculated based on the time duration of each

pa (%)
period. The absolute relative error of each parameter

0.44

0.18
33.6
32.2
34.0
31.6
32.8
was then calculated from the mean value of all test runs
n 46. The absolute relative erroro5% was used as a
criterion for determining the tness of each parameter.

pi (%)
The procedure was repeated for about 40 times of

0.71

0.34
27.4
29.1
25.0
30.4
28.0
randomly selected 10 other driving periods, or 40 tested
driving cycles. The sum of absolute relative errors of all
the 11 parameters was calculated for each driving cycle;
with the least sum of absolute relative errors as a
114.9
101.2
122.0
111.2
111.9
18.7

16.8
c (s)

representative driving cycle in the Kaohsiung metropo-

litan area. Lastly, the representative driving cycle was
d (m s
2)

used for the subsequent fuel consumption and pollutant

0.65
0.65
0.60
0.53
0.61
0.19
emission studies. Fig. 2 summarizes the development

31.0
procedures for the Kaohsiung motorcycle driving cycle.
n1 (km h
1) n2 (km h
1) A (m s
2)

2.4. Dynamometer testing

0.60
0.62
0.55
0.58
0.59
0.06

9.8

There were 19 motorcycles tested, including 10

2-stroke 50 cm3 (3 new and 7 in-use) and 9 4-stroke (3
new and 6 in-use) 125 cm3 engines. For new motorcycles,
they were manufactured by the same company (Kwang-
Parameter characteristics of the different testing routesa

28.3
27.0
28.6
33.0
29.2

14.4
4.2

Yang Motor Co.) and tested by the same driving model.

For in-use motorcycles, they were obtained from three
manufacturers for 2-stroke motorcycles and four man-
ufactures for 4-stroke motorcycles, but they were all
21.0
19.1
21.8
23.2
21.2
3.4

6.0

tested by the same driving model. The mileage of used

Average of all testing runs n 46.

ones ranged from 4 to 57 thousands km. The routine

maintenance was performed in the used cycles. Weight
of 2-stroke 50 cm3 motorcycle ranged from 75 to 80 kg
844.8
663.5
772.7
735.5
753.3
141.7

18.8
t (s)

and the 4-stroke 125 cm3 motorcycle 109117 kg.

Test motorcycles were rst examined for safety in a
certied motorcycle manufacture laboratory, and the
541.3

12.4
4743.9
3459.3
4592.7
4645.3
4350.2
L (m)

fuel was then replaced. The next day, test motorcycles

were warmed up before subject to dynamometer
(HORIBA, MEXA-8320) test. The warm-up processes
Covariance
deviation
Standard
Averagea

included a 50 km h
1 cruise for a distance greater than

Driving
Table 1

10 km, and then an idle stage for 40 s before the test.

cycle

(%)
a
D

Each motorcycle was tested once for ECE and KHM.

A

C
B
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6636 J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641
2.5. Gas sampling and analysis
Gas samples were collected for the entire cycle (both
ECE and the selected KHM cycle) with an automated
instrument at a constant sample volume (HORIBA, CVS-
51S). The tailpipe of each motorcycle was connected
directly to a sampling bag for the entire test cycle. The gas
was analyzed for CO, THC, NOx and CO2 by monitors
(ONO SOKKI). The background pollutant concentra-
tions were also analyzed routinely and deducted from the
test results. Results indicated the background concentra-
tions were approximately 2 ppm for CO, 6 ppm C for
THC, 0.1 ppm for NOx, and 0.01% for CO2, which were
much lower than those of the sampling gas.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characteristics of all testing runs
Table 1 shows the mean values and standard devia-
tions of all test runs. The time proportions of accelera-
tion, cruising, and deceleration are obviously different
than those of the ECE cycle (32.8%, 8.6% and 30.6% for
KHM cycle versus 18.5%, 32.3% and 18.5% in ECE
cycle, respectively); the time percentages of acceleration
and deceleration of ECE cycle are much less than those
values in Kaohsiung city. In contrast, the duration of
cruising mode (8.6%) in the Kaohsiung area driving
cycle is lower than those of ECE (32.3%), FTP 75
(20.4%), Japanese 1015 mode (21.2%), and Hong Kong
(9.4%). In addition, the average number of accelera-
tiondeceleration changes within one driving period
M 16:1 is much higher than those of other models,
e.g., ECE (1.0), US FTP 75 (6.0), Japanese 1015 mode
(2.4), and Hong Kong (6.01) (Tong et al., 1999). The
results, therefore, support the notion that the ECE is not
suitable as a standard testing cycle in Taiwan.
3.2. Characteristics of different testing routes
Table 1 also shows the parameters from the four
routes. Route B is the shortest distance of four routes
with the smallest driving speed. Route D exhibited the
highest value of driving speed and smallest value of
deceleration than other routes. Motorcycles in the
Table 2
Parameter characteristics of the different testing periods
Duration n1 (km h
1) n2 (km h
1) a (m s
2) d (m s
2)
RHM 22.2 30.6 0.59 0.57
NRH 23.0 31.2 0.62 0.66
RHE 18.7 26.2 0.55 0.60
RHM: rush hour in the morning; NRH: non-rush hour; RHE: rush hour in the evening.
restricted lanes (C and D) could maintain higher speed
due to less interference by passenger cars. From Fig. 1
data, the number of the motorcycle per lane width for
Route D is the smallest (about 2760 d
1 m
1) with the
least trafc lights per length (2.9 km
1). All these
characteristics are responsible for the highest driving
speed in Route D. More trafc lights on routes A and B
(Fig. 1) apparently inuence the driving pattern.
The sequence of average acceleration of all accelera-
tion phases, a, was: route B4A4D4C. The lowest pi
value in Route C may be due to the lesser trafc lights
(19) and the highest pa, pc and pd values due to heavier
motorcycle trafc loading (24,940 motorcycles in Fig. 1).
Note that the trafc loading is based on 2001 data; the
numbers in our surveying days should be different.
3.3. Characteristics of different testing periods
The testing periods were divided into three parts,
which included RHM, NRH, and RHE; results are
shown in Table 2. The n1 and n2 was 18.723.0 and
26.231.2 km h
1, respectively. The a and d values
ranged from 0.55 to 0.62 and from 0.57 to 0.66 m s
2,
respectively. The sequence of different driving modes
was pa4pd4pi4pc. The mean length of a driving
period, C and M were about 111 and 16 s, respectively.
The driving speed in the RHE period was the slowest
among three periods; moreover, it also had the longer
idling period of the entire cycle. The lowest acceleration
and deceleration values were also measured in the RHE
period. The data revealed typical trafc characteristics
of southern Taiwan. People come home from work and
students get out of classes during the RHE period,
therefore, the trafc is jammed. As would be expected,
the non-rush period had the fastest driving speed and
acceleration among the three testing periods.
3.4. KHM driving cycle
Table 3 shows 9 typical synthesized driving cycles with
11 typical parameters in each cycle. Each parameter was
compared with the mean value of all test runs (absolute
relative erroro5%). In order to choose the representa-
tive driving cycle among these synthesized cycles, the
sum of absolute relative error was then calculated for
each cycle. The data within the parenthesis in Table 3
C (s) pi (%) pa (%) pc (%) pd (%) M RMS (m s
2)
111.0 28.5 32.5 9.0 30.0 15.8 0.61
113.4 25.6 33.8 8.6 32.0 16.1 0.65
111.5 29.3 32.5 8.2 30.0 16.3 0.56
Table 3
Synthesized testing cycles

Driving cycle n1 (km h
1) n2 (km h
1) a (m s2) d (m s2) c (s) pi (%) pa (%) pc (%) pd (%) M RMS Sum of
(m s2) absolute
relative
errors (%)

J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641

Average of 21.2 29.3 0.59 0.61 111.9 28 32.8 8.6 30.6 16.1 0.61
testing runs
KHM cycle 2 21.5 29.2 0.61 0.60 111.7 26.4 31.3 10.9 31.3 16.1 0.59 49.6
(1.4)a (0.3) (3.4) (1.6) (0.2) (5.7) (4.6) (26.7) (2.3) (0.0) (3.3)
KHM cycle 3 19.5 27.1 0.59 0.62 111.1 28.1 32.2 9.2 30.5 16.2 0.59 31.3

ARTICLE IN PRESS
(8.0) (7.5) (0.0) (1.6) (0.7) (0.4) (1.8) (7.0) (0.3) (0.6) (3.3)
KHM cycle 15 21.0 28.9 0.61 0.63 109.4 27.2 32.7 8.5 31.5 15.2 0.61 24.1
(0.9) (1.4) (3.4) (3.3) (2.2) (2.9) (0.3) (1.2) (2.9) (5.6) (0.0)

KHM cycle 32 21 29 0.58 0.61 111.3 27.7 32.6 8.7 31.0 16.4 0.59 13.5
(0.9) (1.0) (1.7) (0.0) (0.5) (1.1) (0.6) (1.2) (1.3) (1.9) (3.3)

KHM cycle 89 20.7 28.9 0.61 0.64 113.1 28.5 32.4 8.3 30.8 15.4 0.6 26.2
(2.4) (1.4) (3.4) (4.9) (1.1) (1.8) (1.2) (3.5) (0.7) (4.3) (1.6)
KHM cycle 98 21.8 29.3 0.57 0.61 112.4 25.7 33.7 9.1 31.5 16.3 0.59 30.9
(2.8) (0.0) (3.4) (0.0) (0.4) (8.2) (2.7) (5.8) (2.9) (1.2) (3.3)
KHM cycle 125 21.4 29.5 0.58 0.61 112.5 27.5 32.8 8.1 31.6 16.3 0.59 19.2
(0.9) (0.7) (1.7) (0.0) (0.5) (1.8) (0.0) (5.8) (3.3) (1.2) (3.3)
KHM cycle 178 20.4 27.7 0.58 0.63 111.1 26.7 33.5 8.7 31.1 17.0 0.6 31.7
(3.8) (5.5) (1.7) (3.3) (0.7) (4.6) (2.1) (1.2) (1.6) (5.6) (1.6)
KHM cycle 204 20.2 27.8 0.59 0.62 114.2 27.6 32.8 8.1 31.5 17.5 0.6 34
(4.7) (5.1) (0.0) (1.6) (2.1) (1.4) (0.0) (5.8) (2.9) (8.7) (1.6)
a
Parenthesis is the percentage of the absolute relative error.

6637
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6638 J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641

show the absolute relative error of 11 typical parameters

Tong et al. (1999)

Tong et al. (1999)
Tong et al. (1999)
Tong et al. (1999)

UN/ECE (2003)
between the mean values of all test runs n 46 and

TEPA (1997b)
those of each synthesized driving cycle. As it turns out,

References

This study
the KHM cycle 32 with the smallest sum of absolute
relative error (13.5%) was eventually selected to
represent a typical motorcycle driving cycle in Kaoh-

siung.

RMS (m s
2)
3.5. KHM cycle and other driving cycle

0.77
0.75
0.60
0.67

0.59
Table 4 compares the parameter characteristics of the

selected KHM driving cycle with others. The mean length

28.8

16.4
1.0
6.0
2.4
6.0
(about 111 s) of the KHM cycle was much higher than

M
those of other cycles (4577 s). The number of acceler-
ationdecelerations within one driving period of the

pd (%)
KHM cycle (16.4) is also higher than that of other cycles,

18.5
28.5
21.5
28.6
30.3

28.2
28.3
18.5
31.0
except for Taipei motorcycle driving cycle (TMDC). This
demonstrated that there was a high frequency of speed

pc (%)

32.3
20.4
21.2

18.7

26.5
28.8
53.3
9.4

8.7
variations in motorcycle driving in the Kaohsiung
metropolitan area. Furthermore, the KHM cycle also
had a much lower percentage of cruising time (8.7%) than

pa (%)
those of other driving cycles. This may indicate that the

18.5
33.1
25.9
30.6
31.5

28.3
35.5
25.6
32.6
frequent speed variation was due to the fact that the driver
had to change speed to adapt to the road trafc

pi (%)

30.8
18.0
31.4
31.4
19.5

27.7
7.3
2.5
conditions. Again, many factors contribute to the site-

17
specic patterns, including lane width, type and number of
cars and motorcycles, topography, time (rush and non-

111.3
45.0
70.0
64.3
49.6
77.3
c (s)

rush hour), driving behavior, and among others.
A new test for worldwide harmonized motorcycle
d (m s
2)

emissions certication (WMTC) cycle has been pro-

0.75
0.71
0.66
0.59
0.83

0.61
posed for 2006 regulations. The comparison of KHM

with the current WMTC shown in Table 4 indicates
signicant differences with respect to speed and idle
A (m s
2)

time. Therefore, WMTC is not suitable to be used in our

0.75
0.61
0.55
0.55
0.80

0.58
investigated area.



For better comparison, ECE and KHM speed diagrams
with respect to time in the representative driving cycle
n2 (km h
1)

(KHM 32) are shown in Fig. 3. The ECE cycle is a

regulated driving cycle and displays a smooth driving
27.1
41.6
32.7
22.2
23.8

29.0
Parameter characteristics of the different driving cycles

cycle. In contrast, KHM cycle displays a random driving

condition. The speed of KHM cycle is also slightly higher

n1 (km h
1)

than that of the ECE cycle. As for the idle stage, there
were 11 stages in the ECE cycle, yet only 6 stages in the
18.7
34.1
22.7
15.4
19.4

24.2
54.7
94.4
21.0

KHM cycle for the same time duration (up to 800 s).
The driving cycle is considered to be unique in
different cities due to local trafc conditions and driver
1877

1471

1126
195

660

950

600
600
600
t (s)

behavior. Therefore a localized driving pattern devel-

oped in the present study may reect a typical driving
17,788
14,982
1014

6330
5109

4070
9110
1574
6568
L (m)

condition. This should replace the ECE cycle currently

used in the emission testing procedures.

3.6. Exhaust emission factor of ECE and KHM cycles

Driving cycle

1015 mode

KHM cycle
HK cycle

Part 1
Part 2
Part 3

The localized motorcycle driving cycle developed in

WMTC
FTP 75
Table 4

TMDC

the present study was further used to establish useful

ECE

baseline information in a mobile source management

 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641 6639

program. Table 5 shows the exhaust emission factor of
CO, HC, NOx and CO2 of ECE and KHM cycle during
the entire cycle. The CO, HC, NOx and CO2 emission
factor ratios of the KHM and ECE cycles for 2-stroke
new/in-use motorcycle were 2.5/1.5, 1.5/1.3, 2.0/1.4, and
1.0/1.0, respectively. The CO, HC, NOx and CO2
emission factor ratios for 4-stroke new/in-use motor-
cycle were 1.9/1.3, 1.7/1.4, 1.1/1.4, and 1.0/1.0, respec-
tively. Moreover, the CO, HC, NOx and CO2 ratios of
the 2-/4-stroke motorcycles in the ECE/KHM cycles
ranged from 1.3 to 2.1, 3.9 to 4.8, 0.007 to 0.10, and 1.0
to 1.0, respectively. Due to the 4-stroke engine structure
60 ECE cycle
50
40
30
20
Speed (km h-1)
and the fuel combustion efciency, there is a higher
temperature in the combustion zone of the 4-stroke
engine resulting in less CO and HC but higher NOx
concentrations, as compared to the 2-strokes.
For better comprehension, Figs. 4a and b depict the 2-
and 4-stroke motorcycle emission factors of the KHM
and ECE driving cycles, respectively. The errors of
analysis for CO, HC, NOx and CO2 were approximately
0.010.02%, 0010.03%, 210.7% and 0.260.38%,
respectively, for 2-stroke. The respective analytical
errors for 4-stroke were 0.010.08%, 0.050.17%,
0.020.06% and 0.250.33%. In general, the emission
factors of the KHM driving cycle were higher than those
of the ECE cycle, due to frequent accelerationdecelera-
tion as shown in Fig. 3. Therefore, when the emission
factors of the ECE cycle are used to measure the
emission of motorcycles, the results are underestimated
which signicantly affect the pollution contribution
proportion of the mobile source. As a result, the air

10
0 pollution control strategy and implementation plan
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 could be inexpedient. In the future, the real world of
KHM driving cycle should be implemented to actually
60 KHM type display the trafc conditions in the Kaohsiung metro-
50 politan area. It is noted that no duplicate tests were
40 performed. However, based on our best estimate, the
30 reproducibility of the overall testing results should be
20 within 8090% of our ndings.
10 Fig. 4 further demonstrates the effect of accumulated
0 mileage on pollutant emission which indicates the trend
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
of the high mileage motorcycle accompanying with high
Time [s]
CO and HC emission. Moreover, the KHM cycle,
Fig. 3. Driving cycle of ECE and KHM (cycle 32). compared to the ECE cycle, exhibited signicantly high

Table 5
Emission factor and fuel consumption of 2- and 4-stroke motorcycles during the ECE and KHM cycles

Engine type Driving cycle CO (g km
1) HC (g km
1) NOx (g km
1) CO2 (g km
1) Fuel consumption (l km
1)

2-stroke New ECE 1.8870.08a 1.2570.17 0.00170.001 60.871.4 0.02870.0009

n3 KHM 4.7170.25 1.8870.17 0.00270.002 60.171.8 0.03170.0009
KHM/ECE 2.50 1.50 2.0 0.99 1.11
In-use ECE 7.0272.00 2.8071.79 0.01870.010 52.476.8 0.03070.0030
n7 KH 10.6075.39 3.6372.28 0.02570.016 53.076.7 0.03470.0050
KHM/ECE 1.51 1.30 1.39 1.01 1.13
4-stroke New ECE 1.1770.69 0.2970.13 0.1570.06 59.574.7 0.02670.0026
n3 KH 2.2870.98 0.4870.25 0.1770.04 61.373.6 0.02870.0026
KHM/ECE 1.95 1.66 1.13 1.03 1.08
In-use ECE 5.6174.29 0.5870.20 0.1870.07 54.774.3 0.02870.0028
n6 KHM 7.4174.90 0.7970.21 0.2670.06 55.975.2 0.03070.0030
KHM/ECE 1.32 1.36 1.44 1.02 1.07
2-/4-stroke New ECE 1.61 4.31 0.007 1.02 1.08
KHM 2.07 3.92 0.012 0.98 1.11
In-use ECE 1.25 4.83 0.1 0.96 1.07
KHM 1.43 4.59 0.1 0.95 1.13
a
Standard deviation.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6640 J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641

25 25
CO emission factor (g km-1)
20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0

10 1.2

1
8
HC emission factor (g km-1)

0.8
6
0.6
4
0.4

2
0.2

0 0

70 70
CO2 emission factor (g km-1)

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

0.05 0.4
NOx emission factor (g km-1)

0.04
0.3

0.03
0.2
0.02

0.1
0.01

0 0
0 1*104 2*104 3*104 4*104 5*104 6*104 0 1*104 2*104 3*104 4*104 5*104 6*104
(a) Mileage (km) (b) Mileage (km)
2-stroke 4-stroke

Fig. 4. Motorcycle emission factors as function of mileage ((&) ECE cycle; (K) KHM type).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.-H. Tsai et al. / Atmospheric Environment 39 (2005) 66316641
CO and HC pollutants with the aged motorcycles. The
NOx emission factor appears not affected by mileage.
Note that HC emission factor for 2-stroke cycles is
about one-order of magnitude higher than that of
4-strokes. On the other hand, NOx factor for !2-strokes
is one-order of magnitude less than that of
4-strokes. Further, the carbon mass balance of CO,
HC, CO2 and fuel consumption reveal a linear relation-
ship between the exhaust gas carbon mass and fuel
consumption. Although the wear and tear of engine with
accumulated mileage may consume higher fuel resulting
in increases CO2 emission factor, in reality, the CO2
emission factor is decreasing due to reduced combustion
efciency for aged motorcycles. Since used motorcycles
were from different manufacturers, the nature and type
of used motorcycles may also play a role in the overall
performance, in addition to aging effect.
Table 5 also shows the fuel consumption of new and
in-use of 2- and 4-stroke motorcycles. The fuel
consumption of 2-stroke motorcycles was 10% higher
than that of 4-stroke motorcycles. The fuel consumption
in the KHM motorcycle driving cycle was also about
10% higher than that of the ECE cycle, which again
indicates that the ECE cycle is unsuitable to measure the
fuel consumption in the Kaohsiung metropolitan area.
The in-use motorcycles also exhibit 10% fuel increase
over the new ones. Consequently, a localized driving
cycle that can accurately describe the trafc conditions
and represent the drivers habits should be used.
4. Conclusions
The study used the chase-car technique to develop a
motorcycle driving cycle in the Kaohsiung metropolitan
area of Taiwan. Comparing the KHM cycle to other
cycles, the n1, n2 and a values were lower than those of
the FTP 75, but higher than others. In addition, the
speed (n1 and n2) of the KHM cycle was similar to the
1015 mode of Japan. The KHM/ECE emission factor
ratios of CO, HC, NOx and CO2 for all types of
motorcycles were 1.32.5, 1.31.7, 1.12.0 and 1.01.0,
respectively. Results indicated the exhaust emission
factors of the KHM driving cycle were signicantly
higher than those of the ECE and other cycles.
Furthermore, the fuel consumption during the KHM
driving cycle was nearly 10% higher than that of the
ECE cycle. Therefore, the development of a localized
motorcycle driving cycle is apparent for the estimation
of motorcycle pollution and other assessment of mobile
source pollution control programs.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their sincere thanks to the
National Science Council, Taiwan and Taiwan Environ-
6641
mental Protection Agency (NSC-92-EPA-Z-242-001;
NSC-93-EPA-Z-006-002; NSC-93-EPA-Z-242-002) for
their support.
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