The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory PDF

The
Forensic
Anthropology
Laboratory
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The
Forensic
Anthropology
Laboratory
Edited by
Michael W. Warren
Heather A. Walsh-Haney, Ph.D.
Laurel E. Freas
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The forensic anthropology laboratory / editors, Michael W. Warren, Heather A.

Walsh-Haney, and Laurel E. Freas.
p. cm. -- (A CRC title)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8493-2320-1 (alk. paper)
1. Forensic anthropology--United States. 2. Crime laboratories--United States.
I. Warren, Michael W. II. Walsh-Haney, Heather A. III. Freas, Laurel E.
GN69.8.F66 2008
614.17--dc22 2007048744
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To Sgt. Nicholas R. Walsh, 1st Reconnaissance Battalion,
1stMarine Division, I Marine Expeditionary Force, 19802007.
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Contents
Preface ix
Editors xiii
Contributors xv
1 Introduction 1
Heather Walsh-Haney
2 The Anthropology Research Facility:

The Outdoor Laboratory of the Forensic
Anthropology Center, University of Tennessee 7
Lee Meadows Jantz and Richard L. Jantz
3 The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory in a

Medical Examiner Setting 23
Dana Austin and Laura Fulginiti
4 Joint POW/MIA Accounting Commands Central

Identification Laboratory 47
Thomas Holland, John Byrd, and
Vincent Sava
5 The University of Indianapolis Archeology and

Forensics Laboratory 65
Stephen P. Nawrocki
6 The Mass Fatality Incident Morgue:

A Laboratory for Disaster Victim Identification 97
Paul S. Sledzik and Patricia J. Kauffman
vii
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viii Contents
7 The Repatriation Osteology Laboratory, National

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution 117
Erica B. Jones and Stephen D. Ousley
8 History and Collections of the Division of

Physical Anthropology, National Museum of
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution 149
David R. Hunt
9 The Louisiana State University (LSU) Forensic

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement
Services (FACES) Laboratory 181
Mary H. Manhein, N. Eileen Barrow, and
Ginesse A. Listi
10 The Working Forensic Anthropology Laboratory 195

Heather Walsh-Haney, Laurel Freas, and
Michael Warren
Index 213
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Preface
Goals and Book Content
This book, The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, was created as a survey of

the various types of laboratories that support the practice of forensic anthro-
pology. Our objective was to treat the reader, whether student, practitioner,
educator, attorney, or forensic scientist, with an insiders view of functioning
forensic anthropology laboratories as reported by practitioners. To this end,
we have assembled works from some of the most respected and prolific foren-
sic anthropologists in clinical, research, and academic settings.
Lee Meadows Jantz and Richard Jantz are co-directors of the University
of Tennessees Anthropological Research Facility. They discuss the motiva-
tion behind the creation of Dr. William Bass research facility by highlight-
ing Bass first case. These authors also provide detailed descriptions of how
body donations are received and processed by the facility from the perspec-
tive of the rules governing state regulations, the next-of-kin, students, and
researchers. Jantz and Jantz also include extraordinary photos that document
the steps taken to ensure that each body part is tracked from the moment it
is transported to the facility through the decomposition and skeletonization
processes. They have also provided information concerning the numbers of
skeletons available for research and include the demographic data for each.
As full-time forensic anthropologists working within medical examiners
offices, rather than as part-time consultants, Dana Austin and Laura Fulg-
initi provide insights into how their daily activities and duties differ from
their academic colleagues. Staffing, physical plant concerns, field recovery
procedures, and laboratory processing of skeletal and decomposing remains
are discussed. In order to have productive careers within medical examiner
facilities, these authors stress the varied training they have been required to
learn and use, which includes fingerprinting and other trace evidence pro-
cedures. Austin and Fulginiti also describe staffing interactions that occur
while medical examiner personnel work collecting and analyzing the mul-
tiple lines of evidence used in medicolegal death investigations.
Thomas Holland and John Byrd and their colleague Vince Sava use their
experiences within the Department of Defenses Joint POW/MIA Accounting
ix
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x Preface
Command (JPAC) to shed light on the forensic anthropology standards they

helped to design and implement in order to receive the American Society
of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD) accreditation. As the first forensic
anthropology laboratory to undergo and receive accreditation, these forensic
anthropologists provide a structured list of considerations for those laborato-
ries with an eye towards accreditation. Importantly, these authors complete
the accreditation process while fulfilling their JPAC missionto achieve the
fullest possible accounting of United States service personnel missing from
past wars and conflicts. Holland and colleagues provide the history of the
facility by underscoring the quality assurance, peer review, and research
changes that occurred in the laboratory as a result of WW I, WW II, the
Korean War, and the Vietnam Conflict so that each soldiers identification
would be the result of clear and convincing evidence.
The University of Indianapolis mission of education through service
is at the epicenter of Stephen Nawrockis discussion of the policies and pro-
cedures he uses in his capacity as laboratory director and undergraduate and
graduate student mentor. Nawrocki presents the inner workings of his ~2600
square foot laboratory, from facilities management to recommendations con-
cerning the utility of law enforcement training, in order to increase forensic
anthropological participation in laboratory analysis and scene discovery and
recovery. He also provides a superlative accounting of archeological prin-
ciples that forensic anthropologists use when conducting scene recoveries
that involve surface scattered or buried bodies. Nawrocki underscores the
necessity of archaeological training especially with regard to capturing and
deciphering the geophysical evidence from a scene.
Paul Sledzik and Patricia Kauffman provide information addressing
how forensic anthropologists and pathologists work together as mass fatality
responders. They discuss the practical issues that arise during most mass fatal-
ity deployments and provide examples from the World Trade Center, Hur-
ricane Katrina, and the Asian Tsunami disasters. These practitioners explain
how and where the mobile disaster morgue can be used, provide morgue
floor plans, and list the equipment and forensic scientists found within the
mobile morgue. Sledzik and Kauffman have scrupulously presented the posi-
tive effect that forensic anthropologists have on quality assurance measures
used to establish positive identifications and noted the importance of mental
health assistance for first responders and the victims next-of-kin.
Erica Jones and Stephen Ousley shed light on the concerns of the myriad
stakeholders (e.g., forensic anthropologists, next-of-kin, tribal representatives)
the Smithsonian Institutions Repatriation Osteology Laboratory encounters
in its effort to positively identify Native American skeletal remains. Jones
and Ousley describe their data collection techniques, not only to share both
new and established nonmetric and metric methods, but to draw attention
to the legal and evidentiary importance of standard, testable, and credible
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Preface xi
methods of skeletal analysis. Both forensic anthropologists present case stud-

ies as varied as their investigations of skeletal remains believed to be of a
Sioux Giant, a Nez Perce warrior, and a Modoc Indian prisoner, in order to
provide real world examples of their repatriation work within the Smithso-
nian Institution.
David Hunt, the physical anthropology collections manager for the
Smithsonian Institution (SI), writes about the history and development of
the museums skeletal collections. He also presents a history of SI forensic
anthropologists with reference to each anthropologists work with the Federal
Bureau of Investigation and other state agencies. Importantly, Hunt provides
a cumulative list of available study specimens and procedural cues requisite
in gaining access and collecting data on these priceless human skeletal col-
lections. Any skeletal researcher interested in conducting research within the
SI collections will benefit from Hunts information concerning destructive
analysis, diagnostic imaging, casting, and all types of anthroposcopic and
anthropometric data collection methods.
Mary Manhein and colleagues present their work within the FACES
laboratory. In particular, they provide casework examples that document the
technology they use to establish identifications through facial reconstruc-
tion, photographic superimposition, and age progression. The FACES labora-
tory sets the standard for age progression reconstruction.
Finally, the editors present a glimpse into a typical working forensic
anthropology laboratory without the specialization illustrated by the authors
and laboratory managers of the preceding chapters.
Therefore, what follows are overviews of the ways in which forensic
anthropology practitioners run laboratories and collect data (e.g., the skel-
etal remains are used to collect nonmetric, metric, radiographic, and his-
tological data) in order to arrive at an identification of unknown human
remains, establish time since death, and conduct trauma analyses of legal
significance. We hope the reader enjoys this tour of the interesting world of
forensic anthropology.
Heather Walsh-Haney
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Editors
Michael Warren, PhD, received his PhD in 1997 from the University of Flor-
ida, where he is currently associate professor of anthropology. His areas of
interest include forensic identification and trauma analysis, human variation,
and forensic examination of human cremated remains. He is a diplomate of
the American Board of Forensic Anthropology and fellow of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences.
Heather Walsh-Haney is an assistant professor at Florida Gulf Coast Uni-

versity, in the College of Professional Studies, Division of Justice Studies.
She is a fellow of American Academy of Forensic Sciences. As a DMORT
(Disaster Mortuary Operations Response Team) member, she participated in
the recovery of victims from the World Trade Center attacks and Hurricane
Katrina. Additionally, she is the consulting anthropologist for the Bermuda
Special Crimes Task Force and Florida Medical Examiner Districts 4, 17, 20,
and 21, as well as a mummy investigator with the Discovery Channels tele-
vision show Mummy Autopsy. As a mummy investigator, she has examined
ancient remains from Egypt, Scotland, and the American West.
Laurel Freas received her BA from Cornell University and her MA from the
University of Florida, where she is currently completing her doctoral stud-
ies in biological anthropology. She is the laboratory technician at the C.A.
Pound Human Identification Laboratory in the Department of Anthropol-
ogy. Her research areas include human variation, osteometry, and forensic
examination of saw marks in bone.
xiii
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Contributors
Dana Austin, PhD, D-ABFA Erica B. Jones, MA

Tarrant County Medical Examiners Office Repatriation Office/MRC 138
Fort Worth, Texas Department of Anthropology
National Museum of Natural History
N. Eileen Barrow Washington, D.C.
Department of Geography and
Anthropology Patricia Kauffman, MA, MD
Louisiana State University Disaster Mortuary Operational Response
Baton Rouge, Louisiana Team, Region III
Mid-Atlantic Forensic Identification Group
John Byrd, PhD, D-ABFA Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command
Central Identification Laboratory Ginesse A. Listi, PhD Candidate
Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii Department of Geography and
Anthropology
Laurel Freas, MA Louisiana State University
Department of Anthropology Baton Rouge, Louisiana
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida Mary H. Manhein, MA
Department of Geography and
Laura Fulginiti, PhD, D-ABFA Anthropology
Maricopa County Forensic Science Center Louisiana State University
Phoenix, Arizona Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Thomas Holland, PhD, D-ABFA Stephen P. Nawrocki, D-ABFA

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Departments of Biology and Anthropology
Central Identification Laboratory University of Indianapolis
Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii Indianapolis, Indiana
David R. Hunt, PhD, D-ABFA Stephen D. Ousley, PhD

Department of Anthropology Repatriation Office
National Museum of Natural History National Museum of Natural History
Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.
Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD Vincent Sava

Department of Anthropology Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command
University of Tennessee Central Identification Laboratory
Knoxville, Tennessee Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii
Richard L. Jantz, PhD Paul Sledzik, MS

Department of Anthropology National Transportation Safety Board
University of Tennessee Office of Transportation Disaster Assistance
Knoxville, Tennessee Washington, D.C.
xv
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xvi Contributors
Heather Walsh-Haney, PhD Michael Warren, PhD, D-ABFA

Florida Gulf Coast University Department of Anthropology
College of Professional Studies University of Florida
Division of Justice Studies Gainesville, Florida
Fort Myers, Florida
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Introduction
Heather Walsh-Haney
1
Contents
Forensic Anthropology Defined by Kerley and Maples..................................... 1
Caseload and Legal Considerations...................................................................... 3
References................................................................................................................. 5
Forensic Anthropology Defined by Kerley and Maples
As defined by Ellis Kerley (1978:160), forensic anthropology is the special-

ized subdiscipline of physical anthropology that applies the techniques of
osteology and skeletal identification to problems of legal and public con-
cern. Yet, as editors, we trace our academic pedigrees to William R. Maples
who was a forensic anthropologist keenly aware of the strengths and weak-
nesses of working as consultant, curator, expert witness, mentor, and labo-
ratory director (Figure1.1). Through his scholar-practitioner philosophy we
expand Kerleys definition with Maples views of forensic anthropology as an
applied anthropology field that promulgates the view that its practitioners
are educated in the subfields of physical anthropology (human and nonhu-
man primate anatomy, evolution, behavior), human osteology (the skeletal
system on macroscopic and microscopic levels), and archaeology (analysis
of material culture) in order to debate their findings concerning a decedents
identification, time since death, and trauma analysis in a court of law.
Having worked as a consultant for the Central Identification Laboratory
in Hawaii (now called the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command); having
collected, analyzed, and archived prehistoric Native American remains for
the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research and Florida Museum of Natu-
ral History; having testified as an expert witness in congressional hearings
and national and international courts; having worked as an undergraduate
and graduate professor and as director of the C. A. Pound Human Identifica-
tion Laboratory, Maples knew the collaborative role forensic anthropologists
must assume. More specifically, Maples stressed the importance of unit-
ing field workers/technicians with bench analysts and researchers in order
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2 Heather Walsh-Haney
Figure 1.1 Dr. Bill Maples holding a case of the Francisco Pizarro skull. (Photo
provided by the William R. Maples Special Collections at Florida Gulf Coast
University.)
to assist medical examiners in making correct judgments on issues of legal

significance. This aspect of the practice of forensic anthropology is critical
because many forensic bench scientists do limited fieldwork. Rather, crime
scene technicians and investigators typically collect the physical and trace
evidence in situ and then deliver these materials to the laboratory analyst.
Maples placed a premium on undergraduate and graduate student train-
ing through student participation, under his direct supervision, in active
forensic cases. During the 1996 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Physical Anthropology Sections business meeting, Maples spoke in strong
support of the importance of practitioner-based field and laboratory training
for both undergraduate and graduate students because instruction required
both student and mentor to have access to skeletal material from myriad con-
texts. However, this philosophy was not met with universal approval among
his peers as some believed that student involvement in forensic casework
would inevitably lead to mistakes that would render the anthropological
findings inadmissible.
The Maples perspective on training and practice in forensic anthropol-
ogy arises from a niche other forensic scientists do not easily exploitthat
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Introduction 3
of the laboratory director in a university setting. The most widely accepted

crime laboratory accrediting board in the United States, the American Soci-
ety of Crime Laboratory Directors Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD-
Lab) currently does not provide for the accreditation of facilities that allow
for undergraduate and graduate training through participation in ongo-
ing or open forensic cases. As a case in point, JPAC had a long history of
hiring forensic anthropologists with terminal masters degrees. Yet, JPACs
recent ASCLD-Lab accreditation required that the masters level practitioners
acquire the PhD by attending universities with forensic anthropology labora-
tories that are not accredited. Therein lays the crux of the importance of this
book: a comprehensive presentation of laboratory procedures and standards
employed by a collection of well-regarded and respected forensic anthropol-
ogy practitioners. The need to establish the underlying validity of these pro-
cedures and standards is central to the role that such laboratories occupy in
the cross-disciplinary environment of forensic science.
Caseload and Legal Considerations
The forensic anthropologists caseload has quickly risen over the past twenty
years (Galloway et al. 1990:62; Reichs 1995). In the five year period from 1977
to 1981, preeminent forensic anthropologist, Dr. William Bass, reported
that his forensic anthropology casework doubled over the previous five-year
period (Bass 1983:28). Similarly, Drs. Wienker and Rhine (1989:647), report-
ing on a nationwide study, stated that the total number of cases handled in
1986 by forensic anthropologists who responded to their questionnaire sur-
passed the total reported from 1967 to 1978 by more than 12%.
With the increase in the caseload of forensic anthropologists, there has
been a significant upsurge in their court appearances as expert witnesses
(Guthrie and Henderson 2007). However, the increase in courtroom appear-
ances has not kept pace with the caseloads forensic anthropologists carry,
even where the case has some juridical importance. This disparity has been
explained either by the fact that lawyers may not be sufficiently familiar
with forensic anthropology or by the forensic anthropologists report being
subsumed into the final opinion of a medical examiner or a coroner. This
unexpected growth in the caseload of forensic anthropologists and their con-
comitant greater involvement in the legal process, both civil and criminal,
have resulted in efforts to educate members of this scientific discipline to an
awareness of their responsibilities within the legal system.
Recent court rulings have shed light on the need to for forensic anthro-
pologists to follow generally accepted written protocols because the failure to
do so may result in inadmissible evidence and preclude the case from pro-
ceeding to trial (Murray v. State of Florida, 838 So.2d 1251; Higgins v. State of
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Florida, 899 So.2d 1251). Legal concerns regarding the efficacy of both the sci-
entific evidence and subsequent expert witness testimony have been couched
within rules of evidence that vary by state. The Frye opinion was the first to
loosely establish the standard for novel scientific evidence (Frye v. United
States, 54 APP. D.C. 46, 293 F. 1013, No. 3968). In 1993, the U.S. Supreme
Court supplanted the Frye general acceptance test (of scientific standards)
with their Daubert ruling (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509
U.S. 579). Nevertheless, many states, including Florida, follow Frye and reject
the Daubert standard. The former is considered a more stringent standard
when the applicability of forensic techniques and procedures are called into
question in court (Guthrie and Henderson 2007). Indeed, there is no dearth
of publications that focus upon the aforementioned rules of evidence. Because
we authors primarily work with forensic cases from Florida, we highlight the
affect that Daubert has upon the handling of forensic anthropological evi-
dence (e.g., the skeletal remains) within forensic anthropology laboratories
from university, medical examiner, museum, and federal settings.
The Frye standard allows trace evidence and expert witness testimony
into Florida courts when the following questions have been answered in
the affirmative:
Will the forensic anthropologists testimony help the jury to understand

the evidence or to determine a fact in issue?
Is the forensic anthropologists testimony based upon a scientific theory
or discovery that is known and accepted by his or her peers?
Is the forensic anthropologist qualified, as evidenced by education,
experience, research, and peer-reviewed publications, to present evi-
dence on the subject in issue?
If laboratory protocols and/or procedures used in the application of sci-

entific principles are not followed, then expert witness testimony as well as
the experts qualifications comes into question. Specifically, the probative
value of the evidence is compromised when procedures are not followed. If
the evidence is discredited because of sloppy work or unapproved standards
than the court must decide whether it is better to (1) exclude the evidence or
(2) present the evidence because it will help the jury to understand the facts
of the case. Also of importance is the fact that handling and processing pro-
cedures for the skeletal evidence have an impact on determining whether the
forensic anthropologists credentials are acceptable to the court. For example,
even the most eminently qualified forensic anthropologist may not be able to
testify if he or she failed to follow acceptable collection, analysis, and stor-
age procedures because the basis for the scientific opinion will be considered
flawed. Thereby, the Frye criterion has a bearing upon accepted standards
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Introduction 5
in the collection and storage of skeletal evidence that will be analyzed and
presented in court.
The American Board of Forensic Anthropology has been primarily
tasked with regulating and certifying its diplomats through certification
and oversight procedures. Founded in 1977, the American Board of Forensic
Anthropology (ABFA) stated objectives were and still are:
To encourage study and practice of forensic anthropology, establish sci-

entific standards, and advance the science of forensic anthropology.
To promote a high standard of ethics and professional conduct.
To issue certificates to eligible individuals.
To inform government and private agencies of the activities of the ABFA
and its certified members.
To maintain lists of individuals who are ABFA certified and available
for professional employment (Reichs 1995).
As such, forensic anthropologists collect their skeletal evidence with

techniques acquired from osteology, histology, archaeology, and pathology
in order to obtain findings that speak to the decedents identity, types of
trauma inflicted on the skeletal remains, when death occurred, and in what
order traumatic events occurred (e.g., whether before death, at or around the
time of death, or after death; Kerley 1978; Walsh-Haney 2006). Therefore,
what follows are systematic overviews of the most accepted means by which
forensic anthropologists collect their data (e.g., the skeletal remains are used
to collect nonmetric, metric, radiographic, and histological data) in order to
arrive at an identification of unknown human remains, establish time since
death, and conduct trauma analyses of legal significance.
References
Bass, W. M. 1995. Human osteology: A laboratory and field manual, 4th Ed. Spring-
field: MO Archaeological Society.
Guthrie, K., and C. Henderson. 2007. Scientific evidence in civil and criminal cases.
In A. Moenssens, C. Henderson, and S. Gross-Portwood (eds.): Scientific evi-
dence in civil and criminal cases, 5th Ed. Eagan, MN: Foundation Press, chap-
ter 19.
Kerley, E. 1978. Recent developments in forensic anthropology. Yearbook of Physical
Anthropology 21:4351.
Reichs, K. J. 1995. A professional profile of diplomats of the American Board of Foren-
sic Anthropology: 19841992. Journal of Forensic Sciences 40(2):176182.
Walsh-Haney, H. 2007. New advances and ethical issues in forensic and physical
anthropology. Proceedings for the American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting 18.
2320.indb 5 4/9/08 3:09:51 PM

Weinker, C., and S. Rhine. 1989. A professional profile of the physical anthropol-
ogy section membership, American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Journal of
Forensic Sciences 34(3):12.
2320.indb 6 4/9/08 3:09:51 PM

The Anthropology
Research Facility:
The Outdoor Laboratory
of the Forensic
2
Anthropology Center,
University of Tennessee
Lee Meadows Jantz and Richard L. Jantz
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................. 7
A Missed Time-Since-Death Estimate....................................................... 8
Security of Evidence...................................................................................... 8
The Facility Takes Form............................................................................... 8
Evolution of the Facility................................................................................ 9
Body Donation Program.......................................................................................11
From Donation to Skeletonization.............................................................14
Decomposition Research.......................................................................................16
Skeletal Research....................................................................................................18
Training Courses....................................................................................................18
Summary and Future Prospects......................................................................... 19
Acknowledgments................................................................................................. 20
References............................................................................................................... 20
Introduction
On a wooded lot near the Tennessee River in Knoxville, Tennessee covering

almost two acres, lies the Anthropology Research Facility (ARF), a unique
laboratory that allows for research into human decomposition. The Anthro-
pology Research Facility is part of the Forensic Anthropology Center (FAC)
at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. This facility was the brainchild of
William M. Bass, then professor and head of anthropology at the Univer-
sity of Tennessee (UT). Bass had two reasons for attempting to establish this
facility: a badly missed estimate concerning time since death and evidence
security issues at what was then the existing holding facility.
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8 Lee Meadows Jantz and Richard L. Jantz
A Missed Time-Since-Death Estimate

The case of Colonel Shy, a Civil War casualty buried in Tennessee (Bass 1984;
Bass and Jefferson 2003) caused Bass to recognize the lack of research con-
cerning this critically important question: how long has this individual been
dead? In 1977, a vandal had disturbed the Civil War era burial, but when
investigators realized that there were actively decomposing remains in the
grave, it was believed that a recent homicide victim had been placed in this
old grave in order to hide the modern crime. When Bass examined both
the grave and human remains in the field, he estimated that the death had
occurred within the past year. However, once he and his students had recov-
ered the remains and analyzed the evidence back in the lab, he realized that
the remains were those of the Civil War colonel, whose death had occurred
more than 100 years earlier! How could Bass estimate of time since death
have been so far off the mark? The answer to this question was in the high
quality of the embalming and casketing process. Indeed, the remains of Col-
onel Shy had been embalmed and placed in a cast iron coffin that preserved
the remains until vandals had broken into it. This case forced Bass to dive
into the existing literature concerning how environmental factors (e.g.,
weather, soils, fauna, and scavengers) and human-induced variables (e.g.,
embalming, clothing, and body weight) affected human decomposition. To
his surprise, very little time-since-death research had been done. As such,
he recognized the urgent need to begin answering questions regarding the
process of human postmortem change and garnering support for a decom-
position research facility.
Security of Evidence
In order to store decomposing human remains, Bass had been given access to
a barn on a remote farm owned by the Universitys Institute of Agriculture.
This space was utilized for the storage of human remains that came in dur-
ing the course of Bass forensic anthropology casework. It was this location
that began to cause Bass concern regarding security issues. The UT farm,
which was located near the Holston River, was unfortunately situated next
to a penal institution. Shockingly, the inmates were not under tight security
and were known to trespass on UT farmland. The risk of loss or damage to
the human remains stored within this facility was great, as were concerns
regarding the maintenance of chain of custody.
The Facility Takes Form

As many forensic scientists have discovered, it can be very difficult to establish
a research facility dedicated to the study of human decomposition. However,
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The Anthropology Research Facility 9
Bass approached the UT administration in the late 1970s with his formal
request to establish an outdoor laboratory to address this very important and
badly neglected subject (Bass personal communication). Bass facility came
to fruition because the time was right and supportive administrators were
in place. Indeed, if the UT administration had not been supportive of the
facilitys research potential and had been more worried about the risk of bad
publicity, the ARF would not have been founded. This is the unfortunate situ-
ation in other institutions that have attempted to establish similar research
facilities. Hopefully, in this day of increased focus on forensics, these fears will
dissipate and new facilities in different environments will be established.
In 1980, ground was broken for the ARF on what had been the University
hospitals dump and incineration location. The location was covered over and
its usefulness as a hospital incineration site had ceased several years prior,
when burning was banned due to a particularly dry and rainless season. The
site was located in the woods where a road and a small clearing had to be
cut to allow access and space for the new facility. Dr. Bass and his students
built the 16 ft 2 concrete slab and storage shed. In addition, they enclosed the
facility, even overhead, with chain-link fencing. With security in place, the
only important items missing were the research subjectsthe human bodies.
Word was sent out via medical examiners throughout the state that human
bodies were needed for decomposition research. In the spring of 1981, the
first body donation was received. Thus, began the study of human decompo-
sition and the program that has grown to house the largest modern Ameri-
can skeletal collection to date.
Evolution of the Facility

Over the years, the facility has changed in size and shape. Originally, access to
the facility required that one drive through a wooded area for approximately
50 yards after leaving the parking lot. In the late 1980s, the first increase
in size came about indirectly from a request for virgin land necessary for a
new research project. When Bass requested more land, the hospital leased the
land reaching down to the parking lot (Figure2.1). Chain-link fencing went
up all around the facility. It was at this time that the concertina wire (e.g.,
razor wire) was added as another security measure. A relatively short time
later, the hospital needed to reclaim the land given to the facility, but would
make more land available (Figure2.2). This was exciting news because the
new land actually included more space. The less exciting part was that it was
uphill. With the move, more fencing was required and obtained. An 8 ft pri-
vacy fence was erected around the entire facility. This became our standard
for securitythe privacy fence, plus the chain-link fence topped with razor
wire. In addition, the access gate to the facility was secured by a heavy chain
and padlock.
2320.indb 9 4/9/08 3:09:52 PM

Figure2.1 Aerial view of the Anthropological Research Facility (ARF). The

square approximates the borders of the original space and the rectangle approxi-
mates the first addition.
Figure2.2 Aerial view of the Anthropological Research Facility. The dark

black lines approximate the third phase in the facilitys growth and the white
lines approximate the last addition.
2320.indb 10 4/9/08 3:10:01 PM

The most recent addition to our facility occurred in 2003, when the east-
ernmost boundary was extended towards the rivers edge and the northern
boundary was extended in a northwesterly direction nearing the edge of the
parking lot (Figure2.2). Being closer to the waters edge, the landscape slopes
into a cliff. As such, the actual border for the facility does not extend down to
the riverbank, but runs nearly parallel with it. Reasons for this last expansion
included an increase in body donations and demand for training at the facil-
ity. Due to this last expansion, the useable ARF land totals 1.3 acres.
After over 25 years of operation, the facility is now entering the most
critical period in its history. The number of donations has been increasing
almost exponentially over the last few years. Also, the number of training
sessions at the facility has increased. These factors have placed an enormous
burden on the limited space and made it essential to acquire more land in
order to maintain our high standards of research and training.
Body Donation Program
Four individuals were donated in our inaugural body donation year. Over
the years, two of those donations have been returned to the families. Within
the last 25 years, numbers of donations per year have ranged from a low of
one (in the second year) to a high of 107 in 2006 (Figure2.3). White males
make up the vast majority of our donations and are followed in descending
order by white females and black males (Figure2.4). Other groups are rep-
resented by much smaller numbers. The ethnic and ancestry composition
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
Figure2.3 Histogram illustrating the numbers of donations received each year

by the Anthropological Research Facility.
2320.indb 11 4/9/08 3:10:02 PM

NativeAmerican F
NativeAmerican M
Black F
Black M
EastAsian F
EastAsian M
Hispanic F
Hispanic M
WF
WM
Figure2.4 Demographic distribution of individuals that have been donated to

the Forensic Anthropology Center.
120
Other
100
Self
80 Family
ME
60
40
20
0
1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
Figure2.5 Distribution of Forensic Anthropology Center donations by type

(e.g., other, self, family, and medical examiner).
of donations can be seen as an approximate reflection of the East Tennessee

population and, to a lesser extent, the nation.
Body donations may originate by self-donation, family donation, or as
unclaimed bodies from the State of Tennessee Medical Examiner (Figure2.5).
Occasionally donations may be made by a hospital or funeral home at the
suggestion of the medical examiner. Tennessee law provides for the donation
of unclaimed bodies to medical, dental, or anthropology schools (Table2.1).
Currently, our donations are located as follows: 69% are in the research skele-
tal collection, 23% are at the research facility undergoing decomposition, 2%
are in the process of being cleaned within the laboratory, and 6% have been
2320.indb 12 4/9/08 3:10:03 PM

Table2.1 Tennessee Code Annotated for the Donation of Unclaimed Bodies
68-4-104. Distribution of bodies among medical, dental and anthropologic institutions

Receiving institution to pay expense.
(a) The chief medical examiner, upon receiving the bodies or notification of the
availability of the bodies as provided in this chapter, shall distribute them among the
medical, dental and anthropologic institutions of this state regularly chartered and in
active operation as prescribed in 68-4-102 68-4-109, and shall not give, sell or
deliver any body to any other person, firm, society, association or corporation.
(b) Bodies shall be distributed by the chief medical examiner to the institution that is
closest to the location of the body and that has indicated a current need for bodies for the
purposes authorized by this chapter.
(c) The institution receiving any body shall bear all the expense incident to the
transportation of the body from the institution where death occurred, and its delivery to
the institution receiving it.
[Acts 1947, ch. 163, 3; C. Supp. 1950, 2569.10 (Williams, 5379.3); T.C.A. (orig. ed.), 53-506;
Acts 1984, ch. 525, 5; 1990, ch. 598, 5.]
Table2.2 Demographic Distribution of Individuals Donated to the

Forensic Anthropology Center
Population Group Number of Males Number of Females
African American 52 15
European American 497 199
Hispanic 14 1
East Asian 1 1
Native American 1 1
Column Totals 565 217
returned to families. While the actual numbers change on a weekly basis, the
distribution of the collection remains essentially the same.
Because ARF has been the subject of documentaries, news stories, and
even novels, our program has received attention from all across the United
States and Europe. People contact us regularly requesting information about
body donation. As a result, we now have over 1000 individuals that have
indicated their wishes to donate their bodies at death. Body donation forms
arrive in the mail on a daily basis. Occasionally we receive a call from some-
one asking How much do you pay for bodies? I could use the money now,
and I wont be able to use it when Im dead. As the name of the program
implies, we only accept legal donations and do not pay for bodies!
2320.indb 13 4/9/08 3:10:03 PM

Another question often encountered by the ARF faculty and staff is, Do
we ever decline donations? An individual with an infectious disease, such as
HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis, or antibiotic resistant infection, is not eligible for
whole body donation; however, these bodies are accepted as cremains. It is
requested that the cremains not go through the final cremation processing
stage that grinds the bones into fine ash. As a result of this policy, we have a
growing collection of documented cremains that is available for study.
From Donation to Skeletonization

When a donor dies, the ARF is notified by the legal next-of-kin or other
agency representative (e.g., hospital or medical examiners office). In some
instances, the decedent may have already arranged to donate his or her body
to the facility after death. If this is the case, minimal paperwork is neces-
sary and the process is relatively easy. However, if the potential donor did
not make prior arrangements, the next-of-kin must provide the biological
information (e.g., age, sex, ancestry, and stature) and medical history on
the deceased, as well as sign a release formally donating the remains to the
university. Upon receiving the release, the body is transported to ARF. If
the decedent is within 200 miles of Knoxville and in the state of Tennessee,
ARF personnel transport the decedents remains to the facility thereby tak-
ing direct custody of the body donation. When death does not occur within
these boundaries, the next-of-kin must make arrangements to have the body
delivered to ARF via ground transport service or air cargo.
Regardless of whether a body is used in decomposition research or not,
it is placed at the outdoor research facility and allowed to decompose in situ
to facilitate skeletonization. If the body is not being used for a project at the
ARF, then all clothing and jewelry is removed. Metal tags stamped with a
unique identifying number are used to label the body on both an arm and
a leg; plastic zip ties are used to attach the tags to the body (Figures2.6 and
2.7). The cadavers recumbent stature is measured, and the body is photo-
graphed. Any scars, marks, or tattoos are also photographed. Then, the body
is placed on the grounds surface in a prone position and covered with black
plastic. If a donation is to be used in a decomposition project, then the body is
tagged, measured, and photographed as described above, but body position-
ing, location, and type of covering are dependent on the protocol for each
project (Figure2.8). The location of each body is recorded using Global Posi-
tioning System (GPS) coordinates, and then these data are added to a central
database that produces a map of all body locations within the facility.
After a body is skeletonized (Figure2.9), the bones are collected and
bagged. Then, the remains are taken for additional processing and cleaning.
The extent of continued rendering may require only rinsing bones with water
2320.indb 14 4/9/08 3:10:03 PM

Figure2.6 Tagging a body donation being placed within the grounds of the
Anthropological Research Facility.
Figure2.7 Donation tag with unique identifying number.
or more extensive heat soaking with mild detergent. After all of the soft tissue
has been removed and the bones are clean, they are dried on racks.
Once the skeleton is clean and dry, it is accessioned into the donated
collection for further study. A detailed inventory of the bones and teeth are
taken and each element is labeled in India ink with the identification num-
ber. Measurements of the bones are taken, and then the remains are included
in the collection and are available for study.
2320.indb 15 4/9/08 3:10:04 PM

Figure2.8 Donated body placed in water, illustrating project placement within

the grounds of the Anthropological Research Facility.
Figure2.9 One donated individual who has been skeletonized while on the
grounds of the Anthropological Research Facility.
Decomposition Research
For many years, the research conducted at the ARF involved the basic study
of the morphological changes associated with decomposition, with the focus
being on how fast these changes occurred. Initial research involved examina-
tion of the morphological changes that occur during surface decomposition
and at what speed these changes occur (Rodriguez and Bass 1983). Studying
the same changes in a burial environment followed suit (Rodriguez and Bass
1985). Because this was the only research facility of its kind, it was critical to
identify which environmental factors played the most important roles in the
rates of decomposition. Mann and coworkers (1990) describe these factors
after many years of informal studies based on nearly daily observations.
2320.indb 16 4/9/08 3:10:04 PM

Several theses have been based on research at the ARF. For example,
Rodriguez (1982) observed the insect activity and its relation to human decay
rates. Later, Cahoon (1992) examined the effects of clothing on decomposi-
tion. In 1994, OBrien placed bodies in human-made pools of water in order to
study the soft tissue decomposition in an aquatic environment (OBrien 1994;
OBrien and Kuehner 2007). More recently, Ritchie (2005) compared the human
decomposition in an indoor setting to that of an outdoor environment.
Seminal studies by Vass (1991; Vass et al. 1992) produced a method of
estimating length of time since death using the concentrations of the volatile
fatty acids produced during the decomposition process. While this initial
study was for a doctoral dissertation, Vass has expanded his studies into the
biochemistry of death. In 2002, Vass and colleagues presented a new meth-
odology of determining time since death by evaluating the changes in body
chemistry during decomposition (Vass et al. 2002). Using eighteen bodies,
tissue samples were taken over a period of time during the decomposition
process. With various biomarkers and accumulated degree hours, Vass and
coworkers established distinct changes in chemical patterns that can be cor-
related to the length of time since death.
More recently, Vass and colleagues have documented the odor chemis-
try of decomposition by establishing a database of the compounds (Vass et
al. 2004). Love (2001) conducted the first study of odor from decomposing
remains on the surface. It is not uncommon to use cadaver dogs in the search
for bodies or clandestine graves, yet it was not well known what the dogs
actually smell. Based on odor siphoned from four buried bodies (from fresh
to over a decade old), the chemical compounds have been analyzed and iden-
tified (Vass et al. 2004). Prior to the study, about a dozen compounds were
known. By the date of publication, over 400 different compounds were dis-
covered. This study is ongoing, and Vass and colleagues continue to identify
new decomposition compounds that will help all forensic scientists deter-
mine time since death.
Other fields of study that have found the ARF useful for research include
entomology and criminalistics. In his graduate work, Haskell compared the
use of pigs as models for humans in decomposition studies by using human
cadavers at the ARF (Year). Arguments have been made that the ARF is a
saturated environment and cannot produce reliable results in studies of
decomposition, specifically the insect impacts (Haskell et al. 2001). Shahid
and colleagues (2003) examined the hypothesis of insect saturation at the
ARF by placing pig carcasses inside the facility, outside the facility and at
various distances away from the facility. Results indicated that the presence
or population of sarcosaprophagous arthropods (e.g., blow flies, flesh flies,
skipper flies, carrion beetles, and rove beetles) was not significantly different
in the facility than beyond the fence at various distances. In 2005, a follow-
up study by Schoenly and colleagues examined the presence of predaceous
2320.indb 17 4/9/08 3:10:04 PM

arthropods at the ARF. They found that the environment at the ARF is more
representative of surrounding sites with respect to the sarcosaprophagous
fauna than it is for the predatory and parasitic fauna that preys upon this
forensically important group (Schoenly et al. 2005:7-8).
Skeletal Research
If ARF provides unparalleled opportunities for decomposition research, so

do the skeletons that originated within the ARF boundaries provide unparal-
leled opportunities for skeletal research. The collection of skeletons resulting
from the ARF donations, known as the William M. Bass Donated Collec-
tion, is the largest such collection of modern Americans (birth years in the
20th 21st centuries) in existence. Information from the donated collection is
included in the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB), also housed at the
University of Tennessee.
Information from the Bass Donated Collection, together with the FDB
has clearly demonstrated that 20th21st century Americans are strikingly
different from those of the 19th century contained in the anatomical collec-
tions such as the Smithsonian Institutions Robert J. Terry and Case Western
Reserve Universitys Hamann-Todd collections. These differences are seen
in both the skull and postcrania (Meadows Jantz and Jantz 1999; Jantz and
Meadows Jantz 2000; Ousley and Jantz 1997). It is clear from these studies
that criteria for age, sex, height, and ancestry estimation must be based upon
skeletons of modern people like those comprising the Bass Donated Skeletal
Collection. Similarly, ARF has provided the donated skeletons for numerous
theses and dissertations (e.g., Snow 2004; Christensen 2003; Meadows Jantz
1996; Rockhold 1998; Synstelien 2001). Many visiting scholars who require
modern skeletons for a variety of purposes have also used the collection.
Training Courses
In the 1990s, Murray Marks began working with the Federal Bureau of
Investigations Emergency Response Teams (FBIERT) in a week-long train-
ing course. The annual course involved classroom lectures and field training
exercises at the ARF. Marks and colleagues specifically designed the course
to simulate real-life forensic field experiences that involve locating a crime
scene and excavating clandestine burials that contain actual human remains.
The importance of locating and collecting forensic entomological evidence is
introduced during this outdoor exercise as well.
In 2001, the National Forensic Academy (NFA) was founded as part of the
Law Enforcement Innovation Center, University of Tennessee, and offers a
2320.indb 18 4/9/08 3:10:04 PM

ten-week course that focuses on training law enforcement in evidence collec-

tion and preservation procedures. Three sessions per year take place. Train-
ing session topics include arson investigation, blood spatter analysis, and
forensic photography. Importantly, each session includes one week of class-
room and field exercises (at ARF) in forensic anthropology, forensic odontol-
ogy, and forensic entomology. Specifically, the ARF course includes one day
focused upon search, mapping and recovery of surface scatter scenes and two
days spent on the discovery, excavation, and recovery of clandestine burials.
Each burial includes human remains and other types of associated physical
evidence (e.g., clothing, spent and bullet casings). The human remains used
in the outdoor crime scenes enable ARF to offer a unique training oppor-
tunity for NFA students. Indeed, NFA students claim that the use of cadavers
makes a significant difference in the effectiveness of the training.
The Forensic Anthropology Center began offering short courses, similar
to those conducted on behalf of NFA, in 2006. One of the courses is an out-
door recovery course that presents two primary crime scene scenariosthe
surface scatter of human skeletal remains and the clandestine grave. Empha-
sis is made on the collection and documentation of evidence and mapping.
The excavation of the human remains is only available at the ARF.
Summary and Future Prospects
The ARF has been a unique research cantonment area until fairly recently.
The facility has provided seminal and on-going research opportunities in
the areas of human decomposition, forensic entomology, biochemistry,
skeletal biology, and other areas of taphonomic study that had previously
never been available. Many of these projects are conducted as graduate
research, but many others are funded by grants and contracts for profes-
sional research. The research conducted at the ARF adds to the growing
body of information to be used in the investigation of time since death,
which is often critical in criminal cases. All of these projects rely on the
donated body program, which is a unique program in many ways. Algee-
Hewitt and colleagues (2007) discuss the relationship between the donors,
families, and FAC faculty and staff and, in so doing, defined the ARF net-
work of stakeholders as nontraditional. Specifically, ARF functions in a
non-traditional capacity of serving as the link between the program and the
public in order to assure that information about the donation process and
research is provided in an accurate and effective manner. The Anthropo-
logical Research Facility faculty and staff function as consultants for those
individuals that are contemplating donation and are often placed in the
position of being grief counselors to the families of the deceased and must
ensure the dignity and respect due to all parties. Finally, and of utmost
2320.indb 19 4/9/08 3:10:05 PM

importance, the ARF scientists and academics must assure the donor and
next-of-kin that their heartfelt donation advances science and helps to train
those tasked with the recovery of human remains (Algee-Hewitt et al. 2007).
Ultimately, these donated individuals are accessioned into the William M.
Bass Donated Skeletal Collection, the largest collection of modern American
skeletons available for study today. The research conducted here spans foren-
sic anthropology, skeletal biology, and myriad scientific fields of study.
Although the ARF began in 1981 with the first donation, this genre
of research is still in its infancy. Many more questions arise than can be
answered. As technology advances, so does the need for continued forensic
research. We hope that as our program grows, many other facilities of this
nature will open. Indeed, it is simply not sufficient to have one such facility
as it is limited by the environment in which it lies.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge and honor William M. Bass for his enormous contributions

and accomplishments. The University of Tennessee and the Department of
Anthropology have provided support. Finally, we thank the donors and their
families without whom this endeavor would be impossible.
References
Algee-Hewitt, B., R. J. Wilson, and L. Meadows Jantz. 2007. The donation dilemma:
Academic ethics and public participation at the Anthropological Research Facil-
ity. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 13:386387.
Bass, W. M. 1984. Time interval since death. In T. A. Rathbun and J. E. Buikstra
(eds.): Human identification: Case studies in forensic anthropology. Springfield,
IL: Charles C. Thomas, 136147.
Bass, W. M., and J. Jefferson. 2003. Deaths acre: Inside the legendary forensic lab
the body farmwhere the dead do tell tales. New York: Putnam.
Cahoon, S. E. 1992. Effects of clothing on human decomposition and deterioration
of associated yarns. Masters thesis: University of Tennessee.
Christensen, A. M. 2003. An empirical examination of frontal sinus outline variabil-
ity using elliptic Fourier analysis: Implications for identification, standardiza-
tion, and legal admissibility. Doctoral dissertation: University of Tennessee.
Haskell, N., K. G. Schoenly, and R. D. Hall. 2001. Testing reliability of animal mod-
els in research and training programs in forensic entomology, part II, final
report. NCJ 192281, Final Grant Report.
Jantz, R. L., and L. Meadows Jantz. 2000. Secular change in craniofacial morphol-
ogy. American Journal of Human Biology 12:327338.
Love, J. C. 2001. Evaluation of decay odor as a time since death indicator. Doctoral
dissertation: University of Tennessee.
2320.indb 20 4/9/08 3:10:05 PM

Mann, R. W., W. M. Bass, and L. Meadows. 1990. Time since death and decomposi-
tion of the human body: Variables and observations in case and experimental
field studies. Journal of Forensic Sciences 35:103111.
Meadows Jantz, L. 1996. Secular change and allometry in the long limb bones of
Americans from the mid 1700s through the 1970s. Doctoral dissertation: Uni-
versity of Tennessee.
Meadows Jantz, L., and R. L. Jantz. 1999. Secular change in long bone length and
proportion in the United States, 1800 to 1970. American Journal of Physical
OBrien, T. G. 1994. Human soft-tissue decomposition in an aquatic environment and
its transformation into adipocere. Masters thesis: University of Tennessee.
OBrien T. G., and A. C. Kuehner. 2007. Waxing grave about adipocere: Soft tissue
change in an aquatic context. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52:294301.
Ousley, S. D., and R. L. Jantz. 1997. The forensic data bank: Documenting skeletal trends
in the United States. In K. J. Reichs (ed.): Forensic osteology: Advances in the iden-
tification of human remains. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 442458.
Rockhold, L. A. 1998. Secular change in external femoral measures from 1840 to 1970:
A biomechanical interpretation. Masters thesis: University of Tennessee.
Rodriguez, W. C. 1982. Insect activity and its relationship to decay rates of human
cadavers in east Tennessee. Masters thesis: University of Tennessee.
Rodriguez, W. C., and W. M. Bass. 1983. Insect activity and its relationship to decay rates
of human cadavers in east Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences 28:42332.
Shahid, S. A., K. G. Schoenly, N. H. Haskell, R. D. Hall, and W. Zhang. 2003. Carcass
enrichment does not alter dcay rates or arthropod community structure: A test
of the arthropod saturation hypothesis at the Anthropology Research Facility,
Tennessee. Journal of Medical Entomology 40:559569.
Schoenly, K. G., S. A. Shahid, N. H. Haskell, and R. D. Hall. 2005. Does carcass
enrichment alter community structure of predaceous and parasitic arthro-
pods? A second test of the arthropod saturation hypothesis at the anthropology
research facility in Knoxville, Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences 50:19.
Snow, F. J. 2004. Geometric morphometry analysis of the scapula: Implications
for the determination of sex and ancestry. Doctoral dissertation: University
of Tennessee.
Synstelien, J. A. 2001. Differences in the os coxae between blacks and whites: A muscu-
loskeletal approach to human variation. Masters thesis: University of Tennessee.
Vass, A. A. 1991. Time since death determinations of human cadavers utilizing soil
solution. Doctoral dissertation: University of Tennessee.
Vass, A. A. 2001. Beyond the grave: Understanding human decomposition. Micro-
biology Today 28:190192.
Vass, A. A., W. M. Bass, J. D. Wolt, J. E. Foss, and J. T. Ammons. 1992. Time since
death determinations of human cadavers using soil solution. Journal of Foren-
sic Sciences 37:12361253.
Vass A. A., S. A. Barshick, G. Sega, J. Caton, J. T. Skeen, J. C. Love, and J. A. Synstelien.
2002. Decomposition chemistry of human remains: A new methodology for
determining the postmortem interval. Journal of Forensic Sciences 47:542553.
Vass A. A., R. R. Smith, C. V. Thompson, M. N. Burnett, D. A. Wolf, J. A. Synstel-
ien, N. Dulgerian, and B. A. Eckenrode. 2004. Decompositional odor analysis
database. Journal of Forensic Sciences 49(4):760769.
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2320.indb 22 4/9/08 3:10:05 PM
The Forensic
Anthropology
Laboratory in a Medical
Examiner Setting
3
Dana Austin and Laura Fulginiti
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................... 23
The Facilities ......................................................................................................... 26
Duties and Staff......................................................................................................31
Duties of the Forensic Anthropologist............................................................... 34
Field Recovery.............................................................................................. 34
Mechanisms of Case Assignment ............................................................ 37
Laboratory Analysis of Skeletal and Decomposing Remains........................ 38
Maceration.................................................................................................... 38
Skeletal Analyses.......................................................................................... 39
Trauma Analyses......................................................................................... 40
Positive Identification................................................................................. 41
Unidentified Cold Cases............................................................................. 43
Education of Pathologists and Law Enforcement................................... 44
Summary................................................................................................................ 45
References............................................................................................................... 46
Introduction
Forensic anthropologists are well-established as a visible and necessary part

of the medicolegal team that determines an unknown victims identity, ana-
lyzes traumatic injuries, establishes time-since-death, differentiates human
from nonhuman bone, creates a biological profile for unknown human
remains, and testifies in court proceedings regarding these issues (Stewart
1979; Ubelaker 1999). Forensic anthropologists also provide support to law
enforcement during the search and recovery phase, education to their peers,
and outreach to the community. Most of these roles fall under the aegis of
the medical examiner, coroner, or justice of the peace who has jurisdiction
23
2320.indb 23 4/9/08 3:10:05 PM

24 Dana Austin and Laura Fulginiti
over the body and is mandated to certify the cause and manner of death
(Arizona Revised Statutes, Title 11; Texas Code of Criminal Procedure 2003).
While the forensic anthropologist may determine the mechanism of injury
and whether the traumatic insult occurred ante-, peri-, or postmortem, the
forensic pathologist is tasked with establishing the mechanism that caused
death and ruling on the manner of death, that is, suicide, homicide, natu-
ral, or accidental. In some jurisdictions, a hospital pathologist conducts the
autopsy and provides findings to the coroner or justice of the peace who
issues the death certificate. The forensic anthropologist can be called upon to
supplement autopsy findings in a variety of ways.
Increasingly, pathologists are confronted with remains that are decom-
posing, skeletal, severely traumatized, or conflagrated and these create spe-
cial circumstances in which the pathologist will require the services of a
forensic anthropologist. In our experience, the forensic anthropologist and
pathologist often consult together on particular cases to decide which tissues
will be cleaned and analyzed. The anthropologist then has the responsibility
to macerate the remains and evaluate them for evidence of trauma, to estab-
lish a biological profile to assist in the identification, or to complete an ante-
mortempostmortem comparison, usually involving medical radiographs to
include or exclude positive identification.
A few medical examiner offices nationwide have forensic anthropologists
on staff as full-time employees; some choose to retain forensic anthropology
services on a contractual basis and some do not utilize the services of a foren-
sic anthropologist. Table 3.1 shows medical examiner/coroner facilities in the
United States that have an employment line for a forensic anthropologist. Some
are employed full-time as a forensic anthropologist and others share duties as
an investigator, administrator, or autopsy technician. A few of the positions are
at the state level and one or more anthropologists will be responsible to respond
to all medical examiners in that state. Kentucky and New Jersey developed
full-time state anthropology lines in 1981 (Emily Craig and Donna Fontana,
personal communication) and Georgia in 2002 (Rick Snow, personal commu-
nication). A full- or part-time employee line requires funding for facilities and
salary/benefits for the anthropologist. In larger jurisdictions, the funding is
more readily available and a full-time position can be easily accommodated.
The need to consult with formally trained anthropologists is becoming imper-
ative as attorneys, pathologists, and families are better educated about the
abilities of forensic anthropologists. Mass fatality and terrorism preparedness
in many jurisdictions also play a part in the increased visibility of anthropolo-
gists and consequently their use by pathologists. The Office of the Chief Medi-
cal Examiner in New York City serves five separate boroughs and currently
employs eight forensic anthropologists full-time to cover the citys anthropol-
ogy caseload, as well as to direct the ongoing recovery efforts related to the
September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center (Bradley Adams,
2320.indb 24 4/9/08 3:10:06 PM

The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory in a Medical Examiner Setting 25
Table 3.1 Numbers of Medical Examiners Offices within the United States
That Employ Forensic Anthropologists as Either Full-Time or with Shared
Duties
Number Number
Location Full-Time with Shared Duties
Phoenix, Arizona 1 0
Tucson, Arizona 1 0
Decatur, Georgia 1 0
Fairview Heights, Illinois 1 0
Frankfort, Kentucky 1 0
Boston, Maine 1 0
St. Louis, Missouri 0 1
Hamilton, New Jersey 0 1
Newark, New Jersey 1 0
New York, New York 8 0
Bismarck, North Dakota 0 1
Eugene, Oregon 0 1
Columbia, South Carolina 0 1
Chattanooga, Tennessee 0 1
Memphis, Tennessee 0 1
Austin, Texas 0 2
Fort Worth, Texas 1 0
Houston, Texas 2 0
Seattle, Washington 1 0
Total 19 9
personal communication). Traditionally, forensic pathologists have sought an

association with an academic anthropologist with skills in forensic analysis.
This is beneficial in jurisdictions with limited budgets or in places where the
perceived need for anthropology is lessened. In these cases, the anthropologist
is gainfully employed by the local university or college and offers services on
a fee basis or even gratis to the medical examiner; with a possible additional
charge to the district/county attorney should testimony be required (Galloway
et al. 1990).
The daily activities and duties of the full-time forensic anthropologist
differ significantly from their academic colleagues. Once an anthropologist
proves his or her competence in their jurisdiction, the caseload increases
and becomes more regular. In some cases, an anthropologist previously
paved the way and the caseload may be firmly established. Duties of the
forensic anthropologist are extensive and training and experience in both
fieldwork and laboratory analysis are critical. The anthropologist will lead
the field recovery process, be present at the initial examination, prepare the
2320.indb 25 4/9/08 3:10:06 PM

specimens, conduct the skeletal analysis, and often assist in the identification
of the decedent. While academic anthropologists may take weeks or months
to complete a skeletal analysis, the medical examiner-employed anthropolo-
gist will often be asked to complete his or her examination in days to facili-
tate the release of the remains. The anthropologist often races against the
clock so that a body may be ready for release as soon as DNA results or other
analyses are complete.
If the anthropology caseload is light, the anthropologist may be asked to
take on additional duties. The forensic anthropologist in Maricopa County
worked for a year as a medical investigator and the Tarrant County Medical
Examiner (TCME) forensic anthropologist was required to train and work
cases in the trace analyses laboratory for seven years including hair and fiber
identification and comparison, processing of bodies in the morgue for trace
materials, processing of evidence for trace materials, and identification of
trace materials. She was relieved of those duties only after her anthropology
caseload increased to over 75 cases per year. Other duties performed by the
anthropologist include working autopsies by assisting with external exami-
nations, drawing vitreous fluid and blood, accompanying transporters to the
scene as a death investigator, management of human identification caseload,
and teaching medical and law enforcement personnel.
The duties of the medical examiners office include identification of the
decedent and certification of death. Both are necessary to complete the legal
documentation that is required by vital statistics. When remains are not in a
pristine state, the interaction of the pathologist and anthropologist are criti-
cal aspects of the team approach to forensic casework. Other specialists that
are often consulted to complete the work-up include forensic odontologists,
fingerprint specialists, DNA specialists, pediatric radiologists, forensic neu-
ropathologists, and neurosurgeons.
This chapter will incorporate the experiences of two forensic anthropol-
ogists, both of whom maintain full-time status in their jurisdictions, albeit in
different modalities. The facilities reviewed are the Tarrant County Medical
Examiners Office in Fort Worth, Texas, and the Maricopa County Forensic
Science Center in Phoenix, Arizona. In both instances, funding, equipment
and space have been provided to accommodate anthropology on a full-time
basis. This chapter will outline the facilities and duties of the forensic anthro-
pologist in two different medical examiner systems.
The Facilities
The Office of the Chief Medical Examiner in Fort Worth, Texas serves Tar-
rant, Parker, and Denton counties and other counties upon their request. The
medical examiner district is located in North Texas and includes the larger
2320.indb 26 4/9/08 3:10:06 PM

cities of Fort Worth, Arlington, Denton, and Weatherford. Texas law requires
that a medical examiner jurisdiction be formed by the county commission
when a county reaches a population of more than one million (Texas Code
of Criminal Procedure 2003). Less populated counties are served by a jus-
tice of the peace who will order an autopsy in certain required cases (Texas
Code of Criminal Procedure 2003). Some cases are contracted to hospital
pathologists; however, many are outsourced to established medical exam-
iner districts such as the TCME. The Tarrant County Office of Chief Medical
Examiner currently receives 7000 death reports with approximately 2200 of
those brought into the facility. The Texas medical examiner or justice of the
peace may request the aid of a forensic anthropologist in the examination of
a body or a body part. In these instances, the forensic anthropologist must
hold a doctoral degree with emphasis in physical anthropology (Texas Code
of Criminal Procedure 2003).
The Tarrant County Medical Examiners Office, operating at its cur-
rent location since 1989, is housed in a two-story building. Reception, offices
of the investigators and pathologists, records, secretarial staff, library, and
conference room are located on the ground level. The morgues, body stor-
age coolers, radiography facilities, garage/body transport area, incinerator,
morgue staff offices, and evidence facilities are located beside these offices
in an area with separate air handling capabilities. The radiography area has
standard x-ray, dental x-ray, and fluoroscopy units. Within the next year den-
tal and standard radiography are scheduled to be updated to digital systems.
The morgues consist of a main morgue, teaching morgue, and a major case
morgue. The main morgue has four autopsy stations with skylights to pro-
vide natural lighting. The teaching morgue has elevated seating and is used
for educational autopsies. The major case morgue is used to isolate homicide
cases requiring trace material recovery prior to autopsy.
Laboratories are located on the second floor, accessed by a key card.
Additional rented space houses the forensic biology, latent fingerprints,
intoxilizer, and histology laboratories. Currently, the labs occupying the sec-
ond floor include toxicology, solid dose chemistry, firearms, trace analyses,
photography, and human identification/anthropology. The anthropology
lab/office consists of a single room containing countertops on three sides and
two stand-alone tables with storage underneath (Figure 3.1). A fume hood
and sink with a garbage disposal are present.
The anthropology position was moved out of the crime laboratory and
into a newly created Human Identification unit in 2006. The Human Identi-
fication unit, led by the forensic odonotologist, consists of the anthropologist
and a fingerprint examiner and is tasked with assuring a positive identity on
bodies when possible. The crime laboratory line that led to anthropology at
the TCME was initially occupied by a trace analyst with some training in
forensic anthropology. This line later evolved into an anthropology line with
2320.indb 27 4/9/08 3:10:06 PM

Figure 3.1 Anthropology lab.
duties in the trace section and eventually into a full-time forensic anthropol-
ogy position. The evolution of this position reflects the increased demand for
the services of a forensic anthropologist (Figure 3.2).
Maricopa County is in the central part of Arizona, a state governed by a
medical examiner system (Arizona Revised Statutes, Title 11). Each county
either provides its own medical examiner, or enters into an agreement with a
county that has one in place. Currently the office performs over 5000 exami-
nations a year. The Maricopa County Medical Examiner moved into a new
facility and changed its name to the Forensic Science Center (MCFSC) in
October, 2002. The forensic science center is a three-story edifice attached to
a secure parking garage ultimately to be used by other county agencies. The
three levels are divided by function with the basement dedicated to admit-
ting and examination of decedents, administration on the first floor, and
toxicology/histology on the third floor.
The main floor is divided into a public area and a secured area. The pub-
lic area has a reception desk, separate offices for meetings with attorneys,
and a family viewing area. In the front foyer, there is a state of the art confer-
ence center for county-wide use. The secured portion houses offices for the
administrative staff and the physicians. There is a small conference room and
a doctors library, complete with closed circuit plasma screen televisions (for
PowerPoint and viewing autopsies) and computers.
2320.indb 28 4/9/08 3:10:07 PM

Figure 3.2 Dana Austin, Marc Krouse, and Alyson Allen look over an area of
trauma on a cranium in the TCME morgue.
The third floor is badge access only, with admittance permitted only for
those individuals who work on that floor. Tissue specimens collected for his-
tology and toxicological analyses are transported from the autopsy suite to
the third floor via the elevator that is rendered inoperable to other users dur-
ing transport. There is room on the third floor for trace evidence and DNA
analysis and there are plans in place to add those functions in the next few
years depending on funding.
The basement is the heart of the MCFSC building. The new facility
has ten tables in the main examination room and two additional tables in
the special procedures suite (for decomposed, contaminated or infectious
cases). There is a separate examination table in the anthropology/dental
laboratory (Figure 3.3). There are four walk-in coolers for the decedents
and one smaller cooler for toxicology specimens. This floor also houses an
admitting area, a radiography room, and a sterile operating room (for organ
procurement). Due to the weather in Arizona, the rate of decomposition is
very fast (e.g., decomposition in a few days during the summer and skel-
etonization in as little as two weeks). To avoid cross-contamination with
the other decedents, the decomposed remains and those suspected of car-
rying disease are brought into the special procedures suite via a completely
separate channel. They are weighed, admitted, and placed into a special
cooler without entering the main admitting hallway. There is a separate
observation room for the special procedures autopsy suite equipped with
two cameras and telephones so that law enforcement and attorneys can
communicate with the pathologist and staff. The bulk of the anthropology
cases are initially examined in the special procedures examination room
and then moved into the anthropology/dental laboratory for follow-up. The
2320.indb 29 4/9/08 3:10:08 PM

Figure 3.3 Laura Fulginiti begins a preliminary examination of potential

remains brought in by the Mohave County Sheriffs Office.
office of the medical examiner is charged with determining the cause and
manner of death for all unattended or unexplained deaths and those dece-
dents who comprise the majority of the Forensic Science Center (FSC) case-
load are brought into a main hallway, weighed, and then placed into the
admitting cooler. These include homicides, suicides, accidents, and natural
deaths that are not decomposed, contaminated, or infectious. Once they
are examined in the main autopsy suite, they are placed into the release
cooler to await pick-up by a funeral director.
The main autopsy suite is configured so that each examination table has
its own observation window, camera, and telephone to facilitate communi-
cation with the staff. The pathologists have microphones and the observers
(who include detectives and attorneys) can listen to the procedure via speak-
ers in each cubicle. Segregation of the observers reduces the exposure risk to
the observers and also cuts costs as they do not require personal protective
equipment in the observation hallway.
The anthropology/dental laboratory is sandwiched between the admit-
ting cooler and the special procedures suite. The lab is equipped with a metal
examination table, overhead lighting, a moveable fluorescent light source, a
portable unit for procuring dental radiographs (digital dental radiographs are
under consideration), a wall-mounted light board for viewing radiographs,
and a combination stove and fume hood that was designed specifically for
maceration. The stove top is flat (induction) with five cooking surfaces and
an automatic shut-off valve if the surface gets too hot, or if it has been on for
2320.indb 30 4/9/08 3:10:09 PM

Figure 3.4 Laura Fulginiti examining mummified human remains.
a long period of time. The fume hood was designed to work in conjunction
with the stove surface and there are stove cupboards underneath for the stor-
age of pots and other accessories. There is an office overlooking the labora-
tory that is equipped with a telephone. The advantage to this system is that
the anthropologist can monitor the maceration process occurring in the lab
while completing paperwork in the office (Figure 3.4).
Duties and Staff
The Maricopa County Forensic Science Center is staffed according to func-

tion. The office is divided into examination, administration, and toxicol-
ogy. The chief medical examiner presides over 12 forensic pathologists (all
of whom are either board certified or board eligible). Three photographers,
fifteen forensic technicians, two medical investigators for each of three shifts,
and one investigative assistant for each medical investigator at every scene,
provide support for the forensic pathologists.
The deputy director of the MCFSC is responsible for the administrative
side of the office. She commands a staff that includes the office manager, bud-
get and payroll, facilities, computers, transcription, reception, custodian of
records, human resources, and the admitting staff. The director of the tox-
icology lab oversees the ten laboratory personnel and two histology tech-
nologists. The forensic anthropologist and forensic odontologist are contract
employees that answer directly to the pathologist on specific cases, and gen-
erally to the chief medical examiner.
2320.indb 31 4/9/08 3:10:10 PM

The pathologists are responsible for conducting autopsies. At present,

there are 13 pathologists. They are all licensed physicians and have passed
either their board exams or are within a specified period to complete their
boards. Additional duties include committee work (e.g., safety, trauma
board), signing cremation authorizations, and communicating with organ
donor companies.
The forensic technicians assist the pathologists during the autopsy,
fingerprint the decedents, procure radiographs as necessary, and keep the
written record of the procedure. They are also responsible for keeping the
autopsy suites clean and stocked. The supervisor maintains adequate sup-
plies for restocking. There are no cut and dry qualifications for becoming
an autopsy technician, although many have funeral home or paramedic
experience. The photographers obtain photographs as directed by the phy-
sicians or law enforcement. Additional fingerprints are obtained as neces-
sary by evidence technicians furnished by the agency with jurisdiction over
the case.
The medical investigators travel to scenes as available. They are man-
dated to attend all homicides and decomposed remains. They act as the eyes
and ears of the medical examiners in the field. At the scene they procure
photographs, interview law enforcement, and assist with the transport of the
decedent. In the office they are responsible for handling next-of-kin inter-
actions (excepting notification), obtaining medical records, and acting as a
liaison with law enforcement. Within the MCFSC jurisdiction, some investi-
gators have law enforcement or military background and all are required to
pass the American Board of Medical Legal Death Investigators certification
examination.
The investigative assistants are responsible for assisting the investiga-
tors at scenes, acquiring photographs at the scene as directed, picking up
decedents, taking specimens to and from the hospitals, and in some cases,
retrieving medical records. The admitting staff is responsible for all incom-
ing paperwork associated with the decedents and with the completion of
the death certificate. They handle incoming phone calls and often interact
with families and funeral homes. There are no particular qualifications for
these positions although background checks and fingerprints are routinely
conducted.
With the exception of the transcriptionists and the IT specialist, the
administrative staff has no specialized qualifications for their positions,
although prior experience with the public is prized. The transcriptionists
typically have backgrounds in medical transcription and are vetted for their
response to autopsy protocols. The records clerk and one transcriptionist both
speak Spanish as an aid to their job duties. The custodian of records keeps the
files, secures the files, and responds to subpoenas as necessary. There is a great
deal of turnover in personnel, both in the examination and administrative
2320.indb 32 4/9/08 3:10:10 PM

portions of the office. The stress of the job, overwork, and emotional involve-
ment are the major reasons cited for this phenomenon.
The toxicology staff is responsible for transporting specimens from
autopsy to the third floor, cataloging, preparing and performing analyses of
the specimens. They are also in communication with the pathologists con-
cerning the results and the need for additional testing. The histology techni-
cians prepare the slides for the pathologists and take care of special stains,
or sending the specimens for additional testing outside of the lab. The lab
personnel also communicate with the custodian of records regarding any
subpoenas related to the specimens. All of the lab personnel have specialized
training in toxicology.
There are ancillary individuals that enhance this core staff. In addition to
the anthropologist and odontologist, there is a neurosurgeon that performs
examination on fixed brains (although one of the newer pathologists on staff
specializes in neuropathology), a pediatrician and a pediatric radiologist
who are available to consult on child abuse cases, and evidence technicians
from each law enforcement agency to fingerprint the decedents. Detectives
are responsible for next-of-kin notifications, and for picking up and process-
ing evidence acquired during the autopsy. They are routinely supplied blood
from all homicide victims to compare to blood found at the scene. Photo-
graphs of the autopsy are provided as well.
At the Tarrant County Medical Examiners Office, the chief medical
examiner oversees a deputy chief medical examiner, two deputy medical
examiners, a forensic pathology fellow, and a staff of approximately 55 indi-
viduals that includes the crime laboratories, the toxicology and chemistry
laboratories, and the human identification laboratories. Autopsy techni-
cians staff the morgue with autopsy services performed seven days a week.
Morgue photography, radiography, and fingerprinting of the decedents are
duties assigned to the autopsy technician. The fingerprint specialist may be
called to assist in cases of decomposition and mummification that make
fingerprinting more difficult. Additionally, in homicide cases that involve
trace evidence collection prior to autopsy, the staff photographer will assist
by photographing the decedent. The anthropologist may assist in radiogra-
phy, particularly on high volume days, in high profile cases, or in cases that
are difficult to image.
The secretarial and records staff is responsible for case file management
and storage, transcription of autopsy dictation by the pathologists, and cre-
ation and filing of death certificates with the office of vital statistics.
The Investigations Department is the primary point of contact for law
enforcement or hospital notification of death, and for families of decedents.
A call is received and begins a chain of events that often leads to autopsy and
issuance of a death certificate. The investigative staff is manned by a chief
with eight investigators and four investigative clerks. In addition to staffing
2320.indb 33 4/9/08 3:10:10 PM

the reception area, investigators are dispatched to scenes of death with envi-
ronments including home, hospital, highway, work and industry, and out-
door settings. The investigator photographs the decedent as discovered and
collects pertinent information that is necessary for a death certificate and
next-of-kin notification. The investigative staff is the primary liaison with
the family, notifies them of the death if necessary, and advises them of the
need to make a funeral home selection.
The investigators liaison with a contractual body transport service and
supervise both the loading of the body at the scene and unloading and log-
ging in the body at the TCME facility. The receipt time, receiver, and trans-
porter are recorded in a logbook as the body is considered evidence and a
chain of custody is maintained. The bodies are placed into the incoming
cooler to await autopsy and any other necessary processing.
When remains are skeletal and the anthropologist is responsible for the
recovery, she will maintain the procedure of body transport by notifying the
body transport service to retrieve and transport the remains. In this way,
the body is logged into the morgue and the tracking of the body and liaison
with the family proceeds as described above. This system is in place for the
forensic anthropologist in Maricopa County as well.
Duties of the Forensic Anthropologist
Field Recovery
The TCME anthropologist is available to assist law enforcement in the loca-
tion and recovery of skeletal and decomposing remains. Scene requirements
range from the work of a single anthropologist for a few hours to multiple
days, extensive search and recovery scenes. The level of support, including
number of personnel and amount of equipment will depend on the needs of
the requesting agency. An in-house field investigation team led by the anthro-
pologist and consisting of laboratory personnel with years of crime scene and
photography experience was formed in 2006. The local Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) Evidence Response Team is also available to assist and is
able to supply well-trained investigators and a good selection of equipment.
Agencies outside of the medical examiner district are billed for anthropology
services by the Tarrant County Medical Examiners Office.
Due to intensive training and in-services, in Maricopa County and other
Northern Arizona counties, nearly all scattered skeletons and buried bodies
are attended by the forensic anthropologist. In these instances, the investi-
gating agency will contact the anthropologist directly to assist at the scene.
The fee for these services is paid by the agency making the request. In rare
2320.indb 34 4/9/08 3:10:10 PM

instances, the county attorney will insist that the anthropologist be included
in the recovery.
Field excavations are, by their nature, time intensive and exacting. The
anthropologist maintains a field kit and a call list of possible assistants. In
Maricopa County, key personnel are available in each local agency that
has received training via an intensive three-day seminar focusing on the
recovery of scattered and buried remains. Usually in these scenarios, there
are enough personnel necessary to complete the excavation in one day. In
instances when recovery is not completed, the scene is secured overnight by
law enforcement.
Ordinarily, the scene is considered solely the responsibility of local law
enforcement and the medical examiner does not become involved unless or
until a body is discovered. In field recovery scenes involving both Maricopa
and Tarrant counties, the anthropologist is the sole representative of the
medical examiner present until transport is requested. In some instances in
Tarrant County a death investigator may come to the scene to acquire the
standard data for the investigators report.
Due to confidentiality and liability issues, only one anthropology gradu-
ate student has ever been accepted for training in Maricopa County. She is
involved in both examinations in the office and in field response. The law
enforcement officers accept her as part of the team and thus far no issues have
arisen regarding her participation in casework. Similarly, in Tarrant County
graduate student volunteers from the University of Texas at Arlington that
are well-trained in human osteology may accompany the anthropologist and
assist in fieldwork.
During the processing of the scene, the anthropologist acts as the field
commander, supervising the troops and assigning tasks to be completed.
Scattered or buried remains are treated with a standard protocol. Initially, a
survey of the scene is undertaken. If a cadaver dog is available, it sweeps the
scene early in the day prior to other personnel entering. In cases of suspected
buried bodies, the ground may be probed by the recovery team for the dual
purposes of venting cadaver scent and evaluating areas of soft soil. In these
cases the dog(s) will be run over the area a second time.
Once the dog(s) are out of the primary scene perimeter, a line search is
undertaken. Depending on the staffing availability and size of the scene in
question, the entire area is searched by hands and knees, walking, by horse-
back, or on ATVs, and each piece of evidence is marked. The anthropologist
acts as the coordinator of the search, confirming whether bony evidence is
human or nonhuman prior to its inclusion in the evidence. The graduate stu-
dents assisting in Tarrant County help considerably in identification of bone
fragments and allow for the search team to be broken into smaller units, each
led by an anthropologist. This is particularly helpful in searches that cover
many acres and have low visibility due to ground cover (Figure 3.5).
2320.indb 35 4/9/08 3:10:10 PM

Figure 3.5 Kristen Hartnett and Laura Fulginiti sift for evidence and remains.
Once the evidence is marked, the anthropologist coordinates the docu-

mentation and collection of the skeletal material and associated physical evi-
dence. Each piece of evidence is photographed, measured into a coordinate
system and documented prior to being bagged. In Tarrant County a total
station is used to map surface scatter scenes. This land survey instrument
utilizes a laser to measure distance from a control point to the item of evi-
dence. The data are gathered on a laptop computer and a field map is created,
which can be edited on the desktop at a later time. Once items deemed to be
part of the case are carefully documented they can be collected and packaged
in a manner that will preserve any evidence. Decisions are also made regard-
ing the disposition of evidence, with some items transported to the medical
examiner and other items retained in the custody of the police agency.
A buried body requires more intensive labor on the part of the anthro-
pologist. A grid is constructed and procedures are followed for excavation
according to accepted standards (Morse et al. 1983; Ubelaker 1999; Galloway
et al. 2001; Dupras et al. 2006). Usually the anthropologist has the lead in this
scenario with assistance from experienced detectives. In Maricopa County,
the anthropologist has a core of individuals in various agencies that can be
called upon to assist if necessary. Most agencies in her jurisdiction are more
than willing to accept outside help from other sworn officers if necessary. The
Sheriffs Office also has multiple volunteers grouped into posses that can be
called upon to assist in large scale searches. However, the volunteer posses
do not usually assist in the recovery phase. In Tarrant County the anthro-
pologist leads the recovery and is assisted by the in-house field recovery unit,
graduate students, and in many cases the Dallas FBI Evidence Response
2320.indb 36 4/9/08 3:10:11 PM

Team. Staff transporters from the medical examiners office are dispatched
once the remains have been recovered.
In Maricopa and Tarrant counties, the role of the anthropologist occa-
sionally ends at this point. If the remains are fairly fresh with no trauma, the
anthropologist is no longer involved. However, decomposed bodies are the
norm and areas of suspected trauma need to be examined and the identity
of the individual needs to be determined. The anthropologist assists in these
matters in the procedures outlined below.
In Maricopa County, if the anthropologist is asked to complete an
examination by the forensic pathologist assigned to the case, the scene
investigation and the anthropological examination are considered to be
two different services and are reimbursed individually. The scene response
is paid for by the law enforcement agency requiring recovery assistance
and the examination by the Office of the Medical Examiner according to a
set fee schedule. The fee schedule ranges from identification of nonhuman
bones to a complete examination of fleshed remains requiring maceration
and traumata analyses.
Mechanisms of Case Assignment

The usual procedure in Maricopa and Tarrant counties is that the foren-
sic pathologist makes a request to the anthropologist for assistance in the
morgue. Cases vary widely from fresh bodies with bony trauma, to decom-
posing bodies, to completely skeletonized bodies. In all cases, the forensic
pathologist will issue the ruling on cause and manner of death. To meet this
end, the pathologist will ask the anthropologist to complete specific exami-
nations. These can include field recovery, evaluation of trauma, evaluation of
the biological profile in cases where identity is unknown, and comparison of
medical radiographs with postmortem films of the body for identification.
In Maricopa County, law enforcement will often request a secondary
examination. Rarely, will the county attorneys office will make the request.
When a pathologist requires assistance from the anthropologist, he or she
fills out a consultation request form that is subsequently vetted and approved
by the Chief Medical Examiner. In both counties, an independent written
report by the anthropologist is generated and added to the completed case
file. This report is then subject to release to the attorneys for each side, and in
Maricopa County, the general public.
In Maricopa County, payment is due upon completion of the written
report and the office of the medical examiner is responsible for the bill. In
July 2006, a sliding fee scale was approved and a charge sheet was developed.
The charge sheet is created at the time of the consultation request and sub-
mitted with a monthly invoice. Typically, nonhuman remains, brought in by
law enforcement, are handled for a nominal fee and no report is generated.
2320.indb 37 4/9/08 3:10:11 PM

The fee scale ranges from the aforementioned nonhuman remains, an

autopsy consultation or radiograph interpretation with no written report to
full examination of skeletal or fleshed remains with a written report. The
Tarrant County anthropologist is a salaried employee and receives the same
pay regardless of the number or type of cases worked.
Laboratory Analysis of Skeletal and Decomposing Remains
Maceration
Due to a variety of fresh, decomposed, and mummified remains there will
likely be a need to remove flesh for the purposes of determining age-at-death,
sex, ancestry, stature, and trauma. The elimination of flesh requires special-
ized techniques and equipment. The soft tissues need to be taken off without
adding injury to the skeleton. Maceration, the process of tissue removal by
water, is an acquired skill that requires training for proper implementation.
Maceration can be accomplished by long-term soaking, or by relatively
quick boiling. In a busy medical examiner practice, the anthropologist will
usually be required to resort to the quick reduction of the relevant skeletal
elements in a case. The tissues are removed with a variety of tools includ-
ing dissection tools such as scissors and forceps and less well-known tools
such as nylon scrapers. In cases of a cutting injury to the body, scalpels and
other cutting instruments are not used during the maceration process. The
TCME anthropologist prefers dissection with scissors, pulling of the tissue
away from the bone with forceps, and scraping of the bone with nylon scrap-
ers. The Maricopa County anthropologist also uses forceps; however, in non-
sharp implement cases she also employs a two-headed clay sculpting tool
that has widened curved ends with studs on the molding surfaces. She also
uses dental picks for foramina and difficult to reach tissues.
An odor elimination system is needed when macerating. Fume hoods are
used both in Tarrant and Maricopa counties and should be considered in any
laboratory facility dedicated to this purpose. While fume hoods are designed
for chemical hazards, they also function as biological safety cabinets that
work to shunt the malodorous maceration and decomposition smells out of
the building with negative airflow. Stainless steel pots with lids are good heat
conductors and will bring the materials to a high enough temperature to
accomplish tissue loosening. A balance between the size of the heat source
(hot plate or stove) and the bottom of the pot is critical. In an ideal laboratory,
the fume hood will also cover a sink and garbage disposal so that the remains
do not leave the fume hood area. This latter condition, however, is not part
of a usual fume hood and may need to be preplanned and specially designed.
2320.indb 38 4/9/08 3:10:12 PM

A nearby sink equipped with a garbage disposal is critical and should not be
overlooked and one must be sure to use a metal or plastic strainer that will
catch errant teeth and smaller bones or bone fragments. Macerated soft tis-
sues are also collected and incinerated.
In Maricopa and Tarrant counties, maceration is quickened by the addi-
tion of an enzyme detergent. The detergent speeds the destruction of the soft
tissue without harming or altering the bone. Once the remains have been
completely macerated, they must be air dried. Therefore, an adequate space
for laying them out is required usually a countertop near the sink, or on
the examination table. A wire rack is essential to ensure even and thorough
drying and to prevent mold development. The remains are not labeled until
the drying process is complete; therefore, security is a preeminent concern.
Each bone is labeled in black ink with the corresponding case number. Addi-
tionally, the drying area must also be large enough to accommodate two or
more cases without any possibility for commingling. In both Tarrant and
Maricopa counties, multiple simultaneous cases are common, making this
contingency of paramount importance.
Skeletal Analyses
Analysis of the remains begins once the drying process has been completed.
The remains are laid out in anatomical position allowing for an inventory of
the elements. Additionally, bones that are studied from a regional anatomy
perspective will accentuate a single traumatic event that may mark more than
one bony element. The evaluation of trauma requires microscopic analysis as
well. A stereomicroscope with a high intensity light source is essential. In
Maricopa and Tarrant counties, the anthropologist has a dissecting micro-
scope available in the laboratory for immediate viewing. During the entire
process from initial examination, through maceration, drying and the final
examination, security of the remains is essential and is established through
restricted access to the forensic anthropology suite.
In certain instances the body will have no tentative identification: no
drivers license is discovered, no vehicle or residence is associated with the
case, and there are no leads to the identity. These cases are handled by gen-
erating a biological profile of group characteristics such as age-at-death, sex,
stature, ancestral affiliation, and individual characteristics such as osseous
anomalies, pathological conditions that may have been medically recognized
and/or treated, dental restorations, and evidence of disease processes, and
even scars of pregnancy (Ubelaker 1999). The more detail that can be pro-
vided by the anthropologist and odontologist, the more likely identification
will ensue. All of these characteristics are used to generate a profile of the
unidentified person.
2320.indb 39 4/9/08 3:10:12 PM

Trauma Analyses
In cases where the decedent has been subjected to trauma, be it blunt or sharp
force, gunshot wounds, or postmortem insults, the anthropologist has the
responsibility to provide an interpretation of the osseous involvement. The
soft tissue provides a cover to the skeleton and both are subject to insult from
force. Interpreting these patterns requires specialized training and a complex
understanding of the ways in which bone reacts. As such, the pathologist is
often dependent on the opinion of the anthropologist when it comes to bone
and cartilage injuries.
Observation, maceration, reconstruction of fractured bones, and direct
stereomicroscopic examination of areas of trauma can help to determine
wound number, direction, and description. This can be critical in cases of
suspected or confirmed homicide, auto pedestrian injuries, and child abuse
cases. The Maricopa County anthropologist is frequently asked to perform
reconstructions on traumatized skulls, be they from fresh, decomposed, or
skeletonized remains. This procedure requires the careful removal and mac-
eration of all bony elements, followed by painstaking reconstruction of the
fragments. Duco brand cement is the best adhesive for these types of delicate
reassociations.
The TCME anthropologist is active in evaluating neck structures in
cases of suspected neck trauma, largely manual and ligature strangulations,
and hanging cases. This process involves removal of the neck block from
the hyoid bone to the tracheal rings. High resolution radiographs utilizing
mammography film are taken prior to maceration. Some information can be
gleaned from radiographs involving obvious fractures. Occasionally, nondis-
placed complete or incomplete fractures that are missed radiographically are
detected after cold water maceration. This process can take upward of one
week to clean the structures, due to the fact that heat cannot be applied to
cartilaginous structures. After the hyoid bone is carefully dissected from the
neck block, it can be macerated with heat.
The TCME benefits from a collaborative association between the anthro-
pologist and the firearm/toolmark examiner. The firearm examiner has spe-
cialized training in recognition and comparison of marks left by various
tools including firearms and cutting implements. Incised trauma through
cartilage and bone is documented with radiographs, photographed, and
cleaned via cold water or heated maceration, respectively. After cleaning, the
cartilage or bone is rephotographed, allowed to air dry at varying intervals
and, any wound tracks are cast with Mikrosil compound. The cast provides
a permanent record of any stria left by the marking tool. After the casts are
completed, a microscopic evaluation of the toolmarks is made to determine
if any marks of value are detectable. If they are, comparison with a suspected
tool can be completed if the tool is available.
2320.indb 40 4/9/08 3:10:12 PM

Gunshot wounds through bone are photographed, documented via radio-

graph, excised, and macerated. The anthropologist can be useful in assessing
the number of shots fired, the direction of the bullet path, the sequence of
shots fired, and the designation of wounds as entry or exit (Berryman and
Symes 1998). Pathologists are highly skilled in all of these assessments; how-
ever, anthropology is able to contribute by cleaning the specimen and giving
a detailed and slightly more accurate and descriptive documentation of the
required measurements.
A careful cleaning and examination of bones affected by blunt force
trauma will help determine the direction of force and the sequence of blows
(Berryman and Symes 1998). This can be important in cases of autopedes-
trian events in order to place the victim and the automobile in their exact
positions at the time of impact (Galloway 1999; Tomczak and Buikstra 1999;
Fulginiti et al. 2006). Bumper height can be determined from the location of
the fracture. This can indicate whether or not braking was applied as a brake
squat on the car will cause the front bumper to lower toward the ground. It
may also help in identifying the class of vehicle when the driver leaves the
scene (Smith et al. 2002).
Likewise, sharp force trauma can be evaluated for data regarding the
path of the wound followed from clothing to bone, the minimum number
of wounds, detailed location information, direction, and depth. A stereomi-
croscope exam of cleaned specimens will aid in identifying all small nick-
type injuries that would be missed without magnification applied to cleaned
specimens. A detailed examination can also document characteristics of the
wound tracks such as edges, ending marks, hesitation marks, and so forth
(Berryman and Symes 1998).
Positive Identification
In Tarrant County, the anthropologist is part of the in-house Human Identi-
fication Laboratory. At various times this team has taken on monthly meet-
ings with local law enforcement missing persons personnel and provided
education to local law enforcement and the media. A primary function,
however, is to provide a positive identification for every decedent processed
in the morgue (Figure 3.6). The majority of identifications are accomplished
through visual confirmation. This may include an affidavit statement by a
personal acquaintance, or comparison by TCME personnel of a legal photo
document such as drivers license or INS card to the decedents face.
When bodies are not suitable for visual identification due to decomposi-
tion or mutilation, the TCME has a standard protocol for accomplishing a
scientifically sound positive identification. Fingerprint recovery and compar-
ison is the first step. An Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
terminal is located at the TCME and is used to search for possible matches to
2320.indb 41 4/9/08 3:10:12 PM

Figure 3.6 Paul Coffman, Bill Walker, and Dana Austin review a fingerprint
identification on an 18-year-old cold case in the AFIS-NCIC room at TCME.
an unidentified individuals fingerprints. Additionally, if a tentative identifi-

cation is known, the fingerprint technician can search the Texas Department
of Public Safety drivers license database to confirm identity. Other sources
for known fingerprints include law enforcement and job security services.
Fingerprint identification, where applicable, is also the first line of inquiry
at the Maricopa County Forensic Science Center, although fingerprints for
identification purposes are taken by the law enforcement agency and not by
the staff of the Forensic Science Center.
If fingerprints are unavailable either postmortem or antemortem, the
next step is to query family and friends about medical and dental records.
Antemortem medical radiographs can be obtained by either law enforcement
personnel or the medical investigators. Usually, whichever can be located the
most quickly will determine the path for identification. Dental charts and
radiographs from an individuals known dentist are compared to records of
a postmortem examination conducted by the on-staff forensic odontologist
at TCME and by a contract odontologist in Maricopa County. Both anthro-
pologists become involved on the rare occasion that the dentist is unavail-
able and the comparison is straightforward. These instances are rare, and a
board-certified forensic odontologist should be consulted for dental identi-
fications whenever possible. Both anthropologists make all of the identifica-
tions accomplished through comparison of antemortem radiographs of the
body with postmortem films. Radiographs of the head, chest, and abdomen
are obtained on all decedents at MCFSC prior to autopsy.
In Tarrant County any unidentified body will have anteriorposterior
head and chest radiographs taken before the autopsy. This is standard protocol
2320.indb 42 4/9/08 3:10:13 PM

in case the anthropologist needs to compare these areas later. The head and
chest are cut at autopsy and it can be difficult to realign the structures exactly
as they were in life. Other areas of the body, including hands, feet, and the
pelvis can be used for identification purposes and radiographic films are
made. Many times, the unknown person retains surgical hardware from a
previously treated fracture or from other surgical procedures and repairs.
Radiographs taken postimplantation can be compared to postmortem films
and features such as size, number, and morphology of screws, plates, and
staples can be exactly matched. Indeed, some orthopedic implants bear serial
numbers that can be identified through online surgical implant catalogs or
by follow-up with the company involved.
Unidentified Cold Cases

In Tarrant County an average of three bodies per year and in Maricopa
County an average of ten bodies per year remain unidentified despite all
efforts to determine the decedents legal name. In Texas, deceased persons
of unknown identity must be entered into the unidentified person file of the
National Crime Information Computer (NCIC) and be reported to the Texas
Department of Public Safety Missing Persons Clearinghouse within 10 days
of the reporting of the death (Texas Department of Public Safety [DPS] 2006).
The information entered will include the biological profile data generally
determined by the forensic anthropologist either through an anthropologi-
cal exam or through review of the records, a description of clothing and per-
sonal effects, and fingerprint and dental information. Digital dental images
such as radiographs can be stored for future comparisons in the National
Dental Image Repository (NDIR) (Herschaft et al. 2007).
The NCIC can be helpful in generating possible matches with persons
that have been reported missing. The NCIC entry must be accomplished by
a trained and certified operator. The TCME anthropologist along with all
members of the human identification laboratory are certified and have clear-
ance to make entries on the terminal located at the office. The Texas DPS
Missing Persons Clearinghouse provides frequent assistance with a NCIC
entry, modification, and assemblage of missing person files that potentially
match the decedent. NCIC access is available to medical examiner offices in
the United States. However, the necessary security and user fees make this an
expensive addition to the office. In offices with no direct NCIC access, local
law enforcement or a states missing persons clearinghouse will assist with
entry of unidentified bodies.
Additional data acquired at TCME and MCFSC as part of an unidentified
person medical examiner record include fingerprints and palm prints, dental
charts and radiographs, DNA samples, frontal and lateral facial photographs
with scale, full body radiographs, notation and photographs of scars, marks,
2320.indb 43 4/9/08 3:10:13 PM

tattoos, and personal effects including clothing, and notation of antemortem

medical conditions, and observations regarding the postmortem interval. If
it is possible, a facial reconstruction is completed on unidentified remains.
TCME utilizes the services of a forensic artist, Suzanne Baldon, who prefers
to provide pencil sketches in cases with a recognizable face and a clay recon-
struction on decomposed and skeletal remains. At MCFSC, forensic artist
and Maricopa County Sheriffs Office detective Bob Powers provide draw-
ings on all unidentified decedents, regardless of jurisdiction. The forensic
artist will add a clay rendition or cast the skull when time permits. Unidenti-
fied bodies are buried at county expense in Tarrant and Maricopa counties
after all required data are gathered and after exhaustive efforts are made to
procure an identification.
The unidentified persons database creation and maintenance at TCME
have been accomplished primarily by the anthropologist with assistance from
investigative, records, and human identification laboratory personnel. Part-
time temporary assistance was awarded with a grant receipt in 2007. This
position was created with the specific intention to work solely on the cold
identity cases. A similar database was created and is maintained by investi-
gator Suzi Dodt at the Office of the Medical Examiner in Maricopa County
with assistance from the anthropologist. A recently created unidentified per-
sons search as part of their Web site (http://maricopa.gov/medex/) has been
successful with several positive identifications made after family members
or friends recognized one of the decedents. This bureau maintains decedents
from the 1960s until present who can be sorted by sex and/or the timeframe in
which they went missing. Each decedent is represented by a photograph, two
or three dimensional rendition, and/or description of their personal effects as
well as a brief physical description and how they were found. Tarrant County
plans to implement a Web page using the Maricopa County Web page as a
template in the near future. Currently, the Texas Department of Public Safety
Missing Persons Clearinghouse Web page contains the TCME cases with
completed artwork (see www.txdps.state.tx.us/mpch).
Education of Pathologists and Law Enforcement

In any jurisdiction, one of the most important issues confronting the anthro-
pologist is the constant reeducation of the personnel with whom they are
in contact. Word of mouth assists this process once the anthropologist has
established a reputation, however, due to the rotation of personnel in most
law enforcement agencies and the addition of new pathologists and staff at
the medical examiners offices, the anthropologist often finds herself in the
unenviable position of edifying the inexperienced. Although this task can be
frustrating and tiresome, it is crucial for the maintenance of good relation-
ships with these agencies. Anthropology is becoming such a vital part of the
2320.indb 44 4/9/08 3:10:13 PM

medical examiners examination process that this particular part of the job
cannot be overlooked.
One of the most effective mechanisms for training new personnel is to
use the autopsy process as an opportunity to educate the officers who attend,
and the pathologists who are conducting the examinations with you. In the
field, you can reach more than the seasoned detectives by engaging the
other officers present (for example, securing the scene or providing muscle)
and educating them about what you do and why it is important. The major-
ity of these individuals is fascinated by bones and provides a keen audience.
A friendly demeanor, approachability, and the use of regular language are
great ways to reach them, and you are repaid when they become detectives
because they remember their initial encounter with you. The other effec-
tive mechanism to reach a large number of individuals is through seminars
directed specifically at your target audience. In-house lectures for the phy-
sicians and staff aid in the development of rapport and knowledge about
just what it is you are doing with your maceration pots. Similarly, lectures
specifically targeted at scene recovery for law enforcement are invaluable in
creating positive working relationships with the agencies in your jurisdic-
tion. Of course, providing free service when possible does not hurt, but at
some point you have to earn a living so the seeding the clouds approach
should be used judiciously.
Summary
Formally trained forensic anthropologists bring an added perspective to

the medicolegal investigation of death by performing a vital role as part
of the identification, examination, and recovery teams. This chapter dis-
cusses the varied role played by two forensic anthropologists in busy medi-
cal examiner offices. Each of these women provides additional support to
their medicolegal community acting as vital member human identification
teams and important liaisons between law enforcement, missing person
organizations, and families. The ability to provide these services stems
from the anthropologists education and appreciation for cultural and lan-
guage differences, training in archaeological technique, and specialized
knowledge of ancillary forensic sciences such as dental and DNA analyses.
Formal training and certification enable them to provide expert testimony
with regard to their anthropological findings. This background allows the
forensic anthropologist to fill an important and increasingly critical niche
in the forensic community. The ongoing education of pathologists, law
enforcement, and the public and the continued reliance by the patholo-
gist on the skills of the forensic anthropologist will ensure that this role
remains a vital component of medicolegal death investigation.
2320.indb 45 4/9/08 3:10:13 PM

References
Arizona Revised Statutes, Title 11, Chapter 3, Article 12.
Berryman, H. E., and S. A. Symes. 1998. Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial
trauma through fracture interpretation. In K. J. Reich (ed.): Forensic osteol-
ogy: Advances in the identification of human remains, 2nd Ed. Springfield, IL:
Charles C Thomas.
Dupras, T. L., J. J. Schultz, S. M. Wheeler, and L. J. Williams. 2006. Forensic recovery
of human remains: Archaeological approaches. Boca Raton, FL: CRC/Taylor &
Francis.
Fulginiti, L. C., K. M. Hartnett, K. D. Horn, and R. E. Kohlmeier. 2006. Of butter-
flies and spirals: Interpreting direction of force in pedestrian vs. motor vehicle
accidents. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences.
Galloway, A. 1999. Broken bones: Anthropological analysis of blunt force trauma.
Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Galloway, A., W. H. Birby, T. Kahana, and L. Fulginiti. 1990. Anthropology and
the law: Legal responsibilities of forensic anthropologists. Yearbook of Physical
Galloway, A., H. Walsh-Haney, and J. H. Byrd. 2001. Recovering buried bodies and
surface scatter: The associated anthropological, botanical, and entomological
evidence. In J. H. Byrd and J. L. Caster (eds.): Forensic entomology: The utility
of arthropods in legal investigations. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Herschaft, E. E., M. E. Alder, D. K. Ord, R. D. Rawson, and E. S. Smith. (eds.) 2007.
Manual of forensic odontology. Albany, NY: American Society of Forensic
Odontology.
Morse, D., J. Duncan, and J. Stoutamire. 1983. Handbook of forensic archaeology and
anthropology. Tallahassee, FL: Rose Printing Company.
Smith, O. C., E. J. Pope, and S. A. Symes. 2002. Look until you see: Identification of
trauma in skeletal material. In D. W. Steadman (ed.): Hard evidence: Case stud-
ies in forensic anthropology. Pearson Education.
Stewart, T. D. 1979. Essentials of forensic anthropology. Springfield, IL: Charles C
Thomas.
Texas Code of Criminal Procedure. 2003. Chapter 49. Texas Criminal Law and
Motor Vehicle Handbook. Longwood, FL: Gould Publications of Texas.
Texas Department of Public Safety. 2006. State and Federal Missing Persons Statutes
20052006, Texas Department of Public Safety, Criminal Intelligence Service,
Missing Persons Clearinghouse, Revised April 2006.
Tomczak, P. D., and J. E. Buikstra. 1999. Analysis of blunt trauma injuries: Vertical
deceleration versus horizontal deceleration injuries. Journal of Forensic Sci-
ences 44(2):253262.
Ubelaker, D. H. 1999. Human skeletal remains: Excavation, analysis, interpretation.
Manuals on Archaeology 2, Taraxacum, Washington, D.C.
2320.indb 46 4/9/08 3:10:14 PM

Joint POW/MIA
Accounting Commands
Central Identification
Laboratory
4
Thomas Holland, John Byrd,
and Vincent Sava
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................... 47
Historical Background......................................................................................... 48
Infrastructure........................................................................................................ 49
Organization.......................................................................................................... 53
Process and Procedures........................................................................................ 54
Accreditation and Quality Assurance (QA)...................................................... 58
Research.................................................................................................................. 61
Conclusion............................................................................................................. 62
References............................................................................................................... 62
Introduction
Sitting in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, in the most geographically isolated
inhabited spot on the globe, is the worlds largest forensic skeletal identifi-
cation laboratory. The Department of Defense, Joint POW/MIA Account-
ing Command (JPAC) is a unique military organization with an inimitable
mission: to achieve the fullest possible accounting of United States service
personnel missing from past wars and conflicts. Almost 90,000 American
service personnel remain missing: 5,000 from World War I; 78,000 from
World War II; 8,100 from the Korean War; and almost 1,800 from the Viet-
nam War. None of these individuals are officially designated as Prisoners
of War (POW) or Missing In Action (MIA). Military review boards subse-
quently amended the status of each individual to presumed dead, but none
of them returned home. These are Americans who remain unaccounted
for. Consequently, the JPAC mission actually works to conduct worldwide
recoveries for the purpose of identifying missing U.S. service personnel. To
47
2320.indb 47 4/9/08 3:10:14 PM

48 Thomas Holland, John Byrd, and Vincent Sava
achieve this goal, the JPAC relies on its scientific component, the Central
Identification Laboratory (CIL).
The JPAC-CIL is charged with ensuring that remains recovery efforts
and the subsequent forensic identification are conducted with the highest
possible scientific standards. In addition, the CIL shoulders the responsibil-
ity of being a national forensic resource. Accordingly, the CIL makes avail-
able expert consultation services to a variety of federal, state, and local law
enforcement agencies, provides humanitarian support to other federal agen-
cies in the event of a mass casualty event, and conducts research intended to
advance the science of forensic identification.
Historical Background
The United States has always taken an interest in the recovery of its war
deadmore so than perhaps any other nation. Much of this commitment
can be traced to the relative youth of the country. Unlike dominant nation-
states of the past, such as Great Britain, the involvement of the United States
in international wars coincides not only with the modern logistical ability to
recover the remains of its war dead from distant battlefields, but also with
the capability of repatriating those remains back to home soil. The extensive
cemetery system that grew out of the Civil War, and which is symbolized so
vividly today by Arlington National Cemetery, remains a tangible testament
to the federal governments commitment to care for its fallen war dead. What
was missing, however, was the second component of todays JPAC-CIL mis-
sionthe ability to identify the remains once they were recovered. In reality,
the scientific techniques necessary to achieve the identification component
of this mission was not realized until World War II.
Todays CIL has its roots in the U.S. Armys Central Identification Labo-
ratory that was established in Hawaii in 1947. Following the war, the Army
acting as the Executive Agent for the recovery and identification of U.S.
war dead, established two large laboratories to deal with the tens of thou-
sands of U.S. war dead on foreign soils. One laboratory was located in France
and mostly operated with European staff under the guidance of H.L. Sha-
piro, then Curator of Physical Anthropology at the American Museum of
Natural History in New York. The second laboratory was situated on Scho-
field [Army] Barracks in Hawaii. Unlike the European lab, the Hawaii CIL
employed American personnel under the scientific guidance of Charles
Snow, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Kentucky. When Snow
returned to his teaching duties in 1948, he was replaced by Mildred Trot-
ter, Professor of Anatomy at Washington University in St. Louis. It is at the
Hawaii CIL, working with the remains of thousands of U.S. servicemen
2320.indb 48 4/9/08 3:10:14 PM

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Commands CIL 49
killed in the Pacific Theater, that Trotter collected the initial data on stature
for which she is best remembered (Trotter and Gleser 1952, 1958).
Despite the enormous effort of the CILthe remains of thousands of
servicemen were examined at the Hawaii lab alonethe limits of science
soon were reached, and in 1949 the Hawaii CIL was deactivated. Less than
five years later, the Korean War once again established the need for a scien-
tific laboratory capable of identifying war dead, and the U.S. Army Central
Identification Unit (CIU) was established in Kokura, Japan. Led by notable
anthropologists such as Ellis R. Kerley and Charles P. Warren, the CIU over-
saw the identification of more than one thousand U.S. servicemen. It was
here, as well, that T. Dale Stewart and Thomas W. McKern conducted their
landmark study on skeletal age changes in young American males (McKern
and Stewart 1957). As with the World War II labs, however, the CIU eventu-
ally reached the limits of science for that time period and was deactivated.
The Vietnam War renewed the need to identify war dead recovered from
foreign soil. During the war, battlefield casualties were identified through a
mortuary system composed of two large in-country Army mortuariesone
outside Saigon at Tan Son Nhut Air Base and the other in Da Nang. These
mortuaries were consolidated in Thailand following the American exodus
from Vietnam, and it was soon recognized that the remaining cases were too
challenging for the standard Army mortuary operation. Specifically, a scien-
tific laboratory was needed to identify skeletonized remains retrieved from
the battlefield by non-U.S. sources. (U.S. recovery teams were not allowed
into Vietnam until 1986, and then only on a very controlled basis.) In 1976,
the U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) was estab-
lished for this purpose; however, in those early years the laboratory suffered
from inadequate staffing, funding, and infrastructure, and it was not until
the 1990s that anything resembling the laboratory of today emerged. It was
during the 1990s that the commitment to scientific excellence that had char-
acterized past CILs was renewed. In 2003, the U.S. Army relinquished con-
trol of the CILHI, and the laboratory was incorporated into the newly created
Department of Defense (DoD), Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command. The
mission remains the same.
Infrastructure
The JPAC is located within the gated confines of Hickam Air Force Base,
adjacent to Honolulu International Airport, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii.
The location affords the laboratory a high level of security in that access to
the base is tightly controlled. Additionally, military airlift capabilities and
commercial airlines are easily available and serve to facilitate quick deploy-
ments of scientists and recovery personnel to distant, worldwide locations.
2320.indb 49 4/9/08 3:10:14 PM

Figure4.1 The main laboratory floor of the JPAC-CIL. (Photograph by Staff Ser-
geant Charity Barrett.)
The JPAC building is operated 24 hours a day, 365 days a year by a military
command-and-communications center that monitors daily situational input
from deployed recovery teams as well as after-hours access to the building.
The CIL (Figure4.1) currently occupies 11,500 square feetapproximately
two-thirds of the larger JPAC buildingand, as of this writing, is adding an
additional 10,000 square feet. The laboratory facility includes a primary ana-
lytical area with bench space to accommodate up to 20 individual skeletal
cases simultaneously (Figure4.2). A secure evidence-storage area is adjacent
to the primary analytical floor. A secondary analytical area that includes an
autopsy facility with a walk-in morgue refrigerator and DNA-sampling areas,
one for dental samples and one for bone and soft-tissue samples (Figures4.3
and 4.4), can accommodate an additional eight skeletal cases, or six full-
body autopsies simultaneously, though this space is most commonly used
to analyze nonbiological material evidence (e.g., aircraft wreckage, personal
effects). Both of these analytical areas are access-controlled by magnetic-key
cards with entry and exit points being alarmed during nonwork hours. Only
members of the scientific staff and select support staff have unescorted access
to these areas.
The CIL also includes separate work areas housing a histological thin-
section laboratory, a scanning electron microscope (Figure4.5), variable
light source equipment, digital radiography (Figure4.6), a library and con-
ference room, administrative offices, a secure file room, a multimedia facility,
photography studio, and staff offices.
2320.indb 50 4/9/08 3:10:15 PM

Figure4.2 Remains analysis is predominantly conducted on the main labora-

tory floor. (Photograph by Dr. William Belcher.)
Figure4.3 DNA samples are taken from bone specimens within a designated
sampling space that is cleaned following each sampling episode. (Photograph by
Staff Sergeant Charity Barrett.)
2320.indb 51 4/9/08 3:10:15 PM

Figure4.4 DNA samples are cut from bone according to standard procedures
outlined in the CIL manual.
Figure4.5 The scanning electron microscope is used in case analysis as well as

research. (Photograph by Staff Sergeant Charity Barrett.)
2320.indb 52 4/9/08 3:10:16 PM

Figure4.6 Digital radiography is used to examine skeletal morphology, pathol-

ogies, antemortem fractures, gunshot residues and so forth. (Photograph by Staff
Sergeant Charity Barrett.)
Organization
The JPAC is a large and diverse military command. It is unique within the
Department of Defense, or for that matter, within the world. Although per-
sonnel numbers routinely fluctuate, regular staffing consists of approximately
400 personnel from all military branches, DoD civilians, private contractors,
student interns, and postgraduate fellows.
To accomplish the mission of achieving the fullest possible accounting
for missing U.S. servicemen, the JPAC conducts both field recoveries and
laboratory analysis. The JPAC recognizes that the identification process often
begins with the field recovery, which utilizes a unique blend of archaeologi-
cal principles and crime scene investigation procedures. As such, the goal of
the field operation is to recover evidence that is later legally defensible and to
2320.indb 53 4/9/08 3:10:16 PM

successfully sort out evidence from site materials that have no probative value.
To this end, JPAC has 18 standing recovery teams capable of deploying around
the world for extended periods of timeusually 30 to 60 days at a time. Since
1976 the JPAC (and its predecessor organization, the CILHI) has conducted
recoveries in more than 40 countries, ranging from the deserts of Iraq to the
jungles of South America and Southeast Asia, from the frozen tundra of Sibe-
ria to the beaches of the Solomon Islands, from the Himalaya Mountains of
Tibet to the ocean depths of the Mediterranean Sea. In all, over 1500 U.S. men
and women have been recovered, identified, and returned home.
A typical recovery team configuration consists of 12 to 14 personnel. The
Recovery Leader is a civilian anthropologist from the CIL trained in archaeo-
logical techniques, evidence handling procedures, and human osteology. The
Recovery Leader is assisted by a military Team Leader, typically an Army or
Marine Corps officer at the rank of captain or major, who is responsible for
logistics and team order. An Assistant Team Leader is an Army or Marine
Corps senior noncommissioned officer who functions as a foreman or crew
chief. Most teams deploy with a medic and a linguist, as well as specialists in
such areas as explosiveordnance disposal, communications, aircraft wreck-
age analysis, and photography. More specialized recovery missions require
more specialized configurations of personnel. In addition to normal flatland
terrestrial recoveries, the CIL has the personnel and equipment to conduct
underwater archaeological recoveries as well as high-mountain excavations.
Once the recovery is completed, the resulting evidence, which includes
all recovered human remains, is returned to Hawaii for laboratory analysis.
The JPACs CIL is the largest skeletal identification laboratory in the world.
Its varied staff, which at times numbers near 100, includes personnel with
education and training in forensic anthropology, physical anthropology,
zooarchaeology, archaeology, odontology, DNA analysis, quality assurance,
evidence management, military aviation life-support equipment and wreck-
age analysis, and photography. Presently, the CILs forensic dental staff is
composed of active-duty military odontologists with firsthand knowledge of
how the military dental system operates and how to interpret military dental
records. Conversely, all of the forensic archaeologists and forensic anthro-
pologists are civilians, most of whom are recruited from academic institu-
tions and museums.
Process and Procedures
In the United States, human remains identification is a matter of civil, rather

than criminal, jurisdiction. Accordingly, the burden of proof applied in most
U.S. jurisdictions is preponderance of evidence. The Department of Defense,
however, has dictated that the identification of remains of fallen U.S. service
2320.indb 54 4/9/08 3:10:16 PM

personnel should meet the more strenuous standard of clear and convincing.
This is a national policy more easily articulated than implemented, in that
typical JPAC cases often are decades oldmany in excess of 50 years. As such,
they are not directly analogous to the identification of the recently deceased
when the remains are well preserved and the circumstances of death are well
known. In recent-death cases, a single line of forensic evidence, such as a
dental comparison or fingerprints or visual identification, might be found
sufficient to close the case. A closer parallel to JPAC cases may be seen in
mass disasters where victims remains are often damaged beyond visual rec-
ognition and the possibility of errors in interpretations of forensic evidence
is greater (e.g., random match probabilities with DNA or fingerprints are
higher). For this reason, the CIL requires the synthesis of multiple lines of
forensic evidence. Historically, the CIL has drawn primarily from two areas
of specialization: forensic anthropology and forensic odontology.
When a case is received at the CIL, it undergoes the accessioning pro-
cess that results in an internal chain of custody document. In many circum-
stances chain of custody was initiated in the field, either by a JPAC recovery
team or by an external agency (e.g., the Federal Bureau of Investigation,
Naval Criminal Investigation Service, or medical examiner) submitting evi-
dence for consultation. In these circumstances the existing chain of custody
is incorporated into the CILs internal system. In all cases, the evidence is
photographed upon receipt and assigned a case number that will accompany
that case throughout the analytical process. Receipt of evidence is witnessed
by at least one individual in addition to the CIL Evidence Manager. Follow-
ing the assignment of a case number, a preliminary assessment is conducted
and the evidence is triaged by a member of laboratory management, typi-
cally a forensic anthropologist, in order to best route it through the analytical
process. Most cases are assigned to two or more analysts who work indepen-
dently of one another on separate aspects of the case: forensic odontology,
forensic anthropology, and material evidence.
Dental remains, when present, are assigned to a forensic odontologist.
Upon being assigned a case, the odontologists will inventory the dental
remains, resolve commingled teeth as needed, and then identify and describe
the dentition in as much detail as possible. The goal of the odontological
analysis is to compile a dental profile that ultimately can be compared to the
dental records of a missing person. Despite significant advances being made
by the use of DNA, dental comparisons still constitute a primary line of evi-
dence in the majority of CIL cases. These results, to a large degree, stem from
the DoDs recognition that prior to World War II dental characteristics were
a primary means of identifying war dead. Accordingly, military dentists cre-
ated detailed odontograms, charts, and descriptions of their patients. For this
reason, the JPAC curates the medical and dental records of the 2,500 men
missing or unaccounted for at the end of the Vietnam War; the 8,100 men
2320.indb 55 4/9/08 3:10:16 PM

unaccounted for from the Korean War, and has ready access to the archived
records of the 78,000 men still missing from World War II. However, there
are gaps in the archived dental records.
Many personnel files, including original dental records, from the
Korean War missing were lost in 1973 when a fire destroyed the top floor
of the National Personnel Records Center in St. Louis, Missouri. The files
that subsequently were transferred to the JPAC for curation were acquired
from other records and lack much of the required specificity of the origi-
nal records. Additionally, the quality of the dental records has changed over
time. Records generated during World War II and the Korean War consisted
of dental charts and notations made by the examining dentist and these vary
in content and quality of preparation. Very few dental radiographs were made
during this era and even fewer have survived. To compensate for the lack of
radiographs in these earlier cases, the CIL sponsored the creation of a data-
base of almost 40,000 dental profiles. This database, and the accompanying
computerized search engine called OdontoSearch, allows for the statistical
weight of a records match to be calculated (Adams 2003a,b). Beginning dur-
ing the Vietnam era, however, dental radiographs became a standard addi-
tion to the files, especially for aircraft crews who underwent regular flight
physicals. In contrast to the Korean War, for example, where casualties were
primarily ground losses, the majority of the missing men from the Vietnam
War were aircraft crew. Unlike written descriptions and drawn odontograms
that support presumptive identifications, dental radiographs provide the
forensic odontologist an opportunity to make a positive identification on as
little as a single tooth.
Skeletal remains are examined by a forensic anthropologist. This analysis
is conducted simultaneously, but independently, of any analysis being con-
ducted by one of the odontologists. Unlike the work of the odontologists,
who are provided access to all records and files, the anthropological analysis
typically is conducted in the blind; that is, the anthropologist is not told
the circumstances of the loss nor told any details that might be known or
suspected about the case (such as the biological profiles of the individuals
involved in the loss incident) until after their analytical report is written.
By following this policy of blind analysis, the anthropologist is insulated
from any preconceived conclusions that might impart bias into his findings.
Consequently, this policy means that the anthropologist who conducted the
field recovery is not typically allowed to analyze the biological remains in the
laboratory. Thus, the field conclusions and the laboratory conclusions form
separate and distinct lines of evidence.
The forensic anthropologists first task is to ensure that the skeletal
remains have been completely and properly sorted. An initial sorting may
have been accomplished during the preliminary assessment stage, but it is
the responsibility of the forensic anthropologist to make sure that all of the
2320.indb 56 4/9/08 3:10:16 PM

nonbiological material evidence is segregated from the biological evidence

(the nonbiological evidence is simultaneously analyzed as trace evidence).
Once the nonbiological evidence has been separated from the skeletal
remains, the forensic anthropologist will examine and, if necessary, cull any
nonhuman bone from the case. This may require more specialized testing
such as thin-section histology or scanning electron microscopy.
Once the remains are determined to be human, an estimate of the mini-
mum number of individuals is made. Approximately half of all CIL cases
involve some degree of commingling that must be resolved before the case
can proceed. Once the discrete remains of one individual are segregated for
analysis, a biological profile is developed. The goal of this step is to estimate
the sex, age, race, and stature of the individual and to identify any trauma,
skeletal abnormalities, or taphonomic factors that may aid in a subsequent
identification. The precision and completeness of the biological profile
depends upon the quantity and preservation of remains.
The majority of CIL cases now employ DNA testing to facilitate segrega-
tion of elements and individuals or to provide another line of evidence for
the purpose of identification. Historically, only mitochondrial DNA analysis
has been used, though the use of Y-chromosomal and autosomal DNA test-
ing will assume greater importance as nuclear DNA technology improves
and becomes readily obtainable from human remains of the antiquity com-
monly recovered by the CIL. Because of the increasing reliance on DNA test-
ing, the forensic anthropologist and/or odontologist, in concert with the CIL
management and DNA coordinator, must also decide when DNA analysis is
feasible and productive for a given case. Once a decision has been made to
sample a particular case for DNA, the forensic anthropologist and/or odon-
tologist nominates specific skeletal fragments and elements for sampling
and works closely with the DNA technicians to ensure that destruction of
important bony landmarks and morphological features is minimized. Teeth
are not consumed by the sampling process, but are sampled through a pro-
cedure that leaves the enamel and root exterior intact. Once DNA results are
received, the forensic odontologists and anthropologists compare their find-
ings with the results of DNA testing. Inconsistencies are reported to labora-
tory management for resolution.
All analytical reports at the CIL are peer reviewed by an analyst uncon-
nected to the case. In addition, each report is reviewed by the Quality
Assurance Manager (see section below) for administrative and procedural
compliance and by a member of laboratory management for technical com-
pliance and accuracy.
The JPAC-CIL Scientific Director is the ultimate authority that estab-
lishes an identification of U.S. service personnel lost in past wars and con-
flicts. By tradition, the directors position is held by a forensic anthropologist.
It is the Scientific Directors responsibility to compile all of the independent
2320.indb 57 4/9/08 3:10:17 PM

lines of evidence (scientific and historical), synthesize them, and formulate a

conclusion. This conclusion is shared with one or more forensic consultants
external to the JPAC. The external consultants are senior board-certified
forensic scientists who provide expert review of CIL cases before the findings
are released. When all relevant aspects of the case have been considered and
it is decided that the conclusion meets the threshold of clear and convinc-
ing, then, and only then, are the remains officially identified.
Accreditation and Quality Assurance (QA)
In July 2003, the CIL became the first laboratory specializing in human skel-
etal identification to be accredited by American Society of Crime Laboratory
Directors, Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB). Since forensic
anthropology and forensic odontology are not regular components of Ameri-
can crime laboratories, the CILs accreditation was awarded in the disciplines
of Crime Scene Investigations and Trace Evidence. Achieving accreditation
in Crime Scene Investigation was relatively straightforward since JPAC field
recoveries are forensic investigations, albeit ones that are heavily archaeo-
logical in nature. Meeting the criteria for Crime Scene primarily involved
restructuring the field procedures to place greater emphasis of evidence
security and accountability than is common to most archaeological recov-
eries. Meeting the ASCLD-LAB requirements for the Trace Evidence dis-
cipline proved more involved in that individual procedures (for example,
age estimation) had to be broken down and rewritten within the context of
traditional trace evidence analysis. For example, while the term trace evi-
dence generally is used to describe small, oftentimes microscopic physical
evidence, a more generalized definition is requisite. As such, trace evidence
involves the comparison of an unknown specimen of physical evidence to
a known exemplar for the purpose of determining class characteristics or
individual characteristics. This is largely what the forensic anthropologist or
forensic odontologist does when comparing an unknown pubic symphysis
to a known standard such as a McKern and Stewart (1957) cast or Suchey-
Brooks (1990) phase (class characteristic) or an unknown tooth to a dental
radiograph (individual characteristic), respectively.
Forensic anthropologists and odontologists might conduct trace evidence
analyses in principle, but they have not traditionally done so in fact. Foren-
sic anthropology, and to a lesser extent forensic odontology, at least as prac-
ticed in the United States, remain deeply tied to academia. Casework which
leads to identifications tends to be very idiosyncratic, with specific meth-
ods and procedures passed from mentor/advisor to student. As such, what
separates the practice of forensic anthropology and odontology from trace
evidence analysis as practiced in the forensic laboratory is the application of
2320.indb 58 4/9/08 3:10:17 PM

Figure4.7 Part of the standard operating procedures concerns instruments,

which must undergo periodic performance checks and calibration. (Photograph
by Staff Sergeant Charity Barrett.)
standardized procedures. To achieve this end, the CIL rewrote its laboratory
manual to create standard procedures among the varied staff (Figure4.7), to
bring the procedures more in line with traditional definitions and language
common to forensic analysis, and to alter the traditional mindset of this is
how Ive always done this. This process has brought the practice of forensic
anthropology and odontology in line with sister disciplines in forensic sci-
ence and clinical medicine.
Accredited laboratories must outline their policies and procedures in a
single source known as the laboratory manual. The structural hierarchy
of the CILs laboratory manual begins with the ASCLD-LAB manual that
sets baseline requirements for accreditation and the CIL QA Program. In
effect, the laboratory manual is the Quality Manual in that elements per-
taining to QA are found throughout the document. Design of the labora-
tory manual is built around standard operating procedures (SOPs), each on
a topic pertinent to the CIL mission. The result is a set of consistent policies,
standards, and procedures that are explicit and shared between supervisors
and subordinates. An important aspect of the laboratory manual is that the
spirit, purpose, and intent of the SOP is expressed. This allows the staff
to address and resolve problems that occur during remote operations when
the CIL management cannot be reached. From the laboratory manual, all
subsequent documentation is generated to include notes forms, checklists,
training guides, CIL records, and other documentation.
2320.indb 59 4/9/08 3:10:17 PM

Restructuring the CILs laboratory manual was only the first step in the
evolution to an accredited crime laboratory. The next step was the implemen-
tation of a QA program. Accreditation sets minimum standards of quality;
a QA program ensures that the minimum standards are met or exceeded.
The end-state is not to guarantee that mistakes will never occur, but to greatly
increase the chance that mistakes, when made, will be recognized in a timely
manner and prevented in the future through a series of deliberately planned
and monitored corrective actions.
The CIL QA program ensures that the CIL functions at all times in an
objective and scientifically sound manner that utilizes reliable and accu-
rate procedures that consistently generate reliable results. The QA program
encompasses all the activities undertaken by the CIL in its permanent facili-
ties, at sites away from its permanent facilities, or in associated temporary
or mobile facilities. Thus, the CIL (and its clients) can be confident that
the forensic findings of the CIL are impartial, scientifically and technically
sound, thoroughly documented, and legally defensible.
Quality Assurance programs are commonplace in crime laboratories, but
are still somewhat unusual in forensic anthropology settings where empha-
sis is placed on the individuals credentials rather than on the product they
produce. This is unfortunate, as QA programs possess numerous qualities
worthy of mention. For example, the CIL QA program is multifaceted. Mul-
tiple QA measures exist for evaluating the quality of the product. The CIL
continually seeks to improve the effectiveness of its QA program through
the use of a multitude of mutually supporting and cross-validating QA mea-
sures. These include but are not limited to:
Peer review of analytical reports

Annual internal audits of CIL operations (Figure4.8)
Monitoring and critique of trial testimony
Maintenance of a positive work environment
Documentation to include a comprehensive laboratory manual con-
taining the standard operating procedures
Regular calibration and maintenance of equipment (Figure4.7)
Competency and annual proficiency testing of staff
Evidence management and security procedures
Staff training and professional development
Safety, security, and maintenance of facilities
Selection and validation of analytical procedures
The CIL QA program incorporates redundancy to ensure success in

monitoring quality. Multiple cross-validating avenues for evaluating differ-
ent aspects of field and laboratory operations are in place. Deficiencies not
recognized by one QA measure may be detected by another. Furthermore,
2320.indb 60 4/9/08 3:10:17 PM

Figure4.8 Periodic audits conducted by trained staff members are a critical

component of the QA program. (Photograph by Staff Sergeant Charity Barrett.)
the QA program is proactive. QA measures are taken prior to and during

every step of the analytical process to detect and correct deficiencies. It
also is synchronized in that QA measures are interconnected and mutually
supporting. One measure may be an indicator that another measure needs
improvement. For example, deficiencies noted during an audit of a technical
operation may indicate that written procedures and/or training programs
may be inadequate.
The CILs QA program is personnel-based in that quality scientific and
administrative staff with high morale is the basis for the success of the opera-
tion. Individuals must be trainable, committed to the mission and work out-
comes, and have a stake in the success of the final product. The QA program
is only as good as the people that make it happen. As such, the CIL continu-
ally encourages and funds professional development and certifications of its
staff. Finally, the program is transparent, subject to outside oversight, and
research oriented.
Research
Research is an integral component of the CIL mission for two primary rea-
sons. The first is that CIL cases are typically difficult, and most brush the
limits of the scientific technology and analyses currently available for foren-
sic identification purposes. The CIL research has focused on the development
of new methods for drawing analytical conclusions from what many would
call marginal skeletal remains. A significant by-product of CIL research
2320.indb 61 4/9/08 3:10:18 PM

has been the development and compilation of large reference databases

that can be used by other forensic scientists in their casework (Trotter and
Gleser 1952, 1958; McKern and Stewart 1957; Adams 2002; Byrd and Adams
2003; Berg and Collins 2007). Many of the fundamental methods of forensic
anthropology were developed in the CILs of the past, and that tradition con-
tinues today. The second reason for CIL research is to support professional
development. It is recognized that the modern forensic laboratory is no dif-
ferent from academe in that the primary way that scientists maintain their
professional standing is through research and publication.
Conclusion
The JPAC-CIL is a unique national forensic resource, despite its geographic

location in the central Pacific. It is the largest permanent skeletal identifi-
cation laboratory in the world, employing over 25 forensic anthropologists,
three forensic odontologists, photographers, and other specialists. It is also
the first forensic anthropology/odontology laboratory to be accredited by
ASCLD-LAB. The CIL continues to focus its efforts on the identification of
U.S. service personnel missing from past conflicts, in support of the U.S. gov-
ernments commitment to the fullest possible accounting of missing person-
nel. In addition, the CIL provides technical consultation to law enforcement
agencies in the United States and overseas and conducts research aimed at
advancing the science of forensic identification. It is expected that the CIL
will continue the tradition of advancing the field of forensic anthropology
by emphasizing the greater standardization and objectivity that are the hall-
marks of ASCLD-LAB accredited laboratories.
References
Adams, B. A. 2003a. Establishing personal identification based on specific patterns of
missing, filled, and unrestored teeth. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48:487496.
Adams, B. A. 2003b. The diversity of adult dental patterns in the United States
and the implications for personal identification. Journal of Forensic Sciences
48:497503.
Berg, G. E., and R. S. Collins. 2007. Personal identification based on prescription
eyewear. Journal of Forensic Sciences 52(2):406411.
Brooks, S., and J. M. Suchey. 1990. Skeletal age determination based upon the os
pubis: A comparison of the Acsdi-Nemeskri and Suchey-Brooks methods.
Journal of Human Evolution 5:227238.
Byrd, J. E., and B. J. Adams. 2003. Osteometric sorting of commingled human
remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48:717724.
2320.indb 62 4/9/08 3:10:18 PM

McKern, T. W., and T. D. Stewart. 1957. Skeletal age changes in young American
males. Quartermaster Research and Development Command Technical Report
EP-45: Natick, MA.
Trotter, M., and G. C. Gleser. 1952. Estimation of stature from long bones of American
whites and negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10:463514.
Trotter, M., and G. C. Gleser. 1958. A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based
on measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones after death.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16:79123.
2320.indb 63 4/9/08 3:10:18 PM

2320.indb 64 4/9/08 3:10:18 PM
The University
of Indianapolis
Archeology and
Forensics Laboratory
5
Stephen P. Nawrocki
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................... 65
Facilities and Procedures..................................................................................... 66
Lab Protocol................................................................................................. 70
Collections.....................................................................................................74
Field Recovery........................................................................................................ 75
The Medicolegal System.............................................................................. 76
Searches......................................................................................................... 77
Training Courses......................................................................................... 79
Scene Protocol...............................................................................................81
Field Strategies............................................................................................. 82
Methodology................................................................................................ 84
Forensic Taphonomy............................................................................................. 86
Summary................................................................................................................ 88
Acknowledgments................................................................................................. 89
References............................................................................................................... 89
Appendix A............................................................................................................ 92
Introduction
The University of Indianapolis Archeology and Forensics Laboratory (AFL)

was established in 1992. The University is a private not-for-profit comprehen-
sive undergraduate institution with a small selection of graduate programs,
primarily in the clinical fields. Administratively, the AFL exists as a quasi-
independent entity within the College of Arts and Sciences, although the
Departments of Biology and Anthropology have served as important sources
of support to the facility throughout the years. The AFL has its own modest
budget that is used primarily for supplies and other operating expenses. In
addition, any funds generated through forensic and archeological casework
65
2320.indb 65 4/9/08 3:10:18 PM

66 Stephen P. Nawrocki
are applied to major equipment purchases and can also be used to cover stu-
dent and faculty travel to workshops and professional meetings.
The motto of the University of Indianapolis is Education for Service.
As such, one of the primary purposes of the AFL is to serve the community
by offering scientific expertise, lectures, and training workshops to students
and practitioners. In addition, the AFL supports student and faculty research
in osteology and archeology, houses research collections, and supports both
undergraduate and graduate academic programs, including our Master of
Science in Human Biology, through which students can specialize in forensic
anthropology, bioarcheology, paleoanthropology, and anatomy.
This chapter outlines the operating procedures and philosophy of the
AFL, with an emphasis on forensic anthropology. In particular, this chapter
details our activities and research in the subfields of forensic archeology and
forensic taphonomy (additional information can be found on the labs Web
site (http://archlab.uindy.edu).
Facilities and Procedures
The AFL moved to its current location in 1994, on the wave of a significant
campus construction phase. The facility is located in the basement of Good
Hall, the oldest building on campus (built in 1904), in space that originally
housed the campus maintenance unit. Later, the space was converted into the
Art Departments ceramics laboratory, requiring the installation of numer-
ous sinks and cleaning areas which ultimately made the facility very useful as
an archeology laboratory. Upon acquiring the space, we cleaned and painted
the walls and floors but otherwise left most of the structure intact. A new
drop-down ceiling with fluorescent lighting was also installed.
The ~2600 square feet of floor space is subdivided into a number of sub-
areas and attached rooms. The central work area includes a dozen large tables
arranged in two banks that comfortably seat 24 students (Figure5.1). Power
strips mounted to each table support the use of microscopes and portable
light boxes, and incandescent swing-arm lamps at the corners of each table
add extra light. There is plenty of quarter-inch thick white foam, purchased
in large bulk rolls, available to place on the tabletops when bones and arti-
facts are being examined (Figure5.2). Additional table space, a large light
table, storage cabinets, shelving units, display cabinets, and a video-linked
stereoscopic microscope (Figure5.3) are dispersed around the periphery of
the main work area.
A number of smaller attached rooms and closets surround the labora-
tory and open into the main work area. These include separate storage areas
for hand tools, large excavation equipment, artifact collections, small animal
bone collections, and large animal bone collections. Other rooms include a
2320.indb 66 4/9/08 3:10:19 PM

The University of Indianapolis AFL 67
Figure5.1 The main analytical area of the University of Indianapolis Archeol-

ogy and Forensics Laboratory. Human remains are stored in plastic and card-
board boxes on the shelves to the left.
Figure5.2 Osteology students working on a laboratory exercise. Note the fol-

lowing: (a) the thick white foam on the tables, used to protect specimens being
examined; (b) the task board at the back of the lab, on which osteology casework
is listed and assigned to students for processing; (c) the rolling cadaver tray on the
right, which is useful for setting out a skeleton for photography and analysis, and
which can be wheeled into the evidence room at the end of the day.
2320.indb 67 4/9/08 3:10:19 PM

Figure5.3 Graduate student Sarah Kiley using the most important piece of
equipment in the AFL: a stereoscopic microscope, essential in osteological and
taphonomic analysis. The image is also projected on the monitor at the top via
a video camera.
dedicated close-up photography closet, a cold storage room (with freezer and
sink), a library with computer and printer, a directors office, and a kitchen/
lounge. Of special note is a dedicated maceration room that includes a large
metal sink with built-in disposal unit, plus a fume hood, chemical cabinet,
and two autopsy tables. This room has a separate outside door that opens
onto the parking lot via a ramp, so potentially biohazardous remains can
be wheeled in directly from outside, bypassing the main lab. In addition, a
special evidence room houses all forensic case materials and evidence. Only
three faculty members have keys to the deadbolt on the door of this room
and its lock is not on the university master system. When we took possession
of this space, we noticed that the concrete block walls of the evidence room
were not load-bearing and only went as high as the labs drop-down ceiling.
We had these walls extended two feet higher, to the bottom of the real floor
above, to keep potential intruders from crawling over the walls.
2320.indb 68 4/9/08 3:10:19 PM

The entire facility is surrounded by a perimeter alarm that we activate

whenever the lab is left unattended. All external doors and windows are
protected by the alarm. Only the directors and second-year graduate osteol-
ogy students are given alarm codes and keys to the facility. The doors remain
locked during the day, and undergraduates taking courses that use the AFL
can access collections and equipment only while a professor or graduate assis-
tant is present. Doors to the peripheral rooms require a different key than
the one that opens the main doors, effectively adding another layer of secu-
rity. All students who use the facility must sign a form indicating that they
have received and read a number of documents pertaining to lab safety and
security, operating procedures, and confidentiality. These forms are perma-
nently filed in binders that are kept in the evidence room, ostensibly so that
medicolegal officials can verify those who potentially had access to forensic
casework. However, because the AFL is a teaching lab as much as it is an
analytical lab, we do not keep a daily log of individuals as they come and go.
In addition to the main lab, we have two small dedicated rooms located
on the basement level. A graduate student office houses four desks and gen-
erous shelving space. Our lecture room has 18 seats and contains slide and
video projectors, a ceiling-mounted television, and display cabinets. These
two rooms are not tied into the alarm system. In addition, the Department of
Anthropology has separate office space, another photography room, lecture
rooms, and additional lab space on the same level.
We typically allow qualified undergraduate and graduate students to
participate in the various field and laboratory aspects of forensic casework.
As a general rule, we consider a student to be qualified when he or she has
successfully completed a combination of anatomy, osteology, and archeology
coursework. Students who have assisted in laboratory research or who have
taken an archeological field school may be assigned more complex tasks.
For insurance reasons, only officially matriculated students and university
employees are allowed to participate. We do not accept volunteers from the
community, but in 1995 we established a courtesy Research Associate posi-
tion for professionals working in the community who contribute significantly
to the activities of the AFL. Former and current Research Associates include
archeologists, entomologists, botanists, and dentists. These professionals
participate in training sessions, give guest lectures, serve on graduate the-
sis committees, help with collections management, and generally lend their
expertise on casework. In return for their service, they are granted limited
access to the lab and to campus facilities.
The Graduate Assistant to the AFL is responsible for all daily activities
and maintenance. This position is awarded annually to a second-year student
who has had a year to learn the procedures and policies of the lab. The Grad-
uate Assistant coordinates the analytical process for skeletal cases, super-
vising all steps from maceration and inventory to final curation. Students
2320.indb 69 4/9/08 3:10:19 PM

are assigned different portions of the laboratory analysis and their names
are written on a task board (Figure5.2). When all steps are completed, the
author sits down with the student analysts and reviews findings, checks mea-
surements, inspects all notes and forms, and takes photographs. Nothing is
allowed into the final case file until it has been reviewed in this fashion.
Lab Protocol
Forensic cases coming into the laboratory are quarantined in the maceration
room until we determine that they pose no health hazard. In our experience,
the associated health hazards are usually fairly mundanedecomposing
remains become the center of a complex biotic ecosystem that may include
naturally-occurring fungi, mold, bacteria, and invertebrate parasites. Simple
procedures such as the use of gloves and nuisance masks, applying proper
ventilation, spraying with a bleach-water solution, rapid disposal of transport
containers, and freezing will mitigate most of these problems. Communi-
cable diseases such as HIV are unlikely to survive the initial stages of cel-
lular breakdown. However, we make it a rule to refuse any remains that still
include red blood or pink muscle unless the samples are small enough that
we can quickly and easily put them into the boiling pot without any manual
defleshing or disarticulation on our part. Larger specimens containing blood
will only be handled at the properly equipped autopsy facility available at the
coroners offices.
Of more critical concern are hazardous artifacts that may be hidden
in the remains or in associated clothing (hypodermic needles, knives, live
ammunition, and so forth). Investigators should never place their unpro-
tected hands into pockets or body cavities. One should also be on the lookout
for drugs and hazardous chemicals. Historic 19th century burials may con-
tain heavy metals (arsenic, mercury) that were used in the embalming pro-
cess. Mummified remains from that time period are particularly hazardous.
Our testing of soft tissue from a juvenile medical teaching specimen revealed
an arsenic content of 14,000 ppm or 1.4% by mass (Smith et al. 2002).
Generally, human remains that have gone through at least one hour of
boiling in a bleach-water solution are deemed nonhazardous and, when dry,
can be moved into the main lab area for analysis. Maceration of most remains
is conducted by simmering in water over a gas flame in the fume hood (Fig-
ure5.4). Powdered borax is the main degreasing agent, and a cup of bleach
is added to the first boil to help kill bacteria and mold. Multiple immersions
interspersed with hand cleaning are generally necessary, and so the process is
labor intensive, taking up to three days when there are extensive soft tissues.
However, the results obtained with this process are excellent, with most fats
and all surface tissues being removed. Most bones processed in this fashion
2320.indb 70 4/9/08 3:10:20 PM

Figure5.4 Our macerating setup in the fume hood. The gas burner provides
plenty of heat to keep a large pot of water simmering.
can be stored indefinitely without any significant fat leaching or staining and
without attracting dermestid beetles or other pests.
Burned, waterlogged, or highly eroded bones are put through an abbre-
viated cleaning process and must sometimes be degreased using chemicals,
such as xyol (xylene + ethyl alcohol in a 1:1 ratio). Because of potential expo-
sure to chemicals, fire, and sharp implements, any student wishing to work
in the maceration room must receive special training and undergo a supervi-
sion period. In addition, any student helping on forensic casework must dem-
onstrate proof of current tetanus and hepatitis-B vaccinations (see Nawrocki
1997a, for additional details on our maceration protocol).
After maceration, bones are allowed to dry at room temperature for at
least a week before final measurements are taken, to minimize errors due
to shrinkage. Each skeleton is then assigned a unique accession number to
facilitate tracking in the lab. This number is written on each bone using a
Micron Pigma pen with a 0.5 mm tip. Clear nail polish is sometimes painted
over the numbers to keep them from wearing off under repeated handling.
Labeling is never put on areas of a bone that display perimortem trauma or
unique variation.
Very fragile elements are conserved with Acrysol WS-24, a water-based
acrylic resin distributed by Rohm and Haas Company. The solution can be
painted on with a brush, or the specimens can be soaked in a diluted solution
to maximize penetration. The resulting coating is slightly shiny but, if applied
properly, does not hide any surface detail. Bone fragments are reconstructed
2320.indb 71 4/9/08 3:10:20 PM

using Duco cement, a polyvinylacetate that can be dissolved or thinned in

acetone. Drying specimens are temporarily held in position in plastic boxes
containing dry white rice rather than sand, which has an annoying tendency
to find its way into bone crevices and foramina.
Prior to maceration, a DNA sample may be taken and placed in cold stor-
age. We typically remove a complete clavicle, which generally contains mar-
row and enough cortical bone so that some DNA is likely to be preserved. The
DNA laboratories used by our Indiana agencies have had relatively poor luck
amplifying DNA from teeth or burned bone. Interestingly, our own experi-
ments with pig bone suggest that our standard maceration procedure does
not significantly reduce the quantity or quality of DNA that can eventually
be retrieved from the bone (Latham et al. 2004). Indeed, we have found that
DNA yield may actually increase after boiling, so returning to a previously
cleaned specimen for additional samples is likely to be as successful as taking
a sample in advance.
A number of self-designed, standardized forms are used to record osteo-
logical and taphonomic information for each skeleton (Appendix A). We cur-
rently employ a three-page inventory form, separate forms for craniometrics
and postcraniometrics, separate forms for discrete traits used to determine
sex, ancestry, and age at death, a dental scoring form, and a form for tapho-
nomic observations. In addition, juvenile specimens have special forms for
dental development and epiphyseal development and union. Digital photo-
graphs are taken of each skeleton as a whole and of interesting or diagnostic
features, although we normally do not attempt to photodocument all bones
in detail. These images are stored on an external backup hard drive and are
also hard-copied to compact disks for redundancy.
Separate reports are usually generated for field recoveries and laboratory
analyses. We follow a standard, abbreviated report format that emphasizes
final conclusions. An attempt is made to simplify or qualify technical ter-
minology in order to help medicolegal professionals understand our find-
ings more clearly. Procedures used to clean and prepare the remains are
explained. Raw data (skeletal measurements, discrete trait observations)
are not included but these can be provided to the consulting agency upon
request. Photographs in reports are used only to clarify significant perimor-
tem trauma or to depict important field excavation features.
Reports and the conclusions therein are viewed as the joint property of
the AFL and the consulting agency. We will not release a report to any exter-
nal entity or individual unless permission is obtained from the consulting
agency or until a subpoena has been issued. Because of rigorous autopsy con-
fidentiality laws in Indiana, we must be particularly careful not to release
findings to the public or to the media, and we generally allow the coroners
office to serve as the official communicator in these instances. Public access
laws in Indiana exclude research data gathered by public universities and by
2320.indb 72 4/9/08 3:10:20 PM

private corporations in the course of conducting their business, which pro-

vides us with a legal argument for denying Freedom of Information requests.
During public presentations and training seminars, we do not divulge any
identifying information on decedents or suspects and remove all identifying
features from photographs. Students are instructed never to talk to reporters
or to reveal details of active cases to persons not affiliated with the AFL.
Fees charged for skeletal analyses vary depending on the nature of the
consultation, the agency involved, and the condition of the remains. We
charge more on cases that require extensive maceration and less for isolated,
dry elements. Bills typically range from $500 to $1000 per skeleton, and
all funds received are diverted to the AFL operating budget. However, we
waive our fee on as many as half of the human skeletal cases that we receive
each year, primarily those involving historic and prehistoric remains that
are discovered accidentally by landowners during construction activities.
These cases typically come to us through the Indiana Department of Natu-
ral Resources (DNR), which has no provision for hiring external osteology
experts. However, such cases provide a wealth of scientific data and educa-
tional opportunity. If further investigation by the DNR or the AFL suggests
that additional burials are present at the site, a private archeological firm
may be employed to conduct the excavation under permit, at the landowners
expense. The general approach taken by the DNR during recent decades has
been one of avoidance, and construction plans are altered to leave the cem-
etery undisturbed whenever possible.
We do not charge for the identification of animal remains. In fact, in
many cases the investigators e-mail us preliminary digital photographs (with
scale) so that we can save them the time of transporting what turn out to be
nonhuman bones. In our experience, the vast majority of isolated bone finds
in Indiana turn out to be nonhuman (deer, raccoon, opossum, coyote, and
domestic animals are especially common). These cases account for approxi-
mately half of the consultations we give in a typical year. Local authorities
often confirm actual forensic human remains at the scene when they recog-
nize the unique human cranium or observe associated clothing and personal
effects. However, we have been called to scenes that include intermingled
animal bones and discarded clothing, illustrating how difficult it is for non-
anthropologists to correctly identify postcranial elements.
All consulting anthropology labs should have a detailed accessioning
and tracking system in place to avoid the loss and commingling of bones and
evidence during analysis and curation. Sometimes remains are repatriated
years or even decades after their original discovery, and in the intervening
time the remains may have been examined by numerous individuals. For-
mal chain-of-custody forms (Appendix A) should be used whenever remains
are received or released by the facility. These forms should include signature
lines for both the anthropologist and a duly authorized representative of the
2320.indb 73 4/9/08 3:10:20 PM

consulting agency, as well as, a detailed accounting of the items being trans-
ferred. Dental and medical records can also be acknowledged on this form.
We always include blank chain-of-custody forms in our field kits in the event
that we are asked to take possession of bones at the scene.
Collections
Not all investigative agencies have the facilities or training to curate human
remains and may not understand how to care for them properly. As such,
Indiana agencies generally choose to leave unidentified skeletal remains
within our secure facility, which allows us to continue to make compari-
sons with missing persons records as they become available. While most
positively identified individuals are eventually reburied, in a few circum-
stances families have donated remains for permanent scientific study. We
always ask the coroner to approach the family first with the proposal, and
if interested, they will contact us for further information. Other remains
in our collection include numerous anatomical, medical, cadaver, trophy,
and unprovenienced specimens that law enforcement agencies and private
citizens donated.
For teaching osteology, we were able to purchase a number of partially
cleaned anatomical skeletons from an American biological supply company
in the mid-1990s. These specimens were seen as seconds because they
were still greasy, slightly incomplete, and unstrung. However, they proved
to be a gold-mine of healed fractures, anatomical variants, and unusual
pathological conditions. From contextual and documentary evidence, it
appears that all of the remains came from Russia, and so they are larger
and more robust than those that were commonly obtained from India prior
to the mid-1980s.
Nonhuman skeletal collections are important in forensic casework
because they provide comparative material for identifying fragmented and
burned remains. A good comparative collection is comprised of complete,
clean skeletons of identified species common to a particular region of the
country in both recent and prehistoric times. We started our collection
by searching for roadkill, obtaining carcasses from trappers, hunters, and
fishermen, inquiring at zoos, game preserves, and farms, and even by trad-
ing duplicate specimens with other museums and facilities (Figure5.5).
Surprisingly, our students have donated a number of excellent specimens;
when offered extra credit in anatomy and osteology courses, they will query
relatives and friends, sometimes obtaining exotic specimens stashed away
in the attic or basement for years. Of course, many federal and state laws
regulate the acquisition and curation of animal remains, particularly those
of migratory birds and endangered species. Permit requirements and appli-
cation procedures differ from state to state.
2320.indb 74 4/9/08 3:10:21 PM

(a)
(b)
Figure5.5 Before and after shots of a gray fox donated by a trapper and prepared
by one of our undergraduate students (Boyle 2004). The smaller bones of the fore-
and hind-paws are not shown, but all came out perfectly. The trick is to boil each
paw in a separate wire mesh screen.
Field Recovery
In any given year, we are called on to search for or recover human remains
ten to fifteen times. We generally do not charge for our time on these cases
as long as the recovery takes two days or less, although we do submit a
reimbursement request for expenses (gas, food and lodging, consumable
2320.indb 75 4/9/08 3:10:21 PM

supplies). This no-charge policy has worked well in helping us to establish a

professional connection with many rural coroners and police agencies, who
not only have very small budgets for scientific experts but who also may be
largely unfamiliar with academics working their crime scenes. In addition,
because we always include students in our recoveries, the no-charge policy
serves to underscore the teaching-oriented, service-focused philosophy of
the University of Indianapolis. However, before detailing our field activities
it would be appropriate to describe the broader medicolegal system in which
our consulting work is embedded.
The Medicolegal System

Indiana operates under a coroner system. The elected coroners from each
of Indianas 92 counties are not required to have any special training in
the forensic sciences. Instead, coroners enlist the aid of forensic experts
as needed. The state does not rigorously mandate or legislate the qualifi-
cations of most forensic practitioners. However, the law does specify that
a forensic autopsy must be conducted by a medical doctor who is board-
certified in anatomic or forensic pathology. Most coroners contract with
pathologists who are on staff at large regional hospitals or hired exclu-
sively by one of the larger urban coroners offices (as in Indianapolis and
Gary).
There is no provision for a state forensic anthropologist in Indiana.
While the state archeologist at the Indiana Department of Natural Resources
does have ultimate legal authority over human remains predating 1940,
the county coroner has initial jurisdiction over all found human remains
until such a time that their origin and forensic importance can be deter-
mined. No other agency or person in Indiana, including law enforcement,
can disturb or remove human remains at a potential crime scene without
the authorization of the coroner. Of course, coroners, police officers, and
forensic experts are not always able to reliably ascertain the temporal ori-
gin of a set of human remains without the assistance of an anthropologist,
particularly when the context has been disturbed. Therefore, we have found
that our expertise is particularly relevant and useful at the scene in order
to help clarify which agency has legal jurisdiction. Much of our outreach
over the past decade has focused on interfacing with the coroner and police
agencies at this very early stage in the investigation, before significant con-
textual evidence is lost or destroyed. We have served as an intermediary
between the coroner and the Department of Natural Resources, assisting
both agencies in particularly vexing cases, such as when human remains
are washed out of prehistoric or historic graves and are found far from their
original burial contexts.
2320.indb 76 4/9/08 3:10:21 PM

Searches
Perhaps the most complex activities we engage in are searches for missing
persons. Generally, it takes thorough and detailed investigative work by the
police to track down leads and to sort through information that may point
to the location of concealed remains. This work can be time consuming and
frustrating. Various tools are available to the investigator to help search for a
body once a potential location has been identified, including:
Cadaver dogs
Archeological hand survey methods (e.g., probing and shovel test pits)
(Figure 5.6)
Remote sensing (e.g., ground penetrating radar (GPR), proton magne-
tometry, and infrared thermography)
Mechanical excavation (e.g., test trenching and surface scraping with
bulldozers or backhoes)
Visual ground search efforts (e.g., line searches)
In our experience, the primary mechanism that triggers the eventual

recovery of concealed remains is the reliable eyewitness testimony that comes
in the form of a highly cooperative assailant or coconspirator. Most police
agencies dramatically underestimate how much time, effort, and money it
takes to search even small, well-defined, and clear areas of ground surface.
The likelihood of success plummets when more than one acre is involved,
when the surface is heavily wooded, when the scene has been disturbed and
modified by erosion or construction activities, or when years have passed
since the concealment of the remains. Even in cases where an assailant
chooses to cooperate completely, his recollection of events and landmarks
can be dramatically off target. On more than one occasion, an assailant has
led us to the exact spot of a burial, only to find after considerable work
that he was off by as many as 50 m! The terrain and plant life changes; trees,
fences, and buildings are moved or removed by landowners; memories con-
structed during the night and within the emotionally charged context of a
crime can become distorted and confused with time. Some suspects have
even made up stories of buried remains in order to manipulate the police, to
abuse the system that incarcerated them, or simply to get out of jail and go
for a ride, take a walk in the woods, and eat lunch at a fast-food restaurant. Of
course, the police are highly motivated to find the human remains; therefore,
the tendency for them to put more stock in the assailants story, memories,
and observations can be much greater than is warranted. We have had police
continue to dig in spots that we had previously cleared through a detailed
examination of the stratigraphy simply because they could not believe that
the assailant could be so wrong in his recollections.
2320.indb 77 4/9/08 3:10:21 PM

Figure5.6 Perhaps the simplest and most effective tool for locating buried bod-
ies is the steel T-probe. Here graduate student Natalie Fleming is using the probe
at a crime scene. The effort that she is obviously using to penetrate beyond 10
or 15 cm suggests that nothing is buried there and that the natural stratigraphy
is compacted and intact. Just a foot to the left, however, the probe dropped quite
quickly into the disturbed soil above a recent human burial.
We have noted that sometimes agencies hesitate to engage in searches or

to exhume remains because of the mistaken belief that no bones or evidence
will be left to analyze after a certain number of years have passed, particularly
when infants or children are involved. Even pathologists tend to be skeptical
that newborn bones will survive the ravages of time. We often use prehistoric
cases to illustrate the range of possibilities in these circumstances, usually
with the positive effect of increasing the optimism of the investigators.
In our experience, cadaver dogs have not been consistently useful in locat-
ing human remains. While certainly some of this failure is due to the fact
that the remains are not always likely to be within the searched area, we have
encountered many instances of (1) false positive hits and (2) dogs walking
past and ignoring known remains. These instances erode our confidence in
2320.indb 78 4/9/08 3:10:22 PM

both the dogs abilities and their handlers training methods. We have noted
a tendency for dog handlers to create what we consider to be rather mysti-
cal or pseudoscientific explanations for false hits, including the body may
have been dragged through this area, and trees must be pulling the odors
from further away up into the air. This uncritical apologeticism probably
hinders the development of a realistically critical approach to cadaver dog
abilities within the field. Additionally, few dogs appear to be able to assist in
the recovery of bones scattered widely on the surface (such as in agricultural
fields), and most also seem to have difficulty with mummified soft tissues
even when they encounter them directly. These criticisms aside, we always
recommend that police agencies contact reputable cadaver dog handlers in
their region and employ them prior to undertaking more intensive subsur-
face surveys.
We should note that we never encourage police agencies to use psychics
or other paranormal means of locating bodies (for example, divining rods),
even though public or private pressure to employ these scientifically baseless
techniques can be quite extreme. Some investigators have told us in con-
fidence that they do not believe in the paranormal but feel that they must
follow up on psychic leads, no matter how ridiculous, for fear that family
members will think that the police are not making every possible effort to
solve the case, or worse, that they are hiding the truth. In these cases, the
forensic scientist is well advised to recall his or her role as a scientific advi-
sor and, after making recommendations, allow the agencies that have been
elected or appointed by the community to make the final political decisions.
Training Courses
For nearly a decade during the 1990s, we were heavily involved in training
police, coroners, and pathologists to locate and recover scattered and buried
human remains. These short courses were offered through various agencies
and universities across the country, at local, state, and even federal levels.
Typically, buried and scattered pig, deer, and plastic human skeletons were
used to create mock scenes, which attendees then excavated. After consid-
erable reflection and experience, we have now come to believe that these
courses can be very detrimental to the forensic science process. Even in an
intensive week-long field course run by highly qualified experts, it is simply
not possible to train nonarcheologists to fully understand or correctly employ
field techniques in order to be able to recover buried evidence on their own.
The appreciation of stratigraphy, soil disturbances, and geotaphonomy that
is required for a successful forensic excavation cannot be taught short of a
formal archeological field school, considerable supervised excavation expe-
rience, and coursework in archeological method and theory. Furthermore,
the attendee cannot learn the requisite osteology and anatomy needed to
2320.indb 79 4/9/08 3:10:22 PM

recognize human remains when encountered in the field, particularly when

fragmentation, weathering, or burning has occurred. While it can be argued
that exposing the police to archeology is inherently valuable in a pedagogi-
cal sense, even if these agencies are encouraged not to use these techniques
themselves, it is difficult to understand why an agency would spend the time
and money to send their investigators to intensive field courses unless they
had, at some level, the expectation that their own people would become qual-
ified to conduct their own recoveries. This lack of formal experience not only
has the potential to sabotage an investigation by destroying, missing, or mis-
interpreting crucial evidence, it also can become an embarrassment for the
agency under cross-examination on the witness stand.
However, it may be possible to train nonspecialists to do adequate recov-
ery of contained surface scatters, such as may be encountered when decom-
position has not progressed to the point where skeletonization has occurred.
Certainly, the measuring and mapping techniques that archeologists employ
can be used in a number of investigative contexts that do not involve human
remains. Each year we conduct a day-long forensic anthropology course for
police enrolled in a month-long Integrated Law Enforcement Crime Scene
Training Program offered by the Indiana State Police. As a part of this
course, we provide brief lecture overviews of forensic archeology and botany
so that the investigators understand how these scientific fields can be useful
in medicolegal cases. During the afternoon, we take the attendees outside
and teach them basic methods of surveying and mapping that they can use
to map evidence on indoor scenes, crash sites, and outdoor surface scatters.
Most are surprised to learn that their office-issued global positioning system
(GPS) units are not sensitive enough to permit accurate mapping of small- or
medium-sized scenes. Instead of teaching them to conduct excavations, we
offer a limited number of techniques that they can apply to their own casel-
oads and then encourage them to contact us for recoveries that lie outside of
their formal expertise. In this fashion, we do not create any false expectations
and help to prevent mistakes from being made on critical cases.
While some may complain that not all areas of the country have access to
qualified forensic anthropologists, we do not believe that the solution to this
problem is to pretend to train police or coroners to do the job. Begging the
question, would we ask a police officer to perform a medicolegal autopsy when
a pathologist is not immediately available? Instead, we should be encourag-
ing agencies to contact the numerous academic and contract archeologists
that work in every state, many of whom have considerable experience with
buried, fragmented skeletal remains. Forensic anthropologists can help to
facilitate this process by establishing professional guidelines and, perhaps, a
separate certification process for forensic archeologists.
2320.indb 80 4/9/08 3:10:22 PM

Scene Protocol
When we are called to a forensic scene, we are generally given considerable
latitude regarding techniques and procedures. Most agencies have learned
to trust our expertise and are more than happy to follow our lead. We do,
however, establish a clear cooperative relationship with both the coroner and
the local crime scene technician and make sure that they are comfortable
with our decisions. Local authorities understand the particular policies and
specific parameters that shape their actions with respect to the chain-of-cus-
tody, the impending prosecution, and the broader context of the criminal
investigation as it unfolds. It is not possible for a visiting anthropologist to
be fully aware of all of the nuances of a local medicolegal system. Therefore,
it is essential that the anthropologist foster good communication with those
legally in charge of the scene, especially in circumstances where the local
authorities are very comfortable with the anthropology team and might trust
their decisions without much forethought.
We generally ask the evidence technician to help identify what is relevant
physical evidence at the scene (Is this beer can just trash or is it important
evidence?), assign evidence numbers, and set minimum collection, bagging,
and labeling guidelines. Sometimes evidence technicians have procedures
that are specified by the parent agency; at other times they will look to us
to take the lead. As a rule, we do not take possession of any nonbone evi-
dence and we do not transport remains directly back to our laboratory unless
they are fully skeletonized. We always ask that malodorous or biohazard-
ous remains be transported for us. In many circumstances, the consulting
pathologist will take the remains first so that he or she can initiate the scien-
tific investigation (which may include lifting fingerprints, collecting hair and
fiber evidence, and taking radiographs).
We usually ask evidence technicians to be in charge of photodocument-
ing the scene. They know what types of pictures they will need for the inves-
tigation and for the local prosecutors office. We explain that our pictures are
merely taken to assist in the completion of our final report and for teach-
ing and research purposes. Under this arrangement we can better focus our
efforts on the actual remains rather than being concerned with aspects of the
investigation that do not relate directly to the anthropological evidence. In
a similar vein, unless the human remains are widely scattered, we generally
ask that the local authorities be in charge of the larger scene examination,
searching for other evidence that might be located away from the remains
(for example, if they believe that the assailant may have disposed of a weapon
somewhere in the vicinity).
Other investigators at the scene can play an important role even if they
do not have formal training in evidence collection, such as:
2320.indb 81 4/9/08 3:10:22 PM

Searching the peripheries of the scene

Clearing brush
Transporting buckets of soil to the screens
Erecting tents and canopies
Arranging for lights and power generators
Securing food and drinks
Keeping the press at bay
We also use field cases as opportunities to educate the local authorities

about archeology, anthropology, and the forensic sciences, in general. We
explain our techniques as we go, point out important soil features, and iden-
tify bones to onlookers.
Field Strategies
The forensic anthropologist performs a number of essential tasks at the
forensic scene (Nawrocki 1996). The most basic charge is to recover all skel-
etal evidence. Small bones and teeth are easily missed by the untrained eye
even when clean, and adhering dirt and debris makes recognition even more
difficult. Therefore, it is essential that the individual conducting the recovery
has an in-depth understanding of the human skeleton and an appreciation of
the taphonomic alterations that typically occur in that particular geographic
region. Soil and debris is generally screened through quarter-inch wire mesh
in an elevated rocking frame which aids in the recovery of smaller items. The
screen is as much a platform for close-up inspection as it is a tool for remov-
ing dirt. However, not all evidence can be recovered in the field screen. For
example, we have found fabric impressions and toolmarks in the soil imme-
diately surrounding the grave; had the soil been indiscriminately shoveled
into the screen without careful and tedious examination first, this ephemeral
trace evidence would have been destroyed. In one case, we collected soil from
around the shattered cranium of a decedent and bypassed the field screening
process in favor of more careful water screening with geological sieves. The
shotgun pellets that were eventually recovered during laboratory processing
would have passed right through the wide mesh of the field screen, illustrat-
ing the importance of adapting ones field strategy to the specifics of the case
at hand.
The forensic anthropologist must also work to limit postmortem dam-
age to the remains. Clearly, uncontrolled excavation with shovels can damage
fragile bones. In the laboratory, the anthropologists identification of peri-
mortem trauma is made less difficult if the excavation was conducted care-
fully with small tools, such as trowels, spoons, and wooden picks. The ability
to identify any bone from only a small exposed portion and to predict where
2320.indb 82 4/9/08 3:10:22 PM

other bones are likely to lie within the grave significantly reduces the likeli-
hood of excavation damage.
The forensic anthropologist must document the provenience of all evi-
dence. Provenience refers to the coordinate location of an item in three-
dimensional space, reflecting its latitude (northsouth location), longitude
(east-west location), and vertical position (depth or elevation). Recording
provenience is crucial because the scene is essentially destroyed during pro-
cessing; reconstructing the scene for the jury in the form of maps and dia-
grams requires accurate provenience data.
The forensic anthropologist determines whether evidence is still in situ,
or in the position in which it was originally deposited. The forces that move
items out of position (for example, humans, animals, and water) must be
explained and understood. For example, if the cranium is found 10 m from
the rest of the skeleton, does that mean that the assailant had decapitated
the decedent and placed the head in a different spot than the body? Which
portion of the body, if any, is still in its original position? In cases of extreme
surface scattering, it may be quite difficult to determine the bodys original
point of deposition. We generally infer original location from (1) distribution
patterns of bones across the site and (2) indications of soil staining and traces
of soft tissues on surrounding plants and debris. However, after a year these
stains begin to disappear.
The forensic anthropologist must clarify the stratigraphy of the site. Soils
are normally subdivided into naturally occurring stratigraphic layers (or
strata) that are distinguished by their color, texture, grain size, and material
composition. The forensic anthropologist determines the original layering
and reconstructs the sequence of events that may have disturbed those layers
(Figure5.7). Specific disturbances, such as a graveshaft or animal tunnels,
are known as features (Figure5.8). We identify and map each feature and
determine how or if they are related to the case at hand.
When these tasks have been completed, the information obtained from
the scene is linked together in order to elucidate the context and association
of the evidence and remains. For example, in central Indiana, yellow clay
subsoil found on the surface of the ground is frequently a sign that the natu-
ral soil stratigraphy has been significantly disturbed and that a burial may
be present in the immediate vicinity. In these circumstances, the subsoil is
out of its normal context and has special meaning. Consider a shotgun shell
found in the soil within the grave. Is the shell connected with the death of
the decedent? Because shotgun shells are common in rural areas where sea-
sonal hunting is permitted, it may be more likely that one was turned into the
grave by accident during its construction. In this case, close physical proxim-
ity does not necessarily imply that the items are truly associated. Unfortu-
nately, in cases where nonarcheologist-trained investigators have excavated
human remains, the most crucial mistakes are likely to be misinterpretations
2320.indb 83 4/9/08 3:10:22 PM

Figure5.7 A region of darker topsoil is sandwiched between two lighter strata,

indicating a disturbance within the test pit. The darker layer is an intrusive
feature created by a burrowing animal or long-decomposed tree root. During
testing, the anthropologist must interpret soil features in order to determine
whether buried evidence could be located in the area. In this case, the anomaly
does not constitute evidence that the stratigraphy was disturbed by an assailant
digging a grave, and so testing of this spot can cease.
of context and association that could significantly affect the way that the case
is prosecuted or resolved.
Methodology
When we are called to a scene, we generally follow a sequence of five basic
steps (Nawrocki 1996). First, we establish a datum and construct a reference
grid. The datum is a fixed point near the scene (such as a large tree or the
corner of a building) that can be found again if needed. The subdatum is
a stake placed close to the remains at a known distance from the datum.
Lines running eastwest or northsouth through the subdatum are known
as baselines. A reference grid is constructed outward from the subdatum or
baseline and over the site, using stakes, surveyors chaining pins, and string.
This grid serves to organize all subsequent collection and excavation activi-
ties. It is subdivided into square units measuring one meter to a side and
2320.indb 84 4/9/08 3:10:24 PM

Figure5.8 The sinuous chasms seen here were found along a rural roadside
after removing a skeleton from the surface. They are crotovinas, or animal tun-
nels, probably created by burrowing moles. Some teeth and small bones from
the decedent had slipped into these chasms to a depth of nearly 10 cm. These
elements could have been missed through carelessness or could have been mis-
interpreted as evidence of deliberate burial of the victim.
numbered in an orderly fashion. While not all units are necessarily strung at
each scene, any point on the landscape can be given a precise provenience as
long as the proper measurements are taken from the subdatum or baselines
(Figure5.9).
The second step is to expose the surface of the grid. Using rakes and
trowels, all loose debris (leaves, sticks, and trash) is removed from the sur-
face in order to recover scattered evidence and to define the exact boundar-
ies of any discernable features. The uppermost centimeter of soil is removed
with the debris during this stage and screened. Small or loose items of evi-
dentiary value may be collected now so that they are not lost or trampled
later. However, larger items such as bones and clothing are left in place
as long as possible so that photography can document the relationships
between all items.
Third, we excavate the remains. Disturbed soil covering the remains is
systematically removed and screened. Again, bones and artifacts are usu-
ally left in place until everything has been exposed. A field inventory form
is completed in order to verify that all bones have been recovered, especially
when they have been widely scattered (Appendix A).
Fourth, we collect and bag the remains in a controlled fashion. Prove-
nience information is recorded directly on the bag, as well as in a master log
2320.indb 85 4/9/08 3:10:24 PM

(1N, 3W) (1N, 1W)

N
Feature 1
Baseline
Skull
(0N, 0W)
(1S, 3W) (1S, 1W)

+0.60
+0.46 +0.43
+0.28
Baseline 0.0
3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
0.21
Figure5.9 A simple but effective map of an excavation grid, in both plan (above)
and profile (below) views. In this case, only the skull and loose teeth (triangles)
were found at this location, but extensive decomposition fluid-staining (Feature
1) indicates that the body was once present as well. Numbers in parentheses
are pin coordinates relative to the datum (0N,0W) and the baseline, which was
extended across the scene so that other clusters of remains could be mapped onto
the same grid system. The lower (profile view) diagram illustrates the heights of
the ground surface at points along the baseline.
listing all evidence as it is encountered. Those individuals collecting and bag-

ging the evidence sign and date the bag as well.
Finally, we clean the scene. After the primary evidence has been removed,
the soil beneath the remains is scraped down with trowels and flat-edged
shovels and screened to recover any remaining items. A metal detector may
be used to sweep for buried metallic objects. Additional information on field
protocol, including lists of field equipment, can be found on our Web site.
Forensic Taphonomy
At the time of death and afterwards, numerous forces, events, and environ-
mental conditions have the potential to alter the physical appearance and
distribution of human remains (Nawrocki 1995). By examining the remains
and the context in which they were recovered, the anthropologist generates
2320.indb 86 4/9/08 3:10:25 PM

a taphonomic profile that describes the hypothesized perimortem and post-

mortem history of the remains (Schultz et al. 2003). Taphonomic analysis
falls at the intersection of osteology and archeology because it requires a syn-
thesis of data obtained from both laboratory and field analyses.
Our research in taphonomy has included both experimental work and
naturalistic observations. Extensive early involvement with historic cemeter-
ies (Nawrocki 1991, 1995; Schultz et al. 2003) helped to frame some of the
issues involved in excavating recent forensic burials (Hochrein et al. 1999;
Nawrocki et al. 1998, 2002). In fact, it is conceptually useful to treat the
grave as an entity unto itself that is subject to taphonomic alteration by the
assailant, the environment, and even the human remains contained within
(Figure5.10). This specialized subfield has been called geotaphonomy
(Hochrein 1997a,b).
The decomposition of soft tissues is affected by climate and depositional
context. Megyesi and colleagues (2005) have shown that it is possible to take
a more quantitative approach to measuring decomposition by scoring soft
tissue changes on cumulative numeric scales. These numerical scores can
then be correlated with time since death, or more effectively, with accumu-
lated degree-days in the same fashion as is common in forensic entomology.
These relatively straightforward steps can significantly improve the estima-
tion of the postmortem interval from decomposed human remains. Our
experiments with pig burials (Thew 2000) indicate that, contrary to popular
belief, the use of lime in the grave actually helps to slow down the decompo-
sition process, resulting in mummification. On more than one occasion we
have received mummified remains that had been looted from aboveground
mausoleums (Ritterskamp et al. 2003). The combination of a sealed, dry
environment plus the use of embalming fluids can produce specimens that
look remarkably fresh and may appear as recent deathseven after a century
of internment (Nawrocki et al. 1997). There are various methods that can
be used to rehydrate mummified soft tissues in the laboratory, which can be
useful in the analysis of preserved tattoos or scars, or for taking fingerprints
(Schmidt et al. 2000). Other studies conducted by our students have focused
on the long-term degradation of DNA molecules in buried or embalmed
bone (Gabra 1999; Kuba 2001; Latham 2003; Smith et al. 2003).
Skeletal remains are frequently moved out of their primary contexts by
natural and cultural forces. Moving water can transport bones and bury
fragments in sediments, not only in highly dynamic riverine and marine
contexts (Nawrocki et al. 1997; Parr et al. 2004; Reinhardt 1993), but also
in secluded forested contexts where water flow is seasonal and fairly slow
(Nawrocki and Baker 2001). In the Midwest, farming activities, such as
plowing and cultivation, can disperse and damage human remains that are
deposited on the surfaces of fields (Nawrocki and Clark 1994; Kiley 2008).
Care must be taken not to misinterpret plow damage for perimortem knife
2320.indb 87 4/9/08 3:10:25 PM

Figure5.10 Susan Nawrocki, botanist and AFL Research Associate, surveys a

suspicious depression (arrow). During its construction, the assailant shoveled
out the natural stratigraphic layers and mixed them into the backdirt pile (cir-
cled), but did not refill the hole. The grave and associated features can be treated
just like bones or artifacts that have been subjected to taphonomic alteration. In
this case, sediments eventually washed into the hole during rainstorms and tree
roots grew up into the backdirt pile, changing the shape, compaction, and stra-
tigraphy of these features. No remains were found within the hole; did its maker
have a change of heart, or was it just a prank?
wounds, as these damage patterns can look nearly identical. The distribution
of wounds on the skeleton, as well as a thorough examination of the recovery
context, can help to clarify the situation. Some of our work has focused on
examining other patterns of alteration to bone, including rodent gnawing
(Kiley et al. 2006; Fleming et al. 2005), burning (Nawrocki 2003; Baker 2004;
Baker and Nawrocki 2005), and prehistoric trophy-taking (Emanovsky 2002;
Nawrocki 1997b).
Summary
The success we have had during the past decade is due in large part to the
strong relationships we have built with local law enforcement. The typical
anthropologist, working within the confines of academia, can make the
mistake of too narrowly focusing his or her efforts on laboratory analysis
and on fostering professional relationships only with other forensic scien-
tists. The language and culture of nonscientific medicolegal personnel can
2320.indb 88 4/9/08 3:10:25 PM

be somewhat different, and the anthropologist must try to find ways of com-
municating with these important links in the investigative chain. After all,
the first responders to a potential crime or death scene are usually nonsci-
entists. Perhaps one of the best ways to build relationships with local law
enforcement is to offer field-based assistance, including the search for and
recovery of human remains and other items of evidentiary value that are
buried or scattered on the ground surface. Certainly, the archeological, geo-
logical, and taphonomic training that anthropologists obtain in graduate
school can be quite valuable to local agencies in these cases. Training sessions
and guest lectures can also help to orient investigators to the many facets of
anthropological science. Of course, local laws and procedures governing the
medicolegal investigative process will shape, and perhaps limit, the ways that
the anthropologist can intersect with field investigators. We feel, however,
that the AFL illustrates what is possible with a bit of hard work, creativity,
and a commitment to community service.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my codirector, Dr. Gregory Reinhardt, for numerous

suggestions and assistance in the preparation of this chapter. In addition,
I owe a debt of gratitude to Drs. Christopher Schmidt and Matthew Wil-
liamson, who as graduate students were instrumental in the early growth
and work of the AFL. Together we thank the hundreds of students who have
passed through its doors and who have contributed significantly to the repu-
tation of our program and institution.
References
Baker, A. 2004. A taphonomic analysis of human cremains from the Fox Hollow
Farm serial homicide site. Masters thesis: University of Indianapolis.
Baker, A., and S. P. Nawrocki. 2005. A taphonomic analysis of burned remains from
the Fox Hollow serial homicide site. American Journal of Physical Anthropol-
ogy 40:6869.
Boyle, C. 2004. Maceration and preparation of mammal skeletons for long-term
curation. Poster presented at the 11th Midwest Bioarcheology and Forensic
Anthropology Association Conference, Norman.
Emanovsky, P. 2002. A taphonomic analysis of Ohio Hopewellian modified animal
jaws from Tremper Mound. Masters thesis: University of Indianapolis.
Fleming, N., M. Schiel, and S. Nawrocki. 2005. Comparison of rodent gnawing of
skeletal remains from indoor vs. outdoor contexts. Paper presented at the 12th
Midwest Bioarcheology and Forensic Anthropology Association Conference,
Terre Haute.
2320.indb 89 4/9/08 3:10:25 PM

Gabra, J. 1999. Using DNA technology to analyze historic skeletal remains. Masters
thesis: University of Indianapolis.
Hochrein, M. 1997a. The dirty dozen: The recognition and collection of toolmarks in the
forensic geotaphonomic record. Journal of Forensic Identification 47:171198.
Hochrein, M. 1997b. Buried crime scene evidence: The application of forensic geota-
phonomy in forensic archaeology. In P. Stimson and C. Mertz (eds.): Forensic
dentistry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 8399.
Hochrein, M., J. Gabra, and S. Nawrocki. 1999. The buried body cases content analy-
ses project: Patterns in buried body investigations. Proceedings of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences 5:212213.
Kiley, S. A. 2008. The taphonomic effects of agricultural practices on bone. Masters
Kiley, S. A., N. M. Parr, and S. P. Nawrocki. 2006. Extensive rat modification of a
human skeleton from central Indiana. Proceedings of the American Academy
of Forensic Sciences 12:306.
Kuba, C. 2001. Differences in DNA preservation between adult and subadult human
skeletal remains as evidenced by individuals from two nineteenth century
cemeteries. Masters thesis: University of Indianapolis.
Latham, K. 2003. The relationship between bone condition and DNA preservation.
Masters thesis: University of Indianapolis.
Latham K., J. Harms, J. C. Zambrano, M. Ritke, and S. P. Nawrocki. 2004. The abil-
ity to amplify skeletal DNA after heat exposure due to maceration. Proceedings
of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 10:283.
Megyesi, M., S. Nawrocki, and N. Haskell. 2005. Using accumulated degree-days to
estimate the postmortem interval from decomposed human remains. Journal
Nawrocki, S. 1991. Human taphonomy and historic cemeteries: Factors influenc-
ing the loss and subsequent recovery of human remains. Electronic document
on file at http:/archlab.uindy.edu. University of Indianapolis Archeology and
Forensics Laboratory.
Nawrocki, S. 1995. Taphonomic processes in historic cemeteries. In A. Grauer (ed.):
Bodies of evidence, John Wiley & Sons, 4966.
Nawrocki, S. 1996. An outline of forensic archeology. Electronic document on file
at http:/archlab.uindy.edu. University of Indianapolis Archeology and Foren-
sics Laboratory.
Nawrocki, S. 1997a. Cleaning bones. Electronic document on file at http:/archlab
.uindy.edu. University of Indianapolis Archeology and Forensics Laboratory.
Nawrocki, S. 1997b. Analysis of the human remains. In Hopewell in Mt. Vernon: A
study of the Mt. Vernon Site (12-Po-885). General Electric Company, 1166.
Nawrocki, S. 2003. Experimental burning of a dry human cranium. Paper presented
at the 10th Midwest Bioarcheology and Forensic Anthropology Association
Conference, Chicago.
Nawrocki, S., and A. Baker. 2001. Fluvial transport of human remains at the Fox
Hollow serial homicide site. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences 7:246247.
Nawrocki, S., and M. Clark. 1994. Extreme dispersal and damage of human skeletal
remains by farming equipment. American Academy of Forensic Sciences Pro-
gram and Abstracts, 171.
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Nawrocki, S., J. Pless, J. D. Hawley, and S. Wagner. 1997. Fluvial transport of human
crania. In W. Haglund and M. Sorg (eds.): Forensic taphonomy: The postmor-
tem fate of human remains. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 529552.
Nawrocki, S., C. Schmidt, M. Williamson, and G. Reinhardt. 1998. Excavation and
analysis of human remains from the Fox Hollow serial homicide site, Ham-
ilton County, Indiana. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sci-
ences 4:205206.
Nawrocki, S., M. Williamson, C. Schmidt, H. Thew, and G. Reinhardt. 2002. Exca-
vation and analysis of four homicide victims from shallow graves in Bartho-
lomew County, Indiana. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences 8:219.
Parr, N., Erhart, and S. Nawrocki, 2004. Recovery and analysis of recent human remains
from a riverbank in Allen County, Indiana. Paper presented at the 11th Midwest
Bioarcheology and Forensic Anthropology Association Conference, Norman.
Reinhardt, G. 2003. Hydrologic artifact dispersals at Pingasagruk, North Coast,
Alaska. Geoarchaeology 8:493513.
Ritterskamp, I., A. Baker, P. Emanovsky, S. Nawrocki, and N. Haskell. 2001. Recov-
ery and analysis of two vandalized mausoleum crypts in Northern Indiana.
Paper presented at the 8th Midwest Bioarcheology and Forensic Anthropology
Association Conference, Wichita, KS.
Schmidt, C., S. Nawrocki, M. Williamson, and D. Marlin. 2000. Obtaining finger-
prints from mummified tissues: A method for tissue hydration adapted from
the archeological literature. Journal of Forensic Sciences 45:874875.
Schultz, J., M. Williamson, S. Nawrocki, A. Falsetti, and M. W. Warren. 2003. A
taphonomic profile to aid in the recognition of human remains from historic
and/or cemetery contexts. Florida Anthropologist 56:141147.
Smith, E., K. Latham, S. Nawrocki, and S. Childress. 2002. An analysis of an embalmed
19th century juvenile mummy. Paper presented at the 9th Midwest Bioarcheol-
ogy and Forensic Anthropology Association Conference, Indianapolis.
Thew, H. 2000 Effects of lime on the decomposition rate of buried remains. Masters
2320.indb 91 4/9/08 3:10:26 PM

Appendix A
AFL Skeleton Visual Impression Form
Case # ___________ -_____________ Individual # ____________

Appendix A
Analyst(s) ______________________ Impression
AFL Skeleton Visual Date __________________
Form
Case # ______ - ______ Individual # ______________

Analyst(s) ________________________ Date ___________________
Darkened areas are _ absent or present for analysis (check one).
NOTE: This form gives only a general impression of the remains, and not all bones
or fragments may be pictured here. Refer to the Skeleton Inventory Form for further
details.
2320.indb 92 4/9/08 3:10:28 PM

UIAFL Taphonomic Observations Form

Case # ___________ -__________ Individual # _______________
Analyst(s) ___________________ Date ____________________
Soft Tissues (skin, periosteum, hair, ligaments, tendons, muscle, cartilage,

intervertebral discs, nails, brain tissue, meninges, internal organs, fats
contained within the bone tissue, odor):
Color (note overall colors of bone surfaces, isolated deviations, metal

staining):
Biotic Alterations (algae, fungus, mold, carnivore damage, rodent gnawing,

root etching, insects):
Abiotic Alterations (weathering and drying cracks, erosion, abrasion, goug-

ing and scratching, delamination, sunbleaching, fractures not caused by
perimortem trauma or carnivores):
Cultural / Behavioral Alterations (blunt force trauma, incised wounds, sawing,

puncture wounds, drilling, grinding, gunshot wounds, burning, pencil and pen
markings, paint, candle wax, hardware; attach diagrams as appropriate):
(more detailed notes can be made on Casenotes forms if needed) (v. 1-8-07)
2320.indb 93 4/9/08 3:10:28 PM

UIAFL Chain of Custody/Transmittal of Remains Form
UIAFL Case Number UI -- _____ -- _____
Agency Case Number ________________
Item # Description
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Released by (print): _______________________________________________________________
Agency (print): ___________________________________________________________________
Received by (print): _______________________________________________________________
Agency (print): ___________________________________________________________________
________________________________ _________________________________
Signature of the person releasing the remains Signature of the person accepting the remains
Date: ______________ Type of Transfer _______ permanent

(if known):
Time: _____________
_ ______ temporary
(v. 6-1-07)
2320.indb 94 4/9/08 3:10:28 PM

UIAFL Human Remains Field Inventory Form
Case # ___________ - ___________ Date _______________
Location _________________________ Recorder _______________
_________ Cranium Metacarpals: ____________________
_________ Mandible Manual Phalanges: _______________
Upper Teeth: ___________________ _________ Sacrum
Lower Teeth: ___________________ _________ Coccyx
_________ Hyoid Body _________ L Coxa
_________ L Wing _________ R Coxa
_________ R Wing _________ L Femur

_________ C1 _________ R Femur
_________ C2 _________ L Patella
Cervicals: ___________________ _________ R Patella
Thoracics: ____________________ _________ L Tibia
Lumbars: ___________________ _________ R Tibia
R Ribs: ___________________ _________ L Fibula
L Ribs: ____________________ _________ R Fibula
_________ Manubrium _________ L Calcaneus
_________ Sternal Body _________ R Calcaneus
_________ Xiphoid _________ L Talus
_________ L Clavicle _________ R Talus
_________ R Clavicle Tarsals: ___________________
_________ L Scapula Metatarsals: ____________________
_________ R Scapula Pedal Phalanges: _________________
_________ L Humerus Pedal Sesamoids: _________________
_________ R Humerus Misc.: __________________________
_________ L Ulna _________________________________
_________ R Ulna _________________________________
_________ L Radius _________________________________
_________ R Radius
Carpals: ___________________
2320.indb 95 4/9/08 3:10:29 PM

DIRECTIONS: Place a check mark to the left of each individual bone when recov-
ered, even if only part of it is found. For bones with multiple elements, place a hash
mark on the right side line for each one recovered. Note that this form is for guiding
search activities, not for creating a detailed record of items found at the scene.
(v. 6-15-07)
2320.indb 96 4/9/08 3:10:29 PM

The Mass Fatality
Incident Morgue: A
Laboratory for Disaster
Victim Identification
6
Paul S. Sledzik and
Patricia J. Kauffman
Contents
Introduction........................................................................................................... 97
The Decedent Population..................................................................................... 99
Antemortem Information.................................................................................. 100
Condition of Human Remains.......................................................................... 100
Federal and State Mass Fatality Response Teams..................................101
Incident Morgue........................................................................................ 103
Role of the Forensic Anthropologist................................................................. 109
Family Assistance and Related Issues...............................................................111
Conclusion............................................................................................................112
References..............................................................................................................113
Introduction
For the family and friends of those killed in disasters, an important mea-
sure of dignity awarded them is manifested in the process of identifying the
remains of the deceased. Because this process happens without the fami-
lys direct involvement, the forensic and mortuary responders are granted
a fragile trust. Families demand that remains be identified and returned to
them quickly, and that they be kept informed throughout the process. The
decedents family and friends also expect that responders share the desire to
quickly and accurately identify the dead (Slater and Hall 1997; Final Report
1997; Sledge 2005).
The involvement of the forensic responder in decedent identification typ-
ically occurs in the disaster morgue. This morgue, a temporary laboratory
created for processing human remains, is not complex, but it is exception-
ally focused. Each step in the morgue operation is carried out consistently
and each analysis is thoroughly documented. Although the laboratory is
97
2320.indb 97 4/9/08 3:10:29 PM

98 Paul S. Sledzik and Patricia J. Kauffman
transient, the work being conducted there can continue long after the initial
phases of recovery and information gathering.
In the United States, the medical examiner or coroner is legally responsi-
ble for identifying unknown remains. In a disaster situation, this responsibil-
ity is maintained, but the office may require additional personnel, supplies,
or equipment to complete the work (Wagner and Froede 1993; Jordan 1999).
Localities with a mass fatality response plan, which includes the particulars
of the identification process as required by that jurisdiction, use that plan
to develop their response to a disaster event (Gilliland et al. 1986; Labovich
et al. 2003; Randall 1991). The United States has a federal disaster mortuary
response team (known as DMORT) and several state and local level teams
(Saul and Saul 2003; Sledzik and Willcox 2003; Fixott et al. 2001). Trained
in disaster morgue operations, these teams provide the local jurisdiction in
need of assistance with experienced scientists, technicians, administrative
staff, and logistical support to complete the victim identification process.
Disasters of such a magnitude as to result in large numbers of deaths
can be categorized into three broad types: natural, criminal, and technologi-
cal. Disasters caused by acts of nature include hurricanes, earthquakes, and
floods. Those of a criminal nature include bombings and the use of biologi-
cal, nuclear, or chemical weapons. Aviation accidents and structural fires are
examples of technological disasters. The particular event dictates, to a large
degree, the condition of remains and the type of the forensic science needed
to complete the identification process (Sledzik and Rodriquez 2002; Kontanis
et al. 2001). The legal requirements and humanitarian concerns of identify-
ing the dead from mass fatality events require that standard processes be
employed (Lain et al. 2003; Moody and Busuttil 1994; Sledzik et al. 2003).
The uninitiated may be unaware that the processing of remains of victims
killed in mass disasters comprises an orderly, well-considered, and thorough
process. The initial chaos surrounding a disaster gives way to a managed
response revealing a structured arena for forensic examination (Brannon
and Kessler 1999).
Medicolegal requirements demand that for each mass fatality event the
human remains are examined by forensic experts and that the condition of
the remains be documented via photography and radiography (Kahana et al.
1997; Lichtenstein et al. 1988). The laboratory created for these examinations
and documentary processes, although temporary, represents a convergence
of intense activity and is often the focus of intense media and political atten-
tion. The work accomplished in the mass disaster laboratory is important
to the next-of-kin, the medicolegal community, and to society because each
stakeholder becomes reassured of humanity writ large and the response pro-
cess emblematic of our respect for the dead.
Three main issues impact the recovery operations, processing of remains
and identification of decedents:
2320.indb 98 4/9/08 3:10:29 PM

The Mass Fatality Incident Morgue 99
The number and type of decedent population involved in the event.

The availability and type of antemortem information.
The condition of the remains (e.g., complete, fragmentary, burned, etc.).
The interplay of these details drive the type and number of personnel needed
and the length of time and methods used to complete identification (Sledzik
and Rodriquez 2002; Kontanis et al. 2001; Sledzik and Kontanis 2005). The
various procedures used in the search for and recovery of remains is beyond
the scope of this chapter. What follows is a discussion of the processing and
identification procedures used in a variety of disaster responses involving
both federal and state teams as experienced by the authors.
The Decedent Population
Based on the availability of immediate information about them, decedents

can be categorized into open and closed populations. In a closed pop-
ulation, the number of victims and their names are known. The singular
example of a closed population is an aircraft accident, where positive iden-
tification checks at airport security areas and ticket purchasing procedures
allow forensic responders to rely on the accuracy of the flight manifest and its
associated passenger name record to initiate antemortem record collection.
By federal law, authorities such as the National Transportation Safety Board
are provided with passenger names and related information within a matter
of hours following an accident (NTSB 2000). Antemortem information col-
lection begins soon after this information is received.
Conversely, an open population is one in which there is no definitive
list of the numbers of victims or their names. As such, response personnel
must focus their initial efforts on distinguishing those who are reported miss-
ing (by friends and relatives) from those who are actually missing. This sort-
ing process takes time. Only after a decedent is confirmed as missing can the
process of obtaining and examining antemortem data begin. For example,
in the initial days following the September 11 World Trade Center disaster
the number of reported missing fluctuated between 3958 and 6453 (Simpson
and Stehr 2003). As of June 2005, the total number of missing individuals
was 2749 and total identified was 1591 (Mackinnon and Mundorff 2006). In
an open population, since the number and names of dead are not known, all
remains must be profiled for DNA so that the entirety of the decedent profiles
is known.
Managing events involving open and closed populations compels foren-
sic teams to assess the need for forensic specialties. In an event where remains
are complete and the decedents are from a defined geographical area, post-
mortem dental evidence may be easily obtained and antemortem dental
2320.indb 99 4/9/08 3:10:30 PM

records may be quickly acquiredif they are not destroyed or damaged by the
disaster. As such, most positive identifications will be completed using dental
means, calling for more forensic dentists over other forensic disciplines.
Antemortem Information
The process of identification requires comparing antemortem data with post-

mortem information. Collecting the postmortem information is relatively
simple and rapid, as the remains themselves are analyzed in the incident
morgue as they are recovered from the scene. However, the availability and
acquisition of antemortem records and radiographs greatly influences the
identification process. Experience indicates the timely acquisition of accurate
antemortem records and radiographs is a critical factor in the rapid comple-
tion of the identification process (Kontanis et al. 2001; Brannon and Kessler
1999; Sledzik and Kontanis 2005). Dental and medical records and radio-
graphs can be obtained rapidly if families and forensic personnel know how
to contact the dentist and doctor of the decedent. However, factors such as the
age, socioeconomic status, cultural practices, and religious beliefs of the dece-
dent and the family impact antemortem record and radiograph availability.
Decedents of lower socioeconomic status may not have dental work, and
subsequently no dental records. Many people have never been fingerprinted,
or were printed through a process that may not allow the prints to be stored
and retrieved. Some religions adhere to the belief that burial is unimport-
ant, and, as such, these family members may be unreceptive to providing
DNA samples for identification. The proximity of the disaster to the location
of the decedents antemortem records also impacts access to these records.
For example, if the majority of decedents are from the area where the disas-
ter occurs, then access to records will be more rapid because of the close
proximity of both families and dentists/doctors. Conversely, the antemortem
record availability in an accident where decedents are not local (as happens
with foreign aircraft passengers), the access to families, and thus to antemor-
tem records, is more lengthy and complicated.
Condition of Human Remains
More rapidly processed than fragmented remains, whole bodies with con-
cordant antemortem information can be identified quickly. Complete bod-
ies generally bear the unique physical identifiers needed to presumptively
identify the victim. As such, when a whole body is identified there has been
an entire accounting of the decedents remains. Fragmented remains present
more complex issues. Certain body parts may contain unique identifiers (for
2320.indb 100 4/9/08 3:10:30 PM

example, dental work, fingerprints, and prosthetic devices) and when identi-
fied, the fragment indicates both proof of death and identification of the dece-
dent. Importantly, the remainder of the fragments representing the decedent
must be identified. DNA analysis is the method used to identify body parts
having no unique physical identifiers, but despite the liberal application of
this technology, not all analyses result in an adequate DNA profile to lead to
an identification (Alonso et al. 2005; Budowle et al. 2005).
In a closed population, high-fragmentation event, forensic investigators
work to identify all the victims, with an understanding that not all remains
will be identified because of technological limitations of DNA analysis. In an
open population, high-fragmentation event, the focus is on identifying all
remains because the number and names of decedents are unknown. Remains
that cannot be identified are referred to as common tissue. Common tissue
must be managed carefully, and families must be informed of its existence
and be involved in the decisions regarding its final disposition. The final
disposition of remains depends on the wishes of the family, the condition
of remains, and the identification status of the remains. In most situations,
families will make decisions about final disposition of remains in accordance
with their religious practices or the lack thereof. In the case of unidentified
remains, group burials or interment at a memorial is common. Long-term
curation within a mausoleum or in the medical examiner/coroners office
may be required as new identification methods are developed. Mass graves
and mass cremations of remains (identified or unidentified) are considered
culturally insensitive and may preclude the use of additional identification
methods that may arise as identification technologies advance (PAHO 2004).
If remains cannot be decontaminated following a chemical, biological, or
radiological disaster, mass graves may be used, but only as an interim step on
the path to positive identification.
The interplay of these three considerationscondition of remains, dece-
dent population, and antemortem record availabilityinfluences the poten-
tial for positive identifications and how they will be rendered. Forensic and
morgue personnel must have a sound understanding of the interplay of these
factors so that the morgue operation can proceed accordingly.
Federal and State Mass Fatality Response Teams

Since by definition a mass fatality event overwhelms the local jurisdictions
ability to respond effectively to the forensic and mortuary needs of a disaster,
support from federal and state government agencies with forensic capabili-
ties is often required. The development of the Disaster Mortuary Operational
Response Team (DMORT), similar state-level teams, and related volunteer
forensic groups provides the local jurisdiction access to personnel, equip-
ment, and experience.
2320.indb 101 4/9/08 3:10:30 PM

In the United States, DMORT has responded to or assisted in the recov-

ery and identification of victims in a variety of disasters (Saul and Saul 2003;
Sledzik and Willcox 2003). The Disaster Mortuary Operational Response
Team is a division of the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) and
comprises federal medical and forensic responders housed under the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Although DMORT has
no federal mandate to direct mass fatality victim identification responses, it
can assist local jurisdictions in these activities when requested through the
appropriate procedures. Typically, DMORT is able to respond under a feder-
ally declared disaster as defined in the federal National Response Plan (2004).
Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team members work within the
local jurisdictions medicolegal structure, usually reporting directly to the
medical examiner or coroner and may provide the following:
Experienced forensic scientists

Administrative staff
Mortuary personnel
Standardized procedures
Specialized equipment
All of the above work to assist medical examiner and coroners in the complex
job of victim identification. Accompanied by a Disaster Portable Morgue Unit
(DPMU), DMORT travels with all the supplies and equipment necessary to
assemble a fully operational, free-standing, temporary morgue.
While a mass fatality event easily overwhelms a medical examiner and
coroner office, normal casework will need to continue during the disaster
response. Establishing a separate disaster incident morgue reduces confusion
and increases efficiency. The incident morgue is effectively a field-based
course of action because it operates under the jurisdiction of the medical
examiner or coroner but in field conditions.
State disaster victim identification teams provide support in the event
of nonfederally declared disasters and augment the DMORT teams. Often,
members of state and local teams are members of DMORT. The knowledge
of local assets and issues gives state and local teams an important advantage
over federal teams. Local teams are also able to respond to fatality events not
rising to the level of a federal response. Forensic odontologists have the most
coordinated system of state and local identification teams (Fixott et al. 2001).
The American Board of Forensic Odontology (www.abfo.org) tracks con-
tact information for these teams. Another state-level mass fatality response
team is the Florida Emergency Mortuary Response System (www.femors.
org). Given their proximity to the disaster, state and local mass fatality teams
can often respond more quickly than federal response teams. The DMORT
2320.indb 102 4/9/08 3:10:30 PM

responders typically take 24 to 36 hours to become operational while local

teams can often be operational within a few hours.
Incident Morgue
Selecting the location to process decedent remains is the first step in the
disaster morgue operation. The location of the disaster incident morgue
is dependent on the numbers of fatalities and the number of forensic and
support personnel involved in the response. Ideally, local authorities (and
preferably the medical examiner or coroner) will have selected a site before
the arrival of the forensic response team. Incident morgues have been suc-
cessfully established in aircraft hangers, unused warehouses, armories, other
securable nonpublic buildings, and medical examiner or coroner offices
when space and procedures allowed. In the last case, care is taken to separate
the daily casework from the disaster casework. Other considerations include
proximity to the disaster scene, adequate floor space, placement of refriger-
ated trucks for remains storage, and office space for workers and support
personnel. Logistical considerations include adequate heating, cooling, ven-
tilation; lighting; water supply; electrical capacity; telephone and high-speed
Internet access; restrooms; drainage (for capturing biohazard); nonporous
floors; and forklift accessibility. An 8,000 to 10,000 ft 2 facility is adequate for
most transportation disasters. Responders have learned from experience that
certain places should not be used as incident morguesschools or similar
active public facilities, and hospitalswhich have the potential for creating
unintended emotional problems for children and other citizenry and may
create confusion between nondisaster patients, those patients injured in the
disaster, and attendant family members of these groups, respectively.
Since most jurisdictions in the United States do not have the supplies
and equipment needed to create an incident morgue, DMORT has assembled
caches of material, the Disaster Portable Morgue Unit or DPMU, containing
the supplies and equipment for operating an incident morgue for large-scale
fatality events. Transportable to the incident site via truck or aircraft, the
DPMU is accompanied and supported by a team of trained responders who
assemble, restock, and pack the DPMU equipment. Specialized cases house
the equipment and supplies, which are categorized, labeled, and inventoried,
and a load plan facilitates shipment. Once on site, the DPMU is operational
in less than 24 hours. As cases in point, a DPMU was erected in an aircraft
hangar following an aviation accident near Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, in
May 2000 and organized in an abandoned military gymnasium on an active
military base following the crash of EgyptAir 990 in October of 1999 (Fig-
ures6.1 and 6.2, respectively). The DPMUs are currently housed in Maryland
and California.
2320.indb 103 4/9/08 3:10:30 PM

Figure6.1 The DMORT morgue used during the identification of the victims of
the EgyptAir 990 crash in 1999.
Figure6.2 The morgue is situated in an abandoned gymnasium on a military

base.
2320.indb 104 4/9/08 3:10:31 PM

The organization of the actual morgue operationthe analysis of remains

and the use of methods to identify remainsis akin to an assembly line,
albeit one in which the importance of the work and its impact on the next-
of-kin is evident via the thoroughness and professionalism of those working
within the incident morgue. There are several standard operating guidelines
available for the disaster victim identification and morgue operations avail-
able from the Web sites of organizations, including:
DMORT (http://www.dmort.org/FilesforDownload/Protocol_Flight_93
.pdf)
The National Association of Medical Examiners (http://thename.org)
The U.S. National Institutes of Justice (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/
pubs-sum/199758.htm) and (http://massfatality.dna.gov/)
Interpol (http://www.interpol.int/Public/DisasterVictim/Guide)
Pan American Health Organization (http://www.paho.org/English/dd/
ped/DeadBodiesFieldManual.htm)
Before processing remains, the medicolegal authority must carefully

consider the focus of the forensic efforts (e.g., will the focus be on identify-
ing and accounting for all the victims or on the identification of all frag-
mented human remains?) as this decision allows for efficient processing of
the human remains and associated personal effects and avoids overwhelming
the morgue team (Figure6.3). Storing remains in refrigerator trucks permits
morgue personnel to work with an optimal number of remains introduced
into the morgue flow. For example, in an event with 100 whole-body fatali-
ties, forensic examiners may choose to analyze only 10 bodies at once. Refrig-
erator trucks or similar storage facilities are designated as unprocessed and
processed to keep remains segregated and organized.
Once remains are brought from the unprocessed refrigerated unit into
the morgue area, the remains are radiographed in the container (body bag,
pouch, transfer case, and so forth). These radiographs help triage station
personnel evaluate the material in the container before it is opened. In the
case of complete bodies, these radiographs can point out ordnance, per-
sonal effects, forensic evidence, the extent of trauma, and potential com-
mingling. For fragmented remains, the radiograph reveals potentially
identifiable body portions, evidence, personal effects, nonbiological mate-
rial, and the extent of commingling.
The next step, triage, is typically reserved for use with fragmentary
remains (Sledzik and Kontanis 2005). Whole bodies may be triaged to sort
them by their potential for identification (e.g., presence of dental work). For
fragmented remains, all are treated as commingled and only remains con-
nected by anatomical tissues are considered a single specimen. Anatomically
unattached remains found in proximity to one another, either at the disaster
2320.indb 105 4/9/08 3:10:31 PM

Mass Fatality Morgue Operational Plan
Triage
Unprocessed Radiograph Sort Remains, Remains with
Remains Storage No/Little Common
Remains Personal Eects,
Refrigerated Potential for ID Tissue
Container and Evidence.
Truck Select Remains
with Evidence
Potential for ID Law Enforcement/
Family Assistance NTSB
Center
Antemortem Data Remains for Personal Eects
Collection Examination Law Enforcement/
Contractor
Forensic
Examination
ID Station Pathology Initial
Dental Anthropology Documentation
Radiography Dental Numbering
DNA Fingerprint Photography
Prints DNA Radiography
Medical Devices
Fatality Management
Notication to Considerations
Processed
Next-of-Kin Reassociation
Remains Storage Open or Closed Population
Decision on of Fragmented
Refrigerated Fragmented or Complete
Future Notication Remains
Truck or Remains
Decision on
Cold Storage Antemortem Data Availability
Reassociation
Role of DNA
ID of Remains or Decedents
Release of Embalming and Triage Probative Value
Remains to Casketing Final ID Check Family Decisions on
Funeral Home (If Required) Notication and Reassociation
Figure6.3 A schematic representation of an efficient mass fatality morgue

plan.
site or in a remains container, are assumed to be unrelated. Each remain is

examined individually for its potential to be identified by applying a proba-
tive index that systematically classifies human remains according to their
identification potential or investigative value (Sledzik and Kontanis 2005).
The probative categorization system relates the number of positive and pre-
sumptive identifying features to the potential for a DNA, dental, fingerprint,
or medical identification. The index is incident specific, as factors such as the
availability and accuracy of antemortem information can impact the appli-
cation of data. Typically, four categories of materials are separated: personal
effects; wreckage or other types of evidence; remains with a potential for
identification; and remains with little or no potential for identification (that
is, common tissue). Nonhuman biological material, such as animal bones, is
also removed from morgue flow during triage.
Triage can expose the taphonomic processes related to the disaster. By
elucidating patterns in the types and condition of remains recovered, the
2320.indb 106 4/9/08 3:10:32 PM

multidisciplinary triage team can suggest changes in the recovery process,

guide search and recovery efforts, and understand some aspects of incident
causation. Effective triage is part of a feedback loop from the morgue to the
search and recovery operation.
Following triage, a standard set of documents (for example, the case file)
is created for each specimen at the admitting station. At this point, remains
must be numbered as they enter the morgue operation. Experience has shown
that a simple numbering system reduces confusion in morgue personnel and
decreases administrative errors. Remains are assigned a consecutive whole
number. For example, the first body, or body part, entering the morgue flow
receives #1, the second receives #2, and the third #3. If during the course of
the morgue analysis additional remains are found commingled (for example,
they were not separated at triage), the new body part can be brought to the
admitting station and assigned the next consecutive number. In the case of
whole bodies, numbers are often assigned at the scene. Morgue personnel
can preserve this numbering system if there is similar logic and simplicity
behind the system. Data from the scene that is associated with the remains
can be placed in the pertinent case file. After identification and reassociation,
the coroner or medical examiner can assign an office case number to the
remains comprising that individual. Using the unique numbers, each remain
is accompanied by a folder with the postmortem analytical paperwork that
will be completed in the other areas of the morgue operation.
New technology is being used to handle large numbers of remains and to
reduce numbering errors and increase quality assurance. Recently, computer
readable barcodes and radio frequency identification chips (RFIDs) have
been used to manage remains in disaster morgue operations following the
World Trade Center disaster, the Asian tsunami, and Hurricane Katrina.
Once numbered, remains are radiographed, photographed, and then
escorted through the postmortem examination stations for analysis. Experts
in each forensic discipline staff these stationstypically referred to as dental,
pathology, anthropology, fingerprint, photography, and DNA. Requirements
of the investigation dictate if all numbered remains are examined at each of
these stations or if only pertinent remains will be examined at the station (for
example, fragments of dental evidence would not be examined at the finger-
print station). At each station, information is collected according to standard
protocols created for the specific disaster response.
While the postmortem data is being collected at the morgue, antemor-
tem information is being obtained from family members and friends of the
deceased. This process happens at a family assistance center (FAC) where
specialists in funeral service and forensic identification interview the family
members by following a standard interview forms. The information they col-
lect includes contact information for dentists and doctors, data on the unique
biological aspects of the deceased, and information related to personal effects
2320.indb 107 4/9/08 3:10:33 PM

with the deceased. The DMORT responders and some medical examiner
offices have a specialized team trained to conduct these often difficult, yet
critical, interviews (Wright et al. 1999).
In most disaster situations, positive identifications are based on unique
biological attributes (Weedn 1998). These unique biological attributes are
recorded through methods that include DNA analysis, odontology, prints (e.g.,
fingerprints, handprints, toe prints, and footprints), radiology, and implanted
medical devices with recorded serial numbers. In addition, distinctive physi-
cal characteristics (e.g., ears, scars, moles, and tattoos) with appropriate ante-
mortem photographic documentations can be used as positive identification if
the procedures for that event dictate. Presumptive identification using personal
effects, clothing, and the like is a preliminary step toward positive identifica-
tion using some or all of the procedures listed above.
To complete the process of positive identification, regularly scheduled
meetings are held between the medicolegal authority, fingerprint technicians,
odontologists, radiologists, anthropologists, DNA analysts, and forensic
pathologists. Details of the identification are documented, and the identifica-
tion is presented to the medical examiner or coroner for his or her agreement
and authorization. If the forensic team does not agree on an identification,
the antemortem and postmortem evidence is reexamined. All disciplines
must agree before the identification is finalized. Once remains are positively
identified, the next-of-kin is notified via the local jurisdictions usual process
for death notification.
Despite the fact that they deal with death regularly, the psychological
impact of disaster work on forensic responders should not be underestimated.
Disaster forensic work is physically and psychologically stressful (McCarroll
et al. 1996; Webb et al. 2002). Effective disaster responders prepare by devel-
oping support networks at home and at work, and by maintaining good phys-
ical fitness and health practices to help carry them through the response.
Even with the familiarity of working with human remains, certain events
increase stress for most forensic responders (Ursano and McCarroll 1994).
These include handling personal effects, examining the remains of children,
the condition of remains (particularly aspects of visual grotesqueness, odor,
and tactile features), and exposure to a large number of victims. Identifying
with or personalizing the victims increases the emotional attachment to the
remains, may reduce objectivity, and may increase vulnerability to psycho-
logical distress. Such stressors can result in normal emotional reactions, such
as sadness, disgust, anger, pity, fear, and numbness. Physical reactions can
include headache, sleep difficulties, intestinal problems, appetite changes,
and fatigue (McCarroll et al. 2002).
The most effective coping strategies involve talking with trusted cowork-
ers, appropriate use of humor, reflecting on the larger purpose of the work,
avoiding media coverage of the event (particularly information about the
2320.indb 108 4/9/08 3:10:33 PM

victims), and being consistent about taking time off from the disaster work.
Camaraderie and talking with colleagues, both during and after the event,
has been shown to be an important source of positive feelings about a disaster
response. Peer-support models, as found in fire/rescue and police agencies,
are preferable for forensic responders, as outside mental health professionals
typically do not understand the particular stressors of forensic work. Despite
the stress, forensic responders report that disaster work is a valuable experi-
ence, provides a sense of accomplishment, and increases their appreciation
of life (Webb et al. 2002).
Role of the Forensic Anthropologist
Forensic anthropologists play a comprehensive role in decedent identifica-

tion, from field recovery through the final stages of positive identification in
the incident morgue and as quality assurance managers before the release of
remains. Their skills fall into two broad categories: scene support and morgue
operations (Saul and Saul 2003; Sledzik and Willcox 2003; Mackinnon and
Mundorff 2006; Hinkes 1989; London et al. 2003; Mundorff and Steadman
2003; Mundorff 2003; Owsley et al. 1995; Sledzik and Hunt 1997; Stewart
1970; Ubelaker et al. 1995). With training in search, recovery, archeological
methods, skeletal biology, and anatomy, the skills of the forensic anthropolo-
gist are indispensable to the disaster victim identification effort.
At the disaster scene, the anthropologist uses knowledge of taphonomy
and search technology to plan a thorough search, and archaeological training
helps in determining the size and scope of the search. Often, the anthropolo-
gist trains search and recovery personnel about the unique aspects of scenes
where fragmentation, burning, and decomposition of remains are a concern.
The ability to recognize otherwise unrecognizable (to the nonanthropolo-
gist) remains allows for the recovery of remains that might otherwise be
overlooked. An on-scene assessment of material can reveal if the items are
human, nonhuman, or nonbiological. For example, forensic anthropologists
involved in the World Trade Center disaster response were stationed at the
Staten Island landfill to distinguish human remains from nonhuman mate-
rial that originated from the many restaurants present in the area (Warren
et al. 2002).
In the incident morgue, training in skeletal biology and anatomy allows the
forensic anthropologist to conduct a number of important analyses, including:
Assist in triage
Separate commingled remains
Describe condition of remains (e.g., complete or fragmentary)
Determine sex, age, ancestry, stature, and unique characteristics
2320.indb 109 4/9/08 3:10:33 PM

Interpret radiographs for age estimation and unique skeletal features

Determine minimum number of individuals
Analyze ante-, peri-, and postmortem injuries
Conduct quality assurance assessment before release of remains
from morgue
Because skeletal analyses are most useful in cases of fragmentation,

burning, and decomposition, forensic anthropologists are integral for inter-
preting anatomical structures presented in the triage area (Figure6.3). Once
identified as human, the skull, pelvic, and long bone structures are used to
make interpretations about its biological attributes (for example, sex, age,
ancestry, robusticity, and stature) and to interpret the viability of unique bio-
logical features for use in identification. If remains are complete, forensic
anthropologists can help determine the age of the decedent and interpret
radiographs for identification.
Two unique, yet simple, applications of the forensic anthropological
understanding of mass fatality identification took place at the World Trade
Center (WTC) disaster (Mackinnon and Mundorff 2006; Mundorff 2003;
Mundorff et al. 2005; Wiersema et al. 2003; Budimlija et al. 2003). Specifi-
cally, the forensic anthropologist reexamined the human remains, associ-
ated case file information, DNA results, and the extent of commingling
before the remains are released from the morgue or interred. As a case
in point, several methods were used to identify the thousands of human
fragments from the World Trade Center, but DNA was the single largest
method applied. The number of fragments and the immense administrative
effort necessary to manage those data resulted in procedural errors such as
misnumbering, incorrect data transcription, and siding errors (right ver-
sus left). In addition, the building collapse, transport of the remains to the
Staten Island landfill, and commingling resulted in DNA cross-contami-
nation (e.g., similar DNA results might reveal that two right feet produced
identical DNA profiles). But, it was the forensic anthropological review of
16,915 of the total 19,963 cases from the World Trade Center that resulted
in new identifications and associations of previously unassociated remains
(Mackinnon and Mundorff 2006).
Second, the final anthropological review provides a quality assurance
procedure that reduces the possibility of misidentification. At the WTC, the
final case review required the anthropologist to examine identified remains
before release to ensure the biological attributes of the remains were congru-
ent with the file and identification information. Problems were resolved by
using document reviews, additional anthropological analysis, and reanaly-
sis of DNA. MacKinnon and Mundorff (2006) indicate that the review was
important to resolve any final and outstanding issues of commingling and
contamination, and ultimately provided the opportunity to reconfirm the
2320.indb 110 4/9/08 3:10:33 PM

correlation between the case files, the identification modality, and the physi-
cal remains, before final repatriation of the victim occurred.
Forensic anthropologists, like pathologists, bring the big-picture per-
spective to the victim identification effort. They see the interplay of taphonomy,
decedent population, culture, anatomy, and human biology and how these fac-
tors interact during the process of victim identification. Interestingly, part of
the training in anthropology involves learning and applying interview skills
(from the realm of cultural anthropology) in order to gain and share informa-
tion from people of similar or disparate backgrounds. Central to the cultural
anthropological theory and practice is the anthropologists ability to ignore his
or her own biases or ethnocentric feelings in order to discuss the interviewees
thoughts concerning familial mores, concepts of time and economics, religion,
and death. Needless to say, this training lends itself to assisting family mem-
bers who have lost someone in a mass fatality incident.
Family Assistance and Related Issues
In the past several years the term family assistance (as it applies to mass
fatality situations) has come to mean a standard of care and services pro-
vided to the family members of the deceased (NTSB 1998). For example, the
Aviation Disaster Family Assistance Act of 1996 established important rights
for families of passengers who die in aircraft accidents. The law specifies the
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), as the lead federal agency, to
coordinate the resources of the airline, the federal agencies, the American
Red Cross, and the local jurisdiction agencies in supporting family members
(NTSB 2000). The support families receive encompasses travel to and from
the accident site, lodging, informational briefings (including information
on victim recovery and identification), mental health counseling, site visits,
memorial services, and long-term information sharing.
Victim identification is a critical part of the family assistance process
(Slater and Hall 1997; Final Report 1997). Although families are involved
in the identification process from the standpoint of providing antemortem
information, they are also asked to make decisions about death notification,
final disposition, and other concerns related to the remains of the deceased.
As the provider of this information and the person offering the choice, the
medical examiner or coroner works closely with individual family members
or in groups at family briefings (Robb 1999). The medical examiner or coroner
reassures families that morgue personnel treat all remains with respect and
provides information about the various identification methods being imple-
mented. Families may ask for specific information regarding the particulars of
an identification. The sometimes lengthy process of DNA identification is also
explained, and families may be asked to provide DNA reference samples.
2320.indb 111 4/9/08 3:10:33 PM

The victims next-of-kin makes choices about the final disposition of pos-
itively identified remains. In cases of severe fragmentation, where multiple
fragments from one individual are identified over a lengthy period, families
choose how often they wish to be notified of identifications (for example,
initially or each time an identification of the decedent is made). Families also
choose if remains will be released to them as they are identified or released
when all the remains have been reassociated at the end of the identification
process. Family preference regarding the disposition of remains is optimally
determined upon the first fragment being identified.
Because not all fragmented remains are identified, a decision is made
by the medical examiner or coroner about the disposition of common tis-
sue. Families are informed of the presence of these unidentified remains,
and preferably they work as a group to decide on the final disposition, which
might involve an interfaith memorial service. If families cannot decide, the
medicolegal authority takes action under the jurisdictions laws to dispose or
otherwise deal with the remains.
For aviation accidents, discussions take place with family members
regarding any proposed airline-sponsored memorial. Regardless of the length
of time between the event and the memorial service, discussions take place
with the families regarding the type of service, the location of the burial site,
and the nature of the memorial marker.
Conclusion
The goal of the mass fatality victim identification process, whether on the
federal or state level, is twofold: one to deal with legal requirements and the
other to help the family members of the deceased move through the grief
process. Managing the fatalities involves not only knowledge of human
identification methods, but also an understanding of the emotional and reli-
gious needs of family members of the deceased. The condition of remains,
the numbers of living family members, and the availability of antemortem
information will affect the process of identification and the number of posi-
tive identifications.
Medical examiners and coroners maintain their legal responsibility to
identify unknown victims following a disaster. Federal, state, and local teams
specializing in forensic identification are available to assist the jurisdiction.
These teams often comprise personnel, supplies, equipment, and the knowl-
edge to successfully manage the identification process. Although disaster
morgue operations are thorough and deliberate, each disaster presents unique
problems that will impact morgue operations. Regardless of the nature of the
disaster, all remains are documented, analyzed, and handled with care.
2320.indb 112 4/9/08 3:10:34 PM

The process of mass fatality victim identification is not insulated from

the chaos of the disaster, nor from the family and friends of the deceased, the
local community, media, and politicians. Although the work in the morgue
is not public, the work greatly impacts public perceptions about the success
of the overall disaster response. In this context, the forensic responders not
only conduct accurate forensic examinations, but they serve as a source of
professionalism that allows the families and community impacted by the
disaster to grieve and recover.
The forensic anthropologist is an integral partner in the victim identifi-
cation process. Apart from the skills they bring to the search for and recov-
ery of remains, they are able to apply their knowledge of anatomy, human
biology, taphonomy, and culture to the identification process.
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The Repatriation
Osteology Laboratory,
National Museum
of Natural History,
7
Smithsonian Institution
Erica B. Jones and Stephen D. Ousley
Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................118
Cultural Affiliation and Forensic Anthropology.............................................118
Documentation.................................................................................................... 120
Lab Operations.................................................................................................... 120
Inventory.............................................................................................................. 123
Age and Sex.......................................................................................................... 123
Measurements...................................................................................................... 124
Taphonomy.......................................................................................................... 126
Dentition.............................................................................................................. 128
Skeletal Pathology............................................................................................... 130
Cranial Modification.......................................................................................... 132
Nonmetric Traits................................................................................................. 134
Photographic and Radiographic Documentation.......................................... 134
Photography............................................................................................... 134
Radiography............................................................................................... 135
Destructive Analysis........................................................................................... 135
Additional Resources.......................................................................................... 135
Case Studies......................................................................................................... 136
The Sioux Giant...................................................................................... 136
The Nez Perce Warrior.............................................................................. 138
Curly Head Jack......................................................................................... 140
A Hawikku Priest?......................................................................................141
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 143
References............................................................................................................. 144
117
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118 Erica B. Jones and Stephen D. Ousley
Introduction
In 1989, the 101st Congress passed Public Law 101-185, known as the National
Museum of the American Indian Act (NMAIA) (20 United States Code
[USC] 80q et seq.). Aspects of this legislation require the Smithsonian Insti-
tution to inventory Native American human remains in its collections and,
using the best available scientific and historical documentation, identify the
origins or cultural affiliation of remains based on a preponderance of evi-
dence (NMAIA Section 80q-9(a)(B)). If the remains are found to be those of
an ancestor of living lineal descendants or related to an existing federally rec-
ognized tribe, they are to be offered for repatriation upon request, with the
rights of lineal descendents superseding those of tribes. The following year,
Congress passed the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation
Act (NAGPRA) (25 USC 3001-3013), which placed similar obligations on all
U.S. institutions (including other federal agencies) receiving federal funding,
thereby affecting most of the countrys museums and universities.
When the NMAIA and NAGPRA were written into law, the Smithso-
nians National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) held approximately
18,000 catalog numbers of skeletal remains believed to be Native American.
These collections were primarily assembled by museum curators and affili-
ated researchers but include remains from large-scale, government-sponsored
archaeological excavations, such as those performed by the Works Progress
Administration, and remains transferred to the museum by other agencies,
including an accession of approximately 2200 Native American remains from
the Army Medical Museum (AMM), which was located near the Smithso-
nian on the National Mall from 1865 to 1968 (Ousley et al. 2005).
The Repatriation Office of the NMNH was established in 1991 to com-
ply with the NMAIA mandate. The staff is composed of archaeologists and
physical anthropologists who attempt to determine the origin and cultural
affiliation of human remains by examining historical, archival, and archaeo-
logical materials as well as the remains themselves.
Cultural Affiliation and Forensic Anthropology
Unfortunately, the legal term cultural affiliation used in repatriation laws

can be misleading. According to the NAGPRA regulations,
Cultural affiliation means that there is a relationship of shared group identity

which can reasonably be traced historically or prehistorically between mem-
bers of a present-day [federally recognized] Indian tribe . . . and an identifi-
able earlier group. Cultural affiliation is established when the preponderance
of the evidencebased on geographical, kinship, biological, archeological,
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The Repatriation Osteology Laboratory, Smithsonian Institution 119
linguistic, folklore, oral tradition, historical evidence, or other information or

expert opinionreasonably leads to such a conclusion. (43CFR 10.2 (e): 197)
The NAGPRA regulations further explain that the relationship between

the identifiable earlier group and the present-day tribe must be through
descent (43 CFR 10.14(c)(3)). One key to identifying an individuals cultural
affiliation is to determine his or her ancestry; while this biological evidence is
by no means the only type used to assess affiliation, it is often the only physi-
cal evidence present and by law it is meant to play an important, and some-
times deciding, role (Hollinger and Ousley 2007; Ousley et al. 2005, 2007).
A significant difference between the NMAIA and NAGPRA is that cul-
tural affiliation is to be evaluated under NMAIA using the best available
scientific and historical documentation, while under NAGPRA the required
evaluation is to the extent possible based on information possessed, which
can vary significantly among institutions (Lovis et al. 2004; NAGPRA Section
5(a); NMAIA Section 80q-9(a)(B)). Because the Smithsonian has established
a Repatriation Office to assess cultural affiliation, comprehensive collection
and assessment of the biological evidence can be performed in a dedicated
office in the NMNH, the Repatriation Osteology Laboratory (ROL). The ROL
uses standard analyses, including the assessment of age, sex, ancestry, tapho-
nomic changes, cultural modifications, and pathology, to determine the ori-
gins of human remains in fulfillment of the NMAIA and to comply with the
Smithsonian Institutions dedication in 1846 to the increase and diffusion
of knowledge (Smithsonian Institution 1998).
According to T. D. Stewarts classic definition, physical anthropology
conducted under repatriation laws can be considered forensic anthropology:
Forensic anthropology is that branch of physical anthropology which, for

forensic purposes, deals with the identification of more or less skeletonized
remains known to be, or suspected of being, human. Beyond the elimination
of nonhuman elements, the identification process undertakes to provide opin-
ions regarding sex, age, race, stature, and such other characteristics of each
individual involved as may lead to his or her recognition. (Stewart 1979:ix)
The definition provided by the American Board of Forensic Anthropology

and Murad (1996) is similar, but notes that this identification is important for
both legal and humanitarian reasons. Thus, the work of the ROL is broadly
within the realm of forensic anthropology, although the remains we analyze
are not those of the recently deceased. The vast majority of individuals ana-
lyzed died more than a century ago and may never be identified beyond the
tribal level.
While criminal law requires the beyond a reasonable doubt standard
of conclusions, that is, scientific certainty, NAGPRA and NMAIA are civil
2320.indb 119 4/9/08 3:10:35 PM

laws, and the standard for civil laws is the preponderance of evidence. Pre-
ponderance essentially means more likely than not, and is defined as evi-
dence which is of greater weight or more convincing than the evidence which
is offered in opposition to it; that is, evidence which as a whole shows that
the fact sought to be proved is more probable than not (Black and Black
1990:1182). Because the repatriation laws are federal laws, both Daubert stan-
dards and the Federal Rules of Evidence are applicable should disputes ever
progress to court (Ousley et al. 2005). Thus, it is crucial that data be collected,
analyzed, and reported in a manner consistent with standard scientific and
legal inquiries.
Documentation
The quality and quantity of supporting documentation associated with

remains at the NMNH varies significantly. Some remains were accessioned
with detailed archaeological field notes, maps, and collection histories, while
others are only accompanied by notations regarding the state, territory, or
general region in which they were obtained. For example, documentation
associated with AMM collections tends to be particularly sparse, and they
may only be accompanied by a letter stating that they were excavated from
a general area or were a surface find with a tentative tribal designation. In
some cases, no accompanying documentation can be located, and only nota-
tions on the skull, such as old field or catalog numbers, are present. In the
cases where these remains are thought to be those of identifiable individuals,
very thorough archival, genealogical, and osteological investigation must be
undertaken to attempt to corroborate their identity, as the law stipulates they
must be offered to lineal descendents. Archival material examined includes
letters of transmittal or other documents from collectors or the agency or
museum from which they originated, genealogies, historic accounts of battles
or settler histories, and museum records such as accession files, cataloging
information, and general museum correspondence. In many cases, records
associated with the even the best-documented collections may be contradic-
tory or incomplete, so a full examination of all information is necessary in
the documentation process to confirm or disprove information currently in
museum records and to determine cultural affiliation.
Lab Operations
In response to repatriation legislation, leading physical anthropologists

collaborated to produce a set of data standards to be followed by osteolo-
gists working with human remains that may be subject to the laws. These
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guidelines were set forth in Standards for Data Collection from Human
Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The data collected were to
aid anthropologists in determining the biological and cultural affiliation of
remains and to record information that will be useful to future researchers
once the remains are no longer available for study. The osteological protocol
in the ROL is based largely on the Standards, but methods of data collection
have evolved in response to new challenges and opportunities presented in
the course of repatriation casework.
The initial evaluation of remains, as in other forensic anthropology labo-
ratories, is to determine whether or not the remains are human. The next
important step is to decide if they are Native American; if so, further work
involves assessing probable tribal identity. In some instances, characteris-
tics of the remains (sometimes including known cause and circumstances of
death) allow us to provisionally identify them as a specific person based on
historic records.
Analysis of remains in the ROL is prioritized in the following manner:
first, remains claimed by lineal descendants; followed by current claims from
tribal groups; then by anticipated claims; and finally, remains from specific
sites or states that may be subject to claims. At present, almost 11,000 catalog
numbers have been analyzed by the ROL, approximately 5,500 have been
offered to tribes for repatriation, and 3,500 have been repatriated.
Because of the high volume of cases in the ROL (approximately 800 cata-
log numbers analyzed annually) and up to eight staff collecting data simul-
taneously, a computerized data entry system was required, the design and
implementation of which has been an important innovation of the ROL. Each
staff member uses a PC to enter data into a network database. The database is
on a file server that is regularly backed up to prevent loss of information. The
vast majority of data is stored as alphanumeric codes or numbers, similar to
those used in the Standards, but entered using text boxes, check boxes, or
radio buttons with text explanations, which makes complicated observations,
such as pathological conditions, much easier to enter (Figure7.1). Addition-
ally, comment fields are available for all data sets, allowing the osteologist
to write further notes and additional observations concerning the remains.
Thus, observations that cannot be coded into a database reside in records
linked to the remains. The comments are typed in, precluding the need for
later deciphering of handwriting. This manner of data collection is a major
improvement over paper forms, which need to be entered into a database
by another (sometimes inexperienced) worker later, and which can involve
a significant time lag. It is also more efficient to find information through
database queries rather than manually searching through paper forms. All
aspects of data collection are tied into this system, including the recording of
photographs and radiographs taken and the compilation of special requests
for these services (Figure7.2). The database is designed to store information
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Figure7.1 Pathology data entry screen.
Figure7.2 Data entry main menu.
2320.indb 122 4/9/08 3:10:36 PM

that will efficiently serve the needs of the office at the present time and for
later research, as the ROL plans to make the data available to other research-
ers in the future.
Each type of data, be it the skeletal inventory, taphonomic changes, or
measurements, can play a decisive role in cultural/biological affiliation and
provides information for museum staff, affiliated groups, and future study.
Inventory
Completing an osteological inventory of each catalog number is the first step

in the documentation process. The information gleaned from the invento-
ries not only serves standard osteological purposes, such as determining
frequencies of pathological conditions, but also confirms the number of
individuals that actually exist in a site or catalog number. When duplicated
elements, differences in skeletal morphology (e.g., rugosity or shape), or dif-
ferences in age within a catalog number are noted, then more than one indi-
vidual is recognized within that catalog number. Such commingled remains
may be due to burial practices (e.g., the use of an ossuary containing second-
ary burials, the burial of more than one primary individual in a pit, or the
presence of intrusive burials), natural disturbance of graves, collection prac-
tices (e.g., researchers collecting only femora and tibiae), collections manage-
ment decisions (e.g., separating all elements of the same type into one catalog
number, rather than assigning a catalog number to an individual burial),
or the accidental mixing of elements during the course of research or cata-
loging. In these cases, the Lab staff separate the remains into discrete indi-
viduals as well as possible, and estimate the number of individuals present.
For example, the ROL recently documented some 300 crania and mandibles
collected in California in the late 19th century. After evaluation, 80 of the
mandibles cataloged with specific crania were found to originate from other
individuals. After considerable effort, some were matched with other crania
from the sites in question, but most could not be reassociated with any of the
crania and were recatalogued as new individuals.
Age and Sex
Age indicators for each individual, such as the extent of dental development
and epiphyseal fusion for subadults and the degree of morphological changes
to the pelvis, cranial suture closure, dental wear, and age-related skeletal
degeneration for adults, are scored using standard osteological techniques
(Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). Similarly, standard observations are made for
sex-related characteristics, such as pelvic morphology and robusticity of the
2320.indb 123 4/9/08 3:10:36 PM

skeleton. An overall assessment of the age range and sex of each individual
is recorded.
This data may be used for such purposes as constructing demographic
profiles of a population or determining frequencies of pathological con-
ditions or types of taphonomic changes by age and/or sex. It may also be
used to generate new standards. For example, one common technique for
aging subadults is the use of long bone lengths; however, the standard was
developed using a relatively tall population from the Plains (Merchant and
Ubelaker 1977) and is not applicable to groups that tend to have an overall
shorter achieved stature at all ages, as is seen in the Southwest and Alaska,
for example. Hollinger et al. (2004a) and Ousley et al. (2005) illustrated the
importance of appropriate samples in their analysis of postcranial remains
of a child recovered from the Birnirk site near Point Barrow, Alaska. Using
the Merchant and Ubelaker (1977) standards, the age was estimated to be
approximately six years. Using comparative dental development and long
bone length data from Eskimo children rather than Plains individuals, they
found the remains to be more consistent with an 11- to 13-year-old. Based
on this assessment, the postcranial remains were able to be reassociated with
one of two adjacent crania from the same pit.
It must also be noted that some native groups have culturally specific
burial practices for individuals of different ages and/or sexes and request that
the remains be separated into these categories before their repatriation.
Measurements
Extensive cranial and postcranial metric data are collected during the docu-
mentation process. For the most part, the ROL follows the protocol for post-
cranial measurements laid out in the Standards (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994),
but also records additional data, such as vertebral and ankle heights, that
can be used for stature estimation (Fully 1956; Lundy 1988). Since 1999, the
authors have used a three-dimensional digitizer for recording cranial land-
marks instead of traditional calipers (Figure7.3), the advantages of which
include increased recording speed; fewer errors; better archiving of the total
morphology; more useful data recorded to aid in assessing cultural affilia-
tion; and reasonable cost (Ousley and McKeown 2001, 2003). The landmark
data can be used to calculate the traditional measurements of Howells (1973)
as well as to calculate subsets of the approximately 5000 interlandmark dis-
tances (ILDs) that can be calculated from the landmarks. Nontraditional
ILDs have proven especially valuable when comparing groups that appear
similar with traditional craniometrics (Ousley and Billeck 2001).
These digitized data are being more frequently employed in the ROL for
assessing the cultural affiliation of individuals and groups as the reference
2320.indb 124 4/9/08 3:10:36 PM

Figure7.3 Digitizer.
samples have grown (Hollinger et al. 2004a; Houck et al. 2001; Mann and
Ousley 2001; Mulhern et al. 2001; Ousley et al. 2000, 2003). A variety of
statistical techniques are used, the most common of which is discriminant
function analysis using SAS (SAS Institute Inc. 2001), SYSTAT (Systat Soft-
ware Inc. 2004), and Fordisc 3 (Jantz and Ousley 2005). Other methods used
to assess affiliation and test group cohesion include nearest neighbor and
kernel probability density classification, and R-Matrix and cluster analysis
(Hollinger et al., in press, 2004a, 2004b; Ousley et al. 2005). In assessing the
cultural affiliation of individuals, comparisons using discriminant function
analysis are made using samples with known affiliation, and cross-validated
error rate estimates and posterior probabilities help address Daubert con-
cerns with validity and reliability (Ousley et al. 2007). Analysts must be sure
to use both the best available samples and most advanced or appropriate sta-
tistical methods, as the lack of either may result in an improper affiliation.
For example, a 1991 Smithsonian analysis of a number of individuals from
the Plains used Giles and Elliots (1962) discriminant functions to assess
ancestry, a system that classifies an unknown individual into one of three
2320.indb 125 4/9/08 3:10:37 PM

groups based on samples from 19th century American Blacks or Whites and
Archaic period American Indians from Indian Knoll, Kentucky. One of the
individuals was classified as White in the earlier analysis; however, a prelimi-
nary reanalysis using more appropriate samples from the Plains indicates
that this individual is more likely a Plains Indian. Obviously, one sample of
American Indians from one area of the country and time period represent
only a small part of American Indian variability and are not appropriate for
all comparisons (Birkby 1966).
In an analysis of remains from the Point Barrow, Alaska region (Hol-
linger et al. 2004a) in which historic period individuals were found to be affil-
iated with the modern inhabitants, prehistoric individuals from the Birnirk
culture (approximately 500 to 1000 a.d.) were found to be quite different
craniometrically from the historic groups. These results suggest population
replacement at Barrow rather than continuity, and the Birnirk individuals
were therefore found to be culturally unaffiliated to the modern population.
In fact, the craniometric results indicated that the descendants of the Birnirk
groups were far more likely to be found in Greenland, and represented part of
the Thule migration (approximately 1100 to 1300 a.d.), a finding that ampli-
fied earlier archaeological and craniometric studies.
While craniometric analysis is most commonly used for affiliation, post-
cranial metrics have also aided the ROL in assessment both when the cra-
nium is missing (Arbolino and Eubanks 2007; Ousley and Berger 2001) and
when the remains are of an unusual size, such as evaluation of the ancestry
of an individual from a tribe known to have especially short stature based
on data collected under Franz Boas in historic times (Hollinger et al. 2004b;
Jantz 1995).
Taphonomy
The description and interpretation of taphonomy, the events or processes that

affect an organism after death, have proven to be some of the greatest challenges
faced by the lab. These changes may be the result of environmental conditions,
such as exposure to the elements, mortuary practices, such as cremation, or
curation-related treatments, such as the application of preservatives.
In the ROL, we are assigned the task of deciphering taphonomic changes
to remains from all over the country, from environments as varied as the
Arctic, the Southwest, and the southeastern United States. In addition to geo-
graphical variation, we must also factor in cultural variation: not only did
the burial practices of tribes often change over time, but the groups inhabit-
ing an area changed as well. Thus, mortuary practices, and their sometimes
diagnostic associated taphonomic changes, may be not only specific to an
area, but also to a particular group during a particular period. The ROL must
2320.indb 126 4/9/08 3:10:37 PM

Figure7.4 Taphonomy data entry screen.
record the taphonomic observations, and, if possible, decipher the postmor-

tem processes that affected the remains. These changes may, in turn, help to
determine cultural affiliation.
First, remains are examined both grossly and, if necessary, under a dis-
secting microscope. All information written on the remains or on paper asso-
ciated with the bones is recorded. Observations are then entered into a data
entry screen (Figure7.4) from the following categories: bone color, which can
range from white to black; staining from associated materials such as copper
or ochre, or from soil and its components; the presence of adherent materials,
such as desiccated tissue, textiles, hair or fur, lichens, pupae or other insect
debris, soil, adipocere, roots, or other materials, such as calcium carbonate
(Figure7.5); cultural modifications, i.e., intentional activities produced after
death, such as cut marks (often seen in cases of secondary burial) or drill-
ing/cutting of the bone (often seen in the production of trophy materials);
other postmortem alterations such as sunbleaching, plant, insect, or animal
damage, warping, burning, or the presence of contact erosion (such as coffin
wear); and curation modifications, unintentional damage related to excava-
tion or maceration, such as scalpel marks or evidence of bleaching, or inten-
tional changes such as attaching hardware for articulation, the application
of preservatives or reconstructive materials, or sample removal. Weathering
stages that record the degradation of bone, usually related to exposure to the
elements, are noted using the system of Behrensmeyer (1978). Evidence of cut
marks and burning are notoriously difficult to describe as different aspects
2320.indb 127 4/9/08 3:10:37 PM

Figure7.5 Cranium encrusted with calcium carbonate, California (NMNH

P242319). (Photo by Jane Beck, SI.)
of bone may be affected to different extents, and specialized data entry pro-
grams are currently being designed for this purpose.
The taphonomic observations are synthesized into a written summary
that records all noted changes, and the osteologist may attempt to associ-
ate them with particular events or burial practices. For example, a combina-
tion of advanced weathering, sunbleaching, and carnivore damage suggests
that the individual was exposed to the elements, either unintentionally or as
part of a normal mortuary procedure. The presence of copper staining would
indicate that the individual lived in a time period and region where copper
was used, suggesting (or ruling out) a particular cultural affiliation. If the
staining is the result of contact with a copper alloy, for example, it would sug-
gest that the remains are historic in origin. The use of an x-ray fluorescence
(XRF) scanner, a nondestructive method of determining the elemental com-
position of materials, aids the office in these determinations.
While some general mortuary practices may be inferred, it must be
noted that while we try to be exhaustive in our descriptions of taphonomy,
we are conservative in our interpretations, and avoid constructing elaborate
scenarios based on little evidence.
Dentition
Documentation of the dentition includes an inventory, scoring of dental wear,

and observations on the presence/absence of dental pathology, including the
size and location of carious lesions and the location and type of abscesses
and hypoplastic/hypocalcification defects. Most of the dental morphological
traits suggested by Scott and Turner (1997) are also scored.
Analysis of this data has the potential to offer insight into cultural affili-
ation as well as nutritional status, diet, and general health. For example,
2320.indb 128 4/9/08 3:10:37 PM

groups may exhibit a similar pattern of high frequencies of abscessing and

antemortem tooth loss resulting from completely different culturally related
etiologies. In one instance, the pattern may be associated with the presence of
caries, an often diet-related bacterial disease that destroys the enamel, lead-
ing to tissue death and tooth loss, while in another it may be related to pulp
pathology resulting from extremely rapid dental wear. Caries-related tooth
loss is often seen in individuals eating a high-carbohydrate, low-abrasion
diet, while wear-related loss is prevalent in areas where the diet is high in grit,
or the teeth are used in paramasticatory behaviors, such as hide processing
with the teeth. Caries rates can differ by time period, geographical region,
gender, and biological affiliation (Larsen et al. 1991). Hyoplastic defects of the
dentition, areas where enamel formation has been disrupted, may result from
episodes of systemic stress in childhood, including malnutrition or infectious
disease (Hillson 1996:177) and may reflect cultural practices, such as periodic
starvation cycles related to the availability of foodstuffs or weaning ages.
Dental modifications, including intentional practices such as restora-
tions, filing, or inlays, are noted in the documentation process, as are unin-
tentional activities such as enamel chipping or changes related to artifact use,
all of which may suggest cultural affiliation. For example, the use of labrets,
or lip plugs, which are often made of abrasive materials, may leave distinc-
tive patterns on teeth, usually in the form of planar wear (Figure7.6). Labrets
were common in Alaska, but showed wide variation in their use, with clear
differences seen between and among regions, groups (i.e., Inupiaq, Yupik,
Aleut, or Athabaskans), sexes, time periods, and placement of the labrets
(unilateral or bilateral) (Jones 1997). This data has been used to assist in the
determination of affiliation: the presence of labret wear on several individu-
als from Barrow indicated that they were probably from the historic period
and were culturally affiliated with a group making a repatriation request
(Hollinger et al. 2004a).
Figure7.6 Labret wear with exposed dentin, St. Michaels Island, Alaska
(NMNH P248577). (Photo by Jane Beck, SI.)
2320.indb 129 4/9/08 3:10:38 PM

Skeletal Pathology
Each individual is carefully examined for evidence of skeletal pathology and

each lesion, or group of lesions, is entered into the database and described
in a comments field. While the general categories and types of lesions fol-
low those in the Standards, the complicated coding procedure is bypassed
by using data entry screens from which text descriptions are selected with
check boxes and radio buttons. New codes can be added as needed, and the
system continues to evolve as the ROL encounters conditions of significance
that cannot be scored in the existing categories (Ousley et al. 2006). While
the data collected tends to be descriptive, such as the appearance, size, and
location of a particular lesion, attempts are made to research and describe
evidence of a specific disease process or syndrome when possible. Certain
pathological conditions may be prevalent in a particular geographical region,
time period, or group, thus leading to potential cultural affiliation. For exam-
ple, the presence of a perimortem gunshot wound clearly dates an individual
to the historic period.
In other cases, we have found that the affiliation may be made more diffi-
cult by the presence of unusual pathological conditions (Mulhern et al. 2001).
For example, the cranium of NMNH P243156 (Figure7.7), excavated in 1882
from the Tillar Mound in Drew County, Arkansas, shows a prematurely fused
sagittal suture and an especially long and narrow cranium with a high and
keeled vault, a condition known as scaphocephaly. The shape of the cranium,
and possibly other features of the facial skeleton, such as prognathism, led
Ale Hrdlika, the Museums physical anthropology curator at the time, to
note on the catalog card that this was the scaphocephalic cranium of a Negro
buried with Indians. A later notation states that it was believed by curator
T.D. Stewart to be a scaphocephalic Indian. Archaeological evidence sug-
gests that the mound was part of the Tillar Complex, dating from ca. 1400
to 1650 a.d. (McKelway 1990), making it unlikely that this individual was
of African ancestry. A discriminant function analysis using 18 cranial mea-
surements and W. W. Howells worldwide male groups and Arkansas Indians
found the cranium to be most similar to South Japan males, but with a typi-
cality probability of only 0.003, the highest typicality probability among all
groups. When typicality probabilities are that low or lower for all groups, the
classification is virtually meaningless. The low typicality probabilities were
due to the absolutely narrow, long, and high cranium, but many breadth vari-
ables were affected. Another analysis with obviously affected measurements
removed resulted in a classification into the male Arkansas Indian sample,
with a typicality probability of 0.231. However, because so many affected
variables were removed, very few of the Howells groups could be excluded
based on typicality probabilities. The preponderance of evidence indicates
2320.indb 130 4/9/08 3:10:38 PM

Figure7.7a Scaphocephaly, anterior view, Tillar Mound, Arkansas (NMNH

Figure7.7b Scaphocephaly, lateral view, Tillar Mound, Arkansas (NMNH

that P243156 is Native American. This case illustrates the importance of the
Daubert standards in that it is often necessary to reevaluate evidence even
when there is a previous expert opinion from a well-qualified anthropologist,
because we do not know what methods he used to form his opinion.
Another case illustrating the effects of pathology on cultural affiliation
involves the remains of an adolescent female (NMNH P381243) (Figure7.8)
excavated from a mound at Quarai, New Mexico, probably dating to a.d.
13751450 (Killion et al. 2002), although there were historic components to
the site, including burials removed from a Spanish mission church. Examina-
tion of the cranium revealed some morphological features inconsistent with
other individuals from the site and with Native American groups in general.
These observations included a flat and shortened midface, absence of a nasal
spine, and apparent prognathism, the latter of which is often seen in indi-
viduals of African ancestry. Review of the clinical literature and comparative
2320.indb 131 4/9/08 3:10:38 PM

Figure7.8a Binder syndrome, anterior view, Quarai site, New Mexico (NMNH
Figure7.8b Binder syndrome, left lateral view, Quarai site, New Mexico
(NMNH P381243). (Photo by Jane Beck, SI.)
craniometric analysis resulted in a diagnosis consistent with Binder syn-

drome, or maxillonasal dysplasia, a developmental defect characterized by
a hypoplastic midface, which had previously been unreported in the paleo-
pathological literature (Mulhern 2002). This diagnosis, and an analysis of
craniometric data unaffected by the syndrome, support the archival and
archaeological evidence suggesting Native American origin, thus avoiding
misidentification of the affiliation of the individual.
Cranial Modification
Some Native American groups show striking modifications in the shape

of their crania due to either intentional or unintentional cultural practices
occurring during infancy. While many studies have attempted to define
2320.indb 132 4/9/08 3:10:38 PM

different types of cranial modification (usually called cranial deformation

in the anthropological literature) (e.g., Allison et al. 1981; Imbelloni 1937;
Neumann 1942), confusing descriptions, ambiguous terminology, proposed
etiologies, and taxonomies (such as parallelo-front-occipital or tabular
oblique) have made these methods difficult to understand and employ. The
ROL emphasizes descriptive rather than strict categorical analysis. Observa-
tions are made, for example, on the apparent center of pressure, the angle of
flattening to the Frankfurt plane, the symmetry of the modification, and the
presence of various depressions and other changes often seen in conjunction
with cranial modification.
While we use descriptive terminology, in some cases we do attempt to
determine the manner in which certain types of modification were accom-
plished. While an intentionally modified cranium, often a sign of status or
group identity, from the United States is indicative of Native American ances-
try in general, some groups employed methods such as strapping boards
to the cranium or wrapping the head with cloth that produced distinctive
results. In many cases the type of modification can be used in assessing cul-
tural affiliation.
In other cases, the modification appears to be related to child-rearing
practices and is not intentional. Cradleboards, in which a child was strapped
for transport in many regions of the country, can cause planar flattening
of the posterior aspect of the cranium. It is also not uncommon to see cra-
nia exhibiting plagiocephaly (meaning oblique head), a pattern which
shows flattening on one side of the occipital and posterior parietal, with
contralateral flattening of the frontal, resulting in sometimes severe asym-
metry (Figure7.9). This is believed to result from the infant preferentially
resting on one side of the cranium when sleeping on its back. Plagiocephaly
Figure7.9 Plagiocephaly, superior view, New Fort Hamilton, Alaska (NMNH

2320.indb 133 4/9/08 3:10:39 PM

has been reported in recent clinical literature, as it is now often seen in mod-
ern children as a result of the back to sleep movement (Turk et al. 1996);
therefore, the presence of this condition should not be used to attribute
Native American affiliation.
Nonmetric Traits
Epigenetic variants of both the skeleton (Hauser and De Stefano 1989) and
dentition (Scott and Turner 1997) are scored, and although these data have
tremendous potential, the ROL has not yet used them to assess cultural affili-
ation. As Ossenberg (1992) has shown, nonmetric data can be quite valuable
in assessing inter-group relationships in large-scale studies, but their value in
classifying closely related groups using more sophisticated statistical meth-
ods needs further exploration. Nonmetric traits may be especially valuable in
assessing the ancestry of culturally deformed crania because the vast major-
ity of the traits have been shown to be unaffected (Konigsberg et al. 1993).
The ROL also collects nonmetric traits as outlined by Hefner (2003), which
have proven valuable in assessing ancestry in traditional forensic cases.
Photographic and Radiographic Documentation
Graphic documentation of the remains is a priority during the examination

protocol (see Bruwelheide et al. 2001, for a review of the process). While it is
standard for most researchers to photograph or x-ray bones or features that
are of special interest, such as unusual pathological conditions, the ROL con-
ducts standardized documentation procedures for all remains. Not only does
this process provide a standard image database for future researchers, it also
supplements the collections management record.
Photography
Seven standard photographs are taken of each cranium: the anterior, left and
right lateral, posterior, superior, and inferior views. If present, an occlusal
view of the mandible is also taken, and the mandible is articulated with the
cranium on the anterior and lateral views. A scale and the catalog number are
included in each shot. Standard shots are not taken of postcranial remains.
In addition to their archival value, photographs have proven valuable in con-
sultations with Native Americans because many can view photographs if
necessary but not the actual remains due to spiritual concerns.
Additional photographs of the crania and shots of the postcrania may
be requested by the osteologists, often when cases of unusual (or exemplary)
2320.indb 134 4/9/08 3:10:39 PM

pathological or taphonomic conditions are encountered. Requests for photo-

graphs are made through the integrated data entry program.
Each subject is shot twice with color film and once with black and white.
Color slides are stored in two separate locations. A stereo microscope is avail-
able for observing macro- and microscopic features on remains. A digital
camera attached to the microscope is used when it seems likely that features
will not be adequately recorded by standard photographic methods.
When necessary, supplementary drawings are made of sites of interest
when it is determined they cannot be clearly documented by photographs,
such as trauma involving radiating fractures or the presence of multiple cut
marks. In these cases, the fracture lines or cut marks will be recorded on a
standard line drawing of the affected bone.
Radiography
Radiographs are also an integral aspect of the documentation process. Three
views of the cranium and mandible are taken: posterioranterior, lateral,
and superiorinferior. Oblique-lateral views are also taken of the dentition
to allow proper scoring of dental development and pathology. Standard shots
are taken of the left (or right, if better preserved) femur, tibia, and humerus
in the posterioranterior position. As with photographs, special radiographs
may be requested by the staff, usually to assist in the evaluation of pathologi-
cal conditions.
Developed radiographs are placed in acid-free, unbuffered envelopes and
stored in metal cabinets.
Destructive Analysis
It is not the policy of the ROL to perform destructive analysis, such as some
dating techniques, isotope analyses, or DNA testing, on human remains.
However, it is becoming increasingly more common for tribal groups to
express an interest in these methods, especially in DNA testing, which could
prove especially useful when intertribal claims are being disputed.
Additional Resources
Resources are available within the Smithsonian as a whole that offer invalu-
able assistance to the documentation process. The museum has a CT-scan-
ner, a scanning-electron microscope (SEM), and other specialized equipment
within its laboratories. In addition, some of the worlds most experienced
physical anthropologists, archaeologists, botanists, entomologists, and faunal
2320.indb 135 4/9/08 3:10:39 PM

experts work in the museum and are often willing to assist with analysis.
Historic links to the laboratories of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (Gris-
baum and Ubelaker 2000) facilitate collaboration with this agency (Houck
et al. 2001). For example, on several occasions experts at the FBI have deter-
mined whether or not hair samples were human.
The following case studies provide examples of the value of conducting
biological assessments of human remains subject to repatriation as well as
the complexities of assessing cultural affiliation. Additional case studies are
to be found in Ousley et al. (2005).
Case Studies
The Sioux Giant

In some cases, information given by the collector and noted in museum
records may be found to be inaccurate, or at least suspect, following osteolog-
ical analysis (Ousley et al. 2000). Based on catalog records, P227508 (AMM
2136), the nearly complete skeleton of a male, represented a full-blood
Giant Sioux who died in Indiana in 1878 and was said to have been eight
feet tall (Figure7.10).
Osteological examination suggested that the individual was a male
between 30 and 40 years of age. Visual inspection of the skull revealed fea-
tures usually not associated with Native Americans, such as a relatively nar-
row bizygomatic breadth, cranium, nasal aperture, and interorbital distance;
gracile and receding zygomatics; and a narrow and deep V-shaped palate
Figure7.10 Catalog card for NMNH P227508.
2320.indb 136 4/9/08 3:10:39 PM

Figure7.11a Sioux Giant, anterior view (NMNH P227508). (Photo by Jane

Beck, SI.)
Figure7.11b Sioux Giant, lateral view (NMNH P227508). (Photo by Jane

Beck, SI.)
(Figure7.11). The extent of dental occlusal wear was comparatively less than
that seen in a sample of Plains Indians from the same time period, indicating
that he was not eating a traditional Plains diet. Overall, these characteris-
tics were more representative of an individual of European rather than Sioux
ancestry.
Discriminant function analyses using measurements and calculated
shape variables from 19th-century Whites and Plains Indians were per-
formed. The cranium was classified as White in both cases with a posterior
probability greater than 0.98. Based on metric analysis, it is likely that the
remains originated from an individual of predominately European ancestry.
Because the analysis indicated non-Native American ancestry, it was pos-
sible that the museum records were incorrect, and the remains may have been
misnumbered or had been otherwise wrongly identified. Visual examination
revealed that the individual was extremely robust; the femoral head diameter,
2320.indb 137 4/9/08 3:10:40 PM

for example, was 61 mm. Although some ends of the long bones were dam-
aged, estimation of the stature using the Fully (1956) method, in which the
measurements of all bones contributing to height are used, suggested he was
around 194 cm (6 ft. 4 in.) tall. Further examination of the skeleton showed
additional features, such as an unusually enlarged mandible and secondary
growth on the rib ends and terminal phalanges consistent with a tentative
diagnosis of acromegaly (Ortner 2003:423). While not precisely a giant, he
was probably perceived as being very large when alive.
While the physical examination suggested that the remains originated
from the individual described in the museum records, evidence of incorrect
designation of ancestry called for further investigation into the acquisition.
Accession records revealed that the skeleton had been disinterred and sold
to the AMM in 1882 by a local physician who claimed that it was that of
a gigantic Indian who had been exhibited through this region about four
years ago. Further research uncovered a news item from a Madison news-
paper (Evening Courier, July 5, 1882) reporting that the remains of an Indian
known as Joseph or Injun Joe, who was over seven feet tall and had repre-
sented himself as an Indian doctor and chief, had been sent to Washington.
This information suggests that he was exhibited at some point, possibly as
part of a traveling show. As noted by Bogdan (1988:112), in such shows it was
not unusual for a person with an anomaly to be cast in an exotic role, such as
a warrior from a different civilization, and presented accordingly. Dressed in
full American Indian regalia, he would probably have been an impressive
sight. However, laboratory analysis shows that he was probably not what he
was presented to be. Based on these findings, the remains will not be offered
to a Native American group.
The Nez Perce Warrior

The following case illustrates how historic and osteological, especially
taphonomic, evidence can be used to attempt to identify a potentially
known individual.
The cranium and mandible of an adult male (NMNH P243672; AMM
2138) were sent to the AMM in 1882 by an Army surgeon stationed in Fort
Ellis, Montana Territory, with a letter of transmittal noting that: The owner
of it when living was a Medicine Man, a Nez Perce Indian killed in General
Gibbons battle at Big Hole, MT in 1877. A report on Nez Perce remains
generated by the Repatriation Office in 1996 suggested the possibility this
skull might represent the remains of one of the Nez Perce known to have
been unburied after the battle, but concluded that there was insufficient sup-
porting evidence to make a determination (Molloy et al. 1996). Based on this
2320.indb 138 4/9/08 3:10:40 PM

report, a lineal descendent of Pahkatos Owyeen (Five Wounds), one of the

individuals named in the report, requested repatriation of the remains. Since
there is a large amount of historical material relating to the Battle of the Big
Hole, the RO decided to further investigate the claim (Arbolino 2003).
Examination of the remains suggested that they originated from a male
between 45 and 55 years of age. Some desiccated soft tissue, fine cutmarks,
likely originating from a scalpel used to clean the remains, rodent gnaw-
ing, and postmortem fractures were present. No adherent soil was noted, nor
was there evidence of weathering or sun bleaching, although one side of the
cranium was slightly lighter, suggesting possible short-term exposure to the
elements. In summary, the taphonomic evidence suggests that the individual
had been exposed to the elements briefly and collected before decomposi-
tion was complete. The lack of soil may be the result of nonburial, burial in
a wrapping, or cleaning of the remains at the museum, but the presence of
desiccated tissue and evidence of defleshing argues that he was not interred
for a significant length of time. The individual showed evidence of healed
fractures to the right nasal area, left zygomatic arch, and cranial vault.
Historic accounts of the Battle of the Big Hole report a U.S. Army attack
on a Nez Perce encampment on August 9, 1877, resulting in a conflict that
left between 40 and 100 Nez Perce and 29 U.S. Army soldiers dead. Reports
emphasize the haphazard and hasty nature of the burials after the battle, not-
ing that while some occurred shortly after death, others were interred several
days later, if at all. Several known individuals, including Pahkatos Owyeen,
were reported to have been left unburied, although it is clear from accounts
that other, unknown Nez Perce were also left exposed. A U.S. Army party
visiting the site one month after the battle noted that Nez Perce remains were
still visible; it seems likely that the skull was collected at this time. Bannock
scouts accompanying this deployment were reported to have disinterred and
mutilated the remains of many of the buried Nez Perce, thus exposing many
of the previously buried individuals and further expanding the list of poten-
tial candidates for the identity of this skull. The RO performed an extensive
search of historical records to identify names, ages, and locations of death
and burial of the Nez Perce men who died at this battle, and narrowed the list
to 15 to 30 males over 45 years of age, seven of whom were of known identity.
It was not possible to definitively match the skull held at the SI with any of
these individuals. However, it is likely that it is not that of Pahkatos Owyeen,
as his family reported him to be a significantly younger man. Based on these
findings, the remains were not offered to the lineal descendent of Pahkatos
Owyeen, but instead were offered jointly to the two tribes whose ancestors
were engaged in this battle of the Nez Perce War.
2320.indb 139 4/9/08 3:10:40 PM

Curly Head Jack

In another case, archival records, historical reports, and osteological evi-
dence were able to establish the probable identity of a set of remains held at
the museum (Arbolino and Eubanks 2007).
The cranium, mandible, and postcrania of a male were sent to the AMM
from California in 1873 by Army Surgeon Edwin Bentley. His July 15 letter
reports that they were the
[b]ones of Curly Head Jack who killed himself on Sunday June 8 while in
Camp at Lost River, a prisoner with the Modoc Indians on route from the pen-
insula on the Tule Lake to Fort Klamath While at Lost River he appeared
chagrined and melancholy said his heart was dead and after exhorting his
Indian comrades to follow his example and die like men on the reservation
which they fought to defend and what he had rather die on than leave he
discharged a Colts revolverthrough his head and soon after died. This is
believed to be the only complete Modoc skeleton which has been preserved; it
is forwarded in its present crude condition under the impression that it would
be more desirable to be prepared at the Museum. (Army Medical Museum
records: Section 1, 6287)
Riddle (1914) noted that Jack was buried almost immediately after death
at the camp.
The postcranial skeleton was sent to the NMNH in 1898, where it was cat-
alogued under the number P225299; the skull, with its gunshot wound, was
apparently retained by the AMM. Since these remains potentially represent
a known individual, the RO made it a priority to corroborate the museum
records identifying them as those of Curly Head Jack and attempt to locate
lineal descendents to offer the remains for repatriation.
Osteological examination revealed the nearly complete postcranial skel-
eton of a male between 18 and 22 years of age. The bones are extremely well-
preserved and costal cartilage is present. No evidence of adherent soil or soil
staining was noted. Fine cutmarks are present on several bones, suggesting
the some soft tissue was removed for museum preparation. The complete-
ness, preservation, lack of evidence for long-term burial, and presence of
probable scalpel marks related to defleshing suggest the body was recovered
before decomposition was advanced. Statistical analyses using postcranial
measurements from historic American Whites, Blacks, and American Indi-
ans classify these remains as most likely originating from an Indian. The
remains are consistent with those of Curly Head Jack.
Historic documents relating to Bentley show that he was in charge of the
field hospital at the prison camp where Jack had been held, and would have
had access to his burial place in the two weeks following his death. The noto-
riety of Jack (he had been involved in the shooting of an Army officer), the
2320.indb 140 4/9/08 3:10:40 PM

presence of Bentley at the prison camp, his likely knowledge of Jacks burial
place, and his letter written to accompany the remains dated a month after
Jacks death suggest his identification was correct and that he did retrieve
and send the remains to the AMM. Bentley described Jack as about 35 years
old, but Riddle (1914) described Jack as a young man and a photograph of
a youthful-appearing Jack as a prisoner shortly before his death suggests that
he was probably younger than Bentleys estimate.
The preponderance of the evidence, including museum and historical
records and osteological assessment of age, sex, ancestry, and taphonomy
indicates that these remains are those of Curly Head Jack. Because no lineal
descendents were found, his remains were offered jointly to the two tribes
descended from the 19th century Modoc.
A Hawikku Priest?
Remains from the Puebloan site of Hawikku, New Mexico (ca. 1300 to 1680
a.d.) represent a case in which at least one individual present in a site does
not show affiliation with others from the group, showing the need for careful
analysis of each catalog number.
European contact with the pueblo of Hawikku was initiated by the Span-
ish in 1539, an inauspicious event that culminated in the death and dismem-
berment of their scout. Despite continued hostilities, a small mission and
church were established in 1629, destroyed in 1632, and rebuilt on a larger
scale later in the century (possibly between 1642 and 1672), with final destruc-
tion and abandonment of the site occurring in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
The excavation of the site by HendricksHodge Expedition between 1917 and
1923 included the removal of about 1000 burials, about 280 of which were
transferred to the Smithsonian and represent the temporal and geographical
span of the site.
Approximately 40 burials were excavated from the floor of the church, all
but one of which were located in the nave, the main body of the church (Smith
et al. 1966). The bodies were oriented with the heads facing northeast and the
feet facing the altar. The exception to this was Burial 35 (NMNH P314297),
interred in an adobe-lined grave facing the opposite direction, with the head
towards and touching the original altar, suggesting the burial was contempo-
raneous with the first phase of building and likely dates from the earliest Euro-
pean occupation (Nusbaum in Smith et al. 1966:201). The isolated location of
this burial and its placement in the most sacred area of the church suggests
that this was an individual of religious and/or political importance.
Examination of the remains revealed the nearly complete skeleton of a
gracile male, likely between 30 and 45 years of age. Morphological features of
the cranium suggest European rather than Native American ancestry (Fig-
ure7.12), confirmed by a craniometric analysis, which when using reference
2320.indb 141 4/9/08 3:10:41 PM

Figure7.12a European from Hawikku, anterior view (NMNH P314297). (Photo

by Jane Beck, SI.)
Figure7.12b European from Hawikku, lateral view (NMNH P314297). (Photo

by Jane Beck, SI.)
samples of 19th century American Whites and nondeformed Pueblo samples,

classified him as an American White with a posterior probability of 0.90. A
note found with the remains, written by Ale Hrdlika, the physical anthro-
pology curator at the Smithsonian at that time, reads: Not f-b [full-blooded]
Indian/White/(partly or wholly).
The individual shows evidence of probable rickets, evidenced by bowing
of most of the long bones, and marked scoliosis (Figure7.13), with associated
asymmetry of the ribs, clavicles, and manubrium. A stature estimate using
the method of Fully (1956) suggests a height of around 160 cm (5 ft. 3 in.),
although the curvature of the spine would likely have reduced this by about
5 to 10 cm.
Nusbaum (Smith et al. 1966:202) suggests these might be the remains
of one of two priests killed by the Zuni in a 1632 revolt. According to
Hodge (1937:92) Fray Fransciso Letrado was killed at the mission after
2320.indb 142 4/9/08 3:10:41 PM

Figure7.13 Scoliosis (NMNH P314297). (Photo by Jane Beck, SI.)
remonstrating with idolators, apparently being shot dead with arrows and
scalped, although other accounts state that his head was crushed with war
clubs (Hodge 1937:124, footnote 197). Fray Martn de Arvide, described as
being a little friar, who was very short, visited Letrado shortly before his
death, predicted the martyrdom of them both, and was killed on the road
five days after Letrado. Hodge (1937:93) notes that his right hand was cut
off and his scalp removed while he was still alive. Either or both bodies may
have been recovered by soldiers sent a few weeks later to avenge the killing
of Letrado, although the appearance of the remains in situ suggests the body
was relatively well preserved at the time of burial.
While the skeletal remains show no evidence of trauma, it must be remem-
bered that it was not unusual for the Church to exaggerate the extent of vio-
lence inflicted on martyrs, and that the priests may actually have been killed
in ways that did not leave marks on the skeleton. In any case, it seems likely
that the individual in question was of European ancestry, relatively powerful
within the Church, and was buried before extensive renovations were made
to the mission. It is tempting to identify the individual as Letrado, who died
at the site at the correct time, or Arvide, who was reported to be very short,
but his identity may never be known. It is clear, however, that he represents a
person of non-Native ancestry originating from a group that was in conflict
with the Native population for most of their occupation, thus demonstrating
a lack of cultural affiliation with the Native residents of Hawikku.
Conclusion
In addition to fulfilling the mandate of the NMAI Act for the Smithsonians
collections and meeting the Smithsonians goal of the increase and diffusion
of knowledge, data collected in the ROL will play an important part in foren-
sic anthropology and repatriation issues. Skeletal remains will continue to be
2320.indb 143 4/9/08 3:10:41 PM

found or confiscated by law enforcement personnel, excavated by archaeolo-

gists and looters, bought and traded by collectors, and discovered in muse-
ums and attics. The ROLs data on historically established tribal groups will
continue to be used to help determine the origin of unknown remains and
assist with their proper disposition.
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2320.indb 148 4/9/08 3:10:42 PM
History and Collections
of the Division of
Physical Anthropology,
National Museum
8
of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution
David R. Hunt
Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................... 149
Ale Hrdlika..............................................................................................151
T. Dale Stewart........................................................................................... 153
J. Lawrence Angel...................................................................................... 155
Douglas H. Ubelaker................................................................................. 157
Douglas W. Owsley................................................................................... 158
David R. Hunt............................................................................................ 159
Bruno Frohlich........................................................................................... 160
Forensic Application of Skeletal Biology by the Smithsonian.......................161
Division Research and Activities...................................................................... 163
Physical Anthropology Division Collections.................................................. 164
Access Guidelines.......................................................................................174
Equipment and Facilities...........................................................................176
Photography................................................................................................176
Radiography................................................................................................176
Destructive Sampling................................................................................ 177
Accommodations....................................................................................... 178
Acknowledgments............................................................................................... 178
References............................................................................................................. 178
Introduction
The Smithsonian Institution has been a central location for skeletal biologi-
cal research for nearly a century. The 30,000-plus cataloged remains housed
in the collections within the Division of Physical Anthropology have been
149
2320.indb 149 4/9/08 3:10:42 PM

150 David R. Hunt
the foundation for morphological and metrical studies of the skeleton from
which many of the standards for the estimations of sex, age, ancestry, dis-
ease, and trauma have derived. The breadth of the comparative collections
has provided for thousands of research studies by professionals, as well as
students in the fields of human variation, skeletal biology, anthropomor-
phics, anthropometrics, osteology, paleopathology, dentistry, and ortho-
pedic medicine. And with the National Museum of Natural Historys close
proximity to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Department of Justice,
the staff of the Division of Physical Anthropology have been integral in the
formulation, development, and recognition that physical anthropologists can
provide valuable contributions to forensic investigation of human remains.
With the establishment of the Division of Physical Anthropology in
1904, skeletal remains from archeological excavations by the Bureau of
American Ethnology and anatomical collections transferred from the Army
Medical Museum became the foundation of one of the premier human com-
parative skeletal collections in the world. During the first half of the 20th
century, the collections were augmented by the efforts of Ale Hrdlika
though archeological excavations and trading of collections from around
the world. Subsequently, archeological investigations during the mid- to later
20th century by the auspices of the Works Projects Administration, Civilian
Conservation Corps, River Basin Survey, National Geographic Society, and
various federal agencies greatly contributed to the size and diversity of the
collections.
Thompson (1982) identifies three major eras in the development of
forensic anthropology in the United States. The pre-1939 medical phase is
highlighted by the involvement of physical anthropology within the medical
sciences arena, focusing in aspects of skeletal variation and morphological
changes/differences. The second period is marked by the publication of A
Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material by Krogman (1939),
which marks the awareness by the forensic community that physical anthro-
pology was a significant contributor in the identification and individua-
tion of human skeletal remains. The growth during this period includes the
expansion and training of anthropologists in skeletal biological techniques
for personal identification. The third phase is benchmarked by the inception
of the Physical Anthropology section of the American Academy of Foren-
sic Sciences. With this recognition of physical anthropology as a viable par-
ticipant in medicolegal investigations, the science expanded with vigor, and
increased physical anthropology involvement in forensic casework ensued.
As such, the research requirements that sprang from the demand for skeletal
analyses produced numerous forensic anthropology articles in the Journal of
Forensic Sciences and the American Journal of Physical Anthropology.
At the Smithsonian Institution, a similar developmental progression
is seen. However, the benchmark dates are slightly different than those
2320.indb 150 4/9/08 3:10:43 PM

History and Collections of the Division of Physical Anthropology 151
described by Thompson, and they generally correlate with the changes in

staff and their responsibilities in the Division of Physical Anthropology. The
history below follows this formative, developmental, and expanding pro-
gression by highlighting the people, dates, and activities which hallmark the
progress of forensic anthropology in the Division of Physical Anthropology,
and how they coincide with social, legal, and federal needs for forensic con-
sulting services.
Ale Hrdlika
Ale Hrdlika was hired as the Smithsonians first physical anthropologist
in 1903 and is seen as one of the most prominent figures in the development
of physical anthropology in the United States (Spencer 1997) (Figure8.1).
He was the founder of the American Journal of Physical Anthropology and
the driving force for the formation of the American Association of Physical
Anthropologists in 1930. However, he is not usually identified as one of the
pioneers of forensic anthropology. In Stewarts (1940) biography of Hrdlika,
he does not identify Hrdlika as having any involvement in the medicolegal
aspects of physical anthropology. His omission may be because of the nar-
row interpretation of forensic anthropology at that time. For example, when
Figure8.1 Ale Hrdlika.
2320.indb 151 4/9/08 3:10:43 PM

152 David R. Hunt
Snow (1973) described forensic anthropology, it was strictly the application

of physical anthropology to problems of medical jurisprudence. However,
evidence of Hrdlikas involvement in medicolegal investigations is reflected
in his Anthropometric Identifications section from his 1939 edition of
Practical Anthropometry. Therein, Hrdlika presents the use of skeletal mor-
phology and the application of anthropometric measurements for the iden-
tification of individuals in legal and medical situations. He also describes
forensic methods of differentiating human and nonhuman remains, and cov-
ers fingerprinting, serological, and anthropometric methods in family studies
(Hrdlika 1939). It is interesting that this section of Practical Anthropometry
is not recognized by Thompson (1982) as a benchmark in the progression of
forensic anthropology in the same way as Krogmans 1939 article, A Guide
to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material.
Before arriving at the Smithsonian Institution, Hrdlika had worked at
the Middletown State Homeopathic Hospital for the Insane in New York, the
New York Pathological Institute, and the American Museum of Natural His-
tory doing research in abnormal behavior and anthropometry. Hrdlika was
involved in medicolegal investigations during his tenure at the Pathological
Institute by performing and reporting autopsies on the criminally insane.
He also provided testimony on questions concerning the insane and behav-
ior abnormalities, and published on the medicolegal aspects of a case con-
cerning the mental state of Maria Barbella, an epileptic accused of murder
(Hrdlika 1897; Ubelaker 1999b).
The earliest records for medicolegal involvement identified in Hrdlikas
papers, which are curated at the National Anthropological Archives (NAA),
indicate that while on a trip to South America, the Governor of the valley of
Rio Negro, Argentina, asked Hrdlika to evaluate a skull assumed to be from
a missing local rancher. On that same trip, Hrdlika examined, with Max
Uhle (then Director of the Museo Nacional of Peru), the purported skeleton
of the explorer Pizarro. Their determination was that the skeleton was not
consistent with the expected age at death of Pizarro (Ubelaker 1999b).
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) records indicate that Hrdlikas
involvement in forensic investigation began in 1932 with a skull from Phoe-
nix, Arizona. In this particular case, Hrdlika used photographic super-
imposition, thereby documenting earliest use of the technique (Ubelaker
1999b). From 1936 to 1943 there are no fewer than 14 letters of correspon-
dence between Hrdlika and the FBI which document his consultations. It
is worth mentioning that the relationship between the FBI and the SI closely
coincides with FBIs reorganization from the Division of Investigation in the
Department of Justice. From records of the SI Office of the Secretary and the
FBI, it appears that there were at least 37 official communications concerning
Hrdlikas involvement with identification matters (Ubelaker 2000). His ser-
vice to the FBI was personally acknowledged by J. Edgar Hoover in a letter to
2320.indb 152 4/9/08 3:10:43 PM

Hrdlikas widow, dated 8 September 1943, stating that, He will always be

remembered for his outstanding contributions to the science of crime detec-
tion and for his gracious and spirited willingness to help us at every turn
(cited in Ubelaker 1999).
T. Dale Stewart
T. Dale Stewart was hired as a permanent employee in the Division of Physi-
cal Anthropology in 1927 (Figure8.2). Hrdlika promised that upon his
retirement, Stewart would be given the head curator position. This advance-
ment occurred in 1942 when, due to illness, Hrdlika retired. With this pro-
motion, Stewart also inherited the role of physical anthropology consultant
to the FBI. Stewart stated that he was not aware of Hrdlikas involvement
with the FBI until after Hrdlikas retirement, most likely because Hrdlika
considered these cases too confidential to be discussedeven with close col-
leagues. However, there is a recording documenting that the FBI delivered a
case to Stewart in 1937 to be passed on to Hrdlika, as well as a case in 1938
where Stewart was contacted to analyze cremated remains for the FBI (Ube-
laker 2000).
Figure8.2 T. Dale Stewart (foreground) and Doug Ubelaker (background) at a

site in Maryland in the early 1970s.
2320.indb 153 4/9/08 3:10:43 PM

154 David R. Hunt
As sole consultant for the FBI, Stewart reported on no fewer than 169
cases between the years of 1943 to 1969. Additionally, he consulted on approx-
imately 85 forensic cases for other law enforcement agencies (Ubelaker 2000).
Stewart was distinctly aware of the responsibility that anthropologists accept
when becoming involved in a legal investigation. In his publication Essentials
of Forensic Anthropology (1979), he states that the role of the physical anthro-
pologist must be one of objectivity and accuracy. In his own reports, Stewart
was always concise and nonspeculative in his findings and summarization
(Ubelaker 2000).
When Stewart was not available, records indicate that Marshall T. New-
man (who was employed by the division from 19411942 and 19461962) was
a consultant for some identification cases. Newmans most active period was
while Stewart was the Department of Anthropology chair during 19611962.
Newman left the Smithsonian in 1962 to pursue a career in teaching and was
involved with human skeletal identification during his tenure at Beloit Col-
lege in Wisconsin and Indiana University.
In 1948, Stewart was requested by the Quartermasters Corps to assist
in identification of soldiers from World War II. It was apparent to Stewart
that the standards for making assessments for personal identification of
these soldiers was based on population groups of previous generations
which comprised older individuals, and that the methods used by the
military did not have a high degree of scientific rigor. In an editorial in
Science (1953), Stewart identified the need for physical anthropological
research (which the military should provide) to revise and improve the
accuracy in the determination of sex, age, and ancestry from the skel-
eton by analysis of identified remains of the war dead. In 1954, the Army
sponsored such a research project and studied 375 positively identified
skeletons at Kokura, Japan. The results from this study were reported
with Thomas McKern in the landmark publication, Skeletal Changes in
Young Americans (1957).
During the Vietnam conflict, the military requested the assistance of
Stewart to improve the Armys identification methods. In 1968, Stewart orga-
nized a second study into the problems of skeletal identification by involving
a group of prominent physical anthropologists (J. Lawrence Angel, Eugene
Giles, William Greulich, William Howells, Ellis Kerley, Thomas McKern,
Gentry Steele, and Mildred Trotter). Their work culminated in the edited
volume, Personal Identification in Mass Disasters (1970), and is still an essen-
tial handbook for forensic anthropologists. It is inevitable that during the
meeting of these prominent figures, Stewart, at the Department of Anthro-
pology, and William Bass, an employee of the division at that time, were
influenced by these fellow researchers and publication activities. Bass went
on to hold teaching positions at University of Nebraska, University of Kansas,
2320.indb 154 4/9/08 3:10:44 PM

and University of Tennessee, where he taught, guided, and matriculated a

majority of the physical anthropologists who identify themselves as forensic
anthropologists today (Ubelaker and Hunt 1995).
J. Lawrence Angel
In 1962, Stewart was selected to be the Director of the National Museum of
Natural History, a position he held until 1965. An additional curator was
necessary in the Division of Physical Anthropology, and J. Lawrence Angel
was hired in 1962 (Figure8.3). Angel had been active in a career of teaching,
holding positions at Berkeley, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, and Jef-
ferson Medical College, Philadelphia (Ubelaker 1990). Although Angel had
not previously worked as a forensic anthropologist, he was intimately familiar
with pathology and autopsy from his anatomical teaching at Jefferson Medi-
cal College and quickly adapted to the role Stewart gave him. Angel excelled
as a forensic anthropologist to the point of being called Sherlock Bones by
the popular press, and he was featured in The Washington Post, People Maga-
zine, Science Digest, and Smithsonian Magazine (Ubelaker 1989). Angel was
involved in no fewer than 565 cases and of his over 200 publications, approxi-
mately 17% were focused on forensic anthropology topics (Ubelaker 1990).
Figure8.3 Lucile St. Hoyme (left), Larry Angel (center), and T. Dale Stewart
(right) holding the worlds longest beard of Hans Langseth. This photo was taken
on the day of the donation of the beard to the Department of Anthropology,
August 21, 1967. (This photo was on the front page of the Washington Post.)
2320.indb 155 4/9/08 3:10:44 PM

156 David R. Hunt
Figure8.4 Donald Ortner in the 1980s. (Photo taken by Bruno Frolich.)
Despite his notoriety, Angel described his forensic anthropology work as

consultant worknot as research or fieldwork. He clearly saw his forensic
work as a public service. But Angel was cognizant of the research potential of
his work as well. He considered the work a way to obtain a better understand-
ing of contemporary population variation (see Angel 1976; Kelley and Angel
1987) since his primary skeletal biological research was founded in Middle
Eastern and Mediterranean archeological cultures. Angel also felt the need
to provide education concerning forensic anthropology. Each year, from
the 1970s though the 1980s, Angel taught a course on the techniques and
application of skeletal biology in forensic anthropology primarily targeted to
pathologists, but it also included anthropologists and law enforcement per-
sonnel. When he stopped teaching the year before his death, Angel estimated
that over 50% of the medical examiners in the United States had taken his
course (Ubelaker 1990).
Angel was always excited to do forensic cases and enjoyed involving oth-
ers in the work. Donald Ortner was hired as Angels assistant in 1962 and
was constantly involved in the forensic casework. In 1969, Ortner continued
his graduate education at the University of Kansas in bone biology, histology,
and paleopathology (Figure8.4). Ortner returned to a curatorial position in
1971. In his professional career he has pursued these areas of research, rather
than forensic anthropology, publishing over 200 articles including two of the
seminal references for human paleopathology (see Ortner and Putschar 1985;
Ortner 2003).
Lucile St. Hoyme was also an active participant in some of Angels foren-
sic cases. Her experience as collections assistant under Hrdlika and Stewart
(19391964) and as assistant curator (19641984) provided her with a broad
knowledge of the divisions skeletal collections. St. Hoyme had also been
2320.indb 156 4/9/08 3:10:44 PM

trained in radiographic techniques. These talents were requisite for her par-
ticipation in some of Angels cases (Hunt et al. 2006). During her tenure, St.
Hoyme was involved in a variety of research projects; her contributions were
mostly concerned with skeletal morphological differences, but one article in
particular (St. Hoyme and can 1989) is still an excellent reference and cau-
tionary article for skeletal biologists and forensic anthropologists.
Angel stepped down from his role as primary consultant to the FBI in
1977, when he chose to take a research sabbatical, and the forensic case-
work became the responsibility of Douglas Ubelaker. On Angels return to
the division, he decided to no longer carry the FBI caseload, but continued
his involvement with regional law enforcement agencies. Angel continued
his work and his yearly teaching of Anthropology of the Skeleton for the
Department of Anthropology at the George Washington University until,
due to complications from surgery, he died in 1986, leaving an unmistakable
void in the Division of Physical Anthropology and the anthropological com-
munity as a whole.
Douglas H. Ubelaker
Douglas Ubelaker was hired into the Division of Physical Anthropology in
1971, after receiving his PhD from the University of Kansas under the direc-
tion of William Bass. Initially, his primary research interests were in bone
histomorphology and skeletal biology in archeological populations, particu-
larly those from South America. Ubelaker considers Stewart to be the guiding
force in his professional development and he became interested, through
Stewart, in the applications of skeletal biology to forensic investigation.
Ubelaker still is the exclusive contact for FBI cases for the division and
has been involved in more than 750 cases through that agency alone. Upon
the death of Angel, Ubelaker took over the non-FBI cases, as well. He has
extensively published in skeletal biology research, the methods of skeletal
analysis (e.g., Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), and applied methods of skele-
tal biology to forensic investigations. He is noted as publishing one of the
most widely used references in human skeletal investigation, Human Skeletal
Remains (1978, 1999a). Ubelaker also provides training for future physical
anthropologists by teaching courses at George Washington University.
In an assessment of the FBI cases with which the Smithsonian has been
involved between 1962 and 1994, Ubelaker discusses the fluctuations in the
numbers of cases, especially between 1970 and the 1990s (Grisbaum and
Ubelaker 2001). His observations showed an increase in case activity in the
1970s, which he associates with the inclusion of Physical Anthropology as
a section in the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the increased
awareness of medical examiner and law enforcement agencies to include
anthropology in the forensic investigation. There was a noticeable decrease
2320.indb 157 4/9/08 3:10:44 PM

158 David R. Hunt
in cases coming from the FBI in the 1980s, which Ubelaker attributes to the
growing number of forensic anthropologists in the United States who were
consulted within their own region, rather than the FBI and the Smithso-
nian being the clearinghouse for forensic investigations involving skeletal
remains. In the early 1990s, the numbers of cases again increased. Ubelaker
interprets this increase as a reflection of greater media attention in criminal
investigation and identification of human remains, television programs with
the same focus, and the changes in financial resources, and crime activities
at the regional level, leading to the need for federal involvement (Grisbaum
and Ubelaker 2001).
Douglas W. Owsley
In 1985, a new physical anthropology curator position was created. This posi-
tion was filled in 1987 by Douglas Owsley, who left a teaching position at Lou-
isiana State University. Owsley had been trained in forensic anthropological
methodology by William Bass during his graduate career at the University
of Tennessee and had been a practicing forensic anthropologist in Louisiana
and the adjoining southern states, as well as teaching forensic anthropol-
ogy courses. Owsley was interested in pursuing his own forensic anthropol-
ogy caseload, and since Ubelaker had been working with the FBI for over a
decade by this point, the non-FBI caseload became Owsleys responsibility.
Owsley has been diligent in reporting the results of his investigations as well
as his other ongoing skeletal biological research at meetings of the American
Association of Physical Anthropologists, the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences, and in numerous publications in the journals of these professional
organizations (Figure8.5).
When Owsley took the position in the division, he hired Robert W.
Mann as his assistant. Mann had finished training at the University of Ten-
nessee and had been the assistant to William Bass. This assistantship directly
involved Mann in most of Basss forensic cases and in the management of the
Decay Rate Facility, the research facility for the systematic study of human
decomposition in diverse situations. Manns supportive role with Owsley was
significant. However, in 1992 Mann took a position at the Central Identifi-
cation Laboratory, Hawaii (CIL-HI). Since that time he has progressed to
Deputy Scientific Director at that facility. As a matter of note, the CIL-HI is
the consequence of the relationship established by T. Dale Stewart with the
Army for the identifications which led to the improvement of methods for
identification of servicemen. (Chapter 4 discusses this is greater detail.)
When Mann left, Karin (Sandness) Bruwelheide was hired to assist Ows-
ley. Bruwelheide (who received her training under Karl Reinhard at Univer-
sity of Nebraska) is indispensable in her role as Owsleys laboratory manager
and research assistant. Her osteological and skeletal analysis skills are
2320.indb 158 4/9/08 3:10:45 PM

Figure8.5 Doug Owsley digging at a colonial period archaeological site in

Maryland. (Photo taken by Chip Clark.)
superb, and recording and reporting exacting. She collaborates with Ows-
ley on forensic cases, investigations of mass graves in Croatia, and historic
identification cases, such as the members of the Civil War submarine, The
Hunley, and Jamestown settlers.
David R. Hunt
In late 1989, David Hunt was hired as Collections Manager of Physical Anthro-
pology. His training was in human variation and skeletal biology, under the
direction of Richard Jantz at the University of Tennessee. He also received
instruction in forensic anthropology from William Bass, working directly
with Bass on forensic cases, as well as assisting in research at the Decay Rate
Facility. (Chapter 2 discusses the Decay Rate Facility in greater detail.) Hunts
early involvement in forensic cases at the SI was through invitation by Doug-
las Ubelaker to participate in some of his FBI cases, and provide assistance
with some of the caseload of Owsley and Mann. As time passed, Hunt became
increasingly involved in natural and mass disaster assistance and was an early
2320.indb 159 4/9/08 3:10:45 PM

160 David R. Hunt
Figure8.6 David Hunt (right) and Doug Owsley in Cadiz, Spain. (Photo taken
by Chip Clark.)
participant in the formation of the Disaster Mortuary Operational Response

Team (DMORT) system. (Chapter 6 discusses the DMORT system in greater
detail.) Since the late 1990s, Hunt has served as an on-call forensic anthro-
pologist for the Washington, D.C., Office of the Chief Medical Examiner,
U.S. Park Police (D.C. and vicinity) and the National Center for Missing and
Exploited Children (Figure8.6). Hunt teaches courses in skeletal biology and
osteology for the Department of Anthropology at the George Washington
University, participates as an instructor in the annual National Museum of
Health and Medicine/Armed Forces Institute of Pathologys forensic anthro-
pology course, and provides training to law enforcement agencies.
Bruno Frohlich
Bruno Frohlich was hired as a permanent employee of the Department of
Anthropology in 1992. Although his initial training is in archeology, Frohlich
2320.indb 160 4/9/08 3:10:45 PM

Figure8.7 Bruno Frolich.
received physical anthropology and forensic anthropology training from Wil-

liam Laughlin, a student assistant to Hrdlika in the late 1930s. In Frohlichs
early association with the department, he collaborated with Angel and Ort-
ner and provided his archeological expertise to the division (Figure8.7).
Frohlich taught skeletal biology at the Department of Anatomy, University
of Copenhagen and has been directly involved in forensic anthropological
research. He is presently the forensic anthropology consultant for the state
of Vermont as well as an adjunct educator in forensic anthropology for the
Henry C. Lee Institute of Forensic Sciences and for Hobart and Williams
College. His multidisciplinary approach to research includes skeletal biology,
statistics, and the use of computerized tomography.
Forensic Application of Skeletal Biology by the Smithsonian
With the increase in cult and terrorist activities throughout the world, the
United States is no longer shielded from these events. Although America has
experienced loss of life from anarchists bombs in the past, disasters on a
mass scale have become more frequent since the early 1990s. Because of this,
Smithsonian forensic anthropologists have been called upon to assist in sev-
eral mass disaster situations.
In 1993, an incident in Waco, Texas, between the ATF, FBI, and the
Branch Davidians, led by David Koresh, culminated in a fire and the deaths
of 74 individuals. Ubelaker was contacted by the FBI to assemble a team to
assist the federal and local authorities in the retrieval and identification of
the remains from the compound. This mass disaster situation involved most
2320.indb 161 4/9/08 3:10:46 PM

162 David R. Hunt
of the departments physical anthropologists (including Doug Owsley and

Karin Bruwelheide), who engaged in field retrieval and laboratory analysis
over several weeks. Resulting publications describe this difficult investiga-
tion and the essential role of the forensic anthropologists (Owsley et al. 1995;
Ubelaker et al. 1995).
In 1993, extreme flooding of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers lead to
significant water erosion, unearthing cemeteries in the flooding. At a large
cemetery outside Hardin, Missouri, the National Disaster Medical Services
(NDMS) branch of Department of Health and Human Services established
a multifaceted organization called the DMORT to deal with mortuary ser-
vices. DMORT brought together specialists in mortuary care, personal effects
documentation, family assistance, and radiography, and experts in forensic
pathology, forensic odontology, fingerprinting (FBI), and forensic anthro-
pology (including Hunt). Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team
members and volunteers spent months retrieving skeletal remains and cas-
kets located downstream from the cemetery. The results from the sorting and
examination of the remains led to the identification of a significant number
of the caskets and remains that came from post-1950 burials. The majority of
the remains that came from the earlier part of the century were not identifi-
able due to the lack of antemortem medical or family records (Sledzik and
Hunt 1997).
One year later, flooding in Albany, Georgia, caused by hurricane weather
resulted in overflowing of dams that had protected portions of Albany. The
main city cemetery flooded, and over 769 caskets were disinterred from their
sealed vaults. The DMORT responders were again activated to identify and
return the remains to their proper burial places. The majority of the remains
were positively identified and reinterred to their original resting places.
In 1994, the Asociacin Mutual Israelita Argentina in Buenos Aires was
blown up by an ammonium nitrate bomb placed inside a van. Three hundred
people were injured and 85 people were killed in the blast, which became the
largest single incident against Jewish people since World War II. The Argen-
tinean government requested U.S. State Department assistance in the mortu-
ary needs of this tragedy, including body retrieval and forensic investigation.
The Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner (OAFME) sent a group of
pathologists and anthropologists (including Hunt) to Buenos Aires, where
they reassembled body parts and identified individuals from the burned and
fragmentary remains.
Nine months later in Oklahoma City, an ammonium nitrate bomb in a
van extensively damaged the Murrah Federal Building. Over 800 people were
injured and 168 people were killed in the bombing. The magnitude and the
national emotional devastation of this event prompted immediate action by
federal agencies. All available specialists, including Smithsonian anthropolo-
gists, were notified to assist in the efforts to search for survivors, investigate
2320.indb 162 4/9/08 3:10:46 PM

the incident, retrieve the bodies of the victims, and reassemble and identify
the remains, mostly consisting of fragmentary or partial remains.
Another black day in recent American history is September 11, 2001,
when all specialists and experts in mass fatality situations were called in to
assist in New York (World Trade Towers), Washington, D.C. (Pentagon), and
Somerset, Pennsylvania (United Flight 93). All members of the Division of
Physical Anthropology were involved at some level in this disaster, from con-
sultation to field retrieval and laboratory analysis. Owsley and Ubelaker were
sent to Dover, Delaware, to work with remains from the Pentagon. Several
physical anthropologists working in the Anthropology Departments Physical
Anthropology Laboratory of the Repatriation Office were activated through
DMORT and sent to Somerset to provide their expertise in field retrieval
and forensic anthropology. The efforts of Marilyn London, Dawn Mulhern,
and Erica Jones were instrumental in the organization, implementation, and
precision of the morgue operations in Somerset and in the field identifica-
tion of remains from United Flight 93. Jones and London are presently work-
ing in the Osteology Laboratory of the Repatriation Office, and Mulhern
has moved on to teaching physical anthropology and forensic application of
skeletal biology at Fort Lewis College, Durango, Colorado. London (who is
the former student of Larry Angel when she studied at the George Wash-
ington University) is also a lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at
the University of Maryland, an instructor for the Anthropology Department
at The George Washington University, and an on-call forensic anthropol-
ogy consultant for the state of Rhode Island. Through DMORT, London had
previously responded to the EgyptAir 990 crash in New England and the
Executive Air Charter crash near Scranton, Pennsylvania. London has also
held the position of Training Officer for DMORT Region III and is presently
a member of DMORT Region V.
Division Research and Activities
Advances in forensic anthropology methods and technology figure promi-

nently in the corresponding improvements in archaeology as both fields
benefit by sharing the latest scientific developments. Employment of new
chemical, electronic, and laboratory technology (CT scanning, DNA analy-
sis, isotopic studies, pathological research, stereolithographic reproduction)
have all provided new techniques for skeletal research. Recent investiga-
tions performed at the Division of Physical Anthropology involving iron
coffins from the mid-19th century (NMNH Annual Report 2005), historic
remains from cemeteries (Ubelaker and Jones 2003), mummified remains
from Mongolia (Frohlich et al. 2002; Frohlich et al. 2005), and even the noted
Kennewick Man (Owsley et al. 2006) have all benefited from the use of new
2320.indb 163 4/9/08 3:10:46 PM

164 David R. Hunt
chemical, electronic, and laboratory technologies for the study, interpreta-

tion, and preservation of these remains.
Physical Anthropology Division Collections
Physical Anthropology Division collections contain over 33,000 cataloged

records of human skeletal remains from archeological, as well as anatomical
sources, mummified remains and body parts (hair, dry, and wet tissues), and
plaster and resin casts and molds of faces, body parts, and paleoanthropo-
logical remains. The remains predominantly derive from archeological inves-
tigations and are typically compared by researchers to other collections of
excavated remains in order to uncover temporal or population differences
in biological or cultural features. The anatomical collections (Robert J. Terry
Collection and George S. Huntington Collection) are utilized primarily for
research in human variation, growth and development, age changes, sex dif-
ferences, and differences in ancestry used in bioanthropological and forensic
anthropological applications (see Hunt and Albanese 2005, for information
concerning these collections). The medical sciences utilize the anatomical
collections as well for questions and assessment of the formation, expres-
sion, and treatment of pathological conditions, as well as bone trauma (espe-
cially for surgical procedures) and the design and surgical implantation of
orthopaedic devices. There are also studies conducted in orthodontics and
periodontics.
The collections span worldwide distribution. However, countries and
geographic regions and temporal contexts may or may not be well represented
in the NMNH collection. In the expeditions and trading of collections done
predominantly in the first half of the 20th century, the curatorial staff influ-
enced the collection scheme. Hrdlikas primary focus was on the peopling of
the New World and questions concerning American populations, so areas of
Africa, Europe, and Asia are underrepresented. Another aspect of the times
when the majority of the collections were amassed is seen in the types of
bones preserved for an individual or for a population group. Approximately
49% of the collection consists of the cranium or skull only, with no postcra-
nia. This is a common feature of collections made in the late 19th and 20th
centuries. It was also a common occurrence in archeological excavations in
the earlier part of the 20th century to retain the best representatives of
the skeletal series and not save many of the smaller bones (hands and feet)
or bones such as ribs or vertebrae, unless they were of particular interest. In
the second half of the 20th century, advances in archeological theory and
techniques lead to the desire for more complete retention of most materials
from a site. About 20% of the NMNH skeletal collections are from these later
excavations and they have more complete skeletal series.
2320.indb 164 4/9/08 3:10:46 PM

A general listing of the Division of Physical Anthropology holdings

is provided (Table8.1). The list is first sorted by present-day geopolitical
country. The second level is, by and large, geopolitical province, state, and
in lesser instances, a geographical location such as an island or a particu-
lar city or town. The numeric counts represent the number of occurrences
for each entry. This count may be one skull, one cranium, a fragmentary
skeleton, a full skeleton or a group (or lot) of elements of bone assort-
ments. It should not be assumed that the counts represent individuals.
Additionally, the counts listed in Table8.1 do not include paleoanthro-
pological collections because the Physical Divisions paleoanthropologi-
cal collections are almost exclusively specimen casts. A listing of these
holdings can be obtained by request through The Division of Physical
Anthropology Collections Manager (presently David Hunt), and use of
these collections is scheduled though the paleoanthropological curator
and staff.
Table 8.1 Index of Collections Count for the National Museum of Natural
History, Department of Physical Anthropology, Physical Anthropology
Collections
Number of Specimens
NMNH Geographic Location of Record (NMNH Count)
Afghanistan 1
Africa 9
Algeria 1
Algiers 1
Argentina, Buenos Aires Province 10
Argentina, Chubut Province 6
Argentina, Patagonia 2
Argentina, Rio Negro Province 56
Argentina, Rio Negro and Buenos Aires Provinces 11
Argentina, Salta Province 3
Argentina, Santa Cruz Province 4
Argentina, Santiago del Estero Province 1
Argentina, Tierra del Fuego 1
Argentina 12
Armenia 2
Australia, Central 4
Australia, Northern Territory 8
Australia, Queensland 6
Australia, South Australia 11
Australia, Victoria 7
Australia, Victoria District 4
(continued)
2320.indb 165 4/9/08 3:10:46 PM

166 David R. Hunt
Table 8.1 (Continued)

Number of Specimens
Australia, Western Austraila 4
Australia 9
Austria, Salzburg Province 3
Austria, Tirol Province 14
Bahama Islands, Bahamas 1
Bahama Islands, Exuma Islands Group 1
Bahama Islands, Watling Island 4
Bangladesh, Bengal 1
Barbados 1
Belgium, Brabant 1
Belgium, Leige Province 1
Belgium 1
Bolivia, El Beni Department 1
Bolivia, La Paz Department 18
Bolivia 4
Borneo, Kalimantan Province 2
Borneo 1
Brazil 1
Cambodia 1
Cameroon, South 1
Cameroon 1
Canada, British Columbia 13
Canada, Hudson Bay 1
Canada, Manitoba 2
Canada, Northwest Territories 16
Canada, Northwest TerritoriesYukon Territory 3
Canada, Ontario 43
Canada, Quebec (Hudson Bay Territory) 1
Canada 1
Canary Islands, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 2
Chile, Aisen Province 3
Chile, Antofagasta Province 1
Chile, Cautin Province 1
Chile, Chiloe Province 2
Chile, Coquimbo Province 2
Chile, LLanquihue Province 1
Chile, Magallanes Province (Patagonia) 2
Chile, Santiago Region 3
Chile, Tarapaca Province 2
Chile, Tierra del Fuego 2
2320.indb 166 4/9/08 3:10:47 PM


Number of Specimens
Chile 2
China, Fujian Province, Min River 1
China, Liaoning Province 1
China, Shansi Province 1
China, Sikang Province 2
China, Szechuan 1
China, Szechuan Province, Kangting 1
China, Tsinghai Province 1
China, Xinjiang 1
China 3
Chukotka, Chukchi 2
Colombia, Antioquia, Medellin 1
Colombia, Atlantico Dept. 2
Colombia, Bogota (Northwest of) 1
Colombia, Cundinamarco 6
Colombia, Sumapaz River Basin 3
Colombia 2
Congo Republic 2
Cuba, Havana 4
Cuba 6
Czech Republic, Bohemia 72
Czech Republic, Central Moravia 9
Denmark 1
Dominican Republic, Constanza 65
Dominican Republic, National District 17
Dominican Republic, Samana 17
Ecuador, Azoques (Near) 2
Ecuador, Guayas Province 36
Ecuador 5
Egypt, Thebes 1
Egypt, Upper Egypt 749
Egypt 2
England, Greater London 37
England, Oxfordshire 2
England, West Sussex 1
England, Yorkshire 1
England 27
Equatorial Guinea 1
Fiji Islands, Kandavu Island 1
(continued)
2320.indb 167 4/9/08 3:10:47 PM

168 David R. Hunt

Number of Specimens
Fiji Islands, Levakua Island 1
Fiji Islands, Muthuata Island 4
Fiji Islands, Vanua Levu 1
Fiji Islands 6
France, Alpes-Maritimes 4
France, Ande 1
France, Brittany 1
France, Morbihan (Brittany) 6
France, Saone-et-Loire 4
France, Seine-et-Marne 3
France, Ville de Paris 5
France 3
Gabon 14
Germany, Bavaria 8
Germany, Elsass (Alsace) 1
Germany, Lothringen (Lorraine) 4
Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia 4
Germany, Pommern (Pomerania) 1
Germany, Rhineland Palinate 7
Germany 64
Ghana 3
Ghana, Central District 1
Greece, Peloponnese 47
Greenland, Northwest 69
Greenland, Southern 6
Greenland, West District 17
Greenland, Western 13
Greenland 7
Grenada, Grande Anse Bay 1
Guatemala, Alta Verapaz 4
Guatemala, Quetzalnatango 2
Guyana, Courantine River 13
Haiti, Sud Province 2
Haiti 25
Holland, North Holland 1
Holland, Zeeland 7
Honduras, Atlantida Department 2
Honduras, Comayagua Department 4
Honduras 2
Hong Kong, Lama Island 1
2320.indb 168 4/9/08 3:10:47 PM


Number of Specimens
Iran, Khorasan State 2
Israel, Hazafon 153
Israel 4
Italy, Siena Province 1
Italy, Terni Province 1
Italy, Viterbo Province 4
Jamaica, Clarendon 10
Jamaica, Hanover 5
Jamaica, St. Elisabeth Parish 7
Jamaica, St. James 1
Jamaica 1
Japan, Honshu 13
Japan, Honshu Island 2
Japan 1
Java, Central Java Province 1
Java 9
Kenya, Central Province 21
Kenya, Rift Valley Province 2
Kenya 26
Korea, Kiung-San Do Province 2
Korea, Kyonggi Province 2
Korea 1
Lebanon 1
Liberia 1
Magadan Oblast, Chukot National Okrug 8
Malay Archipelago, Amboina Island 3
Malay Archipelago, Bali 2
Malay Archipelago, Borneo 1
Malay Archipelago, Madura Island 1
Mauritius 1
Mexico, Baja California 20
Mexico, Campeche 3
Mexico, Chihuahua State 111
Mexico, Coahuila State 76
Mexico, Durango State 1
Mexico, Federal District (Valley of Mexico) 22
Mexico, Mexico State 1
Mexico, Michoacan State 3
Mexico, Oaxaca State 11
(continued)
2320.indb 169 4/9/08 3:10:47 PM

170 David R. Hunt

Number of Specimens
Mexico, Puebla State 6
Mexico, San Luis Potosi State 11
Mexico, Sonora State 3
Mexico, Vera Cruz State 1
Mexico, Yucantan 7
Mexico, Zacatecas State 1
Mexico 32
Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Urga 208
Nepal, Central Nepal 1
Nepal, Western Nepal 1
Nepal 4
New Guinea, Papua 15
New Guinea, Papua, East New Britain 30
New Guinea, Papua, New Britain 5
New Guinea 3
New Zealand, Chatham Islands 12
New Zealand, North Island 2
New Zealand 25
Nicaragua, Lake Nicaragua 7
Norway, Finmark (Ost) 8
Panama Canal Zone, Colon 1
Panama Canal Zone, Herrera Province 7
Panama Canal Zone, Venado Beach 70
Panama Canal Zone 2
Paraguay, Western Chaco 1
Peru, Acabamba 14
Peru, Ancash 2
Peru, Ancash Department 2
Peru, Anchicuya 1
Peru, Arequipa 64
Peru, Ayachucho 93
Peru, Chachlacaya 8
Peru, Chicama 1
Peru, Coast 1
Peru, Cuzco 7
Peru, Huacapuna 3
Peru, Huancavelica 2
Peru, Ica 143
Peru, Junin 35
Peru, La Libertad 1161
2320.indb 170 4/9/08 3:10:48 PM


Number of Specimens
Peru, La Oroya 2
Peru, Lima 3128
Peru, Southern Coast 2
Peru, Tacna 1
Peru 144
Philippine Islands, Bengoet 3
Philippine Islands, Bohol Island 1
Philippine Islands, Busuanga Island 1
Philippine Islands, Dinagat Island 1
Philippine Islands, Leyte 1
Philippine Islands, Luzon Island 16
Philippine Islands, Mindanao 1
Philippine Islands, Mindanao Island 4
Philippine Islands, Panay Island 2
Philippine Islands, Sulu 4
Philippine Islands 7
Puerto Rico, Juegos De Bola 1
Puerto Rico, Mayaguez 3
Puerto Rico 2
Samoa 2
Senegal 1
Siberia (East) 2
Siberia (West) 2
Siberia 53
Society Islands 2
Solomon Islands 6
South Africa, Eastern Cape Province 5
Sri Lanka 1
Sulawesi (Celebes) 2
Sulawesi (Celebes), Makassar 1
Sumatra, Pagai (Pagi) Islands 11
Sumatra 1
Sweden 1
Switzerland, Graubunden Canton (Grisons) 64
Switzerland, Zurich Canton 1
Switzerland 2
Tahiti 1
Taiwan 1
Tibet 2
(continued)
2320.indb 171 4/9/08 3:10:48 PM

172 David R. Hunt

Number of Specimens
Tuamotu Archipelago 7
Tunisia 1
Virgin Islands, St. Croix 1
Virgin Islands, St. John Island 16
Virgin Islands, St. Thomas Island 1
USA, Alabama 116
USA, Alaska 1951
USA, Arizona 735
USA, Arkansas 381
USA, California 981
USA, Colorado 44
USA, Connecticut 20
USA, Delaware 101
USA, District of Columbia 277
USA, Florida 1576
USA, Georgia 539
USA, Guam 2
USA, Idaho 9
USA, Illinois 930
USA, Indiana 22
USA, Iowa 17
USA, Kansas 63
USA, Kentucky 167
USA, Louisiana 189
USA, Maine 2
USA, Massachusetts 13
USA, Michigan 32
USA, Mississippi 140
USA, Missouri 2009
USA, Montana 37
USA, Nebraska 64
USA, Nevada 18
USA, New Hampshire 1
USA, New Jersey 86
USA, New Mexico 1330
USA, New York 3679
USA, North Carolina 64
USA, North Dakota 84
USA, Ohio 729
USA, Oklahoma 26
2320.indb 172 4/9/08 3:10:48 PM


Number of Specimens
USA, Oregon 116
USA, Pennsylvania 27
USA, Rhode Island 3
USA, South Carolina 3
USA, South Dakota 1448
USA, Tennessee 293
USA, Texas 100
USA, Utah 92
USA, Vermont 3
USA, Virginia 1862
USA, Washington 49
USA, West Virginia 36
USA, Wisconsin 55
USA, Wyoming 9
USA 74
Ukraine, Crimean Oblast 140
Ukraine, Kiev 3
Ukraine, Kiev Province 7
Ukraine 50
Vanuatu, Malampa Province 1
Vanuatu, Malay, New Hebrides 1
Venezuela 13
Zimbabwe 1
When choosing any particular region or collection(s) for a research

study, contact the Division of Physical Anthropology Collections Manager
and be prepared to discuss the research design so that it can be determined
whether the chosen collection(s) would be conducive or effective for proposed
research. More specific delineation of collection location by site or other lev-
els of identification and the materials represented in the collection can be
obtained by contacting the Division of Physical Anthropology Collections
manager and requesting this information.
Note of Clarification: It must be stressed to the reader that the counts rep-
resented for the collection above are generated at the time of this writing. The
effects of repatriation requests and decisions, especially on North American
collections, will unquestionably lead to loss of skeletal collections. Research-
ers should contact the Division of Physical Anthropology Collections
2320.indb 173 4/9/08 3:10:48 PM

174 David R. Hunt
Manager to inquire whether any collections are restricted or no longer avail-

able instead of assuming they are available for study.
The count for any country and/or state does not represent indigenous pop-
ulation groups only. Rather, the counts are for ALL entries for that country or
state. As an example, USA, Missouri has a count of 2009. This includes the
1728 individuals from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection, a cadaver-
based collection of American Whites and Blacks from the 20th century, and
is not only Native Americans. The same is true for USA, New York. Over
3400 of the 3679 count is from the anatomical skeletal collection of Ameri-
can immigrants coming from the New York City area, not Native American
Indians. A noteworthy portion of the USA, Maryland count are Colonial
Period skeletons from cemetery excavations (see Kelley and Angel 1987) and
non-Native American Indian in ancestry. Approximately 60 of the USA,
Alaska count are Chinese individuals who worked at the salmon canning
factories on Kodiak Island and were excavated by Hrdlika (1944).
Access Guidelines
The Physical Anthropology collections are not loaned to institutions or uni-
versities for research, so the researcher must come to the museum to do the
work. Subsequently, no fewer than 60 student and professional researchers
utilize the Physical Anthropology Collections per year. These research visits
are generally for at least one week and often for longer periods of time. Addi-
tionally, student training classes, lectures, and professional courses provided
by the Physical Anthropology Division staff bring in 200 to 250 visitors to the
Physical Anthropology Division in any given year. Due to this high volume of
researchers and visitors, it is mandatory to schedule collections access arrange-
ments well in advance, with approval through the collection manager.
Access to the Physical Anthropology Collections is arranged by appoint-
ment by contacting the Division of Physical Anthropology collections manager
(presently David Hunt). Regular post address or electronic communication
address for the Physical Anthropology Collections Manager can be obtained
from the Department of Anthropology Web site (http://www.nmnh.si.edu/
anthro/). Access to the Physical Anthropology Collections at the NMNH is
normally Monday through Friday, 9:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m., excluding federal
holidays. The Physical Anthropology Division can only accommodate a lim-
ited number of visitors due to staffing and space. It is advised to make your
plans to visit at least two months in advance. When requesting a proposed
schedule, have at least one to two alternative dates in case the initial schedule
dates cannot be accommodated. Also, it is strongly requested that research-
ers inform the collections manager of cancellations.
To aid the collections manager in determining whether the collec-
tion will be advantageous for the research, a brief research description or
2320.indb 174 4/9/08 3:10:49 PM

prospectus should be included with the initial inquiry about the collection
and possible scheduling for access. For students (undergraduate and gradu-
ate), it is necessary to have a short letter (or e-mail) sent to the Division of
Physical Anthropology collections manager from the thesis or dissertation
advisor or primary professor. This letter should indicate support for the
research at the Smithsonian and give some indication of the students famil-
iarity working with skeletal collections. If the visit will involve a group of
researchers, the number of people will need to be provided and access will
be based on space restrictions. Researchers should be at least 18 years old.
Special advanced arrangements must be cleared for any visitors aged 12 to 17
years and will require adult chaperones. Children under the age of 12 are not
usually permitted.
Guidelines for handling procedures and proper use of the facilities will
be provided, and the established collection handling and inventory proce-
dures must be followed by the researcher. Improper handling of the collec-
tions or failure to comply with the guidelines will result in denial of further
access. If there is any doubt about proper procedures, the collections manager
should be consulted. Planned research at the museum should be specific, and
it is anticipated that the researcher will be limited to the focus of the initial
request. Casual browsing and additional impromptu deviations in research
cannot be accommodated due to staffing limitations.
Since the mandate of the Smithsonian Institution is the Dissemination
of Knowledge, results and findings from the research performed in the Phys-
ical Anthropology Collections should be provided to the Physical Anthropol-
ogy Division in the following way: cleaned raw data sets, observations, and at
the very least, a copy of any resulting publication, thesis, or dissertation. The
latter materials will be retained either in the John Wesley Powell Anthropol-
ogy Department Library or in the Physical Anthropology Collections Office.
In all publications, it is necessary to indicate that the materials used are from
the Division of Physical Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution.
Photographs of skeletal materials or artifacts in the collections may be
taken by the researcher for personal research use only, and only with staff
permission. The Division reserves the right to limit images taken if the object
is evaluated to be too fragile for the handling or mounting necessary for pho-
tography or radiographic imaging. Images obtained during research can be
utilized in professional journal publication with credit as: Catalog number
of the specimen; Courtesy of the Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian
Institution. The use of images in scholarly book publications, exhibitions,
electronic transmission, or any general distribution in any medium, must
be secured by submitting a written request to the attention of the collections
manager, and will be evaluated by staff on a case-by-case basis.
2320.indb 175 4/9/08 3:10:49 PM

176 David R. Hunt
Equipment and Facilities

It is generally expected researchers will bring their own measuring instru-
ments and computers. However, the Division of Physical Anthropology has
the ability to provide some equipment, especially more nontransportable
equipment, such as osteometric boards, sliding calipers (GPM, dial and digi-
tal, blade, and needle type), spreading calipers (GPM, large and small), coor-
dinate calipers, radiometer, measuring tape, mandibulometer, craniophor,
pelvimeter, depth gauge, and volumetric flasks. Curatorial staff have elec-
tronic three-dimensional digitizing equipment such as Polhemus and Micro-
Scribe and digitized image reproduction by the computerized tomography.
All special needs or requests to use division equipment must be pre-arranged
to confirm that the correct equipment is present and to arrange the schedule
for availability, especially concerning the radiographic equipment. There will
be costs for use of the radiographic equipment and chemicals, and these costs
must be negotiated prior to the researchers arrival.
Photography
The Physical Anthropology Division does have a small photographic work-
space with direct or flash photographic light systems. Other photographic
equipment that may be available for use includes: copy stands, tripods, back-
grounds, and scales. Cameras (film and digital) may be available as well but
must be prearranged by request with the collections manager.
Radiography
The department has a small three-stage (60kVp/30mA, 80kVp/20mA,
100kVp/15mA) plain film radiographic unit that can be made available for
producing a reasonable number of images. There is an automatic film proces-
sor on site. The use of the unit is department wide, and scheduling for its use
must be coordinated through the curatorial staff. Additionally, the costs for
its use and the chemicals for the film processing will have to be negotiated.
The researcher must provide the film. Kodak Min-R 2000, Ektascan B/Ra,
and X-Omat film have been determined to produce the best resolution with
the museums film cassettes. The film cassettes available for use are in two
sizes, 24 x 30 cm or 35 x 43 cm.
At this writing, the department has a Siemens Somatom Emotion CT
scanner on site. This scanner provides spiral 1-mm slices and 3-D reconstruc-
tion. This equipment has Smithsonian-wide applications and is in continuous
use. Proposed use of this machine by outside researchers will require long
range planning and scheduling by the researcher with the departmental staff
who maintain the equipment. Costs for the use of the CT scanner (running
2320.indb 176 4/9/08 3:10:49 PM

and technician time) will have to be negotiated with the curator in charge of
the CT scanner (presently, Bruno Frohlich).
Destructive Sampling
With the advances in bone chemistry and DNA research, there has been an
increase in requests for destructive sampling. This type of research requires
extensive arrangements with the Department of Anthropology. To be able to
properly fill out the formal sampling request, the researcher will be expected
to provide a listing of the desired specimens. The specimen selection cannot
be assumed to be done by the curatorial staff. Instead, the researcher should
plan to come and review the collection to make the selections of the speci-
mens to be proposed in the sampling request, identified by catalog numbers
and element(s). The sampling request forms and instruction for sampling are
available online at the Smithsonians Department of Anthropology Collec-
tions Management Web site.
The sampling request must include a well-presented proposal for the
research, and include proof that the researcher (or the chosen lab) has had
experience in performing the proposed chemical or DNA techniques. The
sampling request is reviewed by all Anthropology staff (archeology, physical,
and ethnology) who have curatorial charge over the collection of interest.
The results of their review are presented to the Collection Review Commit-
tee for discussion. The curatorial staff and Review Committee rarely support
sampling request of the collections for new or untested methodologies. There
are serious concerns about the amount of sample to be taken and the damage
to the element or object. The researcher should be cognizant of these con-
cerns and provide justification for all aspects of the research in the formal
request. Often, the Review Committee will offer a revised sampling selection,
or request additional support or clarification of methodology, more informa-
tion on the abilities and experience of the laboratory (and/or the staff at that
facility), or further inquiry into the researchers experience. Resubmission of
the sampling request will usually be expected in these instances. Therefore,
the researcher should anticipate a lag time in the decision of the sampling
proposal and should send the formal request for review no less than three to
five months prior to the desired sampling date.
The Smithsonian Conservation Analytical Laboratory and the Anthro-
pology Conservation Laboratory have determined that the introduction of
chemicals from casting of objects and elements can be detrimental to the
integrity and preservation of the NMNH collections. Therefore, a researcher
wanting to make casts of elements or materials (e.g., dental casting or cra-
nial endocasts) must submit a proposal of their work to be reviewed though
the sampling request forms. This review allows the Conservation Laboratory
to assess the type of commercial or special materials to be used for casting
2320.indb 177 4/9/08 3:10:49 PM

178 David R. Hunt
and the technique to be conducted by the researcher. The Conservation

Laboratory may offer suggestions for alternative casting products or tech-
niques for the implementation of the casting. Researchers should anticipate
a lag time in this review; they should submit request no less than two to four
months for review before planning the visit for casting.
Accommodations
The Smithsonian cannot directly endorse any specific accommodations
due to legal and conflict of interest issues. There are a few independent and
nationally recognized hotels within close walking distance from the Natural
History Building, but not a large selection. The cost of accommodations can
range greatly among these hotels and availability will be dictated by the sea-
son (be especially aware of the Cherry Blossom Festival in late March/early
April, July 4th, Memorial Day, or other major holidays). There are numerous
hotels near Metro stations on the Metro Line. Consult your travel agency or
Web sites for information.
For researchers seeking longer term accommodations, there are a few
hostels in the Dupont Circle area of northwest Washington, D.C., that have
affordable housing, and during school breaks The George Washington Uni-
versity, Georgetown University, American University, and Catholic Univer-
sity often make dorm rooms available for leasing.
Acknowledgments
I gratefully acknowledge the direction from and interviews with Dr. Douglas
Ubelaker, whose published references and personal knowledge provided a
significant part of this article. I also acknowledge the historical research and
interviews from Dr. Donald Ortner, who has personally experienced the last
40-plus years of change in the Division of Physical Anthropology. And an
acknowledgment should be given to Dr. Lucile St. Hoyme for her personal
accounts of life and work in the Department of Anthropology from 1939 until
her death in 2001. I also thank Marilyn London for editorial comments.
References
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of Physical Anthropology 45:723735.
Buikstra, J. E., and D. H. Ubelaker. 1994. Standards for data collection from human
skeletal remains. Arkansas archeological survey research series no. 44. Fayette-
ville: Arkansas Archeological Survey.
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Frohlich, B., N. Bazarsad, D. R. Hunt, and B. Batbold. 2005. Human mummified

remains from the southern Gobi Desert. Preliminary report on the finds of ten
executed individuals dating to the end of the great Mongolian Empire. Pro-
ceedings of the 5th World Conference on Mummy Studies, Universita degli
Studi di Turino, Turino, Aitalia.
Frohlich B., A. B. Harper, and R. Gilberg. 2002. To the Aleutians and beyond.
National Museum Ethnographic Series 20. Department of Ethnology, National
Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, 137167.
Grisbaum, G., and D. H. Ubelaker. 2001. An analysis of forensic anthropology cases
submitted to the Smithsonian Institution by the Federal Bureau of Investiga-
tion from 1962 to 1994. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 45.
Hrdlika, A. 1897. The medico-legal aspect of the case of Maria Barbella (with
anthropometric data on twenty Calabrian women). State Hospital Bulletin, NY
II:231299.
Hrdlika, A. 1939. Practical anthropometry. Philadelphia: Wistar Institute of Anat-
omy and Biology.
Hrdlika, A. 1944. The anthropology of Kodiak Island. Philadelphia: Wistar Institute
of Anatomy and Biology.
Hunt, D. R., and J. Albanese. 2005. The history and demographic composition of the
Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection. American Journal of Physical Anthro-
pology 127:406417.
Hunt D. R., R. T. Koritzer, and M. L. Powell. 2006. Invisible hands: Women in bio-
archeology. XVI. Lucile St. Hoyme (19242001). In J. E. Buikstra and L. A.
Beck (eds.): Bioarcheology: The contextual analysis of human remains . Boston:
Academic Press, 177184.
Kelley, J. O., and J. L. Angel. 1987. Life stress of slavery. American Journal of Physical
Krogman, W. M. 1939. A guide to the identification of human skeletal material. FBI
Law Enforcement Bulletin 8:331.
McKern, T. W., and T. D. Stewart. 1957. Skeletal age changes in young American
males. Natick, MA: Quartermaster research and Development Center. Envi-
ronmental Protection Research Division; Report No. EP-45.
National Museum of Natural History Annual Report 2005. 2005. Extraordinary
team of experts unravels coffin mystery. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 7.
Ortner, D. J. 2003. Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains.
Boston: Academic Press.
Ortner, D. J., and G. J. Putschar. 1985. Identification of pathological conditions
in human skeletal remains. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 28.
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Owsley, D. W., H. E. Berryman, K. S. Bruwelheide, D. R. Hunt, T. W. Stafford, Jr.,
C. W. Smith, and J. C. Chatters. 2006. Kennewick man: Nowhere near the last
word. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 12:371.
Owsley, D. W., D. H. Ubelaker, M. M. Houck, K. L. Sandness, W. E. Grant, E. A.
Craig, T. J. Woltanski, and N. Peerwani. 1995. The role of forensic anthropol-
ogy in the recovery and analysis of Branch Davidian compound victims: Tech-
niques of analysis. Journal of Forensic Sciences 40(3):341348.
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Sledzik, P. S., and D. R. Hunt. 1997. Disaster and relief efforts at the Hardin Cem-
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and death. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 185198.
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can Journal of Physical Anthropology 26:340.
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2320.indb 180 4/9/08 3:10:50 PM

The Louisiana State
University (LSU)
Forensic Anthropology
and Computer
9
Enhancement Services
(FACES) Laboratory
Mary H. Manhein, N. Eileen Barrow,

and Ginesse A. Listi
Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................181
Facial Reconstruction......................................................................................... 183
Age Progression................................................................................................... 183
Photograph and Video Enhancement.............................................................. 186
Conclusion........................................................................................................... 188
References............................................................................................................. 193
Introduction
The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory at Louisiana State University (LSU)

opened in 1980. Its mission was to aid law enforcement agencies in the posi-
tive identification and field recovery of human remains. Over the past 25-plus
years, LSU anthropologists have assisted with more than 1000 forensic cases,
including three major fires and explosions at industrial sites.
Since 1987, under the direction of Mary H. Manhein, the laboratorys
mission has expanded to include research, educational activities, and addi-
tional public service work. In 1993, an imaging unit was added and the lab
became known as FACES (Forensic Anthropology and Computer Enhance-
ment Services). At that time, collaboration with the National Center for Miss-
ing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) made it possible for the forensic artist
on staff to receive special training in computer-assisted age progression.
Currently, the FACES Laboratory has a staff of five full-time anthropolo-
gists and one part-time imaging specialist. The physical plant of the laboratory
includes 2 wet labs with 5 fume hoods, a computer laboratory, a bioarchae-
ology laboratory, a faunal comparative collection representing more than 35
181
2320.indb 181 4/9/08 3:10:50 PM

182 Mary H. Manhein, N. Eileen Barrow, and Ginesse A. Listi
species of animals, and secure curation space for more than 100 active and
inactive forensic cases (many of which are donations). The two wet labs contain
state-of-the-art forensic equipment including, among others, a body cooler, a
specimen freezer, an x-ray machine and film developer, various light micro-
scopes, a Nomad (portal x-ray unit) and DEXIS for digital dental imaging, and
a Leica motorized stereomicroscope system with Image Pro Plus and In-Focus
software for extended depth of field at high magnifications. Also, the labora-
torys location in the heart of the LSU campus places us in close proximity to
scanning microscopy (SEM) labs, the Human Ecology Lab (textiles), and the
Agronomy, Chemistry, Entomology, and Geology Departments.
Another important resource for our laboratory has been our collabora-
tion for more than 20 years with the LSU Health Sciences Centers Dental
School in New Orleans, specifically Drs. Robert Barsley and Ronald Carr.
Their expertise has had a significant impact on our ability to positively iden-
tify persons in a timely manner.
In terms of education, the Department of Geography and Anthropology at
LSU (in which the FACES Laboratory is domiciled) offers both a BA and an MA
in anthropology. By emphasizing the four-field approach, our MA program pro-
vides students with a solid education grounded in anthropological theory. Also,
students who attend LSU for their MA in anthropology have every opportunity
to get hands-on training in forensic anthropology if they choose. Over the years,
thesis research has focused on a wide variety of topics, which have included col-
laboration with departmental geographers in crime mapping using geographic
information system (GIS), human protein studies, bioarcheological analysis of
human remains from historic and prehistoric contexts, research projects ori-
ented toward establishing biological origin, and many others.
In 2006, the FACES Lab added a new dimension to its work when the Loui-
siana State Legislature passed House Bill No. 1140. This law (R.S. 15:561-662)
established the FACES Lab as the Louisiana Repository for Unidentified and
Missing Persons Information Program. The funding attached to this statute has
allowed the lab to begin the development of a database of biological and DNA
profiles on all persons who are unidentified in Louisiana and all of those who
are missing from Louisiana. This endeavor is a collaboration between the FACES
Lab and the North Louisiana Crime Laboratory where the DNA analysis is done.
Currently, the unidentified persons who have been placed in the biological and
DNA databases total more than 75. The missing persons portion of the database
totals more than 300. Many of the missing persons cases are from outside the
state of Louisiana and as yet do not have DNA profiles from family members.
Though the major portion of our work has been in traditional biological
profiling and identification of human remains, over the last 15 years, our imag-
ing unit has provided clay facial reconstructions, in-house age progressions,
and photo and video enhancements to aid law enforcement agencies in solving
cases of missing and unidentified persons and in capturing fugitives.
2320.indb 182 4/9/08 3:10:50 PM

The LSU FACES Laboratory 183
Facial Reconstruction
Research at the FACES laboratory has provided new data to assist with some
troubling issues in forensic imaging. One such project used ultrasound to
measure tissue thickness on the faces of modern living children and adults
(Manhein et al. 2000). By providing new information at previously unknown
points, such as lateral eye orbit and mid-mandible, as well as updating infor-
mation at traditional points, new standards have been developed. These stan-
dards have been applied in recent facial reconstructions. Continuing research
into facial tissue depths (Dumont 1986; Garlie and Saunders 1999; Hodson
et al. 1985; Rhine and Campbell 1980; Rhine and Moore 1982; Wilkinson
et al. 2003; Williamson et al. 2002) will assist in refining this traditional for
the resolution of unidentified remains. Currently, research at the FACES Lab
includes a masters thesis on tissue depth measurements of Chinese Ameri-
cans (Chan 2007) and a summer 2007 project in Canada to collect tissue
depth data on Canadian Native Americans using ultrasound technology
(Peckmann 2007).
The following examples define two cases where facial reconstructions
were completed at the FACES Laboratory and positive identifications were
made. Figures9.1a and 9.1b demonstrate a facial reconstruction that was
completed in 1997, and the image of the victim who was positively identified
in 1999. In the second case (Figures9.2a and 9.2b), the facial reconstruction
was first publicized in 2000, then republicized in 2003, after which a positive
identification was made.
The third facial reconstruction represents a cold case from St. Tammany
Parish, Louisiana. FACES anthropologists exhumed the body of a young,
white female who was murdered in 1986 and buried as a Jane Doe. The exhu-
mation was requested because of a potential identification; however, dental
records did not match. At the time of publication, this case remains unidenti-
fied. Figure9.3 represents the computer enhanced clay facial reconstruction
of the unidentified female.
Age Progression
Another imaging method useful in a forensic application is computer-assisted

age progression. This technique can be applied to cases of missing children
and adults. Photographs of the missing individual are scanned and manip-
ulated to produce the age-appropriate image. The following cases provide
examples of the broad spectrum in which this method can be used.
In the first example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) requested
assistance from FACES Laboratory personnel in updating a photograph of
an alleged felon who had been missing for 20 years. Figures9.4a and 9.4b are
2320.indb 183 4/9/08 3:10:50 PM

Figure9.1a Facial reconstruction of an unidentified victim.
Figure9.1b Photo of victim positively identified from reconstruction (Figure9.1a).
2320.indb 184 4/9/08 3:10:51 PM

Figure9.2a Facial reconstruction of an unidentified victim.
Figure9.2b Photo of victim positively identified from reconstruction (Figure 9.2a).
2320.indb 185 4/9/08 3:10:51 PM

Figure9.3 Computer-enhanced clay facial reconstruction of a Jane Doe.
of the subject and his age-progressed image. The age progression was used to
aid in his apprehension. Figure9.5 is his mug shot at the time of his arrest.
The second case involves a child who had been missing for two years.
In an effort to republicize this case, local detectives asked for assistance in
producing an age-enhanced image of the child. Figures9.6a and 9.6b show
the child at two years of age and then progressed to four. At time of this
publication, the child has not been found. Extensive and long-term publicity
in such instances is crucial to the possible recovery of a missing child.
Age progression can also be used in cases involving historical or contem-
porary figures. In 2003, FACES Laboratory personnel created an age progres-
sion of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy to coincide with the anniversary
of his death. Figure9.7a is a photograph of the president in his forties; Fig-
ure9.7b shows him age-progressed approximately 40 years. The image was
published in the New York Post (Gorta 2003).
Photograph and Video Enhancement
The following two cases illustrate a third type of imaging handled at the FACES
Laboratory. The first example shows a photograph taken from a convenience
2320.indb 186 4/9/08 3:10:51 PM

Figure9.4a Photo of a felon missing for 20 years.
Figure9.4b The age-progressed image of the felon (above).
2320.indb 187 4/9/08 3:10:52 PM

Figure9.5 The mug shot of the felon (Figure 9.4a) at his arrest.
store security camera video tape. The distorted image shows the perpetrator
during an armed robbery. Figure9.8a is the original image; Figure9.8b is the
enhanced image. Figure9.8c is the perpetrator after capture.
In the second case, the Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) agency
asked for help in clearing up a video of a suspected arsonist. Figure9.9a is
the freeze frame image of the suspect; Figure9.9b is the enhanced image.
Figure9.9c is the perpetrator, who confessed to setting more than 30 fires.
Conclusion
Though traditional forensic cases continue to represent the majority of public

service work handled by the FACES Lab, the FACES imaging unit has experi-
enced tremendous success since its inception and now receives requests from
across the country. The previously cited examples are a representative sample
of imaging cases handled during the past decade. The science underlying the
creative process is the basis upon which the images are built; however, the
most accurate likeness works only if the right person sees the image.
2320.indb 188 4/9/08 3:10:52 PM

Figure9.6a Photo of a missing two-year-old child.
Figure9.6b The age-progressed image of the child (above), portraying him at age
four.
2320.indb 189 4/9/08 3:10:52 PM

Figure9.7a Photo of President John F. Kennedy in his forties.
Figure9.7b President John F. Kennedy as he might have looked 40 years later.
2320.indb 190 4/9/08 3:10:53 PM

Figure9.8a The distorted image of an armed robbery perpetrator from a conve-

nient store video camera.
Figure9.8b The enhanced image of a photo from a convenient store security

camera (Figure 9.8a).
Figure9.8c The perpetrator (Figures 9.8a and 9.8b) photographed after her capture.
2320.indb 191 4/9/08 3:10:53 PM

Figure9.9a The distorted image of a suspected arsonist lifted from a video.
Figure9.9b The enhanced image of a suspected arsonist (Figure 9.9a).
2320.indb 192 4/9/08 3:10:53 PM

Figure9.9c The suspected arsonist (Figures 9.9a and 9.9b) after his arrest.
References
Chan, W. N. J. 2007. In vivo facial tissue depth study of adult Chinese-Americans in
New York City. Masters thesis. Louisiana State University.
Dumont, E. R. 1986. Mid-facial tissue depths of white children: An aid in facial fea-
ture reconstruction. Journal of Forensic Sciences 31(4):14631469.
Garlie, T. N., and S. R. Saunders. 1999. Midline facial tissue thicknesses of sub-
adults from a longitudinal radiographic study. Journal of Forensic Sciences
44(1):6167.
Gorta, W. J. 2003. Heres JFK at 86: Cyber image 40 years later, New York Post,
November 21, 9.
Hodson, G., L. S. Lieberman, and P. Wright. 1985. In vivo measurements of facial
tissue thicknesses in American caucasoid children. Journal of Forensic Sci-
ences 30(4):11001112.
Manhein, M. H., G. A. Listi, R. E. Barsley, R. Musselman, N. E. Barrow, and D. H.
Ubelaker. 2000. In vivo tissue depth measurements for children and adults.
Journal of Forensic Sciences 45(1):4860.
Peckmann, T. R. 2007. Utilizing ultrasound technology to measure facial tissue
thickness in Canadian Aboriginal populations. Proceedings of the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences 13:191.
Rhine, J. S., and H. R. Campbell. 1980. Thickness of facial tissues in American
blacks. Journal of Forensic Sciences 25:84758.
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Rhine, J. S., and C. E. Moore. 1982. Tables of facial tissue thicknesses of American
caucasoids in forensic anthropology. Albuquerque, NM: Maxwell Museum of
Anthropology, Technical Series No. 1.
Wilkinson, C. M., M. Motwani, and E. Chiang. 2003. The relationship between
the soft tissues and the skeletal detail of the mouth. Journal of Forensic Sci-
ences 48(4):728732.
Williamson, M. A., S. P. Nawrocki, and T. A. Rathbun. 2002. Variation in midfacial tissue
thickness of African-American children. Journal of Forensic Sciences 47(1):2531.
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The Working Forensic
Anthropology
Laboratory 10
Heather Walsh-Haney, Laurel Freas,
and Michael Warren
Contents
Laboratory Description...................................................................................... 197
Laboratory Space and Personnel............................................................. 198
Receipt of Remains.................................................................................... 199
Bone Preparation....................................................................................... 201
Specimen Labeling.................................................................................... 203
Skeletal Inventory...................................................................................... 204
Data Recording Forms.............................................................................. 205
Radiography............................................................................................... 205
Photography............................................................................................... 208
Case Disposition........................................................................................ 208
Safety Concerns......................................................................................... 209
Conclusion............................................................................................................211
References............................................................................................................. 212
Over the course of this book, the astute reader will have noticed several com-
mon themes emerge from the practices of the forensic anthropologists writ-
ing herein and from the operations of their respective laboratories. These
laboratories are disparate in scope and context, yet are identical in their mis-
sion to identify the deceased and illuminate the circumstances of their death,
and in so doing, to preserve or restore their human dignity. In each of these
laboratories, there is a necessary emphasis on quality control and uniformity
of practice. This consistency of operation is governed, in each laboratory, by
formal lab-specific standard operating procedures and informal routine pro-
tocols, and is achieved through the consistent application of standardized
methodologies and thorough documentation of all aspects of the analytical
process. Within the practice of each laboratory, there is the recurrent need to
handle sensitive and emotionally charged issuesissues which, more often
than not, have profound ethical and moral implications as wellwith tact,
195
2320.indb 195 4/9/08 3:10:54 PM

196 Heather Walsh-Haney, Laurel Freas, and Michael Warren
grace, and aplomb, for the sake of all those concerned, be they the family of a
homicide victim, the defendant on trial, the survivors of a mass disaster, or a
Native American group seeking the repatriation of their ancestors remains.
Above all else, forensic anthropologists are providing a service, rendered not
only to the medicolegal system, but to the broader community as a whole. All
of the work which has been detailed in this volumeeach case that is ana-
lyzed, each field recovery that is executed, each segment of expert testimony
that is provided, each individual that is identifiedresults in the gaining of
additional knowledge and experience, which is of immeasurable value to the
disposition of future cases.
This volume represents a survey of some of the most respected and pro-
ductive forensic anthropology laboratories in the United States. The labo-
ratories represented in this book share one primary missionto conduct
osteological analyses in order to identify the remains of unknown individu-
als, establish time since death, and detect trauma or pathology for both crim-
inal and civil legal authorities. However, a secondary, but no less important,
mission of a university-based laboratory is the education of students who
will become the next generation of forensic practitioners and researchers.
A departments graduate students, especially those whose primary interests
are forensic identification and trauma analysis, benefit from an active role in
all phases of the laboratorys casework, from field recoveries to analysis and
documentation to generation of the final report. Many faculty members use
a mentorapprentice approach to their training of graduate students: mac-
eration, skeletal inventories, analytical methods and theory, radiography
and photography, documentation protocols, and general lab operations are
learned by working closely with the faculty and more experienced gradu-
ate students at the lab. As the students proficiency and experience increase,
so too does the scope of their involvement in the processing and analysis of
individual cases.
The very nature of the laboratorys work inhibits, to a degree, the ability
of the labs faculty and students to carry out research on the skeletal remains
handled therein. Any research protocol involving human remains is subject
to rigorous scrutiny by institutional review boards, and there are further
ethical constraints preventing active research projects using forensic cases.
However, a standardized body of data is collected during each investigation
in order to accomplish the goals of personal identification and detection of
trauma; institutional review permits the use of existing data, collected as part
of the laboratorys standard operating procedures, for research that furthers
the goals and mission of the laboratory. Above all, forensic anthropologists
do not do experiments on the human remains they examine!
Educational efforts also extend to lay persons. Indeed, educational out-
reach permits the transparent dissemination of the forensic anthropologists
scientific methods and theories that, in turn, allow for accountability to both
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The Working Forensic Anthropology Laboratory 197
peers and the public. Through scientific transparency and accountability,

forensic anthropologists inevitably better the field by:
Sharing their knowledge with a broad range of practitioners which

helps to ensure responsible scientific conduct for all parties.
Inspiring new methods, theories, and technologies.
Acquiring more casework as the field becomes more respected.
Promoting stringent standards and impartial science.
Providing each stakeholder the opportunity to make informed decisions.
By continually striving for and meeting the scientific missions above,

forensic anthropology will continue to be recognized as a legitimate scientific
field that may provide the forensic expertise and evidence to the courtroom
standards of Frye and Daubert, respectively. (Chapters 1 and 7 discuss the
admissibility of scientific evidence and expert witness testimony.)
This chapter will detail the day-to-day operations of a typical human
identification laboratory. Though the inner workings of practicing forensic
anthropology laboratories are well known to the faculty, staff, and gradu-
ate students who work there, this knowledge is often passed from mentor to
student as an oral tradition and has rarely, if at all, been put to paper (unlike
specific policies and procedures; see Chapter 4). It is our hope that, in doing
so here, this chapter will prove to be a useful resource, not just for the faculty
and students, but also for other interested readers.
Laboratory Description
The forensic anthropology laboratory is the site that defines the level of sci-
entific skill and research potential that resides within its walls. The success
therein depends upon the ability to create a facility that is safe and secure for
the evidence and research materials, staff, students, public, and colleagues.
True forensic anthropology laboratories are far different than the gleaming,
backlit studio sets featured in the popular media. The bulk of work in foren-
sic anthropology is relatively low-tech and, in most cases, lacks the glamour
often associated with scientific crime fighting.
Any forensic laboratory must be secured so that access can be limited
to a known set of individuals. The National Institute of Justice recommends
that security measures include a sign-out log or badging system that records
who is coming and going from the various secure areas within the labora-
tory. Other security measures include an alarm system with motion detec-
tors, duress alarm, and windows with reflective glazing to prohibit public
view. The question of laboratory access will certainly arise in testimony, and
2320.indb 197 4/9/08 3:10:54 PM

an expert who cannot accurately recount who had access to the evidence will
have a difficult time on the witness stand.
Laboratory Space and Personnel

Depending upon start-up packages and the stability of external funding, lab-
oratory space and numbers of personnel vary between and within academic,
federal and state, and private settings. Needless to say, laboratory space is a
coveted commodity, so it is a lucky forensic anthropologist indeed that is pro-
vided sufficient space to process and examine skeletal cases. A basic forensic
anthropology laboratory would include office space for faculty, administra-
tion, and students, conference room for meetings and depositions, restrooms,
locker rooms, wet and dry bench space for the preparation and analysis of
remains, storage space for case files and other pertinent documentary items
(photographs, radiographs) and for curated skeletal remains, and additional
storage space for recovery and analytical equipment. Some might also have
a separate room devoted to radiography and photography. Laboratories with
an educational mission may also have classroom or conference space nearby.
Importantly, office, conference room, and other nonlaboratory spaces should
allow employee access without traveling through the potentially hazardous
wet and dry laboratory space.
The main work area should have enough bench space to allow several
cases to be placed in anatomical position, so that each individuals remains
can be considered as a whole, a proper inventory taken, and the entire case
photographed at one time. The National Institute of Justice and the American
Society of Crime Laboratory Directors recommend 15 linear feet of wet or
dry bench space, per analyst. Floor space should accommodate sinks, fume
hoods, biological safety cabinets, refrigeration, chemical storage, secure stor-
age units for instrumentation and field gear, as well as shelving for manuals.
Personnel include scientific staff or faculty, administrative staff, volun-
teers, interns, and visiting researchers or scholars, and in the case of univer-
sity-based laboratories, graduate and undergraduate students. In the case of
the latter, the majority of the graduate students who work in forensic anthro-
pology laboratories tend to do so in a volunteer capacity, laboratory work
constituting only one facet of their graduate training. Each semester, one or
two graduate students may be assigned to the laboratory as research assis-
tants, which often provides them with a waiver of tuition and a small stipend.
Although all graduate students participate in all aspects of the laboratorys
case work and daily operations, students assigned as research assistants may
have extra duties, such as looking after a particular area of the laboratory
(e.g., the photography room) or performing a recurrent task such as auto-
claving the labs biohazardous waste and restocking the personal protective
equipment.
2320.indb 198 4/9/08 3:10:54 PM

Some forensic anthropology programs rely on a small cadre of gradu-

ate students to assist with casework. Others assign cases to the graduate
students on a rotating basis, also taking into account the demands of each
individual case and the students level of experience and proficiency with dif-
ferent aspects of the analytical protocol. In every case, students should work
under direct and close supervision by faculty. Masters-level students earn
their stripes by working on cases involving archeological remains and
nonhuman bones. They also gain critical experience along the way by assist-
ing the doctoral students and faculty with many aspects of the processing,
documentation, and analysis of forensic cases. It would be highly undesirable
for an inexperienced student to be served a subpoena to testify in a homicide
case, however, it is a vital part of a graduate students professional develop-
ment to be instructed in courtroom testimony during their doctoral studies.
Receipt of Remains
Because maintaining the chain of evidence is of utmost importance in all
forensic investigations and because every step of the analysis of a given case
may come under scrutiny during trial, the documentation for each case must
be carefully tracked, from the time of receipt to the time of release of the
remains. Upon the receipt of each new case, a set of standardized documen-
tary protocols should be put into action, in order to track the cases progress
through the various stages of processing and analysis within the lab. These
protocols must be adhered to without deviation, and therefore provide an
important touchstone for monitoring the status of individual cases as they
pass through the facility.
The first step in documenting each case is to assign it a unique case num-
ber. For example, case numbers may comprise an alphanumeric code indicat-
ing the month, year, and the order within each given month in which the case
was received. This system not only allows for easy tracking of caseload trends,
but also facilitates the recall of old cases, since it is fairly easy to remember
what time of year a particular case was handled, and then to zero in on the
exact case number from there. This number, along with a brief description of
the case material, the referring medical examiner district or law enforcement
agency, and that agencys own case number are recorded in the case logbook.
The logbook stands as an official record of all nonprivate cases handled by
the laboratory, as well as a ready reference when looking up past cases. The
logbook also serves as a historical document of sorts, recording the number
and types of cases handled by the laboratory. A certain amount of discretion
and circumspection is important when entering cases into the case logbook,
as this volume may be considered public record and thus open to public scru-
tiny. Descriptions of cases that might seem insensitive or unprofessional if
considered out of context should be avoided. It is also imperative to avoid
2320.indb 199 4/9/08 3:10:55 PM

the temptation of entering information about group characteristics based on

hasty or initial impressions. Skeletal remains logged in as a male may, after
further analysis, be determined to be female. If the case logbook is deemed
by law to be public record, this innocent inconsistency may become a point
of contention during the trial.
The case logbook may, of course, be a digital file. However, many find the
old-fashioned ledger to be a quick and portable reference. If the case logbook
is a physical ledger, a computer database file may be used in conjunction to
record the same information; this format allows rapid keyword searches,
facilitates the generation of summary reports, and enhances the ability to
conduct demographic research. Following completion of the final report
for each case, a variety of information about the individual is entered into
this database, including demographic information, information about the
presence of trauma, pathology, or individuating skeletal characteristics, and
unique taphonomic information. One of the greatest benefits of this database
is that it allows laboratory personnel to search the database for previous cases
that present examples of different types of trauma or pathology, which may
in turn be used to aid in the analysis and differential diagnosis of trauma and
pathology in subsequent active cases.
Once the case is logged, a case file is created. The case file represents the
work product of the forensic anthropology laboratory and contains all of the
paperwork and documentation pertinent to the processing and analysis of a
given case. Each file is organized in a folder labeled with the laboratory case
number, the name of the referring law enforcement agency or medical exam-
iners district, and that agencys own case number. These numbers, as well as
a brief description of the case, correspond precisely to the information noted
in the logbook. All case files should be uniform and standard in their com-
position. Consistency in format enables laboratory workers to immediately
locate specific elements of the case file, and note any omissions or discrepan-
cies. For example, all evidence receipts may be attached, in reverse chrono-
logical order, to the front jacket of the folder, and the case summary form
might be attached to the back jacket. The case summary form can be designed
to collect these data necessary for year-end reports that are submitted to the
American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) by its diplomates. Simi-
larly, the computerized case logbook should include the same fields to facili-
tate the acquisition of ABFA data necessary to maintain certification.
The case file contains all of the documents related to the case, including
but not limited to:
Laboratory processing forms

Records of receipt and release of evidence
Phone messages
Newspaper clippings
2320.indb 200 4/9/08 3:10:55 PM

Notes pertaining to skeletal analyses

Osteological reports
Skeletal inventories
Statistical output of metric analyses
Notice of stored remains or other evidentiary materials
Radiographs
Photographs and videos
When analysis of the case is concluded, all documents within the case
folder can be sorted in a specific order and permanently attached to the
folder for storage.
Bone Preparation
Most forensic anthropology cases are skeletonized upon receiptmeaning
that any soft tissue present would be minimal, perhaps only some mummi-
fied tendons and ligaments. Fresh or decomposing remains examined require
defleshing in preparation for osteological analysis. (Chapters 1 and 5 discuss
alternative methods of skeletal preparation.)
The method of skeletal preparation depends on the amount of time avail-
able, the condition of the specimen, and the type of facilities and equipment
available (Fenton et al. 2003). While museums and medical supply companies
find dermestid colonies the most efficient method to use in skeletal prepara-
tion, most forensic anthropology laboratories forego the method because the
time, money, and space requirements necessary to maintain the colony. A
second consideration is the awkward task of describing, probably in front of
family members of the deceased, how colonies of insects were used to eat soft
tissue from the skeleton. Rather, a more controlled, tried-and-true method
relies upon nothing more than water, high heat, and a little bit of elbow grease.
Specifically, chemistry burners and scientific grade pots of various sizes may
be used in order to precisely control heating and prevent hot spots within
the pots. Disposable tooth brushes, chemistry stirrers (long, spatulate tools),
hemostats, and experience are the key ingredients in the successful processing
of skeletal remains. Most budding forensic anthropologists view this particu-
lar chore as a rite of passage, as well as an excellent way to study the relation-
ship of bones to surrounding soft tissue. A bonus for students is that they are
often the first to find evidence of traumatic lesions during maceration.
A critical first step in the processing of skeletal remains is to take pre-
maceration photographs and radiographs in order to document the condition
of the remains, detect foreign bodies and projectiles, and identify pathologies
or identifying features so care can be taken during the maceration process
to preserve or further document these features. (Chapter 6 discusses the
use of photography and radiography in more detail.) Indeed, the skeletal
2320.indb 201 4/9/08 3:10:55 PM

preparation process and some types of analyses are by nature destructive,

thereby requiring as much documentation as possible before the preprocess-
ing evidence is inevitably lost.
It is general practice to remove as much tissue from the body as possible
before submerging it into water. When macerating a complete or nearly com-
plete set of remains, the remains are disarticulated at the joint complexes of
the neck, shoulder, hip, knee, and ankle using, scissors, hands, and occasion-
ally scalpels. The pelvis may also be separated from the thorax between lum-
bar vertebrae. Sometimes, only age indicators (pubic symphysis or sternal end
of the right fourth rib) or areas of traumatic injuries will be harvested with
a bone saw. Skeletal preparation notes should include the location of prepa-
ration dismemberment areas, especially when sharp tools are used. Cheese
cloth may be secured around the hands and feet during the maceration pro-
cess to facilitate removal from pots and to ensure phalanges and sesamoids
(elements that are notoriously difficult to side) are kept together. The skull
tends to be placed in its own pot because it is usually the most skeletonized
of all body parts, in keeping with the typical head-down skeletonization pat-
tern. The rest of the remains are placed in pots, and the pots are filled with
tepid water. Many practitioners (including the current authors) simply add
water and set the burner to 350, and the water is allowed to boil. (Chapters 2
and 5 discuss chemical maceration alternatives.)
This process may continue for hours or days depending upon the level of
decomposition, the age and build of the individual, and whether the remains
were professionally fixed (e.g., in preparation for burial), buried, mummi-
fied, or submerged in water prior to maceration. Changing out the water in
the pots at regular intervalsusually every day in a multiday maceration
facilitates the maceration process and is more effective at leaching fats from
the bones. During the boiling process, it is important to monitor the material
integrity of the skeletal elements, as they can rapidly become soft and eas-
ily damaged if left in the water too long. The vertebral bodies, the sternum,
distal femur, proximal tibia, and the large tarsals are good indicators of the
overall material integrity of the remains. If these bones are found to be soft-
ened, then all the remains should be removed from the pots and processed
immediately, without further boiling, to prevent damage (Figure10.1).
After maceration, most anthropologists manually clean the bones using
nylon-bristled toothbrushes, hemostats, and nylon chemistry stirrers. If
needed, a 1:10 solution of degreaser can be used. The degreaser is typically
sprayed onto a brush (never directly onto the remains) and brushed onto the
bone. This technique is especially effective for loosening and removing soft
tissue from areas of muscle insertion. Running water and bowls containing
water are necessary to clean brushes throughout the process. Then, the bones
are rinsed thoroughly with tepid water and placed on an elevated drying rack
for one to two days or until the remains are cool to the touch. At no time
2320.indb 202 4/9/08 3:10:55 PM

Figure10.1 Katie Skorpinski and Laurel Freas (background) macerating.
are they fixed or impregnated with any chemicals. Rather, any fat left in the
bone helps maintain the bones integrity (both the Terry and Cobb collec-
tions were curated in the same fashion).
Soft tissues that are removed during the maceration process are stored in
transparent evidence bags and frozen. Hair, fabric, or other trace materials
should be placed on white paper or plastic Petri dishes and stored in a refrig-
erator. Ideally, all materials are returned to the medical examiners office, and
to the family, along with the skeletal remains. Dirt and other debris that is
contaminated with biological fluids should be put in freezer storage until the
case is adjudicated or for up to one year.
Specimen Labeling
Every skeletal element should be labeled with the laboratory case number as
soon as practicable. Indelible India ink and a fine point calligraphy stylus are
used to mark each bone. Every effort is made to make the marks legible, but
unobtrusive. Yet, the bones are marked in a predictable manner if the bone
is present and intact. For example, ribs are labeled on their cranial surfaces
(rib numbers 14), anterior surfaces (rib numbers 59), and visceral surfaces
(rib numbers 1012). The cranium may be consistently labeled on the occipi-
tal as well as the left mandibular ascending ramus, and left lamina of each
vertebrae of the mandible. Following standard specimen curation, neither
joint surfaces nor areas of pathology or trauma are labeled (unless there is no
alternative). Small fragments of bones, sesamoids, or lose teeth are placed in
acid-free bags and then the bag is labeled. Proper labeling cannot be stressed
2320.indb 203 4/9/08 3:10:56 PM

Figure10.2 Nicolette Parr labeling each bone with the case number.
enough because this procedure anticipates the inevitable courtroom ques-

tion, How do you know the bone in question belongs to this case? Dont you
have a large number of bones in your laboratory? The answer to this ques-
tion is simple: It is standard procedure to mark each bone with an identifying
case number before it is placed in proximity to other cases (Figure10.2).
Skeletal Inventory
A thorough skeletal inventory is essential for documenting the extent of recov-
ery of the remains, recording receipt of remains, and discovery of anatomical
anomalies to be documented and noted in the final osteological report. The
first step in this process is to lay the skeleton out in anatomical position. Slen-
der dowels may be used to unite vertebrae, and plastic trays used to prevent
commingling of each hand and foot. Cork rings (e.g., chemistry flask holders)
are suitable for cranial support while the case is active, but because they are
not acid free, are unsuitable for permanent curation. The initial inventory is
also a good time to note antemortem and perimortem trauma, postmortem
damage, and skeletal pathology. Several standard inventory forms integrating
these elements are available and most perform adequately. These forms allow
for coding of specific conditions, such as present, fragmented, absent, ante-
mortem change, perimortem change, or postmortem change. Buikstra and
2320.indb 204 4/9/08 3:10:56 PM

Ubelaker (1994) provide one of the most comprehensive inventory forms in

Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Moore-Jansen,
Ousley, and Jantz (1994) offer a similar form in Data Collection Procedures
for Forensic Skeletal Material. Chapter 5 provides an additional form. A den-
tal inventory chart may be provided as a part of the inventory form, or as a
separate component within the case file. One of several dental charts may be
used, including those provided in the above citations, as well as similar forms
used for input into WinID- and CAPMI-type data programs. Dental forms
used as part of missing persons databases should be kept relatively simple so
interobserver error in notations do not lead to missed opportunities for iden-
tification. An outstanding form of simple charting and dental pattern analy-
sis is OdontoSearch, which can be found on the Joint POW/MIA Accounting
Command (JPAC) Web site (see Chapter 4).
Data Recording Forms

Most measurement forms record the variables used for the Fordisc 2.0 forensic
database program (Ousley and Jantz 1993, 1996), as found in Moore-Jansen,
Ousley, and Jantzs (1994) Data Collection Procedures for Forensic Skeletal
Material. This measurement form strictly follows the fields found in the data-
base program, thereby making data entry easier. Of course, other forms may
be usedspecifically, forms detailing a laboratory research protocol using
unconventional measurements. Additional forms may be used to facilitate
recording of nonmetric skeletal attributes, such as ancestry, sex, disease, and
trauma notations.
Radiography
Radiography is one of the most important tools available to the forensic
anthropologist. Comparison of antemortem to postmortem radiographs is
one of the primary means of determining personal identification. Forensic
anthropologists help in this endeavor, along with forensic odontologists and
radiologists. But, to the forensic anthropologist, postmortem radiography
also allows for the identification and subsequent differential diagnosis of
many forms of bone trauma and pathology. And radiography is invaluable
for finding foreign bodies in and around bone, such as ballistic projectiles,
personal artifacts, or various environmental adherents. Most cases require a
standard set of radiographs (Chapter 7 contains a detailed list). Radiographs
of any skeletal element that may contain bullet wipe or evidence of sharp-
force trauma or dismemberment are also requisite before and after macera-
tion. As with all documents, each radiograph should include the case number
and an indicator of right or left sides.
2320.indb 205 4/9/08 3:10:56 PM

Radiography plays an important role in research and in the field. Fluoros-

copy has been used in human rights missions as an initial screening mecha-
nism to assist in locating embedded projectiles in situ. Biplanar radiography,
computerized tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
play an important role in case documentation and resolution. However, bipla-
nar radiographythe type of radiography used most often in the practice of
forensic identification and trauma analysisis the focus of this discussion.
Most forensic anthropology laboratories either have an x-ray machine
in-house, or have ready access to one. Radiography machines used in forensic
work are usually one of two typesa portable clinical machine or a cabi-
net-type specimen machine. The portable machines are common in medical
examiners offices and are the same type used in clinical medicine. Many
medical examiners use the radiology service of an affiliated hospital. There
are several drawbacks to this type of machine. The first is the awkward size of
the machine. It is a huge, lumbering piece of equipment that can be difficult to
negotiate while on the move. The radiographs are often taken and processed
by x-ray technicians who may be unfamiliar with the proper exposure set-
tings required for dry bone, or even decomposing bodies. A secondary prob-
lem is the unfortunate exposure of the technician to the sights and sounds
of forensic anthropology, which can be quite distressing to professionals that
prefer to work with the living. A final problem involves film quality. Techni-
cians working with clinical portable x-ray machines tend to favor screened
film cassettes. These cassettes are designed to minimize x-ray exposure to
living patients. Radiology departments that occasionally radiograph pathol-
ogy specimens may have unscreened cassettes available, but these cassettes
alter the exposure times and settings significantly. The result is that many
technicians prefer to use the screened cassettes with which they are famil-
iar. An additional problem with portable x-ray machines is that they require
the operator to be shielded with a lead apron or other protection. Exposure
to x-rays are, of course, cumulative. This requires radiation monitoring
devicesan added expense and one more worry in a field where exposure to
hazardous materials is already a concern. A principal advantage of the por-
table x-ray machine is the ability to take larger film sizes by altering the focal
distance of the tube from the film plane. This makes it easier to approximate
clinical views, such as standard abdominal and chest films.
Cabinet-type x-ray machines eliminate several of the problems noted
above. It is a closed system that minimizes the operators exposure to x-rays
but that allows them to expose the film while standing near the machine
(Figure10.3). Several safety features prevent operator exposure to x-rays by
insuring that the door is tightly closed and remains closed while the film is
being exposed. Yearly inspections ensure that these safeguards are in work-
ing order, and monitor the use of the machine via review of the radiography
log (e.g., a journal that indicates date, user, case number, exposure settings,
2320.indb 206 4/9/08 3:10:56 PM

Figure10.3 Melissa Gold placing a skull into a Faxitron x-ray machine.
and numbers of radiographs taken.) Upon completion of inspection, a license

or certification is issued and must be displayed in clear view.
Since dry bone specimens are relatively consistent in mass and density,
calculation of exposure settings is easily established in the laboratory. Set-
tings are specific to each type of x-ray machine and type of film used. The
radiography machine should be calibrated at set intervals in order to record
any parallax distortions that may affect measurement and comparisons with
antemortem radiographs. Calibration can be as simple as measuring a penny,
radiographing it, and measuring the penny as depicted on the biplanar film.
One unique advantage of radiographing nonliving subjects is that one can
always do multiple exposures until the desired film is produced. The expense
of the film is the mitigating factor for this type of trial-and-error approach.
The newest generation of digital x-ray equipment is most desirable. While
the initial expense is significant, digital and computed radiography negates
the need for darkroom space and the toxic chemicals required for developing
and fixing plain film radiographs. Digital (DR) and computed (CR) also has
an added advantage of eliminating the need for plain film storage, as well as
facilitating teaching of radiology to students.
2320.indb 207 4/9/08 3:10:57 PM

Figure10.4 A forensic image with scale and (pseudo) case number.
Photography
Photography is a critical step in documenting skeletal remains, and every
case should be photographed thoroughly. Standard photographs include six
views of the cranium (vertex, base, left lateral, right lateral, frontal, occipital),
both dental arcades, lateral and anterior views of the skull in the Frankfort
Horizontal Plane (which can facilitate photographic superimposition, should
antemortem photos become available), as well as photographs of any trau-
matic defects, skeletal pathologies, and any unique morphology that might
lead to an identification (Figure10.4). These images are stored for use in legal
proceedings and serve as a visual historical record of the laboratorys cases.
Archived photographs have, therefore, been a very important component of
the teaching mission at university-based forensic anthropology laboratories.
Most forensic scientists have converted from plain film prints and slide
transparencies to digital images. Digital photography solves several prob-
lems related to storage of images. It is always possible to print hard copies of
the images, record images to CD-ROM or DVD, and to backup image files
in multiple locations. An added advantage is that digital photographs do not
degrade over time like 35-mm slides or prints (Figure10.5).
Case Disposition
Once the final report has been submitted, the consulting medical examiner
provides directions as to the disposition of the remains. Cases in which the
decedent has been identified are returned to the family as soon as possible via
the medical examiners office and funeral home. If evidence is to be retained
pending trial or later identification efforts, the medical examiner may choose
2320.indb 208 4/9/08 3:10:57 PM

Figure10.5 Alicia Lusiardo taking a close-up photograph.
to have the forensic anthropology laboratory store the case, or if storage facil-
ities exist at the medical examiners office, the remains may be sent back for
curation. (Storing and archiving skeletal evidence was discussed in several of
the preceding chapters, as was skeletal donation and Native American Grave
Protection and Repatriation Act [NAGPRA].)
Safety Concerns
The primary safety risks confronting persons working in forensic anthropol-
ogy labs are exposure to biohazardous/infectious substances and to hazardous
chemicals (Galloway and Snodgrass 1998). The primary biohazardous concerns
are occupational exposures to bloodborne pathogens (BBP)especially HIV
and hepatitis B and C virusescontained in decomposing remains. Occupa-
tional exposures are defined by the Occupational Health and Safety Adminis-
tration (OSHA) as any reasonably anticipated skin, eye, mucous membrane,
or parenteral (i.e., puncture wounds, cuts, and abrasions) contact with blood or
other potentially infectious materials that may result from the performance of
an employees duties. When dealing with human remains and tissues, OSHA
advocates the philosophy of universal precautions which states that all human
blood and certain human body fluids are treated as if known to be infectious for
HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne pathogens, regardless of the individuals actual
infection status (available at http://www.osha.gov). Other potentially infectious
materials (OPIM) include: (1) Semen, vaginal secretions, cerebrospinal fluid, syn-
ovial fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, amniotic fluid, saliva in
dental procedures, any body fluid that is visibly contaminated with blood, and all
body fluids in situations where it is difficult or impossible to differentiate between
2320.indb 209 4/9/08 3:10:57 PM

body fluids. (2) Any unfixed tissue or organ (other than intact skin) from a human
(living or dead). In addition to blood, OPIM of particular relevance to forensic
anthropologists are cerebrospinal fluid and synovial fluid, which may still be pres-
ent in substantial quantities within the cranium and vertebral column, and in the
joint capsules, respectively, of decomposing remains.
The universal precautions approach to occupational bloodborne patho-
gen exposure management is a two-pronged approach, stipulating the use of
both engineering controls and work practices within the lab to minimize the
chance of exposure. Engineering controls which should be present in any
forensic anthropology lab include biological safety cabinets with fume hoods
and Plexiglas splashguards; sharps containers for disposal of used scalpel
blades; designated hand washing sinks, eyewashes, and safety showers; and
proper biohazard placarding of all potentially contaminated areas. Work
practices include proper hand washing techniques; observing the division
between clean and contaminated areas of the lab (i.e., office and class-
room space versus wet and dry lab space); and the provisioning and use of
personal protective equipment (PPE). The use of PPE in the forensic anthro-
pology lab depends upon the nature of the remains being handled. Partially
decomposed remains have a higher biohazardous potential, and therefore
demand the use of disposable lab coats and aprons, sleeve protectors, double-
gloving using latex or nitrile gloves (vinyl gloves are not rated for protection
against BBP), face masks, eye shields/safety glasses, and shoe covers during
the handling of these remains. Macerated and dry skeletal remains, archaeo-
logical, and historic remains have a much lower biohazardous potential, and
may be handled wearing gloves alone. Note that engineering controls and
work practices are meant to be complimentary, not mutually exclusive; that
is, handling decomposing remains in a fume hood with a Plexiglas splash-
guard does not obviate the need for facemasks and eye protection. Laboratory
personnel should be trained annually on the use and maintenance of engi-
neering controls and PPE, and on the proper course of action in the event
of an occupational exposure to potentially infectious materials. Addition-
ally, OSHA recommends that all laboratory personnel be vaccinated against
hepatitis B, unless they explicitly object to immunization.
In general, the hazardous chemicals used in a forensic anthropology
lab are few and relatively common: usually, cleaning supplies (i.e., bleach,
degreasers, general purpose cleaning solutions for wiping down lab tables and
work surfaces); glues and solvents used during reconstruction of skeletal ele-
ments; and photography chemicals used to develop radiographs and photo-
graphs. OSHA regulations require the establishment of a laboratory-specific
Chemical Hygiene Plan, detailing the engineering controls and work prac-
tices employed in the lab to minimize exposure to hazardous chemicals. The
Chemical Hygiene Plan should also include a full inventory of all chemicals
used in the laboratory, along with their accompanying Material Data Safety
2320.indb 210 4/9/08 3:10:57 PM

Sheets (MSDSs); these should be kept in a centralized location within the lab
and made available to all lab personnel. MSDSs for all commercially avail-
able chemicals can be obtained directly from the manufacturer, or are readily
available at any of several Web sites (see http://www.ehs.ufl.edu/HAZCOM/
msds.htm). To minimize the risk to personnel and property, personal protec-
tive equipment, safety showers, eyewashes, and fire extinguishers should be
within easy reach, and all staff should be familiar with their locations and
operation. Additionally, a fireproof flammables cabinet should be available
for the storage of combustible materials, such as alcohols, acetone, and other
solvents. Laboratory personnel should be trained annually on the proper han-
dling, storage and disposal of chemicals, and the prevention and management
of chemical exposures and spills, per OSHA, EPA, and institutional guide-
lines and regulations (29 CFR 1910.1450; available at http://www.osha.gov/pls/
oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10106).
Conclusion
This volume has showcased the organization and practices of several of the
most active forensic anthropology/osteology laboratories and field opera-
tions, as overseen by a number of highly esteemed professionals in this field.
Considered collectively, their contributions to this text should make it clear
that there is no single right way to set up a forensic anthropology laboratory.
The structure, organization, and operation of each individual laboratory will
necessarily differ in accordance with the unique circumstances of the labo-
ratorys location and physical space, financial resources, personnel, volume
of casework, and, of course, its overall mission. This flexibility allows prac-
titioners to set up their labs in a way that makes maximum use of available
resources, and that is tailored to demands of their caseload and the require-
ments of the jurisdiction(s) in which they operate. The working forensic labo-
ratories across the country can provide a wealth of information, from the
broadest procedural questions to the tiniest technical details, for anyone who
is interested in understanding the work executed therein.
These chapters have also demonstrated that regardless of the particulars
of a given laboratorys scope of operations, it is of the utmost importance that
each lab strive for firm standards of quality control and uniformity of prac-
tice. These goals can be obtained by establishing and adhering to a clearly
defined set of laboratory-specific standard operating procedures and proto-
cols which govern the tracking, documentation, and analysis of the human
skeletal remains which pass through the lab. These in turn will underpin
the laboratorys scientific and legal reputation and its accountability to the
agencies and communities it serves. For these, above all else, are the forensic
anthropology labs most valuable assets.
2320.indb 211 4/9/08 3:10:58 PM

References
Buikstra, J. E., and D. H. Ubelaker. 1994. Standards for data collection from human
skeletal remains. Arkansas Archeological Survey Research Series 44.
Fenton, T. W., W. H. Birkby, and J. Cornelison. 2003. A fast and safe non-
bleaching method for forensic skeletal preparation. Journal of Forensic
Sciences 48(2):274276.
Galloway, A., and J. J. Snodgrass. 1998. Biological and chemical hazards of forensic
skeletal analysis. Journal of Forensic Sciences 43(5):940948.
Moore-Jansen, P. M., S. D. Ousley, and R. L. Jantz. 1994. Data collection procedures
for forensic skeletal material. Report of Investigations No. 48. The University
of Tennessee, Knoxville. Department of Anthropology.
Ousley, S. D., and R. L. Jantz. 2005. FORDISC 3.0: Personal computer forensic dis-
criminant functions. Knoxville: University of Tennessee, 1996.
2320.indb 212 4/9/08 3:10:58 PM

Index
A facility taking form, 89

Forensic Anthropology Data Bank, 18
ABFA; See American Board of Forensic missed time-since-death estimate, 8
Anthropology origination of donations, 12
Accreditation prospects, 1920
security of evidence security, 7, 8
ASCLD-Lab, 3
skeletal research, 18
CIL, 58
skeletonized donor, 16
AFIS; See Automated Fingerprint
stakeholder network, 19
Identification System
time-since-death estimate, 8
AFL; See University of Indianapolis
training courses, 1819
Archeology and Forensics
training session topics, 19
Laboratory
William M. Bass Donated Skeletal
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), 188
Collection, 18, 20
American Board of Forensic Anthropology
ARF; See Anthropology Research Facility
(ABFA), 5, 200
Army Medical Museum (AMM), 118
American Board of Forensic Odontology,
ASCLD-Lab; See American Society of
102
Crime Laboratory Directors
American Board of Medical Legal Death
Laboratory Accreditation Board
Investigators certification
Asian tsunami, 107
examination, 32
ATF; See Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms
American Society of Crime Laboratory Automated Fingerprint Identification
Directors, 198 System (AFIS), 41
American Society of Crime Laboratory Autopsy(ies)
Directors Laboratory anthropologist work on, 26
Accreditation Board (ASCLD- educational, 27
Lab), 3 evidence acquired during, 33
AMM; See Army Medical Museum photographs, 33
Anthropology Research Facility (ARF), stations, TCME, 27
721 suite
aerial view of, 10 configuration of, 30
body donation program, 1115 special procedures, 29
cadaver dogs, 17 technicians, 33
Civil War era burial, 8 use of as educational tool, 45
crime scenes, 19
decomposition research, 7, 1618
demographic distribution of donations,
13 b
documentation of evidence, 19
donation eligibility, 14 BBP; See Bloodborne pathogens
donation numbers, 11 Binder syndrome, 132
donation tag, 15 Biplanar radiography, 206
evidence security issues, 7 Bloodborne pathogens (BBP), 209
evolution of facility, 911 Blunt force trauma, 41
facility evolution, 9 Bone
213
2320.indb 213 4/9/08 3:10:58 PM

214 Index
blunt force trauma to, 41 research, 7, 16

case number labeling, 204 smells, 38
DNA sampling of, 51, 52 soft tissue, 87
gunshot wounds through, 41 systematic study of, 158
preparation method, 201 Dental evidence, postmortem, 99
reconstruction, 40 Dental images, digital, 43
trauma to, 39 Dental modifications, ROL documentation,
129
Dental profiles, database of, 56
Dental scoring form, 72
c Disaster Mortuary Operational Response
Team (DMORT), 98, 101, 160, 162
Cadaver, photography of, 14 Disaster Portable Morgue Unit (DPMU),
Cadaver dogs, 17, 35, 77 102, 103
Chemical Hygiene Plan, 210 Disaster victim identification; See Mass
CIL; See Joint POW/MIA Accounting fatality incident morgue
Command, Central Identification DMORT; See Disaster Mortuary
Laboratory Operational Response Team
Civil War era burial, 8 DNA
Cold case(s) analysis, 101
facial reconstruction, 183 medical examiner room for, 29
unidentified, 43 technological limitations of, 101
Computerized tomography (CT), 206 cross-contamination, 110
Coroners, legal responsibility of, 112 databases, unidentified persons in, 182
Court rulings, 3 identification, mass fatality incidents
CT; See Computerized tomography and, 111
Cultural affiliation; See also National sample, cold storage of, 72
Museum of Natural History testing, CIL, 57
(Smithsonian Institution), Donation(s)
Repatriation Osteology eligibility, 14
Laboratory forms, 13
complexities of assessing, 136 numbers, ARF, 11
definition of, 118 program, ARF, 1115
dentition and, 128 tag, 15
Tennessee law providing for, 12
Donor
biological information provided by next-
d of-kin, 14
skeletonized, 16
Data recording forms, 205 DPMU; See Disaster Portable Morgue Unit
Database(s)
dental profiles, 56
DNA, unidentified persons in, 182
missing persons, dental forms used in, e
205
reference, CIL, 62 Evidence
unidentified persons, 44 buried, 79, 84
Daubert ruling, 4, 120, 131, 197 chain of custody, 34
Decomposition collection of, 2, 5, 19
models, 17 dental, postmortem, 99
odor chemistry of, 17 documentation of, 19
rate, 29 efficacy of, 4
2320.indb 214 4/9/08 3:10:58 PM

Index 215
historical, ROL, 118119 Forensic anthropology

identification of at scene, 81 American Board of Forensic
in situ, 83 Anthropology, 5
inadmissible, 3 caseload and legal considerations, 35
photographed, 36 collection of skeletal evidence, 5
probative value of, 4 court rulings, 3
provenience, 83 definition of, 16, 119
receipts, 200 expert witnesses, 3, 4
room, AFL, 67 Frye criterion, 4
rules of, 4 graduate student training, 2
security issues, 7, 8 Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command,
sifting for, 36 1
skeletal, 4, 5, 82 laboratory accreditation, 3
-storage area, CIL, 50 laboratory protocols, 4
technicians, 32, 33 laboratory training, 2
trace, 29, 58 major eras in development of, 150
Excavation grid, AFL, 86 practitioner-based training, 2
Expert witness(es) skeletal evidence, 4
congressional hearings and, 1 Forensic Anthropology Center (FAC), 7;
forensic anthropologists as, 3 See also Anthropology Research
testimony Facility
evidence and, 4 Forensic Anthropology and Computer
rules of evidence and, 4 Enhancement Services (FACES)
Laboratory, LSU, 181194
age progression, 183186
DNA database, 182
f facial reconstruction, 183
in-house age progressions, 182
FAC; See Forensic Anthropology Center photograph and video enhancement,
FACES Laboratory; See Forensic 186188
Anthropology and Computer Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB),
Enhancement Services 18
Laboratory, LSU Forensic anthropology laboratory, working,
FBI; See Federal Bureau of Investigation 195212; See also Medical
FBI-ERT; See Federal Bureau of examiner setting, forensic
Investigation Emergency anthropology laboratory in
Response Teams bone preparation, 201203
FDB; See Forensic Anthropology Data Bank case disposition, 208209
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 152, case documentation, 199
183 chain of evidence, 199
cases, exclusive contact for, 157 Chemical Hygiene Plan, 210
Evidence Response Team, 34, 36 data collection, 196
FACES photograph upgrade for, 183 data recording forms, 205
Federal Bureau of Investigation Emergency digital case logbook, 200
Response Teams (FBIERT), 18 digital x-ray equipment, 207
Fingerprint(s) education of lay persons, 196
known, sources for, 42 knowledge sharing, 197
specialist, decomposition cases and, 33 laboratory space and personnel, 198199
Forensic anthropologist(s) lab-specific standard operating
collaborative role of, 1 procedures, 195
as expert witnesses, 3 maceration, 202
TCME, 26 mentorapprentice approach, 196
2320.indb 215 4/9/08 3:10:58 PM

216 Index
photography, 208 digital radiography, 53

radiography, 205207 dental remains, 55
radiography machine types, 206 DNA-sampling areas, 50
receipt of remains, 199201 DNA testing, 57
safety concerns, 209211 evidence-storage area, 50
skeletal inventory, 204205 forensic dental staff, 54
specimen labeling, 203204 historical background, 4849
Forensic odontologist, TCME, 42 infrastructure, 4953
Frye standard, 4, 197 laboratory manual, 59
OdontoSearch, 56
organization, 5354
peer-reviewed reports, 57
g preponderance of evidence, 54
process and procedures, 5458
Geotaphonomy, 87 QA program
Global positioning system (GPS), 14, 80 multifaceted, 60
GPR; See Ground penetrating radar personnel-based, 61
GPS; See Global Positioning System proactive, 61
Ground penetrating radar (GPR), 77 SOPs, 59
recovery team configuration, 54
reference databases, 62
h research, 6162
trace evidence, 58
HHS; See U.S. Department of Health and U.S. Army Central Identification Unit,
Human Services 49
Homicide scenes, photographs taken at, 32 walk-in morgue refrigerator, 50
Hurricane Katrina, 107 JPAC; See Joint POW/MIA Accounting
Command
i
l
ILDs; See Interlandmark distances
Integrated Law Enforcement Crime Scene Law enforcement
Training Program, 80 AFL relationships with, 88
Interlandmark distances (ILDs), 124 agency(ies)
CIL consultation services available
to, 48, 62
evidence technicians, 33
j rotation of personnel in, 44
specimens donated by, 74
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command investigations department and, 33
(JPAC), 1, 47 liaison with, 32, 45
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, search and recovery support to, 23
Central Identification Laboratory secondary examination requested by, 37
(JPAC-CIL), 4763 TCME anthropologist assistance to, 34
accreditation and quality assurance, training, ARF, 19
5861 Louisiana State University (LSU), 181; See
Arlington National Cemetery, 48 also Forensic Anthropology and
chain of custody document, 55 Computer Enhancement Services
dental radiographs, 56 Laboratory, LSU
2320.indb 216 4/9/08 3:10:59 PM

Index 217
m Material Data Safety Sheets (MSDSs),

210211
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 206 MCFSC; See Maricopa County Forensic
Maricopa County Forensic Science Center Science Center
(MCFSC), 28, 31 Medical examiner setting, forensic
anthropology laboratory in,
Mass fatality incident morgue, 97116
2346
American Board of Forensic
administrative staff, 32
Odontology, 102
American Board of Medical Legal
antemortem information, 100, 107
Death Investigators certification
aviation accidents, 112
examination, 32
common tissue, 101
antemortempostmortem comparison,
condition of human remains, 100109
24
federal and state mass fatality
autopsy photographs, 33
response teams, 101103
autopsy suite configuration, 30
incident morgue, 103109
badge-access-only floor, 29
coping strategies, 108
bone reconstruction, 40
decedent identification, 97
cadaver dogs, 35
decedent population, 99100
child abuse cases, 33
disaster victim identification, 109 confidentiality issues, 35
DMORT morgue, 104 contract employees, 31
DNA analysis, 101 decomposition rate, 29
DNA cross-contamination, 110 decomposition smells, 38
documentation, 107 duties of forensic anthropologist, 3438
family assistance center, 107 field recovery, 3437
family assistance and related issues, mechanisms of case assignment,
111112 3738
family demand for identification of duties and staff, 3134
remains, 97 evidence technicians, 32, 33
final anthropological review, 110 facilities, 2631
fragmented remains, 100101 FBI Evidence Response Team, 34, 36
humanitarian concerns, 98 field excavations, 35
identification based on biological fingerprint identification, 42
attributes, 108 fingerprint specialist, 33
identification process, 100 forensic technicians, 32
incident morgue, 102 in-house lectures, 45
issues impacting recovery operations, investigations department, 33
9899 investigative assistance, 32
mass graves, 101 laboratory analysis of skeletal and
need for forensic specialties, 99 decomposing remains, 3845
next-of-kin, 112 education of pathologists and law
open population, 99 enforcement, 4445
peer-support models, 109 maceration, 3839
postmortem dental evidence, 99 positive identification, 4143
refrigerator trucks, 105 skeletal analyses, 39
role of forensic anthropologist, 109111 trauma analyses, 4041
schematic representation of morgue unidentified cold cases, 4344
plan, 106 line search, 35
triage, 105, 106 major case morgue, 27
trust, 97 mass fatality preparedness, 24
victim identification, 111 medical investigators, 32
Mass fatality preparedness, 24 Missing Persons Clearinghouse, 43
2320.indb 217 4/9/08 3:10:59 PM

218 Index
mummification, 33 National Museum of Natural History

next-of-kin notifications, 33 (Smithsonian Institution),
pathologists, 32 Division of Physical
records staff, 33 Anthropology, 149180
sharp force trauma, 41 American immigrants, 174
toxicology staff, 33 ammonium nitrate bomb, 162
unidentified persons search, 44 Angel, J. Lawrence, 155157
walk-in coolers, 29 Army identification methods, 154
Medical examiners, legal responsibility of, Bruno Frohlich, 160161
112 Civil War submarine, 159
Missing persons Collection Review Committee, 177
database, dental forms used in, 205 consultant work, 156
NCIC matching of, 3 division research and activities, 163164
Missing Persons Clearinghouse, 43 FBI contact, 157
Morgue, major case, 27 forensic application of skeletal biology,
MRI; See Magnetic resonance imaging 161163
guidelines for handling procedures, 175
MSDSs; See Material Data Safety Sheets
Hrdlika, Ale, 151153
Hunt, David R., 159160
Oklahoma City bombing, 162
Owsley, Douglas W., 158159
n Physical Anthropology Division
collections, 164178
NAA; See National Anthropological access guidelines, 174175
Archives accommodations, 178
NAGPRA; See Native American Graves destructive sampling, 177178
Protection and Repatriation Act equipment and facilities, 176
National Anthropological Archives (NAA), listing of holdings, 165173
152 photography, 176
radiography, 176177
National Center for Missing and Exploited
skeletal research techniques, 163
Children (NCMEC), 181
Stewart, T. Dale, 153155
National Crime Information Computer
Ubelaker, Douglas H., 157158
(NCIC), 43
Vietnam conflict, 154
National Dental Image Repository (NDIR),
Waco incident, 161
43
National Museum of Natural History
National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), (Smithsonian Institution),
102 Repatriation Osteology
National Forensic Academy (NFA), 18 Laboratory, 117147
National Institute of Justice, 197, 198 additional resources, 135136
National Museum of the American Indian age and sex, 123124
Act (NMAIA), 118 back to sleep movement, 134
National Museum of Natural History Battle of the Big Hole, 139
(NMNH), 118; See also National Binder syndrome, 132
Museum of Natural History caries-related tooth loss, 129
(Smithsonian Institution), case studies, 136143
Division of Physical Curly Head Jack, 140141
Anthropology; National Hawikku priest, 141143
Museum of Natural History Nez Perce warrior, 138139
(Smithsonian Institution), Sioux Giant, 136138
Repatriation Osteology copper staining, 128
Laboratory cranial deformation, 133
2320.indb 218 4/9/08 3:10:59 PM

Index 219
cranial modification, 132134 NDIR; See National Dental Image

cultural affiliation and forensic Repository
anthropology, 118120 NDMS; See National Disaster Medical
data entry main menu, 122 System
database entry, 121 NFA; See National Forensic Academy
dental modifications, 129
NMAIA; See National Museum of the
dentition, 128129
American Indian Act
destructive analysis, 135
digitizer, 125 NMNH; See National Museum of Natural
discriminant function analyses, 137 History
documentation, 120, 124 NTSB; See National Transportation Safety
Federal Rules of Evidence, 120 Board
historical evidence, 118119
Injun Joe, 138
inventory, 123
lab operations, 120123 o
martyrs, 143
measurements, 124126 OAFME; See Office of the Armed Forces
nonmetric traits, 134 Medical Examiner
pathology data entry screen, 122 Occupational Health and Safety
photographic and radiographic Administration (OSHA), 209, 211
documentation, 134135 OdontoSearch, 56, 205
photography, 134135 Office of the Armed Forces Medical
radiography, 135 Examiner (OAFME), 162
plagiocephaly, 133
OPIM; See Other potentially infectious
population demographic profiles, 124
materials
postcranial metrics, 126
potentially known individual, 138 OSHA; See Occupational Health and Safety
Pueblo Revolt of 1680, 141 Administration
rickets, 142 Other potentially infectious materials
ROL, 130 (OPIM), 209
scaphocephalic Indian, 130
scoliosis, 143
skeletal pathology, 130132
standard for civil laws, 119120 p
statistical techniques, 125
taphonomy, 126128 Personal protective equipment (PPE), 210
tribal identity, 121 Photograph(s)
Works Progress Administration, 118 autopsy, 33
National Transportation Safety Board FACES Laboratory, 186
(NTSB), 111 homicide scene, 32
Native American Graves Protection and skeletal materials, 175
Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), 118 Photography
Native Americans; See National Museum
cadaver, 14
of Natural History (Smithsonian
CIL, 54
Institution), Repatriation
Osteology Laboratory digital, 72, 73
NCIC; See National Crime Information value of in Native American
Computer consultations, 134
NCMEC; See National Center for Missing Plagiocephaly, 133
and Exploited Children PPE; See Personal protective equipment
2320.indb 219 4/9/08 3:10:59 PM

220 Index
q SOPs; See Standard operating procedures

Standard operating procedures (SOPs), 59,
QA; See Quality assurance 195
Quality assurance (QA), 58, 60
t
r
Tarrant County Medical Examiner
(TCME), 26, 27
Radio frequency identification chips
AFIS terminal, 41
(RFIDs), 107
autopsy stations, 27
Radiography machines, types of, 206
forensic odontologist at, 42
Recovery team configuration, CIL, 54
Human Identification unit, 27
Repatriation Osteology Laboratory (ROL),
morgue, 29
119, 130; See also National
unidentified persons database, 44
Museum of Natural History
TCME; See Tarrant County Medical
(Smithsonian Institution),
Examiner
Repatriation Osteology
Time-since-death research, 8
Laboratory
Training
RFIDs; See Radio frequency identification autopsy process used in, 45
chips courses
ROL; See Repatriation Osteology AFL, 79
Laboratory ARF, 1819
graduate student, 2
incident morgue, 109
s in-house lectures, 45
osteology, 74
practitioner-based, 2
Scanning-electron microscope (SEM), 135,
search and recovery personnel, 109
182
session topics, ARF, 19
Scaphocephaly, 130, 131
SEM; See Scanning-electron microscope
September 11 (2001) World Trade Center
disaster, 107, 163 u
number of reported missing following,
99 Unidentified persons database, 44
recovery efforts, 24 University of Indianapolis Archeology
Sharp force trauma, 41, 205 and Forensics Laboratory (AFL),
Skeletal biological research, central location 6596
for, 149 assailant cooperation, 77
Skeletal inventory, 204 blunt force trauma, 93
Skeletal remains, processing of, 201 budget, 65
Skeletal research, new techniques for, 163 buried evidence, 79, 84
Smithsonian Institution; See National cadaver dogs, 77, 78, 79
Museum of Natural History chain-of-custody forms, 73, 94
(Smithsonian Institution), collection of remains, 85
Division of Physical conservation of fragile elements, 71
Anthropology; National Museum coroner system, 76
of Natural History (Smithsonian digital photography, 72, 73
Institution), Repatriation DNA samples, 72
Osteology Laboratory evidence provenience, 83
2320.indb 220 4/9/08 3:11:00 PM

Index 221
evidence room, 67 skeleton visual impression form, 92

excavation grid, 86 soft tissue decomposition, 87
facilities and procedures, 6675 stereoscopic microscope, 68
collections, 7475 taphonomic observations form, 93
lab protocol, 7074 teaching osteology, 74
field recovery, 7586 T-probe, 78
field strategies, 8284 U.S. Department of Health and Human
medicolegal system, 76 Services (HHS), 102
methodology, 8486
reports, 72
scene protocol, 8182
searches, 7779
v
training courses, 7980
forensic taphonomy, 8688 Video enhancement, FACES Laboratory,
geotaphonomy, 87 186
GPS unit accuracy, 80
graduate assistant, 69
hazardous artifacts, 70 w
human remains field inventory form,
9596 War veterans; See Joint POW/MIA
identification of animal remains, 73 Accounting Command, Central
laboratory exercise, 67 Identification Laboratory
maceration room, 68 William M. Bass Donated Skeletal
main analytical area, 67 Collection, 18, 20
movement of skeletal remains, 87 World Trade Center attacks, 107, 163
nonhuman skeletal collections, 74 number of reported missing following,
photodocumentation of scene, 81 99
postmortem damage to remains, 82 recovery efforts, 24
recording of osteological information,
72
recovery of skeletal evidence, 82
reference grid, 84 x
relationships with law enforcement, 88
research associate position, 69 X-ray fluorescence (XRF) scanner, 128
site stratigraphy, 83 XRF scanner; See X-ray fluorescence
skeletal analysis fees, 73 scanner
2320.indb 221 4/9/08 3:11:00 PM

2320.indb 222 4/9/08 3:11:00 PM

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2 The Anthropology Research Facility:

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This book, The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, was created as a survey of

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Command (JPAC) to shed light on the forensic anthropology standards they

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methods of skeletal analysis. Both forensic anthropologists present case stud-

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Heather Walsh-Haney is an assistant professor at Florida Gulf Coast Uni-

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Dana Austin, PhD, D-ABFA Erica B. Jones, MA

Thomas Holland, PhD, D-ABFA Stephen P. Nawrocki, D-ABFA

David R. Hunt, PhD, D-ABFA Stephen D. Ousley, PhD

Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD Vincent Sava

Richard L. Jantz, PhD Paul Sledzik, MS

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Heather Walsh-Haney, PhD Michael Warren, PhD, D-ABFA

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Forensic Anthropology Defined by Kerley and Maples

As defined by Ellis Kerley (1978:160), forensic anthropology is the special-

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to assist medical examiners in making correct judgments on issues of legal

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of the laboratory director in a university setting. The most widely accepted

Caseload and Legal Considerations

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Will the forensic anthropologists testimony help the jury to understand

If laboratory protocols and/or procedures used in the application of sci-

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To encourage study and practice of forensic anthropology, establish sci-

As such, forensic anthropologists collect their skeletal evidence with

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On a wooded lot near the Tennessee River in Knoxville, Tennessee covering

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A Missed Time-Since-Death Estimate

The Facility Takes Form

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Evolution of the Facility

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Figure2.1 Aerial view of the Anthropological Research Facility (ARF). The