CHAPTER 8

DEVELOPING PROCEDURES AND TOOLS FOR DATA GATHERING

Topics to be discussed: Procedures in Data Collection

1. Notation
Types of Data needed In Research
2. Description
1. Description
3. Analysis
2. Scores
4. Questioning
3. Measurements
5. Testing
4. Opinions
6. Measurement
5. Statements
Stages of Data Processing
6. Analyses
1. Editing
Sources of Data
2. Coding
Validity and Reliability in Data
3. Classification
Collection
4. Tabulation
5. Graphical Presentation
6. Data Adjusting

RAMOS, KARLA MONIQUE K.

Types of Data Needed In Research

1. Descriptions verbal representation of participants, objects, procedures, and settings.
2. Scores- These are the numerical values assigned to test performance.
Example: A grade of 20 over 20 in a quiz in Business Research.
3. Measurements- These are the appraisals made with measuring instruments other than
tests. These are usually stated in numerical.
4. Opinions- Views expressed by participants and informants which can indicate status of
thought, attitude, or value.
5. Statements- Informed verbal descriptions or opinions as may be given by authorities or
eyewitnesses
6. Analyses- These are the clarifications and conclusions arrived at thorough scrutiny or
logic.

Sources of Data
1. Participants Individuals selected to undergo scrutiny in a study.
2. Procedures- Formalized way of operating in a particular setting.
3. Settings- Specific environments in which behavior occurs or is intended to occur.
 4. Objects Inanimate things like books, supplies, materials, and artifacts.
5. Records Highly summarized reports of performance, expenditures and the like which
are kept for future reference.
6. Documents Written papers and reports in their entirety , like journal articles, technical
papers, curriculum guides, photographs, drawings or other illustrations.
7. Informants People other than participants of the study from where opinions, informed
views and expert testimonies are obtained

Validity and Reliability in Data Collection

Validity is an essential quality in research data,, it has to do with whether the data collection tool
measures what it intends to measure.
Reliability on the other hand, refers to the consistency of results

BIBAL, MYKA I.
Procedures in Data Collection
As pointed out by Charles (1998), data can be collected by means of the following general
procedures:

A. NOTATION
Notation is a process of making very brief, written notes, tally marks or evaluation
symbols about people, objects, settings, or events being observed.
Tools: paper and pencil
Data Format: Recorded in sequence that they are observed or slotted into categories that
correspond to the elements receiving special attention in research

Example: To be able to determine the type of questions used by a professor in the classroom,
a researcher may observe how he asks questions and tally the number of times a certain type
of question is raised.

B. DESCRIPTION
Description is the process of putting observations into verbal form by conveying the
complete picture replete with details.
This process is usually used in ethnographic and descriptive researches.
Tools: pencil, notebooks, audio and video recorders
Data Format: Presented as notes and organized according to the research questions or
hypothesis
Examples:

Observing by video or audio recording

If people are to be observed in a closed setting, the researcher is not a participant observer,
and tape- or video-recording is permissible then this data recording approach may be
appropriate (e.g. physician-patient encounters).
Choosing to tape-record of video-record a setting will depend in large part on what is
permissible in that setting. There are, however, a few things to keep in mind:

Decisions regarding how to record observational data depend largely on the focus of the
research question and the analytical approach proposed.

If the researcher is trying to understand how people behave together and the people in
question can see each other, then the use of video may be recommended. This is because
of the important role that bodily-based behavior plays in our social processes. Without
this visual information, the researcher may not fully understand what transpires (e.g.
physician-patient encounters). Additionally, capturing the details of this behavior in
fieldnotes will be difficult.

Audio-recording a telephone counseling session makes sense because the two interactants
(and the researcher) only have access to verbal communication.

Audio and video recordings afford the researcher the opportunity to transcribe what
occurs in a setting and play it over and over. This can be very useful in the analysis
process.

Fieldnotes
Participant observers may use multiple methods to gather data. One primary approach
involves writing fieldnotes. There are several guides for learning how to prepare fieldnotes.
Researchers may be interested in creating or using a template to guide a researchers'
observations.

Templates or observational coding sheets can be useful when data is collected by

inexperienced observers

Templates or observational coding sheets should only be developed after observation in

the field that is not inhibited by such a template

Theories and concepts can be driven by templates and result in focused data collection

Templates can deflect attention from unnamed categories, unimagined and unanticipated
activities that can be very important to understanding a phenomenon and a setting
 C. ANALYSIS
Analysis is a process of obtaining data from objects, settings, and procedures, which
involves a careful scrutiny to discover traits, meanings, and relationships.
Tools: a guide that would identify what is being sought and include criteria and examples
for determining the presence and quantity of the desired elements should be used in this
process
Data Format: May either be verbal or numerical paralleling the structure of the analysis
guide

Example: To be able to describe the teaching of computer technology in an institution of

higher learning, a guide for analysis can include the following criteria:

Goals of the program correspond to the stated goals of TESDA

Course syllabi provide clear and unambiguous statements of intended learnings
A hands-on-approach to learning is emphasized in all computer courses
Textbooks and practicum manuals are written at an appropriate level of difficulty

BADEO JR., DIORICO H.

D. QUESTIONING
Questioning is the process used in eliciting and probing responses from participants and
informants.
a. Interview
- The question is conducted in person. The interviewer asks questions directly from
the respondents, either face to face or by telephone.
- This are time and cost intensive, which limits the number of respondents to be
included in the group.
- 30 respondents is usually the least number feasible and acceptable in descriptive
research.
b. Survey
- Second structural procedures for questioning respondents.
- It is usually done by printed questionnaires mailed to large samples, though the
survey can also be done through the telephone.
- This tends to be broader in scope and less personal in nature than an interview.
- Less time to invest per respondents than the latter.
- It can be cross sectional/longitudinal

1. Cross Sectional survey- collects data across different segments of population

at a particular time.
2. Longitudinal survey- obtains data from the same groups of individuals or
research subjects over time.
The following are tools for collection of data through questioning:
 o Interview guide
o Questionnaire
o Likert Scale
o Semantic differential scale.

A. Interview Guide- contains questions in sequence that a researchers will ask the
respondents. This can be included clarifying and probing questions. The following are
types of items included in this:
o Highly structured
o Semi- structured
o Open-ended

B. Questionnaire- it is the useful tool in questioning where the data are collected by means
of a written survey. Same type of items are included in a questionnaire as in an interview
guide.

C. Likert Scale- it is an instrument composed of statements that permit responses of varying

levels or series of gradations, like strongly agree, agree, somewhat agree, disagree, or
strongly agree.

D. Semantic differential scale- It presents pairs of polar adjectives related to a word or

phrase. A continuum, usually consisting of 5 or more blank is given between the pairs of
adjective.

The following are the two kinds of responses that are usually obtained in interviews;
1. Open-ended responses- this are collected as they are written by the respondents.
2. Structured responses- this are tabulated as they are received.

E. TESTING
- This is the process of obtaining data by having respondents answer written or oral
examination.
- There are two types of test which are commonly used in researching:
a. Researcher-made test- this is designed by the researchers itself based on the
purpose of the researchers they undertakes.
b. Standardized test- is constructed with great precision by a professional test
maker. It is commonly accompanied by norms that permit comparisons of
individuals, institutions, and systems, with very high level of validity and
reliability.
- The data collected by testing is initially raw numerical scores. They may be scaled
or list in categories and can be converted into percentile or other derived scores.

F. MEASUREMENT
 1. Interval Scales- consist of raw numbers, like 30, 40, 50, 60.
2. Ordinal Scales- shows position of an individual in rank.
3. Nominal Scales- assigns individuals to some categories.

- The scoring may be done in terms of accuracy, time required, and other criterion.

TAN, FRESSA FAITH C.

Data Processing
The quality of results obtained from statistical analysis, is to a large extent, affected by the
thoroughness of data preparation before this are transformed into suitable level for analysis.
Therefore, the raw data collected during the gathering phase must be prepared before they are
meaningfully analyzed using statistical techniques.
Stages of Data Processing
1. Editing of data is the process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible. The following are the problems to be
determined during data editing:
Unanswered Questions- These are usually seen as items without response or left
blank which could have been intentionally or unintentionally left unanswered.
Dont Know Answers- When there are too many questions given, this type of answer
could indicate that the chosen respondent may not be the appropriate one or is not
inclined to reveal the truth.
Not Applicable Answers- Too many items with this type of reply may indicate that
the respondent could not be the appropriate one.
Wrong Answers- There are instances when responses to open-ended questions are
not correctly given.
Inconsistent Answers- These are responses that tend to contradict each other or do
no match when compared.
Ambiguous Answers- Ambiguity occurs when the respondent is not very clear on the
reasons being given, or when several choices are checked even if the instructions is to
choose only one.
All Extreme or Central Tendency Answers- The respondent is either too harsh or
too lax or just plays safe by giving middle answers on the assessment scale.
Disqualified Respondent- These are cases when an ineligible respondent is included
in the sample.
Illegible Writing- In a self-administered questionnaire, handwriting of respondents
may not be easily understood.
Mistakes by the Researcher- There are instances when the data gatherer gives the
wrong instruction or interpretation of the question. Therefore, respondents, in turn,
commit mistake or give confusing answers.
 Failure of Respondent to Follow Instructions- There are occasions when
respondent fails to follow written instructions.
If any of these problems are detected during the data editing phase, the researcher may do
any of the following courses of action:
Conduct a Callback- This step entails going back to the original respondents to
correct responses in questions where problems were encountered. Such a step may be
taken if it is possible to locate again the respondents and if they are still willing to
cooperate.
Disregard Problematic Questions- This step involves the exclusion of questions that
were not appropriately answered.
Invalidate the Entire Form- Respondents who answered items inappropriately will
be excluded from the study without replacement. This step can be done if the sample
size requirement is not critical to the results of the study. But if the sample size
requirement is critical, substitution or replacement will have to be done. Actual
administering of the questionnaire or interview of these replacements will have to be
conducted.
2. Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into limited number of categories or classes. Coding fixed-
alternative responses are just straightforward.
3. Classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in group or
classes on the basis of common characteristics. Open-ended questions will call for the
construction of category or classifications sets before codes can be assigned to each
response. These categories to be developed should be related to the purpose of the
investigation.
4. Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact
form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. Tabulation is an orderly
arrangement of data in columns and rows.
5. Graphical representation helps to understand the data easily.
6. Data adjusting is not always necessary but it may improve the quality of analysis
sometimes.