Perfect straightness is one of the important geometrical parameters of many

of the surfaces on an object/part of machine in order to serve its intended

function. For example, in case of a shaping machine, it is required that a tool
must move in a straight path to perfectly cut the material (shape) and to get
this, the surfaces of guideways must be straight.
It is very easy to define a straight line as the shortest distance between two
lines. But it is very dif ficult to define straightness exactly. A ray of light,
though it is affected by environmental conditions (temperature, pressure and
humidity in the air), for general purposes is straight. Also, for small areas,
liquid level is considered as straight and flat.
In the broader sense, straightness can be defined as one of the qualitative
representations of a surface in terms of variation/departure of its geometry
from a predefined straight line or true mean line. Refer Fig. 4.1 which shows
a very exaggerated view of a surface under consideration. A line/surface is
said to be straight if the deviation of the distance of the points from two planes
perpendicular to each other and parallel to the general direction of the line
remains within a specific tolerance limit.

Using Spirit Level We can do straightness testing using spirit level. Spirit
level is used in the shape of a bubble tube which is mounted on a cast-iron
base. Inside the glass tube, the spirit level (gen erally used) has a circular arc
of radius R which moves during a change of slope around the centre M. The
sensitivity of the spirit level depends only on the radius of curvature of the
bubble tube and not on the length of its bearing surface. (A short level may be
more sensitive than a long coarse one. However, it is advisable to use spirit
levels which are so short that small deviations are obtained rather than mean
values). The sensitivity E of the spirit level is the movement of the bubble in
millimetres, which cor responds to the change in slope of1 mm per 1000 mm.

An auto-collimator can also be used to test the straightness. Spirit levels can
be used only to measure/test straightness of horizontal surfaces while auto-
collimators can be used on a surface in any plane. To test the surface for
straightness, first of all draw a straight line on the surface. Then divide the
line into a number of sections (in case of a spirit level, it is equal to the length
of the spirit level base and length of the reflectors base in case of auto-
collimator). Generally, bases of these instruments are fitted with two feet in
order to get the line contact of feet with a surface instead of its whole body.
In case of a spirit level, the block is moved along the marked line in steps
equal to the pitch distance between the centrelines of the feet. The angular
variations of the direction of the block are measured by the sensitive level on
it, which ultimately gives the height difference between two points by
knowing the least count of the spirit level. Figure 4.2 (Plate 4) shows a spirit
level (only 63 mm long) is that perfectly useful, despite its small size, when it
is placed on a carpenters square or a steel rule. The screws do not exert any
direct pressure on the rule. Steel balls are set in the level so that (a) the surface
of the ruler is not damaged, and (b) the unit does not shift when it is fixed on
the temporary base. The thickness of square or ruler is up to 2 mm.

Straight Edges In conjunction of surface plates and spirit levels, straight

edges are used for checking straightness and flatness. It is a narrow/thin, deep
and flat-sectioned measuring instru ment. Its length varies from several
millimetres to a few metres. These are made up of steels (available up to 2 m),
cast iron (available up to 3 m). As shown in Fig. 4.3, straight edges are ribbed
heavily and manufactured in bow shapes. The deep and narrow shape is
provided to offer considerable resistance to bending in the plane of
measurement without excessive weight. Straight edges with wide working
edges are used for testing large areas of surfaces with large intermediate gaps
or recesses. An estimation of the straightness of an edge or the flatness of a
surface very often is made by placing a true straight edge in contact with it
and viewing against the light background. A surface can also be tested by
means of straight edges by applying a light coat of Prussian Blue on the
working edges and then by drawing them across the surface under test. The
traces of marking compounds are rubbed in this way on the tested surfaces
and the irregularities on the surface are coated in spots with different densities,
as high spots are painted more densely and low spots are partly painted. (This
scraping process is repeated until a uniform distribution of spots on the whole
surface is obtained.) IS: 2200 recommends two grades, viz., Grade A and
Grade B. Grade A is used for inspection purposes [error permitted (2 + 10L)]
and Grade B is used for workshop general purpose [error permitted (5 +
20L)]. The acceptable natural deflection due to weight is 10/m. The side
faces of straight edges should be parallel and straight. Different types of
straight edges are shown in Fig. 4.4.

Laser Measurement System for Straightness Measurement Straightness mea

surements highlight any bending component or overall misalignment in the
guideways of a machine. This could be the result of wear in these guideways,
an accident, which may have damaged them in some way, or poor machine
foundations that cause a bowing effect on the whole machine. The straight
ness error will have a direct effect on the positioning and contouring accuracy
of a machine. The setup of the components used in this measurement comprise
Straightness beam-splitter Straightness reflector as shown in Fig. 4.5. (Plate
4) For measurement set-up, the straightness reflector is mounted to a fixed
position on the table even if it moves. The straightness beam-splitter should
then be mounted in the spindle. If straightness measurements are taken on two
axes, it is possible to assess parallelism. It is also possible to measure
squareness errors between these axes.
FLATNESS MEASUREMENT Flatness is simply a minimum distance
between two planes, which covers all irregularities of the surface under study.
In other words, determining flatness means to determine the best-fit plane
between two reference planes i.e., one above and one below the plane of
surface under consideration. Flatness, a qualitative term, can be quantified by
determining the distance d. Refer Fig. 4.6. Flatness is the deviation of the
surface from the best-fitting plane, i.e., the macro-surface topogra phy. It can
be defined as an absolute total value; for examplea 50-mm diameter disc is
required to be flat to 0.003 mm (i.e., 3 microns). However, it is more
frequently specified as deviation per unit length; i.e., the disc above would be
specified to be flat to 0.0006 mm per cm. Flatness could also be defined in
terms of wavelengths of light (see measurement of flatness). According to IS:
20631962, a surface is deemed to be flat within a range of measurement
when the variation of perpendicular distance of its points from a geometrical
plane (to be tested, it should be exterior to the surface under study) parallel to
the general trajectory of the plane to be tested remains
below a given value. The geometrical plane may be represented either by
means of a surface plane or by a family of straight lines obtained by the
displacement of a straight edge or spirit level or a light beam. Flat testing is
possible by comparing the surface under study with an accurate surface. On
many round ness systems, it is possible to measure flatness. This is done by
rotating the gauge so that the stylus deflection is in a vertical direction. This
can apply equally for both upper and lower surfaces. All spindle movement
and data-collection methods are the same for that in roundness mode. So
filtering and harmonic techniques of analysis are the same for those of
roundness. Flatness can be analyzed by quantifying deviations from a least-
squares reference plane. A least-squares reference plane is a plane where the
areas above and below the plane are equal and are kept to a minimum
separation. Flatness is calculated as the highest peak to the deepest valley
normal to a reference plane. Geometrical tolerance of flatness is as shown in
Fig. 4.7.

Flatness can also be analyzed by a minimum zone calculation, defined as two

parallel planes that totally enclose the data and are kept to a minimum
separation. The flatness error can be defined as the separation of the two
planes. 4.3.1 Methods of Flatness Measurement 1. Beam Comparator Used
for Flatness Testing A flat plane, which is used in most metrological activities
as a reference is referred as surface plate. An instrument called beam
comparator checks the general degree of flatness. It works on the principle
used in a method of comparative mea surement. With the help of this
instrument, the flatness of a surface under consideration is compared with a
master plate (same size or larger). For this comparative testing, it is not
essential that, a reference master plate itself should be absolutely true, but the
error should be known. Figure 4.8 shows the beam comparator set-up.

It consists of two outer legs to accommodate the maximum dimension of the

surface under test. First, it is to be placed on the master plate and then on the
surface under checking. The reading is to be read from the indicator for every
turn of comparison. If any difference between two readings exists, it indicates
directly the error in the flatness in the plate surface under test over the span
considered. The alternative method to this is by using a precision-level
instrument or an auto-collimator. 2. Flatness Measurement by Interferometry
Small variations of less than one or two microns are measured using
interference fringes produced between the surface and an optical flat illu
minated by monochromatic light. (Monochromatic light is used because the
fringes then have more contrast and are more sharply defined). Like Newtons
rings, the fringes may be regarded as contours of equal distance from the
surface of the flat; the separation between each fringe of the same colour
represents a height difference of half a wavelength of the light used (Fig. 4.9).
The optical flat method has the disadvantage that the surfaces of the flat and
specimen must be in close contact leading to scratching of both. The
interferometer shows the fringes using a non-contact method, where the
sample is separated by several millimetres from the optical reference flat. The
fringes are produced by a telescope/eye-safe laser system and are viewed
through the telescope eyepiece. They can also be pho to graphed or displayed
on a CCTV system. Samples can be measured whilst they remain in position
on a precision-polishing jig. The fringes follow the direction of the arrows
when the optical flat is pressed in closer contact with the surface of the sample.
For many interferometry situations, the interferometer mainframe and the
optics accessories may all sit on one vibration isolation table, with the
measurement beam oriented horizontally. However, in many other cases, the
set-up illustration will show the interferometer in a vertical orientation, either
upward or downward looking. This popular set-up, as shown in Fig. 4.10, that
is conducive to ergonomic requirement, changes test pieces very fast, and uses
less space. Flatness measurement interferometry set-ups such as this are used
for the metrology of surface flat ness of plane elements such as mirrors,
prisms, and windows up to 150 mm. The test object must be held so that the
surface under test can be aligned in two axes of tilt. The transmission flat,
which should be of known flatness and shape, serves to shape the beam to its
own shape, and provides a reference wavefront, which is compared to the
returning, reflected light from the test object. Each spatial point in the
combined beams is evaluated for the variation between the wavefront of the
transmission flat and the test object. These differences are expressed as
interfer ence between the two beams.