CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the background to the study, the perceived problem, evidence of the

problem, problem diagnosis, causes of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study,

research questions, and significance of the study, delimitations of the study and organization of

the study.

1.1 Background to the study

The development of a Nation depends very much on science and Technology. One aspect of

science is mathematics. Mathematics is used in the study of geometry, Electricity and

Navigation, bearing in mind, the importance of fractions in our natural life.

Education is geared towards the tuning of the minds of pupils to certain aspects of life in every

sphere of life. Human resources have been identified as the most important factor for the

progress and development of a nation. It is therefore important to be developed to the fullest if

not partial, so as to enable other factors like capital and land to be mobilized for sustainable

development.

The word fraction comes from the Latin word fragere meaning to break. Fractions result from

breaking a unit into a number of parts but the parts must be equal. The general term associated

with fraction is division or in simpler terms ratio. According to Word Book Encyclopedia (WBE)

fraction in arithmetic generally stands for the number of equal parts into which something has

been divided. There are fractions with same denominators, these fractions are called equal

fractions, some fractions too have different denominators and they are also called unlike

fractions.

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The Cuisenaire rods are a set of rods which is made up of one centimeter square (1cm2) with

different lengths. It is usually made up of a piece of wood smoothly planed with the cross-section

cut measuring 1cm *1cm *1cm of different length and colour. The length varies from 1cm to

10cm long with the same sizes.

In the early 1950s, Caleb Gattegno popularised this set of coloured number rods created by the

Belgian primary school teacher Georges Cuisenaire (1891-1976), who called the rods rglettes.

In the basic school curriculum, one of the most interesting subjects is mathematics. Over the

years, the subject has captured the attention of many people including geographers, scientist,

historians, psychologists and business oriented personnel. This implies that the subject does not

have a precise definition; Parling D. (1982) defines mathematics as a way of finding answers to

problems - a way in which we use information, our knowledge of shapes and measurements as

well as figures to calculate.

The research was conducted in E P College of Education Demonstration Primary School located

in Bimbilla, of the Nanumba North District in Northern part of Ghana. The school has a student

population of about one thousand and sixty-five (1065). The school is also resourced with a staff

population of fourteen (24) teachers comprising sixteen (16) male teachers and eight female

teachers. Bimbilla is predominantly a trading and farming center in Ghana with a number of

school drop outs youth which might be one of the consequences of indiscipline exhibited among

pupils in the area. Due to the business and farming activities of the people in Bimbilla, some

parents not attach serious attention to their wards education. As such, most of the youth are

engaged in politics, chieftaincy litigations and petty trading.

The parents therefore prefer their children helping them in their business activities to attending

school. Majority of the people in this area is made of illiterates which also results in poor or low

2
attitude towards education. Even though some of the parents were literates, there were others

who preferred taking their wards to the farm instead of taking them to school. The community

has a market day which falls within the school days specifically on Thursdays. Due to this, most

pupils prefer going to the market instead. The few ones who were regular in class were facing the

problem of identification of unlike fractions. The problem manifested itself when about (80%)

eighty percent of the class were unable to solve the questions presented to them.

1.2 Perceived Problem

The development of a competent understanding of unlike fraction is a prerequisite tool for

learning other related topics in Mathematics syllabus. Even though the topic is very important in

facilitating the understanding of other related topics, most teachers resort to the use of wrong

methods of teaching and at times not using teaching / learning materials at all. This makes the

topic identification of unlike fractions very complicated for pupils to understand. Upon

critically examinations, it came to light that the previous teacher taught them without using

concrete materials. It also came to light that, some of the teachers concentrate their lesson on

only brilliant pupils and those pupils who are not academically sound, were not motivated. It was

upon these findings that the researcher decided to help pupils understand the concept of unlike

fractions by choosing the Cuisenaire rods and fractional board in solving the problem of

identification of unlike fractions.

1.3 Problem diagnosis

The researcher after a series of discussions with her colleague teachers and some pupils realized

that the understanding of pupils in the topic of addition of fractions was very low. The researcher

3
thereafter decided to design a vigorous research strategy to discover comprehensively diagnose

the problem understanding of pupils in the concept of addition of unlike fractions.

Upon interview conducted by the researcher, it was revealed that the teachers do not use TLMs

in teaching.

Researchers own observation showed that most of the teachers do not use the right method and

techniques of teaching. Upon a class tests conducted by the researcher, it indicated that pupil do

not understand the concept of unlike fractions.

1.4 Evidence of the problem

Evidence from the test: The researcher after delivering a lesson on the addition of fraction with

different denominators (unlike fraction) conducted a short test. The results for the test taken by

the student revealed that about 90 % of the pupils could not obtain the average score. The results

obtained from this activity showed that the problem was not only peculiar to class five pupils of

E P College of Education Demonstration Primary School.

Documentary Evidence: results of pupils for first and second terminal examination indicated

that about 70% of the pupils scored below 50% in mathematics.

Evidence from interview: upon the interview conducted by the researcher on the pupils

understanding of the concept of unlike fractions, it showed that most of the pupils were not able

to identify unlike fractions from like fractions and others.

1.5 Causes of the Problem

The researcher identified the following as the probable causes to the poor understanding

exhibited by class five pupils of E P College of Education Demonstration Primary School.

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 1. Pupils were not taught the concept of unlike fractions in the previous class (class four).

2. Pupils parents do not support them to their homework due to their engagement on

trading activities, farm work and also the fact that most of them are illiterates.

3. Teachers used poor methods to the concept of addition of fraction

4. The teaching methods employed by the teachers were not pupil centred.

5. The appropriate teaching and learning by teachers who handle mathematics.

1.6 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to identify the causes of pupils inability to identify unlike fractions

and helping pupils to improve using the Cuisenaire rods and the fractional board.

1.7 Objectives of the Study

1. To identify the causes of pupils of E P College of Education Demonstration Primary Five

inability to identify unlike fractions

2. To outline the effects of the problem on the academic performance of pupils.

3. To use Cuisenaire rods and fractional boards to help solve the problem.

1.8 Research Questions

In the attempt of designing an intervention for the problem of identification of unlike fractions,

the researcher tried to find answers to the following questions;

1. What are the causes of pupils inability to identify unlike fractions?

2. How can the Cuisenaire rods and the fractional board be used to improve on the pupils

performance?

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 3. How has this problem affected pupils academic performance?

1.9 Significance of the Study

The teachers on the other will not be left out because it will help them to equip themselves with

the knowledge on how to prepare their teaching and learning materials and uses of modern

methods of teaching topic with ease. This study also portrays the importance of using teaching

and learning materials in lesson presentations. This ensures easy and lasting understanding of the

concepts taught. It also saves the teacher the time of giving lengthy talks; hence teachers will be

able to complete the syllabuses on time.

This material will also be of immense benefit to the educational sector. It has been said that,

education is the key to success of every nation, therefore, when pupils are performing creditably

well, it will bring about improvement in the countrys economy.

It will also serve as literature for other teachers and students under taking research in

mathematics for their Diploma or Post Diploma or Degree Programmes.

1.10 Delimitations

This study is concerned with helping pupils to identify of unlike fractions through the use of

Cuisenaire rods and fractional board and is also confined to only E P College of Education

Demonstration Primary School Primary Five (5).

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1.11 Organization of the Study

For every activity to go on successfully without deviating from its target there has to be some

laid down procedure that will continuously serve as a guide towards achieving its objects. In the

same way, this study is also made up of five (5) chapters.

Chapter one of the study comprises the background of the study, the perceived problem, problem

diagnosis, evidence of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, the research

questions, significance of the study, delimitations of the study and finally the organization of the

study.

The next chapter reviews the related Literature. It talks about what other scholars have said

about the topic in question and the source of information from journals, magazines, or subject.

The third chapter deals with the research methodology, research design, population and sample

selection, research instruments used for the study, data collection procedure, limitations and data

analysis plan.

Chapter four also talks about how the information gathered has been presented, the results of the

study and its discussions. The final and the concluding chapter of this work talks about the

summary of the work, conclusion and recommendations for future research work.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Introductions

This chapter focuses on related literature. It comprises of five main subheadings. These are (1)

Issues in Mathematics (2) The concept of fractions (3) The concept of unlike fractions. (4) The

use of concrete materials in teaching unlike fractions. (5) Concrete materials used in the teaching

processes.

2.1 The Concept of Fractions

In mathematics, fractions from the Latin word is (fractions) meaning to (break). Fraction is a

way of expressing a number of equal parts. Fractions consist of two numbers; a numerator and a

denominator. The numerator gives the number of parts that were taken out and the denominator

represents those parts that make the whole. For instance 34 could be used to represent three (3)

equal parts of an orange. Mathematically, fraction is a quotient of numbers representing a

quantity obtained when a numerator is divided by a denominator, thus 34 represents three

divided by four or in decimal representation 0.75.

Copeland (1967) defined fractions as symbols or numerals that represent a set called the

fractional numbers; and that in the simplest sense a fraction may be thought of as a broken part

of some whole. He interpreted fractions as (i) parts of a whole, (ii) parts of a set of objects as well

as parts of a single unit, (iii) indicators of division, (iv) indicators of comparisons and (v)

numerals.

D' Augustine (1968) supported the views of Copeland (1967) and further expressed a fraction in

the form where a and b name whole numbers; and where a is called the numerator and b the

8
denominator. Other writers (Collier & Lerch, 1969; Fellr & Phillips, 1972; Gerber, 1982;

Kinney, Marks & Puidy, 1965; May, 1970) supported the definitions and the attributes of

fractions expressed by Copeland. However, Fehr & Phillips (1972) and Gerber (1982) thought it

is difficult to maintain the distinction between the use of the words 'fraction' and 'fractional

numbers'. D' Augustine (1968) argued that even though it is not appropriate to introduce the

child to the definition of fractional numbers in his early intuitive explorations, the basic

definition should always play a role in the teacher's presentation. May (1970) added that the fact

that the real meaning of fractional numbers cannot be taught until a student's comprehension

goes beyond halves and fourths.

The mathematics textbooks for the basic schools, Ghana Mathematical Series, Primary

Mathematics, Pupil's Book One to Three (CRDD 1991, 1987) introduced fractions as part of a

whole and as part of a set. Extensive use is made of shaded congruent portions of geometrical

shapes, pictures and the number line in illustrating the meaning of fractions. Significantly,

however, is the absence of the use of 'numerator' and 'denominator' in these books. The Ghana

Mathematic Series, Primary Mathematics, Pupil's Book Four to Six (CRDD, 1987), revise and

emphasize the concept of fractions as a part of whole and part of a set. The Ghana Mathematics

Series, Junior Secondary School, Pupil's Book One (CRDD, 1987) uses the number line

extensively to consolidate the concept of fractions as part of a whole. This textbook and the

Pupil's Book Four to Six (CRDD, 1987) used the terms 'numerator' and 'denominator' without

defining them.

According to Asafo Adjei, R (2002), fractions like decimals and percentages are number ideas

that are not whole numbers. He went further by saying that, we can look at fractions along three

9
perspectives; fractions as part of a whole unit, fractions as part of a group and fractions as a ratio

of comparing two quantities.

Streater, Hutchison and Hoelzle (2002) defined fractions by saying that, whenever a unit or a

whole number or quantity is divided into parts, we call those parts fractions of the unit. They

justified their point by dividing a whole into a named portion or parts and then take off the

mentioned part from it. For instance,25 here, the top number shows how many of the units were

taken and the number below shows the total number of parts that made the unit.

2.2 The Concept of Unlike Fractions

According to Asarfo Adjei (2002), the term unlike in made up of two words which may be

interpreted as equal in values. Unlike fractions are equal in value. He further stated that, unlike

fractions are fractions which repeat the same number but have different names. For example,

1 2 4 3 and so on and so forth.

2, 4, 8, 6

Buchanam (1992), explained unlike fractions as ratios of the same value. They illustrated their

point by saying that, if a whole number is divided into four equal halfs, half of it is the same

as24. They therefore concluded that, fractions such as12, 24, 36, 48 etc are example of

unlike fractions.

Hoelzle (2002), also mentioned that, unlike fraction is fractions whose cross products are

equal. They proved their point with some examples,24, and 48 and 324 etc. They therefore

concluded that, since the cross products of two ratio are the same, hence their definition.

10
In the view of various definitions, it could be concluded that for any number (n), multiplying a/n

has the same value as the original number: for instance, lets consider the fraction 24 which is

unlike to12.

2.3 Addition of Unlike Fractions

Several writers (Beavers, 1985; Booth, Dossey, Randull & Smith, 1992; Collier & Lerch, 1969;

Demana & Leitzel, 1984; Hoelzle, Hutchison & Streeter, 1995; Shuard & Williams, 1988) outlined

procedures for adding fractions with like and unlike denominators. To add two fractional numbers

with the same denominators, the numerators should be added, and the sum placed over the common

denominator. To add fractional numbers with different denominators; we should use the least

common multiple concept to first express the fractions as equivalent fractions with common

denominators. The numerators of the resulting fractions should be added and the sum placed over the

common denominator. The learner is cautioned to simplify the resulting fraction when necessary.

Worked examples were given in all cases to explain the application of the concepts. However,

Beavers (1985) and Gerber (1982) offered more diagramatic illustrations in introducing these

concepts.

Reekzeh (1983) advised teachers to do early problem - solving work involving addition and

subtraction of fractions with like denominators on exploratory level, using manipulative materials,

drawings and visual models. D'Augustine (1968) shared the views expressed by Ganoe el af (1983).

He stated that the utilization of a number line offers an advantage over most other models we might

choose. He argued that the number line is readily adapted for sums of fractional numbers less than or

equal to one, as well as for sums greater than one.

It is worthy to note that the number line and shaded geometric shapes were used to introduce the

concept of addition of fractions involving like denominators to pupils in the Ghana Mathematics

Series, Primary Mathematics, Pupil's Book Three (CRDD, 1987). Worked examples are illustrated

11
with diagrams. The concept is not consolidated in the Pupil's Book Four (CRDD, 1987) by way of

further discussions. Practice exercise on addition of fractions involving like and unlike denominators,

nevertheless, have been given to pupils to do. Treatment is given to the addition of fractions

involving like and unlike denominators in the Pupil's Book Five (CRDD, 1987). Worked examples

have no diagrammatic illustrations. The concept of the least common multiple is used to rename

given fractions into equivalent fractions with common denominators. The numerators of these

equivalent fractions are added and the sum placed over the common denominator. In the Ghana

Mathematics Series, Primary Mathematics, Pupil's Book Six (CRDD, 1987), under the heading

'Addition and Subtraction of Rational Numbers', definition for the least common denominator and its

application are discussed. This discussion was followed by practice exercises involving like and

unlike denominators for pupils to do. Worked examples are not given for pupils to study. The Ghana

Mathematics Series, Junior Secondary School, Pupil's Book One (CRDD, 1987) introduced only

addition of fractions involving unlike denominators with a few worked examples. The concept of the

least common multiples to rename the given fractions into equivalent fractions with common

denominators was used. The numerators of the equivalent fractions were added and the sum was

placed over the common denominator.

Kinney, Marks & Purdy (1965) stated that in the addition of fractions, careful teaching is required to

avoid errors such has adding both numerators and denominators. They stated that such difficulties

may be avoided by effective selection of experiences whereby pupils name sums by the use of

materials and adding fractional numbers is related to adding whole numbers with pupils.

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2.5 The causes of Pupils Inability to Add Fractions with Different Denominators

Perish (1998), writes that children experiences difficulty with addition of fractions with different

denominators because they do not have the same everyday experiences of fractions as two

natural numbers instead of a single number. They wrongly attributed properties of operations

with natural numbers to those with fractions.

Hasemann (2004), conducted a research on the difficulties pupils have with addition of fractions

with different denominators by using paper shading. Sample of thirty pupils between 11 15

years were tested on addition of fractions. The test included diagrams, word problems and

computational problems. The analyses were designed to find out the specific problems and

difficulties of these children. It was show that most children applied the number rules to

problems without knowing whether the rules work.

Murray and Newstead (1197), found that elementary school pupils in south Africa have a poor

understanding of adding fractions with different denominators when even the teacher uses paper

shading as a teaching aid because of;

The way and sequence in which the content was presented to the pupils. Pupils are exposed to a

limited variety of fractions (only halves and quarters) and the use of pre partitioned

manipulative. A classroom environment in which the pupils are many the teacher cannot monitor

all pupils when they are using the paper shading as their teaching aid.

2.6 The use of Concrete Materials in the Teaching of Unlike Fractions

The use of concrete materials in the teaching of unlike fractions in the basic schools has been

identified as the most effective and efficient way of helping pupils to learn a worthwhile

mathematical concept. Over the years, several mathematicians, educationists, psychologists and

13
many other scholars have been talking about the dangers involved when children are taught in

abstract terms.

According to Piaget, (2002) children under the ages of (7 12) fall under concrete operational

stage of his developmental stages. Such children can mentally manipulate objects so long as they

are concretely present. They must also be taught in an attribute or a concept at a time. The use of

concrete materials should therefore be the ultimate concern of the teachers if they really want

their students to understand the concept they are teaching them.

An American Psychologist called Jerome Brunner (2001) also commented on the use of concrete

materials in the teaching and learning of mathematics.

According to him, children and adults go through three main stages when they are learning

mathematical concept. These stages are Enactive, I conic and symbolic stages. That is, pupils

taking part or performing a given task, identifying number or figures or subjects using symbols

and the children being able to communicate symbolically respectively. Most JHS pupils

especially form two (2) pupils fall under the Iconic stage of Brunners developmental stages.

Here, they can make mental manipulations of objects but may not be able to manipulate them.

Children under this stage therefore need concrete materials to interact with so that they can make

meaning in what they learn and remove all forms of abstract.

Dienes (1982) in his theory The principle of multiple embodiment suggested that learning

should begin from known to unknown, simple to complex and concrete to abstract if teachers

want to help their students to learn a worthwhile mathematical concept. He also mentioned that

the concept to be learnt is embodied in several models which the child would have to work with.

He therefore implored teachers to first think of concrete materials whenever new concepts are

being used or about to be taught.

14
Skemp (1985) also added that, the childs primary concepts are built on sensory experiences like

seeing, feeling, tasting and half (12) may be defined as or formed in the childs mind by seeing

different whole objects being divided into two (2) equal halves or parts. By so doing, children

can develop a picture of in their minds. It is, therefore, the duty of teachers to provide children

with many concrete examples or materials when teaching in order to help pupils to understand

the concept taught very well.

2.7 Materials Used in teaching the concept of Unlike Fractions

Several concrete materials and teaching techniques have been identified as effective in the

teaching of the concept of unlike fractions. Examples of such teaching materials are: the use of

sets and squares, paper folding technique, number line, the use of Cuisenaire rods and fractional

boards.

2.8 The Cuisenaire Rods

Cuisenaire rods have been identified as one of the best concrete materials used in the teaching of

the concept of unlike fractions. The rods are mostly used in the basic schools as well as other

higher levels of educational institutions. The rods were named after the inventor, Georges

Cuisenaire. In the system, there are ten (10) rods measured in centimeters which are from one (1)

centimeter to ten (10) centimeters.

2.9 The Fractional Board

This is a geometrical drawing on chart Asafo Adjei, (2000). In other words, the fractional

board is a rectangular board which has been divided horizontally into equal intervals or fractions.

15
The numbering starts from one whole and reduces in the following patterns: 1, 12, 13,

1 1 1 1 1
4, 6, 8, 12, 16,.

The concluding part of the chapter which is the use of Cuisenaire rods and fractional board used

in the teaching of unlike fractions appears to help of E P College of Education Demonstration

Primary School (2) to overcome the problem of identification of unlike fractions.

According to Piaget, (2002) children under the ages of (7 12) fall under concrete operational

stage of his developmental stages. Such children can mentally manipulate objects so as they are

concretely present.

Also, according to Jerome Brunner (2001), the use of concrete materials in the teaching and

learning of mathematics is important. According to him, children and adults go through three

main stages when they are learning mathematical concepts. The stages are Enactive, Iconic and

symbolic.

Brunner commented that, pupils should be taking part in performing a given task, identifying

figure or numbers or objects using symbols and pupils should be able to communicate

symbolically. Most primary school pupils especially Basic Five (5) class fall under the Iconic

stage of Jeromes developmental stage, therefore, children under this stage needs concrete

materials to interact with so that they can make meaning in what they learnt.

Again, Skemp (1985) commented that, the childs primary concepts are built from sensory

experiences like smelling, tasting, feeling and so on. He said that, it is therefore the duty of

teachers to provide children with many concrete materials when teaching in order to help pupils

to understand the concept taught and learnt very well.

16
Last but not least, Dienes (1982) in his theory The principle of multiple embodiments also

suggested that, learning should begin from known to unknown, simple to complex and concrete

to abstract.

Dienes therefore implored teachers to use concrete materials to teach pupils for better

understanding of the concept of mathematics. Also, Kozma (1999) stated that, learning process

involves extracting information from the environmental and integrating it with the information

already stored in memory. This means that, teachers should teach pupils with examples from

their own environment hence the use of concrete materials.

2.10 Summary

The chapter started with issues in mathematics education which needs to be taken seriously if we

want our children to be good mathematicians.

The chapter proceeded to the concept of fractions and unlike fraction respectively. Here, the

researcher considered what some various scholars in the field of mathematics have said about the

two concepts which form an integral part of this project. The researcher also considered the use

of Cuisenaire rods and fractional board which are both concrete materials used in the teaching of

mathematics.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with the methodology aspects of the research work. It comprises of sub

headings like: Description of research area, Research Design, Population and Sample Selection,

Research Instruments, Data Collection Procedure, Limitation to the study and Data Analysis

Plan. The chapter finally ends with the summary of the methodology process.

3.1 Description of Research Area

The study is conducted in EP Demonstration Primary School. The school was established as a

demonstration school for teacher- trainees from the E P College of education in Bimbilla of the

Nanumba North District. Bimbilla is predominantly a trading and farming center in Ghana with a

number of school drop outs youth which might be one of the consequences of indiscipline

exhibited among pupils in the area. Due to the business and farming activities of the people in

Bimbilla, some parents not attach serious attention to their wards education. As such, most of

the youth are engaged in politics, chieftaincy litigations and petty trading.

The parents therefore prefer their children helping them in their business activities to attending

school. Majority of the people in this area is made of illiterates which also results in poor or low

attitude towards education. Even though some of the parents were literates, there were others

who preferred taking their wards to the farm instead of taking them to school. The community

has a market day which falls within the school days specifically on Thursdays. Due to this, most

pupils prefer going to the market instead. The few ones who were regular in class were facing the

18
problem of identification of unlike fractions. The problem manifested itself when about (80%)

eighty percent of the class were unable to solve the questions presented to them.

3.2 Research Design

This is the overall plan that the researcher used to obtain answers to the research questions. The

design specifies how the researcher collected and analyzed the data relating to pupils problems.

The research design employed in this work is an action research design. Action research is a kind

of research which involved identifying specific problem and finding immediate solutions to the

problem. Cohen and Manion (1996) saw action research as on the spot procedure designed to

deal with a concrete problem located in an immediate situation. Simply put, action research

involves finding workable solutions to the problem(s) that were identified in our daily activities

or situations which happen in the classrooms or schools. The researcher chose this type of design

because of the following reasons:

(i) It will help in understanding what goes on in the teaching and learning processes.

(ii) It enhances the teacher professional status and improves his or her performance in

the practice.

(iii) It provide teachers with the opportunity of acquiring a better understanding of all

aspects of practices in terms of subject, content, the curriculum or the method

appropriate to the levels of the pupils in the class.

(iv) It also equips teachers with various methods and approaches that best suit the

children they are teaching.

19
Despite the numerous benefits, one could derive from embarking on an action research; there are

still some short comings that one is likely to encounter when he or she undertakes an action

research.

Below are some of the short comings:

(i) It is tiresome and demanding both physically and financially.

(ii) It is sometimes very difficult to get the sample selection and population.

(iii) Sometimes, people feel reluctant in giving some accurate information that would

be needed to make the work a success.

3.3 Population

The subheading of this study talks about the people involved in the work termed population

and those that were actually used for the study is the sample selection. It talks about the selection

procedure and where the research took place. Ninety (90) respondents were used constituting 85

pupils and five (5) teachers. These constitute the population for the study.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique

Thirty (30) respondents were sampled. Out of the thirty (30) respondents, twenty five (25) pupils

were sampled using random sampling technique and five (5) teachers were also sampled using

purposive sampling technique.

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3.5 Research Instruments

The research instrument employed was the use of observations, test items and interview which

serve as suitable instrument used in gathering information on the said problem.

3.3.1 Observation

Observation involves looking at and listening to an action of a person in a given situation with

attention and concentration. The researcher observed the pupils by watching and listening to the

way pupils asked and answers questions. The researcher realised that pupils have problem with

addition of unlike fraction and decide to institute other research instrument to enable him to

describe the behavior of pupils as accurately as possible.

3.3.2 Test items

The test items are the issuing of questions given to pupils to give responses based on the

demands of the questions. The test was use to find the pupils problem called the pre-test. After

the pre-test and intervention was administrate which was followed by another test to ascertain

whether there has been a change or not, this test is known as the post-test.

3.3.3 Interview

Interview as an instrument for collecting data was also used to determine the pupils ability to

understand the addition of unlike fractions. The interview was the semi structured type. Specific

probing questions were use in the course of the interview to diagnose feelings of pupils about

questions and issues. The interview was conducted on one to one basis on get individuals

thoughts and perceptions about the problem.

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Responses were recorded in every interview done. Samples of interview questions used can be

found in the appendix.

3.4 Data Collection Procedure

This part of the study highlights on the techniques that were used in the collection of data.

Within the techniques, activities were planned, implemented and monitored for a period of time.

The technique used in the collection of data was constantly monitored. They were pre

intervention, intervention and post intervention stages.

3.5 The pre Intervention Stage

This aspect of the study talks about the methods that the researcher adopted and used in

diagnosing pupils weaknesses in Mathematics, especially their inability to identify unlike

fractions. At this stage, the researcher diagnosed and designed a test for the pupils. Below are the

questions that were presented to the pupil;

Write any one unlike fraction of each of the following

(a) 12

(b) 18

(c) 28

(d) 36

(e) 48

(f) 24

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Table 1: Scores obtained by pupils in the Pre Test

Number of Pupils Marks Scored Percentage (%)

10 0 40.00

5 1 20.00

5 2 20.00

3 3 12.00

1 4 4.00

1 5 4.00

Total 25 100%

From the table above, ten (10) pupils representing forty percent scored 0 marks, five (5) pupils

representing 20 percent scored 1 mark, five (5) pupils representing 20 percent scored 2 marks,

three (3) pupils representing 12 percent scored 3 marks, one (1) person representing 4 percent

scored 4 marks, one (1) person representing 4 percent scored 5 marks.

3.6 Intervention Stage

This has to do with the strategies planned and implemented by the researcher to solve the

specific problem identified. The researcher planned a holistic concrete approach as the

intervention by using the Cuisenaire rods and the fractional boards.

3.6.1 How the Materials were used in Teaching

With the fractional board, the teacher hanged the board in the middle of the black board so that it

could be seen by all the pupils. Here, the teacher put a rope on the ONE WHOLE line and

23
pupils recognized that one whole is equal to two of the halves downwards the teacher then traced

the rope downwards to the half (12) line and asked pupils to identify the number of quarters that

were unlike to . Pupils at this point realized that two of the quarters were equal to a half

(14 + 14 = 12).

Tracing the rope downwards, the pupils also saw that, the same line was occupied by four (4) of

the 18 and eight of the116. Here, the pupils developed the idea that = 24 = 24 = 48

= 816. In the same way, by counting the space on each strip on the fractional board, the pupils

recognized that, 22 = 33 = 44 = 66 = 88 .

Similarly, this is how the Cuisenaire rods were used in teaching. With those rods, the teacher

took pupils through a familiarization exercise, that is, pupils were made to interact with the

materials by comparing the colors and lengths of each rod. The teacher then asked pupils to

choose the orange rod and the dark green rod to represent a whole.

Pupils at this point recognized that: Orange Rod + Dark Green Rod = 1 Whole. Two brown rods

= 1 whole.

Four purples = 1 whole

Eight red rods = 1 whole

Sixteen white rods = 1 whole.

These colour observations were then turned into fractional statements as;

(i) A brown is one half of the orange rod and the dark green (whole).

(ii) A purpose rod is one fourth of the orange rod and dark green rod (whole).

(iii) A red rod is one eighth of the dark green rod and the orange rod (whole).

(iv) A white rod is one sixteenth of the orange rod and the dark green rod (whole).
24
 By comparing, we saw half eight (8) white = four (4) red = two (2) purple = 1 24 =

2 = 1 children at this point developed the idea that,

4 2,

8 4 2 1
16, 8, 4 2 were all unlike fractions.

3.7 Post Intervention Stage

This part shows the outcome of the measures that were used during the interventional stages. At

this point, the test that was presented to pupils during the pre test stage was given to them again

to solve them.

Pupils were made to interact with the teaching and learning materials during this, stage. After

marking the scores obtained by pupils at the end the intervention stage was presented in this

table.

Table 2: Scores or marks obtained by pupils at the end of the pre intervention

(N) Number of Pupils Marks Scored Percentage

10 6 40.00

8 5 32.00

5 4 20.00

2 3 8.00

0 0 0.00

0 0 0.00

Total 25 100%

25
From the table above, 10 ten pupils representing 40 percent scored 6 marks, eight (8) pupils

representing 32 percent scored 5 marks, five (5) pupils representing 20 percent scored 4 marks, 2

two pupils representing 8 percent scored 3 marks.

3.8 Limitations

This section of the research is devoted to the presentation of problems or difficulties

encountered during the course of study. As a student on the Distance Education Programme, the

preparation of lesson notes; teaching and learning materials; giving of exercises being part of the

teaching, this has put constraints on the researcher for the conduct of the study. More so, the

unwillingness on the part of the pupils, their guardians and other close relation to give

information limited the research. This made the collection of information on the research

difficult.

3.9 Data Analysis Plan

This talks about how the information gathered was been analyzed. Considering the information

gathered, the researcher decided to employ the use of percentage tables in analyzing the data

collected. The researcher chose this particular method due to the fact that it does not consume

much time and it is comparatively easier to be analyzed than the use of other methods.

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter is preceded by the research methodology. Under this section of the study, data

collected were analyzed and discussed. The data collected were presented in their statistical

forms using percentage tables. Each of the table is followed by its discussions.

4.1 Pre test Table

Table 3: The meaning of fractions given by pupils during the pre interventional stage

Meaning of Fraction No. of pupils Percentage (%)

1. Orange divided into equal halves 4 16

2. Fraction means half on one 2 8

3. Fraction is 12 (half) 7 28

4. Fraction is part of a whole of an object 2 8

5. No idea 10 40

Total 25 100

From the table above, four students representing 16% defined a fraction as an orange divided

into equal halves, two pupils representing 8% defined a fraction as half on one, another two

pupils defined fraction as a part of a whole of an object and ten pupils representing 40% could

not attempt to define fraction.

27
Table 4: The meaning of unlike fractions given by pupils at the pre intervention stage

Meaning of Unlike Fraction No. of Pupils Percentage (%)

1. Fractions with the same denominators 10 40

2. Fractions we can change to another number 5 20

3. Fractions with the same values 10 40

Total 25 100

from the table above, 10 pupils representing 40% defined Unlike fractions as fractions with the

same denominators, 5 pupils representing 20% defined unlike fractions as fractions we can

change to another number and 10 pupils representing 40% defined unlike fractions as fractions

with same values.

Table 5: Causes of pupils inability to Identify Unlike Fractions

Causes responses Percentage%

1. Absence of TLMs 5 20

2. Poor method of teaching 10 40

3. Lack of motivation 5 20

4. Over concentration of clever pupils 5 20

Total 25 100

From the table above, 5 pupils representing 20% identified the Absence of TLMs as the cause of

pupils inability to identify unlike fractions, 10 pupils representing 40% identified poor method

of teaching as the cause of pupils inability to identify unlike fractions, 5 pupils representing 20%

identified lack of motivation as the cause of pupils inability to identify unlike fractions whiles

another 5 pupils representing 20% agreed that teachers over concentration on clever pupils was

the cause of pupils inability to identify unlike fractions.

28
Table 6: Pre Test Table

Marks Scored Number of Pupils Percentage (%)

0 10 40

1 10 40

2 2 8

3 2 8

4 1 4

5 0 0

Total 25 100

From table 6, 10 pupil representing 40% scored 0, another 10 pupils representing 40% scored 1

mark, 2 pupils representing 8% scored 2 marks, another two pupils representing 8% scored 3

marks, one pupil representing 4% scored 4 marks whiles no students scored all five marks.

Table 7: Post Test Table

Marks Scored Number of Pupils Percentage (%)

0 1 4

1 2 8

2 2 8

3 10 40

4 5 20

5 5 20

Total 25 100

29
From table , 1 pupil representing 4% scored 0 mark, 2 pupils representing 8% scored 1 mark,
another 2 pupils representing 8% scored 2 marks, 10 pupils representing 40% scored 3 marks,
five pupils representing 20% scored 4 marks and another five pupils representing 20% scored
five marks..

30
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Introduction

This chapter deals is the concluding part of the study. It contains information about the

discussion of results, conclusion and recommendations.

5.1 Discussion of Results

The study was designed to identify the causes of pupils inability to identify unlike fraction and to

use the fractional board and Cuisenaire rod to guide pupils to understand the concept of unlike

fractions. Fractions are expressed in the form of
. This view is shared by D Augustine where He

expressed a fraction in the form where a and b name whole numbers; and where a is called the

numerator and b the denominator. The researcher further noted that pupils at the lower classes

should not be introduced to fraction as again stressed by D' Augustine (1968) when he argued

that even though it is not appropriate to introduce the child to the definition of fractional numbers

in his early intuitive explorations, the basic definition should always play a role in the teacher's

presentation. In other words, a fraction could be seen a whole being divided into equal units.

This was supported by Streater et al (2002), when they defined fractions by saying that,

whenever a unit or a whole number or quantity is divided into parts, we call those parts

fractions of the unit. They justified their point by dividing a whole into a named portion or parts

and then take off the mentioned part from it.

31
Through interviews and observation, it was realized that the problem came into existence as a

result of the following:

Lack of teaching and learning materials during the instructional hours.

Lack of motivation from both teachers and parents.

Poor or wrong methods and techniques of teaching.

Over concentration on only brilliant / cleaver pupils during mathematics lessons.

During the course, the researcher took the pain to help pupils to solve the problem after

identifying the causes, He therefore employed the use of Cuisenaire rods and fractions board to

help the pupils to learn from known to unknown.

During the interventional stages, the researcher involved the pupils in the lesson with many

activities. The active involvement of pupils helped them to understand the concept of unlike

fractions. This could be seen by comparing the results of the pre test and the post test. The

post test showed a tremendous performance as compared to the pre test. There was no

improvement in the performance of pupils results due to the fact that, the researcher improved

on the methods and techniques of teaching by the use of teaching and learning materials.

5.3 Conclusion

This is a summary statement that reflects the key findings after gathering information on pupils

problem. Form the study, the researcher made four major conclusions. First, teaching and

learning materials must be used during mathematics lessons in order to arouse and sustain the

interests of learners.

32
Secondly, teaching of mathematics must be learner centered. Thus, in the teaching of unlike

fractions, the teacher must not be seen giving definitions, generalizing formulae but rather

allowed the learners to establish the concept for themselves.

Again, for pupils to ensure mastery of the concept more exercises must be given to pupils and the

exercises must be promptly marked. In addition, motivation could be a catalyst in arousing pupils

interests in mathematics. Teacher and parents should therefore motivate pupils to learn by

avoiding too much canning, the use of abusive words and language. Also, parents should buy the

exact logistics necessary for helping pupils to learn mathematics.

Finally, the researcher concludes that, teacher should spread their questions evenly during

instructional hours so that both low attainders and high attainders can participate in the lesson.

By so doing, it will help bridge the gap between them.

5.4 Recommendations

This is the final section of the study. Based on the results and the analysis for the study, the

researcher recommends that:

1. Ghana Education Service (G.E.S) should conduct periodic in service training for teachers

in order to upgrade their knowledge and improve their methods and techniques for

teaching mathematics.

2. Workshops on preparation of teaching - learning materials must be organized by (G.E.S)

every year for mathematics teachers.

3. Both teachers and parents should motivate pupils to learn mathematics.

33
5.5 Recommendations for Further Study

This study was limited to the use of Cuisenaire rods and fractional board to improve pupils

performance on identification of unlike fractions. The concept of fractions is however very

broad. The researcher is therefore anticipating that, other people should carry out a project in

other aspects like addition, multiplication and subtraction of fractions using the same or different

teaching learning materials to teach the concept of fractions. This will help and boost pupils

interest in mathematics.

34
 REFERENCES

A.K Dickson (2007). Methods of teaching Junior High School mathematics.

Asafo-Adjei , R.(2002).Teaching Basic Mathematics For Training Collages. Kumasi: Bayoba

Limited.

Aseidu Peter (2007) Aki-olla series: Mathematics for junior high school in West Africa New

edition. Accra: Gibrime publishing

Brown, J.S (1989), Situated Cognition and The culture of Learning. Educational Research.

Brunner, J. (2001) Towards a Theory of Instruction. New York: Norton.

Cob, P, and Yackel, E, (1996) Constructivist Emergent and Socio Cultural Perspectives in the

contest of Developmental Research. Educational Psychologist.

Dienes, Z, (1982) Building up Mathematics. London: Hutchison Education.

Asare - Inkoom (2003) Mathematics (103) course book for Diploma basic education method of

teaching primary school mathematics. Cape Coast Center for continuous education:

University of Education

Hutchison and Buchanam, L, (1992. Application of Numbers. New York: Oxford University

Press.

Piaget, J. (2002). Basic Concepts in Mathematics. Educational Psychologist.

Macmillan (2004) Mathematics for primary school: Macmillan publishers limited.

Math is fun. Com. (2008) Adding fractions WWW.Mathis.fun.com. fractions addition.

Nitto and Lane (1990) Dealing with Mathematics. New York:

Parling, D, (1982). Teaching Mathematics in Primary Schools. London: Oxford University Press.

Richard Skemp (1985) the concept of Practices.

Rouse Ball (1960) Social Knowledge Mathematics.

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Smith, A. (2004) Making Mathematics Count: The Report of Professor Adrian Smiths Inquiry

into Post-14Mathematics Education. London: The Stationery Office

Solomon A.C (1992).Mathematics for Basic school teacher center for continuing education

UCC London: DP publishing.

Stricter, J, Hutchison, D, and Hoelzle L, (2002), Basic Mathematics skills with Geometry. New

York: Von Hoffman Press Inc.

Routledge II New Fetter Lane. Treagust, D, et al (1996), Improving Teaching and Learning in

Science and Mathematics (Page 128), Columbia, Teachers College Press

Ward, H. (2008), Poor results for primary maths. Available at

www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6005404 (accessed 23 January2012).

Winn (1993). A key Assumption to the Situated Cognitive. New York:

36
 APPENDIX A

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS (TEACHER)

(1) Pupils cannot identify and solve simple unlike fractions. Why?

(a) Poor basic foundation (b) Techniques for teaching

(2) What is your plan to help pupils solve unlike fractions?

(a) Use of cane (b) Use TLMS (c) Use of harsh words or irritating language

(3) What techniques have you been using to teach unlike fractions?

(a) Write questions on board (b) Solve questions with pupils (c) Write questions and

solve with them

(4) Do you use TLMs in teaching unlike fractions? (a) Yes (b) No (c) Sometimes

(5) Are pupils always present in class? (a) No (b) Yes (c) times

(6) Why dont pupils come to school all the time? (a) I dont know (b) Their Parents do not

know the importance of education. (c) They feel lazy to come to school

37
 APPENDIX B

Test Items for Pupils (Pre Test)

Write any one unlike fraction for the following.

(1) 12 =

(2) 18 =

(3) 26 =

(4) 312 =

(5) 48 =

(6) 24 =

38
 APPENDIX C

CONCRETE MATERIALS USED THE CUISENAIRE RODS

O
B
BR
B.L
D.G
Y
P
L.G
W R

White rod = 1cm

Red rod = 2cm

Light green = 3cm

Purple rod = 4cm

Yellow rod = 5cm

Dark green rod = 6cm

Black rod = 7cm

Brown rod = 8cm

39
 Blue rod = 9cm

Orange rod = 10cm

THE FRACTION BOARD

1 1 1
3 3 3

1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4

1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6 6 6 6 6

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16

The fractional board is a geometrical drawing on a chart. It is a rectangular board

which has been divided horizontally into equal intervals but with different vertical intervals

or fractions. The numbering of the fractional board starts from one whole can reduce in the

following patterns; 1, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 112, 116 .

This illustrations shows how the fractional board looks like

40
 APPENDIX D

LESSON NOTES

School : Changnayili Primary School Class: Form two (2)

Week: Ending: 28th February, 2012 Number of Pupils: Thirty (30)

Subject: Mathematics Average Age: Eleven years (14)

Day/Date/ Topic/Sub Objectives / R.P.K TLM / TLA

Time Topic
Core points

Day: Topic: By the end of the T.L.Ms (a)

lesson, the pupil

Monday Fractions Fractional Board and
will be able to:
Cuisenaire Rods.

1. Use the
Date:
fractional board
T.L.A:
28th and Cuisenaire

February, rods to identify Introduction: The teacher 2 3

Subtopic: 3 5
2011 unlike fractions. revises pupils previous
Unlike (b)
knowledge about
Fractions 2. Solve some identification of fractions. 1
Duration: problems on
(b) The teacher draws 1
2

41
 unlike fractions. some shapes on the black 1 1 1
4 4 4

board and divides them

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 8 8
into a number of equal part
Time: 1 1 1 1
or portions. 16 16 16 16

8:15
(c) The teacher calls some
9:15am
of the pupils to come and 1. Unlike fraction are forms o

shade a mentioned portion which present the same num

/ fraction. For example: have different numerical

2 1 2 representation. For example
3, 5 5

1 = 2
2 4

2.
Development / Activities :
Orange Da
Activity 1: The teacher

explains the term unlike Brown Brown

fractions to pupils. Teacher Purple Purple Purple P

teaches pupils how to use
Red R R R R R
the fractional board to

identify unlike fractions. White W W W W W W W W W W W

The teacher calls some

R = Red rod
pupils and asks board to

identify some unlike W = White rod

fraction.

42
 The teacher guides pupils Conclusion:

to solve more examples in

The teacher summarizes the les
groups using the fractional
gives pupils some exercises to
board.
level of understanding the topic

Activity 2: Teacher guides

pupils to familiarize

themselves with the rods

by comparing the lengths

and that of the colours

Guide pupils to choose

the orange and the dark

green rods to represent

a whole.

Let pupils proceed to

the sets of rods of some

colours that are equal

to a whole.

Teacher helps pupils to

transform statements

as;

1 = 2 + 4 =
2 4, 8

43
 8
16.

44