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UNIT -1
LINEAR WAVE SHAPPING
Contents:
High pass, Low pass circuits
High pass and Low pass circuits response for:
1. Sine wave
2. Step
3. Pulse
4. Square
5. Ramp
6. Exponential
High pass RC as differentiator
Low pass RC as integrator
Attenuators and its applications
RL circuits
RLC circuits
Solved problems
Review questions
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INTRODUCTION
Linear systems are those that satisfy both homogeneity and additivity.
(i) Homogeneity: Let x be the input to a linear system and y the corresponding output, as shown
in Fig. 1.1. If the input is doubled (2x), then the output is also doubled (2y). In general, a system
is said to exhibit homogeneity if, for the input nx to the system, the corresponding output
is ny (where n is an integer). Thus, a linear system enables us to predict the output.
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Consider the high-pass RC circuit shown in Fig. 1.2(a). The capacitor offers a low reactance
(XC = 1/jC) as the frequency increases; hence, the output is large. Consequently, high-
frequency signals are passed to the output with negligible attenuation whereas, at low
frequencies, due to the large reactance offered by the condenser, the output signal is small.
Similarly, in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.2(b), the inductive reactance XL (= jL) increases with
frequency, leading to a large output. At low frequencies, the reactance of the
inductor XL becomes small; hence, the output is small. Therefore, the circuits in Fig
1.2(a) and (b) are called high-pass circuits. In the case of L, XL is directly proportional to
frequency; and in the case of C, XC is inversely proportional to frequency. C and L may
therefore be called inverse circuit elements. Thus, in the high-pass circuit of Fig.
1.2(a), C appears as a series element; and in the high-pass circuit of Fig. 1.2(b), L appears as a
shunt element. The time constant is given by: = RC = L/R.
Let
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The signal undergoes a phase change and the phase angle, , is given by:
= tan1 (1/) = tan1 (T/)
At = 1:
Hence, f1 is the lower half-power frequency of the high-pass circuit. The expression for the
output for the circuits in Figs. 1.2(a) and (b) is the same as given by Eq. (3). Figure 1.3(a) shows
a typical frequencyresponse curve for a sinusoidal input to a high-pass circuit. The frequency
response and the phase shift of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.2(a) are plotted in Figs.
1.3(b) and 1.3(c), respectively, for different values of .
From Fig. 1.3(b), it is seen that as the half-power frequency decreases for larger values of ,
the gain curve shows a sharper rise. From Fig. 1.3(c), it is seen that if T/ > 20, the phase angle
approaches approximately 90.
Response of the High-pass RC Circuit to Step Input
A step voltage, shown in Fig.1.4(a), is represented mathematically as:
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B2 is determined by the initial output voltage. At t = 0, when the step voltage is applied, the
change at the output is the same as the change at the input, because a capacitor is connected
between the input and the output. Hence,
Therefore,
B2 = vi B1
Using Eq. (6):
Substituting the values of B1 and B2 from Eqs. (6) and (8) respectively in Eq. (5), the general
solution is given by the relation:
For a high-pass RC circuit, let us calculate vi and vf. As the capacitor blocks the dc component
of the input, vf = 0. Since the capacitor does not allow sudden voltage changes, a change in the
voltage of the input signal is necessarily accompanied by a corresponding change in the voltage
of the output signal. Hence, at t = 0+ when the input abruptly rises to V, the output also changes
by V.
Therefore, vi = V.
Substituting the values of vf and vi in Eq. (9):
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If
v0(t)/V for x varying from 0 to 5 is shown in Table 1.1. The response of the circuit is plotted
in Fig. 1.4(b).
At t = 0, when a step voltage V is applied as input to the high-pass circuit, as the capacitor
will not allow any sudden changes in voltage, it behaves as a short circuit. Hence, the input
voltage V appears at the output. As the input remains constant, the charge on the capacitor
discharges exponentially with the time constant . After approximately 5, when is small, the
output reaches the steady-state value. As becomes large, it takes a longer time for the charge
on the capacitor to decay; hence, the output takes longer to reach the steady-state value. In
general, the response of the circuit to different types of inputs is obtained by formulating the
differential equation and solving for the output.
For the circuit in Fig. 1.2(a):
But vo = iR
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0.0 1
0.5 0.607
1.0 0.368
2.0 0.135
3.0 0.050
4.0 0.018
5.0 0.007
Fall time (tf): When a step voltage V is applied to a high-pass circuit, the output suddenly
changes as the input and then the capacitor charges to V. Once the capacitor C is fully charged,
it behaves as an open circuit for the dc input signal. Hence, in the steady-state, the output should
be zero. However, the output does not reach this steady-state instantaneously; there is some
time delay before the voltage on the capacitor decays and reaches the steady-state value. The
time taken for the output voltage to fall from 90 per cent of its initial value to 10 per cent of its
initial value is called the fall time. It indicates how fast the output reaches its steady-state value.
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The output voltage at any instant, in the high-pass circuit is given by Eq. (17). At t = t1, vo(t1)
= 90% of V = 0.9 V. Therefore,
Hence, the fall time is inversely proportional to f1, the lower half-power frequency. As f1, is
inversely proportional to , the shape of the signal at the output changes with .
EXAMPLE
Example 1: A 10-Volt step input is applied to a high-pass RC circuit. Plot the response of the
circuit when
(i) RC = 1 ms (ii) RC = 10 ms (iii) RC = 100 ms.
Solution: Here, we use the expression for the response to a step input in Eq. (17) and calculate
the output voltage for different values of time constants (as shown in the Table 1.2) and plot
the response, as shown in Fig. 1.5.
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FIGURE 1.5 The response of the high-pass circuit to a step input for different values of
To visualize the response of the high-pass circuit for different time constants,
consider Example 1. It is evident from this example that the output decays exponentially to
zero more rapidly when the time constant becomes smaller. This response tells us that the
smaller the value of , the sharper the response of a high-pass circuit; resulting in a narrower
pulse. The width of the pulse increases with an increase in .
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To understand the response of a high-pass circuit to this pulse input, let us trace the sequence
of events following the application of the input signal.
At t = 0, vi abruptly rises to V. As a capacitor is connected between the input and output, the
output also changes abruptly by the same amount. As the input remains constant, the output
decays exponentially to V1 at t = tp. Therefore,
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At t = tp, the input abruptly falls by V, vo also falls by the same amount. In other
words, vo = V1 V. Since V1 is less than V; vo is negative and its value is V2 and this decays to
zero exponentially. For t > tp,
The response of high-pass circuits with different values of to pulse input is plotted in Fig.
1.7. As is evident from the preceding discussion, when a pulse is passed through a high-pass
circuit, it gets distorted. Only when the time constant is very large, the shape of the pulse at
the output is preserved, as can be seen from Fig. 1.7(b). However, as shown in Fig. 1.7(c),
when the time constant is neither too small nor too large, there is a tilt (also called a sag) at
the top of the pulse and an under-shoot at the end of the pulse. If << tp, as in Fig. 1.7(d), the
output comprises a positive spike at the beginning of the pulse and a negative spike at the end
of the pulse. In other words, a high-pass circuit converts a pulse into spikes by employing a
small time constant; this process is called peaking.
If the distortion is to be negligible, has to be significantly larger than the duration of the
pulse. In general, there is an undershoot at the end of the pulse. The larger the tilt (for small ),
the larger the undershoot and the smaller the time taken for this undershoot to decay to zero.
The area above the reference level (A1) is the same as the area below the reference level (A2).
Let us verify this using Fig. 1.8.
Area A1: For 0 < t < tp:
vo = Vet/
Similarly,
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referenced to the zero level. It can be proved that whatever the dc component associated with
a periodic input waveform, the dc level of the steady-state output signal for the high-pass circuit
is always zero as shown in Fig. 1.10. To verify this statement, we write the KVL equation for
the high-pass circuit:
But
Substituting this condition in Eq. (29):
FIGURE 1.10 A typical steady-state output of a high-pass circuit with a square wave as input
From Eqs. (30), (31), (32) and (33):
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Under steady-state conditions, the output and the input waveforms are repetitive with a time
period T. Therefore, vi(T) = vo(T) and vi(0) = vo(0). Hence, from Eq. (34):
As the area under the output waveform over one cycle represents the DC component in the
output, from Eq. (35) it is evident that the DC component in the steady-state is always zero.
Now let us consider the response of the high-pass RC circuit for a square-wave input for
different values of the time constant , as shown in Fig. 1.11.
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As is evident from the waveform in Fig. 1.11(b), there is no appreciable distortion in the
output if is large. The output is almost the same as the input except for the fact that there is
no DC component in the output. As decreases, as in Fig. 1.11(c), there is a tilt in the positive
duration (amplitude decreases from V1 to V1 during the period 0 to T1) and there is also a tilt in
the negative duration (amplitude increases from V2 to V2 during the period T1 to T2). A further
decrease in the value of [see Fig. 1.11(d)] gives rise to positive and negative spikes. There is
absolutely no resemblance between the signals at the input and the output. However, this
condition is imposed on high-pass circuits to derive spikes. In case a pulse is required to trigger
another circuit, we see that the pulses obtained either at the rising edge (positive spike) or at
the trailing edge (negative spike) may be used to edge trigger a flip-flop, as discussed in later
chapters in the book. Let us consider the typical response of the high-pass circuit for a square-
wave input shown in Fig. 1.12.
FIGURE 1.12 The typical response of a high-pass RC circuit for a square-wave input
From Fig. 1.12 and using Eq. (17) we have:
But
Therefore,
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V1 = V2
Substituting in Eq. (38):
But
There is a tilt in the output waveform. The percentage tilt, P, is defined as:
If T/2 << 1,
Therefore,
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Equation (45) tells us that the smaller the value of when compared to the half-period of the
square wave (T/2), the larger is the value of P. In other words, distortion is large with
small and is small with large . The lower half-power frequency, f1 = 1/2.
Therefore,
P = f1T 100%
Therefore,
FIGURE 1.13(a) The coupling network and (b) The response of the circuit
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Therefore,
Therefore, is small compared to T/2; so the capacitor charges and discharges appreciably
in each half-cycle. Since the input is a symmetrical square wave, V1 = V2, i.e., |V1| =
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FIGURE 1.14(b) Output of the high-pass circuit for the given input
EXAMPLE
Example 5: An unsymmetric square wave has a peak-to-peak amplitude of 2 V and is
referenced to the zero level. The duration of the positive section is 0.2 s, and of the negative
section is 0.4 s. If this waveform is applied as input to the high-pass circuit shown in Fig.
1.2(a) whose time constant is 0.4 s, what are the steady-state maximum and minimum values
of the output waveform? Prove that the area under the positive section is equal to the area under
the negative section of the output waveform.
Solution: Given T1 = 0.2 s, T2 = = 0.4 s
The steady-state output waveform is drawn by calculating V1, V1, V2 and V2.
At
t = 0, and at t = 0+, vo = V1
For 0 < t < T1, vo = V1et/
V2 = 2 0.606V1 V2 = 2
V1 =2 V1 0.367V2 = 2
Solving the above equations, V1 = 1.628 V and V2 = 1.016 V.
FIGURE 1.15 The output of the high-pass circuit for the specified input
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no longer a pulse with sharp rising edge, but an exponential. We would now like to know the
response of the high-pass circuit to this exponential input. If the input to the high-pass circuit
in Fig.1.2(a) is an exponential of the form:
where, 1 is the time constant of the circuit that has generated the exponential signal as shown
in Fig. 1.16(a).
From Eq. (30), we know:
As vi = V(1 et/1),
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Therefore,
Case 1: = 1
Applying partial fractions, Eq. (50) can be written as:
Therefore,
Therefore,
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Therefore,
If >> 1, the second term in the Eq. (2.55) is small when compared to the first. Thus,
As t/ = x = t/1 and /1 = n = 1:
The response of the circuit is plotted for different values of n in Fig. 1.16(b).
From the response in Fig.1.16(b), it is seen that near the origin the output follows the input.
Also, the smaller the value of n (= /1 is small), the smaller is the output peak and the shorter
is the duration of the pulse. As n increases, the peak becomes larger and the duration of the
pulse becomes longer. Hence, the choice of n is based on the amplitude and duration of the
pulse required for a specific application. The maximum output occurs when (dvo/dt) = 0.
From Eq. (55):
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Since x = t/, from Eq. (59), the time taken to rise to the peak tp is given by:
To obtain the maximum value of the output, substitute this value of x from Eq. (60) in the
expression for vo(t) in Eq. (55).
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From the waveforms in Fig. 1.16(b) and the subsequent mathematical relations derived, it is
seen that, if an exponential signal is applied as an input to a high-pass circuit, the output is a
pulse whose duration depends on n(= /1), where 1 is the time constant of the previous circuit
that has generated the exponential signal and is the time constant of the high-pass circuit
under consideration. The smaller the value of n, the smaller the duration of this output pulse
and also the smaller its amplitude. As n increases, the duration as well as the amplitude of this
output pulse increases. Hence, depending on our requirement, we adjust the value of n.
Example 6 elucidates the procedure to calculate the output when an exponential input is
applied to the high-pass circuit in Fig. 1.1(a).
EXAMPLE
The output is calculated for t ranging from 0 to 50 ms and is shown in Table 1.3.
2. When 1 , the output voltage is calculated and is shown in Table. 1.4. = 20 ms
and 1 = 10 ms
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TABLE 1.3 The output of the high-pass circuit for the given exponential input when = 1
0 0
1 0.904
2 1.637
3 2.22
4 2.68
5 3.03
6 3.29
7 3.476
8 3.59
9 3.66
10 3.678
15 3.346
20 2.7
50 0.336
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Time (t)ms
0 0
1 0.92
2 1.722
3 2.414
4 2.9746
5 3.456
6 3.856
7 4.173
8 4.426
9 4.632
10 4.79
15 4.987
20 4.65
25 4.09
50 1.5
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The input and the output waveforms are as shown in Fig. 1.17.
FIGURE 1.17 The input to and the output of the high-pass circuit
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Multiplying throughout by s:
Therefore,
If t/ << 1:
Therefore, vo(t) =
The output falls away from the input, as shown in Fig. 1.18(b). From the waveforms in Fig.
1.18(b), we see that for the output to be the same as the input, >> T (the duration of the ramp).
As the value of decreases, not only the amplitude of the output decreases but also the signal
now is an exponential. The output falls away from the input. So, the choice of is dictated by
the specific application. Transition error defines deviation from linearity and is given by:
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Thus,
The transmission error, et describes how faithfully the signal is transmitted to the output. As
the input is a ramp and if the output falls away from the input, et specifies the deviation from
linearity. Let us try to plot the output by considering an example.
2. When T = 0.5
3. When T = 10
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2. DIFFERENTIATORS
Sometimes, a square wave may need to be converted into sharp positive and negative spikes
(pulses of short duration). By eliminating the positive spikes, we can generate a train of
negative spikes and vice-versa. The pulses so generated may be used to trigger a multivibrator.
In such cases, a differentiator is used. If in a circuit, the output is a differential of the input
signal, then the circuit is called a differentiator.
A High-pass RC Circuit as a Differentiator
If the time constant of the high-pass RC circuit, shown in Fig. 1.1(a), is much smaller than the
time period of the input signal, then the circuit behaves as a differentiator. If T is to be large
when compared to , then the frequency must be small. At low frequencies, XC is very large
when compared to R. Therefore, the voltage drop across R is very small when compared to the
drop across C.
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Therefore,
Thus, from Eq. (70), it can be seen that the output is proportional to the differential of the input
signal, as shown in Fig. 1.20. If the input vi(t) = Vm sin t:
vo(t) where 1 =
We have from Eq. (3):
and = tan1(1/)
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When = 90, the sine function at the input becomes a cosine function at the output, as is
required in a differentiator. When 1/ = 100, = 89.4 which is nearly equal to 90. Hence,
a high-pass circuit behaves as a good differentiator only when RC << T, and the output is a co-
sinusiodally varying signal if the input is a sine wave. If the input is a square wave, the output
is in the form of positive and negative spikes, as shown in Fig.1.20.
FIGURE 1.21(a) The differentiator circuit when: negative spikes are eliminated in the output;
and (b) positive spikes are eliminated in the output
FIGURE 1.21(c) The output of a differentiator showing: positive spikes only; and (d) negative
spikes only
The output of the differentiator in Fig. 2.20 contains both positive and negative spikes. If only
positive spikes are needed to trigger a multivibrator (to be considered later), we use the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.21(a). Here, since D conducts only when the input spikes are positive, the
negative spikes are eliminated. Alternately, if only negative spikes are needed, the positive
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spikes are eliminated using the circuit in Fig. 1.21(b), since D conducts only when the input
spikes are negative. The output of the circuit in Fig. 1.21(a) is shown in Fig. 1.21(c). Similarly,
the output of the circuit in Fig. 1.21(b) is shown in Fig. 1.21(d).
An Op-amp as a Differentiator
An operational amplifier, commonly known as an op-amp, can be used as a differentiator, as
shown inFig. 1.22(a).
FIGURE 1.22(b) The op-amp differentiator circuit resulting from the use of Millers theorem
From Millers theorem:
where A is the gain of the amplifier. The resistance, R, appears between the input and output
terminals of the op-amp. Using Millers theorem, R can be replaced
by R1 and R2 as R1 = R/(1 A) is small since Ais large; and R2 = RA/(A 1) = R since A is large.
Hence, the op-amp circuit can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 1.22(b).
For a good differentiator, (= R1C) should be small. As R1 is a very small value of resistor
(since A is large), an op-amp differentiator behaves as a better differentiator when compared to
a simple RC differentiator, without physically reducing the value of R.
Double Differentiators
The circuit in Fig. 1.23 is called a double differentiator as we have two high-pass differentiating
circuits. In the figure, A is the gain of the inverting amplifier. Here, R1C1 = 1 and R2C2 = 2 are
small when compared to the time period of the input signal.
Let the input to the circuit be a ramp, i.e., vi = t. From Eq. (64), the output of the first high-
pass R1C1circuit for the ramp input is:
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where, A is the amplifier gain. It can be seen from Eq. (72) that v has phase inversion. The
output of the first high-pass circuit, which is an exponential, is the input to the second
differentiator. We know from Eq. (55) that the output of this second differentiator is a pulse.
Therefore,
For n = 1
The ramp voltage which is input to the double differentiator is converted to a pulse. The
response is plotted in Fig. 1.24. From Eq. (1.75), the output for = 1 = 2 is given as:
v = A1 (1 et/1)
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We see from Eqs. (77) and (78), the initial slope of the input to the amplifier v1 is , whereas
the initial slope of the amplifier output v is A. The output rises much faster than the input, as
shown in Fig. 1.24. Hence, the amplifier is called a rate-of-rise amplifier. At this point, it is
relevant to talk about a comparator. A circuit that compares the input with a reference and tells
us the instant at which the input has reached the reference level is called a comparator. One
such simple and practical comparator is a diode comparator. Sometimes a circuit needs to be
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activated the moment the input reaches a predetermined level. The diode comparator will not
be able to do this job. Thus, the output of the diode comparator is given as the input to the
double differentiator. As the output of the double differentiator is a pulse whose amplitude and
duration can be controlled, this output can activate the desired circuit. We discuss this aspect
in greater details in later chapters.
Similarly, the response of this circuit is evaluated for other inputs. This high-pass circuit is
used as a differentiator if L/R T. Since vo = Ldi/dt, and i vi/R:
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 8: The output of a step generator has an amplitude of 10 V and rise-time of 1.1 ns.
When this is applied as an input to a high-pass circuit with R = 100 [see Fig 1.25(a)], there
appears across R a pulse of amplitude 1 V. Find the value of the capacitance.
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vo(max) = vi n1/(1n) = 1V
10n1/(1n) = 1 or
n = 0.14
n= = 0.14
= n1 = 0.14 0.5 ns = 0.07 ns
= RC = 0.07 109 s
Therefore,
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Example 9: A limited ramp from a generator rises linearly to Vs in a time period Ts = 0.1 s and
remains constant for 2 s. This signal is applied to a differentiating circuit whose time constant
is 0.01s. The resultant pulse at the output of the differentiator has a maximum value of 15 V.
What is the peak amplitude of the ramp at the output of the generator?
Solution:
= vo(max) = 15 V
Ts = 0.1 s
The peak value of the ramp from the generator is:
FIGURE 1.26 The input and the output for the specified conditions
Example 10: The input to a high-pass RC circuit in Fig. 1.2(a) is periodic and trapezoidal as
indicated in Fig. 1.27(a). Given that T1 = 1 ms and T2 = 1.5 ms and = 10 ms, find and sketch
the steady-state output.
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Beyond T the input is a negative ramp. The output also falls linearly as the input. At T let the
output beV2. Once again as the input remains constant, the output decays to .
We have = 2V/T2
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FIGURE 1.27(b) The output of the high-pass circuit to the input in Fig. 1.27(a)
In fact, there is no need for these elaborate calculations since when is large, V1 is
approximately equal to 1 V. Similarly V2 is approximately equal to 1 V. These calculations
are necessary only when is small.
Example 11: Show that the ratio (vo/V)max = 0.368 if n = 1 for an exponential input to the high-
passRC circuit [see Fig. 1.2(a)].
Solution: The output of a high-pass RC circuit for an exponential input when n = 1 is given by:
vo = Vxex
where x = t/
To find the max value of vo/V differentiate vo/V with respect to x and equate it to zero.
= xex(1) + ex = 0 x=1
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Therefore,
= 1 e1 = 0.368
Example 12: A 20-V step of 2.2 ns rise time is applied to an inductor L from a generator of 100
internal resistance as shown in Fig. 1.28. The pulse across the inductor attains amplitude of
4.4 V. Find the value of inductance, L.
vi (max) = 20 V
Therefore, Rise time of the input, tr = 2.21
= n1 = 0.33 109 s
Also
Example 2.14: The input signal shown in Fig. 1.29(a) is applied to a RC high-pass circuit in Fig.
1.2(a), whose time constant is 0.4 ms. Draw the output waveform and mark all voltages,
assuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged.
vo = 5e(0.1103)/(0.4103) = 3.894 V
At t = 0.2 ms the input suddenly drops by 10 V, vo also falls by the same amount.
vo (t = 0.2 ms) = 3.894 10 = 6.106 V
For 0.2 ms < t < 0.3 ms, vi remains at 5 V. Hence, vo decays exponentially with the time
constant 0.4 ms.
At t = 0.3 ms
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R = 70.588
For the differentiating circuit the condition required is << T or ReqC << T, where, the total
resistance of the input side is Req.
f = 1000 Hz T= = 1 ms
= RC = 1 106 10 1012 = 10 106 s = 0.01 ms
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As << T, the high-pass circuit behaves as a differentiator. Hence, the output is vo = RC(dvi/dt).
Therefore, and .
Upto T/4, the output is 0.2 V. For T/4 < t < T/2,
From T/4 to T/2 the output is 0.2 V. At T/2 the input becomes negative. So from T/2 to 3T/4
vo(T) = 10 106
= 10 106
= 0.2 V
From 3T/4 to T, the output is 0.2 V
Beyond T the output is once again +0.2 V as the the input is positive and so on.
The output waveform is shown in Fig. 1.31(b).
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R1C1 = R2C2 =
Assume the capacitor is initially uncharged.
Therefore, the Laplace transformed circuit is as shown in Fig. 1.32(b).
vo (t) = AVet/
The minimum value of vo(t) occurs only at t = .
Therefore vo (t)min=0
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A step voltage is one, which has a value zero for all times t < 0, and remains at V for
all times t 0.
Fall time is defined as the time taken by the output waveform to fall from 90 per cent
to 10 per cent of its initial value.
The fall time is directly proportional to the time constant and inversely proportional
to the lower cut-off frequency.
The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously if the current through
it remains finite.
A waveform which is zero for t < 0, and which increases linearly with time for t > 0
is called a ramp.
The transmission error, et for a ramp input is defined as the difference between the
input and the output divided by the input.
For most applications, the steady-state condition is reached approximately at t = 5.
A pulse may be treated as the sum of a positive step followed by a delayed negative
step of the same amplitude.
A periodic waveform which maintains itself at one constant level V for a time T1,
and then changes abruptly to another level V and remains constant at that level for a
time T2, and repeats itself with a period T = T1 + T2 is called a square wave.
If T1 = T2 = T/2, it is called a symmetric square wave.
The lower cut-off frequency of a high-pass circuit is given by f1 = 1/2RC.
The capacitor in the high-pass circuit blocks the dc component of the input. Hence,
no dc component is present in the output.
The process of converting pulses into spikes by means of a circuit of a very short
time constant is called peaking.
The output of a high-pass circuit excited by a square-wave input exhibits a tilt when
the time constant of the circuit is not very high.
A high-pass circuit acts as a differentiator if the time constant of the circuit is very
small as compared to the time period of the input signal.
When a high-pass circuit is used as an ideal differentiator, the phase shift between
the input and the output is 90.
It is more convenient to introduce initial conditions in an integrator than in a
differentiator.
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For double differentiation, two high-pass networks with small time constants are
connected in a cascade.
The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously when a finite voltage
is applied across it.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The process by which the shape of a non-sinusoidal signal when transmitted through
a linear network is altered is called:
1. Non-linear wave shaping
2. Peaking
3. Linear wave shaping
4. Clamping
2. The lower half-power frequency of a high-pass circuit is:
0.
1.
2.
3.
3. The fall time of a high-pass circuit is:
0.
1.
2. 22
3.
4. A dc component is associated with a periodic input waveform applied to a high-pass
circuit. The dc component in the output is:
0.
1. 0
2. 2vi
3. Finite value
5. If the shape of the square wave is to be preserved in the output of a high-pass circuit,
then the percentage tilt should be:
0.
1. 0
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2. 50%
3. 100%
6. An exponential signal vi = V (1 et/1) is applied to high-pass circuit. When n = /1 is
small, the output is:
0. Larger in duration, smaller in amplitude
1. Shorter in duration, smaller in amplitude
2. Larger in duration, larger in amplitude
3. Shorter in duration, larger in amplitude
7. An exponential signal vi = V (1 et/1) is applied to a high-pass circuit when n = /1 is
large. The output is:
0. Larger in duration, smaller in amplitude
1. Shorter in duration, smaller in amplitude
2. Larger in duration, larger in amplitude
3. Shorter in duration, larger in amplitude
8. When a ramp is applied to a high-pass circuit, the transmission error is given as:
0.
1. T
2. 2
3. 2
9. When a high-pass circuit is used as differentiator, it means that the output is:
0. Same as the input
1. Integral of the input
2. Differential of the input
3. None of the above
10. A double differentiator is called:
0. An RC-coupled amplifier
1. A feedback amplifier
2. A rate-of-rise amplifier
3. A tuned amplifier
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is a linear network? Explain the working of a high-pass RC circuit.
2. What is meant by linear wave shaping?
3. Obtain the expression for the lower cut-off frequency of a high-pass RC circuit.
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3) LOWPASS CIRCUIT
3.1 INTRUDUCTION
A low-pass circuit is one which gives an appreciable output for low frequencies and zero or
negligible output for high frequencies. In this chapter, we essentially consider low-
pass RC and RL circuits and their responses to different types of inputs. Also, we study
attenuators that reduce the magnitude of the signal to the desired level. Attenuators which give
an output that is independent of frequency are studied. One application of such a circuit is as a
CRO probe. Further, the response of the RLC circuit to step input is considered and its output
under various conditions such as under-damped, critically damped and over-damped conditions
is presented. The application of an RLC circuit as a ringing circuit is also considered.
3.2 LOW-PASS CIRCUITS
Low-pass circuits derive their name from the fact that the output of these circuits is larger for
lower frequencies and vice-versa. Figures 3.1(a) and (b) represent a low-pass RC circuit and a
low-pass RL circuit, respectively.
In the RC circuit, shown in Fig. 3.1(a), at low frequencies, the reactance of C is large and
decreases with increasing frequency. Hence, the output is smaller for higher frequencies and
vice-versa. Similarly, in the RL circuit shown in Fig. 3.1(b), the inductive reactance is small
for low frequencies and hence, the output is large at low frequencies. As the frequency
increases, the inductive reactance increases; hence, the output decreases. Therefore, these
circuits are called low-pass circuits. Let us consider the response of these low-pass circuits to
different types of inputs.
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where, 2 = 1/CR = 1/. From Eq. (3.1), the phase shift the signal undergoes is given as:
= tan1(/2) = tan1(/T)
Figure 3.2(a) shows a typical frequency vs. gain characteristic. Hence, f2 is the upper half-
power frequency. At = 2,
Figure 3.2(b) shows the variation of gain with frequency for different values of . As is
evident from the figure, the half-power frequency, f2, increases with the decreasing values of ,
the time constant. The sinusoidal signal undergoes a change only in the amplitude but its shape
remains preserved.
Figure 3.2(c) shows the variation of as a function of frequency. As (/T) becomes
large, approaches 90. This characteristic can be appreciated when we talk about an integrator
later.
3.2.2 The Response of a Low-pass RC Circuit to Step Input
Let a step voltage be applied as the input to the low-pass RC circuit shown in Fig. 3.1(a). The
output vo can be obtained by using Eq. (2.9) as shown in Fig. 3.3. We have RC = .
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As t , vo(t) V.
Initially, as the capacitor behaves as a short circuit, the output voltage is zero. As the
capacitor charges, the output reaches the steady-state value of V in a time interval that is
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dependent on the time constant, . On the other hand, the output of Eq. (3.2) can also be
obtained by solving the following differential equation. From Fig. 3.1(a), For vi = V:
Putting s = 0:
Putting s = 1/
Therefore,
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From Eq. (3.8), it may be seen that the output reaches the steady-state value faster for smaller
values of . Similarly, when is large, it takes a longer time for the output to reach the steady-
state value.
Rise time: The time taken for the output to reach 90 per cent of its final value from 10 per
cent of its final value is called the rise time. Using Eq. (3.8) to calculate the rise time for this
circuit:
Also f2 = 1/2RC
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Therefore,
Let a step voltage Vi be applied to a low-pass circuit. The output does not reach the steady-
state value Vi instantaneously as desired. Rather, it takes a finite time delay for the output to
reach Vi, depending on the value of the time constant of the low-pass circuit employed. If this
output is to drive a transistor from the OFF to the ON state, this change of state does not occur
immediately, because the output of the low-pass circuit takes some time to reach Vi. The
transistor is thus said to be switched from the OFF state into the ON state only when the voltage
at the output of the low-pass circuit is 90 per cent of Vi. If this time delay is to be small, should
be small. On the contrary, if the output is to be ramp, should be large. This is elucidated
by Example 3.1.
EXAMPLE
Example 3.1: A 10-Volt step input is applied to a low-pass RC circuit. Plot the response of the
circuit when: (a) RC = 1 ms, (b) RC = 10 ms and (c) RC = 100 ms.
Solution: For a step input, the output voltage is vo = V(1 et/). Using this expression, the
output voltage for different values of the time constant is shown in the Table 3.1. The
waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.4.
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FIGURE 3.4 The response of a low-pass circuit for different values of for a step input
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FIGURE 3.5 Response of a low-pass circuit for the pulse input for varying
For vi = V, the output for different values of is plotted in Fig. 3.5. It is seen here that the
shape of the pulse at the output is preserved if the time constant of the circuit is much smaller
than tp, i.e., tp. However, if a ramp is to be generated during the period of the pulse, is
chosen such that tp. The method to compute the output is illustrated in Example 3.2.
EXAMPLE
Example 3.2: An ideal pulse of amplitude 10 V is fed to an RC low-pass integrator circuit. The
width of the pulse is 3 s. Draw the output waveforms for the following upper 3-dB
frequencies: (a) 30 MHz, (b) 3 MHz and (c) 0.3 MHz.
Solution: Consider the low-pass circuit in Fig. 3.1(a).
1. At f2 = 30 MHz
We know that f2 = 1/2RC
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Vp = V(1 etp/)
Therefore,
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FIGURE 3.7 The response of the low-pass circuit to a square-wave input for different values
of
Again, at t = T2, Vo2 = V1 and we have vi = V2, Vf = V
Also
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Using Eqs. (3.17) and (3.19), it is possible to calculate V2 and V1 and plot the output
waveforms as given in Figs. 3.7(c) and (d), respectively.
If T, then the wave shape is maintained. And if T, the wave shape is highly distorted,
but the output of the low-pass circuit is now a triangular wave. So it is possible to derive a
triangular wave from a square wave by choosing to be very large when compared to T/2 of
the symmetric square wave. Let us consider an example.
EXAMPLE
Example 3.3: A symmetric square wave, whose peak-to-peak amplitude is 4 V and whose
average value is zero is applied to a low-pass RC circuit shown in Fig. 3.1(a). The time constant
equals the half-period of the square wave. Find the peak-to-peak output voltage of waveform.
where = T/2.
The peak-to-peak output voltage = 2 0.924 = 1.848 V. V2 can also directly be calculated
using Eq. 3.19.
The input and output are plotted as shown in Fig. 3.8.
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EXAMPLE
Example 3.4: The periodic waveform applied to an RC low-pass circuit in Fig. 3.1(a), is a
square wave with T1 = 0.1 s, T2 = 0.2 s and time constant = 0.1 s, [see Fig. 3.9(a)]. Calculate
the output voltages and draw the output waveform.
vo2 = 0 (0 V1)e(t0.1)/
At t = 0.3 s:
FIGURE 3.9(b) The input and output waveforms of the low-pass circuit
where 1 is the time constant of the circuit that generated this exponential signal. For the low-
pass circuit, we have:
Case 1: When 1
Applying Laplace transforms:
Therefore,
Let
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Therefore,
Putting s = 0, A = V
Putting s = 1/, B = V
Therefore,
Putting s = 1/
and
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Therefore,
Hence,
Taking the Laplace inverse, the solution of the differential Eq. (3.26) is:
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where, = tr2/tr1. If tr1 and tr2 are the rise times of the circuit that has generated the exponential
input and of the low-pass circuit respectively, then Eq. (3.31) gives the rise time of the output
of the low-pass circuit. Let us consider Example 3.5.
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EXAMPLE
The output is calculated for different values of and is presented in Table 3.2.
Case 2: = 20 ms
When the time constant of input, 1 and that of a low-pass circuit, are not equal (n = 2) the
output voltage is:
TABLE 3.2 Output of a low-pass circuit for different values of t when n = 1(i.e =1= 10ms)
0 0 0
1 0.952 0.046
2 1.81 0.175
4 3.3 0.615
5 3.93 0.90
6 4.51 1.22
10 6.32 2.642
20 8.647 5.94
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40 9.82 9.08
100 10 9.995
TABLE 3.3 The output of a low-pass circuit when n = 2 (i.e. 1 = 10 ms and = 20 ms)
0 0 0
1 0.952 0.024
2 1.8 0.09
4 3.3 0.328
6 4.51 0.671
8 5.51 1.09
10 6.32 1.55
15 7.77 2.78
20 8.647 3.99
25 9.18 5.1
30 9.50 6.03
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35 9.7 6.826
40 9.82 7.474
45 9.89 8.002
50 9.93 8.42
60 9.97 9.07
70 9.99 9.40
80 10 9.64
90 10 9.78
100 10 10
FIGURE 3.12 The response of the low-pass circuit for n = 1 and for n = 2
Put s = 0, B =
Put s = 1/, C =
To get the value of A, from Eq. (3.34):
A+C=0
Therefore, A = C. As C = , A = .
Substituting the values of A, B and C:
At t = T:
Case 1: If T, then the deviation of the output from the input is very small since eT/ 0.
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Case 2: If T, then eT/ can be expanded as series. The response is plotted in Fig. 3.13.
The response is plotted in Fig.3.13. When a ramp is applied as input to a low-pass circuit,
the output deviates from the input. The transmission error, et, is calculated as:
Therefore,
Transmission error defines deviation from linearity. Thus, the smaller the value of et, the
more linear the output. Let us consider an Example 3.6.
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vo(T) = ( ) + e/ = e1
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Since,
Therefore,
The output is proportional to the integral of the input signal. Hence, a low-pass circuit with
a large time constant produces an output that is proportional to the integral of the input. If the
input to the circuit is vi(t) = Vm sin t, From Eq. (3.42):
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ATTENUATORS
An attenuator is a circuit that reduces the amplitude of the signal by a finite amount. A simple
resistance attenuator is represented in Fig. 3.16. The output of the attenuator shown in Fig.
3.16 is given by the relation:
From this equation, it is evident that the output is smaller than the input, which is the main
purpose of an attenuatorto reduce the amplitude of the signal. Attenuators are used when the
signal amplitude is very large. Let us measure a voltage, say, 5000 V, using a CRO; such a
large voltage may not be handled by the amplifier in a CRO. Therefore, to be able to measure
such a voltage we first attenuate the voltage by a known amount, say by a factor of 10( = 0.1),
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so that the voltage that is actually connected to the CRO is only 500 V. The output of the
attenuator is thus reduced depending on the choice of R1 and R2.
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delay. An attenuator of this type is called an uncompensated attenuator, i.e., its output is
dependent on frequency.
FIGURE 3.17(b) The attenuator, considering the stray capacitance at the amplifier input
Compensated Attenuators
To make the response of the attenuator independent of frequency, the capacitor C1 is connected
acrossR1. This attenuator now is called a compensated attenuator shown in Fig. 3.18(a). This
circuit in Fig. 3.18(a) is redrawn as shown in Fig. 3.18(b).
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Thus, the initial output voltage is determined by C1 and C2. As t , the capacitors are
fully charged and they behave as open circuits for dc. Hence, the resultant output is:
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In the attenuator circuit, as at t = 0+, the capacitors C1 and C2 behave as short circuits, the
current must be infinity. But impulse response is impossible as the generator, in practice, has a
finite source resistance, not ideally zero. Now consider the compensated attenuator with source
resistance Rs [see Fig. 3.19(d)].
If the xy loop is open for a balanced bridge, Thevenizing the circuit, the Thevenin voltage
source and its internal resistance and R are calculated using Fig. 3.19(e).
FIGURE 3.19(d) The attenuator taking the source resistance into account
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FIGURE 3.19(e) The circuit used to calculate the Thevenin voltage source and its internal
resistance
The above circuit now reduces to that shown in Fig. 3.19(f). Usually Rs (R1 + R2),
hence, Rs || (R1 + R2) Rs. Thus the circuit in Fig. 3.19(f) reduces to that shown in Fig. 3.19(g).
This is a low-pass circuit with time constant s = RsCs, where Cs is the series combination
of C1 and C2; Cs= C1C2/(C1 + C2). The output of the attenuator is an exponential with time
constant s; and if s is small, the output almost follows the input. Alternately, consider the
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situation when a step voltage V from a source having Rs as its internal resistance, is connected
to a circuit which has C2 between its output terminals, [see Fig. 3.19(h)].
This being a low-pass circuit (can also be termed as an uncompensated attenuator), with time
constant (= RsC2), its output will be an exponential with rise time tr, where
Now consider the compensated attenuator, shown in Fig. 3.19(g), where the internal
resistance of the source Rs is taken into account. The time constant of this circuit is s(= RsCs)
and the rise time is:
= [C1/(C1 + C2)] =
where is the attenuation constant, which tells us by what amount the signal is reduced at
the output.
If = 0.5:
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From Eq. (3.50), it seen that the output signal from a compensated attenuator has a negligible
rise time when compared to the output signal from an un-compensated attenuator. It means that
the step voltage, V is more faithfully reproduced at the output of a compensated attenuator,
which is its main advantage.
A perfectly compensated attenuator is sometimes used to reduce the signal amplitude when
the signal is connected to a CRO to display a waveform. A typical CRO probe may be
represented as in Fig. 3.20.Example 3.7 helps to further elucidate and elaborate the functioning
of the attenuator circuit.
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1. When C1 = 75 pF, then the attenuator is perfectly compensated. The rise time of the
output waveform is zero.
Attenuation,
vo(0+) = vo() = vi = 0.5 50 = 25 V
2. When C1 = 100 pF, then the attenuator is over-compensated, hence vo(0+) > vo().
The output at t = 0+,
The output at t = ,
and C = C1 + C2
FIGURE 3.21(b) The equivalent circuit to get the time constant for the decay of the
overshoot
Time constant 1 with which the overshoot at t = 0+ decays to the steady-state value
is:
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The output at t = :
The time constant, 2, with which the output rises to the steady-state value is:
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Final response:
Fall time:
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RLC CIRCUITS
RLC circuits behave altogether differently when compared to either RL or RC circuits. RLC
circuits are resonant circuits. These can be either series resonant circuits or parallel resonant
circuits. A parallel RLC circuit is used as a tank circuit in an oscillator to generate oscillations
(this is the feedback network that produces the phase shift of 180). The RLC circuit is also
used in tuned amplifiers to select a desired frequency band at the output. When a sinusoidal
signal is applied as input to a series RLC circuit [see Fig. 3.23(a)], the frequency-vs-current
characteristic is as shown in Fig. 3.23(b).
At resonance: XL = XC
FIGURE 3.23(a) An RLC series circuit with sinusoidal input; (b) the frequency-vs-current
characteristic
FIGURE 3.23(c) A parallel RLC resonant circuit with sinusoidal input; (d) the frequency-vs-
voltage characteristic
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At resonance, the impedance is minimum, purely resistive and equal to R. The current at the
resonant frequency, fo is maximum, termed imax. Let us now consider a parallel resonant circuit
[see Fig. 3.23(c)] and its frequency-vs-vo characteristic, shown in Fig. 3.23(d). In the parallel
resonant circuit, the impedance is maximum at resonance and hence, the voltage is maximum
at fo. The figure of merit of a tuned circuit, denoted by Q, is given as:
The larger the value of Q, the sharper the response characteristic of the tuned circuit.
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Therefore,
From Eq. (3.51), the resonant frequency of the tank circuit is:
Therefore,
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Therefore,
Putting s = s1
Putting s = s2
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Let
Therefore,
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Therefore,
Multiply and divide Eq. (3.67) by K and substitute K/To = 1/4RC in it. The resultant
equation is:
where
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The output response is an under-damped sinusoidal waveform. The oscillations die down
after a few cycles, as shown in Fig. 3.24(d).
Here,
Therefore,
where x = t/To:
Here:
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Neglecting the higher order terms, the binomial expansion is reduced to (1 1/2K2).
As
K > 1, (4K2 1) 4K2
As
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Therefore,
As 4K2 1
Therefore,
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FIGURE 3.24(g) The response of an RLC parallel circuit for different values of K
Substituting Eq. (3.73) in Eq. (3.72):
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But
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1. If either (R/2L)2 > 1/LC or R > , then both the roots are real and different, the
circuit is over-damped.
2. If either (R/2L)2 = 1/LC or R = , then both the roots are real and equal, the
circuit is critically damped.
3. If either (R/2L)2 < 1/LC or R < , then both the roots are complex conjugate to
each other; the circuit is under-damped. We have from Eq. (3.79):
Putting s = s1:
Putting s = s2:
Let
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where,
The step response is plotted using Eqs. (3.83), (3.84) and (3.85) in Fig. 3.25(c). For the
under-damped condition, we see that there are damped oscillations.
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where
if 2Kx = 1
If 2Kx = 1, the amplitude decreases to 1/e of the initial value. If we know the value of Q,
we can find the number of cycles for which the circuit rings before the magnitude reduces to
1/e of the initial value. Let the amplitude reduce to 1/e of the initial value after n cycles, at t1.
At t = t1 = nTo, x1 = nTo/To = n, when 2Kx1 = 1.
But
Therefore,
But
Therefore,
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2KQ = 1
Also:
The circuit will ring for 6 cycles before the amplitude reduces to 37 per cent of its initial
value, as shown in Fig. 3.26.
As K becomes smaller, though the amplitude of the output signal decreases, the oscillations
continue for more number of cycles. In a sinusoidal oscillator with an LC tank circuit, when
the power (VCC) is switched ON, oscillations develop if K < 1 and this condition is sustained
as a positive feedback is employed in these oscillators.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 3.9: The periodic ramp with T1 = T2 = /2 shown in Fig. 3.27(a) is applied to a low-
pass RCcircuit. Find the equations to determine the steady-state output waveform. The initial
voltage on the condenser is V1. Find the maximum and minimum value of the voltage and plot
the waveform.
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FIGURE 3.27(a) The given periodic ramp input; (b) the given RC circuit
Solution:
From Eq. (3.35), we have the output for a low-pass RC circuit to ramp input as:
vo (t) = + t + et/
If there is an initial voltage of V1 on C, Eq. (3.35) gets modified as:
vo (t) = + t + et/ + V1et/
For the ramp input, the slope = V/T1
Therefore,
The capacitor charges from V1 to V2 in time T1. During T2, when the input is zero, the
capacitor discharges from V2 to V1.
Given
T1 = T2 =
At
t = T1, vo(t) = V2
Using (1)
From (2)
V2 = V + (V1 + 2V)e0.5 = V + V(0.21 + 2)0.606 V2 = 0.34 V
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At = 20T,
= tan 120 = 87.14
If T, will be nearly 90. The sinusoidal signal undergoes a phase change of 90, as
required in an integrator.
Example 3.11: For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.29, find:
1. The expression for the voltage across the capacitor at each stage.
2. The rise time of the output in terms of the time constant.
3. The ratio of the rise time of the combination of the three sections to the rise time of
a single section.
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Therefore,
Stage 3:
Therefore,
2. Rise time is the time taken for the waveform to rise from 10 per cent to 90 per cent
of its max value V. Here, let at t = t2, vo reach 90 per cent of V Therefore, at 90%
of V, Vo/V = 0.9
Therefore
The rise time of the cascaded network is calculated by finding t2 and t1. As the
above equation is transcendental equation,* we should go for trial and error method
to get the value of t2. The value of t2/ at which, LHS value = RHS value, is the value
we will take into account to calculate t2.
Let us start with t2/ = 1
LHS RHS
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If t2/ = 3
LHS RHS
If t2/ = 5
LHS RHS
If t2/ = 6
LHS RHS
It means that the value of t2/ lies between 5 and 6. If t2/ = 5.5
LHS RHS
If t2/ = 5.3
LHS = RHS
t2 = 5.3
Let at t = t1, vo reach 10% of V
10% of V is:
The value of t1/ for which LHS = RHS is the value we will take into account to
calculate t1.
Let us start with t1/ = 1
LHS RHS
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If t1/ = 2
LHS RHS
It means that the value of t1/ lies between 1 and 2.
If t1/ = 1.5
LHS = RHS
If t1/ = 1.1
LHS = RHS
t1 = 1.1
Rise time = t2 t1 = 5.3 1.1 = 4.2
3. The rise time of three stages = 4.2
Rise timing single stage = 2.2
Ratio of the rise time of three stages to a single stage is equal to 4.2/2.2 = 1.9.
Example 3.12: An oscilloscope test probe shown in Fig. 3.30(a) has a cable capacitance of 50
pF. The input impedance of oscilloscope is 1 M in parallel with 5 pF. Find the value of:
R2 = 0.28 M || 1 M = 0.2187 M
R1C1 = R2C2
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C1 = 15 pF
As C1 < CP, the attenuator is said to be under compensated.
Initial response
Final response
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When a step is applied as input to a low-pass circuit, it takes a finite time for the
output to reach the steady-state value. Rise time is defined as the time taken for the
output to reach from 10 per cent of its final value to 90 per cent of its final value.
The rise time tr is given as 2.2 (= 0.35/f2).
If n stages of low-pass circuits having rise times tr1, tr2, , trn are cascaded, then the
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0.
1.
2.
3.
6. Integrators are invariably preferred over differentiators in analogue computer
applications due to the following reason;
0. The gain of an integrator decreases with frequency
1. It is easier to stabilize
2. It is more convenient to introduce initial conditions
3. All of the above
7. The output of an integrator to a square wave input is:
0. Triangular wave
1. Square wave
2. Quadratic response
3. Spikes
8. The time required for the capacitor to get charged completely is nearly __________
the time constant.
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0. five times
1. one time
2. equal to
3. two times
9. When R1C1 = R2C2, the attenuator is said to have achieved:
0. Perfect compensation
1. Over-compensation
2. Under-compensation
3. No compensation
10. When R1C1 > R2C2, the attenuator is said to have achieved:
0. Perfect compensation
1. Over-compensation
2. Under-compensation
3. No compensation
11. When R1C1 < R2C2, the attenuator is said to have achieved:
0. Perfect compensation
1. Over-compensation
2. Under-compensation
3. No compensation
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Obtain the expression for the bandwidth of a low-pass circuit.
2. The input to a low-pass RC circuit is a step of V. Obtain the expression for the output
voltage.
3. What is meant by the rise time of a pulse? Obtain the expression for the rise time of
a low-pass RC circuit.
4. The input to a low-pass circuit is a pulse of duration tp and magnitude V. Plot its
output when the time constant is very small and when the time constant is very large.
5. A symmetric square wave is applied as input to the low-pass circuit. Plot the output
waveforms for different time constants.
6. A ramp is applied as input to a low-pass circuit. Derive the expression for the
transmission error,et.
7. Show that a low-pass circuit can be used as an integrator if the time constant of the
circuit is significantly larger than the time period of the input signal.
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1. T = 10 RC.
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The initial voltage on the condenser is V1. Find the maximum and minimum value of
the voltage and plot the waveform.
FIGURE 3p.11 The given periodic ramp input and the low-pass circuit
13. For a low-pass RC circuit, it is desired to pass a 3 ms sweep for a ramp input with
less than 0.4 per cent transmission error. Calculate the upper3-dB frequency.
14. A step input of 20 V is applied to an RC integrating circuit. Calculate the upper 3-dB
frequency and the value of resistance, if the rise time and capacitor values are 100 s
and 0.28 F, respectively.
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