Essays on the Origins of Western Music

By David Whitwell

Essay Nr. 87: St. Augustine on Music

InAugustine(354371AD)wecometothemostimportantChristian
philosopherofthefirst500yearsoftheChristianEra.Nooneelsewasso
influentialinthefuturedevelopmentoftheChurchandeventodayhisimpactcan
stillbemeasuredintheRomanCatholicChurch.
Hehadabroadeducationintheliberalarts,includingmusic,andenough
studyofpaganphilosophy,thephilosophyoftheancientGreeks,tomakehim
believeinReasonalmostasmuchashebelievedinGod.Hisintelligenceisevident
inhisabilitytoformsomeveryimportantquestions,andforthiswejoininhis
standingovation.Butitiswhenwereadhisanswersthatwemusttakeourseatand
offeronlythatpoliteapplausewhichsignifiesthedeathofart,forhisanswersare
toooftensimplywrong.Itisforthisreasonthatwecannotjointhosewhothinkof
AugustineasaChristianPlato.
Hispowerful,rationalminddidnotseemtobeaccompaniedbyanygenuine
appreciationoftheirrational,thearts,orthecontributionmadetolifebythe
emotions.Sincehedescribeshavinghadaveryfullrangeoflifeexperiencesbefore
hejoinedtheChurch,weareastonishedthathiswritingssuggestthathecompletely
failedtounderstandthepointandpurposeofmusic.Weprefertobelievethatthe
viewsheleftwererestrictedbyhisroleasaChurchleaderandthatwearenot
seeingthetruescopeofhisthought.
Regardinghisowneducationintheliberalarts,includingmusic,Augustine
maintainsthatinhisyouthhestudiedandunderstoodthemallwithoutthebenefit
ofateacher.

1
 Whateverwaswritten,eitheronrhetoric,orlogic,geometry,music,
andarithmetic,bymyselfwithoutmuchdifficultyoranyinstructor,I
understood.1

Understandingtheliberalartswas,forthe4thcenturyChurchfathers,somewhatof
anirrelevantconcept.Faithwaswhatmattered.OnlylaterdidsomeChurch
philosopherscometobelievethattheliberalartsmighthaveavalueinhelpingthe
Christianunderstandthismessage.ForAugustine,educationhadonecentral
purpose:tohelpmanunderstandthedifferencebetweenhimselfandGod!
Allinstructioninwisdom,thepurposeofwhichistheeducationof
men,isfordistinguishingthecreatorandthecreature,andworshipingthe
oneasLordandconfessingtheotherassubject.2

Inanotherplace,speakingtoapoet,hetakesabroaderview.
Youmustreturntothoseverses,forinstructionintheliberalarts,if
onlyitismoderateandconcise,producesdevoteesmorealertandsteadfast
andbetterequippedforembracingtruth....3

Perhapsbecausehesensedthatthemysteriesofmusiclayoutsidetherealm
ofReason,Augustineunfortunatelyfailstoacceptthatthestudyofmusiccanmake
anypositivecontributiontothemind.
Studiesthataretakenupwiththingsthataremorecuriousthan
solidlyworthwhilegrantedeventhatonoccasiontheyarenotentirely
uselessdissipatethemindandhencemustbeputinoursecondcategory.
Justbecauseoneaulosplayersodelightedtheearsofthepopulace,according
toVarro,thattheymadehimakingisnoreasonforsupposingthatwecan
effectenlargementofthemindbyaulosplaying....4

1
The Confessions, trans., Edward B. Pusey (New York: Collier) Book IV.
2
Eighty-Three Different Questions, trans., David L. Mosher (Washington, D.C.:
The Catholic University of America Press), 81.
3
Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil, trans., Ludwig Schopp (New York:
CIMA Publishing Co.), 261.
4
The Magnitude of the Soul, trans., Ludwig Schopp in Writings of Saint
Augustine (New York: CIMA), II, xx.

2
Theonlyvaluehecanrecommendinthestudyofmusicisasecondaryone,for
learningorder.Andeveninthiscaseonlymoderatestudyisrecommended.
Nowinmusic,ingeometry,inthemovementsofthestars,inthefixed
ratiosofnumbers,orderreignsinsuchmannerthatifonedesirestoseeits
sourceandisveryshrine,sotospeak,heeitherfindsitinthese,orheis
unerringlyledtoitthroughthem.Indeed,suchlearning,ifoneusesitwith
moderationandinthismatter,nothingistobefearedmorethanexcess
rearsforphilosophyasoldier...socompetentthathesalliesforthwhereverhe
wishesandleadsothersaswell,andreachesthatultimategoal,beyondwhich
hedesiresnothingelse,beyondwhichheneitheroughtnorcanseek
anything.5

AugustinerevealsinhisConfessionsthathehadhadsomeexperiencein
actingandinthecompositionofpoetry.Butwhatlittlehetellsusofthisexperience
onlyreflectsalackofsympathywiththeartsandhissubsequentfeelingsof
emptiness.
[Frommy19thyeartomy28th]huntingaftertheemptinessof
popularpraise,downeventotheatricalapplause,andpoeticprizes,and
strifeforgrassygarlands,andthefolliesofshows,andtheintemperanceof
desires.6

Neitherwerethesefeelingsofemptinessfilledbymusic,booksorentertainment.
ForIboreaboutashatteredandbleedingsoul,impatientofbeing
bornebyme,yetwheretoreposeit,Ifoundnot.Notincalmgroves,notin
gamesandmusic,norinfragrantspots,norincuriousbanquetings,norin
thepleasuresofthebed;norinbooksorpoetry,founditrepose.7

Inhisbook,TheCityofGod,Augustine,reflectingthegeneralhesitationof
theChurchtowardthesensesandemotions,statesthatitisReasonwhichallowsus
tocreateanimageofanobjectinourmindandtojudgethebeautyofthatobject.
Itfollows,hesays,thatthiscapacitywehaveissuperiortotheartwork.Perhapshe

5
Divine Providence, Op. cit., 289.
6
The Confessions, Op. cit. This last reference included, in his youth, a lusty
appreciation of the female sex, which resulted in one of the most memorable
prayers of the Middle Ages, Give me chastity -- but not yet!
7
The Confessions, Book IV.

3
feltitwastheonlyjustificationofartwhichtheChurchcouldadmit,butfromour
perspectivetheconclusionsareentirelywrong.
Now,whatevercanbesoimaginedinthemindseyeiscertainlynota
bodybutonlythelikenessofabody,andthatpowerofthemindwhichcan
perceivethislikenessisitselfneitherabodynoranimageofabody.
Moreover,thatfacultywhichperceivesandjudgeswhetherthislikenessis
beautifuloruglyiscertainlysuperiortotheobjectjudged.
Now,thisfacultyisamansreason,theessenceofhisrationalsoul....8

Themanshouldhaveleftusamuchmorevividdescriptionofearlymedieval
aestheticsthanhedid.Iftheperspectiveheleftisalimitedone,itisnevertheless
oneofthemostinterestingdiscussionsofitskind.
FromapassingadmissionbyAugustine,weknowtherewerelistenerswho
appreciatedmusicpurelyformusicssakeinthe4thcentury.Heisspeakingof
variousthingswhichmakemenhappy,whenhecontributesthefollowing
illustration.
Manydecidethatforthemthehappylifeisfoundinvocalmusicand
inthesoundsofstringinstrumentsandauloi.Whenevertheseareabsent,
theyaccountthemselvesunhappy,whereaswhentheyareathand,theyare
thrilledwithjoy.9

NeverdoesAugustinehimselfadmitsuchenthusiasmforsecularmusic.Inhis
Confessions,hementionsonlythatasayouthhefoundsomepoetrywhichhesang
anditbecamepartofhim,whileinothercasesitdidnotstaywithhim.
ForversesandpoemsIcanturntotruefood,andMedeaflying,
thoughIdidsing,Imaintainednot;thoughIhearditsung,Ibelievednot....10

Augustinehasleftanaccountofanartistcomposer,nodoubtafriend,which
perhapsrevealssomeofhisownconcernsaboutartmusic.Augustineseems
8
The City of God, trans., Gerald G. Walsh (New York: Fathers of the Church,
1952), VIII, 31.
9
The Free Choice of the Will, trans., Robert P. Russell (Washington, D.C.: The
Catholic University of America Press), xiii i.
10
The Confessions, Book III.

4
botheredthatthisartistpreferstowithdrawfromhisfriendstoworkanddoesnot
wanttobedisturbedwhencomposing.Augustineworriesthathisfriendwillthus
losehisabilityforintellectualcommunication,sohisbasicadviceisforhimtostop
workingandgohaveadrink!
Whenwehadreturned,wefoundLicentiuseagerlystrivingto
composeverses.ButHeliconwouldneverhaverelievedhimofhisthirst,for
althoughonlyonecoursewasservedatourlunchhehadquietly
withdrawnwhenwehadreachedaboutthemiddle,andhehaddrunk
nothing.
Isaidtohim:Iwishthatsomedayorotheryouwouldmasterthat
poetics,sinceyouhavebecomesoardentlyattachedtoit:notthatthiskindof
perfectionwouldaffordmeanygreatpleasure,butbecauseIseeyouhave
becomesoeagerforitthatyoucanbealienatedfromitonlybydisgust,and
thisreadilyhappensafterperfectionhasbeenreached.Furthermore,since
youarequitemusical,Ishouldprefertohaveyouinflictyourownverseson
ourears,ratherthanhaveyoulikethelittlebirdsweseeenclosedincages
singingwordsyoudonotunderstandinthoseGreektragedies.ButI
adviseyoutogoforadrink,ifyouhaveanyregardforHortensiusand
philosophy.Infact,inthatdisputationbetweenyourselfandTrygetius,you
havealreadyofferedheryourfirstfruitsasamostpleasinglibation,andshe,
farmorethanpoetics,hasenkindledinyouaglowingdesireforthe
knowledgeofgreatandtrulyprofitablethings.But,whileIwishtoinvite
bothofyoubacktothearenaofthoseintellectualexercisesthatimpart
refinementtothemind,Ifearlestitbecomealabyrinthforbothofyou.11

Thereaderwillnoticethereferenceintheabovetothefactthatmostpoetrywas
sung.Inanothertreatise,Augustinementionsthispoetandhissingingagain,now
expressingevenmoreconcernthathispoetrymightseparatehimfromreality.
Here,fearingthathisrunningtoextremesonpoeticsmighttakehim
awayfromphilosophy,Isaid:Iamvexedsomewhatbecause,singingand
crooninginallkindsofmeter,youpursuethatversemakingofyourswhich
maybeerectingbetweenyourselfandrealityawallmoreimpenetrablethan
theyaretryingtorearbetweenyourlovers(PyramusandThisbe),forthey
usedtosightoeachotherthroughatinynaturalcrevice.12

11
Answer to Skeptics, trans., Ludwig Schopp (New York: CIMA Publishing Co.),
IV, 7.
12
Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil, Op. cit., 247.

5
 Regardingthetheater,Augustineparticularlyobjectedtotheuseofplotand
songtoglorifythepagangods,manyofwhom,intheirverymyths,wereguiltyofa
varietyofcrimes.
Imustconfessthatthebettereducatedpagansrejectsuchstories
abouttheirgods....
[But],howevermuchtheymayprotest,theycannotwhollycleartheir
godsofcrimeiftheyhavetostageforthem,ondemand,showsinwhichthey
baselydepicttheverystoriestheysoloftilydeny.For,solongasthegodsare
sogreatlyappeasedbythesefalseandfilthygoingson,eveniftheburdenof
thelegendarysongisadivinesinwhichneverhappened,itisstillarealsin
forthegodstobedelightedwithit.13

Inanotherplace,Augustineblamesthepagangodsthemselvesfortheintroduction
oftheater.
Thestageplays,thoseexhibitionsofdepravityandunboundedlicense,
werenotintroducedinRomebymensvices,butbythecommandofyour
gods....Ifyourmindretainsenoughsensetoesteemthesoulmorethanthe
body,thenchoosewhomyoushouldworship.14

For4thcenturyRomanstheancientcultreligiousceremonieswerenow
moreofaritualthantheologytogoverntheirlives.Augustinefocusesononeofthe
mostpopular,theobsceneritesofthePhrygiangoddessCybele,inhisTheCityof
God,wherehecriticizestheRomancitizenwhoparticipatesinthisfestival.
Why,then,nowthatdisasterhaslaidaheavyhandonyou,doyou
complainaboutChristiancivilization,ifitbenotthatyoudesiretowallow
securelyinvoluptuousnessand,freefromallrestraint,givefreereintoyour
profligateconduct?For,youdonotdesiretohavepeaceandabundanceof
allthings,inordertousethesegoodslikedecentmen,thatis,withmeasure,
sobriety,temperance,andpiety.No,yourpurposeisrathertopursueevery
kindofpleasurewithinsaneextravagance;thus,outofyourprosperity,you
conjureupthatcorruptionofmoralswhichismoredeadlythanthefuryof
yourenemies.15

13
The City of God, Op. cit., XVIII, xii.
14
Ibid., I, xxxii.
15
Ibid., I, xxx.

6
 NowAugustineprovidesafirsthanddescriptionofthecultreligious
celebrationsasheknewtheminthe4thcentury.
Imyself,inmyyoungerdays,usedtofrequentthesacrilegiousstage
playsandcomedies.Iusedtowatchthedemoniacalfanaticsandlistentothe
choruses,andtakedelightintheobsceneshowsinhonoroftheirgodsand
goddesses,ofthevirginCaelestisandtheBerecynthianCybele,motherofthe
gods.Beforethelatterscouchonthedayofhersolemnbathing,ribald
refrainswerepubliclysungaboutherbylewdactorsthatwereunfitforthe
earofthemotherofthegods,andofthemotherofanySenatorordecent
mansounspeakablybestial,infact,thateventhemothersoftheplayers
themselveswouldhavebeenashamedtolisten....
Surely,thecomediansthemselveswouldhaveblushedtorehearseat
homebeforetheirmotherstheobscenewordsandactionswhichtheyuttered
andperformedinpublicbeforethemotherofthegodsandinthepresenceof
avastassemblageofbothsexes.Ifcuriositycouldenticesuchnumbersto
come,ashockedsenseofdecencysurelyshouldhavehurriedthemhome.If
theseenormitiesarereligiousservice,whatcansacrilegebe?Ifthatbathing
ispurification,whatispollution?16

AsmuchastheChurchphilosopherscondemnedthepaganphilosophers,
AugustinesuggeststhatatemplededicatedtoPlatowouldbebetterthanwhathe
hadwitnessedinthecelebrationofCybele.
HowmuchmoresensibleandproperwoulditbetohavePlatos
writingsreadinatemplededicatedtohimthantohavethemutilationofthe
priestsofCybele,theconsecrationofeunuchs,theslashingofinsanemen,in
thetemplesofthedemons,theperpetrationofeverycruelandfoul,orfoully
cruelandcruellyfoul,abominationthatiswonttopassforareligiousrite.17

OntheAestheticsofMusic

WhenAugustineseekstodefinemusic,herevealsaverycurious
misunderstandingofitsnature.Healmostneverspeaksofmusicasanemotional

16
Ibid., II, iv.
17
Ibid., II, vii.

7
language,whichisitstrueessence.Ratherhecontinuallyreferstoitsrational
characteristics,reflectingnodoubthisstudyofPlatoandhisownperiodwhen
musicwascloselyassociatedwithmathematicsasamemberoftheliberalarts.Still,
tothemodernreader,adefinitionofmusicsuchasthefollowingseemstoentirely
missthepoint.
Music,thatisthescienceorperceptionofrhythm,isgrantedbythe
liberalityofGodtomortalshavingrationalsouls,toteachagreattruth.
Hence,ifamanwhoisskilledincomposingasongknowswhatlengthsto
assigntowhattones,sothatthemelodyflowsandprogresseswithbeautyby
asuccessionofslowandrapidtones,howmuchmoretrueitisthatGod
permitsnoperiodsoftimeinthebirthanddeathofHiscreaturesperiods
whicharelikethewordsandsyllablesinthemeasureofthistemporallife
toproceedeithermorequicklyormoreslowlythantherecognizedand
welldefinedlawofrhythmrequires,inthiswonderfulsongofsucceeding
events,forthewisdomthroughwhichHemadeallthingsistobeesteemed
faraboveallthearts.18

RarelydoesAugustineadmittherelationshipofmusicandemotions.Inthe
followingpassage,andhereitmayonlybeafigureofspeech,hereferstotheability
ofmusictosoothethefeelings,avirtueenumeratedbyalmostallearlier
philosophers.
Thereupon,thisrecollectionbroughttomymindawayinwhichI
couldsootheyourfeelings,incaseIhadirritatedyou,namely,tosummon
youtotheLord,theCreatorofeverysortofharmony,bythemusicof
poetry.19

Inhisbook,OnMusic,Augustineisattemptingtodefinegoodcomposition,
whenheratherinadvertentlyusesanexamplewhichreflectstheemotionalnatureof

18
Letter to Jerome, in Letters of Saint Augustine, trans., Sister Wilfrid
Parsons (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1955), Nr. 166. In a letter (Nr. 26) to
the poet, Licentius, Augustine, using music as a metaphor for good speech,
says music can have charm, but not excite one to action.
If I sing and you dance to another tune, it will not bother me, for my
song has its own charm, even if it does not stir feet to the dance....
19
Letter to Paulinus and Therasia, trans., Sister Wilfrid Parsons in Letters of
Saint Augustine (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1951) Nr. 32.

8
musicandhasnothingtodowithReason.Itispossible,hesays,formusictobe
pleasingwhenitshouldnt.
Forexample,ifoneshouldsingsweetlyanddancegracefully,wishing
therebytobegaywhentheoccasiondemandedgravity....20

Inallotherdiscussionsofmusic,however,Augustinesemphasisisonthe
rationalorconceptualqualitieshefindsinmusic.Itisfromthissameperspective
thatAugustinegivesusaglimpseintohisviewsoftheaestheticpurposeofmusic,in
apassageinwhichheisdiscussingtheassociationofReasonandthearts.First,he
says,Reasonisinnate,plantedbyGod.Ininfancyitappearstobeasleep,butis
awakenedwitheducation.Hethenremarksontheastonishingachievements
whichReasonhasmadepossible,includingthoseinthearts.
Orthinkoftheoriginalityandrangeofwhathasbeendoneby
expertsinceramics,bysculptorsandbypainters;ofthedramasand
theatricalspectaclessostupendousthatthosewhohavenotseenthemsimply
refusetobelievetheaccountsofthosewhohave.21

Itisinterestingthathedoesnotincludemusicinthislistingofthearts,butrather
includesitinthecategoryofhumancommunication.
Itwashumaningenuity,too,thatdevisedthemultitudeofsignswe
usetoexpressandcommunicateourthoughtsand,especially,speechand
writing.Theartsofrhetoricandpoetryhavebroughtdelighttomens
spiritsbytheirornamentsofstyleandvarietyofverse;musicianshave
solacedhumanearsbytheirinstrumentsandsongs....

Inyetanotherplacehesuggeststhattheappreciationofmusicisoneofrational
reflectionofitsbeauty,notaresponsetoitsemotionalcontent.
Considerationofbeauty,evencorporealbeauty,whethervisibleasin
colorsandshapes,oraudibleasinsongsandmelodies,aconsideration
properonlytoarationalmind,isnotthesameasthestirringoflust,which
mustberestrainedbyreason.22

20
On Music, Op. cit., I, iii.
21
The City of God, Op. cit., XXII, 484.

9
 Onecanseeaclearpatternhere,thehighestaestheticinmusicisthatin
whichReasonparticipates.Inthefollowingpassagehemakesthedistinctionthat
pleasureinmusicismusicwhichisreasonablyorganized.Amerebeautifulchordis
notreasonable.Weshouldalsoremindthereaderhowimportantitisthat
Augustinementionsharmonyhere.Thisis500yearsbeforeourtraditionalmusic
historytextsfindthefirstevidenceofeventwopartwriting!
Isee,therefore,twothingswhereinthefacultyandpowerofreason
canevenbebroughtbeforethesenses:namely,theworksofmanwhichare
seenandhiswordswhichareheard.Ineachcasethemindusesatwin
messenger,theeyeandtheear,accordingtotheneedsofthebody.Thus,
whenwebeholdsomethingformedwithwellfittingparts,notabsurdlydo
wesaythatitappearsreasonable[fashioned].Inlikemanner,whenwehear
amelodyharmonizedwell,wedonothesitatetosaythatitsounds
reasonably[harmonized]....
Insofaraswehavebeenabletoinvestigate,wenowdetectcertain
tracesofreasoninthesenses,and,withregardtosightandhearing,wefind
itinpleasureitself....Withregardtotheeyes,thatisusuallycalledbeautiful
inwhichtheharmonyofpartsiswonttobecalledreasonable;withregardto
theears,whenwesaythataharmonyisreasonableandthatarhythmic
poemisreasonablycomposed,weproperlycallitsweet.But,wearenotwont
topronounceitreasonablewhenthecolorinbeautifulobjectsalluresusor
whenavibrantchordsoundspureandliquid,sotospeak.Wemust
thereforeacknowledgethat,inthepleasureofthosesenses,whatpertainsto
reasonisthatinwhichthereisacertainrhythmicmeasure.23

Augustinecontinuesthisthoughtbyexplainingwherehefindsreasonwith
respecttothreeclassesofmusic.Heclassifiesvocalmusicthehighestsinceitis
madebythebody,Godmadeinstruments,sotospeak.Nexthighestisthemusic
ofwindinstruments,because,aswepresumethepointtobe,theyuseatleastthe
breathfrominsidethebody.Thefinal,andlowest,categoryispercussion,which
includesstringinstrumentsanythingyouplayupon.Hethenprovidesavirtual
historyofthedevelopmentofmindandsound,seenthroughtheeyesofarational

22
Against Julian, trans., Matthew A. Schumacher (New York: Fathers of the
Church, 1957), XIV, 73.
23
Divine Providence, Op. cit., 309ff.

10
Christianphilosopher.Sounditselfhaslittlevalue,hesays,unlessitisorganizedby
reason.
Reason,beingendowedwiththekeenestpowersofdiscernment,
quicklysawwhatdifferencetherewasbetweensounditselfandthatofwhich
itwasasymbol.Itsawthattothejurisdictionoftheearspertainednothing
morethansound,andthatthiswasthreefold:soundintheutteranceofan
animatebeing,orsoundinwhatbreathproducesinmusicalinstruments,or
soundinwhatisgivenforthbypercussion.Itsawthattothefirstclass
pertainedactorsoftragedyandcomedyorstageplayersofthiskind,andin
factallwhogivevocalrenditions;thesecondclasswasrestrictedtoauloiand
similarinstruments;andthattothethirdclasswereattributedthecithara,
thelyre,cymbals,andeverythingthatwouldbetonalonbeingstruck.
Reasonsaw,however,thatthismaterialwasofverylittlevalue,unless
thesoundswerearrangedinafixedmeasureoftimeandinmodulated
variationofhighandlowpitch.Itrealizedthatitwasfromthissourcethat
thoseelementscamewhichithadcalledfeetandaccents,when,ingrammar,
itwastreatingofsyllableswithdiligentconsideration.And,becausein
wordsthemselvesitwaseasytonoticethesyllabiclongsandshorts,
interspersedwithalmostequalfrequencyinadiscourse,reasonendeavored
toarrangeandconjointhemintodefiniteseries.Atfirstitfollowedthesense
ofhearingitselfinthis,andsuperimposedmeasuredlinkunits,whichit
calledsegmentsandmembers.Then,lesttheseriesoffeetbecarriedfurther
thanitsdiscernmentcouldcontinue,itsetalimitatwhichreversiontothe
beginningshouldbemade,and,preciselyonthisaccount,calleditverse.
But,whateverwasnotrestrictedbyadefinitelimit,andyetranaccordingto
methodicallyarrangedfeetthat,itdesignatedbythetermrhythm.In
Latinthiscanbecallednothingotherthannumber.Thus,poetswere
begottenofreason.And,whenitsawinthemgreatachievements,notin
soundalone,butinwordsalsoandrealities,ithonoredthemtotheutmost,
andgavethemlicenseforwhateverreasonablefictionstheymightdesire.
Andyet,becausetheytookoriginfromthefirstoftheliberaldisciplines,it
permittedgrammarianstobetheircritics.
Reasonunderstood,therefore,thatinthisfourthstepofascent
whetherinparticularrhythmorinmodulationingeneralnumeric
proportionsheldswayandproducedthefinishedproduct.Withtheutmost
diligenceitinvestigatedastowhattheirnaturemightbe,and,chieflybecause
bytheiraidithadelaboratedalltheaforesaiddevelopments,itconcluded
thattheyweredivineandeternal.Fromthenonwards,itmostreluctantly
enduredtheirsplendorandserenitytobecloudedbythematerialstuffof
vocalutterances.And,becausewhateverthemindisabletoseeisalways

11
 presentandisacknowledgedtobeimmortal,numericproportionsseemedto
beofthisnature.But,becausesoundissomethingsensible,itflowsaway
intothepastandisimprintedonthememory.Byareasonablefictionitwas
fabledthattheMuseswerethedaughtersofJupiterandMemory.Now,with
reasonbestowingitsfavoronthepoets,needitbeaskedwhattheoffspring
likewisecontained?Sincethisbranchoflearningpartakesaswellofsenseas
oftheintellect,itreceivedthenameofmusic.24

Inanotherbook,TheTeacher,25Augustinegivesyetanotherexampleofhis
personalbeliefthatreasonisattheheartofmusicappreciation.Hestatesthatthe
actofspeakingwordsisaformofteaching.Hispupil,Adeodatus,answers,But
whataboutsinging,whichalsouseswords?Augustinesays,Thereisaformof
teachingbywayofrecalling,andthisiswhatmusicdoes.Adeodatusresponds,
No,Idontsingtorecallsomething,Isingonlyforpleasure.Augustines
responseonceagainsuggestshefailstounderstandthepleasureofmusicfor
musicssake.Pleasureforhimmustbesomethingrational,hereintheorderingof
sound.
Iseewhatyoumean.Butyounotice,doyounot,thatwhatpleases
youinsingingisacertainmelodiousorderingofthesound?

Augustinemaintainsthattosomedegreetherationalunderstandingwhich
liesbehindmusicalperformanceisinnate.Hefirstgivestheexampleofbirds,
whichalthoughlackingreason,neverthelessgiveforthmusicwhichismost
accuratelyandaptlyproportioned.26Asingeruntrainedinmusicisgenetically
analogoustothebird.
Whatgoodsinger,eventhoughhebeunskilledintheartofmusic,
wouldnot,bythesamenaturalsense,keepinhissingingboththerhythm
andthemelodyknownbymemory?Andwhatcanbecomemoresubjectto
measurethanthis?Theuninstructedmanhasnoknowledgeofit.
Nevertheless,hedoesitbynaturesdoing.

24
Ibid., 316ff.
25
The Teacher, trans., Robert Russell (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic
University of America Press), i.
26
Divine Providence., 326.

12
 Itfollows,therefore,thatmusicitselfisofalessercategoryofimportance
thanReason.WhatmanunderstandsthroughReason,hesays,canneverbetaken
awayfromhim.Music,however,isfleetinganddisappears.Thelistenercannot
keepmusic!
Evenifthebeautifulsingingofavocalistweretolastforever,his
admirerswouldviewithoneanothertocometohearhim;theywouldpress
abouteachother,and,asthecrowdbecamelarger,wouldfightoverseatsso
thateachmightbeclosertothesinger.Andastheylistened,theycouldnot
takeanyofthesoundtokeepforthemselvesbutcouldonlybecaressedbyall
thefleetingsounds.27

Inthedialoguewhichfollows,thereadercanseethedifficultieswhichthe
earlyphilosophershadduetotheirinaccurateunderstandingofthebrain.Itisvery
cleartoustoday,thankstoclinicalbrainresearch,thatwearebasicallybicameral
persons.Wehaveanintellectualsideofourselves,whosedomainislanguage,math
andrationalknowledgeofallkinds.Butwealsohaveanexperientialsideof
ourselves,inwhichourbrainrecordsandvalidatestheknowledgeand
understandingwhichresultsfrompurepersonalexperience.Whatwehavelearned
fromloveisreal,butnotrational.
Theearlyphilosopherknewonlyoneside,sotospeak.Thisplacedtheearly
philosopherintheverydifficultpositionoftryingtoexplainallsortsofhuman
activitywhichisnotrational,includingtheemotionsandmusicaboveall.Todayit
isveryeasyforustounderstandthatwecanhavearationalunderstandingofmusic
(theory)andatthesametimeanexperientialunderstandingofmusic.But
Augustinedidnotunderstandthisandhisbasicstruggleinwhatfollowswasin
attemptingtoexplainexperientialleaningbymusicians,whichhecallsimitation,in
viewofthefactthatheknewitwasnotrationallearning.Andnotbeingrational,it
wasthereforealesserhumanactivity.

27
The Free Choice of the Will, Op. cit., xiv.

13
 Inthefollowinghemakestwopoints.First,hewholistenstomusicwithout
understandingthetheoryofit(therational)isnothingbutabeast.Second,itisfine
tolistentomusicforrelaxation,buttobeabsorbedbyitwouldbedisgraceful.
Augustine.Nowtellme,then,dont[singers]allseemtobesimilarto
thenightingale,allthosewhichsingwellundertheguidanceofacertain
sense,thatis,doitharmoniouslyandsweetly,althoughiftheywere
questionedaboutthenumbersorintervalsofhighandlownotestheycould
notreply?
Student.Ithinktheyareverymuchalike.
Augustine.Andwhatsmore,arentthosewholiketolistentothem
withoutthissciencetobecomparedtobeasts?Forweseeelephants,bears,
andmanyotherkindsofbeastsaremovedbysinging,andbirdsthemselves
arecharmedbytheirownvoices.For,withnofurtherproperpurpose,they
wouldnotdothiswithsucheffortwithoutsomepleasure.
Student.Ijudgeso,butthisreproachextendstonearlythewholeof
humankind.
Augustine.Notasmuchasyouthink.Forgreatmen,evenifthey
knownothingaboutmusic,eitherwishtobeonewiththecommonpeople
whoarenotverydifferentfrombeastsandwhosenumberisgreat;andthey
dothisveryproperlyandprudently.Butthisisnottheplacetodiscussthat.
Oraftergreatcaresinordertorelaxandrestorethemindtheyvery
moderatelypartakeofsomepleasure.Anditisverypropertotakeitinfrom
timetotime.Buttobetakeninbyit,evenattimes,isimproperand
disgraceful.28

InstrumentalmusiciansofferedanadditionalproblemtoAugustine,because
itwasobviousthattheirtechniquehadtobebasedonsomethingotherthanjust
movingtheirfingers.ButisthissomethingothertheproductofReason(orwe
wouldsay,theoryorleftbrain)?No,heconcludes,itisonlyimitationoftheteacher
andbecauseitismereimitationitcannotbeart.Weremindthereader,again,he
couldarriveatthisconclusiononlybecausehisperspectivedidnotadmitthe
acknowledgementofexperientiallearningassomethingcoequalwithrational
learning.

28
On Music, Op. cit., I, iv.

14
 Augustine.Thosewhoplayonauloiorlyresoranyotherinstrument
ofthiskind,theycantbecomparedtothenightingale,canthey?
Student.No.
Augustine.How,thendotheydiffer?
Student.InthatIfindacertainartintheseinstrumentplayers,but
onlynatureinthenightingale.
Augustine.Thatstrue.Butdoyouthinkitoughttobecalledanart
eveniftheydoitbyasortofimitation?
Student.Whynot?Forimitationseemstobetobesomuchapartof
theartsthat,ifitisremoved,nearlyallofthemaredestroyed.Formasters
exhibitthemselvestobeimitated,andthisiswhattheycallteaching.
Augustine.Butdontyouthinkartisasortofreason,andthosewho
useartusereason?
Student.Itseemsso.
Augustine.Therefore,whoevercannotusereasondoesnotuseart.
Student.Igrantthat,too....
Augustine.Ihaveaskedyouwhetheryouwouldsaylyreplayersand
aulosplayersoranyothermenofthissorthadanart,evenifwhattheydoin
singingtheydobyimitation.Youhavesaiditisanart,andyouhave
affirmedthissotrueitseemstoyouthat,ifimitationweredoneawaywith,
nearlyalltheartswouldbedestroyed.Andfromthisitcanbeconcluded
thatanyonewhodoessomethingbyimitatingusesanart,although,perhaps
noteveryonewhousesanartacquireditbyimitating.Butifallimitationis
art,andallartreason,allimitationisreason.Butanirrationalanimaldoes
notusereason;therefore,itdoesnotpossesanart.Butitiscapableof
imitation;therefore,artisnotimitation.29

Itfollows,heconcludes,thatifthemusiciansimitation(experientialknowledge)
isnotrational,thenitcannotbecalledknowledgeatall.
NordoIaffirmthatallthosewhohandlesuchinstrumentslack
science,butIsaytheydonotallhavescience.Forweareconsideringthis
questionforthefollowingpurpose:tounderstand,ifwecan,howcorrectitis
toincludescienceinthedefinitionofmusic.Andifallpipers,aulosplayers,
andothersofthiskindhavescience,thenIthinkthereisnomoredegraded
andabjectdisciplinethanthisone.30

29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.

15
 Todaywewouldprobablycalltheacquisitionoftechniquebythe
instrumentalplayeraformofknowledgeattainedbyexperience,andfurthermore
neurologistscancitetheprecisepartofthebraininwhichthisexperientiallearning
takesplace.Augustine,however,notbeingawareoftheindependentandcoequal
existenceofexperientiallearning,wasforcedtodenythattheacquisitionof
techniquehadanythingtodowiththemind.Inthefollowingthestudentgivesthe
correctanswer,butthenAugustinecontradictshimwiththenonsensethatifwe
couldsomehowunderstandthescienceofmusicbetter,bettertechniquewould
follow.Foranyonewhodoesnotunderstandhowsillythisis,weproposetheyread
tenbooksonTheScienceofDancingtheTangoandthenstepoutontothedance
floorandseeiftheycantango.
Augustine.Ibelieveyouattributethegreaterorlessmobilityofthe
fingersnottosciencebuttopractice,dontyou?
Student.Whydoyoubelieveso?
Augustine.Becausejustnowyouattributedsciencetothemindalone.
But,althoughinthiscasethemindcommands,youseetheactbelongstothe
body.
Student.But,sincetheknowingmindcommandsthisofthebody,I
thinktheactoughttobeattributedtothemindratherthantheservile
members.
Augustine.But,dontyouthinkitispossibleforonepersonto
surpassanotherinscience,eventhoughtheotherpersonmovehisfingers
muchmoreeasilyandreadily?
Student.Ido.
Augustine.But,iftherapidandreadiermotionofthefingerswereto
beattributedtoscience,themorescienceanyonehadthemorehewould
excelintherapidityofthemotion.
Student.Iconcedethat.31

Havingdeniedthatrationalknowledgeisinvolvedinlearningtoplayaninstrument,
howthendoesAugustineaccountfortheprocessoflearning?Hisansweristhatit
isakindofroterepetitioncommittedtomemory,madepossiblebyavery

31
Ibid.

16
interestingpremisethatakindofinnateunderstanding,sharedbybothplayersand
listeners.
Augustine.Howdoyouexplainthefactthatanignorantcrowdhisses
offaaulosplayerlettingoutfutilesounds,andontheotherhandapplauds
onewhosingswell,andfinallythatthemoreagreeablyonesingsthemore
fullyandintenselyitismoved?Foritisntpossibletobelievethecrowddoes
allthisbytheartofmusic,isit?
Student.No.
Augustine.Howthen?
Student.Ithinkitisdonebynaturegivingeveryoneasenseof
hearingbywhichsuchthingsarejudged.
Augustine.Youareright.Butnowconsiderthis,too,whetherthe
aulosplayerhimselfisalsoendowedwiththissense.Andifitisso,hecan,
byfollowinghisownjudgment,movehisfingerswhenheblowsontheaulos,
andcannoteandcommittomemorywhathedecidessoundswellenough;
andbyrepeatingithecanaccustomhisfingerstobeingcarriedabout
withouthesitationorerror,whetherhegetsfromanotherwhatheplaysor
whetherhefindsithimself,ledandabettedasheisbythenaturewespoke
of.Andso,whenmemoryfollowssense,andthejoints,alreadysubduedand
preparedbypractice,followmemory,theplayersingsashewishes,the
betterandmoreeasilythemoreheexcelsinallthosethingswhichreason
justnowtaughtuswehaveincommonwiththebeasts:thatis,thedesireof
imitating,sense,andmemory.32

Augustinenowquestionswhetheritisntthecasethatmostartistsperformed
formoneyandnotintheserviceoftheirart.But,heconcedes,inthevoiceofhis
student,thatitmustbepossibletodoboth.
Whenheacceptsapplauseorwhenmoneyisgivenhim,hedoesnt
giveuphisscience,ifhechancedtohaveany,topleasethepeoplewith.But,
heavierwithpenniesandhappierwiththepraiseofmen,hereturnshome
withthesamedisciplineentireandintact.Buthewouldbeafoolifhe
despisedtheseadvantages.For,ifhehadntgottenthem,hewouldbemuch
poorerandmoreobscure;havinggottenthem,heisnolessskilled.33

Augustinealsoobservesthatsomemusiciansvalueapplausehigherthan
theirmusicitself.Hethensecondstheadvicegivenbynearlyallearlier

32
Ibid., I, v.
33
Ibid., I, vi.

17
philosophers:theartistmustnotconcernhimselfwiththepublic.Thehighestart,
heconcludes,isfoundintheartistwholearnsandexhibitshisartwithoutrespectto
applauseormoney,butwholoveshisartforitselfalthoughheexpressesdoubt
thatsuchanartistexists.34

OnChurchMusic

ItwasthepleasureassociatedwiththesenseswhichtroubledthisChristian
philosopher,foraccordingtotheChurchthepurepleasureofthesenseswas
inevitablyassociatedwithevil.Thus,withregardtohearingchurchmusic,the
dangerlayinbeingcaughtupinthebeautyofthemusic,ratherthantheconceptual
messageofthewordsofthehymns.Whenhedoesthis,Augustinesays,hefeelshe
hassinned.
Thedelightsoftheearhadmorefirmlyentangledandsubduedme;
butThoudidstloosenandfreeme.Now,inthosemelodieswhichThywords
breathesoulinto,whensungwithasweetandattunedvoice,Idolittle
repose;yetnotsotobeheldthereby,butthatIcandisengagemyselfwhenI
will....
Yetagain,whenIrememberthetearsIshedatthePsalmodyofThy
Church...andhowatthistimeIammovednotwiththesinging,butwiththe
thingssung,whentheyaresungwithaclearvoiceandmodulationmost
suitable,Iacknowledgethegreatuseofthisinstitution.ThusIfluctuate
betweenperilofpleasureandapprovedwholesomeness;inclinedtherather
(thoughnotaspronouncinganirrevocableopinion)toapproveoftheusage
ofsinginginthechurchthatsobythedelightoftheearstheweakerminds
mayrisetothefeelingofdevotion.Yetwhenitbefallsmetobemoremoved
withthevoicethanthewordssung,Iconfesstohavesinnedpenally,and
thenhadrathernothearmusic.35

AugustinecommendstheChurchofMilanforitseffectiveemploymentof
congregationalsingingofhymnsforthepurposeofconsolationandexhortation,

34
Ibid.
35
Ibid., Book X.

18
andaddstheveryinterestingcommentthatthetraditionhadbegunintheEastern
Churches.
ThenitwasfirstinstitutedthatafterthemanneroftheEastern
Churches,HymnsandPsalmsshouldbesung,lestthepeopleshouldwax
faintthroughthetediousnessofsorrow:andfromthatdaytothisthecustom
isretained,divers(yea,almostall)congregations,throughoutotherpartsof
theworld,followingherein.36

Inhearingsuchsinging,Augustineexperiencedthecatharsishewasunableto
experienceinartmusic.
HowdidIweep,inThyHymnsandCanticles,touchedtothequickby
thevoicesofThysweetattunedChurch!Thevoicesflowedintomineears,
andtheTruthdistilledintomyheart,whencetheaffectionsofmydevotion
overflowed,andtearsrandown,andhappywasItherein.37

Thisisaratherremarkablereaction,ifhewaslisteningtothewordsofthe
hymn,andnotthemusic.InanEastersermon,Augustineseemstosuggestthatany
senseofemotioninsuchmusicisfoundintheChristiansheartfeltconcentration
onthemeaningofthewords.
WhatisexpressedintheHebrewlanguagebyAlleluiais,inLatin,
LaudateDominum,orPraisetheLord.So,letuspraisetheLordourGod,
notonlywithourvoice,butalsowithourheart,sincehewhopraisesfrom
theheartpraiseswiththevoiceoftheinnerman.38

Augustineimmediatelyfollowsthiswithaverycuriousconclusion,inviewofour
understandingofthebicameralnatureofthebrain.Whilemanisthinkingleft
brained[language]ashesings,Godishearingitrightbrained!
Asfarasmenareconcerned,thevoiceisasound;asfarasGodis
concerned,itexpressesanemotion.

36
The Confessions, Book IX.
37
Ibid.
38
Sermon 257, trans., Sister Mary Muldowney in Sermons on the Liturgical
Seasons (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1959), 362.

19
 Inanycase,thiskindofvocalchurchmusicwassufficientforAugustine,
whosawnoneedforadditionalinstruments.
WesingpraisestoGod,wechantourAlleluiaswithheartsattuned
toharmonyfarbetterthanwiththechordsofthelyre.39

And,likemanyofhisChurchcontemporaries,heappearstohavebeencontentto
explainawaytheOldTestamentreferencestomusicalinstrumentsintheserviceas
havingbeenonlymetaphors.Hesays,forexample,thatthefamousPraisethe
Lordwithcymbals,inPsalm150,isreallytalkingaboutgoodneighbors.
Cymbalstoucheachotherinordertoplayandthereforesomepeople
comparethemtoourlips.ButIthinkitbettertothinkofGodasbeing
praisedonthecymbalswhensomeoneishonoredbyhisneighborrather
thanbyhimself....40

Inthisregard,weshouldmentionthatAugustinereferstothepassage,Ephesians
5:19,
BefilledwiththeSpirit,addressingoneanotherinpsalmsandhymns
andspiritualsongs,singingandmakingmelodytotheLordwithallyour
heart....

Augustinemistranslates41thisasmakingmelodyinyourhearts,thuseliminating
anypossibilitythatthesentenceimpliesanadditionofinstrumentalmusic.
But,noteveryonewhosingswithhislipssingsanewcanticle,butonly
onewhosingsinthewayadvisedbytheApostle,whenhesays:singingand
makingmelodyinyourheartstotheLord.Forthisjoyiswithin,wherethe
voiceofpraisesings....42

39
Sermon 243, in Ibid., 278.
40
Translated by James W. McKinnon, Musical Instruments in Medieval Psalm
Commentaries and Psalters, Journal of the American Musicological Society,
XXI, 7.
41
In Letter Nr. 100, trans., Sister Wilfrid Parsons in Letters of Saint Augustine
(New York: Fathers of the Church, 1953), Augustine confesses he neither
understands the Hebrew language nor anything of the meters of which the
Psalms are composed.
42
Letter to Honoratus, Op. cit., Nr. 140.

20
 ConsideringthefactthatAugustinehasdiscussedmusicitselfatsuchlength,
itissurprisingthatwehaverelativefewcommentsbyhimregardingChurchmusic.
Thisisexplainedinpartbythefactthatmanyofhiswritingsarelost,inparticular
anentirebookonChurchmusicentitled,AgainstHilary.Thiswasananswer
againstalaymanwhohadattackedtheChurchfathersforarecentlyintroduced
custominCarthageofsinginghymnsatthealter.43

OntheNatureofMusic

Inhisbook,OnMusic,Augustinedefinesmusicasthescienceofmodulating
[modulandi]well.44Ifwetakethiswordinitsmodern,ifalternate,meaningofto
adjusttoorkeepinpropermeasureorproportion,45wecanseethatitissimilarin
intenttothedefinitionofmusicgivenaboveinAugustineslettertoJerome.Inany
case,itseemsclearthattoAugustinethescienceofcompositionhadtodowiththe
organizationofconceptualmaterialsandnotwiththecommunicationofemotional
ideas.Augustinepointsoutthatsimilarorganizationalstructuresarefoundin
oratoryanddance,althoughhewashesitanttoassociatethemwithmusic.
Manythingsinsinginganddancingarereprehensible,andthat,ifwe
takethewordmodulatiofromthem,thealmostdivineart[ofmusic]becomes
degraded.

Theelementofmusicwhichwasmostsusceptibletorationaldiscussion,
underthedefinitiongivenabove,isrhythm.ForAugustine,therhythmofmusic
wasstillcloselytiedtomathematicsandtherhythmsofpoetry.Indeed,hesays

43
This lost book is mentioned by Augustine in The Retractions, trans., Sister
Mary Bogan (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press),
XXXVII, At the urging of my brethren, I answered him; the book is called
Against Hilary .
44
On Music, Op. cit., I, ii.
45
Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary.

21
whatgrammariansteachisthedifferencebetweenlongandshortsyllables. 46He
contendsthatitisatthislevelthatthelistenerisdelightedbytherhythmic
organizationofmusic,thatitistheseshortintervallengthswhichdelightusin
singinganddancing.Herehealsomakestheinterestingobservationthatwecan
notretaintheperceptionofmusicwhichlastsanhourormore.
Allwellmeasuredmovementsadmittedlybelongtotherationaleof
thisdiscipline,ifindeeditisthescienceofmensuratingwell...keepingwithin
themselvestheirendofornamentanddelight,yeteveninproperratiosthese
movements...cannotbesuitedtooursenseswhenaccomplishedinalong
spaceoftime,anhourormore.47

Augustinealsonotesthatwhenhistoricalpoetryissettomusictheselong
andshortsyllablesaresometimesalteredaccordingtotherationaleofthe
measure,themusichavingprecedence.Thegrammarianobjectstothis,hesays,
butthescienceofmusicisnotoutragedintheleast.48Heprovidesaninteresting
exampleofthiskindofalterationinthelengtheningofafinalsyllablewithmusic,
whenfollowedbyarest.Hesuggeststhereisanaturaldesirefortheeartoheara
longernoteinsuchacircumstance,evenaslongastwiceitsindicatedlength.
Why,too,isashortsyllabletakenforalongonewhenfollowedbya
restandnotbyconvention,butbynaturalconsiderationdirectingthe
ears....Thenatureofhearingandpassingoverinsilenceallowsthe
lengtheningofasyllablebeyondtwotimes:sowhatisalsofilledwithrestcan
befilledwithsound.49

Thephrase,rationaleofthemeasure,suggeststhattheoldsystemof
rhythmbasedonsyllabicmodeswasdevelopingintothemodernpracticeofmeter

46
On Music, Op. cit., II, i.
47
Ibid., I, xiii.
48
Ibid.,II, i and II, ii.
49
Ibid., VI, x. We see this principle in the Baroque long appoggiatura, where a
following space is filled with the resolution. In music of the Classic Period
there was a preference for the reverse: notes followed by rests were played
one-half their notated value.

22
organizedonpulse.Augustine,inthefollowing,seemstodefinethisinawaywhich
appearstothemodernreaderverymuchlikemusicwithandwithoutbarlines.
Sinceitisnotthesamethingtorollforward,althoughinlegitimate
feet[thelongsandshorts],yetwithoutanydefiniteend,andtoprogress
likewiseinlegitimatefeet,buttobeboundedbyafixedend,thesekinds,
therefore,hadtobedistinguishedbynames.Sothefirstwascalledonlyby
thenamepropertoit,rhythm,buttheotherbymeteraswellasrhythm.50

Anevenstrongersuggestionofamodernconceptofmetercanbeseeninhis
implicationthataconductorwasresponsibleforthecontrolofthisaspectoftime.
Now,fixyourearsonthesoundandyoureyesonthebeats.Forthe
handbeatingtimeisnottobeheardbutseen,andnotemustbetakenofthe
amountoftimegiventothearsisandtothethesis.51

Finally,Augustinesuggeststhatthisdelightwhichonetakesinorganized
timehasitsoriginintheinnateorganizationofthelawsofequality,unity,and
order,oftheuniverse,whichinturnarecreatedbyGod.52Augustinefollowsthis
thoughtimmediatelybyobservingthatGodhasalsogivenmananinnateabilityto
perceiveform.Inapoem,forexample,ourpleasurederivesfromthewhole,notthe
individualrhythmsaloneastheyareheard.
Inapoem,ifsyllablesshouldliveandperceiveonlysolongasthey
sound,theharmonyandbeautyoftheconnectedworkwouldinnoway
please[thelisteners].Fortheycouldnotseeorapprovethewhole,sinceit
wouldbefashionedandperfectedbytheverypassingawayofthese
singulars.53

ThefirstfivebooksofAugustines,OnMusic,consistoflengthydiscussions
oftheoldrhythmicmodesofpoetry,adiscourseheunderstandsmostreaderswill
findratherdull.

50
Ibid., V, i.
51
Ibid., II, xiii.
52
Ibid., VI, xi.
53
Ibid.

23
 Letshopeadutifullaborwillreadilyexcuseourtrivialityintheeyes
ofbenevolentmen.54

InBookSixheproceedstoamorephilosophiclevel,whichhepresumesthosewith
tumultuoustonguestakingvulgardelightinthenoiseofrhythmdancerswill
probablynotread.
Augustinenowengagesinadetailedconsiderationoftheessenceofmusic.
Hebeginsbyasking,Whereismusic?Isit[1]inthesounditself,[2]inthe
perceptionofthelistener,[3]intheperformer,or[4]inthememory?
Regardingthefirst,hesuggeststhateveryonewouldacceptthepossibilityof
asound,suchasadropofliquid,existingwherethereisnolistenertohearit.The
second,ofnecessity,requiresthefirst.
Numberthree,theperformance,Augustinedoesnotconsiderasfundamental
asthefirsttwo,forwecanhearmusicinourmindswherethereisnosoundor
performanceatall.Thiskindoflisteningis,ofcourse,closelyrelatedtothefourth,
memory.
Consider,too,thefourthclass,thatis,theclassofthosenumbers55in
thememory.For,ifwedrawthemoutbyrecollection,and,whenweare
carriedawaytootherthoughts,weagainleavethemasifhiddenintheirown
hidingplaces,Idontthinkitisdifficulttoseetheycanexistwithoutthe
others.56

Beforeproceeding,Augustinenowbringsupafifthpossibility,regardingthe
perceptionofmusic,onehementionsinseveralotherplaces,akindofinnate,
genetictemplateforjudgingmusic.
Ibelieve,whilewewerediscussingthesethings,afifthkindappeared
fromsomewhere,akindinthenaturaljudgmentofperceivingwhenweare
delightedbytheequalityofnumbersoroffendedataflawinthem.57

54
Ibid., VI, i.
55
Among the writers of this period, this is a frequently used synonym for
music.
56
Ibid., VI, iii.
57
Ibid., VI, iv.

24
 Augustineconcludesthatofthefourformsofmusicmentionedabove,the
fourth,memory,istobepreferred.Thisisbecauseitnotonlycanexistwithout
soundorperformance,butitalsolastsindefinitely,whereaslivemusicquickly
disappears.58
Nowheproposes,oftheremainingthree,whichisthemostimportant?
Augustine,inwordsassignedtohisstudent,saysthatperformancemustbethemost
important,accordingtotherulethatthingsmakingaretobepreferredtothose
made.But,foraChristianphilosopher,thereisaprobleminadmittingthis,forit
impliesthatthecorporealismoreimportantthantheincorporeal(soul).59Atthe
sametime,thisistheessentialquestionforAugustine:Shouldonevaluemusic,or
artingeneral,sohighlyinviewofthefactthatitismanmade.
Augustinessolutiontothisproblemisagainbasedonhisconceptofakind
ofinnate,genetictemplate,aGodgivenmusic,againstwhichmanmademusicisto
bejudged.HequotesfromtheScriptures60apassagewhichhesaysreferstothis
Godgiventemplateandnottoearthlymusic.
SoitistrulysaidintheHolyScriptures,Ihavegonetherounds,to
knowandconsiderandseekwisdomandnumber.Andyouareinnoway
tothinkthiswassaidaboutthosenumbersshamefultheatersresoundwith,
butaboutthose,Ibelieve,thesouldoesnotreceivefromthebody[theears],
butreceivingfromGodonhighitratherimpressesonthebody.61

But,ifmusicisinthesoul,implantedbyGod,canwesaywehearthemusic
outsidethesoulatall?
Itmustbecarefullyconsideredifthereisreallynothingcalledhearing
unlesssomethingisproducedinthesoulbythebody.Butitisveryabsurdto
subordinatethesoullikeamattertothebodyasanartisan.Forthesoulis
neverinferiortothebody,andallmatterisinferiortotheartisan.Thesoul,
58
Ibid.
59
Ibid.
60
The edition of Augustine we are using cites, 2 Eccle. 7:26, but we cannot
find this quotation.
61
On Music, Op. cit., VI, iv.

25
 then,isinnowayamattersubordinatedtothebodyasanartisan.Butit
wouldbe,ifthebodyworkednumbersinit.Therefore,whenwehear,
[musicis]notmadeinthesoulby[music]weknowinsounds.

Hisstudentasks,Whathappens,then,whenapersonhears?Before
attemptingtoanswer,Augustineadmitsdoubtandsuggestsitmightbebetterto
answeritsomeothertime.
Whateveritisandperhapswecannotfindorexplainititwont
result,willit,inourdenyingthesoulsbeingbetterthanthebody?...Butif,
becauseoftheinfirmityofeitherorbothofus,the[answer]shouldbeless
thanwewish,eitherweourselvesshallinvestigateitatanothertimewhenwe
arelessagitated,orweshallleaveittomoreintelligentpeopletoexamine,or,
unworried,weshallleaveitunsolved.

Nevertheless,Augustinesays,IshallsayrightawaywhatIthink.Hisessential
pointseemstobehisbeliefthatwhenwehearmusic,thesoulhearsthesensory
input,butwithoutemotion.Uponthesensoryperception,itisthesoulwhich
producestheemotionsinthebody.
Ithinkthesoul,then,whenitsenses,producestheseactionsonthe
passionsofthebody,butdoesnotreceivethesepassions.62

Augustineconcludesthisdiscussionbyobservingthatofthese,nowfive,
possibledefinitionsofmusiconlytheGodgiventemplateform,whichhenownames
thejudicial,isundying.Theotherseitherpassawaywhentheyaremadeorare
strickenoutofthememorybyforgetfulness.63
InalaterbookcalledTheRetractions,Augustinementionshisbook,On
Music,andconcludesthatthevalueofmusictotheChristianistoseeGod.Itwas
thisfortunatethought,thatsecularknowledgecanleadonetounderstandingthe
Christianmessage,whichsavedtheliberalartsfromextinctionduringtheDark
Ages.

62
Ibid., VI, iv, 10.
63
Ibid., VI, vii.

26
 IwrotesixbooksOnMusic.Thesixthofthesebecameespeciallywell
knownbecauseinitasubjectworthyofinvestigationwasconsidered,
namely,how,fromcorporealandspiritualbutchangeablenumbers,one
comestotheknowledgeofunchangeablenumberswhicharealreadyin
unchangeabletruthitself,andhow,inthisway,theinvisibleattributesof
God,beingunderstoodthroughthethingsthataremade,areclearly
seen.64

64
The Retractions, trans., Sister Mary Bogan (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic
University of America Press), X. Augustine quotes here, Romans 1:20.

27