COMPUTER NETWORK

Instructor:
Niranjan Baral
 Computer Network
A computer network is a collection of
autonomous computer and other computing
hardware devices that are interconnected by a
single technology through communication
channels to facilitate communication and
resource-sharing among a wide range of users

Communication channels : Copper wire, optical

fiber, microwaves, communication satellite

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 2

 Advantages of Networking

Easy Communication and Speed

Share Files, Data and Information
Sharing Hardware and Software(so Cheap)
Supports the way we live, the way we learn and
the way we work .

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 3

 Disadvantages of Networking

Security Issues
High installation cost
Breakdown of the whole network
Bandwidth Issues
Need of skilled human resources

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 4

 Uses of Computer Network
1. Business Applications
Resource Sharing(Both Hardware and Software)
Communication medium among employees
Videoconferencing
Electronic business(E-Commerce)

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 5

Uses of Computer Network cont..

2. Home Applications
Access to Remote Information
Person to Person Communication
Entertainment
Electronic Commerce

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 6

Uses of Computer Network cont..

3. Mobile Users
Portable electronic equipment as notebook to
send and receive telephone calls, mail, for
web surfing, access remote files and log on to
remote machines
Use wireless Network

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 7

 Networking Models
1. Client Server Model
Network architecture in which each computer or process on the
network is either a client or a server.
client host requests, receives service from always-on
server
e.g. Web browser/server; email client/server

Servers are powerful computers or processes

dedicated to managing disk drives (file servers),
printers(print servers), or network traffic (network
servers ).
Clients are PCs or workstations on which users run
applications. Clients rely on servers for resources, such
as files, devices, and even processing power.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 8
 Client Server Model cont

client: browser that requests, PC running

Explorer
receives, displays Web
objects
server: Web server sends Server
running
objects in response to Apache Web
requests server

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 9

 Networking Models cont..
2.Peer to peer model:
Distributed network architecture
in which individual nodes in the
network (called "peers") can act
as both suppliers and consumerspeer-peer
of resources,
no use of dedicated servers
e.g. Skype, BitTorrent client/server

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 10

 Active Network
It has a set of 'Active Nodes' that perform customized
operations on the data flowing through them.
Traditional data networks provide a transport
mechanism to transfer bits from one end system to
another, with a minimal amount of computation
(e.g., header processing and signaling).In contrast to
that active networks not only allows the network nodes
to perform computations on the data but also allow
their users to inject customized programs into the
nodes of the network, that may modify, store or
redirect the user data flowing through the network.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 11
 Active Network Cont..
This enables such ideas as sending code along with
packets of information allowing the data to change its
form (code) to match the channel characteristics.
Example: there may be a video multicast session where
at every node the video compression scheme is
modified, based on the computation done by that node
and depending on the network bandwidth available.
Applications such a packet filtering in firewalls (also
routers) where the filters in the firewall decide which
packet should go through and which should be blocked.

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 12

 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 13

 Whats a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
whats the time? machines rather than
I have a question humans
introductions all communication activity
in Internet governed by
specific msgs sent protocols
specific actions taken protocols define format, order of
msgs sent and received among
when msgs received, or network entities, and actions
other events taken on msg transmission, receipt
of a message or other event
 Protocols cont
Networking protocol is a set of rules that governs the
data communication and describe processes such as
The format or structure of the message
The method by which networking devices share
information about pathways with other networks
How and when error and system messages are
passed between devices
The setup and termination of data transfer sessions

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 15

 Key Elements of Protocols
1. Syntax: Structure or format of data. It refers the
order in which data are processed.(eg: first 16 bits
give address of sender, following 8 bits message to
be sent and so on)
2. Semantics: Meaning of each section of bits. How a
particular pattern to be interpreted and what action
to be taken on interpretation.(eg: An address
specifies route to be taken or final destination)
3. Timing: When and how fast data is to be sent.(eg:
When a sender produces a data at 100 Mbps and
receiver receives at 1 mbps, overload and data lost
occurs)
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 16
 STANDARDS
Need of Standards:
Create and maintain open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers.
Guarantee Interoperability
Give a fixed quality and product to customers
To aid to design and implementation ideas
To Provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, government
agencies and service providers.
Categories:
De-facto( from the fact and not been approved by an organized
body. Adopted as standards through widespread use)
De jure( legislated by a officially recognized body)

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 17

 Some Standards Organization
ITU( International Telecommunications
Organization)
IEEE( Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineer)
ISO: International Organization For
Standardization
IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 18

 Reference Models

1. OSI Reference Model

2. TCP/IP Reference Model

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 19

 Layered Architecture
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

a series of steps
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

via its own internal-layer actions
relying on services provided by layer below
 Layered Architecture cont
Advantages:
Reduced Complexity(complex system broken down
into smaller and understandable pieces)
Modular Engineering(Dividing a large work into
smaller modules)
Interoperable Technology(Provide common language
to describe networking functions and capabilities)
Accelerated Evolution
Prevent s technology or capability changes in one
layer from affecting other layers above and below.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 22
 Basic Principles of layered Approach
A layer should be created where a different level of
abstraction is needed.
Each layer should perform a well defined functions.
The function of each layer should be chosen with a
eye towards defining internationally standardized
protocols.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize
the information flow across the interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough that
distinct functions need not be thrown together in the
same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 23

 Interface and Services
Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.
Interface defines which primitive operations and
service the lowest makes available to the upper one

Service is a set of functions offered by a layer to the

upper layer in the protocol hierarchy.

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 24

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
Developed by ISO(International Organization for
standardization.
Called ISO-OSI Reference Model because it deals
with connecting open systems-that is, systems that
are open for communication with other systems.
The OSI model is not a network architecture - it
does not specify the exact services and protocols. It
just tells what each layer should do.

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 25

 OSI Reference Model

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 26

 Physical Layer
The Physical layer controls how data is placed on
the communication media.
The role of the OSI Physical layer is to encode the
binary digits that represent Data Link layer frames
into signals and to transmit and receive these
signals across the physical media - copper wires,
optical fiber, and wireless - that connect network
devices.

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 27

 Physical Layer cont.
Major Responsibilities:
Define physical characteristics of Interfaces between
the devices and transmission media and defines the
type of transmission medium.
Data Rate
Bit Signal Representation: Representing the bits by
signal( electrical, optical or electromagnetic)
Bit synchronization( By providing the clocking
mechanism between sender and receiver)
Multiplexing
Devices: Hubs, Repeater
Protocols: RS-232, T1, E1

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 28

 Data Link Layer
Responsible for reliable and error-free transmission of
packets across a single link. It controls how data is placed on
to the media and is received from the media
Framing: Determine the start and end of the packets
Error detection :Determine which packets contain
transmission errors
Error correction: Retransmission schemes (Automatic Repeat
Request (ARQ)
Flow control and Access Control
Physical Addressing
Packet Data Unit( PDU): Frame

Protocols: HDLC, PPP, Frame Relay

Devices: Bridges, Switches

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 29

 Data Link Layer ..
SUBLAYERS:
Logical Link Control
Logical Link Control (LLC) places information in the frame that
identifies which Network layer protocol is being used for the
frame. LLC header tells what to do with a packet once a frame
is received.This information allows multiple Layer 3 protocols,
such as IP to utilize the same network interface and media.

Media Access Control

Media Access Control (MAC) provides Data Link layer
addressing and delimiting of data according to the physical
signaling requirements of the medium. It defines how data
are placed on media
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 30
 Network Layer
The Network layer manages devices addressing, tracks
the location of device on the network and provides
services to exchange the individual piece of data over
the network. It provides internetworking i.e logical
glueing of heterogeneous physical networks together to
look like a single network to upper layers.
To accomplish end to end transport, Network layer uses
four basic process:
1. Addressing: Identification of each node or end devices
on a network with unique logical address i.e IP
address.
2. Encapsulation: The Upper layer segment is
encapsulated with source and destination addrss to
form a packet.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 31
 Network Layer..
3. Routing: Finding the best path between source and
destination using different routing algorithm.
4. Decapsulation: In the receiver side, packets are
stripped off the logical address to reveal data
segments and passed to upper level.

PDU: packet
Devices: Router
Protocols: IP, ICMP, Apple talk, RIP

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 32

 Transport layer
The basic function of transport layer is to accept the data
from the session layer, split it up to the smaller units if
need arises, pass these pieces to the network layer to
ensure that all pieces arrive correctly at the end.
Major Responsibilities:
Port addressing: Transport layer header includes a port
address to allow multiples process on computers run at
same time and deliver the message from a specific
process on one computer to specific process on other.
It tracks individual conversation
Segmentation and Reassembly: Segments the data,
give sequence number so that it can be reassembled at
receiver side without error.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 33
 Transport layer
Connection Control: Connection oriented or
Connectionless transfer of data.
Error Control: The transport layer makes sure that
the entire message arrives at the receiving tx layer
without error.

PDU: Segments
Protocols: TCP, UDP

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 34

 Session Layer:
Allow users on separate machine to define how data
conversations are established, controlled and terminated.
Major responsibilities:
Dialog Control: Keeping track of whose turn is to transmit. It
coordinates between system and servers to organize their
communication by offering 3 different modes: simplex, Half
duplex or Full duplex
Token Management: to prevent two parties from attempting
the same critical operation at same time.
Synchronization: Checkpointing how long transmissions to allow
them to continue from where they were before they crash.
Protocols: RPC(Remote Procedure Call), Net Bios
PDU: DATA
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 35
 Presentation Layer
Presentation layer deals with the presentation of data and is
concerned with syntax and semantics of information
transmitted.
Major tasks:
Translation: Networks can connect very different types of
systems together which may have many distinct
characteristics and represent data in different ways. The
presentation layer handles the job of hiding these differences
between systems.
Encryption and Decryption
Compression
PDU: Data
Protocols: JPEG, ASCII, MP4

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 36

 Application Layer
OSI model explains application layer as being the user
interface. The OSI application layer is responsible for
displaying data and images to the user in a human-
recognizable format and to interface with the
presentation layer below it.
Application layer provides interface between the
applications we use to communicate and the underlying
network over which our message are transmitted.

PDU: Data
Protocols: HTTP, DNS, FTP
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 37
 TCP/IP model
ARPANET(Advanced Research Project Agency Network) was a
research network sponsored by DOD(Department of Defense,
US). It connected hundreds of universities and governments
networks. When satellite and radio networks were added
later, the existing protocols had trouble internetworking with
them, so a new architecture was needed.
So, to connect multiple networks in a seamless way was one
of the major designs goals of TCP/IP from the very beginning.
Another goal was to survive the loss of subnet hardware of a
network i.e DoD wanted connections remain intact as long as
source and destination machines were functioning even if
some of the intermediate devices or transmission lines were
kept out of operation. And a more real time architecture was
felt necessary to transfer files and speech. TCP/IP was
developed as an open standard. This speed up the
development of TCP/IP as a standard . TCP/IP is named after
two of the popular protocols TCP and IP.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 38
 TCP/IP model..

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 39


TCP/IP Model..
TCP/IP model describes the functionality of the protocols that makes the
TCP/IP protocol suite. Those protocols which are implemented in both
sending and receiving ends to provide end to end delivery.
A complete communication process includes these steps:
1. Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end device
2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down the protocol
stack in the source end device
3. Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer of the
stack
4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of
media and any intermediary devices
5. Reception of the data at the network access layer of the destination end
device
6. Decapsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in the
destination device
7. Passing this data to the destination application at the Application layer of
the destination end device

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 40

 TCP/IP Protocol Family

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 41

 Network Access
The physical and Data link layer of OSI model is grouped to
form network access(interface) layer which involves
primitive bits that are transmitted on communication
channels. It provides mechanical, electrical and functional
means and processes required for data transmission. It
provides a correct channel for transmitting data by
implementing error detection, error correction and
synchronization. It is also responsible for flow control. This
describes hardware requirements as pin configurations,
voltage levels and cable requirements.

Protocols: Ethernet, Frame Relay, RS-232, RJ-45

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 42

 Internet Layer
Similar to Network layer of OSI model
The internet layer encapsulate the data into IP
datagram to include source and destination
address. The network layer checks network
topology to determine the optimal route for
message transmission, and transfers data. The key
factor is to determine the best route for
transmitting data packets from the source end to
the destination end.
Protocols: IP, ICMP

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 43

 Transport layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to
implement end-to-end communication for the
application program between two hosts.
The transport layer receives data from the
application layer, and then divides it into smaller
units if necessary. Before sending it to the network
layer, the system ensures that the data is sent to
correct segments of the peer.
Protocols : TCP and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
TCP reliable and connection oriented
UDP: does not perform end to end reliability check
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 44
 Application layer
Include application, presentation and session layer of OSI
model.
The application layer is responsible for processing details of
a specified application program. The application layer
displays received information, transmits user data to the
lower layer and provides network interfaces for application
software.
It includes a number of protocols that provide specific
functionality to a variety of end user applications and
defines how host programs interface with transport layer
services to use network.
Protocols: HTTP, TELNET, FTP, DNS

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 45

 Comparision of OSI vs TCP/IP model
Similarities:

Both are based on concept of stack of

independent protocols.
Both are layered approach.
Functionality of the layers is roughly similar.
Both have comparable Network and Transport
layer.

12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 46

 Comparision of OSI vs TCP/IP model
Dissimilarities:
1. OSI has 7 layers but TCP/IP has 4 layers.
2. TCP/IP is implementation of OSI model and OSI is a reference
model.
3. OSI is a theoritical model but TCP/IP is model in which internet is
based.
4. OSI Model was developed before the development of protocols
but Protocols were developed first and then the TCP/IP model
was developed.
5. OSI is a de-jure standard but TCP/IP is de-facto standard.
6. Concept of Service, Interface and protocols is central to OSI
model but TCP/IP originally did not distinguishes between those
concepts.
7. The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection
oriented in network layer but only connection oriented in
transport layer . TCP/IP has only connectionless mode in network
layer but both mode in transport layer.
12/22/2013 NIRANJAN BARAL 47