External masonry

loadbearing walls
4
Introduction

Thrs chapter explains the principles of wall construction and traces the introduction and
"",[ution of the modern cavity wall.

Function

The external wall of a house wall has two basic (unctions:

10 Ifonl{er lhe loadl {rom l"mended floorl ond lhe roof 10 lhe focmdolionl
tnvltOnmtnrol ptorecrlon.
In Older to satil(actoilly (ulfilthese (unctions there ale a numbe< 0( lequllementS (01 an exte, nal
Ioadbealing wall.These are:
ltlengrh ond lIob/liry
wt!Orher prorecr,on
t}OtXI rhemw/ InlV/orion
t}OtXI ocOUSt,c Conllo!
fire prorewon
dutob<lrry.

Early materials

Up until the sixteenth century. timber was the dominant structural material for most vernacular
buildings. Mel that time. building In brick and stone became more common fOIa number of
reasons. induding shortages of timber supplies and. perhaps. more significantly. Ihe disastrous
""petience0( fires in towns and cntes which led James I (and later. (oilowing the Great Fire of
london in 1666. Charles II) to issue proclamations jnsjsting on the use of stone or brick.

47
Stone

In e3'1y cOnStructiOn, Ihe Iype of srooe uS! (0' a PolrhCUla'building would la.gely depend on lis
geographical local Ion. II was ,i1'e 10 lIanlport Slone across Ihe country, olhe, than (or Ihe mOIl
p<estKJOOUS or buildingS. The siones most commonly used we.e those thai could more easily be
quarried and cut. Sandstone and limestone we.e lhe IWOmosl common malerlal~ although Hint,
stale and graMe we.e also eseo, The cheapesl IYpe or stooe wa~ was made r,om landom rubble.
where stooes 01 assoneo shapes and sizes were laid in a cemenl 0< lome mortar.

Thete are a oumbcr or va,iations on random (ubble, mostly defined by reducing 'randomMss'
(fc< ercample, .andom lubble laId 10 cou.ses, squared rubble and squa,ed rubble laid 10 ccurses).
SorYM! examples are shown In Ihe pholog,aphs below.

-...
-

-"'- The altcrna"ve to rubble walls Is ashlar. Ashlar (which IS a styie 001 a malNtal) Is stone Cui
Wllh 9'e3t accu,acy and laId on very Ihln moll.r jOinl~ Allhough rubble wo,k waS orten valued
ro<itS 'rusllc' appearance as well as liS relallve cost, ashlar generally tended 10 be associated with
more presllgoous buildings.
 Rubble and ashlar were often used together, typIcally with rubble being 'framed'by ashlar
at the corners of elevations. or by the use of ashlar around windows In a rubble wall AI"" it is
not uncommon to see ashlar used !of a bay In a predominantly
rubble elevation - as shown In the im~ to the right.
Because of its expense, ashlar was normally only used as a
facing material and required a strucwral backing In the form of
brickwork or rubble, ssentially, these solid waus were built as
two 'skinS: In order to bond the ashlar to the ba<klng material.
some of the faCing Stones ran 'through' the wall, Alternatively,
ashlar was sometimes fixed back to the brickwork with iron ties,
Rubble walls were also conStructed In a similar fashion and,
particularly in the latter part olthe VICtorian period, they would
often have a stone outer skin and a brick Inner Skin. Again
'through stones' (or header bricks) would be used to tie the two
skins together - .S Shown in the dIagram below,

p~1t0'1 OY~ 1","~l.Ottf

bcMIdlnsU~. AJnd.

(
He~etSbond
w;'lll tog~ther
Brickwork

The choice of brick or stooe as the fa\'Ollred building material In any given part of the counlty
was for many years influenced by the simple factor of geography, and therefore lhe availability
of materials. it was also affected by the development of trade skills and advances in lechnology
which allowed for mote efficiel\( quarrying of stone or excavation of cl<ly,as well as industrialised
kilns for brick production which imJ)<O'<edthe ability 10 coruroi both quantity and quality. The
creation of canals and, later. the rail system had a dramatic effect. parti<ula~y on the abil,ly to
dlstribule bricks 10 areas With no day deposits. Less pragmatic. but perhaps mole signilicilnt.
factOrs were the Issues of slyle and staios, For example, bfick was popular in the Restoration
period and the artistIC slIlils J)<actisedby lhe bficklayers In both decorative and precJslon WOfk
during this era was, and stdll$, much admired. The Georgian period Is often characterised by the
Slone buildings of cities such as Balh. bet brICk was a fashionable material (or developmenls in, for
Instance, Liverpool, London and Bt,stol8ec.use of Ihe links between slyle and SI.lIUS, the aSpillng
classes looked to these materials to demonstrate social position, In Ihe Regency and ~rly Victorian
periods, people aspired to lhe appeollancc achieved by ashlar Slone, There were, however, surges
in Ihe slalus o( brick, including Ih.ll \'ihidI arose during Ihe 'Baule of lhe Slyies' an example
being the Queen Anne revival in lhe 18705.Al otber times in the Victorian period brick was equal
to stone In status, partly because of the increasing precision wtth which bricks could be made.
This precision, allied to tbe wiele range of colours. finishes and shapes that became avaUable,
appealed 10 the Victorians' sense of pride in lechnological achievement as well as to lheit liking for
colour and oecorauoo, Clearly though, this appeal was not universal; many late VICtorian houses in
cilies such as Bristol h.lve Stone wals at lhe front wilh brick being relegaled 10 the side and rear
elevation, where it was often rendered. There are, however, geographical areas where bfick was
used 10 the from elevar;on wilh stone being relegated 10 the side and rear.

An t'Or'rt'ogtJCMf1rh'cfntlJty to.-Ift hovIot Itt~ ~

$f)W' c:onurvcrtd III bfl(J,:IW}tk

 The dominance of either bficlc or stone has waxed and waned over the centuries. fo<
various reasons modern houses tend. in the main. to be defined by walls with an extemalleaf
constructed In brick. H<lWe'Ier.some modern houses are finished with a render (see Chapter 12)
or a cladding material and. in these cases. the external leaf may well be consrructed in concrete
blockwork. It is also the case that some houses will be bUilt using a Stone or artifiCial Stone outer
leaf (artificial stone Is a mixture of Stone dust.
colouring agent and cement). Sometimes
stone or .rtlficlal stone Is utllrsed on a
selection of houses on modern development
In oreier to prOVide aesthetic .a"ety. but
there arc also cases where It is used because
It reflects the vernacular In some ,nstances
this may be a planning requoremenL For the
purposes of clarity and consostency. and given
that the details will essentially be the same or
Similar, this chapter concentrates on masonry
walls which typically have a bfiCk outer leaf
and a (concrete) block inner leal

fWbbte $tOtlt:WOI'A: Ofl ,~ frQllf tlntJIOn of (J ftttW hor,tw- Rubbo1t: l~~wo't~/n<Jtr1o~onU fl('W~ _,o
plC'UlfllQbly to NltlOCJtJ ""OHy If'lt.o ,IttNate. (.on~l'Ol.Ion (Jf('(f

Brick production and claSsification

Ihe majority of bricks are made from cl.ly.

which Is usually p,ePdred by grinding and
mixing with water. This plastIC compound
" ...
is formed into the required bficlc shape and
then dried and fired in a kHn. Different claY'
have different characteristics and. by using
special manufacturing techniques and adding
a variety of additives. bricks of various colours
and strengths can be produced. Some bricks
are still made by hand using practices that
have barely changed fo< several hund,ed
years. Large lumps of wet clay are dropped
into wooden mOllld~ tipped out. and then
left to dry before firing. Howevet. nowadays
- ,.".........-01"",,*,
~ by ltn'OCAttd Jhow
howd1't-""'" mOl'tlttK rl9
pIO('.('Ut'S

OI"Uhrbc
C4t'I DChlft~

~0I'1Cf"'L
d,tft'IMt
most bricks are either machine-pressed into steel moulds or exvuded.ln the extf\Jsion process,
a contlnllOUS ribbon of clay is CUtby wires to f()(m bricks of the correct size. By allering the
extrusion process and CUlling Wifes. a number of surface ~nishcs can be obtained.
Bricks can broadly be described as:
common bricks ~~r~t art IlProbk for gtntrol buildingwolk wh'I' rhe tace of rhe IJri<:kwill bt
C(JVerl1<iwirh plasler. rtndtr (J( OrlOlMr finish. Ir Is unusual u lind rhese bflCks M1ng used today HI
Ilouslng
facing bricks - r~t comt In 0 .wit ro~ of linlshet colOtirs and strengrhs cnd art used where
Ihefoce will btlelr t'XpOsed. Thtmoslcommon use today IS (0/ rheexrernolwolls ofll<><Ms
enginet/inrl blicks - t~(J(t!~bt"ks WIth hi<]h comptessrVe lIIengrh and low rore1 ofWQtef
obsO/pllon. They ort COltgOtised os donA or 8. AlrhOtJgh CIOISA bricks are somellme1 used os foong
btlckl (0/ hOUle1 (oflen because cI lheir dlsrl/lCfweblve'gfeycoIour) tlleY are ftl()(e"eIy 10bt found HI
civil engineering IIllJCllJrtS such os te!0IIliIlg wolls and bridget ao 8erlginettlng b"ds fSQmtrlftleS
referred 10coIloquioJIyOI serru~ bricks) oJe used. among orher rhingt in IJri<:k tronhoIes.
Bricks can also be claSSified by therres;stance to frost attack. Some bricks are torally resiStant to
frost attack while others are qLite wtnerable. Bricks suitable for severe exposure are classified
F2, those Suitable (or moderate exposure are claSSified Fl. and those suitable fo< what is referred
to as 'passive' exposure are classified as FO. Class F2 bricks are therefore suitable for use in any
part of an external wall, including situations where they may be saturated and have to undergo
repealed cycles of freeZing and thawing (with the caveat that the brickwork is delailed correctly).
This includes parapets. copings and retaining walls. Class fl bncks are normally suitable for the
outer face of a building, as long as exposure is not severe and appropriate measures have been
taken in the design of the wall to prevenl salurarion. This generally means they are su'table from
above the OPe to below the eaves, Class FObricks are generally for Internal use only.
Bricks can also be classified by ther soluble salt content. Classes S2 and SI have Imposed
limits on the percentage cI salts they contain while Class SObricks have no such "mit$.

Calcium silicate bricks

These bricks are made from sand or CIUShed Rlnt and lime
mixed with coloured pigment$. The mater.als are mechanically
pressed Into shape and then plac.ed In haldening ctl.mbers
into which steam is Injected under pressure. During ha,dening,
a chemical reaction OCCurSto produce hydrated calcium
s.ilicate.This is not dissimilar to the set1ing of ce-ment. The b,icks
ale very regular in shape and can easolybe recognised by their
pale colours. By varying the manufaC1lJring technique. brick,
of different strengths and densities can be produced. They are
generally resistant to frost attack and virtually free from soluble
sulfates. Calcium silicale bricks are peooe to Shrinkage and thiS
needs 10 be laken lnto account in the way I hey are specified
and detailed. They enjoyed a period of popularity in Ihe 19605
and 1970s but are less fashionable now.

Concrete bricks

The majority of concrete bric'" are made by blending and compacting dense aggregate WIth a
cementltlous binder under higt\ pressure. Colouled facing I)rlcks ale manufactured by blendrng
different aggregates or by adding special pigments. By varying the proportions of cement, the
bricks can be manufactured in a va<ietY 01 strengths. The material for concrete bricks can be
mixed with crushed stone aggregate to prcduce a material which mimics na!IUal Stone.

Blockwork

Blockwork has become ~ry IlOIlVlar In the paSt 60 yea~ or so because of Its COStadvan~
over brickwork (see the later section on c.>'iIty wails). MOst blocks are equivalent In s~ to SIX
bricks (three brICks high and two long) and ale available In. range of widthS from SOmm to
300m",. Blocks less than 75mm wide are unsuitable for loadbearlng walls. Blocks are made from
cement and aggregate, and by varying the quantity of cement .IId the nature of the aggregate.
blocks with different wengths and levels o( insulation can be formed. Since blocks first became
popular In the late 19201 several different aggregales have been used in their manufacture. SUCh
as crushed gravel. pulvelised fuel ash. blaSt furnaee clinker, gas coke breeze and pumice.
Changes In indusuiaJ processes have meant that some of these dggregates ale no Ionge<
available.
Blocks can be broadly classifled into two types: dense blocks (heavyweight blocks) and
lightweight blocks.

Dense blocks

Dense blocks are made from cement. sand and crushed gravel and are suitable for work above
and below ground level. Because 01 their high denSity, they arc good ccndoctcrs o( heat
and ere therefole unSUItable for mode<n cavity walls unless additional Insulation IS prOVIdM
However, they provide good sound insulation and are therefore ideal for party walls and
loadbed(ing partitions.

In lht 195th lO 19lOs <fMStt\lo(4, ntt' IMI:f '0101," tilt

'(ll~""DJ1M' of CtlVll)'viUth. Todqy. ,~" rtfd obt,,~
fot IOUllrdotiOtl 'W(){1s. .n:~no'~ ~ Oitt4fXJttr
IY()!{) oi1aleas "~I('tt' l~rl1()J'lnW 'a:..... tS noc Opt mmy
requIrement. The pIwrog'tJph.thows o,.y
0 TtXhIrn ..............
ptJNt/ion m,orporo'lfIC/o M k.,r"" ardsol;wooddoOt lining.

lightweight blocks

These incorporate a varietY of lightweight aggregates and are generally used for the internal
skins of cavity walls. Although slightly more expensive than ordinary dense blocks. they have
much bener levels of Insulation and are light and easy to handle. The level of themnal insulatoOn
varies depending on the type 01 aggregate used. However. because of Iheir low mass they do
not provide very good sound lnsulat;on and are not always suitable (or partY walls.
In modern construction a pa<11culartype of lightweight block made frotn autoclaved ae<ated
concrete (AAC). generally known as _ated blocks. have become very common. Aetated blocks
ale made (rom cement. lime. sand. pulveused fuel ash and aluminium powder. ooce these
materials are mixed with hOt water the aluminium pOwder reacts with Ihe lime to form millions 01
tiny pockets of hydrogen. These subseqvently
diffuse from the material to be replaced by air.
Aerated blocks are easy to handle and
provide good lhermal insulallon. They ate ve<y
easy to Clil and sha~ and will orecdy take the
fixings of screws as well as ooils. Some aerated
blocks are 110tsv,table for parly wO)/Is because
oIlh~ir low denSlly. although til recent ye3rS a
nurnbe: o( manufacturers hoM! produced aerated
blocks specifICally designed fOlthiS purpose.
At'tOfrd bfo(kI b(II't7q (lit 00 1,1' (1'lfX1 lito, rtw tr.b., 1hown
In modern ca'illy walls. with thel' emphasis
Oft '#I~v~jr' IflltlJOlnr)')t(nll' ,,""'~ ,~.
011high levels of thermal insul.ltiOn, aefated rhon ifondo,d MIlIltd t.Ho<Jj).Photo9mph C04IIttl'folH.H
blocks are by far Ihe most common method of U!(!rd
fo, ming the inte<nallear.

Weather protection

Many concrete blocks absorb water more readily than brick or stonework and. if used externally.
may require additional weathe< protection. Suitable protection includes weather boarding. tae
hanging and render. Aerared blocks. unlike their dense concrete counterparts. usually have a
closed cell pore Wucture which limits moistu,e penetration.

Size of bricks and blocks

A standard metrk brick Is 215. t02.5. 6Smm and a standard block 44(). 21 Sx lOOmm.
Allowing (0' the morlar joints (IOmm). siX bucks are equal In size to one block. These Sizesmay
seem a bit arbilfary but they are. mo'e 0( less. a direct conversion (rom Impe'ial measurements.

A Sl.l'Idord bIodIl, twO brickS

long nnd tnf,' bri<Ic$

Mortar

Mortar Is the material which binds the bricks and blocks together. It helps to distribute .he load
through a wall and 'seals'the brick Ol block joiotS agaiost Water ingress. Mortars should have:
good workability
sumc/enr resilience ro a<commodore Jongrerm rhermal movemenr of rhe maSOflty
oaequoi bond nrengrh
good res/nonce to ,voter pentrrorlol1.
Mortar Is made (rom fine b99reqate (usually sand) and a binding agent (nowadays usually
cerneru). When mixed wilh waler. a chemical reaction, called hydration. occurs and the monar

sets. Early mortars were usually based on lime and sand but they were very slow 10 set and
readily absorbed rainwaler. There are IWO basic categories of lime:
Non,hydraullc lime; ThisIsprod.xed by butnlng (pure) Ilmescone In a kiln In order co COllvtfC IC
Inco 'quicM/frl(" which Is chen slaked If) worer co produce lime purey. A morror mode from lolnt ""ccy
secs chrough a process known os (orbonoclOn, where che lime 9rOuoily hardens byolxotbinl)
corbon diOxide from the atmosphere
Hydraulic lime: ThIs IS(JIOdu<ed from lhe burning of limeslone Ihoc COIIIOlm Im""fllltS - suchos
cloy. 101e.ample. Hydraulre limes ore used rn powder form ond secIhrough contOCt Wllh WOItt /1.1'..
hydrOllon). S~0110 Chapler '1External rr!f1deflng.
Modern mortars use cement <>sthe ma n bindIng agent. Hydrated lime - <>powdered fOlm of
nonhydraulic lime - was. in the paSI, often Introduced inlo Ihe mi. 10 make II more \'Ol<.lble:
This happens less frequently nowadays as morlars lend 10 rely on chemical admixtures 10
provide Ihe qualolies which the additoo of lime formerly produced. The use of lime in a mOIta<
mix improves the mortar's ability to cope with thermal and moisture movement. imprO\oes the
adhesion between the mOItar and the brick and the strength of the brickwork It also improves
[he resistance of the mortar to rain penetration - partly because it is less likely to shrink and
Clack, but also because il produces a monar which will allow motsture to evaporate.

Admixtures

Admixtures. such as liquid plaslicisers. can be used in place of lime to improve the worl<.lbility
of a mortar. Plastlcl~er~ break down Ihe internat frlClion in the cement, making fl tess dense and
therefore easier to work. A monar mi. of 1 pan cement 10 5 carts sand, plus plasliciser, is roughly
equlv~lent to. 1:1:6cementlllme/sand m,l(, Although a plast1clser will Improve WOtl<.lbifity it WIll
net provide some of the other benefits' such as nexibility and Ilreathablhcy that adding lime does.
/lnother option Is to use masonry cement. This Is a prebagged mix of cement and
chemicals, which have ~n added to ImPfove the workabllily of mortar.

Mix proportions

By varying the proportoons of the cement. the strength of the mortar can be increased or
decreased as ,equired. Strength. at least In thiS context, refers to hardness and permeabllty. ~
a general rule . weak mortar mil< fle. one with relatively less cement) will suffer less Shrinkage
when it sets and Is O'IOfeable to withstand the long term rigoUls of thermal and moist\l(e
movement. In addition. if millOf cracking doe-s occur in the wall, it is more likely to occur at the
joints. which can easily be raked out and repotmed. However. Ihe mortar must not be too weak
or it will become too porous and may be crushed under high compression forces. A weaker
mortar will also generally be less durable.
It Is essential to ensure that there is adequate adhesion between the bricks and mottar. To
achieve good adhesion a monar must have good workability. Mortar of poor wor1cability will
not 'give' adequately, and will allOw air to be trapped between Ihe brick and the monar, Ihus
preventing a proper bond. The ICfm 'fany'ls sometimes used to describe an Ideal conSIStency for
a mortar a 'fally' mottar WIll Slay on the trowel bUI not Stick to it. It will also spread eas,1yand
not SCteither tOOquickly or tOO slowly. CemenHich mortars are difficult to work WIth and there
Is a lemptation on site to add e.tra wal'" Thi$ will ultimately reduce the mOlta"s suength
Mortar sand needs to be "ellgraded. This means that It should contain a m,xture of paniCle
sizes because a volume of sand where an the palticles WC'Cof similar size would contain more air
than would be the case WIth a weII-grilded sand. meaning thaI a greater proportion 0( binding

agent (i.e. cement) would be required. A given volume of graded sand contains approximately
25 per cent of air space. The sttength and physical properties of a monar are determined by the
type 01 binder that fills this air space. For example. a cement/sand mix of 1:3 will ~It in the
air space within the sand being completely filled by the cement. producing a strong but bflufe
rnonac the lela lively high cernent content Will probably lesult in shflnkage as the mottar sets,
Many bricks and blocks cannot resISt thiS shrinkage, lesultlng In loss or bond and cracks on the
mortal, 6y replacing some of the binder with lime (s.y, 1:1:6,cemenllllmClsand) Ihe blnderl
aggrfl9alC ratio Is maintained at 1:3 and the mollar has Improved workability, belW adheslon
and longer durability. Some typocal mol tar mixes ale shown below.

~-:lImt::WlncI M,)t.OOI'y Cttntnt:$ItId

<,."" ,....,
(- -)
1:o.l>:3 I:} I:)

l:O.S)4 I:}ot<lj 1:)014
t;1:S Of 6 I:S6 I:SOf6

" '~:SOt9 1:,or8 1:74

Pre-mixed mortars

These ale delivered to site In sealed container$.

ready lor use. They usually contain a retarder
SOIhey remain usable 10<36-48 hour1 01 so.
At the el,d of this period they deli<.>loptheir
sllenglh In the same way as 001""" mortars.
An ahernallve 10 premlxed l'I'1O<Ia,s.whICh
can orten be seen on lalger build ng SItesare
dlY mixed silos. These contain a dry MOItar
mix with app,opriate propottlon~ colourants
and materials for the particulal pulpcISe (e.g. O<ymJ<lnotla"",,,on ...
101 Ihe mousr lor racing bfickwotk 01 lor aerated
blockwork) required on the specific Site.The Siloshave an intfl9,al mixer and allow different sized
batches of a consistent mOftar to be mixed as and when required.

Jointing and pointing

The face of the mortar joint between the brick or block may be finished in a number 0(
ways. These are lorgeiy dependent on the exposure 01 the building, the type 01 brick and the
preference 01 the designer. Examples 01 the most common joinls are shown below.
Flushed joints are IOfmed by skimming olf excess mortar Irom the lace of the mortar, For
the other joint profiles the l'I'1O<Iaris left to harden Slightly and the joint profile Is then fOimed
using an appropriate tool Tooled jOO1tSo((er tilt best weather protecuon because the tooling
smoothes and compresses the JOontRecessed jOints are nOI suitable lor buildings In exposed
 B B B B Sit.,,,

situations because they do not readily shed

water - the recess interrupts the flow down the
face of the wall and It Will tend 10 Slay'Mltler
for longer than If one of the other jOintS were
used, For thiS reason. only b(l(ks WIth good (rOSt
resistance should be used w~h recessed JO,nts.
MOSt b,lckwo,"- these days. is jOinted as
wo,k orcceeds. POlnt.ng Is the te,m used to
describe exiSting or new joints whICh have
been raked Out and filled WIth (,esh. often
coloured. mortar. Pointing .s relatively rare ,n
new construction because coloured tnOctclr
mixes are now relatively cheap. However. the Blick Development Assoctsuon observes that lor
some joint profiles it is only practicable to form them as pointing - they give the weather struck
and Cut jOint as an example. Wah pointing. the mortar mix muSt be Slightly weaker than the
jointing mortal. tf it Is stronger. the outer face of the bncks, immediately above and below the
pointing. will carry excess load This can result in the edges of
the bricks spalling.
Morta. joints have a significant llisual effect on a brick
wall. The Brick Development Association pointS out tnar, with
stretcher bond. about 17 pet cent 01 a wag is mona'. The colour
of the mortar <an have a dramatic ,"sual impaa on the ove<all
appearance of the wall - as demonstrated by the repolnting of
thc brickWOrk shoWtnIn the photog'aphs on the lIght.
The chotce o( Jo1nt profile <an also have a significant
e(fect. p.I,tly due to the way that they elthe, tl(centuate or
obscu,e the JunCtion between the br.ck and the joint and
partly II, the way that d,ffe,ent profileS cast shadows and
reOeclllght. The Image below. (or ex.lmple ,ndlcates how
dlffelent p'ofiles affect the appearance of a wall bu.lt with
the same bricks.

CJo~lJP 01 tf'{>Otl'tmq to~

shown"_
laying the bricks to a 'bond'

The simplest of brick walls is a I025mm thiCk one (usually leferred 10 as a halfbrick wall). In
order to satisfactorily fulfit ilS structural function, the bricks have to be bonded In a partiCular
panern.I' the bricks are stacked as shown in the d,agram below and the wallis loaded culler
ve, tlcally Or hori20ntally. th@panel of bt'ICkwOlt will gain no support from the bricks on eothe<
side. By rearranging th@bflcks In a different panern. suitable supeon can be provklecl .

....

Bonding 'Pf~lIds INds lIICtOSS w.4 1Ns bond

b a~ SltCC(ntt bond.

The bond above is known as stretcher

bond because you can see the long face or
'stretch' of the brick (lhe short face ~ known
as the hcad).

External walls before the 19205

The relatively thin wall shown In th@diagram above (i.e. a halfbrick wall) is nOI suitable for
domestic consoucuoo due to its low insulation and poor weatherproofing qualrties. Hzy,..eYeI.
it will sometimes be found in poor.quality small extensions such as old sculleries. outside WCs
and coal sheds. A wall must be at Seast 215mm or one blkk thick to provide reasonabte \'leather
protection and thiS was the slandard form of consuucuon for the majority of b,ickbuill houses
before the 192050. For one-brick walls,. STretcher bond is not suitable as It would entail buildIng
IWO haif'brick skins side by >ide, each acting independently of the other: Ihis would se<iousfy
weaken the wall.
To overcome thiS probfe<n different bonding techniques werc (and are) used for one-llfick
walls. Two common bonds are EngRsh bond and Flemish bond.
English bond and Flem~h bond bolh differ from stretcher bond in that some of the bt'iCks
are laid at right angles to the (ace of th@wall tn order to bind me two halves of Ihe walltogeth@r.
, io..: .. I,. __ 1 _ __ _ :.JJ ..t I 11 _ __ :._
I nese onces arc Known as neaoers ana are JlJusnatea In tne (Ilagram opposite.
As the photographs opposite show, English bone! comprises a row of stretchers followed
by a row of headers while Flemish bone! comprises alternate headers and Slfelchers in each
course.

English bond(.om~ ~ row 01

~<he1'1 (~~d by ~ row of
h4!w.ers.

A auatU!f btkk klW)wn as .. 0uHft CIowt

 '1.. - - ----
if required to line UP(omt'f'S.nd ~

From the diagram above it should also be clear that additional bricks, known as Queen
Closers, are required to complete the bornl, They are positioned at either end of a run of
brickwork. They are also required to maintain the bond at cornets. Consider the Closet in the

middle course of btiCks.lf thiS Is replaced with a header, ,he rront and side walls would no Ionge<
be bonded ,ogethcr because lhere would be a waighl venlcal Joint at tlk'! pc>nt Q.e. lhey avoid
a jolnllhal goes Ihrough more than one rowl.

Garden wall bonds

A number of different bonds w(!ie dC\.-eIoped In the Viclotlan era, Including 'garden watl'verSlOns
of [ngllsh bond and F~mish bond. Thes<> were, as Ihe name suggeSlS, used for garden walls but
were also orlcn used to conStruet the main walls 01 Ihe house, ahhough they wt're usually. but
1'101always. confined to rear and SIde walls and were ollen Icndered,
~sh (jOlckfl 'I/O(i boIld ro 0 9CI~ W(fl (J'2 on EnglIsh g<nikn wo.lJ bond 10 ,fit ~ 01 0 ~roncm I'o"t,.c
forty 191O$1!otxt. "frh a rubble "OM tkwI:ion_

A$ can be seen In lhe phologtaphs on lhe plevlous 1"'ge, bolh bonds have a 9,eale' numbet
of slfetchers IMn thelr'lrue' bond eqUlvalenl~ and it is Ihls aspect that probably made lhem
pOpular. Ills easier 10 lay and i<'veI slIetchets lhan headers and Ihere is less waSle because
overslled bricks (which mlghl hal<e 10 be rejecled as headers) can be accommodated by adJUSlong
the thkkness of the Join!. In fact lrue English bond is rarely found on houses In Ihls COUnlry.
Allhough it Is a very Silang bond and Is found in Victorian engineeljng works, such as viaductS
and bridges, It is nOI parlicwt1y common in hou5ing. Flemish bond is much more common.
Other variations on EngliShbond included. for example, English Cross bond, oflen used
where patterned brickwork is required, while Monk bond was a varialion of Remis!> bond.

, Sf , t ?
~!il
~!I'
,
i
i
,
I
, i
I :!
I
I
I
I I i

EnglIsh (toss baM MonkbMd

Wall thicknesses

On ViCtorianand Edwardian ~~S over IWOor Ihre<!StOreyshigh. Ihe walls .rc oflen more
then one brick thick allower ~IS. This was done 10 Improve their slablllty. The walls reduced In
Ihlckness al each noor level as lhe Imposed lo.lds decrease.

EEl.
:EE!
Two""",
~
I H II I

Openings in solid brick walls

Where openings occur for doO<sor windows. support is required at Ihe rop, or head. of lhe
nnlA,"Iinn A witVIl'lw rr;a~ 1.( tw"II tin<.iru'''Att In (')l(rv ,,,"I,,,WAil ~rtlnn ThA IlUri whlrh N( In n-
v,.. "'~ """''''-'~'~ ~ "", , ~..",.. _ "'~. "' 'VY ................ 00-1 ......

carried Is. in fact. quite modest due to the bonding of the brickwork. Stretcher bond is not used
for solid walls but it does show the pllncip1e quite clearly. The loads can be supported in a
number of ways and some common methods used for older houses with solid walls are shown
overleaf.

rtle bonding of t'"

bftcM mt~ th:M.,.,
110INI rw., '"""own fJ a ~8rntnul rovtCh ~
art;) of brk_wor1i I~ wl)9Or\ccI br thtkd. RgI'1'1otntolb3VSIt I, 11~ol
thct IIrch 'cWdt.
rough btcl)u$O !he t~r Is In tIM mot'UI".

I;;) C?n

_.,

In "";)I(~.rcht~~.,t~aA to. ~
PY;VHfFt
on Jiu: uSing (hl"tls ~nd~ws. JOittti ~ ,0- CIt 100-

In. gIl\lged:lrch thoe brlck$:lre ~~Oft Jlt~vt:.t'tpt~

and &IoIdwtlh~ry I~ lolnu., ~Pf~I)Inm Of'lQ. The
tric"s tt~C!f'M~t'\ ~ ofUln quotClJOlt 100tNt Ihty an ..
Nbbbc!dor wn6ed 10 31~"Cf.Ar<t;.n(oIn bt"", ihIpr.
kMkllculllr, M':gm~lIl or even flott. n't 0tdI0H ~.~
sJIShl Clrnbtr. WIthout Illhe arch wotAd ~~ 10 be f",

The nat gauged arch (shown in the

photograph left) is more likely '0 be found in
bener quality housing. The soldIer arch and
segmental arch ale common in the cheap
speculative inner-dty housing of the late
Victorian period. In practice. most openings
rn Victorian and Edwardian solid have wa,,,
a timber lintel over the inner half of the wall
further reducing the load that needs to 00
supported by .he arch. Arches add slgruficantly
to the character of older neeses - and a
GIIIJl}i!d
ofch'Mlh,~ b(,'(t,. selection are shown opposite.
More elaborale/dllCOfalivc ~ 0( these basic arch deslgns are shown below
Early damp proof courses

The wall below ground level i$ "k~ly to be pcrmanemly d~mp and. to prevem mOiSlUfe r",,'9
through capillary action. ,I is. nowadays. a requlrernenr of the Building Regulations that wans
should resist the passage 01 mooSt"'C. This requirement Is most commonly complied WIth
through the provision or a damp ptool course (DK). opes filSt came Into use towards the
end 01 the Victorian pcriod when mate<ials such as tar and Sdnd. or hessian soaked In tar we<e
commonly used. On more ptesligious buildings, lead and copoer were often emplcyecf. It was
also common to find buildings with twO or three courses 01engineering blicks Of 1aye1Sor slate
providing a barrier to rising damp. The DPC should be well clear 01 the ground (at least 1SOmm)
and should ideally be a flexible material to allow for slight differential movement. Slate DPCs
often failed due to cracking as the building settled slightly during ns life.
 In practlc~, many early OI'Cs are no Ionge. effective; materials become Mnle wIth age,
buildings S('t1I~,and ext~rnalle\oets often change due 10 such measul~s as the resurfacing 01
foolpaths and Ihe like, fQftun.Jlety. ""'ny buIldIngs can cope adequately wlthoul a OI'C as long
as the brickwork Is 01the righl quality and the ground Is well drained,

OPC$ ~Id be.n k!~'lSOnwn ~

grOUnd 1e\'e4{to 1ttOP SpI.MtIing wtttitlg
the bf1(i(wM above'). 11'1ptbCdiC.f'.
chfs gap Is unUkdy rc be found Inoldtr
boeses, pattlcull), whl!f'~~ths .,nd
p,JVl~ hlvt bc:tn rt:SlImc:C'd.

Environmental performance of solid walls

Damp penetration

A well-built Md prOp(!tly poonled one-brick (or stone) wall which

Is In good condition shOuld exc~ rain unless il Is In Ihe most
....
exposed of silUallOns. Allhough some rain w,lI be absorbed by
Ihe wall during heavy rainfall. Its th;ckness should prevent clamp JD
from reaching the Inside face. When the rain SlOj)S, Ihe water
will evaporate and the wall w,ll dry. However, over the years the
general deteriorauon of poor qual,ty btr<kwork and old lime mortar
JD
can result in damp penetrating to the inside face and effective
II ,
solouons can be COStly.II a solid brick wall were to be used in an
area of severe exposure, the BuildIng Regulations recommend that
u should be 1~ briCks thick (325mm).

Heat loss

A one-brick (or Slone) waU 'WOUkf not meet the thermal insulation requirements of the current
Building Regulations. Howevef. In an existing boese they do act to some extent as ther"",1
moderators because of the way that they can absorb and store heat, and then release it slowty to
the Interior of the house. So, fOf example, Ihicker walls can absorb excess heal from solar energy
coming Ihrough lhe windows and slowly r.lease It 10 the interior in the evening, thus ",""""hng
houses becoming 100 hot in the summer month>. In the same way they will absorb heal
produced by Ihe heating SYSlemaod lhen release thai stored heal once Ihe SYSlemis lurned 01(
However, because Ihey act as a 'thermal store'thts does mean thai they will take a reiatNeIy long
time 10 heal up as well as 10 cool down. This factor, and how It might affect decisions about how
10 improve the thermal insulation of solid walls, is discussed lutlher in Chapler 16.

Condensation

If a building with a solid waU is constantly heated, condensation

is unlikely to occur as the structure will be kept warm, However,
In lhe majority of domesec buildIngs lhe heat is switched on and
- I
off as required by the occupanlS.lf the inside face of the w.1I
cools below a particular temperature then """swre in the air
JD
I
will condense on the cold surfdee. As obserwd above, solid walls
will take a relatively long lime to heat up and, Pdtlicularly If they
are not insulaled, lhey can be prone to condensation (for further
JD
.11
I
informal ion on condensanoo refer 10 Chapler 16).

The cavity wall

Although there are earl,er examples. the uvity wall Slarled to become more common in the
1920$ and It helped to overcome lhe three problems of damp penetration, heat loss aod
conclensatlon described abo~. An early cavIty wall basically comprises twO skins 01 leaves of
brickwork separated by gap of SO- 7Omm.
The cavity has lwo functoOM:
IIp,evenrs WOlt' (rom ftOChlfl9 the tnltmlll skm
IIimproves Ihe Ihermol tffIcitncy of Iitt wo/l as lhe orr In Ihe covily is a good imulolor.
TwO IOOmm skins of brickWOlk each acting lodependenlly are no; very wong 01 stable aod .1
Is a requirement of Ihe Build.ng lI<!gulaloons that the two leaves of ihe wall are lied together at
regular Intervals in order 10 ensure thatlhe finished wallis strong enough 10 carry lhe requiled
loads, This is done by Ihe use of wall lies.

E.at1y (~lIlty
wall
W~lltlts
TWOCfthree
CGatS of lim...
plas.ttr

Woll de'S IroM t9tS vaoe a~. The uptMr

tlHYt1!1'e aVlllal!lt tMrtd or lafy~ nw Iowtf
 Some of the very early ties were made from iron. which was brittle and rusted very QUickly.
Later ties were made from galvanised steel (Steel coated with zinc;)and. albeit in limited numbers.
copper. Plastic ties have also been used. Current Building Regulations recommend that stainless
sreei ties are used. although Other materials would be acceptable as long as they complied with
the British EN Standard or had a suitable form of thlrdparty accreditation - such as the British
Board of Agrement

It is lmportant thai the tie is corll!Ctly positioned to ensure tbat any water in contact with
the tie does not reach the inside slon. Three suitable examples are shown in the diagram below.
The Building Regulations set out recommendations for the frequency and positron of the
ties. but generally they should be spaced 900mm apart horizontally and 4S0mm vertically (at
every sixth course of bricks and every second course of blocks). Extra ties should be positooned
horizontally within 225mm of openings. such as window and door openings. as well as at
verges, movement joints Of ends o( \yalls. In these oosnloos the ties should be no mOte than
30011'11\'1 apaft vertically.
Ties are formed WItt>a 'drrp'tO ptevent water passing along the tie from the outer to the
Inner skin (see below). Special ~es.,e required lor wide cavities. and special ties and addrtional
proprietary clips are required when "''lity Insulation boards or bans are used (see photographs
on p.71).

A$ mentioned above. early cavity walls had brickwork m both skins: facings on the outside
and commons On the Inside. However, it soon became popular to use conoete blocks fo<the
inside skin because they were cheaper and quicker to lay, and they impcoved the walt's thermal
insulation. Over the years there have been a variety of concrete blocks on the market, differing
mainly In the type of a99r"9at" used, Increasing emphasis on thermal efficienq means that
only a few of these blocks are suitable nowadays unless additional insulation is providPd. Typical
coosnucuoo for modem walls is shown in the neXt section.

The modern cavity wall

Thermal Insulation and cavity walls

CtJVltywol1lrOln the! '9~ fo,mJ ... "(JmfJttontU'f~bIoco; r(ll)tt

f.Jn ondnO'(bulall()n Nor~~ 1hot0l'l~1il1tolbt"(Worl
rNJy ~rjrth(M' btfn (I~ /('I ,n" tl'Il
To a large extent the development of the cavity wall has. particularly in recent yea". been
driven by the need to improve the thermal performance of external walls. Since the 1970s. the
Building Regulations have required external walls to have incre.singly lower Uvalues. therefore
increasing the need for higher levels of thermo I insulation (see Chapter 16 (or an explanation
of u-velues),

,.~
u "'flue 0.60

- r - r -r-
= = =
= = =
= ::i =
=

10)tlWnfX1nebrlck
5omm(lq .. ~vI~
100mm ~
IInypta$ttt
bIo<It
IInIsh
-_
---
=
......
to,...,.f",~

""_ .....
=

10""mf~6bridr;
)OmmdeiltW\'llY
Ilynm 1I.gh\~lgI1l l)loeJ(
totI)' I)1mH flnb"

The dl.grams above show the chonges to the minimum 'back stop average U-value required
by the Building RegulatiOns from the early 1970$ until the 1990s, This wes reduced to 0.35 in
2006 and to 0.30 in 2010,
Following amendments to the Building Regulations introduced in 2010. the minimum
'back StOP'limiting Uvalue reqUired [Of an external wan (Of a wan to an unheated area such as
a garage) is 0.30. But thiS is in lhe context of the approach known as the target emission rete
(fER). which Is the recognised holiStIC way of shOWing compliance with Ihe requlremenls allhe
RegulatiOns and It concerns ilself ",th the carbon dioxide emission rates from new dY.'t'IiIngs.
The B"IIdlng Regulations state that the achievement of the TERis likely 10 reqUIte a thermal
performance higher than 0,3. In practICe. this Will also depend on factors such as the scace and
hot water heatlng s~tem eft\ciency. the type of fuel used and the air permeability of the fabtl<.
As pa, t 01the 2010 amendments the<e is also a requirement for the Insulation 0( any party walls
to other dwellings to ach,""" a ""nimum 'back Stop' limiting U-value of 0.2_
The diagrams below illustrate some of the ways that a u-value of OJ might be achieved

U-V<lI,"9-}O\"'j'mlK{~)

O~.tUvity

1(I)rnm ,.. ,lntc btlc;k 1O)"WW' .... br1d,; loO)"MlflKlng brick

somm (... ~ ..I,y ",..,..CHtyMU )~ommCllvll.,~rct
IISIM'IHI';lted block 'f5IMI~.cS Wodr: sonwn (II-Aty r~oIY!td
,,0tIW'n
ItltM\)lbO#d .". pt,Kt AnM \)iMn'I ~r;l'C!dI)IO(k
."" pl"~lerAnI~

It may seem pointless to fill a cav,ty with insulalion (as in the second example from the left,
bottom 01 previous page) when the C"';ty is acting as an lnsulator in the first place. Ho,",1!Vef.it is
Important to remember that the insul.!ting matettal itself does not provide any insulation; It is the
tiny pockets of air trapped within the material that preveot or reduce heat transfer. Uninsulated
cavities do permit some movemenl 0( air and therelore heat is losl through convection. Trapping
the ilir within the insulation means that the air is not free to move and heat is (el(ltl'led. A
comparison of the advantageS and disadvantages of each approach is contained in Chapte< 16
on insulation.
The challenge of meeting mrn,mum U-value requirements has been add.essed by
tmprovernems In the the.mal performance 0( blockwork and insulation materials. a, well as
by Increasing the thickness of both elements. It Is expected that amendments to the Buildong
Regulation, in 20 13and 2015. and lhe associated moves (owa,ds a zero ca.bon polley. will
require IUllher .eduCtlons to m,nrmum Uvalues. It should be ocred. however. that in ord<!<to
achieve certain level, of lhe C~ fo' Sustainable Home, (see Chapter 2). minimum Uvalues for
extelnal wall' will have to be lowe< Ihan those required by the currenl Building ~ulationS (i.e_
Ihe 20 I 0 amendment). Two examples of wall,nsulatlon ,elated to the Code are ,hown below_

B
I.Clv<14-U"'~O'S

D I
bl
,_
au
Cavity Insulation boards

Cavity insulation boards are gene<ally rigid and

are fixed against Ihe imernal ~ar of blod<woIk
with large plastic retaining washers which dip
over the wall lies. The boards are normally
supported between lWOrows of ties - 10 do
Ihls properly requires ties al grealer (requency
thallthose lequi,ed (0' Structu,al stabinty. The
ties should be In line. not staggered.
The Image (right) shows the InsulaUon
board and CaVitytie befOfe the ,etalnlng

washer Is put In place. The washer. which

holds Ihe insulation in place, is shown in the
images on this page. This 'eta!ns the partial
cavity.
TtllSal
(IO~ (t'm,f:S thMttnost
'~I(ed t(Wnf\l(l"""~

Structural stability

In domestic construction, the stability ofan external wallis assisted by the 'bonding In' of Intema!
partitions and fl.;nk walls. Additional stability is pt()\lided by (he floor joisls and roof limbers. These
Items are all consdered in more deta. in late< chapters and delails of Iypical examples are g;v>!<l.

Sound insulation

To reduce Ihe problems of sound interference from adjo"'ing properties, the Building
Regulations recommend minimum perfOfmance standards for party walls. Ai,borne sound (f,om
voices, ,adios, etc.) Is reduced by mass and, in ptactlce, this can be achlevt'!d by using dense
blocks 0' b'icks In either a 21Smm SOlid wall 0' a 2SOmm cavity wall. Materials such as standard
ae,ated (lightweIght) concrete bloCks are not always sui' able beceose of their low denSIty

Fire protection

The Building RegulatiOns demand that the eXlefnal walls of a dwelling provide adequate fire
resistance for the buildIng to ,etain Its stluttu,al stability and allow occupants to escape. They
must also resukt the spread of fire to or from adjoining properties,
The Building Regulations recommend that dwellings with the top floo' within 5,0Q0mm of
ground level should have 30 minutes'fite "",Istance and 60 minutes' fire resistance for houses
with any floors above this Iev<?LAlso, regardless of the height of dwellings, walls to adjoining
properties (party or companmem wails) should have 60 minutes' fire resistance to both sides.
These levels of fire protection are easo1yachieved by default when using materials such as day
bricks and concrete blocks.
In order to prevent the spread of fi,e to or from othe, buildings or dwellings, the BuildIng
Regulations also limIt the amount of'unprotected areas: such as doors and window openings 0<
sections of walls that do not have the requored amount of lire resistance. This IimiUlllOfl is related
to the distance to a relevant boundaty. lIkewise guidance Is given on the permitted areas cl
combustible cladding materialS used on external walls, such as timber or uPVC cladding. again
depending upon the type of malet'",1 and the distance to ,elevam boundarie~,

Modern damp proof courses

Modem damp proof courses (IlI'C) ate made

from flexible materials and. if C:Oflectly laid.
should prevent any damp from rising into lhe
SUpefstlucfure.lt is also important to ensure lhat
there is a good joint ben\-eeo the IlPC in lhe wall
and lhe damp proof membrane (OPMl. which is
Ihere to prevent damp rising t!vough the 1100<.
This is covered in more de~1 in Chaplet' 5.
Modern materials for a IlPC include
bitumen (ell. lead cored bitumen felt and dense
polylhene (by far the most common). It is
essenttat to ensure Ihat the IlPC does nol cross
the cav,ty as this will provide a path 10 lhe Ins,~ OP( beJfl9 klJ4 10 (ctvlty wotl ("J'Q v n Itt; ft on t;t _.. 0IA('1
sklrl (or any wale( running down the caWy. ,Aitt tJut wiN OliO tN' tt(Jf)Ik-d 10 hl(tfr '.Nt of bioi ,1~.
PhotogflJl)hcourltl'lol H.H lid

Most modern OPes are made (rom polythene. The OPes should nOI oroiect intO the <avi1y
where a possible buildup of mortar might bridge the cavily and allow damp to penetrate.
NOIe:If II is necessary 10 pr~ a OPe across the cavity 10 give prOlection against ground
gases such as radon. a cavity tray and assoceted weepholes should be provided above the IlPC
10 direct any moisture 01 walet' that enters the cavity to the oUlslde (see section on radon at end
of Chapler 5 Ground 00015).

StPl~COP( OPC
101 C',)(h I~,)f,

Olo<k.I rtI boUt 'C':.:wfi:

b4160w tVCMlnd I~.

I I I I
There are three points worlh menlionlng ebout the diagrams above.
In tbe first example lheourside skm is buill in blockwork ralher Ihan bllckwork below ground s-I.
Mraleel (lightwelghC} block> can be used below ground level. bUI for reason, o( ecooomy dense
blocks are more likely 10 be use<! Monufocrvrers produce extra wide blocks and Ihese are shown in
ttie second example. They ore quick ro loy and pro'lide good ,Iavilily.
The caviry bela,,",grovnd level is 6Jledwilh a ~k mix (onerere 10prevent rhe leaves being
squeezed logerher when the """,he> ore backfilled. II is important Ihal rhi, caviry fi" SlO)'Sv.'t!l1
below OK level if (ulUfe probkms of clomp peneuolion are ro be ovofded.
The OK is laid in twO seooene Slrrps. one (or Ihe internal skin and one for Ihe exrernal sl<in.
1M tWQ fn,.\ (7boI.~ 1IIowC1':ft(Jf,-Q rftnclt bIbc .. \ ~"91tJ;d
Pl)Oroqroph COcII r(',y of H.ti (J( Ltd.

.tI('II'1Otwofl up to Ihtlirfd Ul ",""*-II r Nil lfUivto

\fJ1(XtNfJ ,0,.." gfOcll1d f!oo"

(tie C(M(Y {Iii below 9f(){J()(j kelllelpJ. CO~ d'lc1r (~

{WO Jtovej: (fie nor ~ CogtlhtJ by Pft'SW1t /1otrt lht
9fOtJ,)(!wIlM 'lit lIet1(~ Crt bcx:~

Openings in cavity walls

There are a variety of ways in which openings can be made in extemal walls to accommodate
windows and dOOlI. H~. any design must safely support the loads from above and preYent
lateral damp pcneuauon
The diagram below shows a typical detail or a wall blilit In the 1960s or 19705. During
this period cavity msulauon was rare. At the tOP or head or the opening a box-section steel
11_._' ! _ _ _~I_ ,_~ _ _ __ I _ 1 _11 _ _
lintel wun an extenolng leage ()C' toe supportS tne external Skin. In cavity wan construCttOr'!
it is the intemal skin whkh reqUires most support from Ihe lintel. The perforations in Ihe back
and bottom of Ihe linlel are 10 ensure bonding of Ihe plaslel. AI the sides Or jambs of the
opening. the blockwotk is retumed
across-the cavity in order to pt'oVide
Steel. boA-stfon hod QII'Tits lOads

_.
stabililyal Ihe opening and a good o'lef~ The ~ eee
fom'lS'
QV!t'f my to 6irt PI WT-Cf ~

_.
fixing for the window frame. If the fl'Qm c~ htcmll JiW.
blockwork touches Ihe brick. a path is
created for damp and therefore the
IWOmalerlals are separated by a
..,. ......
PMontfons on dw bid of thrtlntel

vertical OPC.Allhe bonom of the

opening Ihere Is a window board on
A vt~i OPe ~tt'{ tile
Ihe Internal sk1nand a window sin on Mttf"ft.)1 01'1<1tlllttNIlt,(_
Ihe eXlernal skin. On lhe underside 0(
Ihe slillhere Is a groove 01 notch whlct,
Is known as a drip. This prevenls waler
lunnlng back under Ihe sill and Inlo
Ihe wall (see p. 80 and ChapI'" IS~
In modern conStruction lhefe is
more emphasis on preventing damp

penelration (as well as thennal brid~fng) and recommendations in Ihe 6ritish Slandard include
addllional prolectlon against damp.

Cavity tray <Wef full Sength of lintel.

(T,-.y not r~u1rttd by S4mt linltfl.)

OPe whh 'SIMI ptOfKtlon

Into cilvlty and lapp(d
behind ".y Onct In front
SlopMd1lf~fiIb
o')iI OP(.
.t taVlty(,o"top~tr~
III' on (!n(I~
insuqtlM).
0' "'1
and ..,.tt~

OP<: .t ,III r.rql.llrtd it tlltl'f pcnnt.tJlt 0' 1oIntt4. or

If ,. b fn (OfIt;t with ~bOft Of' Irw1ICr- ttoP.

The head

In the 1940s and 19SOSlintels were often made from concrete in a variety of patterns, Some
contained cavity trays but many did not as a result problems of damp penetration were
common.
Some concrete linlels were 'boor shaped and painted on top with bltumen to proYide a tray;
others had a separate tray provided in lead or. in lalet houses. polythene.ln lhe 1960s and 19705
,Ieellintels became common. 'CatniC'fintels were osually box shaped and incorPOlated a CdIIlty
tray. They were I1ghler Ihan ceo ...te and could be carried by one cperanve.

COlKr~ce irnteb ftom the .,,os.ttSOI

_J __
 Ovity lr,)y prevl.'nu
damppen~lf'''Uon,

COncfCtCboot lintel
with bitumen COt1:t<I
UJ)I)t!r surl.c~.

'CBtIII(.' hollow bOJMdon h.t.

Sted IInt.el hom
tM1~.,aos tnese 3tequlu! IIgI'ICaftddonot
requJft il it-pilOte <.MtY my.
They arC!1tm ~ Codify-
mod"" OlW1 conUlin ~don.

Nowadays several patterns oIlinlei are available incorporatln9 some (orm of insulation.
The photographs below and on the nett page show modern Insulated lintels.
AIII""lIfQr(d'mrlli<'AI" (JWr(\.::!.M'~fWJoID rrrodmI
'lOOse NOIerllt'p/(J)fl( ~l1l '~('(/CII.1)'Cb<1" f)lQcf
(Otlow liN' t,'nceJJ; $ rtlt S1<Ott (Itt Jt;JrnOsbe(o.,.
any water running down the caVIty away through the extemalleaf. Weepholes. which allow the
Water to escape, should be located evo!fY 450mm or so. These are usually formed uSing plaStOC
inserts (In the past they were often JUStopen perp (pe'pendlcula.) joints).
 Some lintels have an integral CilVltY tfay while others need a separate tfay - thosis ..wally
formed using OPC mate<ials on SIte or installed as pan of a proprietary pre-formed system. The
cavity tray usually sits directly on top or the lintet although sometimes it Is located a f",. cocrses
above it.

ACrlVtty uoy In lilt' proceu oIbtit'9

Iotmtd OV('( 0 finlci

Thejambs

fit the sides or Jambs of the opening a good fixing for the window should be provided and the
detailing should prevent damp from b<idging the cavity. Until recently it was normal practice
to close the cavIty by returning the inner I~a( to meet the outer leaf and to prevent damp (rom
crossing Into the blockwork a wnoeal DPC Is requored.ln some early cavity walls (19205) the DPC
was omitted.

- C II
.;

I%; x
~'... .II,
.
'1'1 SOtntt""y (#Vity wOllh ee uvit,.w~ Somt Uttyao4ty walls h~doS(:d F'rom ~hc:19)osonw"most~'1
not (~d. 1bilpt'OYICItd ...poor ~ aAtJes but no ~I OP(. w.h~YMkal~lntf!tNIlt~
(or the frame. (~jldbe tlIockor ~

Stilet ptot.dOn Is pt'O'o'Idcd rnmodem wA where dM: OPe.~ pro~t NOWlldol)'S'" Inwtltcd tttluII OPe
InlOthc(.n'rity bylllbout lStML In modn~ tM intemallta' will isrt<lul~or:l~pb"dt
I\Orma>lIy be lightwriSht bIodtwo4 and ttlif' cawry ..... 1'IIOtJNIy be lMu~tl:d. (h'lity dQSt'f.
 In re<:e01years the use of extruded ""'stic
has become a common alternat~ fOt cloSing
the cavity. The plastic cavity closet will have
an insulation infill. Special plastk ties are bu~t
into the internal and external leaves. USing thiS
method precludes the need ie. CUtting the
blocks and does not require a separate vertiCal
OPe. Renewing the windows in later years may
be a more complex exercise.
Another ahernative to these pl.)stic cavity
closers are window sub-frames, which act as a
cavity closer and also provide an airtight means
of fixing windows in place (see Chapt .. IS for
further details).

Prot}lkluryc(lVItyc/o)mu, .. qu.'(tfPld~) to~ta( 1ht

IYmdO'...., o,~
SfJrrd to ,~(~ fJf'KJO'f ~flofd~
tflf'brl<4WO" ..;1 cr:JtfIt*r .. (IN (Mptff IS lot IuttMdn(Jfhl
Nolf'tll(! 11151,J/(llIoo'I(1)'II)()"fr tJttn tx1dt:d 'ofhr(~-

The window sill

Until the 1980s, it was not common practice to close the cavity at the sill If standard windows
were used because the window board covered the cavity. Where tiling. which needs
continuous support. was used In place or the window board. the cavity could be closed es
shown In the drawing In modern construction. a horll0ntal DPC protects the underside oi
the timber Sill and pr_ntS any water from running under the sill and penetrating the cavity
InsulMlon

n the IC)60s and 191O'it: wlS (OI'IWIIOI'I Inkltchens andbathroomsft was ~

pr~tlce to bfrd theSillonthe ~Iuf to prvvidc 1lIing ()n the: Inner $lD. Tht ~ty
aor)(f'ea'o''' tht.avltyopen.1'bt ~bod Md to bf! dosed to prC)vi6c-*q~ ,uppon_
hid the gap. ClOSing t~ (~ty tequim a OPC to~e
the twc leaves.
 ~ u
Inmodem(.OMlIIJCtlon~~
uSlHllly Ins......ttcl. A OPe ..,.
tht ~ windows tl~ d~td f use
sillnvy ~tl:'Cl'i~ un6tr timber~ v.ith ~p3f~t~ SUIHiIl- in this QSI'
or wt'I('it StJ~m:s ~pnt<d- till""

Note: The details above show timber window frames but the principles are the same as fOl
plastic windows and these are discussed further in Chapter 15.

Cold bridging

In modern, highly insulated cavity walls the fisk o( cold bridging has become more likely.
Palt of the head, jamb or sill, JUStbehind the frame, can be ,elatlvely cold. If warm mOIst aor
comes into contact with these cold areas. condensation can occur, The 8uildlng RegulatIOns
recommend that the InsulatIOn of a bu,ldlng should be continuous, and that reason.lble
provision should be made to prevent cold budging (and the assoCiated condensation and
mould), The drawing opposite shows two typical scenarios. The arrows indicate the path of
greatest heat loss.

.....

There are a number of options to reduce thiS I lsI<.In the first example, Insulat'on board, fixed
behind the plaster, malnta,ns a high Inner surface temperature.

lhe<o&d ~Qft be ~ed byin!damg the soffit of the lintel (A). the jamb (8)
and the <.a<My;,st bdow the wb:bw board (C).

use~~OP(
CIt ~td pbStk:(.IWly (los.,
 In the second example (below) the frame is fixed deeper into the reveal and covers the cold
bridge. This second approach requires wider sills. or rhe use of sub-sills to ensure that the drip
is clear of the brickwork. Sub-siPs can be formed from stone. concrete. limber. slating and ti6ng.
Other examples of sub-s;lIs are shown in Chapter is

~
7_11
b.

The detail eM be improved fu((~ by proteCling part of the frame With the OUtet leaf
of brickwork known as a 'cheel. r~al: The BUilding Regulations recommend this fofm 01
consuuctton to be used wherever exposure to driving rain Is severe.

Itt SCots.nd c.htC1t 'e'Vc,a,l$ h#v.: b"f'I u$Cd ~ yc'_""_

1ft1M fOM'lof (01'l511'UUionthe brfckW(ltlt ~PJ

th~f1atne by about 2smm Of so. It provides good
we.alhff protectIon 300 ptevents (okf brldfjng.ln
the IJundlng Rc:g\Ibtlons ~OIO (n,g1olnd iJnd~)
this form of <onsuvctlon Isrcqulrtd ~
t"J(~rt to driving ~I:S sevee. This Include$, ~"'rge
part of the~t oflhe COuntry.

section

1h1) It, an c;...tmplct of " modtm wlnoow Ol)tfllrc (thb

HttJa,Ut OM 1\1, preformed ( .."IIYclotctl) 'ftflkl'l
(OI'Iforrnt lO~I(<<P1td800d ptO(tl(". Tht
"",,,tklUl. help Pl'eY'<!nl "I, Ir;\k.~tlit.~
~~t"~t WI liM! goP behlncHhc '"me
t.hOIAd be Mcod wit" 111'1 t"I~!~S,~'" to 'un!wr
I'Nt k:~,c.ThIs exampf. ~ not Wh.lbfC'Of vtty
~ C'Jq)Owre.

HOle tl'llt t~:'I1'C! "Cvt"l'.~1othCf' W,lyS of ~

M\~delaL

Plan

Solid walls
ThiS chapter has concentrated on cavity walls because, at least In England and Wales. thi$ is the
rnost poputar approach to the construction 01 external walls. It is. however. pcrlooly poss;bIe to
construct solid external waUs that ccxnply with design and statutory criteria - including thefmal
Insulation standards. airtightness. fire resistance and resistance to moisture penetration.

......
/" '.::"-
NOiloft VJCICU' QI'ImII...,.. ....
"nef'dH~_""'"
Th,,,,,.
,_ ...... -- ""'''''~Oft .........,
~1.-d"""'(SeotCNpW")

A solid wall might. (or example. be

consuecreo o( a 215mm alrcrete concrete
block. with render on ItSexternal lace and
InlClnallnsulation of about SSmm th;cl<ness
(depending On the thermal qualrtieS 0( the
Insulation malefial). Alternati'.lety. a 21Smm
block could be used with external insulation
of about 75mm (again. dependIng on the
thermal qualities of the insulation material)
and protected with a render.
A solid wall has several potential
advamages over a cavity wall. including 50ftd b1od. exrernol '....aN unG'tf cons.tn.c6on
PhoIogfaphcoune.$yol HtH UK ua:

avoiding those details and p<ocesses wh;ch are necessary 10 form a cavity. as descnbed above. In
addition. a solid wall With external insulation could act as an effcctlve thelmal StOle

Party walls

Party walls must provide good rue ptotectlOrl. thermal Insulalion, airtightness and adequate
resistance to the passage 0( aitbome sound (there are no requirements (or Impact sound
performance In the Building Regulations). Party walls must also achieve a minimum U-value 0(
0.20. In older houses, one-brid< solid walls are common. In modem houses. the most common
method of consuuction is biockwork. Standard dense blocks, laid Oat.are suitable. Some aerated
blocks are also acceptable.
 Ot'nw (OtX'(l'tl"bbc-'S bdA:lt am o'so~ G good portyv.'(Jt( TIley Con be brJnderJ Iff

to lhe Infernol kat ciIM wnry..., or CDn'"ied by tle"S. As in lhe ab(we examp,1e 0 ,ot,jtW
CClwry Slop is 1JlA~ in lhteo1emOl COVlrt-

Cavity construction can be used but a solid wall is generally cheaper to lay. Fully filled
mortar joints are essential if the pany wall is to fulfil ns function. Joists should be supported OIl
hangers and should not be buill inlO the wall (although Ihis would have been standard prawce
hislorically). Plasterboard can be used on party walls bUI it may require an undercoat of wet
plaster (usually 6-8mm thiclc) to seal any gaps in lhe wall.
In modern construcnoo, parly walls are subJecl to lestlng 10 ensure Ihey meet minimum
requhements of sound insulation. An alternative 10 testing is a sysrem known as Robus(
Oelalls. ThiS Is a certificallOn scheme which applies to l)arty walls (and nws between separate
dwellings). Robust Details shaYl a number of forms of conwuction which exceed the standards
required In the 8ulldrng Regul.ltiOnS. I( Robust Details are adopted. lest'ng Is not requrred. ooe 0(
Ihe forms of COnStruclion (rom Robust Delalls is shown below.

nltJdbl. CoMl, $lOP - '* tfqIMfd

wh<ttlt UvWbn .,.1tMt6~ ..
In'uliltiof\.

Two Ioc.,...cs of lOOmm dC'1"rSoC CQn(rt'lC blocks

with SOmm c;),lty. pa.~t('fcdboth $ldn
with ')lI'Im ploHttf.

SUttfty-type ties ate preferable In patty walls

to help minItnbe sound transmb~IO(I,

Thermal movement

Over the course of an ave.-age ~ar. an external wall will suffer exuemes of heat and cold. AS the
wall heats up II will expand. and as it cools It w,1I shrink. Expansion and ccnrracnon also OCCUf
due to changes ,n moisture content In additiOn. new clay brickwork will expand slightly roc
several months as It slOwly absOfbs moiSiure (rom the air until equilibrium is reached. CalCIUm
silicate and concrete bricks "'ill slvink Slightly (like all cement or hydraulic-lime based mate<ials).
Allowance (or this movement must be made at the design stage. otherwise cracking w.1 OCCUI.
In long terraces of houses. pamcularly those built with a Strong cement mortar. cracking caused
by thelmal and moisture movement is a common problem. Even in semidetached houses the
expansion may be enough to cause the ends 0( the houses to oversell the subsuucture (the DPC
provides a slip la~r).
To prevent expansion and conuactiOO From caUSing damage. in the Form 0( cracking. it is usual
to divide long runs of brickwork or bIockwor~ into shorter panels and provide movement joints.
Terraces 0( houses. wide gable walls and long garden walls should conlain these jointS at regulat
intervals: typically f!Wry 12m for clay brick external leaves and 6m For freestanding garden walls.
 Ii
ft.fOl'Cllf'K jOM'll (vrt li<d hl~btf..wtt'l' r-'0 H:d ~iJ 01"1 f) !>trot! (1{moo.-\.>:tn('(lt jom' to gdt>.'e IN()/J Shown btb.N
Itlloctof,l"IOdINn ~ Note 1M joint j{ot)S Itt DPC Itvd.

(kf, 000 'i9ht t)~ ~\'ItrtJ(oI lint ~ ftent lilt

ridgt dOVllJwolds in Chis 9Obl~~ Is o~t jo6Il.

The Joints only occur in tl>(>OUts~ <lin of cavity wall$. joints are ra,ely nece.sary In II>(>
Int~rnal skin as long runs 0( wailing are bfoken up by party and partition walls. and temP"f3ture
lends 10be fairly ~n.
In cavity walls. the Joint is no,mally fo,med by p,oviding a gap of adequate vvidth (~Iween
15 and 25mm) and filhng II Wllh a comp<es"ble filler. (aced with a fleXible waterp<oo( sealant a,
shown In the (pian) diagram ~tow.

...,. ....
OO~tl11nc:: show$;
i1!t~dyt'lfe~
Parapet walls

Parapet walls were common In the Geo<glan and some parts of the ViCtorian eta. Ailhough
they are not particularly popular in modem houses they can sometimes he found - notably in
buildings that are a pastiche 0( Georgian design and in conjunction with pamcuiar elements,
such as balconies.

Where parapets are used ,n modern

housing their detailing needs urerul attention.
particularly bcuuse. by their very nature. they
a.c exoosed on both Sldes to the clements
and so, for example. (rostrcsiitant brocks
with low salt content should he used In t!leor
coosuocuoo.
At the top of the patapet wan ,t is good
practice to provide a weatheted coping. The
coping can he once or twice weatheed - in
other words it can slope in one direction as
shown in the image below Oclt) 0< in both
directions. A once-weathered Coping nonnally directs the water onto the roof to avoid water
running down the external face. The coping Slone should Qvefhang the wall on either side and
will Incorporate smal! drips (a throat) to prevent water running back under the coping. A ful~
width OPe should be bedded in mortar to prevem water penetrating the coping through the
coping Joints. The ope should be !.lid on a rigid support to prevent it 54991n9 Into the cavity and
allowing watN to pond, where .t rn.ly fr""z~ and expand In cold weather.

1--"+--' w_..
a...,mo<t
~hom

_of
mcu-e n~r"'_~:..i.rl==t--'f=-l
t
+--1--""' ........... ca.<\)'
Insu~tion
up to undetiide
of~my. +-+- ...ee
"""..-
....,..,.""
If the inner leaf of brlckWOlk bKomes saturated, Or if water penetrates the wall through the
joints, then Ihere Is a poss.bd,ly lhal waler will run down the iMer face of the inner leal and
enter the building. To prevent lhis. a ca"'ly tray should be used in the manner shown In lhe
dlaqram above.

Thin joint system

ThiS is a relatively recent approach to the constnlctlon of brick and block walls which uses
proprietary, th'n Jo,nt pre-mixed, mot1.1rs in place of a traditional mortar mix. The thin joint
mortar is applied by an approcatO<rather than a trowel, The applicators ale designed to deposit
a controlled quantity of monar onto the block (or brick) in order to produce a joint 01 aboul
2-3mm. Thin jolnt mortars are quick setting. which allows for fasle( construction, particularly
when used with the la(ger s;zecr lightweighl blclCkwo(k thai is another featufe of this syslem.

The use of Ihlnner joints provides.lheo<elocally at least, for a more airtight conwuClion and lhe
Ihinnel jolnls w,II ImJ)<CM!lhe Uvalue oIlhe wall. Thin joint syStems ate one of lhe approaches
Ihal are categorised as being. 'modem method Of (onstrucUon' (MMeI.

11th ond ~'t) SJocAwor1 to'I'Cl'~ ul'lCl't (~ttuaO't fhI1'04

rhif'l JOIn' S)')f~/n. Photog,(fphf ()(Jrtl1yoIH.,., 1I( Lrd
 The ,hin jot"' is (O(fntd USing jplCid toots ron m;s ~Q
stoop) to opt))y 'hI! mQlrQJ. Photoq.aph aJtjYftSy 0/,., ...f1 UI( tIt!

Where a thin Joint system is be,ng used for the blockwork Inner skin of a cavity wall WIth a
or
brick exterior, the hOffzMlal Joint the bIockwork will nOt coincide with the horIZOntal Joint of
the brickwork because of the I.lrger siled blocks used In thin joint systems. this means that the
cavity We)1I ties will be h,ed In a dIfferent manner from the 'nOllnal' method In thin Joint systems
the wall ties are mechanically ~xed e,ther by being droven Into the blockwork (e.g. with a helical
type tie) or with eXp.1ndlng nyton anchors and then placed, as usual, In the hOrizontal mortar
joint of the brickwork.

The,wo tm~ obcM' shtmml\ re btWJg ~ofy~ Inro rnerh'n'/Oln. bltxAwod' II1/IIlf
I"jrht~ bf>d Joint 01rhf n.,,;or d ,,01 Dt'lfl Fttotoqrophs (Ol.lfl1'S)' of Hi H fJr( ( Id,

Where both the outer and inner k>af are

built using the th,n joint system (and therefore
the hori7ontal joints COincide), special th,n joint
ties can be used (see image rightl, However.
some manufacturers suggest that me<:hani<ally
fixing a helical tie through both leaves is a
preferable option,
In order to boost the srrength of thin joint
mortars. reinforcement mesh, usually made of
nylon or stainless steel. is used to reduce the
risk of cracking caused by loadrng and thermaV
moisture movement.
Manufacturers of Ihin joinl SYSlemswill give
guIdance on where bed joint reinforcement is
required but, as an example, one manufacturer
recommends that it is used in every other
COurSeas a minimum.
In most thin Joint system, the fitst
blockwork course above the joint that include>
the ope will be laid in a lradilional morlar with
a joint of normal thickness ("<.e. 10-12mm). This
is usually referred to as the 'base ccerse; The In;) ilnogt ~Vi Itill(OI(~: mt:sit in tht hOtilonl4I ptrtJ
main purpose of the base course is to enable of rht bbc.wo(~,Photogroph courtesy 01 H "H lPt Ud.
any discrepancies in the subsuucture to be
evened Out In order to provide a horizontally
level strucune from which 10 be9ln the thin
Joint blockwork.

7tit tWO inw.>ge) atxlw show tift Ml ((lW$t 01 (J rI!in PI'I

block btfng /(J.d ooa mortOI of trodrtJooOl ~ JIJ onkI

re ensureok'td base lot subsequtn" CGIl.I.Ila Photog.r~;

counesy 01 H-'Ii 0.< 'i.

Ground floors 5

Introduction

The function of a 9round floor is 10provide a level, smooth and dry surface which wrll safely
 support me toaas 01DOlh the people ana lu""tu,e whiCh ,esl upon iI.11is also ,equireCI10
provide a degree of Ihermal insulatIOn
To do Ihis successfully lhe ground Hoor must have the follOWingprOperties:
strength and stability
resisconce Co damp penelfOtion
durobi/i'y.
This chapter explains lhe e>iOIulion d ground Hoor technology and details the assooated malerials.

Timber floors

early timber floors

The majority of hooses bu,1Ifrom lhe lall"" part

of the nlncleenlh cenlury unlll lhe mid'lwenllelh
century had 9roun<1 floors (ons!ructed from
Stultry~ hid. ~
limbe,. Excepllons 10 Ih,Swould be basement "'* (Wf4h c:a.., Of 10&_ tWII.)
rooms, whe,e damp could damage lhe 11mbeo', In (.bt
uMMlv
oI"""~"~
'SOrYIM Ioootr
01 to
.nd rooms which were I'kelyto be wet due 10 INn U'If ""'*' Iocwl.
thel, function, e.g. kitchens and scullefies. For mo'e
InformalIon on 11mbeo'see Chapter Il
TImbe, g,ound floors often referred 10as '''''''_
suspended timber floors - conSi" 01 series 01
joist. supported by Ioadbeanng waHsand covered Thruwol~""".aows
)oIou .. ,..,,_..,..
with floorboards. The size of a joiSI depends largely l00l()OrMl~(ommonty

on its span; as its length or span increases. so eee...........

must its depth in order to safely support the load
imposed upon it. ~p joiSts are expensive and
to reduce joiSt slze intermediate SUPPQ<lSknown
as sleeper walls are in"oduced. These are shallow
masonry walls built dlfeclly coto lhe ground Of on
small foundations. In practke, ground Hoo, joiStS
are significanlly less deep lhan lhose used in uppet
floots, where such Intermediate SUppOflis not
poSSible because of the habttable rooms benealh. Ftontwall

90 CI~PI~IS:Ground ROOfS

The plan (previous page) shows the ground floor layout of. lypicallateViclorian t""raced
house. The JoistSrun from side 10side (from 10 back is another oplion) and are sUPpOfled on the
party walls. Inlernalloadbea"ng part'tiOns and intermediate sleeper wall~ The joiSls are usually at
3SO-400mm centres - Ihis otf~ the most economic arrangemem.

Joisl built inl0solld

eJ(tem.alwall. Squ~rec.<I9cd bfwch. r""::2::JJ;
IliIlIotd With Nt ftoor
b,_
 ~IIh MI,f,, ~Q1J1TIti
loW('r thlln (,:I(UI'"'" 9"CMtd
II!\'cl ~ pondlng (~OC:(UI',

In practice, such floors can often 9Ne rise to maintenance problems due to POOl design and
varying standards of workmanship. The following should be read with reference '0 .he drawing
above, which shows pari of tne floo< in delail.
Ir was (ormerly common ro build r~ joim into rhe eaero! VIall to pr(TV/de end support. 1hIs
o.oatce C~(f/ti rhe da~ rhar moisture (rom Ilsmg 01penerratlng damp can penerrore r~ ~
01 me Jolsr~ causing lOt. Son1<' pJ(lffl1es rove slightly rhlckel walls bela w flOOl/tw1 and rhl. g_
ImpIOW!d prorecrion againsr penetror'ng domp.
Unril rhe rum o(r~ ,wenr,.,h ctrlrury damp ploof courses were tare. Consequemly, "png
damp can arrock nO{ anly r~ joISI ~~ !>vI also rhe mIddle 01 rhe jO/ll. where rhey su on the
Intelmedlale .Ieeper wolts.
The revel ollhe eDIth or lubble ItIfIU undet Ihe floor was OIIM below eaemat ground /~ and on
wei cond,liant or areas WIth high WOlet tooles, t~ uMernool spoce wos olren petmanenrly damp.
Ir Is imporront ro pmvldt! ventJoriOo>ro these flOOf1 in Older ro Iry ro keep rhe undt!tflool spoce
dry. In rhe posr rhil WOI uwa"t ochieved /)y a selies of casr ilon Or re"aeotro venrl poIiOOt><d just
l>elow flOOrlevel Over rhe years rhe venlS can become blocked. eilher rhlough chong .. in WtlnGl
ground level or jurf general accumulation 01debris.. The reduced venrilation can lead (oexcessivP
levels 01damp. which ulrimarely con couse ourbteoks ol tot.